The Mechanical Properties of Wood
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The Mechanical Properties of Wood
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Contents
The Mechanical Properties of Wood eBook................................................................................. 1
Contents...................................................................................................................................... 2
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Section Page
Start of eBook 1
PART III TIMBER TESTING 1
APPENDIX 1
ILLUSTRATIONS 1
PART I THE MECHANICAL 3
PROPERTIES OF WOOD
INTRODUCTION 3
FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 4
AND DEFINITIONS
TENSILE STRENGTH 7
COMPRESSIVE OR CRUSHING 9
STRENGTH
SHEARING STRENGTH 16
TRANSVERSE OR BENDING 19
STRENGTH: BEAMS
TOUGHNESS: TORSION 31
HARDNESS 32
CLEAVABILITY 33
PART II FACTORS AFFECTING THE 35
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
WOOD
INTRODUCTION 35
RATE OF GROWTH 35
HEARTWOOD AND SAPWOOD 39
WEIGHT, DENSITY, AND SPECIFIC 42
GRAVITY
COLOR 47
CROSS GRAIN 48
KNOTS 49
FROST SPLITS 50
SHAKES, GALLS, PITCH POCKETS 51
INSECT INJURIES[37] 53
MARINE WOOD-BORER INJURIES 53
FUNGOUS INJURIES[39] 54
PARASITIC PLANT INJURIES.[46] 56
LOCALITY OF GROWTH 56
SEASON OF CUTTING 58
WATER CONTENT[48] 60
TEMPERATURE 65
PRESERVATIVES 68
7
PART III TIMBER TESTING[56] 68
WORKING PLAN 68
FORMS OF MATERIAL TESTED 68
SIZE OF TEST SPECIMENS 69
MOISTURE DETERMINATION 70
MACHINE FOR STATIC TESTS 70
SPEED OF TESTING MACHINE 71
BENDING LARGE BEAMS 75
BENDING SMALL BEAMS 77
ENDWISE COMPRESSION 79
COMPRESSION ACROSS THE 80
GRAIN
SHEAR ALONG THE GRAIN 81
IMPACT TEST 82
HARDNESS TEST: ABRASION AND 84
INDENTATION
CLEAVAGE TEST 85
TENSION TEST PARALLEL TO THE 86
GRAIN
TENSION TEST AT RIGHT ANGLES 87
TO THE GRAIN
TORSION TEST[64] 87
SPECIAL TESTS 88
APPENDIX 89
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF 89
WOODS GROWN IN THE UNITED
STATES
PURPOSE OF WORK 89
MATERIAL 89
DETAILED INSTRUCTIONS 90
RECORDS 93
PHOTOGRAPHS 93
SHRINKAGE AND SPECIFIC 93
GRAVITY
PURPOSE OF WORK 93
MATERIAL 94
RADIAL AND TANGENTIAL 94
SHRINKAGE
VOLUMETRIC SHRINKAGE AND 94
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
STRENGTH VALUES FOR 95
STRUCTURAL TIMBERS
BIBLIOGRAPHY 111
111
112
120
8
FOREST SERVICE 120
122
9
Page 1
PART III TIMBER TESTING
Working plan
Forms of material tested
Size of test specimens
Moisture determination
Machine for static tests
Speed of testing machine
Bending large beams
Bending small beams
Endwise compression
Compression across the grain
Shear along the grain
Impact test
Hardness test: Abrasion and indentation
Cleavage test
Tension test parallel to the grain
Tension test at right angles to the grain
Torsion test
Special tests
Spike pulling test
Packing boxes
Vehicle and implement woods
Cross-arms
Other tests
APPENDIX
Sample working plan of United States Forest
Service
Strength values for structural timbers
Bibliography
Part I: Some general works on mechanics, materials of
construction, and testing of materials
Part II: Publications and articles on the mechanical
properties of wood, and timber testing
Part III: Publications of the United States Government on
the mechanical properties of wood, and timber
testing
10
ILLUSTRATIONS
Frontispiece Photomicrograph of a small block of western
hemlock
1. Stress-strain diagrams of two longleaf pine beams
2. Compression across the grain
3. Side view of failures in compression across the
grain
4. End view of failures in compression across the
grain
5. Testing a buggy-spoke in endwise compression
6. Unequal distribution of stress in a long column due
to lateral bending
7. Endwise compression of a short column
8. Failures of a short column of green spruce
9. Failures of short columns of dry chestnut
10. Example of shear along the grain
11. Failures of test specimens in shear along the
grain
12. Horizontal shear in a beam
13. Oblique shear in a short column
14. Failure of a short column by oblique shear
15. Diagram of a simple beam
16. Three common forms of beams—(1) simple,
(2) cantilever, (3) continuous
17. Characteristic failures of simple beams
18. Failure of a large beam by horizontal shear
19. Torsion of a shaft
20. Effect of torsion on different grades of hickory
21. Cleavage of highly elastic wood
22. Cross-sections of white ash, red gum, and eastern
hemlock
23. Cross-section of longleaf pine
24. Relation of the moisture content to the various
strength values of spruce
25. Cross-section of the wood of western larch showing
fissures in the thick-walled cells of the late
wood
26. Progress of drying throughout the length of a
chestnut beam
27. Excessive season checking
28. Control of season checking by the use of S-irons
29. Static bending test on a large
11
Page 2
beam
30. Two methods of loading a beam
31. Static bending test on a small beam
32. Sample log sheet, giving full details of a
transverse bending test on a small pine beam
33. Endwise compression test
34. Sample log sheet of an endwise compression test on
a short pine column
35. Compression across the grain
36. Vertical section of shearing tool
37. Front view of shearing tool
38. Two forms of shear test specimens
39. Making a shearing test
40. Impact testing machine
41. Drum record of impact bending test
42. Abrasion machine for testing the wearing qualities
of woods
43. Design of tool for testing the hardness of woods
by indentation
44. Design of tool for cleavage test
45. Design of cleavage test specimen
46. Designs of tension test specimens used in United
States
47. Design of tension test specimen used in New South
Wales
48. Design of tool and specimen for testing tension at
right angles to the grain
49. Making a torsion test on hickory
50. Method of cutting and marking test specimens
51. Diagram of specific gravity apparatus
Tables
I. Comparative strength of iron, steel, and wood
II. Ratio of strength of wood in tension and in
compression
III. Right-angled tensile strength of small clear
pieces of 25 woods in green condition
IV. Results of compression tests across the grain on
51 woods in green condition, and comparison with
white oak
V. Relation of fibre stress at elastic limit in
12
bending to the crushing strength of blocks cut
therefrom in pounds per square inch
vi. Results of endwise compression tests on small
clear pieces of 40 woods in green condition
VII. Shearing strength along the grain of small clear
pieces of 41 woods in green condition
VIII. Shearing strength across the grain of various
American woods
IX. Results of static bending tests on small clear
beams of 49 woods in green condition
X. Results of impact bending tests on small clear
beams of 34 woods in green condition
XI. Manner of first failure of large beams
XII. Hardness of 32 woods in green condition, as
indicated by the load required to imbed a
0.444-inch steel ball to one-half its diameter
XIII. Cleavage strength of small clear pieces of 32
woods in green condition
XIV. Specific gravity, and shrinkage of 51 American
woods
XV. Effect of drying on the mechanical properties of
wood, shown in ratio of increase due to reducing
moisture content from the green condition to
kiln-dry
XVI. Effect of steaming on the strength of green
loblolly pine
XVII. Speed-strength moduli, and relative increase in
strength at rates of fibre strain increasing in
geometric ratio
XVIII. Results of bending tests on green structural
timbers
XIX. Results of compression and shear
13
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tests on green
structural timbers
XX. Results of bending tests on air-seasoned
structural timbers
XXI. Results of compression and shear tests on
air-seasoned structural timbers
XXII. Working unit stresses for structural timber
expressed in pounds per square inch
PART I THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD
INTRODUCTION
The mechanical properties of wood are its fitness and ability to resist applied or external
forces. By external force is meant any force outside of a given piece of material which
tends to deform it in any manner. It is largely such properties that determine the use of
wood for structural and building purposes and innumerable other uses of which
furniture, vehicles, implements, and tool handles are a few common examples.
Knowledge of these properties is obtained through experimentation either in the
employment of the wood in practice or by means of special testing apparatus in the
laboratory. Owing to the wide range of variation in wood it is necessary that a great
number of tests be made and that so far as possible all disturbing factors be eliminated.
For comparison of different kinds or sizes a standard method of testing is necessary
and the values must be expressed in some defined units. For these reasons laboratory
experiments if properly conducted have many advantages over any other method.
One object of such investigation is to find unit values for strength and stiffness, etc.
These, because of the complex structure of wood, cannot have a constant value which
will be exactly repeated in each test, even though no error be made. The most that can
be accomplished is to find average values, the amount of variation above and below,
and the laws which govern the variation. On account of the great variability in strength
of different specimens of wood even from the same stick and appearing to be alike, it is
important to eliminate as far as possible all extraneous factors liable to influence the
results of the tests.
The mechanical properties of wood considered in this book are: (1) stiffness and
elasticity, (2) tensile strength, (3) compressive or crushing strength, (4) shearing
strength, (5) transverse or bending strength, (6) toughness, (7) hardness, (8)
cleavability, (9) resilience. In connection with these, associated properties of
importance are briefly treated.
14
In making use of figures indicating the strength or other mechanical properties of wood
for the purpose of comparing the relative merits of different species, the fact should be
borne in mind that there is a considerable range in variability of each individual material
and that small differences, such as a few hundred pounds in values of 10,000 pounds,
cannot be considered as a criterion of the quality of the timber. In testing material of the
same kind and grade, differences of 25 per cent between individual specimens may be
expected in conifers and 50 per cent or even more in hardwoods. The figures given in
the tables should be taken as indications rather than fixed values, and as applicable to a
large number collectively and not to individual pieces.
15
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FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS AND DEFINITIONS
Study of the mechanical properties of a material is concerned mostly with its behavior in
relation to stresses and strains, and the factors affecting this behavior. A stress is a
distributed force and may be defined as the mutual action (1) of one body upon another,
or (2) of one part of a body upon another part. In the first case the stress is external; in
the other internal. The same stress may be internal from one point of view and external
from another. An external force is always balanced by the internal stresses when the
body is in equilibrium.
If no external forces act upon a body its particles assume certain relative positions, and
it has what is called its natural shape and size. If sufficient external force is applied the
natural shape and size will be changed. This distortion or deformation of the material is
known as the strain. Every stress produces a corresponding strain, and within a certain
limit (see elastic limit, in fundamental considerations and definitions, above) the strain is
directly proportional to the stress producing it.[1] The same intensity of stress, however,
does not produce the same strain in different materials or in different qualities of the
same material. No strain would be produced in a perfectly rigid body, but such is not
known to exist.
[Footnote 1: This is in accordance with the discovery made in 1678 by Robert Hooke,
and is known as Hooke’s law.]
Stress is measured in pounds (or other unit of weight or force). A unit stress is the
stress on a unit of the sectional
{P}
area. { Unit stress = —– } For instance, if a load (P) of one
{A}
hundred pounds is uniformly supported by a vertical post with a cross-sectional area (A)
of ten square inches, the unit compressive stress is ten pounds per square inch.
Strain is measured in inches (or other linear unit). A unit strain is the strain per unit of
length. Thus if a post 10 inches long before compression is 9.9 inches long under the
compressive stress, the total strain is 0.1 inch, and the unit
l 0.1
strain is --- = ----- = 0.01 inch per inch of length.
L 10
As the stress increases there is a corresponding increase in the strain. This ratio may
be graphically shown by means of a diagram or curve plotted with the increments of
load or stress as ordinates and the increments of strain as abscissae. This is known as
the stress-strain diagram. Within the limit mentioned above the diagram is a straight
line. (See Fig. 1.) If the results of similar experiments on different specimens are plotted
16
to the same scales, the diagrams furnish a ready means for comparison. The greater
the resistance a material offers to deformation the steeper or nearer the vertical axis will
be the line.
17
Page 5
[Illustration: FIG. 1.—Stress-strain diagrams of two longleaf pine beams. E.L. = elastic
limit. The areas of the triangles 0(EL)A and 0(EL)B represent the elastic resilience of
the dry and green beams, respectively.]
There are three kinds of internal stresses, namely, (1) tensile, (2) compressive, and (3)
shearing. When external forces act upon a bar in a direction away from its ends or a
direct pull, the stress is a tensile stress; when toward the ends or a direct push,
compressive stress. In the first instance the strain is an elongation; in the second a
shortening. Whenever the forces tend to cause one portion of the material to slide upon
another adjacent to it the action is called a shear. The action is that of an ordinary pair
of shears. When riveted plates slide on each other the rivets are sheared off.
These three simple stresses may act together, producing compound stresses, as in
flexure. When a bow is bent there is a compression of the fibres on the inner or
concave side and an elongation of the fibres on the outer or convex side. There is also
a tendency of the various fibres to slide past one another in a longitudinal direction. If
the bow were made of two or more separate pieces of equal length it would be noted on
bending that slipping occurred along the surfaces of contact, and that the ends would no
longer be even. If these pieces were securely glued together they would no longer slip,
but the tendency to do so would exist just the same. Moreover, it would be found in the
latter case that the bow would be much harder to bend than where the pieces were not
glued together—in other words, the stiffness of the bow would be materially increased.
Stiffness is the property by means of which a body acted upon by external forces tends
to retain its natural size and shape, or resists deformation. Thus a material that is
difficult to bend or otherwise deform is stiff; one that is easily bent or otherwise
deformed is flexible. Flexibility is not the exact counterpart of stiffness, as it also
involves toughness and pliability.
If successively larger loads are applied to a body and then removed it will be found that
at first the body completely regains its original form upon release from the stress—in
other words, the body is elastic. No substance known is perfectly elastic, though many
are practically so under small loads. Eventually a point will be reached where the
recovery of the specimen is incomplete. This point is known as the elastic limit, which
may be defined as the limit beyond which it is impossible to carry the distortion of a
body without producing a permanent alteration in shape. After this limit has been
exceeded, the size and shape of the specimen after removal of the load will not be the
same as before, and the difference or amount of change is known as the permanent
set.
18
Page 6
Elastic limit as measured in tests and used in design may be defined as that unit stress
at which the deformation begins to increase in a faster ratio than the applied load. In
practice the elastic limit of a material under test is determined from the stress-strain
diagram. It is that point in the line where the diagram begins perceptibly to curve.[2]
(See Fig. 1.)
[Footnote 2: If the straight portion does not pass through the origin, a parallel line
should be drawn through the origin, and the load at elastic limit taken from this line.
(See Fig. 32.)]
Resilience is the amount of work done upon a body in deforming it. Within the elastic
limit it is also a measure of the potential energy stored in the material and represents
the amount of work the material would do upon being released from a state of stress.
This may be graphically represented by a diagram in which the abscissae represent the
amount of deflection and the ordinates the force acting. The area included between the
stress-strain curve and the initial line (which is zero) represents the work done. (See
Fig. 1.) If the unit of space is in inches and the unit of force is in pounds the result is
inch-pounds. If the elastic limit is taken as the apex of the triangle the area of the
triangle will represent the elastic resilience of the specimen. This amount of work can
be applied repeatedly and is perhaps the best measure of the toughness of the wood as
a working quality, though it is not synonymous with toughness.
Permanent set is due to the plasticity of the material. A perfectly plastic substance
would have no elasticity and the smallest forces would cause a set. Lead and moist
clay are nearly plastic and wood possesses this property to a greater or less extent.
The plasticity of wood is increased by wetting, heating, and especially by steaming and
boiling. Were it not for this property it would be impossible to dry wood without
destroying completely its cohesion, due to the irregularity of shrinkage.
A substance that can undergo little change in shape without breaking or rupturing is
brittle. Chalk and glass are common examples of brittle materials. Sometimes the word
brash is used to describe this condition in wood. A brittle wood breaks suddenly with a
clean instead of a splintery fracture and without warning. Such woods are unfitted to
resist shock or sudden application of load.
The measure of the stiffness of wood is termed the modulus of elasticity (or coefficient
of elasticity). It is the ratio of stress per unit of area to the deformation per unit of
{ unit stress }
length. { E = ------------- } It is a number indicative of
{ unit strain }
stiffness, not of strength, and only applies to conditions within the elastic limit. It is
nearly the same whether derived from compression tests or from tension tests.
19
Page 7
A large modulus indicates a stiff material. Thus in green wood tested in static bending it
varies from 643,000 pounds per square inch for arborvitae to 1,662,000 pounds for
longleaf pine, and 1,769,000 pounds for pignut hickory. (See Table IX.) The values
derived from tests of small beams of dry material are much greater, approaching
3,000,000 for some of our woods. These values are small when compared with steel
which has a modulus of elasticity of about 30,000,000 pounds per square inch. (See
Table I.)
|------------------------------------------------------
------------------------|
| TABLE I |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------|
| CO MPARATIVE STRE N GT H O F IRON, STE EL, AND WOOD
|
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------|
| | S p. | M o d ul u s of | Te n sil e | C r u s hi n g | M o d ul u s |
| MATERIAL | gr., | el a s ticity | s t r e n g t h | s t r e n g t h | of |
| | d ry | in b e n di n g | | | rupture |
|-------------------------+ - ---- + - -----------+ - ---------+ - ---------+ - ---------|
| | | Lb s. p e r | Lb s. p e r | Lb s. p e r | Lb s. p e r |
| | | s q. in. | s q. in. | s q. in. | s q. in. |
| | | | | | |
| C a s t iro n, c ol d bl a s t | | | | | |
| (H o d g ki n s o n) | 7. 1 | 1 7, 2 7 0, 0 0 0 | 1 6, 7 0 0 | 1 0 6, 0 0 0 | 3 8, 5 0 0 |
| B e s s e n g e r s t e el, | | | | | |
| hi g h g r a d e (F ai r b ai n) | 7. 8 | 2 9, 2 1 5, 0 0 0 | 8 8, 4 0 0 | 2 2 5, 6 0 0 | |
| Lo n gl e af pi n e, | | | | | |
| 3. 5 % m oi s t u r e (U.S.) | .6 3 | 2, 8 0 0, 0 0 0 | | 1 3, 0 0 0 | 2 1, 0 0 0 |
| Redsp r uc e, | | | | | |
| 3. 5 % m oi s t u r e (U.S.) | .4 1 | 1, 8 0 0, 0 0 0 | | 8, 8 0 0 | 1 4, 5 0 0 |
| Pi g n u t hi c ko ry, | | | | | |
| 3. 5 % m oi s t u r e (U.S.) | .8 6 | 2, 3 7 0, 0 0 0 | | 1 1, 1 3 0 | 2 4, 0 0 0 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------|
| N OT E.--G r e a t v a ri a tio n m a y b e fo u n d in diffe r e n t s a m pl e s of m e t al s a s w ell
|
| a s of w o o d. Th e e x a m pl e s giv e n r e p r e s e n t r e a s o n a bl e v al u e s. |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------|
20
TENSILE STRENGTH
Tension results when a pulling force is applied to opposite ends of a body. This external
pull is communicated to the interior, so that any portion of the material exerts a pull or
tensile force upon the remainder, the ability to do so depending upon the property of
cohesion. The result is an elongation or stretching of the material in the direction of the
applied force. The action is the opposite of compression.
21
Page 8
Wood exhibits its greatest strength in tension parallel to the grain, and it is very
uncommon in practice for a specimen to be pulled in two lengthwise. This is due to the
difficulty of making the end fastenings secure enough for the full tensile strength to be
brought into play before the fastenings shear off longitudinally. This is not the case with
metals, and as a result they are used in almost all places where tensile strength is
particularly needed, even though the remainder of the structure, such as sills, beams,
joists, posts, and flooring, may be of wood. Thus in a wooden truss bridge the tension
members are steel rods.
The tensile strength of wood parallel to the grain depends upon the strength of the
fibres and is affected not only by the nature and dimensions of the wood elements but
also by their arrangement. It is greatest in straight-grained specimens with thick-walled
fibres. Cross grain of any kind materially reduces the tensile strength of wood, since the
tensile strength at right angles to the grain is only a small fraction of that parallel to the
grain.
|------------------------------------------------------
--------|
| TABLE II |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
---|
| RATIO O F STR E N GT H O F WOOD I N TE N SIO N AND I N CO M P R E S SIO N
|
| (Bul. 1 0, U. S. Div. of Fo r e s t ry, p . 4 4) |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
---|
| | R a tio: | A s tic k 1 s q u a r e in c h in |
| | | c r o s s s e c tio n. |
| | Te n sil e | |
| KIND O F WOOD | s t r e n g t h | Weig h t r e q ui r e d t o-- |
| | R = ----------- + - ---------------------------|
| | c o m p r e s siv e | P ull a p a r t | C r u s h e n d wi s e |
| | strength | | |
|---------------+ - ----------------+ - -----------+ - -----------
---|
| Hi c ko ry | 3. 7 | 32,000 | 8, 5 0 0 |
| El m | 3. 8 | 29,000 | 7, 5 0 0 |
| La r c h | 2. 3 | 19,400 | 8, 6 0 0 |
| Lo n gl e af Pi n e | 2. 2 | 1 7, 3 0 0 | 7, 4 0 0 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
---|
| N OT E.--M ois t u r e c o n di tio n n o t giv e n. |
22
|-----------------------------------------------------------
---|
Failure of wood in tension parallel to the grain occurs sometimes in flexure, especially
with dry material. The tension portion of the fracture is nearly the same as though the
piece were pulled in two lengthwise. The fibre walls are torn across obliquely and
usually in a spiral direction. There is practically no pulling apart of the fibres, that is, no
separation of the fibres along their walls, regardless of their thickness. The nature of
tension failure is apparently not affected by the moisture condition of the specimen, at
least not so much so as the other strength values.[3]
23
Page 9
[Footnote 3: See Brush, Warren D.: A microscopic study of the mechanical failure of
wood. Vol. II, Rev. F.S. Investigations, Washington, D.C., 1912, p. 35.]
Tension at right angles to the grain is closely related to cleavability. When wood fails in
this manner the thin fibre walls are torn in two lengthwise while the thick-walled fibres
are usually pulled apart along the primary wall.
|--------------------------------------------|
| TABLE III |
|--------------------------------------------|
| TE N SILE STR E N GT H AT RIG HT ANGLE S TO TH E |
| GRAIN O F S MALL CLEAR PI EC E S O F 2 5 WOOD S I N |
| GRE E N CO N DITIO N |
| (Fo r e s t S e rvic e Cir. 2 1 3) |
|--------------------------------------------|
| | Whe n | Whe n |
| CO M M O N NA M E | s u rf a c e of | s u rf a c e of |
| O F S P E CI E S | fail u r e is | failu r e is |
| | r a di al | t a n g e n ti al |
|------------------+ - -----------+ - -----------|
| | Lb s. p e r | Lb s. p e r |
| | s q. inc h | s q. in c h |
| | | |
| H ardwoods | | |
| | | |
| As h, w hi t e | 645 | 671 |
| Basswood | 226 | 303 |
| Beech | 633 | 969 |
| Bir c h, yello w | 446 | 526 |
| El m, sli p p e r y | 765 | 832 |
| H ackb er ry | 661 | 786 |
| Loc u s t, h o n ey | 1, 1 3 3 | 1, 4 4 5 |
| M a pl e, s u g a r | 610 | 864 |
| O a k, p o s t | 714 | 924 |
| red | 639 | 874 |
| s w a m p w hi t e | 757 | 909 |
| w hi t e | 622 | 749 |
| y ello w | 728 | 929 |
| Sy c a m o r e | 540 | 781 |
| Tu p elo | 472 | 796 |
| | | |
| Co nif e r s | | |
24
| | | |
| Ar bo rvit a e | 241 | 235 |
| Cy p r e s s , b al d | 242 | 251 |
| Fir, w hi t e | 213 | 304 |
| H e m lo c k | 271 | 323 |
| Pi n e, lo n gl e af | 240 | 298 |
| red | 179 | 205 |
| sugar | 239 | 304 |
| w e s t e r n yello w | 230 | 252 |
| w hi t e | 225 | 285 |
| Ta m a r a c k | 236 | 274 |
|--------------------------------------------|
COMPRESSIVE OR CRUSHING STRENGTH
Compression across the grain is very closely related to hardness and transverse shear.
There are two ways in which wood is subjected to stress of this kind, namely, (1) with
the load acting over the entire area of the specimen, and (2) with a load concentrated
over a portion of the area. (See Fig. 2.) The latter is the condition more commonly met
with in practice, as, for example, where a post rests on a horizontal sill, or a rail rests on
a cross-tie. The former condition, however, gives the true resistance of the grain to
simple crushing.
25
Page 10
[Illustration: FIG. 2.—Compression across the grain.]
The first effect of compression across the grain is to compact the fibres, the load
gradually but irregularly increasing as the density of the material is increased. If the
specimen lies on a flat surface and the load is applied to only a portion of the upper
area, the bearing plate indents the wood, crushing the upper fibres without affecting the
lower part. (See Fig. 3.) As the load increases the projecting ends sometimes split
horizontally. (See Fig. 4.) The irregularities in the load are due to the fact that the fibres
collapse a few at a time, beginning with those with the thinnest walls. The projection of
the ends increases the strength of the material directly beneath the compressing weight
by introducing a beam action which helps support the load. This influence is exerted for
a short distance only.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.—Side view of failures in compression across the grain, showing
crushing of blocks under bearing plate. Specimen at right shows splitting at ends.]
[Illustration: FIG. 4.—End view of failures in compression across the grain, showing
splitting of the ends of the test specimens.]
When wood is used for columns, props, posts, and spokes, the weight of the load tends
to shorten the material endwise. This is endwise compression, or compression parallel
to the grain. In the case of long columns, that is, pieces in which the length is very great
compared with their diameter, the failure is by sidewise bending or flexure, instead of by
crushing or splitting. (See Fig. 5.) A familiar instance of this action is afforded by a
flexible walking-stick. If downward pressure is exerted with the hand on the upper end
of the stick placed vertically on the floor, it will be noted that a definite amount of force
must be applied in each instance before decided flexure takes place. After this point is
reached a very slight increase of pressure very largely increases the deflection, thus
obtaining so great a leverage about the middle section as to cause rupture.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.—Testing a buggy spoke in endwise compression, illustrating the
failure by sidewise bending of a long column fixed only at the lower end. Photo by U. S.
Forest Service]
The lateral bending of a column produces a combination of bending with compressive
stress over the section, the compressive stress being maximum at the section of
greatest deflection on the concave side. The convex surface is under tension, as in an
ordinary beam test. (See Fig. 6.) If the same stick is braced in such a way that flexure is
prevented, its supporting strength is increased enormously, since the compressive
stress acts uniformly over the section, and failure is by crushing or splitting, as in small
blocks. In all columns free to bend in any direction the deflection will be seen in the
direction in which the column is least stiff. This sidewise bending can be overcome by
making pillars and columns thicker in the middle than at the ends, and by bracing
26
studding, props, and compression members of trusses. The strength of a column also
depends to a considerable extent upon whether the ends are free to turn or are fixed.
27
Page 11
[Illustration: FIG. 6.—Unequal distribution of stress in a long column due to lateral
bending.]
|------------------------------------------------------
-|
| TABLE IV |
|-------------------------------------------------------|
| R E S ULTS O F CO M P R E S SIO N TE ST S ACROS S T H E GRAI N O N |
| 5 1 WOOD S IN GRE E N CO N DITION, AND CO MPARISO N WIT H |
| W HITE OAK |
| (U. S. Fo r e s t S e rvic e) |
|-------------------------------------------------------|
| | Fi b r e s t r e s s | Fi b e r s t r e s s |
| CO M M O N NA M E | a t el a s tic | in p e r c e n t |
| O F S P E CIE S | li mit | of w hi t e o a k, |
| | p e r p e n di c ul a r | o r 8 5 3 p o u n d s |
| | t o g r ai n | p e r s q. in. |
|-----------------------+ - --------------+ - --------------|
| | Lb s. p e r | |
| | s q. inc h | P e r c e n t |
| | | |
| Osage orange | 2, 2 6 0 | 2 6 5. 0 |
| H o n ey loc u s t | 1, 6 8 4 | 1 9 7. 5 |
| Bl a c k loc u s t | 1, 4 2 6 | 1 6 7. 2 |
| Po s t o a k | 1, 1 4 8 | 134.6 |
| Pi g n u t hi c ko ry | 1, 1 4 2 | 1 3 3. 9 |
| Wat e r hi c ko ry | 1, 0 8 8 | 1 2 7. 5 |
| S h a g b a r k hi c ko ry | 1, 0 7 0 | 1 2 5. 5 |
| M o c k e r n u t hi c ko ry | 1, 0 1 2 | 118.6 |
| Big s h ellb a r k hi ck o ry | 997 | 1 1 6. 9 |
| Bit t e r n u t hi c ko ry | 986 | 115.7 |
| N u t m e g hi c ko ry | 938 | 1 1 0. 0 |
| Yellow o a k | 857 | 1 0 0. 5 |
| W hit e o a k | 853 | 100.0 |
| Bu r o a k | 836 | 9 8. 0 |
| W hit e a s h | 828 | 9 7. 1 |
| Red oak | 778 | 91.2 |
| S u g a r m a pl e | 742 | 8 7. 0 |
| Ro ck el m | 696 | 8 1. 6 |
| Beech | 607 | 71.2 |
| Slip p e ry el m | 599 | 7 0. 2 |
| Redwood | 578 | 6 7. 8 |
28
| B al d cy p r e s s | 548 | 6 4. 3 |
| R e d m a pl e | 531 | 6 2. 3 |
| H ackb er ry | 525 | 6 1. 6 |
| In c e n s e c e d a r | 518 | 6 0. 8 |
| H e m lo c k | 497 | 5 8. 3 |
| Lo n gl e af pi n e | 491 | 5 7. 6 |
| Ta m a r a c k | 480 | 5 6. 3 |
| Silve r m a pl e | 456 | 5 3. 5 |
| Yellow bi r c h | 454 | 5 3. 2 |
| Tu p elo | 451 | 52.9 |
| Bl a c k c h e r ry | 444 | 5 2. 1 |
| Sy c a m o r e | 433 | 50.8 |
29
Page 12
| Do u gl a s fir | 427 | 50.1 |
| Cucumber tree | 408 | 4 7. 8 |
| S h o r tl e af pi n e | 400 | 4 6. 9 |
| R e d pi n e | 358 | 4 2. 0 |
| S u g a r pi n e | 353 | 4 1. 1 |
| W hit e el m | 351 | 4 1. 2 |
| Wes t e r n y ello w pi n e | 348 | 4 0. 8 |
| Lo d g e p ol e pi n e | 348 | 4 0. 8 |
| Red spruce | 345 | 4 0. 5 |
| W hit e pi n e | 314 | 3 6. 8 |
| E n g el m a n s p r u c e | 290 | 3 4. 0 |
| Ar bo rvit a e | 288 | 3 3. 8 |
| La r g e t o o t h a s p e n | 269 | 3 1. 5 |
| W hit e s p r u c e | 262 | 3 0. 7 |
| Bu t t e r n u t | 258 | 3 0. 3 |
| Bu c k ey e (y ello w) | 210 | 2 4. 6 |
| Basswood | 209 | 24.5 |
| Bl a c k willo w | 193 | 2 2. 6 |
|-------------------------------------------------------|
re >
Th e c o m pl exity of t h e c o m p u t a tio n s
d e p e n d s u p o n t h e w a y in w hi c h t h e s t r e s s is a p pli e d
a n d t h e m a n n e r in w hi c h t h e s tic k b e n d s. O r di n a rily
w h e r e t h e le n g t h of t h e t e s t s p e ci m e n is n o t g r e a t e r
t h a n fo u r di a m e t e r s a n d t h e e n d s a r e s q u a r ely fa c e d
(s e e Fi g. 7), t h e fo r c e a c t s u nifo r mly ov e r e a c h s q u a r e
in c h of a r e a a n d t h e c r u s hi n g s t r e n g t h is e q u al t o
t h e m a xi m u m lo a d (P) divid e d
{ P }
by t h e a r e a of t h e c r o s s-s e c tio n (A). { C = —–
}
{ A }
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 7.—E n d wi s e c o m p r e s sio n
of a s h o r t c ol u m n.]
It h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d[ 4] t h a t t h e ul ti m a t e s t r e n g t h
in c o m p r e s sio n p a r all el t o t h e g r ai n is ve ry n e a rly
t h e s a m e a s t h e e x t r e m e fib r e s t r e s s a t t h e el a s ti c
li mit in b e n di n g. (S e e Ta bl e V.) In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e
30
t r a n s v e r s e s t r e n g t h of b e a m s a t el a s tic li mit is p r a c tic ally
e q u al t o t h e c o m p r e s siv e s t r e n g t h of t h e s a m e m a t e ri al
in s h o r t c ol u m n s . It is a c c o r di n gly p o s si bl e t o
c al c ul a t e t h e a p p r oxi m a t e b r e a ki n g s t r e n g t h of b e a m s
fro m t h e c o m p r e s siv e s t r e n g t h of s h o r t c ol u m n s e x c e p t
w h e n t h e w o o d is b ri t tl e. Si n c e t e s t s o n e n d wi s e
c o m p r e s sio n a r e si m pl er, e a si e r t o m a k e , a n d le s s
e x p e n siv e t h a n t r a n sv e r s e b e n di n g t e s t s, t h e i m p o r t a n c e
of t hi s r el a tio n is o bvio u s, t h o u g h it d o e s n o t d o
a w a y wi t h t h e n e c e s si ty of m a ki n g b e a m t e s t s.
[Foo t n o t e 4: S e e Ci r c ul a r N o. 1 8, U.S. Divisio n
of Fo r e s t ry: P r o g r e s s in ti m b e r p hy sic s, p p .
1 3-1 8; al s o Bulle ti n 7 0, U.S. Fo r e s t S e rvic e:
Effe c t of m oi s t u r e o n t h e s t r e n g t h a n d s tiffn e s s of
w o o d, p p . 4 2, 8 9-9 0.]
|------------------------------------------------------
31
Page 13
|------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------|
| TABLE V |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
--------------------|
| R ELATIO N O F FIBR E STR E S S AT ELASTIC LIMIT (r) IN BE N DI NG TO
T H E CRU S HI N G |
| STRE N GT H (C) O F BLOCKS C UT TH ER E F R O M, I N P O U N D S P E R
S Q UARE I N C H |
| (Fo r e s t S e r vic e Bul. 7 0, p . 9 0) |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
--------------------|
| LO N GLEAF PI N E |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
--------------------|
| | S o a k e d | G r e e n | 1 4 | 1 1 . 5 | 9. 5 | Kiln-d ry |
| M OI STUR E CO N DITIO N | 5 0 p e r | 2 3 p e r | p e r | p e r | p e r | 6. 2 p e r
|
| | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent |
| -------------------------+ - -------+ - -------+ - ------+ - -----
-+ - ------+ - ---------|
| N u m b e r of t e s t s a v e r a g e d | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 5 |
| r in b e n di n g | 4, 9 2 0 | 5, 9 4 4 | 6, 9 2 4 | 7, 8 5 2 | 9, 2 8 0 | 1 1, 5 5 0 |
| C in c o m p r e s sio n | 4, 6 6 8 | 5, 1 0 0 | 6, 4 6 6 | 7, 4 6 6 | 8, 9 8 5 | 1 0, 9 1 0 |
| P e r c e n t r is in | | | | | | |
| e x c e s s of C | 5. 5 | 1 6. 5 | 7. 1 | 5. 2 | 3. 3 | 5. 9 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
--------------------|
| SPRUCE |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
--------------------|
| | S o a k e d | G r e e n | 1 0 | 8. 1 | Kiln-d ry |
| M OI STUR E CO N DITIO N | 3 0 p e r | 3 0 p e r | p e r | p e r | 3. 9 p e r |
| | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent |
|----------------------------------+ - -------+ - -------+ - -----
-+ - ------+ - ---------|
| N u m b e r of t e s t s a v e r a g e d | 5 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 4 |
| r in b e n di n g | 3, 0 0 2 | 3, 3 6 2 | 6, 4 5 8 | 8, 4 0 0 | 1 0, 1 7 0 |
| C in c o m p r e s sio n | 2, 6 8 0 | 3, 0 2 5 | 6, 1 2 0 | 7, 6 1 0 | 9, 3 3 5 |
| Per ce nt r | | | | | |
32
| is in e x c e s s of C | 1 2 . 0 | 1 1. 1 | 5. 5 | 1 0. 4 | 9. 0 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
--------------------|
W h e n a s h o r t c ol u m n is c o m p r e s s e d u n til it b r e a k s ,
t h e m a n n e r of failu r e d e p e n d s p a r tly u p o n t h e a n a t o mi c al
s t r u c t u r e a n d p a r tly u p o n t h e d e g r e e of h u mi di ty of
t h e w o o d. Th e fib r e s (t r a c h ei d s in c o nife r s)
a c t a s h ollo w t u b e s b o u n d clo s ely t o g e t h er, a n d in
givi n g w a y t h ey ei t h e r (1) b u c kl e, o r (2) b e n d.[ 5]
[Foo t n o t e 5: S e e Bull e ti n 7 0 , o p. ci t.,
p . 1 2 9.]
33
Page 14
Th e firs t is ty pi c al of a n y d r y t hi n-w all e d c ells,
a s is u s u ally t h e c a s e in s e a s o n e d w hi t e pi n e a n d
s p r u c e , a n d in t h e e a rly w o o d of h a r d pi n e s , h e ml o c k,
a n d o t h e r s p e ci e s wit h d e ci d e d c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e
t w o p o r tio n s of t h e g r o w t h ri n g. As a r ul e b u c kli n g
of a t r a c h ei d b e gi n s a t t h e b o r d e r e d pi t s w hi c h fo r m
pl a c e s of le a s t r e si s t a n c e in t h e w alls. In h a r d w o o d s
s u c h a s o a k, c h e s t n u t , a s h, e t c ., b u c kli n g o c c u r s
o nly in t h e t hi n n e s t-w all e d el e m e n t s , s u c h a s t h e
v e s s el s, a n d n o t in t h e t r u e fib r e s .
Acco r di n g t o Jac c a r d[ 6] t h e fol di n g of t h e c ells is
a c c o m p a ni e d by c h a r a c t e ri s ti c al t e r a tio n s of t h ei r
w alls w hi c h s e e m t o s plit t h e m in t o ex t r e m ely t hi n
lay e r s. W h e n g r e a tly m a g nifi e d, t h e s e lay e r s
a p p e a r in lo n gi t u di n al s e c tio n s a s d elic a t e t h r e a d s
wi t h o u t a n y d efi nit e a r r a n g e m e n t s , w hil e o n c r o s s s e c tio n
t h e y a p p e a r a s n u m e r o u s c o n c e n t ri c s t r a t a. Thi s
m a y b e e x pl ai n e d o n t h e g r o u n d t h a t t h e g r o w t h of
a fib r e is b y s u c c e s siv e lay e r s w hic h, u n d e r t h e influ e n c e
of c o m p r e s sio n, a r e s h e a r e d a p a r t. Thi s is p a r ti c ul a rly
t h e c a s e wi t h t hick-w all e d c ells s u c h a s a r e fou n d
in la t e w o o d.
[Foo t n o t e 6: Jac c a r d , P.: E t u d e a n a t o mi q u e
d e s b ois c o m p ri m e s. Mi t. d. S c hw. C e n t r al a n s t al t
f.d. fo r s t. Vers u c h s w e s e n . X. B a n d, 1.
H ef t. Z u ric h, 1 9 1 0, p. 6 6.]
|------------------------------------------------------
-|
| TABLE VI |
|-------------------------------------------------------|
| RE S ULTS O F E N D WI S E CO M P R E S SIO N TE ST S O N S MALL CLEAR |
| PI EC E S O F 4 0 WOOD S I N GRE E N CO N DITIO N |
| (Fo r e s t S e rvic e Cir. 2 1 3) |
|-------------------------------------------------------|
| | Fi b r e | | M o d ul u s |
| CO M M O N NA M E | s t r e s s a t | C r u s hi n g | of |
| O F S P E CI E S | el a s tic | s t r e n g t h | el a s ticity |
| | li mit | | |
34
|-------------------+ - ----------+ - ---------+ - -----------|
| | Lb s. p e r | Lb s. p e r | Lb s. p e r |
| | s q. inc h | s q. in c h | s q. in c h |
| | | | |
| H ardwoods | | | |
| | | | |
| As h, w hi t e | 3, 5 1 0 | 4, 2 2 0 | 1, 5 3 1, 0 0 0 |
| Basswood | 7 8 0 | 1, 8 2 0 | 1, 0 1 6, 0 0 0 |
| Beech | 2, 7 7 0 | 3, 4 8 0 | 1, 4 1 2, 0 0 0 |
| Bir c h, yello w | 2, 5 7 0 | 3, 4 0 0 | 1, 9 1 5, 0 0 0 |
| El m, sli p p e r y | 3, 4 1 0 | 3, 9 9 0 | 1, 4 5 3, 0 0 0 |
| H ackb er ry | 2, 7 3 0 | 3, 3 1 0 | 1, 0 6 8, 0 0 0 |
| Hi c ko ry, | | | |
| bi g s h ellb a r k | 3, 5 7 0 | 4, 5 2 0 | 1, 6 5 8, 0 0 0 |
| bi t t e r n u t | 4, 3 3 0 | 4, 5 7 0 | 1, 6 1 6, 0 0 0 |
| mockernut | 3, 9 9 0 | 4, 3 2 0 | 1, 3 5 9, 0 0 0 |
| nutmeg | 3, 6 2 0 | 3, 9 8 0 | 1, 4 1 1, 0 0 0 |
| pi g n u t | 3, 5 2 0 | 4, 8 2 0 | 1, 9 8 0, 0 0 0 |
| shagbark | 3, 7 3 0 | 4, 6 0 0 | 1, 9 4 3, 0 0 0 |
35
Page 15
| water | 3, 2 4 0 | 4, 6 6 0 | 1, 9 2 6, 0 0 0 |
| Loc u s t, h o n ey | 4, 3 0 0 | 4, 9 7 0 | 1, 5 3 6, 0 0 0 |
| M a pl e, s u g a r | 3, 0 4 0 | 3, 6 7 0 | 1, 4 6 3, 0 0 0 |
| O a k, p o s t | 2, 7 8 0 | 3, 3 3 0 | 1, 0 6 2, 0 0 0 |
| red | 2, 2 9 0 | 3, 2 1 0 | 1, 2 9 5, 0 0 0 |
| s w a m p w hi t e | 3, 4 7 0 | 4, 3 6 0 | 1, 4 8 9, 0 0 0 |
| w hi t e | 2, 4 0 0 | 3, 5 2 0 | 9 4 6, 0 0 0 |
| y ello w | 2, 8 7 0 | 3, 7 0 0 | 1, 4 6 5, 0 0 0 |
| Osage orange | 3, 9 8 0 | 5, 8 1 0 | 1, 3 3 1, 0 0 0 |
| Sy c a m o r e | 2, 3 2 0 | 2, 7 9 0 | 1, 0 7 3, 0 0 0 |
| Tu p elo | 2, 2 8 0 | 3, 5 5 0 | 1, 2 8 0, 0 0 0 |
| | | | |
| Co nif e r s | | | |
| | | | |
| Ar bo rvit a e | 1, 4 2 0 | 1, 9 9 0 | 7 5 4, 0 0 0 |
| C e d ar, inc e n s e | 2, 7 1 0 | 3, 0 3 0 | 8 6 8, 0 0 0 |
| Cy p r e s s , b al d | 3, 5 6 0 | 3, 9 6 0 | 1, 7 3 8, 0 0 0 |
| Fir, al pi n e | 1, 6 6 0 | 2, 0 6 0 | 8 8 2, 0 0 0 |
| a m a bilis | 2, 7 6 3 | 3, 0 4 0 | 1, 5 7 9, 0 0 0 |
| Do u gl a s | 2, 3 9 0 | 2, 9 2 0 | 1, 4 4 0, 0 0 0 |
| w hi t e | 2, 6 1 0 | 2, 8 0 0 | 1, 3 3 2, 0 0 0 |
| H e m lo c k | 2, 1 1 0 | 2, 7 5 0 | 1, 0 5 4, 0 0 0 |
| Pi n e, lod g e p ol e | 2, 2 9 0 | 2, 5 3 0 | 1, 2 1 9, 0 0 0 |
| lo n gl e af | 3, 4 2 0 | 4, 2 8 0 | 1, 8 9 0, 0 0 0 |
| red | 2, 4 7 0 | 3, 0 8 0 | 1, 6 4 6, 0 0 0 |
| sugar | 2, 3 4 0 | 2, 6 0 0 | 1, 0 2 9, 0 0 0 |
| w e s t e r n yello w | 2, 1 0 0 | 2, 4 2 0 | 1, 2 7 1, 0 0 0 |
| w hi t e | 2, 3 7 0 | 2, 7 2 0 | 1, 3 1 8, 0 0 0 |
| Redwood | 3, 4 2 0 | 3, 8 2 0 | 1, 1 7 5, 0 0 0 |
| S p r u c e , E n g el m a n n | 1, 8 8 0 | 2, 1 7 0 | 1, 0 2 1, 0 0 0 |
| Ta m a r a c k | 3, 0 1 0 | 3, 4 8 0 | 1, 5 9 6, 0 0 0 |
|-------------------------------------------------------|
re >
Th e s e c o n d c a s e , w h e r e t h e fib r e s b e n d wi t h m o r e o r
le s s r e g ul a r c u rv e s in s t e a d of b u c kli n g, is c h a r a c t e ri s tic
of a n y g r e e n o r w e t w o o d, a n d in d ry w o o d s w h e r e t h e
fib r e s a r e t hick-w all e d. In w o o d s in w hi c h t h e
fib r e w alls s h o w all g r a d a tio n s of t hi c k n e s s— in
o t h e r w o r d s, w h e r e t h e t r a n si tio n fro m t h e t hi n-w all e d
c ells of t h e e a rly w o o d t o t h e t hi ck-w all e d c ells of
36
t h e la t e w o o d is g r a d u al—t h e t w o ki n d s of
failu r e, n a m ely, b u c klin g a n d b e n di n g, g r a d e in t o
e a c h o t h er. In w o o d s wi t h v e ry d e ci d e d c o n t r a s t
b e t w e e n e a rly a n d la t e w o o d t h e t w o fo r m s a r e u s u ally
di s ti n c t. Exc e p t in t h e c a s e of c o m pl e t e failu r e
t h e c avity of t h e d efo r m e d c ells r e m a i n s o p e n, a n d
in h a r d w o o d s t hi s is t r u e n o t o nly of t h e w o o d fib r e s
b u t al s o of t h e t u b e-lik e ve s s el s. I n m a n y c a s e s
lo n gi t u di n al s plit s o c c u r w hi c h isol a t e b u n dl e s of
el e m e n t s by g r e a t e r o r le s s in t e rv al s. Th e s plit ti n g
o c c u r s by a t e a ri n g of t h e fib r e s o r r a y s a n d n o t by
t h e s e p a r a tio n of t h e r a y s fro m t h e a dj a c e n t el e m e n t s.
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 8.—F ail u r e s of
s h o r t c ol u m n s of g r e e n s p r u c e.]
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 9.—F ail u r e s of
s h o r t c ol u m n s of d ry c h e s t n u t .]
37
Page 16
M oi s t u r e in w o o d d e c r e a s e s t h e s tiffn e s s of t h e fib r e
w alls a n d e nl a r g e s t h e r e gio n of fail u r e. Th e
c u rv e w hi c h t h e fib r e w alls m a k e in t h e r e gio n of
failu r e is m o r e g r a d u al a n d al s o m o r e ir r e g ul a r t h a n
in d r y w o o d, a n d t h e fib r e s a r e m o r e lik ely t o b e
sep a r at ed.
In e x a mi ni n g t h e lin e s of r u p t u r e in c o m p r e s sio n p a r all el
t o t h e g r ai n it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e r e d o e s n o t e xis t
a n y s p e cific ty p e, t h a t is, o n e t h a t is c h a r a c t e ri s tic
of all w o o d s. Tes t blo c k s t a k e n fro m diffe r e n t
p a r t s of t h e s a m e log m a y s h o w ve ry d e ci d e d diffe r e n c e s
in t h e m a n n e r of fail u r e , w hil e blo c k s t h a t a r e m u c h
alik e in t h e siz e, n u m b er, a n d di s t ri b u tio n of t h e
el e m e n t s of u n e q u al r e si s t a n c e m a y b e h av e ve ry si mil a rly.
Th e di r e c tio n of r u p t u r e is, a c c o r di n g t o Jac c a r d,
n o t influ e n c e d b y t h e di s t ri b u tio n of t h e m e d ull a ry
r a y s.[7] Th e s e a r e c u rv e d wi t h t h e b u n dl e s of fib r e s
t o w hi c h t h e y a r e a t t a c h e d . In a ny c a s e t h e fail u r e
s t a r t s a t t h e w e a k e s t p oi n t s a n d follow s t h e lin e s
of le a s t r e si s t a n c e . Th e pl a n e of failu r e, a s
visi bl e o n r a di al s u rf a c e s, is h o rizo n t al, a n d o n
t h e t a n g e n ti al s u rf a c e it is di a g o n al.
[Foo t n o t e 7: This d o e s n o t c o r r e s p o n d e x a c tly
wi t h t h e c o n cl u sio n s of A. T hil, w h o s ay s ("Co n s ti t u tio n
a n a t o mi q u e d u b oi s,” p p . 1 4 0-1 4 1): “T h e
si d e s of t h e m e d ull a ry r a y s s o m e ti m e s p r o d u c e pl a n e s
of le a s t r e si s t a n c e v a ryi n g in siz e wi t h t h e h ei g h t
of t h e r a y s. Th e m e d ull a ry r ay s a s s u m e a di r e c tio n
m o r e o r le s s p a r all el t o t h e lu m e n of t h e c ells o n
w hi c h t h ey b o r d e r; t h e la t t e r c u rv e t o t h e ri g h t o r
left t o m a k e r o o m fo r t h e r a y a n d t h e n clos e a g ai n
b ey o n d it. If t h e fo r c e a c t s p a r all el t o t h e
a xi s of g r o w t h, t h e t r a c h ei d s a r e m o r e lik ely t o b e
di s pl a c e d if t h e m a r gi n al c ells of t h e m e d ull a ry r a y s
a r e p r ovi d e d wi t h w e a k w alls t h a t a r e r e a dily c o m p r e s s e d .
This e x pl ai n s w hy o n t h e r a di al s u rf a c e of t h e t e s t
bloc k s t h e pl a n e of r u p t u r e p a s s e s in a di r e c tio n
n e a rly follo wi n g a m e d ull a ry r ay, w h e r e a s o n t h e t a n g e n ti al
s u rf a c e t h e di r e c tio n of t h e pl a n e of r u p t u r e is o bliq u e— b u t
38
wi t h a n o bliq ui ty v a ryi n g wi t h t h e s p e ci e s a n d d e t e r mi n e d
by t h e pi t c h of t h e s pi r als alo n g w hi c h t h e m e d ull a ry
r a y s a r e di s t ri b u t e d in t h e s t e m .” S e e
Jac c a r d , o p. ci t., p p. 5 7 e t s e q. ]
SHEARING STRENGTH
W h e n ev e r for c e s a c t u p o n a b o dy in s u c h a w ay t h a t
o n e p o r tio n t e n d s t o slid e u p o n a n o t h e r a dj a c e n t t o
it t h e a c tio n is c alle d a s h e a r .[8] In w o o d
t hi s s h e a ri n g a c tio n m a y b e (1) alo n g t h e g r ai n ,
o r (2) a cro s s t h e g r ai n . A t e n o n b r e a ki n g
o u t it s m o r ti s e is a fa mili a r e x a m pl e of s h e a r alo n g
t h e g r ai n, w hil e t h e s h ovi n g off of t h e t e n o n it s elf
w o ul d b e s h e a r a c r o s s t h e g r ai n. Th e u s e of w o o d
fo r pi n s o r t r e e-n ails involv e s r e si s t a n c e t o s h e a r
a c r o s s t h e g r ai n. Ano t h e r c o m m o n in s t a n c e of
t h e la t t e r is w h e r e t h e s t e el e d g e of t h e e y e of a n
a x e o r h a m m e r t e n d s t o c u t off t h e h a n dl e. In
Fi g. 1 0 t h e a c tio n of t h e w o o d e n s t r u t t e n d s t o s h e a r
off alo n g t h e g r ai n t h e p o r tio n A B of t h e w o o d e n
ti e r o d, a n d it is e s s e n ti al t h a t t h e le n g t h of t hi s
p o r tio n b e g r e a t e n o u g h t o g u a r d a g ai n s t it. Fi g.
1 1 s h o w s c h a r a c t e ri s tic failu r e s in s h e a r alo n g t h e
g r ai n.
39
Page 17
[Foo t n o t e 8: S h e a r s h o ul d n o t b e c o nf u s e d wi t h
o r di n a r y c u t ti n g o r incisio n.]
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 1 0.—Ex a m pl e of
s h e a r alo n g t h e g r ai n.]
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 1 1.—F ail u r e s of
t e s t s p e ci m e n s in s h e a r alo n g t h e g r ai n. In t h e
bloc k a t t h e left t h e s u rf a c e of failu r e is r a di al;
in t h e o n e a t t h e ri g h t, t a n g e n ti al]
|---------------------------------------------|
| TABLE VII |
|---------------------------------------------|
| S H EARI NG STR E N GT H ALO NG TH E GRAI N O F S MALL |
| CLEAR PIEC E S O F 4 1 WOOD S I N GRE E N CO N DITIO N |
| (Fo r e s t S e rvic e Cir. 2 1 3) |
|---------------------------------------------|
| | Whe n | Whe n |
| CO M M O N NA M E | s u rf a c e of | s u rf a c e of |
| O F S P E CI E S | failu r e is | failu r e is |
| | r a di al | t a n g e n ti al |
|-------------------+ - -----------+ - -----------|
| | Lb s. p e r | Lb s. p e r |
| | s q. inc h | s q. in c h |
| | | |
| H ardwoods | | |
| | | |
| As h, bl a c k | 876 | 832 |
| w hi t e | 1, 3 6 0 | 1, 3 1 2 |
| Basswood | 560 | 617 |
| Beech | 1, 1 5 4 | 1, 3 7 5 |
| Bir c h, yello w | 1, 1 0 3 | 1, 1 8 8 |
| El m, sli p p e r y | 1, 1 9 7 | 1, 1 7 4 |
| w hi t e | 778 | 872 |
| H ackb er ry | 1, 0 9 5 | 1, 1 6 1 |
| Hi c ko ry, | | |
| bi g s h ellb a r k | 1, 1 3 4 | 1, 1 9 1 |
| bi t t e r n u t | 1, 1 3 4 | 1, 3 4 8 |
| mockernut | 1, 2 5 1 | 1, 3 1 3 |
| nutmeg | 1, 0 1 0 | 1, 0 5 3 |
40
| pi g n u t | 1, 3 3 4 | 1, 4 5 7 |
| shagbark | 1, 2 3 0 | 1, 2 9 7 |
| water | 1, 3 9 0 | 1, 4 9 0 |
| Loc u s t, h o n ey | 1, 8 8 5 | 2, 0 9 6 |
| M a pl e, r e d | 1, 1 3 0 | 1, 3 3 0 |
| sugar | 1, 1 9 3 | 1, 4 5 5 |
| O a k, p o s t | 1, 1 9 6 | 1, 4 0 2 |
| red | 1, 1 3 2 | 1, 1 9 5 |
| s w a m p w hi t e | 1, 1 9 8 | 1, 3 9 4 |
| w hi t e | 1, 0 9 6 | 1, 2 9 2 |
| y ello w | 1, 1 6 2 | 1, 1 9 6 |
| Sy c a m o r e | 9 0 0 | 1, 1 0 2 |
| Tu p elo | 9 7 8 | 1, 0 8 4 |
| | | |
| Co nif e r s | | |
| | | |
| Ar bo rvit a e | 617 | 614 |
| C e d ar, inc e n s e | 613 | 662 |
| Cy p r e s s , b al d | 836 | 800 |
| Fir, al pi n e | 573 | 654 |
| a m a bilis | 517 | 639 |
| Do u gl a s | 853 | 858 |
| w hi t e | 742 | 723 |
| H e m lo c k | 790 | 813 |
| Pi n e, lod g e p ol e | 672 | 747 |
| lo n gl e af | 1, 0 6 0 | 953 |
Bo t h s h e a ri n g s t r e s s e s m a y a c t a t t h e s a m e ti m e.
Th u s t h e w ei g h t c a r ri e d by a b e a m t e n d s t o s h e a r it
off a t ri g h t a n gl e s t o t h e a xis; t hi s s t r e s s is e q u al
t o t h e r e s ul t a n t fo r c e a c ti n g p e r p e n dic ul a rly a t a n y
p oi n t, a n d in a b e a m u nifo r mly lo a d e d a n d s u p p o r t e d
a t ei t h e r e n d is m a xi m u m a t t h e p oi n t s of s u p p o r t a n d
z e r o a t t h e c e n t r e . I n a d di tio n t h e r e is a s h e a ri n g
fo r c e t e n di n g t o m ov e t h e fib r e s of t h e b e a m p a s t
e a c h o t h e r in a lo n gi t u di n al di r e c tio n. (S e e Fi g.
1 2 .) This lon gi t u di n al s h e a r is m a xi m u m a t t h e n e u t r al
pl a n e a n d d e c r e a s e s t o w a r d t h e u p p e r a n d low e r s u rf a c e s .
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 1 2.—H o rizo n t al
s h e a r in a b e a m .]
S h e a ri n g a c r o s s t h e g r ai n is s o clo s ely r el a t e d t o
c o m p r e s sio n a t ri g h t a n gl e s t o t h e g r ai n a n d t o h a r d n e s s
t h a t t h e r e is lit tl e t o b e g ai n e d by m a ki n g s e p a r a t e
t e s t s u p o n it. Kno wl e d g e of s h e a r p a r all el t o
t h e g r ai n is i m p o r t a n t, si n c e w o o d fr e q u e n tly fails
41
in t h a t w ay. T h e v al u e of s h e a ri n g s t r e s s p a r all el
t o t h e g r ai n is fou n d by dividi n g t h e m a xi m u m lo a d
in p o u n d s (P) by t h e a r e a of t h e c r o s s s e c tio n in
in c h e s (A).
{ P }
{ S h e a r = —– }
{ A }
O bliq u e s h e a ri n g s t r e s s e s a r e d e v elo p e d
in a b a r w h e n it is s u bj e c t e d t o di r e c t t e n sio n o r
c o m p r e s sio n. Th e m a xi m u m s h e a ri n g s t r e s s o c c u r s
alo n g a pl a n e w h e n it m a k e s a n a n gl e of 4 5 d e g r e e s
P
wi t h t h e a xis of t h e s p e ci m e n. In t hi s c a s e ,
s h e a r = -----. W h e n
2
A
t h e v al u e of t h e a n gl e [G r e e k: t h e t a] is le s s
th a n 45 d e g r e es,
P
t h e s h e a r alo n g t h e pl a n e = —– si n
[G r e e k: t h e t a ] c o s [G r e e k:
A
t h e t a]. (S e e Fi g. 1 3.) Th e effe c t of o bli q u e s h e a r
is oft e n visibl e in t h e fail u r e s of s h o r t c ol u m n s.
(S e e Fi g. 1 4 .)
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 1 3.—O bliq u e s h e a r
in a s h o r t c ol u m n.]
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 1 4.—F ail u r e of
s h o r t c ol u m n b y o bli q u e s h e ar.]
|------------------------------------------------------
---------------------|
| TABLE VIII |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------|
| S H EARI NG STR E N GT H ACROS S TH E GRAI N O F VARIOU S
AMERICAN WOOD S |
| (J.C. Tr a u t wi n e. Jour. F r a n kli n In s ti t u t e. Vol. 1 0 9, 1 8 8 0, p p . 1 0 5-1 0 6) |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------|
| KIND O F WOOD | Lb s. p e r | KIND O F WOOD | Lb s. p e r |
| | s q. in c h | | s q. inc h |
42
|-----------------------+ - ---------+ - -----------------------
-----+ - ---------|
| As h | 6, 2 8 0 | Hi c ko ry | 7, 2 8 5 |
TRANSVERSE OR BENDING STRENGTH: BEAMS
W h e n e x t e r n al fo r c e s a c ti n g in t h e s a m e pl a n e a r e
a p pli e d a t ri g h t a n gl e s t o t h e a xis of a b a r s o a s
t o c a u s e it t o b e n d, t h ey o c c a sio n a s h o r t e ni n g of
t h e lo n git u di n al fib r e s o n t h e c o n c av e si d e a n d a n
elo n g a tio n of t h o s e o n t h e c o nv ex si d e. Wit hi n
t h e el a s tic li mit t h e r el a tiv e s t r e t c hi n g a n d c o n t r a c tio n
of t h e fib r e s is di r e c tly[9] p r o p o r tio n al t o t h ei r
di s t a n c e s fro m a pl a n e int e r m e di a t e b e t w e e n t h e m— t h e
n e u t r al pla n e . (N_{ 1 } P in Fi g. 1 5.) Th u s
t h e fib r e s h alf-w ay b e t w e e n t h e n e u t r al pl a n e a n d
t h e o u t e r s u rf a c e ex p e ri e n c e o nly h alf a s m u c h s h o r t e ni n g
o r elo n g a tio n a s t h e o u t e r m o s t o r ex t r e m e fib r e s.
Si mil a rly fo r o t h e r di s t a n c e s . T h e el e m e n t s alo n g
t h e n e u t r al pl a n e e x p e ri e n c e n o t e n sio n o r c o m p r e s sio n
in a n a xi al di r e c tio n. Th e lin e of in t e r s e c tio n
of t hi s pl a n e a n d t h e pl a n e of s e c tio n is k n o w n a s
t h e n e u t r al a xis (N A in Fi g. 1 5) of t h e s e c tio n.
[Foo t n o t e 9: W hil e in r e ality t hi s r el a tio n s hi p
d o e s n o t e x a c tly h ol d, t h e fo r m ul a e fo r b e a m s a r e
b a s e d o n it s a s s u m p tio n.]
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 1 5.—Di a g r a m of
a si m pl e b e a m . N_ { 1 } P = n e u t r al pl a n e , N A =
n e u t r al a xis of s e c tio n R S.]
If t h e b a r is sy m m e t ri c al a n d h o m o g e n e o u s t h e n e u t r al
pl a n e is loc a t e d h alf-w a y b e t w e e n t h e u p p e r a n d low e r
s u rf a c e s, s o lon g a s t h e d efl e c tio n d o e s n o t e x c e e d
t h e el a s tic li mit of t h e m a t e ri al. O wi n g t o t h e
fa c t t h a t t h e t e n sil e s t r e n g t h of w o o d is fro m t w o
t o n e a rly fou r ti m e s t h e c o m p r e s siv e s t r e n g t h , it
follow s t h a t a t r u p t u r e t h e n e u t r al pl a n e is m u c h n e a r e r
t h e c o nv ex t h a n t h e c o n c av e si d e of t h e b a r o r b e a m ,
si n c e t h e s u m of all t h e c o m p r e s siv e s t r e s s e s o n t h e
c o n c av e p o r tio n m u s t al w ay s e q u al t h e s u m of t h e t e n sil e
s t r e s s e s o n t h e c o nv ex p o r tio n. Th e n e u t r al pl a n e
43
b e gi n s t o c h a n g e fro m it s c e n t r al p o si tio n a s s o o n
a s t h e el a s tic li mi t h a s b e e n p a s s e d. It s loc a tio n
a t a n y ti m e is ve ry u n c e r t ai n.
44
Page 20
Th e ex t e r n al for c e s a c ti n g t o b e n d t h e b a r al s o t e n d
t o r u p t u r e it a t ri g h t a n gl e s t o t h e n e u t r al pl a n e
by c a u si n g o n e t r a n s v e r s e s e c tio n t o sli p p a s t a n o t h er.
This s t r e s s a t a n y p oi n t is e q u al t o t h e r e s ul t a n t
p e r p e n di c ul a r t o t h e a xis of t h e fo r c e s a c ti n g a t
t hi s p oi n t, a n d is t e r m e d t h e t r a n s v e r s e s h e ar
(o r in t h e c a s e of b e a m s , v e r tical s h e ar ).
In a d di tio n t o t his t h e r e is a s h e a ri n g s t r e s s, t e n di n g
t o m ov e t h e fib r e s p a s t o n e a n o t h e r in a n a xi al di r e c tio n,
w hi c h is c all e d lo n gi t u di n al s h e ar (o r in t h e
c a s e of b e a m s , h o ri z o n t al s h e ar ). This
s t r e s s m u s t b e t a k e n in t o c o n si d e r a tio n in t h e d e si g n
of ti m b e r s t r u c t u r e s . It is m a xi m u m a t t h e n e u t r al
pl a n e a n d d e c r e a s e s t o z e r o a t t h e o u t e r el e m e n t s
of t h e s e c tio n. Th e s h o r t e r t h e s p a n of a b e a m
in p r o p o r tio n t o it s h ei g h t , t h e g r e a t e r is t h e lia bility
of failu r e in h o rizo n t al s h e a r b efo r e t h e ul ti m a t e
s t r e n g t h of t h e b e a m is r e a c h e d .
Bea ms
Th e r e a r e t h r e e c o m m o n fo r m s of b e a m s , a s follow s:
(1) S i m pl e b e a m —a b a r r e s ti n g u p o n
t w o s u p p o r t s, o n e n e a r e a c h e n d. (S e e Fi g. 1 6, N o.
1.)
(2) Ca n til e v e r b e a m —a b a r r e s ti n g
u p o n o n e s u p p o r t o r fulc r u m , o r t h a t p o r tio n of a ny
b e a m p r oj e c ti n g o u t of a w all o r b e yo n d a s u p p o r t.
(S e e Fi g. 1 6 , N o. 2.)
(3) Co n ti n u o u s b e a m —a b a r r e s ti n g
u p o n m o r e t h a n t w o s u p p o r t s . (S e e Fi g. 1 6, N o. 3.)
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 1 6.—Th r e e c o m m o n
fo r m s of b e a m s . 1. Si m pl e. 2. C a n til ev er.
3. Co n ti n u o u s.]
S tiff n e s s of B e a m s
Th e t w o m a i n r e q ui r e m e n t s of a b e a m a r e s tiffn e s s
45
a n d s t r e n g t h. T h e fo r m ul a e fo r t h e m o d ul u s
of ela s ticit y (E) o r m e a s u r e of s tiffn e s s of a
r e c t a n g ul a r p ri s m a ti c si m pl e b e a m lo a d e d a t t h e c e n t r e
a n d r e s ti n g fr e ely o n s u p p o r t s a t ei t h e r e n d is:[1 0]
[Foo t n o t e 1 0: O nly t hi s fo r m of b e a m is c o n si d e r e d
si n c e it is t h e si m pl e s t. Fo r c a n til ev e r a n d
c o n ti n u o u s b e a m s , a n d b e a m s ri gi dly fixe d a t o n e o r
b o t h e n d s, a s w ell a s for diffe r e n t m e t h o d s of lo a di n g,
diffe r e n t for m s of c r o s s s e c tio n, e t c ., o t h e r
fo r m ul a e a r e r e q ui r e d. S e e a n y b o o k o n m e c h a ni c s.]
P’ l ^ { 3 }
E = -------------
4 D b h ^{3}
b = b r e a d t h o r wi d t h of b e a m , inc h e s .
h = h ei g h t o r d e p t h of b e a m , inc h e s .
l = s p a n (le n g t h b e t w e e n p oi n t s of s u p p o r t s) of
b e a m , in c h e s .
D = d efl e c tio n p r o d u c e d by lo a d P’, inc h e s.
P’ = lo a d a t o r b el o w el a s ti c li mit, p o u n d s .
F r o m t hi s fo r m ul a e it is e vi d e n t t h a t fo r r e c t a n g ul a r
b e a m s of t h e s a m e m a t e ri al, m o d e of s u p p o r t, a n d lo a di n g,
t h e d efl e c tio n is affe c t e d a s follow s:
(1) It is inv e r s ely p r o p o r tio n al t o t h e wi d t h for
b e a m s of t h e s a m e le n g t h a n d d e p t h . If t h e wi d t h
is t ri pl e d t h e d efl e c tio n is o n e-t hi r d a s g r e a t .
(2) It is inv e r s ely p r o p o r tio n al t o t h e c u b e of t h e
d e p t h fo r b e a m s of t h e s a m e le n g t h a n d b r e a d t h .
If t h e d e p t h is t ri pl e d t h e d efl e c tio n is o n e t w e n t y-s ev e n t h
a s g r e a t.
(3) It is di r e c tly p r o p o r tio n al t o t h e c u b e of t h e
s p a n fo r b e a m s of t h e s a m e b r e a d t h a n d d e p t h.
Tri plin g t h e s p a n giv e s t w e n ty-s ev e n ti m e s t h e d efl e c tio n.
46
Page 21
Th e n u m b e r of p o u n d s w hi c h c o n c e n t r a t e d a t t h e c e n t r e
will d efl e c t a r e c t a n g ul a r p ri s m a ti c si m pl e b e a m o n e
in c h m a y b e fo u n d fro m t h e p r e c e di n g for m ul a e by s u b s tit u ti n g
D = 1” a n d s olvi n g fo r P’. T h e fo r m ul a e
th e n b eco m es:
4 E b h ^{3}
N e c e s s a r y w ei g h t (P’) = -------------
l^{3}
In t hi s c a s e t h e v al u e s fo r E a r e r e a d fro m t a bl e s
p r e p a r e d fro m d a t a o b t ai n e d by e x p e ri m e n t a tio n o n
t h e giv e n m a t e ri al.
S t r e n g t h of B e a m s
Th e m e a s u r e of t h e b r e a ki n g s t r e n g t h of a b e a m is
e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of u ni t s t r e s s by a m o d ul u s
of r u p t u r e , w hi c h is a p u r ely h y p o t h e tic al e x p r e s sio n
fo r p oi n t s b e y o n d t h e el a s tic li mit. Th e fo r m ul a e
u s e d in c o m p u ti n g t hi s m o d ul u s is a s follo w s:
1. 5 P l
R = ---------
b h{ ^ 2}
b, h, l = b r e a d t h, h ei g h t, a n d s p a n , r e s p e c tiv ely,
a s in
p r e c e di n g fo r m ul a e.
R = m o d ul u s of r u p t u r e , p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e
in c h.
P = m a xi m u m lo a d, p o u n d s .
In c alc ul a ti n g t h e fib r e s t r e s s a t t h e el a s tic limit
t h e s a m e fo r m ul a e is u s e d e x c e p t t h a t t h e lo a d a t
el a s tic li mi t (P_{ 1 }) is s u b s ti t u t e d fo r t h e m a xi m u m
lo a d (P).
F r o m t hi s fo r m ul a e it is e vi d e n t t h a t fo r r e c t a n g ul a r
p ri s m a ti c b e a m s of t h e s a m e m a t e ri al, m o d e of s u p p o r t,
a n d lo a di n g, t h e lo a d w hi c h a giv e n b e a m c a n s u p p o r t
v a ri e s a s follo w s:
47
(1) It is di r e c tly p r o p o r tio n al t o t h e b r e a d t h fo r
b e a m s of t h e s a m e le n g t h a n d d e p t h , a s is t h e c a s e
wi t h s tiffn e s s.
(2) It is di r e c tly p r o p o r tio n al t o t h e s q u a r e of t h e
h ei g h t fo r b e a m s of t h e s a m e le n g t h a n d b r e a d t h , in s t e a d
of a s t h e c u b e of t hi s di m e n sio n a s in s tiffn e s s.
(3) It is inv e r s ely p r o p o r tio n al t o t h e s p a n fo r b e a m s
of t h e s a m e b r e a d t h a n d d e p t h a n d n o t t o t h e c u b e
of t hi s di m e n sio n a s in s tiffn e s s.
Th e fa c t t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h v a ri e s a s t h e s q u a r e
of t h e h ei g h t a n d t h e s tiffn e s s a s t h e c u b e
e x pl ai n s t h e r el a tio n s hi p of b e n di n g t o t hic k n e s s.
We r e t h e la w t h e s a m e fo r s t r e n g t h a n d s tiffn e s s a
t hi n pi e c e of m a t e ri al s u c h a s a s h e e t of p a p e r c o ul d
n o t b e b e n t a ny fu r t h e r wi t h o u t b r e a ki n g t h a n a t hi c k
pi e c e , s a y a n inc h b o a r d . |---------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------|
| TABLE IX
| |----------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------|
| RE S ULTS O F STATIC BE NDI NG TEST S O N S MALL CLEAR BEAM S
O F 4 9 WOOD S I N GRE E N CO N DITIO N | |
(Fo r e s t S e rvic e Cir. 2 1 3)
| |---------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------|
| | Fi b r e | |
| Work in B e n di n g | | CO M M O N NA M E
| s t r e s s a t | M o d ul u s | M o d ul u s |-------------------------------|
| O F S P E CI E S | el a s tic | of | of
| To | To | | |
| li mit | r u p t u r e | el a s ti city | el a s tic
48
Page 22
| m a xi m u m | Tot al | | |
| | | li mit | lo a d |
| |-----------------+ - ----------+ - ---------+ - -------
----+ - ---------+ - ---------+ - --------|
| | | |
| In.-lb s. | In.-lb s. | In.-lb. | |
| Lb s. p e r | Lb s. p e r | Lb s. p e r | p e r c u.
| p e r c u. | p e r | | | s q. in.
| s q. in. | s q. in. | inc h | inc h | inc h
| | | | |
| | | | | H ardwoods
| | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | As h, bl a c k | 2, 5 8 0 | 6, 0 0 0
| 9 6 0, 0 0 0 | 0. 4 1 | 1 3. 1 | 3 8. 9 | |
w hi t e | 5, 1 8 0 | 9, 9 2 0 | 1, 4 1 6, 0 0 0
| 1. 1 0 | 2 0. 0 | 4 3. 7 | | B a s s w o o d
| 2, 4 8 0 | 4, 4 5 0 | 8 4 2, 0 0 0 | .4 5 |
5. 8 | 8. 9 | | B e e c h | 4, 4 9 0
| 8, 6 1 0 | 1, 3 5 3, 0 0 0 | .9 6 | 1 4 . 1 |
3 1 . 4 | | Bir c h, yello w | 4, 1 9 0 | 8, 3 9 0 |
1, 5 9 7, 0 0 0 | .6 2 | 1 4. 2 | 3 1 . 5 | | El m,
rock | 4, 2 9 0 | 9, 4 3 0 | 1, 2 2 2, 0 0 0 |
.9 0 | 1 9. 4 | 4 7 . 4 | | slip p e ry |
5, 5 6 0 | 9, 5 1 0 | 1, 3 1 4, 0 0 0 | 1. 3 2 | 1 1. 7
| 4 4. 2 | | w hi t e | 2, 8 5 0 | 6, 9 4 0
| 1, 0 5 2, 0 0 0 | .4 4 | 1 1. 8 | 2 7. 4 | |
Gu m, r e d | 3, 4 6 0 | 6, 4 5 0 | 1, 1 3 8, 0 0 0
| | | | | H a c k b e r ry
| 3, 3 2 0 | 7, 8 0 0 | 1, 1 7 0, 0 0 0 | .5 6 |
1 9. 6 | 5 2 . 9 | | Hi c ko ry, |
| | | | |
| | bi g s h ell b a r k | 6, 3 7 0 | 1 1, 1 1 0 |
1, 5 6 2, 0 0 0 | 1. 4 7 | 2 4. 3 | 7 8. 0 | | bi t t e r n u t
| 5, 4 7 0 | 1 0, 2 8 0 | 1, 3 9 9, 0 0 0 | 1. 2 2
| 2 0. 0 | 7 5. 5 | | m o c k e r n u t | 6, 5 5 0
| 1 1 , 1 1 0 | 1, 5 0 8, 0 0 0 | 1. 5 0 | 3 1. 7 |
84.4 | | n u t m e g | 4, 8 6 0 | 9, 0 6 0 |
1, 2 8 9, 0 0 0 | 1. 0 6 | 2 2. 8 | 5 8. 2 | | pi g n u t
| 5, 8 6 0 | 1 1, 8 1 0 | 1, 7 6 9, 0 0 0 | 1. 1 2
49
| 3 0. 6 | 8 6. 7 | | s h a g b a r k | 6, 1 2 0
| 1 1 , 0 0 0 | 1, 7 5 2, 0 0 0 | 1. 2 2 | 1 8. 3 |
72.3 | | w ate r | 5, 9 8 0 | 1 0, 7 4 0 |
1, 5 6 3, 0 0 0 | 1. 2 9 | 1 8. 8 | 5 2. 9 | | Loc u s t,
h o n ey | 6, 0 2 0 | 1 2, 3 6 0 | 1, 7 3 2, 0 0 0 | 1. 2 8
| 1 7. 3 | 6 4. 4 | | M a pl e, r e d | 4, 4 5 0
| 8, 3 1 0 | 1, 4 4 5, 0 0 0 | .7 8 | 9. 8 |
17.1 | | sug ar | 4, 6 3 0 | 8, 8 6 0 |
1, 4 6 2, 0 0 0 | .8 8 | 1 2. 7 | 3 2 . 0 | | O a k,
post | 4, 7 2 0 | 7, 3 8 0 | 9 1 3, 0 0 0 |
1. 3 9 | 9. 1 | 1 7 . 4 | | r e d |
3, 4 9 0 | 7, 7 8 0 | 1, 2 6 8, 0 0 0 | .6 0 | 1 1. 4
| 2 6. 0 | | s w a m p w hi t e | 5, 3 8 0 | 9, 8 6 0
| 1, 5 9 3, 0 0 0 | 1. 0 5 | 1 4. 5 | 3 7. 6 | |
tanbark | 6, 5 8 0 | 1 0, 7 1 0 | 1, 6 7 8, 0 0 0
| 1. 4 9 | | | | w hi t e
| 4, 3 2 0 | 8, 0 9 0 | 1, 1 3 7, 0 0 0 | .9 5 |
1 2. 1 | 3 6 . 7 | | y ello w | 5, 0 6 0
50
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| 8, 5 7 0 | 1, 2 1 9, 0 0 0 | 1. 2 0 | 1 1 . 7 |
3 0 . 7 | | O s a g e o r a n g e | 7, 7 6 0 | 1 3, 6 6 0 |
1, 3 2 9, 0 0 0 | 2. 5 3 | 3 7. 9 | 1 0 1. 7 | | Sy c a m o r e
| 2, 8 2 0 | 6, 3 0 0 | 9 6 1, 0 0 0 | .5 1
| 7. 1 | 1 3. 6 | | Tu p elo | 4, 3 0 0
| 7, 3 8 0 | 1, 0 4 5, 0 0 0 | 1. 0 0 | 7. 8 |
20.9 | | | | |
| | | | | Co nif e r s
| | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | Ar bo rvit a e | 2, 6 0 0 | 4, 2 5 0
| 6 4 3, 0 0 0 | .6 0 | 5. 7 | 9. 5 | |
C e d ar, in c e n s e | 3, 9 5 0 | 6, 0 4 0 | 7 5 4, 0 0 0
| | | | | Cy p r e s s , b al d
| 4, 4 3 0 | 7, 1 1 0 | 1, 3 7 8, 0 0 0 | .9 6 |
5. 1 | 1 5. 4 | | Fir, al pi n e | 2, 3 6 6
| 4, 4 5 0 | 8 6 1, 0 0 0 | .6 6 | 4. 4 |
7. 4 | | a m a bilis | 4, 0 6 0 | 6, 5 7 0 |
1, 3 2 3, 0 0 0 | | | | | Do u gl a s
| 3, 5 7 0 | 6, 3 4 0 | 1, 2 4 2, 0 0 0 | .5 9
| 6. 6 | 1 3. 6 | | w hi t e | 3, 8 8 0
| 5, 9 7 0 | 1, 1 3 1, 0 0 0 | .7 7 | 5. 2 |
14.9 | | H e mlock | 3, 4 1 0 | 5, 7 7 0 |
9 1 7, 0 0 0 | .7 3 | 6. 6 | 1 2. 9 | | Pi n e,
lo d g e p ol e | 3, 0 8 0 | 5, 1 3 0 | 1, 0 1 5, 0 0 0 |
.5 4 | 5. 1 | 7. 4 | | lo n gl e af |
5, 0 9 0 | 8, 6 3 0 | 1, 6 6 2, 0 0 0 | .8 8 | 8. 1
| 3 4. 8 | | r e d | 3, 7 4 0 | 6, 4 3 0
| 1, 3 8 4, 0 0 0 | .5 9 | 5. 8 | 2 8. 0 | |
s h o r tl e af | 4, 3 6 0 | 7, 7 1 0 | 1, 3 9 5, 0 0 0
| | | | | sugar
| 3, 3 3 0 | 5, 2 7 0 | 9 6 6, 0 0 0 | .6 6 |
5. 0 | 1 1. 6 | | w e s t, yello w | 3, 1 8 0
| 5, 1 8 0 | 1, 1 1 1, 0 0 0 | .5 2 | 4. 3 |
1 5 . 6 | | W hit e | 3, 4 1 0 | 5, 3 1 0 |
1, 0 7 3, 0 0 0 | .6 2 | 5. 9 | 1 3. 3 | | R e d w o o d
| 4, 5 3 0 | 6, 5 6 0 | 1, 0 2 4, 0 0 0 |
| | | | Spr uce, |
| | | |
| | | E n g el m a n n | 2, 7 4 0 | 4, 5 5 0
51
| 8 6 6, 0 0 0 | .5 0 | 4. 8 | 6. 1 | |
red | 3, 4 4 0 | 5, 8 2 0 | 1, 1 4 3, 0 0 0
| .6 2 | 6. 0 | | | w hi t e
| 3, 1 6 0 | 5, 2 0 0 | 9 6 8, 0 0 0 | .5 8 |
6. 6 | | | Ta m a r a c k | 4, 2 0 0
| 7, 1 7 0 | 1, 2 3 6, 0 0 0 | .8 4 | 7. 2 |
3 0 . 0 | |---------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------|
Kin d s of L oa d s
Th e r e a r e v a rio u s w a y s in w hi c h b e a m s a r e lo a d e d ,
of w hic h t h e follo wi n g a r e t h e m o s t im p o r t a n t:
(1) U nifor m loa d o c c u r s w h e r e t h e lo a d is s p r e a d
e v e nly ov e r t h e b e a m .
(2) Co n c e n t r a t e d loa d o c c u r s w h e r e t h e lo a d
is a p pli e d a t si n gl e p oi n t o r p oi n t s.
(3) Liv e o r i m m e dia t e loa d is o n e of
m o m e n t a ry o r s h o r t d u r a tio n a t a n y o n e p oi n t, s u c h
a s o c c u r s in c r o s si n g a b ri d g e.
52
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(4) D ea d o r p e r m a n e n t loa d is o n e of
c o n s t a n t a n d in d e t e r m i n a t e d u r a tio n, a s b o o k s o n a
s h elf. In t h e c a s e of a b ri d g e t h e w ei g h t of
t h e s t r u c t u r e it s elf is t h e d e a d lo a d. All la r g e
b e a m s s u p p o r t a u nifo r m d e a d lo a d c o n si s ti n g of t h ei r
o w n w ei g h t.
Th e effe c t of d e a d lo a d o n a w o o d e n b e a m m a y b e t w o
o r m o r e ti m e s t h a t p r o d u c e d by a n i m m e di a t e lo a d of
t h e s a m e w ei g h t. Lo a d s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e el a s tic
li mit a r e u n s af e a n d will g e n e r ally r e s ul t in r u p t u r e
if c o n ti n u e d lo n g e n o u g h. A b e a m m a y b e c o n si d e r e d
s af e u n d e r p e r m a n e n t lo a d w h e n t h e d efl e c tio n s di mi ni s h
d u ri n g e q u al s u c c e s siv e p e rio d s of ti m e . A c o n ti n u al
in c r e a s e in d efl e c tio n in dic a t e s a n u n s af e lo a d w hi c h
is al m o s t c e r t ai n t o r u p t u r e t h e b e a m e v e n t u ally.
Vari a tio n s in t h e h u mi di ty of t h e s u r r o u n di n g ai r
influ e n c e t h e d efl e c tio n of d ry w o o d u n d e r d e a d lo a d,
a n d inc r e a s e d d efl e c tio n s d u ri n g d a m p w e a t h e r a r e
c u m ul a tiv e a n d n o t r e c ov e r e d by s u b s e q u e n t d ryi n g.
In t h e c a s e of lo n gl e af pi n e, d r y b e a m s m a y wi t h s af e ty
b e lo a d e d p e r m a n e n tly t o wi t hi n t h r e e-fo u r t h s of t h ei r
el a s tic li mi t a s d e t e r m i n e d fro m o r di n a r y s t a ti c t e s t s .
In c r e a s e d m oi s t u r e c o n t e n t, d u e t o g r e a t e r h u mi di ty
of t h e air, lo w e r s t h e el a s ti c li mit of w o o d s o t h a t
w h a t w a s a s af e lo a d fo r t h e d ry m a t e ri al m a y b e c o m e
u n s af e.
W h e n a d e a d lo a d n o t g r e a t e n o u g h t o r u p t u r e a b e a m
h a s b e e n r e m ov e d, t h e b e a m t e n d s g r a d u ally t o r e c ov e r
it s fo r m e r s h a p e , b u t t h e r e c ov e ry is n o t al w ay s c o m pl e t e.
If s p e ci m e n s fro m s u c h a b e a m a r e t e s t e d in t h e o r di n a ry
t e s ti n g m a c hi n e it will b e fo u n d t h a t t h e a p plic a tio n
of t h e d e a d lo a d di d n o t aff e c t t h e s tiffn e s s, ul ti m a t e
s t r e n g t h , o r el a s tic li mit of t h e m a t e ri al. I n
o t h e r w o r d s, t h e d efl e c tio n s a n d r e c ov e ri e s p r o d u c e d
by live lo a d s a r e t h e s a m e a s w o ul d h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d
h a d n o t t h e b e a m p r evio u sly b e e n s u bj e c t e d t o a d e a d
lo a d.[ 1 1]
53
[Foo t n o t e 1 1: S e e Ti e m a n n , H a r r y D.: S o m e
r e s ul t s of d e a d lo a d b e n di n g t e s t s of ti m b e r b y m e a n s
of a r e c o r di n g d efl e c t o m e t er. P r o c. Am.
S o c. fo r Tes ti n g M a t e ri als. P hil a. Vol.
IX, 1 9 0 9, p p. 5 3 4-5 4 8.]
M a xi m u m loa d is t h e g r e a t e s t lo a d a m a t e ri al
will s u p p o r t a n d is u s u ally g r e a t e r t h a n t h e lo a d
a t r u pt u r e.
S a f e loa d is t h e lo a d c o n si d e r e d s af e fo r a
m a t e ri al t o s u p p o r t in a c t u al p r a c tic e. It is
al w ay s le s s t h a n t h e lo a d a t el a s ti c li mi t a n d is
u s u ally t a k e n a s a c e r t ai n p r o p o r tio n of t h e ul ti m a t e
o r b r e a ki n g lo a d.
Th e r a tio of t h e b r e a ki n g t o t h e s af e lo a d is c all e d
t h e fa c t o r of s af e ty. (F a c t o r of s af e ty = ul ti m a t e
s t r e n g t h / s af e lo a d) In o r d e r t o m a k e d u e allo w a n c e
fo r t h e n a t u r al v a ri a tio n s a n d i m p e rf e c tio n s in w o o d
a n d in t h e a g g r e g a t e s t r u c t u r e , a s w ell a s fo r v a ri a tio n s
in t h e lo a d, t h e fa c t o r of s af e ty is u s u ally a s hi g h
a s 6 o r 1 0, e s p e ci ally if t h e s af e ty of h u m a n life
d e p e n d s u p o n t h e s t r u c t u r e . This m e a n s t h a t o nly
fro m o n e-sixt h t o o n e-t e n t h of t h e c o m p u t e d s t r e n g t h
v al u e s is c o n si d e r e d s af e t o u s e . If t h e d e p t h
of ti m b e r s e x c e e d s fo u r ti m e s t h ei r t hic k n e s s t h e r e
is a g r e a t t e n d e n cy fo r t h e m a t e ri al t o t wi s t w h e n
lo a d e d . It is t o ov e r c o m e t hi s t e n d e n cy t h a t
floo r jois t s a r e b r a c e d a t fr e q u e n t in t e rv al s.
S h o r t d e e p pi e c e s s h e a r o u t o r s plit b efo r e t h ei r
s t r e n g t h in b e n di n g c a n fully c o m e in t o pl ay.
54
Page 25
A p plica tio n of L oa d s
Th e r e a r e t h r e e[ 1 2] g e n e r al m e t h o d s in w hi c h lo a d s
m a y b e a p pli e d t o b e a m s , n a m ely:
[Foo t n o t e 1 2: A fo u r t h m i g h t b e a d d e d , n a m ely,
vi bra t or y , o r h a r m o ni c r e p e ti tio n , w hi c h
is fr e q u e n tly s e rio u s in t h e c a s e of b ri d g e s.]
(1) S t a ti c loa di n g o r t h e g r a d u al i m p o si tio n
of lo a d s o t h a t t h e m ovi n g p a r t s a c q ui r e n o a p p r e ci a bl e
m o m e n t u m . Lo a d s a r e s o a p pli e d in t h e o r di n a ry
t e s ti n g m a c hi n e.
(2) S u d d e n i m p o sitio n of loa d w i t h o u t initial v elo city.
“Th u s in t h e c a s e of pl a ci n g a lo a d o n a b e a m ,
if t h e lo a d b e b r o u g h t in t o c o n t a c t wi t h t h e b e a m ,
b u t it s w ei g h t s u s t ai n e d by ex t e r n al m e a n s , a s by
a c o r d, a n d t h e n t hi s e x t e r n al s u p p o r t b e s u d d e nl y
(in s t a n t a n e o u sly) r e m ov e d, a s by q ui c kly c u t ti n g t h e
c o r d, t h e n, al t h o u g h t h e lo a d is al r e a d y t o u c hi n g t h e
b e a m (a n d h e n c e t h e r e is n o r e al i m p a c t), ye t t h e
b e a m is a t fir s t offe ri n g n o r e si s t a n c e , a s it h a s
y e t s uffe r e d n o d efo r m a tio n. F u r t h e r m o r e , a s
t h e b e a m d efl e c t s t h e r e si s t a n c e in c r e a s e s , b u t d o e s
n o t c o m e t o b e e q u al t o t h e lo a d u n til it h a s a t t ai n e d
it s n o r m al d efl e c tio n. In t h e m e a n ti m e t h e r e
h a s b e e n a n u n b al a n c e d for c e of g r a vity a c ti n g, of
a c o n s t a n tly di mi ni s hi n g a m o u n t , e q u al a t fir s t t o
t h e e n ti r e lo a d, a t t h e n o r m al d efl e c tio n. Bu t
a t t hi s in s t a n t t h e lo a d a n d t h e b e a m a r e in m o tio n,
t h e hi t h e r t o u n b al a n c e d for c e h a vi n g p r o d u c e d a n a c c el e r a t e d
v elocity, a n d t hi s v eloci ty of t h e w ei g h t a n d b e a m
giv e s t o t h e m a n e n e r gy, o r vi s viva , w hi c h
m u s t n o w s p e n d it s elf in ov e r c o mi n g a n e x c e s s
of r e si s t a n c e ov e r a n d a b ov e t h e i m p o s e d lo a d, a n d
t h e w h ol e m a s s will n o t s t o p u n til t h e d efl e c tio n ( a s
w ell a s t h e r e si s t a n c e) h a s c o m e t o b e e q u al t o t wi c e
t h a t c o r r e s p o n di n g t o t h e s t a tic lo a d i m p o s e d .
H e n c e w e s ay t h e eff e c t of a s u d d e nly i m p o s e d lo a d
is t o p r o d u c e t wi c e t h e d efl e c tio n a n d s t r e s s of t h e
s a m e lo a d s t a tic ally a p pli e d. It m u s t b e e vi d e n t,
55
h o w ev er, t h a t t hi s c a s e h a s n o t hi n g in c o m m o n wi t h
ei t h e r t h e o r di n a r y ‘st a tic’ t e s t s of s t r u c t u r al
m a t e ri al s in t e s ti n g-m a c hi n e s , o r wit h i m p a c t t e s t s."[1 3]
[Foo t n o t e 1 3: Joh n s o n, J.B.: Th e m a t e ri al s
of c o n s t r u c tio n, p p. 8 1-8 2.]
(3) I m p a c t, s h o c k, o r blow.[1 4] T h e r e
a r e v a rio u s c o m m o n u s e s of w o o d w h e r e t h e m a t e ri al
is s u bj e c t e d t o s u d d e n s h o c k s a n d ja r s o r i m p a c t.
S u c h is t h e a c tio n o n t h e fello e s a n d s p o k e s of a
w a g o n w h e el p a s si n g ov e r a r o u g h r o a d; o n a h a m m e r
h a n dl e w h e n a blo w is s t r u c k; o n a m a ul w h e n it s t rik e s
a we dg e.
[Foo t n o t e 1 4: S e e Ti e m a n n , H a r r y D.: Th e
t h e o ry of i m p a c t a n d it s a p plic a tio n t o t e s ti n g m a t e ri al s.
Jour. F r a n kli n In s t., O c t., N ov., 1 9 0 9 , p p. 2 3 5-2 5 9 ,
3 3 6-3 6 4 .]
56
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R e sis t a n c e t o i m p a c t is r e si s t a n c e t o e n e r gy w hi c h
is m e a s u r e d by t h e p r o d u c t of t h e fo r c e in t o t h e s p a c e
t h r o u g h w hic h it m ov e s , o r by t h e p r o d u c t of o n e-h alf
t h e m ovi n g m a s s w hic h c a u s e s t h e s h o c k in t o t h e s q u a r e
of it s velo city. Th e w o r k d o n e u p o n t h e pi e c e
a t t h e in s t a n t t h e v elo city is e n ti r ely r e m ov e d fro m
t h e s t riki n g b o dy is e q u al t o t h e t o t al e n e r gy of t h a t
b o dy. It is i m p o s si bl e, h o w e v er, t o g e t all of
t h e e n e r gy of t h e s t riki n g b o dy s t o r e d in t h e s p e ci m e n,
though the greater the m ass and the shorter the space
t h r o u g h w hic h it m ov e s , or, in o t h e r w o r d s, t h e g r e a t e r
t h e p r o p o r tio n of w ei g h t a n d t h e s m all e r t h e p r o p o r tio n
of v elocity m a ki n g u p t h e e n e r g y of t h e s t riki n g b o dy,
t h e m o r e e n e r g y t h e s p e ci m e n will a b s o r b. Th e
r e s t is los t in fric tio n, vib r a tio n s, h e a t , a n d m o tio n
of t h e a nvil.
In i m p a c t t h e s t r e s s e s p r o d u c e d b e c o m e v e ry c o m pl ex
a n d diffic ul t t o m e a s u r e , e s p e ci ally if t h e v elo city
is hi g h, o r t h e m a s s of t h e b e a m it s elf is la r g e c o m p a r e d
t o t h a t of t h e w ei g h t .
Th e diffic ulti e s a t t e n di n g t h e m e a s u r e m e n t of t h e
s t r e s s e s b ey o n d t h e el a s tic li mi t a r e s o g r e a t t h a t
c o m m o nly t h e y a r e n o t r e c k o n e d . Wit hi n t h e el a s ti c
li mit t h e for m ul a e fo r c alc ul a ti n g t h e s t r e s s e s a r e
b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p tio n t h a t t h e d efl e c tio n is p r o p o r tio n al
t o t h e s t r e s s in t hi s c a s e a s in s t a ti c t e s t s .
A c o m m o n m e t h o d of m a ki n g t e s t s u p o n t h e r e si s t a n c e
of w o o d t o s h o c k is t o s u p p o r t a s m all b e a m a t t h e
e n d s a n d d r o p a h e a vy w ei g h t u p o n it in t h e m i d dl e.
(S e e Fi g. 4 0 .) Th e h ei g h t of t h e w ei g h t is inc r e a s e d
af t e r e a c h d r o p a n d r e c o r d s of t h e d efl e c tio n t a k e n
u n til failu r e. Th e t o t al w o r k d o n e u p o n t h e s p e ci m e n
is e q u al t o t h e a r e a of t h e s t r e s s-s t r ai n di a g r a m pl u s
t h e effe c t of loc al in e r ti a of t h e m ol e c ul e s a t p oi n t
of c o n t a c t.
Th e s t r e s s e s involve d in im p a c t a r e c o m plic a t e d by
t h e fa c t t h a t t h e r e a r e v a rio u s w a y s in w hi c h t h e
57
e n e r g y of t h e s t riki n g b o dy m a y b e s p e n t:
(a ) It p r o d u c e s a loc al d efo r m a tio n of b o t h
b o di e s a t t h e s u rf a c e of c o n t a c t, wi t hi n o r b e yo n d
t h e el a s tic li mit. In t e s ti n g w o o d t h e c o m p r e s sio n
of t h e s u b s t a n c e of t h e s t e el s t riki n g-w ei g h t m a y
b e n e gl e c t e d , si n c e t h e s t e el is v e ry h a r d in c o m p a ri s o n
wi t h t h e w o o d. I n a d di tio n t o t h e c o m p r e s sio n
of t h e fib r e s a t t h e s u rf a c e of c o n t a c t r e si s t a n c e
is al s o offe r e d by t h e in e r ti a of t h e p a r ti cl e s t h e r e ,
t h e c o m bi n e d effe c t of w hi c h is a s t r e s s a t t h e s u rf a c e
of c o n t a c t oft e n e n ti r ely o u t of p r o p o r tio n t o t h e
c o m p r e s sio n w hi c h w o ul d r e s ul t fro m t h e a c tio n of
a s t a ti c for c e of t h e s a m e m a g ni t u d e . It fr e q u e n tly
e x c e e d s t h e c r u s hi n g s t r e n g t h a t t h e e x t r e m e s u rf a c e
of c o n t a c t, a s in t h e c a s e of t h e s w a gi n g a c tio n of
a h a m m e r o n t h e h e a d of a n iro n s pik e, o r of a loco m o tiv e
w h e el o n t h e s t e el r ail. Thi s is al s o t h e c a s e
w h e n a b ull e t is s h o t t h r o u g h a b o a r d o r a p a n e of
gl a s s wi t h o u t b r e a ki n g it a s a w h ol e.
(b ) It m a y m ov e t h e s t r u c k b o dy a s a w h ol e
wi t h a n a c c el e r a t e d veloci ty, t h e r e si s t a n c e c o n si s ti n g
of t h e in e r ti a of t h e b o dy. This eff e c t is s e e n
w h e n a c r o q u e t b all is s t r u c k wi t h a m all e t.
58
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(c ) It m a y d efo r m a fixe d b o dy a g ai n s t it s
e x t e r n al s u p p o r t s a n d r e si s t a n c e s . In m a ki n g
i m p a c t t e s t s in t h e la b o r a t o ry t h e t e s t s p e ci m e n is
in r e ality in t h e n a t u r e of a c u s hio n b e t w e e n t w o
i m p a c ti n g b o di e s, n a m ely, t h e s t riki n g w ei g h t a n d t h e
b a s e of t h e m a c hi n e. It is i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e
m a s s of t hi s b a s e b e s uffici e n tly g r e a t t h a t it s r el a tiv e
v elocity t o t h a t of t h e c o m m o n c e n t r e of g r avi ty of
it s elf a n d t h e s t riki n g w ei g h t m a y b e di s r e g a r d e d .
(d ) It m a y d efo r m t h e s t r u c k b o dy a s a w h ol e
a g ai n s t t h e r e si s ti n g s t r e s s e s d e v elo p e d by it s o w n
in e r ti a, a s , fo r e x a m pl e, w h e n a b a s e b all b a t is b r o k e n
by s t riki n g t h e b all.
|------------------------------------------------------
-|
| TABLE X |
|-------------------------------------------------------|
| RE S ULTS O F IMPACT BE N DI N G TE ST S O N S MALL CLEAR BEAM S |
| O F 3 4 WOOD S I N GRE E N CO N DITIO N |
| (Fo r e s t S e rvic e Cir. 2 1 3) |
|-------------------------------------------------------|
| | Fi b r e | | Work in |
| CO M M O N NA M E | s t r e s s a t | M o d ul u s of | b e n di n g |
| O F S P E CI E S | el a s tic | el a s ti city | t o |
| | li mit | | el a s ti c |
| | | | li mit |
|-------------------+ - ----------+ - -----------+ - ---------|
| | | | In.-lb s. |
| | Lb s. p e r | Lb s. p e r | p e r c u. |
| | s q. in. | s q. in. | in c h |
| | | | |
| H ardwoods | | | |
| | | | |
| As h, bl a c k | 7, 8 4 0 | 9 5 5, 0 0 0 | 3. 6 9 |
| w hi t e | 1 1, 7 1 0 | 1, 5 6 4, 0 0 0 | 4. 9 3 |
| Basswood | 5, 4 8 0 | 9 1 7, 0 0 0 | 1. 8 4 |
| Beech | 1 1, 7 6 0 | 1, 5 0 1, 0 0 0 | 5. 1 0 |
| Bir c h, yello w | 1 1, 0 8 0 | 1, 8 1 2, 0 0 0 | 3. 7 9 |
| El m, r o c k | 1 2, 0 9 0 | 1, 3 6 7, 0 0 0 | 6. 5 2 |
59
| slip p e ry | 1 1, 7 0 0 | 1, 5 6 9, 0 0 0 | 4. 8 6 |
| w hi t e | 9, 9 1 0 | 1, 1 3 8, 0 0 0 | 4. 8 2 |
| H ackb er ry | 1 0, 4 2 0 | 1, 3 9 8, 0 0 0 | 4. 4 8 |
| Loc u s t, h o n ey | 1 3, 4 6 0 | 2, 1 1 4, 0 0 0 | 4. 7 6 |
| M a pl e, r e d | 1 1 , 6 7 0 | 1, 4 1 1, 0 0 0 | 5. 4 5 |
| sugar | 1 1, 6 8 0 | 1, 6 8 0, 0 0 0 | 4. 5 5 |
| O a k, p o s t | 1 1 , 2 6 0 | 1, 5 9 6, 0 0 0 | 4. 4 1 |
| red | 1 0, 5 8 0 | 1, 5 0 6, 0 0 0 | 4. 1 6 |
| s w a m p w hi t e | 1 3 , 2 8 0 | 2, 0 4 8, 0 0 0 | 4. 7 9 |
| w hi t e | 9, 8 6 0 | 1, 4 1 4, 0 0 0 | 3. 8 4 |
| y ello w | 1 0, 8 4 0 | 1, 4 7 9, 0 0 0 | 4. 4 4 |
| Osage orange | 1 5, 5 2 0 | 1, 4 9 8, 0 0 0 | 8. 9 2 |
| Sy c a m o r e | 8, 1 8 0 | 1, 1 6 5, 0 0 0 | 3. 2 2 |
| Tu p elo | 7, 6 5 0 | 1, 3 1 0, 0 0 0 | 2. 4 9 |
| | | | |
| Co nif e r s | | | |
60
Page 28
| | | | |
| Ar bo rvit a e | 5, 2 9 0 | 7 7 8 , 0 0 0 | 2. 0 4 |
| Cy p r e s s , b al d | 8, 2 9 0 | 1, 4 3 1, 0 0 0 | 2. 7 1 |
| Fir, al pi n e | 5, 2 8 0 | 9 8 0, 0 0 0 | 1. 5 9 |
| Do u gl a s | 8, 8 7 0 | 1, 5 7 9, 0 0 0 | 2. 7 9 |
| w hi t e | 7, 2 3 0 | 1, 3 2 6, 0 0 0 | 2. 2 1 |
| H e m lo c k | 6, 3 3 0 | 1, 0 2 5, 0 0 0 | 2. 1 9 |
| Pi n e, lod g e p ol e | 6, 8 7 0 | 1, 1 4 2, 0 0 0 | 2. 3 1 |
| lo n gl e af | 9, 6 8 0 | 1, 7 3 9, 0 0 0 | 3. 0 2 |
| red | 7, 4 8 0 | 1, 4 3 8, 0 0 0 | 2. 1 8 |
| sugar | 6, 7 4 0 | 1, 0 8 3, 0 0 0 | 2. 3 4 |
| w e s t e r n yello w | 7, 0 7 0 | 1, 1 1 5, 0 0 0 | 2. 5 1 |
| w hi t e | 6, 4 9 0 | 1, 1 5 6, 0 0 0 | 2. 0 6 |
| S p r u c e , E n g el m a n n | 6, 3 0 0 | 1, 0 7 6, 0 0 0 | 2. 0 9 |
| Ta m a r a c k | 7, 7 5 0 | 1, 2 6 3, 0 0 0 | 2. 6 7 |
|-------------------------------------------------------|
re >
I m p a c t t e s ti n g is diffic ult t o c o n d u c t s a ti sf a c t o rily
a n d t h e d a t a o b t ai n e d a r e of c hi ef v al u e in a r el a tiv e
s e n s e, t h a t is, fo r c o m p a ri n g t h e s h o c k-r e si s ti n g
a bility of w o o d s of w hic h lik e s p e ci m e n s h a v e b e e n
s u bj e c t e d t o e x a c tly id e n tic al t r e a t m e n t . Yet
t hi s t e s t is o n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a d e o n w o o d,
a s it b ri n g s o u t p r o p e r ti e s n o t e vi d e n t fro m o t h e r
t e s t s. D ef e c t s a n d b ri t tl e n e s s a r e r e v e al e d b y
i m p a c t b e t t e r t h a n by a n y o t h e r ki n d of t e s t.
In c o m m o n p r a c ti c e n e a rly all ex t e r n al s t r e s s e s a r e
of t h e n a t u r e of i m p a c t. In fa c t, n o t w o m ovi n g
b o di e s c a n c o m e t o g e t h e r wi t h o u t i m p a c t s t r e s s.
I m p a c t is t h e r efo r e t h e c o m m o n e s t fo r m of a p pli e d
s t r e s s , al t h o u g h t h e m o s t diffic ult t o m e a s u r e .
Failur e s in Ti m b e r B e a m s
If a b e a m is lo a d e d t o o h e a vily it will b r e a k o r fail
in s o m e c h a r a c t e ri s tic m a n n er. Th e s e fail u r e s
m a y b e cl a s sifie d a c c o r di n g t o t h e w a y in w hi c h t h e y
d ev elo p, a s t e n sio n, c o m p r e s sio n, a n d h o rizo n t al s h e a r ;
a n d a c c o r di n g t o t h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e b r o k e n s u rf a c e,
a s b r a s h , a n d fib r o u s . A n u m b e r of fo r m s m a y
d ev elo p if t h e b e a m is c o m pl e t ely r u p t u r e d.
61
Si n c e t h e t e n sil e s t r e n g t h of w o o d is o n t h e a v e r a g e
a b o u t t h r e e ti m e s a s g r e a t a s t h e c o m p r e s siv e s t r e n g t h ,
a b e a m s h o ul d, t h e r efo r e, b e e x p e c t e d t o fail by t h e
fo r m a tio n in t h e fir s t pl a c e of a fold o n t h e c o m p r e s sio n
si d e d u e t o t h e c r u s hi n g a c tio n, follow e d by fail u r e
o n t h e t e n sio n si d e. This is u s u ally t h e c a s e
in g r e e n o r m oi s t w o o d. I n d r y m a t e ri al t h e fir s t
visi bl e fail u r e is n o t infr e q u e n tly o n t h e lo w e r o r
t e n sio n si d e, a n d v a rio u s a t t e m p t s h a v e b e e n m a d e
t o e x pl ai n w h y s u c h is t h e c a s e.[ 1 5]
[Foo t n o t e 1 5: S e e P r o c. In t. Ass n.
fo r Tes ti n g M a t e ri als, 1 9 1 2, XXIII_{ 2 } , p p. 1 2-1 3 .]
62
Page 29
Wit hi n t h e el a s tic li mi t t h e elo n g a tio n s a n d s h o r t e ni n g s
a r e e q u al, a n d t h e n e u t r al pl a n e lie s in t h e m i d dl e
of t h e b e a m . (S e e TRAN SVER S E OR BE N DI NG STR E N GT H:
BEAMS, a b ov e.) L a t e r t h e t o p lay e r of fib r e s o n t h e
u p p e r o r c o m p r e s sio n si d e fail, a n d o n t h e lo a d in c r e a si n g,
t h e n e x t lay e r of fib r e s fail, a n d s o o n, e v e n t h o u g h
t hi s failu r e m a y n o t b e visibl e. As a r e s ul t t h e
s h o r t e ni n g s o n t h e u p p e r si d e of t h e b e a m b e c o m e c o n si d e r a bly
g r e a t e r t h a n t h e el o n g a tio n s o n t h e low e r si d e.
Th e n e u t r al pl a n e m u s t b e p r e s u m e d t o si n k g r a d u ally
t o w a r d t h e t e n sio n si d e, a n d w h e n t h e s t r e s s e s o n
t h e o u t e r fib r e s a t t h e b o t t o m h a v e b e c o m e s uffici e n tly
g r e a t, t h e fib r e s a r e p ull e d in t w o, t h e t e n sio n a r e a
b ei n g m u c h s m all e r t h a n t h e c o m p r e s sio n a r e a .
Th e r u p t u r e is oft e n ir r e g ul ar, a s in di r e c t t e n sio n
t e s t s. F ail u r e m a y o c c u r p a r ti ally in si n gl e
b u n dl e s of fib r e s s o m e ti m e b efo r e t h e fin al failu r e
t a k e s pl a c e. O n e r e a s o n w hy t h e fail u r e of a
d ry b e a m is diffe r e n t fro m o n e t h a t is m ois t, is t h a t
d ryi n g in c r e a s e s t h e s tiffn e s s of t h e fib r e s s o t h a t
t h e y offe r m o r e r e si s t a n c e t o c r u s hi n g, w hil e it h a s
m u c h le s s eff e c t u p o n t h e t e n sil e s t r e n g t h .
Th e r e is c o n si d e r a bl e v a ri a tio n in t e n sio n failu r e s
d e p e n di n g u p o n t h e t o u g h n e s s o r t h e b ri t tl e n e s s of
t h e w o o d, t h e a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e g r ai n, d ef e c t s, e t c .,
m a ki n g fu r t h e r cl a s sific a tio n d e si r a bl e. Th e
fo u r m o s t c o m m o n fo r m s a r e:
(1) ~ S i m pl e t e n sio n, ~ in w hic h t h e r e is a di r e c t p ulli n g
in t w o of t h e w o o d o n t h e u n d e r si d e of t h e b e a m d u e
t o a t e n sil e s t r e s s p a r all el t o t h e g r ai n, (S e e Fi g.
1 7 , N o. 1.) This is c o m m o n in s t r ai g h t-g r ai n e d b e a m s ,
p a r tic ul a rly w h e n t h e w o o d is s e a s o n e d .
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 1 7.—C h a r a c t e ri s tic
failu r e s of si m pl e b e a m s .]
(2) ~ C r o s s-g r ai n e d t e n sio n, ~ in w hi c h t h e fr a c t u r e
is c a u s e d by a t e n sile fo r c e a c ti n g o bliq u e t o t h e
g r ai n. (S e e Fi g. 1 7, N o. 2.) This is a c o m m o n fo r m
63
of failu r e w h e r e t h e b e a m h a s di a g o n al, s pi r al o r
o t h e r fo r m of c r o s s g r ai n o n it s low e r si d e. Si n c e
t h e t e n sil e s t r e n g t h of w o o d a c r o s s t h e g r ai n is o nly
a s m all fr a c tio n of t h a t wit h t h e g r ai n it is e a s y
t o s e e w hy a c r o s s-g r ai n e d ti m b e r w o ul d fail in t hi s
m a n n er.
(3) ~ S pli n t e ri n g t e n sio n, ~ in w hi c h t h e fail u r e c o n si s t s
of a c o n si d e r a bl e n u m b e r of slig h t t e n sio n failu r e s,
p r o d u ci n g a r a g g e d o r s pli n t e ry b r e a k o n t h e u n d e r
s u rf a c e of t h e b e a m . (S e e Fi g. 1 7, N o. 3.) Thi s is
c o m m o n in t o u g h w o o d s . In t hi s c a s e t h e s u rf a c e
of fr a c t u r e is fib r o u s.
(4) ~ B ri t tl e t e n sio n, ~ in w hi c h t h e b e a m fails by a
cl e a n b r e a k e x t e n di n g e n ti r ely t h r o u g h it. (S e e Fi g.
1 7 , N o. 4.) It is c h a r a c t e ri s tic of a b ri t tl e w o o d
w hi c h giv e s w a y s u d d e nly wi t h o u t w a r ni n g, lik e a pi e c e
of c h alk. In t hi s c a s e t h e s u rf a c e of fr a c t u r e
is d e s c ri b e d a s b r a s h.
Co m p r e s sio n failur e (s e e Fi g. 1 7, N o. 5) h a s
fe w v a ri a tio n s e x c e p t t h a t it a p p e a r s a t v a rio u s di s t a n c e s
fro m t h e n e u t r al pl a n e of t h e b e a m . It is ve ry
c o m m o n in g r e e n ti m b e r s. Th e c o m p r e s siv e s t r e s s
p a r all el t o t h e fib r e s c a u s e s t h e m t o b u c kl e o r b e n d
a s in a n e n d wis e c o m p r e s siv e t e s t. This a c tio n
u s u ally b e gi n s o n t h e t o p si d e s h o r tly af t e r t h e el a s tic
li mit is r e a c h e d a n d e x t e n d s d o w n w a r d , s o m e ti m e s al m o s t
r e a c hi n g t h e n e u t r al pl a n e b efo r e c o m pl e t e failu r e
o c c u r s. F r e q u e n tly t w o o r m o r e fail u r e s d e v elo p
a t a b o u t t h e s a m e ti m e.
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Page 30
H o ri z o n t al s h e a r fail ur e, in w hic h t h e u p p e r
a n d lo w e r p o r tio n s of t h e b e a m slid e al o n g e a c h o t h e r
fo r a p o r tio n of t h ei r le n g t h ei t h e r a t o n e o r a t
b o t h e n d s (s e e Fi g. 1 7 , N o. 6), is fai rly c o m m o n in
ai r-d r y m a t e ri al a n d in g r e e n m a t e ri al w h e n t h e r a tio
of t h e h ei g h t of t h e b e a m t o t h e s p a n is r el a tiv ely
la r g e . It is n o t c o m m o n in s m all cl e a r s p e ci m e n s .
It is oft e n d u e t o s h a k e o r s e a s o n c h e c k s, c o m m o n
in la r g e ti m b e r s, w hi c h r e d u c e t h e a c t u al a r e a r e si s ti n g
t h e s h e a ri n g a c tio n c o n si d e r a bly b el o w t h e c al c ul a t e d
a r e a u s e d in t h e fo r m ul a e for h o rizo n t al s h e ar. (S e e
p a g e 9 8 fo r t hi s for m ul a e .) Fo r t his r e a s o n it is
u n s af e, in d e si g ni n g la r g e ti m b e r b e a m s , t o u s e s h e a ri n g
s t r e s s e s hi g h e r t h a n t h o s e c alc ul a t e d for b e a m s t h a t
faile d in h o rizo n t al s h e ar. T h e eff e c t of a fail u r e
in h o rizo n t al s h e a r is t o divid e t h e b e a m in t o t w o
o r m o r e b e a m s t h e c o m bi n e d s t r e n g t h of w hi c h is m u c h
le s s t h a n t h a t of t h e o ri gi n al b e a m . Fi g. 1 8
s h o w s a la r g e b e a m in w hic h t w o fail u r e s in h o rizo n t al
s h e a r o c c u r r e d a t t h e s a m e e n d . Th a t t h e p a r t s
b e h a v e in d e p e n d e n tly is s h o w n by t h e c o m p r e s sio n fail u r e
b elo w t h e o ri gi n al loc a tio n of t h e n e u t r al pl a n e .
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 1 8.—F ail u r e of
a la r g e b e a m by h o rizo n t al s h e ar. Ph o t o b y U. S ,
For e s t S e r vic e. ]
Ta bl e XI giv e s a n a n aly sis of t h e c a u s e s of fir s t
failu r e in 8 4 0 la r g e ti m b e r b e a m s of ni n e diffe r e n t
s p e ci e s of c o nife r s . Of t h e t o t al n u m b e r t e s t e d
1 6 5 w e r e ai r-s e a s o n e d, t h e r e m ai n d e r g r e e n . Th e
failu r e o c c u r ri n g fir s t si g nifie s t h e p oi n t of g r e a t e s t
w e a k n e s s in t h e s p e ci m e n u n d e r t h e p a r tic ul a r c o n di tio n s
of lo a di n g e m ploy e d (in t hi s c a s e, t hi r d-p oi n t s t a tic
lo a di n g).
|------------------------------------------------------
-----|
| TABLE XI |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
|
65
| MA N N E R O F FIR ST FAILURE O F LARGE BEAM S |
| (Fo r e s t S e r vic e B ul. 1 0 8, p. 5 6) |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
|
| | Tot al | P e r c e n t of t o t al failin g by |
| CO M M O N NA M E | n u m b e r |---------+ - ------------+ - ------|
| O F S P E CI E S | of | Ten sio n | Co m p r e s sio n | S h e a r |
| | tests | | | |
|------------------+ - -------+ - --------+ - ------------+ - ------
|
| Lo n gl e af pi n e: | | | | |
| green | 17 | 18 | 24 | 58 |
| d ry | 9 | 22 | 22 | 56 |
| Do u gl a s fir: | | | | |
| green | 191 | 27 | 72 | 1 |
| d ry | 91 | 19 | 76 | 5 |
| S h o r tl e af pi n e: | | | | |
| green | 48 | 27 | 56 | 17 |
| d ry | 13 | 54 | | 46 |
| Wes t e r n la r c h: | | | | |
| green | 62 | 23 | 71 | 6 |
TOUGHNESS: TORSION
Tou g h n e s s is a t e r m a p pli e d t o m o r e t h a n o n e p r o p e r ty
of w o o d. Th u s w o o d t h a t is diffic ul t t o s plit
is s ai d t o b e t o u g h. Ag ai n, a t o u g h w o o d is o n e
t h a t will n o t r u p t u r e u n til it h a s d efo r m e d c o n si d e r a bly
u n d e r lo a d s a t o r n e a r its m a xi m u m s t r e n g t h, o r o n e
w hi c h s till h a n g s t o g e t h e r af t e r it h a s b e e n r u p t u r e d
a n d m a y b e b e n t b a c k a n d fo r t h wi t h o u t b r e a ki n g a p a r t.
Tou g h n e s s incl u d e s flexibility a n d is t h e r e v e r s e
of b ri t tl e n e s s, in t h a t t o u g h w o o d s b r e a k g r a d u ally
a n d giv e w a r ni n g of fail u r e. Tou g h w o o d s offe r
g r e a t r e si s t a n c e t o i m p a c t a n d will p e r mi t r o u g h e r
t r e a t m e n t in m a ni p ul a tio n s a t t e n di n g m a n uf a c t u r e a n d
u s e. Tou g h n e s s is d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e s t r e n g t h ,
c o h e sio n, q u ali ty, le n g t h, a n d a r r a n g e m e n t of fib r e,
a n d t h e pli a bility of t h e w o o d. Co nife r o u s w o o d s
a s a r ul e a r e n o t a s t o u g h a s h a r d w o o d s, of w hi c h
hi c ko ry a n d el m a r e t h e b e s t e x a m pl e s .
Th e t o r sio n o r t wi s ti n g t e s t is u s ef ul in d e t e r mi ni n g
66
t h e t o u g h n e s s of w o o d. If t h e e n d s of a s h aft
a r e t u r n e d in o p p o si t e di r e c tio n s, o r o n e e n d is t u r n e d
a n d t h e o t h e r is fixe d, all of t h e fib r e s ex c e p t t h o s e
a t t h e a xis t e n d t o a s s u m e t h e fo r m of h elic e s. (S e e
Fi g. 1 9.) Th e s t r ai n p r o d u c e d by t o r sio n o r t wis ti n g
is e s s e n ti ally s h e a r t r a n s v e r s e a n d p a r all el t o t h e
fib r e s, c o m bi n e d wi t h lo n gi t u di n al t e n sio n a n d t r a n s v e r s e
c o m p r e s sio n. Wit hi n t h e el a s tic li mit t h e s t r ai n s
in c r e a s e di r e c tly a s t h e di s t a n c e fro m t h e a xi s of
t h e s p e ci m e n. T h e o u t e r el e m e n t s a r e s u bj e c t e d
t o t e n sile s t r e s s e s , a n d a s t h e y b e c o m e t wi s t e d t e n d
t o c o m p r e s s t h o s e n e a r t h e a xi s. Th e elo n g a t e d
el e m e n t s al s o c o n t r a c t la t e r ally. C r o s s s e c tio n s
w hi c h w e r e o ri gi n ally pl a n e b e c o m e w a r p e d. Wit h
67
Page 32
in c r e a si n g s t r ai n t h e la t e r al a d h e sio n of t h e o u t e r
fib r e s is d e s t r oy e d, allo wi n g t h e m t o sli d e p a s t e a c h
o t h er, a n d r e d u ci n g g r e a tly t h ei r p o w e r of r e si s t a n c e.
In t hi s w ay t h e s t r ai n s o n t h e fib r e s n e a r e r t h e a xi s
a r e p r o g r e s siv ely inc r e a s e d u n til fin ally all of t h e
el e m e n t s a r e s h e a r e d a p a r t. It is o nly in t h e
t o u g h e s t m a t e ri al s t h a t t h e full eff e c t of t hi s a c tio n
c a n b e o b s e r v e d. (S e e Fi g. 2 0.) B rit tl e w o o d s s n a p
off s u d d e nly wi t h o nly a s m all a m o u n t of t o r sio n,
a n d t h ei r fr a c t u r e is ir r e g ul a r a n d o bliq u e t o t h e
a xi s of t h e pi e c e in s t e a d of fr ay e d o u t a n d m o r e n e a rly
p e r p e n di c ul a r t o t h e a xis a s is t h e c a s e wi t h t o u g h
w o o d s.
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 1 9.—Tor sio n of
a s h af t.]
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 2 0.—Effe c t of
t o r sio n o n diffe r e n t g r a d e s of hi ck o ry. P ho t o b y
U. S . For e s t S e r vic e. ]
HARDNESS
Th e t e r m h ar d n e s s is u s e d in t w o s e n s e s, n a m ely:
(1) r e si s t a n c e t o in d e n t a tio n, a n d (2) r e sis t a n c e
t o a b r a sio n o r s c r a t c hi n g. In t h e la t t e r s e n s e
h a r d n e s s c o m bi n e d wi t h t o u g h n e s s is a m e a s u r e of t h e
w e a ri n g a bility of w o o d a n d is a n i m p o r t a n t c o n si d e r a tio n
in t h e u s e of w o o d fo r floo r s, p a vi n g blo c k s, b e a ri n g s,
a n d r olle r s. W hile r e sis t a n c e t o in d e n t a tio n is
d e p e n d e n t m o s tly u p o n t h e d e n si ty of t h e w o o d, t h e
w e a ri n g q u aliti e s m a y b e g ov e r n e d b y o t h e r fac t o r s
s u c h a s t o u g h n e s s, a n d t h e siz e, c o h e sio n, a n d a r r a n g e m e n t
of t h e fib r e s . In u s e fo r floo r s, s o m e w o o d s
t e n d t o c o m p a c t a n d w e a r s m o o t h, w hil e o t h e r s b e c o m e
s plin t e ry a n d r o u g h . This fe a t u r e is affe c t e d
t o s o m e ex t e n t by t h e m a n n e r in w hi c h t h e w o o d is
68
s a w e d; t h u s e d g e-g r ai n pi n e floo ri n g is m u c h b e t t e r
t h a n fla t-s a w n for u nifo r mi ty of w e ar.
|------------------------------------------------------
-------------|
| TABLE XII |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
--------|
| HARD N E S S O F 3 2 WOOD S I N GRE E N CO N DITION, |
| AS I NDICATED BY T H E LOAD REQ UIRED TO IMBED |
| A 0. 4 4 4-I N C H ST E EL BALL TO O N E-HALF ITS DIAM ET ER |
| (Fo r e s t S e rvic e Cir. 2 1 3) |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
--------|
| CO M M O N NA M E O F S P E CIE S | Ave r a g e | E n d | R a di al | Ta n g e n ti al |
| | | s u rf a c e | s u rf a c e | s u rf a c e |
|------------------------+ - --------+ - --------+ - --------+ - ---
--------|
| | Po u n d s | Po u n d s | Po u n d s | Po u n d s |
| | | | | |
| H ardwoods | | | | |
| | | | | |
| 1 Osage ora ng e | 1, 9 7 1 | 1, 8 3 8 | 2, 3 1 2 | 1, 7 6 2 |
| 2 H o n e y loc u s t | 1, 8 5 1 | 1, 8 6 2 | 1, 8 6 0 | 1, 8 3 2 |
| 3 S w a m p w hi t e o a k | 1, 1 7 4 | 1, 2 0 5 | 1, 2 1 7 | 1, 0 9 9 |
| 4 W hit e o a k | 1, 1 6 4 | 1, 1 8 3 | 1, 1 6 3 | 1, 1 4 7 |
Tes t s fo r ei t h e r fo r m of h a r d n e s s a r e of c o m p a r a tiv e
v al u e o nly. Tes t s fo r in d e n t a tio n a r e c o m m o nly
m a d e by p e n e t r a tio n s of t h e m a t e ri al wi t h a s t e el
p u n c h o r b all.[1 6] Tes t s fo r a b r a sio n a r e m a d e by
w e a ri n g d o w n w o o d wi t h s a n d p a p e r o r by m e a n s of a s a n d
bl a s t.
[Foo t n o t e 1 6: S e e a r ti cl e s by G a b ri el Ja n k a lis t e d
in bi blio g r a p hy, p a g e s 1 5 1-1 5 2 .]
CLEAVABILITY
Cl e a v a bility is t h e t e r m u s e d t o d e n o t e t h e
fa cility wi t h w hic h w o o d is s plit. A s plit ti n g
s t r e s s is o n e in w hi c h t h e fo r c e s a c t n o r m ally lik e
a w e d g e . (S e e Fi g. 2 1.) Th e pl a n e of cl e av a g e is p a r all el
t o t h e g r ai n, ei t h e r r a di ally o r t a n g e n ti ally.
69
Page 34
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 2 1.—Cl e av a g e of
hi g hly el a s ti c w o o d. Th e cl eft r u n s fa r a h e a d
of t h e w e d g e.]
This p r o p e r ty of w o o d is v e ry i m p o r t a n t in c e r t ai n
u s e s s u c h a s fir e w o o d, fe n c e r ails, bille t s, a n d s q u a r e s .
R e sis t a n c e t o s plit ti n g o r low cl e av a bility is d e si r a bl e
w h e r e w o o d m u s t h ol d n ails o r s c r e w s , a s in b ox-m a ki n g.
Woo d u s u ally s plit s m o r e r e a dily alo n g t h e r a di u s
t h a n p a r all el t o t h e g r o w t h ri n g s t h o u g h e x c e p tio n s
o c c ur, a s in t h e c a s e of c r o s s g r ai n.
S plit ti n g involv e s t r a n s v e r s e t e n sio n, b u t o nly a
p o r tio n of t h e fib r e s a r e u n d e r s t r e s s a t a ti m e .
A w o o d of lit tl e s tiffn e s s a n d s t r o n g c o h e sio n a c r o s s
t h e g r ai n is diffic ul t t o s plit, w hil e o n e wi t h g r e a t
s tiffn e s s, s u c h a s lo n gl e af pi n e , is e a sily s plit.
Th e fo r m of t h e g r ai n a n d t h e p r e s e n c e of k n o t s g r e a tly
aff e c t t hi s q u ality.
|---------------------------------------------|
| TABLE XIII |
|---------------------------------------------|
| CLEAVAGE STRE N GT H O F S MALL CLEAR PIE C E S O F |
| 3 2 WOOD S IN GRE E N CO N DITIO N |
| (Fo r e s t S e rvic e Cir. 2 1 3) |
|---------------------------------------------|
| | Whe n | Whe n |
| CO M M O N NA M E | s u rf a c e of | s u rf a c e of |
| O F S P E CI E S | failu r e is | failu r e is |
| | r a di al | t a n g e n ti al |
|-------------------+ - -----------+ - -----------|
| | Lb s. p e r | Lb s. p e r |
| | s q. inc h | s q. in c h |
| | | |
| H ardwoods | | |
| | | |
| As h, bl a c k | 275 | 260 |
| w hi t e | 333 | 346 |
| Bashwood | 130 | 168 |
| Beech | 339 | 527 |
70
| Bir c h, yello w | 294 | 287 |
| El m, sli p p e r y | 401 | 424 |
| w hi t e | 210 | 270 |
| H ackb er ry | 422 | 436 |
| Loc u s t, h o n ey | 552 | 610 |
| M a pl e, r e d | 297 | 330 |
| sugar | 376 | 513 |
| O a k, p o s t | 354 | 487 |
| red | 380 | 470 |
| s w a m p w hi t e | 428 | 536 |
| w hi t e | 382 | 457 |
| y ello w | 379 | 470 |
| Sy c a m o r e | 265 | 425 |
| Tu p elo | 277 | 380 |
| | | |
| Co nif e r s | | |
| | | |
| Ar bo rvit a e | 148 | 139 |
| Cy p r e s s , b al d | 167 | 154 |
| Fir, al pi n e | 130 | 133 |
| Do u gl a s | 139 | 127 |
| w hi t e | 145 | 187 |
| H e m lo c k | 168 | 151 |
| Pi n e, lod g e p ol e | 142 | 140 |
PART II FACTORS AFFECTING THE MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF WOOD
INTRODUCTION
Woo d is a n o r g a ni c p r o d u c t—a s t r u c t u r e
of infini t e v a ri a tio n of d e t ail a n d d e si g n.[1 7] It
is o n t hi s a c c o u n t t h a t n o t w o w o o d s a r e alik e— in
r e ality n o t w o s p e ci m e n s fro m t h e s a m e lo g a r e id e n tic al.
Th e r e a r e c e r t ai n p r o p e r ti e s t h a t c h a r a c t e riz e e a c h
s p e ci e s , b u t t h e y a r e s u bj e c t t o c o n si d e r a bl e v a ri a tio n.
O a k, for e x a m pl e, is c o n si d e r e d h a r d, h e a vy, a n d s t r o n g,
b u t s o m e pi e c e s , e v e n of t h e s a m e s p e ci e s of o a k,
a r e m u c h h a r d er, h e a vi er, a n d s t r o n g e r t h a n o t h e r s .
Wit h hic k o ry a r e a s s o ci a t e d t h e p r o p e r ti e s of g r e a t
s t r e n g t h , t o u g h n e s s , a n d r e silie n c e, b u t s o m e pi e c e s
a r e c o m p a r a tiv ely w e a k a n d b r a s h a n d ill-s ui t e d fo r
71
t h e e x a c ti n g d e m a n d s fo r w hi c h g o o d hic k o ry is p e c uli a rly
a d a pted.
[Foo t n o t e 1 7: Fo r d e t ails r e g a r di n g t h e s t r u c t u r e
of w o o d s e e R e c o r d, S a m u el J.: Id e n tific a tio n
of t h e e c o n o mi c w o o d s of t h e U ni t e d S t a t e s. N e w
York, Joh n Wiley & S o n s, 1 9 1 2.]
It follow s t h a t n o d efini t e v al u e c a n b e a s si g n e d
t o t h e p r o p e r ti e s of a n y w o o d a n d t h a t t a bl e s givi n g
a v e r a g e r e s ul t s of t e s t s m a y n o t b e di r e c tly a p plic a bl e
t o a n y in divi d u al s tic k. Wit h s uffici e n t k n o wl e d g e
of t h e in t ri n si c fa c t o r s aff e c ti n g t h e r e s ul t s it
b e c o m e s p o s si bl e t o infe r fro m t h e a p p e a r a n c e of m a t e ri al
it s p r o b a bl e v a ri a tio n fro m t h e a v e r a g e . As y e t
t o o lit tl e is k n o w n of t h e r el a tio n of s t r u c t u r e a n d
c h e mi c al c o m p o si tio n t o t h e m e c h a ni c al a n d p hy sic al
p r o p e r ti e s t o p e r m i t m o r e t h a n g e n e r al c o n cl u sio n s .
RATE OF GROWTH
To u n d e r s t a n d t h e eff e c t of v a ri a tio n s in t h e r a t e
of g r o w t h it is fir s t n e c e s s a r y t o k n o w h o w w o o d is
fo r m e d. A t r e e in c r e a s e s in di a m e t e r by t h e fo r m a tio n,
b e t w e e n t h e ol d w o o d a n d t h e in n e r b a r k, of n e w w o o dy
lay e r s w hi c h e nv elo p t h e e n ti r e s t e m , livin g b r a n c h e s ,
a n d r o o t s. U n d e r o r di n a ry c o n di tio n s o n e lay e r
is fo r m e d e a c h y e a r a n d in c r o s s s e c tio n a s o n t h e
e n d of a lo g t h e y a p p e a r a s ri n g s—oft e n
s p o k e n of a s a n n u al rin g s . Th e s e g r o w t h
lay e r s a r e m a d e u p of w o o d c ells of v a rio u s ki n d s,
b u t fo r t h e m o s t p a r t fib r o u s. I n ti m b e r s lik e
pi n e , s p r u c e , h e ml o c k, a n d o t h e r c o nife r o u s o r s oft w oo d
s p e ci e s t h e w o o d c ells a r e m o s tly of o n e ki n d, a n d
a s a r e s ul t t h e m a t e ri al is m u c h m o r e u nifo r m in s t r u c t u r e
t h a n t h a t of m o s t h a r d w o o d s. (S e e F r o n ti s pi e c e.) Th e r e
a r e n o v e s s el s o r p o r e s in c o nife r o u s w o o d s u c h a s
o n e s e e s s o p r o mi n e n tly in o a k a n d a s h, fo r e x a m pl e.
(S e e Fi g. 2 2 .)
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 2 2.—C r o s s s e c tio n s
of a ri n g-p o r o u s h a r d w o o d (w hi t e a s h), a diffu s e-p o r o u s
h a r d w o o d (r e d g u m), a n d a n o n-p o r o u s o r c o nif e r o u s
72
w o o d (e a s t e r n h e m lo c k). X 3 0. P ho t o m i cr o g ra p h s
b y t h e a u t h or.]
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Th e s t r u c t u r e of t h e h a r d w o o d s is m o r e c o m pl ex.
Th ey a r e m o r e o r le s s fille d wi t h v e s s el s, in s o m e
c a s e s (o a k, c h e s t n u t, a s h) q ui t e la r g e a n d di s ti n c t,
in o t h e r s (b u c k ey e, p o pl ar, g u m ) t o o s m all t o b e s e e n
pl ai nly wit h o u t a s m all h a n d le n s. In di s c u s si n g
s u c h w o o d s it is c u s t o m a r y t o divid e t h e m in t o t w o
la r g e cl a s s e s—ri n g-p or o u s a n d diff u s e-p or o u s .
(S e e Fi g. 2 2 .) In ri n g-p o r o u s s p e ci e s, s u c h a s o a k,
c h e s t n u t, a s h , bl a c k loc u s t, c a t al p a , m ul b e r ry, hi c k o ry,
a n d el m, t h e la r g e r ve s s el s o r p o r e s ( a s c r o s s s e c tio n s
of v e s s el s a r e c all e d) b e c o m e loc aliz e d in o n e p a r t
of t h e g r o w t h ri n g, t h u s fo r mi n g a r e gio n of m o r e
o r le s s o p e n a n d p o r o u s ti s s u e . Th e r e s t of t h e
ri n g is m a d e u p of s m all e r v e s s el s a n d a m u c h g r e a t e r
p r o p o r tio n of w o o d fib r e s. Th e s e fib r e s a r e t h e
el e m e n t s w hi c h giv e s t r e n g t h a n d t o u g h n e s s t o w o o d,
w hil e t h e ve s s el s a r e a s o u r c e of w e a k n e s s.
In diffu s e-p o r o u s w o o d s t h e p o r e s a r e s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t
t h e g r o w t h ri n g in s t e a d of b ei n g c olle c t e d in a b a n d
o r r ow. Ex a m pl e s of t hi s ki n d of w o o d a r e g u m ,
y ello w p o pl ar, bi r c h, m a pl e, c o t t o n w o o d, b a s s w o o d,
b u c k ey e, a n d willow. S o m e s p e ci e s, s u c h a s w al n u t
a n d c h e r ry, a r e o n t h e b o r d e r b e t w e e n t h e t w o cl a s s e s ,
fo r mi n g a s o r t of in t e r m e di a t e g r o u p.
If o n e e x a mi n e s t h e s m o o t hly c u t e n d of a s tic k of
al m o s t a n y ki n d of w o o d, h e will n o t e t h a t e a c h g r o w t h
ri n g is m a d e u p of t w o m o r e o r le s s w ell-d efi n e d p a r t s .
Th a t o ri gi n ally n e a r e s t t h e c e n t r e of t h e t r e e is
m o r e o p e n t ex t u r e d a n d al m o s t inv a ri a bly lig h t e r in
c olo r t h a n t h a t n e a r t h e o u t e r p o r tio n of t h e ri n g.
Th e in n e r p o r tio n w a s fo r m e d e a rly in t h e s e a s o n, w h e n
g r o w t h w a s c o m p a r a tiv ely r a pi d a n d is k n o w n a s e a rly
w o o d (als o s p ri n g w o o d); t h e o u t e r p o r tio n is
t h e lat e w o o d , b ei n g p r o d u c e d in t h e s u m m e r
o r e a rly fall. In s oft pi n e s t h e r e is n o t m u c h
c o n t r a s t in t h e diffe r e n t p a r t s of t h e ri n g, a n d a s
a r e s ul t t h e w o o d is v e ry u nifo r m in t e x t u r e a n d is
e a s y t o w o r k. In h a r d pi n e, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d,
t h e la t e w o o d is v e ry d e n s e a n d is d e e p-c olo r e d, p r e s e n ti n g
74
a v e ry d e ci d e d c o n t r a s t t o t h e s oft, s t r a w-c olo r e d
e a rly w o o d. (S e e Fi g. 2 3.) In ri n g-p o r o u s w o o d s e a c h
s e a s o n’s g r o w t h is al w ay s w ell d efi n e d, b e c a u s e
t h e la r g e p o r e s of t h e s p ri n g a b u t o n t h e d e n s e r ti s s u e
of t h e fall b efo r e . In t h e diffu s e-p o r o u s, t h e
d e m a r c a tio n b e t w e e n ri n g s is n o t al w ay s s o cl e a r a n d
in n o t a fe w c a s e s is al m o s t, if n o t e n ti r ely, invisi bl e
t o t h e u n ai d e d e y e. (S e e Fi g. 2 2.)
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 2 3.—C r o s s s e c tio n
of lo n gl e af pi n e s h o wi n g s ev e r al g r o w t h ri n g s wi t h
v a ri a tio n s in t h e wi d t h of t h e d a r k-c olo r e d la t e w o o d.
S e v e n r e si n d u c t s a r e visibl e. X 3 3. P ho t o m i cr o g ra p h
b y U.S. For e s t S e r vi c e ]
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If o n e c o m p a r e s a h e a vy pi e c e of pi n e wi t h a lig h t
s p e ci m e n it will b e s e e n a t o n c e t h a t t h e h e a vi e r
o n e c o n t ai n s a la r g e r p r o p o r tio n of la t e w o o d t h a n
t h e o t h er, a n d is t h e r efo r e c o n si d e r a bly d a r k er.
Th e la t e w o o d of all s p e ci e s is d e n s e r t h a n t h a t fo r m e d
e a rly in t h e s e a s o n, h e n c e t h e g r e a t e r t h e p r o p o r tio n
of la t e w o o d t h e g r e a t e r t h e d e n si ty a n d s t r e n g t h.
W h e n e x a mi n e d u n d e r a m i c r o s c o p e t h e c ells of t h e la t e
w o o d a r e s e e n t o b e v e ry t hi ck-w all e d a n d wi t h ve ry
s m all c a viti e s, w hil e t h o s e fo r m e d fir s t in t h e s e a s o n
h a v e t hi n w alls a n d la r g e c aviti e s. T h e s t r e n g t h
is in t h e w alls, n o t t h e c aviti e s. I n c h o o si n g
a pi e c e of pi n e w h e r e s t r e n g t h o r s tiffn e s s is t h e
i m p o r t a n t c o n si d e r a tio n, t h e p ri n ci p al t hi n g t o o b s e rv e
is t h e c o m p a r a tiv e a m o u n t s of e a rly a n d la t e w o o d.
Th e wi d t h of ri n g, t h a t is, t h e n u m b e r p e r in c h, is
n o t n e a rly s o i m p o r t a n t a s t h e p r o p o r tio n of t h e la t e
w o o d in t h e ri n g.
It is n o t o nly t h e p r o p o r tio n of la t e w o o d, b u t al s o
it s q u ality, t h a t c o u n t s . I n s p e ci m e n s t h a t s h o w
a v e ry la r g e p r o p o r tio n of la t e w o o d it m a y b e n o tic e a bly
m o r e p o r o u s a n d w ei g h c o n si d e r a bly le s s t h a n t h e la t e
w o o d in pi e c e s t h a t c o n t ai n b u t lit tl e. O n e c a n
ju d g e c o m p a r a tiv e d e n si ty, a n d t h e r efo r e t o s o m e ex t e n t
w ei g h t a n d s t r e n g t h, by vis u al in s p e c tio n.
Th e c o n cl u sio n s of t h e U.S. Fo r e s t S e r vic e r e g a r di n g
t h e effe c t of r a t e of g r o w t h o n t h e p r o p e r ti e s of
Do u gl a s fir a r e s u m m a riz e d a s follow s:
“1. I n g e n e r al, r a pi dly g r o w n w o o d (le s s
t h a n ei g h t ri n g s p e r inc h) is r el a tiv ely w e a k.
A s t u dy of t h e in divid u al t e s t s u p o n w hic h t h e a v e r a g e
p oi n t s a r e b a s e d s h o w s , h o w ev er, t h a t w h e n it is n o t
a s s o ci a t e d wi t h lig h t w ei g h t a n d a s m all p r o p o r tio n
of s u m m e r w o o d, r a pi d g r o w t h is n o t in dic a tiv e of
w e a k w o o d.
“2. An a v e r a g e r a t e of g r o w t h, in dic a t e d
by fro m 1 2 t o 1 6 ri n g s p e r inc h, s e e m s t o p r o d u c e
76
t h e b e s t m a t e ri al.
“3. I n r a t e s of g r o w t h s lo w e r t h a n 1 6 ri n g s
p e r in c h, t h e a v e r a g e s t r e n g t h of t h e m a t e ri al d e c r e a s e s ,
a p p a r e n tly a p p r o a c hi n g a u nifo r m c o n di tio n a b ov e 2 4
ri n g s p e r inc h. In s u c h slo w r a t e s of g r o w t h
t h e t ex t u r e of t h e w o o d is v e ry u nifo r m , a n d n a t u r ally
t h e r e is lit tl e v a ri a tio n in w ei g h t o r s t r e n g t h.
“An a n alysis of t e s t s o n la r g e b e a m s w a s m a d e
t o a s c e r t ai n if a v e r a g e r a t e of g r o w t h h a s a n y r el a tio n
t o t h e m e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s of t h e b e a m s . Th e
a n alysis in dic a t e d c o n cl u siv ely t h a t t h e r e w a s n o
s u c h r el a tio n. Ave r a g e r a t e of g r o w t h [wit h o u t
c o n si d e r a tio n al s o of d e n si ty], t h e r efo r e , h a s lit tl e
si g nific a n c e in g r a di n g s t r u c t u r al ti m b er."[1 8] This
is b e c a u s e of t h e wi d e v a ri a tio n in t h e p e r c e n t a g e
of la t e w o o d in diffe r e n t p a r t s of t h e c r o s s s e c tio n.
[Foo t n o t e 1 8: Bul. 8 8: P r o p e r ti e s a n d u s e s
of Do u gl a s fir, p. 2 9.]
Ex p e ri m e n t s s e e m t o in dic a t e t h a t fo r m o s t s p e ci e s
t h e r e is a r a t e of g r o w t h w hi c h, in g e n e r al, is a s s o ci a t e d
wi t h t h e g r e a t e s t s t r e n g t h, e s p e ci ally in s m all s p e ci m e n s .
Fo r ei g h t c o nife r s it is a s follo w s:[ 1 9]
[Foo t n o t e 1 9: Bul. 1 0 8, U. S. Fo r e s t S e rvic e:
Tes t s of s t r u c t u r al ti m b e r s , p . 3 7.]
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Ri n g s p e r inc h
Do u gl a s fir 24
S h o r tl e af pi n e 12
Lo blolly pi n e 6
We s t e r n la r c h 18
We s t e r n h e ml o c k 14
Ta m a r a c k 20
N o r w a y pi n e 18
Redwood 30
N o s a ti sf a c t o ry e x pl a n a tio n c a n a s y e t b e giv e n fo r
t h e r e al c a u s e s u n d e rlyi n g t h e fo r m a tio n of e a rly
a n d la t e w o o d. S e v e r al fa c t o r s m a y b e involve d.
In c o nif e r s, a t le a s t, r a t e of g r o w t h alo n e d o e s n o t
d e t e r mi n e t h e p r o p o r tio n of t h e t w o p o r tio n s of t h e
ri n g, for in s o m e c a s e s t h e w o o d of slo w g r o w t h is
v e ry h a r d a n d h e a vy, w hil e in o t h e r s t h e o p p o si t e
is t r u e . Th e q u ality of t h e si t e w h e r e t h e t r e e
g r o w s u n d o u b t e dly affe c t s t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e w o o d
fo r m e d, t h o u g h it is n o t p o s si bl e t o fo r m ul a t e a r ul e
g ov e r ni n g it. In g e n e r al, h o w e v er, it m a y b e s ai d
t h a t w h e r e s t r e n g t h o r e a s e of w o r ki n g is e s s e n ti al,
w o o d s of m o d e r a t e t o slo w g r o w t h s h o ul d b e c h o s e n .
B u t in c h o o si n g a p a r tic ul a r s p e ci m e n it is n o t t h e
wi d t h of ri n g, b u t t h e p r o p o r tio n a n d c h a r a c t e r of
t h e la t e w o o d w hi c h s h o ul d g ov e r n .
In t h e c a s e of t h e ri n g-p o r o u s h a r d w o o d s t h e r e s e e m s
t o e xis t a p r e t ty d efini t e r el a tio n b e t w e e n t h e r a t e
of g r o w t h of ti m b e r a n d it s p r o p e r ti e s. This
m a y b e b ri efly s u m m e d u p in t h e g e n e r al s t a t e m e n t
t h a t t h e m o r e r a pi d t h e g r o w t h o r t h e wi d e r t h e ri n g s
of g r o w t h, t h e h e a vi er, h a r d er, s t r o n g er, a n d s tiffe r
t h e w o o d. This, it m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d , a p pli e s
o nly t o ri n g-p o r o u s w o o d s s u c h a s o a k, a s h, hi c ko ry,
a n d o t h e r s of t h e s a m e g r o u p, a n d is, of c o u r s e , s u bj e c t
t o s o m e ex c e p tio n s a n d limit a tio n s.
In ri n g-p o r o u s w o o d s of g o o d g r o w t h it is u s u ally
t h e m i d dl e p o r tio n of t h e ri n g in w hic h t h e t hi ck-w all e d,
s t r e n g t h-givi n g fib r e s a r e m o s t a b u n d a n t. As
t h e b r e a d t h of ri n g di mi ni s h e s , t hi s m i d dl e p o r tio n
78
is r e d u c e d s o t h a t ve ry slo w g r o w t h p r o d u c e s c o m p a r a tiv ely
lig h t, p o r o u s w o o d c o m p o s e d of t hi n-w all e d v e s s el s
a n d w o o d p a r e n c hy m a . I n g o o d o a k t h e s e la r g e v e s s el s
of t h e e a rly w o o d o c c u py fro m 6 t o 1 0 p e r c e n t of
t h e vol u m e of t h e lo g, w hil e in infe rio r m a t e ri al
t h e y m a y m a k e u p 2 5 p e r c e n t o r m o r e . Th e la t e
w o o d of g o o d o a k, e x c e p t fo r r a di al g r a yis h p a t c h e s
of s m all p o r e s , is d a r k c olo r e d a n d fir m, a n d c o n si s t s
of t hi ck-w all e d fib r e s w hi c h for m o n e-h alf o r m o r e
of t h e w o o d. I n inf e rio r o a k, s u c h fib r e a r e a s
a r e m u c h r e d u c e d b o t h in q u a n ti ty a n d q u ality.
S u c h v a ri a tio n is ve ry la r g ely t h e r e s ul t of r a t e
of g r o w t h.
Wid e-ri n g e d w o o d is oft e n c all e d “s e c o n d-g r o w t h,”
b e c a u s e t h e g r o w t h of t h e yo u n g ti m b e r in o p e n s t a n d s
af t e r t h e ol d t r e e s h a v e b e e n r e m ov e d is m o r e r a pi d
t h a n in t r e e s in t h e fo r e s t, a n d in t h e m a n uf a c t u r e
of a r ticl e s w h e r e s t r e n g t h is a n i m p o r t a n t c o n si d e r a tio n
s u c h “s e c o n d-g r o w t h” h a r d w o o d m a t e ri al
is p r ef e r r e d . This is p a r ti c ul a rly t h e c a s e in
t h e c h oic e of hi c ko ry for h a n dl e s a n d s p o k e s .
H e r e n o t o nly s t r e n g t h , b u t t o u g h n e s s a n d r e sili e n c e
a r e i m p o r t a n t. Th e r e s ul t s of a s e ri e s of t e s t s
o n hi c ko ry by t h e U.S. Fo r e s t S e rvic e s h o w t h a t
“t h e w o r k o r s h o c k-r e si s ti n g a bility is g r e a t e s t
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in wi d e-ri n g e d w o o d t h a t h a s fro m 5 t o 1 4 ri n g s p e r
in c h, is fai rly c o n s t a n t fro m 1 4 t o 3 8 ri n g s , a n d
d e c r e a s e s r a pi dly fro m 3 8 t o 4 7 ri n g s. Th e s t r e n g t h
a t m a xi m u m lo a d is n o t s o g r e a t wit h t h e m o s t r a pi d-g r o wi n g
w o o d; it is m a xi m u m wit h fro m 1 4 t o 2 0 ri n g s p e r inc h,
a n d a g ai n b e c o m e s le s s a s t h e w o o d b e c o m e s m o r e clos ely
ri n g e d. Th e n a t u r al d e d u c tio n is t h a t w o o d of
fir s t-cl a s s m e c h a ni c al v al u e s h o w s fro m 5 t o 2 0 ri n g s
p e r in c h a n d t h a t slo w e r g r o w t h yiel d s p o o r e r s t o c k.
Th u s t h e in s p e c t o r o r b u y e r of hi c k o ry s h o ul d di s c ri mi n a t e
a g ai n s t ti m b e r t h a t h a s m o r e t h a n 2 0 ri n g s p e r in c h.
Ex c e p tio n s e xis t, h o w ev er, in t h e c a s e of n o r m al g r o w t h
u p o n d ry si t u a tio n s , in w hic h t h e slo w-g r o wi n g m a t e ri al
m a y b e s t r o n g a n d t o u g h."[2 0]
[Foo t n o t e 2 0: Bul. 8 0: T h e c o m m e r ci al hi c ko ri e s,
p p. 4 8-5 0.]
Th e effe c t of r a t e of g r o w t h o n t h e q u aliti e s of c h e s t n u t
w o o d is s u m m a riz e d by t h e s a m e a u t h o rity a s follo w s:
“W h e n t h e ri n g s a r e wi d e, t h e t r a n si tio n fro m
s p ri n g w o o d t o s u m m e r w o o d is g r a d u al, w hil e in t h e
n a r r o w ri n g s t h e s p ri n g w o o d p a s s e s in to s u m m e r w o o d
a b r u p tly. Th e wi d t h of t h e s p ri n g w o o d c h a n g e s
b u t littl e wi t h t h e wi d t h of t h e a n n u al ri n g, s o t h a t
t h e n a r r o wi n g o r b r o a d e ni n g of t h e a n n u al ri n g is
al w ay s a t t h e e x p e n s e of t h e s u m m e r w o o d. T h e
n a r r o w ve s s el s of t h e s u m m e r w o o d m a k e it ri c h e r in
w o o d s u b s t a n c e t h a n t h e s p ri n g w o o d c o m p o s e d of wi d e
v e s s el s. Th e r efo r e, r a pi d-g r o wi n g s p e ci m e n s wi t h
wi d e ri n g s h a v e m o r e w o o d s u b s t a n c e t h a n slo w-g r o wi n g
t r e e s wi t h n a r r o w ri n g s. Si n c e t h e m o r e t h e w o o d
s u b s t a n c e t h e g r e a t e r t h e w ei g h t, a n d t h e g r e a t e r
t h e w ei g h t t h e s t r o n g e r t h e w o o d, c h e s t n u t s wi t h wi d e
ri n g s m u s t h a v e s t r o n g e r w o o d t h a n c h e s t n u t s wi t h n a r r o w
ri n g s . This a g r e e s wi t h t h e a c c e p t e d vie w t h a t
s p r o u t s (w hi c h al w ay s h a v e wi d e ri n g s ) yiel d b e t t e r
a n d s t r o n g e r w o o d t h a n s e e dli n g c h e s t n u t s, w hic h g r o w
m o r e slo wly in di a m e t er."[2 1]
[Foo t n o t e 2 1: Bul. 5 3: C h e s t n u t in s o u t h e r n
80
M a ryl a n d, p p. 2 0-2 1.]
In diffu s e-p o r o u s w o o d s, a s h a s b e e n s t a t e d, t h e v e s s el s
o r p o r e s a r e s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e ri n g in s t e a d
of c olle c t e d in t h e e a rly w o o d. Th e effe c t of
r a t e of g r o w t h is, t h e r efo r e, n o t t h e s a m e a s in t h e
ri n g-p o r o u s w o o d s, a p p r o a c hi n g m o r e n e a rly t h e c o n di tio n s
in t h e c o nife r s . In g e n e r al it m a y b e s t a t e d t h a t
s u c h w o o d s of m e di u m g r o w t h affo r d s t r o n g e r m a t e ri al
t h a n w h e n v e ry r a pi dly o r ve ry slo wly g r o w n.
In m a n y u s e s of w o o d, s t r e n g t h is n o t t h e m ai n c o n si d e r a tio n.
If e a s e of w o r ki n g is p riz e d, w o o d s h o ul d b e c h o s e n
wi t h r e g a r d t o it s u nifo r mi ty of t ex t u r e a n d s t r ai g h t n e s s
of g r ai n, w hi c h will in m o s t c a s e s o c c u r w h e n t h e r e
is lit tl e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e la t e w o o d of o n e s e a s o n’s
g r o w t h a n d t h e e a rly w o o d of t h e n e x t.
HEARTWOOD AND SAPWOOD
Ex a mi n a tio n of t h e e n d of a log of m a n y s p e ci e s r e v e al s
a d a r k e r-c olo r e d in n e r p o r tio n—t h e h e a r t w o o d ,
s u r r o u n d e d b y a lig h t e r-c olo r e d zo n e— t h e
s a p w o o d . In s o m e in s t a n c e s t his di s ti n c tio n
in c olo r is v e ry m a r k e d; in o t h e r s , t h e c o n t r a s t is
slig h t, s o t h a t it is n o t al w a y s e a s y t o t ell w h e r e
o n e le av e s off a n d t h e o t h e r b e gi n s. Th e c olo r
of fr e s h s a p w o o d is al w ay s lig h t, s o m e ti m e s p u r e w hi t e,
b u t m o r e oft e n wi t h a d e ci d e d ti n g e of g r e e n o r b r o w n .
81
Page 40
S a p w o o d is c o m p a r a tiv ely n e w w o o d. T h e r e is a
ti m e in t h e e a rly hi s t o ry of ev e ry t r e e w h e n it s w o o d
is all s a p w o o d. It s p ri n ci p al fu n c tio n s a r e t o
c o n d u c t w a t e r fro m t h e r o o t s t o t h e le av e s a n d t o
s t o r e u p a n d giv e b a c k a c c o r di n g t o t h e s e a s o n t h e
foo d p r e p a r e d in t h e le av e s . Th e m o r e le av e s a
t r e e b e a r s a n d t h e m o r e t h rifty it s g r o w t h, t h e la r g e r
t h e vol u m e of s a p w o o d r e q ui r e d, h e n c e t r e e s m a ki n g
r a pi d g r o w t h in t h e o p e n h a v e t hi ck e r s a p w o o d fo r
t h ei r siz e t h a n t r e e s of t h e s a m e s p e ci e s g r o wi n g
in d e n s e fo r e s t s . S o m e ti m e s t r e e s g r o w n in t h e
o p e n m a y b e c o m e of c o n si d e r a bl e siz e, a foot o r m o r e
in di a m e t er, b efo r e a n y h e a r t w o o d b e gi n s t o fo r m ,
fo r e x a m pl e, in s e c o n d-g r o w t h hic k o ry, o r fiel d-g r o w n
w hi t e a n d loblolly pi n e s.
As a t r e e inc r e a s e s in a g e a n d di a m e t e r a n in n e r p o r tio n
of t h e s a p w o o d b e c o m e s in a c tiv e a n d fin ally c e a s e s
t o fu n c tio n. This in e r t o r d e a d p o r tio n is c all e d
h e a r t w o o d, d e rivi n g it s n a m e s ol ely fro m it s p o si tio n
a n d n o t fro m a n y vit al i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e t r e e , a s
is s h o w n by t h e fa c t t h a t a t r e e c a n t h riv e wi t h it s
h e a r t c o m pl e t ely d e c a y e d. S o m e , s p e ci e s b e gi n
t o fo r m h e a r t w o o d ve ry e a rly in life, w hil e in o t h e r s
t h e c h a n g e c o m e s slo wly. Thi n s a p w o o d is c h a r a c t e ri s tic
of s u c h t r e e s a s c h e s t n u t, bl a c k loc u s t, m ul b e r ry,
O s a g e o r a n g e, a n d s a s s af r a s, w hil e in m a pl e, a s h,
g u m , hi c k o ry, h a c k b e r ry, b e e c h, a n d loblolly pi n e,
t hic k s a p w o o d is t h e r ul e.
Th e r e is n o d efi nit e r el a tio n b e t w e e n t h e a n n u al ri n g s
of g r o w t h a n d t h e a m o u n t of s a p w o o d. Wit hi n t h e
s a m e s p e ci e s t h e c r o s s-s e c tio n al a r e a of t h e s a p w o o d
is r o u g hly p r o p o r tio n al t o t h e siz e of t h e c r o w n of
t h e t r e e . If t h e ri n g s a r e n a r r ow, m o r e of t h e m
a r e r e q ui r e d t h a n w h e r e t h ey a r e wi d e. As t h e
t r e e g e t s la r g er, t h e s a p w o o d m u s t n e c e s s a rily b e c o m e
t hi n n e r o r in c r e a s e m a t e ri ally in volu m e . S a p w o o d
is t hi c k e r in t h e u p p e r p o r tio n of t h e t r u n k of a
t r e e t h a n n e a r t h e b a s e , b e c a u s e t h e a g e a n d t h e di a m e t e r
of t h e u p p e r s e c tio n s a r e le s s.
82
W h e n a t r e e is ve ry yo u n g it is c ov e r e d wi t h li m b s
al m o s t, if n o t e n ti r ely, t o t h e g r o u n d , b u t a s it
g r o w s ol d e r s o m e o r all of t h e m will e v e n t u ally di e
a n d b e b r o k e n off. S u b s e q u e n t g r o w t h of w o o d
m a y c o m pl e t ely c o n c e al t h e s t u b s w hi c h, h o w e v er, will
r e m ai n a s k n o t s. N o m a t t e r h o w s m o o t h a n d cl e a r
a lo g is o n t h e o u t si d e, it is m o r e o r le s s k n o t ty
n e a r t h e m i d dl e. Co n s e q u e n tly t h e s a p w o o d of
a n ol d t r e e , a n d p a r tic ul a rly of a fo r e s t-g r o w n t r e e ,
will b e fr e e r fro m k n o t s t h a n t h e h e a r t w o o d. Si n c e
in m o s t u s e s of w o o d, k n o t s a r e d ef e c t s t h a t w e a k e n
t h e ti m b e r a n d in t e rf e r e wi t h it s e a s e of w o r ki n g
a n d o t h e r p r o p e r ti e s, it follow s t h a t s a p w o o d, b e c a u s e
of it s p o sitio n in t h e t r e e , m a y h av e c e r t ai n a dv a n t a g e s
ov e r h e a r t w o o d.
It is r e ally r e m a r k a bl e t h a t t h e in n e r h e a r t w o o d of
ol d t r e e s r e m ai n s a s s o u n d a s it u s u ally d o e s , si n c e
in m a n y c a s e s it is h u n d r e d s of y e a r s , a n d in a fe w
in s t a n c e s t h o u s a n d s of y e a r s , ol d. Ev e ry b r o k e n
li m b o r r o o t, o r d e e p w o u n d fro m fir e, in s e c t s, o r
fallin g ti m b er, m a y affo r d a n e n t r a n c e fo r d e c ay,
w hi c h, o n c e s t a r t e d , m a y p e n e t r a t e t o all p a r t s of
t h e t r u n k. T h e la rv a e of m a n y in s e c t s b o r e in to
t h e t r e e s a n d t h ei r t u n n el s r e m a i n in d efi nit ely a s
s o u r c e s of w e a k n e s s. W h a t ev e r a dv a n t a g e s, h o w ev er,
t h a t s a p w o o d m a y h a v e in t hi s c o n n e c tio n a r e d u e s ol ely
t o it s r el a tiv e a g e a n d p o si tio n.
83
Page 41
If a t r e e g r o w s all it s life in t h e o p e n a n d t h e c o n di tio n s
of s oil a n d si t e r e m ai n u n c h a n g e d, it will m a k e its
m o s t r a pi d g r o w t h in yo u t h, a n d g r a d u ally d e cli n e.
Th e a n n u al ri n g s of g r o w t h a r e fo r m a n y y e a r s q ui t e
wi d e, b u t la t e r t h e y b e c o m e n a r r o w e r a n d n a r r o w er.
Si n c e e a c h s u c c e e di n g ri n g is lai d d o w n o n t h e o u t si d e
of t h e w o o d p r evio u sly fo r m e d , it follo w s t h a t u nl e s s
a t r e e m a t e ri ally in c r e a s e s it s p r o d u c tio n of w o o d
fro m y e a r t o y e ar, t h e ri n g s m u s t n e c e s s a rily b e c o m e
t hi n n er. As a t r e e r e a c h e s m a t u ri ty it s c r o w n
b e c o m e s m o r e o p e n a n d t h e a n n u al w o o d p r o d u c tio n is
le s s e n e d, t h e r e b y r e d u ci n g s till m o r e t h e wi d t h of
t h e g r o w t h ri n g s. In t h e c a s e of fo r e s t-g r o w n
t r e e s s o m u c h d e p e n d s u p o n t h e c o m p e ti tio n of t h e
t r e e s in t h ei r s t r u g gl e fo r lig h t a n d n o u ri s h m e n t
t h a t p e ri o d s of r a pi d a n d slo w g r o w t h m a y al t e r n a t e .
S o m e t r e e s, s u c h a s s o u t h e r n o a k s, m a i n t ai n t h e s a m e
wi d t h of ri n g fo r h u n d r e d s of y e a r s . U p o n t h e
w h ol e, h o w e v er, a s a t r e e g e t s la r g e r in di a m e t e r
t h e wi d t h of t h e g r o w t h ri n g s d e c r e a s e s.
It is e vi d e n t t h a t t h e r e m a y b e d e ci d e d diffe r e n c e s
in t h e g r ai n of h e a r t w o o d a n d s a p w o o d c u t fro m a la r g e
t r e e , p a r ti c ul a rly o n e t h a t is ov e r m a t u r e . Th e
r el a tio n s hi p b e t w e e n wi d t h of g r o w t h ri n g s a n d t h e
m e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s of w o o d is di s c u s s e d u n d e r R a t e
of G r o w t h. In t hi s c o n n e c tio n, h o w ev er, it m a y
b e s t a t e d t h a t a s a g e n e r al r ul e t h e w o o d lai d o n
la t e in t h e life of a t r e e is s oft er, lig h t er, w e a k er,
a n d m o r e e v e n-t ex t u r e d t h a n t h a t p r o d u c e d e a rli er.
It follow s t h a t in a la r g e log t h e s a p w o o d, b e c a u s e
of t h e ti m e in t h e life of t h e t r e e w h e n it w a s g r o w n,
m a y b e infe rio r in h a r d n e s s , s t r e n g t h, a n d t o u g h n e s s
t o e q u ally s o u n d h e a r t w o o d fro m t h e s a m e lo g.
Aft e r e x h a u s tiv e t e s t s o n a n u m b e r of diffe r e n t w o o d s
t h e U.S. Fo r e s t S e rvic e c o n cl u d e s a s follow s:
“S a p w o o d, e x c e p t t h a t fro m ol d, ov e r m a t u r e t r e e s ,
is a s s t r o n g a s h e a r t w o o d, o t h e r t hi n g s b ei n g e q u al,
a n d s o fa r a s t h e m e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s g o s h o ul d
n o t b e r e g a r d e d a s a d ef e c t."[2 2] C a r ef ul in s p e c tio n
84
of t h e in divi d u al t e s t s m a d e in t h e inv e s ti g a tio n
fails t o r e v e al a n y r el a tio n b e t w e e n t h e p r o p o r tio n
of s a p w o o d a n d t h e b r e a ki n g s t r e n g t h of ti m b er.
[Foo t n o t e 2 2: Bul. 1 0 8: Tes t s of s t r u c t u r al
ti m b er, p . 3 5 .]
In t h e s t u dy of t h e hi c ko ri e s t h e c o n cl u sio n w a s:
“Th e r e is a n u nfo u n d e d p r ej u di c e a g ai n s t t h e
h e a r t w o o d. S p e cific a tio n s pl a c e w hi t e hi c ko ry,
o r s a p w o o d, in a hi g h e r g r a d e t h a n r e d hi ck o ry, o r
h e a r t w o o d, t h o u g h t h e r e is n o in h e r e n t diffe r e n c e in
s t r e n g t h . In fac t, in t h e c a s e of la r g e a n d ol d
hi c ko ry t r e e s , t h e s a p w o o d n e a r e s t t h e b a r k is c o m p a r a tiv ely
w e a k, a n d t h e b e s t w o o d is in t h e h e a r t , t h o u g h in
yo u n g t r e e s of t h rifty g r o w t h t h e b e s t w o o d is in
t h e s a p."[2 3] Th e r e s ul t s of t e s t s fro m s el e c t e d pi e c e s
lyin g si d e by si d e in t h e s a m e t r e e, a n d al s o t h e
a v e r a g e v al u e s for h e a r t w o o d a n d s a p w o o d in s hi p m e n t s
of t h e c o m m e r ci al hic k o ri e s wi t h o u t s el e c tio n, s h o w
c o n cl u siv ely t h a t “t h e t r a n sfo r m a tio n of s a p w o o d
in t o h e a r t w o o d d o e s n o t aff e c t ei t h e r t h e s t r e n g t h
o r t o u g h n e s s of t h e w o o d.... It is t r u e , h o w e v er,
t h a t s a p w o o d is u s u ally m o r e fr e e fro m la t e n t d ef e c t s
t h a n h e a r t w o o d."[2 4]
85
Page 42
[Foo t n o t e 2 3: Bul. 8 0: T h e c o m m e r ci al hi c ko ri e s,
p . 5 0.]
[Foo t n o t e 2 4: L o c. cit.]
S p e cific a tio n s for p a vi n g blo c k s oft e n r e q ui r e t h a t
lo n gl e af pi n e b e 9 0 p e r c e n t h e a r t. This is o n
t h e b eli ef t h a t s a p w o o d is n o t o nly m o r e s u bj e c t t o
d e c ay, b u t is al s o w e a k e r t h a n h e a r t w o o d. In
r e ality t h e r e is n o s o u n d b a si s fo r di s c ri mi n a tio n
a g ai n s t s a p w o o d o n a c c o u n t of s t r e n g t h, p r ovi d e d o t h e r
c o n di tio n s a r e e q u al. It is t r u e t h a t s a p w o o d
will n o t r e sis t d e c a y a s lo n g a s h e a r t w o o d, if b o t h
a r e u n t r e a t e d wi t h p r e s e rv a tiv e s. It is e s p e ci ally
s o of w o o d s wi t h d e e p-c olo r e d h e a r t w o o d, a n d is d u e
t o infilt r a tio n s of t a n ni n s, oils, a n d r e si n s, w hi c h
m a k e t h e w o o d m o r e o r le s s o b n oxio u s t o d e c a y-p r o d u ci n g
fu n gi. If, h o w ev er, t h e ti m b e r s a r e t o b e t r e a t e d ,
s a p w o o d is n o t a d ef e c t; in fac t, b e c a u s e of t h e r el a tiv e
e a s e wi t h w hic h it c a n b e i m p r e g n a t e d wi t h p r e s e r v a tiv e s
it m a y b e m a d e m o r e d e si r a bl e t h a n h e a r t w o o d.[ 2 5]
[Foo t n o t e 2 5: Alt h o u g h t h e fa c t o r of h e a r t o r
s a p w o o d d o e s n o t influ e n c e t h e m e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s
of t h e w o o d a n d t h e r e is u s u ally n o diffe r e n c e in
s t r u c t u r e o b s e rv a bl e u n d e r t h e m i c r o s c o p e , n e v e r t h el e s s
s a p w o o d is g e n e r ally d e ci d e dly diffe r e n t fro m h e a r t w o o d
in it s p hy sic al p r o p e r ti e s. It d ri e s b e t t e r a n d
m o r e e a sily t h a n h e a r t w o o d, u s u ally wi t h le s s s h ri n k a g e
a n d littl e c h e c ki n g o r h o n e y c o m bi n g. T his is
e s p e ci ally t h e c a s e wi t h t h e m o r e r ef r a c t o ry w o o d s ,
s u c h a s w hi t e o a k s a n d E u c aly p t u s glo b ul u s
a n d vi mi n alis . It is u s u ally m u c h m o r e
p e r m e a bl e t o air, e v e n in g r e e n w o o d, n o t a bly s o in
lo blolly pi n e a n d e v e n in w hi t e o a k. As al r e a dy
s t a t e d, it is m u c h m o r e s u bj e c t t o d e c ay. Th e
s a p w o o d of w hi t e o a k m a y b e i m p r e g n a t e d wi t h c r e o s o t e
wi t h c o m p a r a tiv e e a s e , w hil e t h e h e a r t w o o d is p r a c ti c ally
i m p e n e t r a bl e. Th e s e fac t s in dic a t e a diffe r e n c e
in it s c h e m i c al n a t u r e .—H .D. Tie m a n n .]
86
In s p e cific a tio n s fo r s t r u c t u r al ti m b e r s r ef e r e n c e
is s o m e ti m e s m a d e t o “ box h e a r t,” m e a ni n g
t h e in cl u sio n of t h e pi t h o r c e n t r e of t h e t r e e wi t hi n
a c r o s s s e c tio n of t h e ti m b er. F r o m n u m e r o u s
e x p e ri m e n t s it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e p o si tio n of t h e pi t h
d o e s n o t b e a r a n y r el a tio n t o t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e
m a t e ri al. Si n c e m o s t s e a s o n c h e c k s, h o w e v er,
a r e r a di al, t h e p o sitio n of t h e pi t h m a y influ e n c e
t h e r e si s t a n c e of a s e a s o n e d b e a m t o h o rizo n t al s h e ar,
b ei n g g r e a t e s t w h e n t h e pi t h is loc a t e d in t h e m i d dl e
h alf of t h e s e c tio n.[ 2 6]
[Foo t n o t e 2 6: Bul. 1 0 8, U.S. Fo r e s t S e rvic e,
p . 3 6.]
WEIGHT, DENSITY, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
F r o m d a t a o b t ai n e d fro m a la r g e n u m b e r of t e s t s o n
t h e s t r e n g t h of diffe r e n t w o o d s it a p p e a r s t h a t, o t h e r
t hi n g s b ei n g e q u al, t h e c r u s hi n g s t r e n g t h p a r all el
t o t h e g r ai n, fib r e s t r e s s a t el a s tic li mit in b e n di n g,
a n d s h e a ri n g s t r e n g t h al o n g t h e g r ai n of w o o d v a ry
in di r e c t p r o p o r tio n t o t h e w ei g h t of d r y w o o d p e r
u ni t of vol u m e w h e n g r e e n . O t h e r s t r e n g t h v al u e s
follow diffe r e n t la w s. Th e h a r d n e s s v a ri e s in
87
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a sli g h tly g r e a t e r r a tio t h a n t h e s q u a r e of t h e d e n si ty.
Th e w o r k t o t h e b r e a ki n g p oi n t in c r e a s e s e v e n m o r e
r a pi dly t h a n t h e c u b e of d e n si ty. Th e m o d ul u s
of r u p t u r e in b e n di n g lie s b e t w e e n t h e firs t p o w e r
a n d t h e s q u a r e of t h e d e n si ty. Thi s, of c o u r s e,
is t r u e o nly in c a s e t h e g r e a t e r w ei g h t is d u e t o
in c r e a s e in t h e a m o u n t of w o o d s u b s t a n c e . A w o o d
h e a vy wi t h r e si n o r o t h e r infilt r a t e d s u b s t a n c e is
n o t n e c e s s a rily s t r o n g e r t h a n a si mil a r s p e ci m e n fr e e
fro m s u c h m a t e ri als. If diffe r e n c e s in w ei g h t
a r e d u e t o d e g r e e of s e a s o ni n g, in o t h e r w o r d s, t o
t h e r el a tiv e a m o u n t s of w a t e r c o n t ai n e d , t h e r ul e s
giv e n a b ov e will of c o u r s e n o t h ol d, si n c e s t r e n g t h
in c r e a s e s wi t h d r y n e s s. B u t of giv e n s p e ci m e n s
of pi n e o r of o a k, fo r e x a m pl e, in t h e g r e e n c o n di tio n,
t h e c o m p a r a tiv e s t r e n g t h m a y b e inf e r r e d fro m t h e
w ei g h t. It is n o t p e r mi s si bl e, h o w ev er, t o c o m p a r e
s u c h wi d ely diffe r e n t w o o d s a s o a k a n d pi n e o n a b a si s
of t h ei r w ei g h t s.[ 2 7]
[Foo t n o t e 2 7: Th e o a k s fo r s o m e u n k n o w n r e a s o n
fall b elo w t h e n o r m al s t r e n g t h fo r w ei g h t, w h e r e a s
t h e hi c ko ri e s ri s e a b ov e. C e r t ai n o t h e r w o o d s
al s o a r e s o m e w h a t e x c e p tio n al t o t h e n o r m al r el a tio n
of s t r e n g t h a n d d e n si ty.]
Th e w ei g h t of w o o d s u b s t a n c e, t h a t is, t h e m a t e ri al
w hi c h c o m p o s e s t h e w alls of t h e fib r e s a n d o t h e r c ells,
is p r a c ti c ally t h e s a m e in all s p e ci e s, w h e t h e r pi n e,
hi c ko ry, o r c o t t o n w o o d, b ei n g a lit tl e g r e a t e r t h a n
h alf a g ai n a s h e a vy a s w a t er. It v a ri e s slig h tly
fro m b e e c h s a p w o o d, 1. 5 0, t o Do u gl a s fir h e a r t w o o d,
1. 5 7, a v e r a gi n g a b o u t 1. 5 5 a t 3 0 d e g. t o 3 5 d e g.
C., in t e r m s of w a t e r a t its g r e a t e s t d e n si ty 4 d e g.
C. Th e r e a s o n a ny w o o d flo a t s is t h a t t h e ai r i m p ri s o n e d
in it s c aviti e s b u oy s it u p. W h e n t hi s is di s pl a c e d
by w a t e r t h e w o o d b e c o m e s w a t e r-lo g g e d a n d si n k s.
Le avi n g o u t of c o n si d e r a tio n infilt r a t e d s u b s t a n c e s ,
t h e r e a s o n a c u bi c foo t of o n e ki n d of d ry w o o d is
h e a vi e r t h a n t h a t of a n o t h e r is b e c a u s e it c o n t ai n s
a g r e a t e r a m o u n t of w o o d s u b s t a n c e . D e n si t y
88
is m e r ely t h e w ei g h t of a u ni t of volu m e , a s 3 5 p o u n d s
p e r c u bic foo t, o r 0. 5 6 g r a m s p e r c u bi c c e n ti m e t r e.
S p e cific g r a vi t y o r r el a tiv e d e n si ty is t h e
r a tio of t h e d e n si ty of a n y m a t e ri al t o t h e d e n si ty
of di s tille d w a t e r a t 4 d e g. C. (3 9. 2 d e g.
F.). A c u bic foot of di s tille d w a t e r a t 4 d e g.
C. w ei g h s 6 2 . 4 3 p o u n d s . H e n c e t h e s p e cific g r a vity
of a pi e c e of w o o d wi t h a d e n si ty of 3 5 p o u n d s is
3 5 / 6 2. 4 3 = 0. 5 6 1. To fin d t h e w ei g h t p e r c u bi c
foot w h e n t h e s p e cific g r avi ty is giv e n, si m ply m ul ti ply
by 6 2. 4 3. Th u s , 0. 5 6 1 X 6 2. 4 3 = 3 5 . I n t h e
m e t ri c sy s t e m , si n c e t h e w ei g h t of a c u bi c c e n ti m e t r e
of p u r e w a t e r is o n e g r a m , t h e d e n si ty in g r a m s p e r
c u bi c c e n ti m e t r e h a s t h e s a m e n u m e ri c al v al u e a s t h e
s p e cific g r a vity.
Si n c e t h e a m o u n t of w a t e r in w o o d is e x t r e m ely v a ri a bl e
it u s u ally is n o t s a tisf a c t o ry t o r ef e r t o t h e d e n si ty
of g r e e n w o o d. Fo r s ci e n tific p u r p o s e s t h e d e n si ty
of “ov e n-d r y” w o o d is u s e d; t h a t is, t h e
w o o d is d ri e d in a n ov e n a t a t e m p e r a t u r e of 1 0 0 d e g .C.
(2 1 2 d e g.F.) u n til a c o n s t a n t w ei g h t is a t t ai n e d.
Fo r c o m m e r ci al p u r p o s e s t h e w ei g h t o r d e n sity of ai r-d ry
o r “s hi p pi n g-d r y” w o o d is u s e d. T his
is u s u ally e x p r e s s e d in p o u n d s p e r t h o u s a n d b o a r d
fe e t, a b o a r d foo t b ei n g c o n si d e r e d a s o n e-t w elft h
of a c u bic foo t.
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Woo d s h ri n k s g r e a tly in d ryi n g fro m t h e g r e e n t o t h e
ov e n-d r y c o n di tio n. (S e e Ta bl e XIV.) Co n s e q u e n tly
a blo ck of w o o d m e a s u ri n g a c u bic foo t w h e n g r e e n
will m e a s u r e c o n si d e r a bly le s s w h e n ov e n-d ry.
It follow s t h a t t h e d e n si ty of ov e n-d ry w o o d d o e s
n o t r e p r e s e n t t h e w ei g h t of t h e d ry w o o d s u b s t a n c e
in a c u bi c foo t of g r e e n w o o d. In o t h e r w o r d s,
it is n o t t h e w ei g h t of a c u bi c foot of g r e e n w o o d
m i n u s t h e w ei g h t of t h e w a t e r w hic h it c o n t ai n s.
Si n c e t h e la t t e r is oft e n a m o r e c o nv e ni e n t fig u r e
t o u s e a n d m u c h e a si e r t o o b t ai n t h a n t h e w ei g h t of
ov e n-d r y w o o d, it is c o m m o nly e x p r e s s e d in t a bl e s
of “s p e cific g r a vi ty o r d e n si ty of d ry w o o d.”
|------------------------------------------------------
----------------------|
| TABLE XIV |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------|
| S P E CI FIC GRAVITY, AND S H RI NKAGE O F 5 1 AMERICAN WOOD S
|
| (Fo r e s t S e r vic e Cir. 2 1 3) |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------|
| | | S p e cific g r a vi ty | S h ri n k a g e fro m g r e e n t o |
| | M oi s- | ov e n-d ry, b a s e d o n | ov e n-d r y c o n di tio n |
| CO M M O N NA M E | t u r e |--------------------+ - --------------------------|
| O F S P E CI E S | c o n t e n t | Volu m e | Volu m e | In | | Tan g e n- |
| | | w h e n | w h e n | volu m e | R a di al | ti al |
| | | g r e e n | ov e n-d r y | | | |
|-----------------+ - --------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - -------+ -
-------+ - --------|
| | Per | | | Per | Per | Per |
| | cent | | | cent | cent | cent |
| | | | | | | |
| H ardwoods | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
| As h, bl a c k | 7 7 | 0. 4 6 6 | | | | |
| w hi t e | 3 8 | .5 5 0 | 0. 6 4 0 | 1 2. 6 | 4. 3 | 6. 4 |
| " | 4 7 | .5 1 6 | .5 9 0 | 1 1. 7 | | |
| Basswood | 1 1 0 | .3 1 5 | .3 7 4 | 1 4. 5 | 6. 2 | 8. 4 |
90
| Beech | 6 1 | .5 5 6 | .6 6 9 | 1 6 . 5 | 4. 6 | 1 0. 5 |
| Bir c h, yello w | 7 2 | .5 4 5 | .6 6 1 | 1 7. 0 | 7. 9 | 9. 0 |
| El m, r o c k | 4 6 | .5 7 8 | | | | |
| slip p e ry | 5 7 | .5 4 1 | .6 3 9 | 1 5. 5 | 5. 1 | 9. 9 |
| w hi t e | 6 6 | .4 3 0 | | | | |
| Gu m, r e d | 7 1 | .4 3 4 | | | | |
| H ackb er ry | 5 0 | .5 0 4 | .5 7 6 | 1 4. 0 | 4. 2 | 8. 9 |
| Hi c ko ry, | | | | | | |
|------------------------------------------------------
----------------------|
| TABLE XIV (CO NT.) |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------|
| S P E CI FIC GRAVITY, AND S H RI NKAGE O F 5 1 AMERICAN WOOD S
|
| (Fo r e s t S e r vic e Cir. 2 1 3) |
This w ei g h t divid e d by 6 2. 4 3 giv e s t h e s p e cific g r avi ty
p e r g r e e n volu m e . It is p u r ely a fic titio u s q u a n ti ty.
To c o nv e r t t his fig u r e in t o a c t u al d e n si ty o r s p e cific
g r a vity of t h e d r y w o o d, it is n e c e s s a ry t o k n o w t h e
a m o u n t of s h ri n k a g e in vol u m e. If S is t h e p e r c e n t a g e
of s h ri n k a g e fro m t h e g r e e n t o t h e ov e n-d ry c o n di tio n,
b a s e d o n t h e g r e e n volu m e; D, t h e d e n si ty of t h e d r y
w o o d p e r c u bi c foo t w hil e g r e e n; a n d d t h e a c t u al
D
d e n si ty of ov e n-d r y w o o d, t h e n ---------- = d.
1
— .0 S
This r el a tio n b e c o m e s cl e a r e r fro m t h e follo wi n g a n alysi s:
Takin g V a n d W a s t h e volu m e a n d w ei g h t, r e s p e c tiv ely,
when
g r e e n , a n d v a n d w a s t h e c o r r e s p o n di n g volu m e a n d
w ei g h t w h e n
w
W V—v
ov e n-d ry, t h e n , d = --- ; D = --- ; S = ------- X
1 0 0, a n d
v
V V
V—v
s = ------- X 1 0 0, in w hi c h S is t h e p e r c e n t a g e of
s h ri n k a g e
v
fro m t h e g r e e n t o t h e ov e n-d ry c o n di tio n, b a s e d o n
the green
91
volu m e , a n d s t h e s a m e b a s e d o n t h e ov e n-d ry vol u m e .
In t a bl e s of s p e cific g r a vi ty o r d e n si ty of w o o d it
s h o ul d al w ay s b e s t a t e d w h e t h e r t h e d r y w ei g h t p e r
u ni t of vol u m e w h e n g r e e n o r t h e d ry w ei g h t p e r u ni t
of volu m e w h e n d r y is in t e n d e d , si n c e t h e s h ri n k a g e
in volu m e m a y v a ry fro m 6 t o 5 0 p e r c e n t , t h o u g h in
c o nif e r s it is u s u ally a b o u t 1 0 p e r c e n t , a n d in h a r d w o o d s
n e a r e r 1 5 p e r c e n t. (S e e Ta bl e XIV.)
COLOR
In s p e ci e s w hi c h s h o w a di s ti n c t diffe r e n c e b e t w e e n
h e a r t w o o d a n d s a p w o o d t h e n a t u r al c olo r of h e a r t w o o d
is inv a ri a bly d a r k e r t h a n t h a t of t h e s a p w o o d, a n d
v e ry fr e q u e n tly t h e c o n t r a s t is c o n s pi c u o u s.
This is p r o d u c e d by d e p o si t s in t h e h e a r t w o o d of v a rio u s
m a t e ri al s r e s ul ti n g fro m t h e p r o c e s s of g r o w t h , inc r e a s e d
p o s si bly by oxi d a tio n a n d o t h e r c h e mi c al c h a n g e s ,
w hi c h u s u ally h a v e lit tl e o r n o a p p r e ci a bl e effe c t
o n t h e m e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s of t h e w o o d. (S e e H EARTWOOD
AND SAPWOOD, a b ov e.) S o m e e x p e ri m e n t s[ 2 8] o n v e ry
r e si n o u s lo n gl e af pi n e s p e ci m e n s , h o w e v er, in dic a t e
a n inc r e a s e in s t r e n g t h . This is d u e t o t h e r e si n
w hi c h inc r e a s e s t h e s t r e n g t h w h e n d ry. S p r u c e
i m p r e g n a t e d wi t h c r u d e r e si n a n d d ri e d is g r e a tly in c r e a s e d
in s t r e n g t h t h e r e by.
[Foo t n o t e 2 8: Bul. 7 0, U.S. Fo r e s t S e rvic e,
p . 9 2; al s o p. 1 2 6 , a p p e n dix.]
Si n c e t h e la t e w o o d of a g r o w t h ri n g is u s u ally d a r k e r
in c olo r t h a n t h e e a rly w o o d, t his fac t m a y b e u s e d
in ju d gi n g t h e d e n si ty, a n d t h e r efo r e t h e h a r d n e s s
a n d s t r e n g t h of t h e m a t e ri al. T his is p a r ti c ul a rly
t h e c a s e wi t h c o nif e r o u s w o o d s. In ri n g-p o r o u s
w o o d s t h e ve s s el s of t h e e a rly w o o d n o t inf r e q u e n tly
a p p e a r o n a finis h e d s u rf a c e a s d a r k e r t h a n t h e d e n s e r
la t e w o o d, t h o u g h o n c r o s s s e c tio n s of h e a r t w o o d t h e
r e v e r s e is c o m m o nly t r u e . Exc e p t in t h e m a n n e r
jus t s t a t e d t h e c olo r of w o o d is n o in dic a tio n of
str en gth.
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Ab n o r m al dis c olo r a tio n of w o o d oft e n d e n o t e s a di s e a s e d
c o n di tio n, in dic a ti n g u n s o u n d n e s s. Th e bl a c k c h e c k
in w e s t e r n h e ml o c k is t h e r e s ul t of in s e c t a t t a c k s.[ 2 9]
Th e r e d di s h-b r o w n s t r e a k s s o c o m m o n in hi ck o ry a n d
c e r t ai n o t h e r w o o d s a r e m o s tly t h e r e s ul t of inj u ry
by bi r d s.[3 0] Th e di s colo r a tio n is m e r ely a n in dic a tio n
of a n inj u ry, a n d in all p r o b a bility d o e s n o t of it s elf
aff e c t t h e p r o p e r ti e s of t h e w o o d. C e r t ai n r o t-p r o d u ci n g
fu n gi i m p a r t t o w o o d c h a r a c t e ri s tic c olo r s w hi c h t h u s
b e c o m e c ri t e rio n s of w e a k n e s s. O r di n a ry s a p-s t ai ni n g
is d u e t o fu n g o u s g r o w t h, b u t d o e s n o t n e c e s s a rily
p r o d u c e a w e a k e ni n g effe c t.[3 1]
[Foo t n o t e 2 9: S e e B u r k e , H . E.: Bl a c k c h e c k
in w e s t e r n h e ml o c k. Cir. N o. 6 1, U.S.
B u. E n t o m olo gy, 1 9 0 5.]
[Foo t n o t e 3 0: S e e M cAt e e, W.L.: Woo d p e c k e r s
in r el a tio n t o t r e e s a n d w o o d p r o d u c t s . Bul.
N o. 3 9, U.S. Biol. S u rv ey, 1 9 1 1.]
[Foo t n o t e 3 1: S e e Von S c h r e n c k, H e r m a n n :
Th e “bl ui n g” a n d t h e “ r e d r o t”
of t h e w e s t e r n y ello w pi n e, wi t h s p e ci al r ef e r e n c e
t o t h e Bl a c k Hills fo r e s t r e s e r v e. B ul.
N o. 3 6, U.S. Bu. Pl a n t In d u s t ry, Was hi n g t o n,
1 9 0 3, p p. 1 3-1 4 .
Weis s, H o w a r d, a n d B a r n u m , C h a rl e s T.: Th e p r e v e n tio n
of s a p s t ai n in lu m b er. Cir. 1 9 2 , U.S. Fo r e s t
S e rvic e, Was hi n g t o n, 1 9 1 1, p p. 1 6-1 7.]
CROSS GRAIN
Cr o s s g r ai n is a v e ry c o m m o n d ef e c t in ti m b er.
O n e fo r m of it is p r o d u c e d in lu m b e r by t h e m e t h o d
of s a wi n g a n d h a s n o r ef e r e n c e t o t h e n a t u r al a r r a n g e m e n t
of t h e w o o d el e m e n t s. Th u s if t h e pl a n e of t h e
93
s a w is n o t a p p r oxi m a t ely p a r all el t o t h e a xi s of t h e
lo g t h e g r ai n of t h e lu m b e r c u t is n o t p a r all el t o
t h e e d g e s a n d is t e r m e d di a g o n al. T his is lik ely
t o o c c u r w h e r e t h e lo g s h a v e c o n si d e r a bl e t a p er, a n d
in t hi s c a s e m a y b e p r o d u c e d if s a w e d p a r all el t o
t h e a xis of g r o w t h in s t e a d of p a r all el t o t h e g r o w t h
ri n g s .
Lu m b e r a n d ti m b e r wi t h di a g o n al g r ai n is al w ay s w e a k e r
t h a n s t r ai g h t-g r ai n e d m a t e ri al, t h e e x t e n t of t h e
d ef e c t v a ryi n g wi t h t h e d e g r e e of t h e a n gl e t h e fib r e s
m a k e wi t h t h e a xi s of t h e s tic k. In t h e vici nity
of la r g e k n o t s t h e g r ai n is lik ely t o b e c r o s s.
Th e d ef e c t is m o s t s e rio u s w h e r e w o o d is s u bj e c t e d
t o flex u r e , a s in b e a m s .
S piral g r ai n is a ve ry c o m m o n d ef e c t in a t r e e ,
a n d w h e n ex c e s siv e r e n d e r s t h e ti m b e r v al u el e s s fo r
u s e e x c e p t in t h e r o u n d. It is p r o d u c e d by t h e
a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e w o o d fib r e s in a s pi r al di r e c tio n
a b o u t t h e a xis in s t e a d of ex a c tly v e r ti c al. Ti m b e r
wi t h s pi r al g r ai n is al s o k n o w n a s “t o r s e w o o d.”
S pi r al g r ai n u s u ally c a n n o t b e d e t e c t e d by c a s u al
in s p e c tio n of a s tic k, si n c e it d o e s n o t s h o w in t h e
s o-c all e d visi bl e g r ai n of t h e w o o d, b y w hi c h is c o m m o nly
m e a n t a s e c tio n al vi e w of t h e a n n u al ri n g s of g r o w t h
c u t lo n git u di n ally. It is a c c o r di n gly v e ry e a sy
t o allo w s pi r al-g r ai n e d m a t e ri al t o p a s s in s p e c tio n,
t h e r e b y in t r o d u ci n g a n el e m e n t of w e a k n e s s in a s t r u c t u r e .
Th e r e a r e m e t h o d s fo r r e a dily d e t e c ti n g s pi r al g r ai n.
Th e si m pl e s t is t h a t of s plit ti n g a s m all pi e c e r a di ally.
It is n e c e s s a ry, of c o u r s e , t h a t t h e s plit b e r a di al,
t h a t is, in a pl a n e p a s si n g t h r o u g h t h e a xi s of t h e
lo g, a n d n o t t a n g e n ti ally. In t h e la t t e r c a s e
it is q ui t e p r o b a bl e t h a t t h e w o o d w o ul d s plit s t r ai g h t,
t h e lin e of cl e av a g e b ei n g b e t w e e n t h e g r o w t h ri n g s.
94
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In ins p e c tio n, t h e el e m e n t s t o e x a mi n e a r e t h e r a y s.
In t h e c a s e of o a k a n d c e r t ai n o t h e r h a r d w o o d s t h e s e
r a y s a r e s o la r g e t h a t t h e y a r e r e a dily s e e n n o t o nly
o n a r a di al s u rf a c e, b u t o n t h e t a n g e n ti al a s w ell.
O n t h e fo r m e r t h ey a p p e a r a s flak e s, o n t h e la t t e r
a s s h o r t lin e s . Si n c e t h e s e r a y s a r e b e t w e e n t h e
fib r e s it n a t u r ally follo w s t h a t t h e y will b e v e r tic al
o r incli n e d a c c o r di n g a s t h e t r e e is s t r ai g h t-g r ai n e d
o r s pi r al-g r ai n e d . W hil e t h ey a r e n o t c o n s pi c u o u s
in t h e s oft w o o d s, t h ey c a n b e s e e n u p o n clo s e s c r u ti ny,
a n d p a r ti c ul a rly s o if a s m all h a n d m a g nifie r is u s e d .
W h e n w o o d h a s b e g u n t o d r y a n d c h e c k it is ve ry e a s y
t o s e e w h e t h e r o r n o t it is s t r ai g h t- o r s pi r al-g r ai n e d,
si n c e t h e c h e c k s will fo r t h e m o s t p a r t follo w al o n g
t h e r a y s. If o n e e x a mi n e s a r o w of t el e p h o n e
p ol e s, fo r e x a m pl e, h e will p r o b a bly fin d t h a t m o s t
of t h e m h a v e c h e c k s r u n ni n g s pi r ally a r o u n d t h e m .
If b o a r d s w e r e s a w e d fro m s u c h a p ol e af t e r it w a s
b a dly c h e c k e d t h ey w o ul d fall t o pi e c e s of t h ei r o w n
w ei g h t. Th e o nly w a y t o g e t s t r ai g h t m a t e ri al
w o ul d b e t o s plit it o u t.
It is fo r t hi s r e a s o n t h a t s plit bill e t s a n d s q u a r e s
a r e s t r o n g e r t h a n m o s t s a w e d m a t e ri al. Th e p r e s e n c e
of t h e s pi r al g r ai n h a s lit tl e, if a ny, eff e c t o n
t h e ti m b e r w h e n it is u s e d in t h e r o u n d , b u t in s a w e d
m a t e ri al t h e g r e a t e r t h e pi t c h of t h e s pi r al t h e g r e a t e r
is t h e d ef e c t.
KNOTS
K no t s a r e p o r tio n s of b r a n c h e s in cl u d e d in
t h e w o o d of t h e s t e m o r la r g e r b r a n c h. Br a n c h e s
o ri gi n a t e a s a r ul e fro m t h e c e n t r al a xis of a s t e m ,
a n d w hil e livin g inc r e a s e in siz e by t h e a d di tio n
of a n n u al w o o dy lay e r s w hi c h a r e a c o n ti n u a tio n of
t h o s e of t h e s t e m . Th e in cl u d e d p o r tio n is ir r e g ul a rly
95
c o ni c al in s h a p e wi t h t h e ti p a t t h e pi t h. Th e
di r e c tio n of t h e fib r e is a t ri g h t a n gl e s o r o bliq u e
t o t h e g r ai n of t h e s t e m , t h u s p r o d u ci n g loc al c r o s s
g r ai n.
D u ri n g t h e d ev elo p m e n t of a t r e e m o s t of t h e li m b s,
e s p e ci ally t h e low e r o n e s, di e, b u t p e r si s t fo r a
ti m e—oft e n fo r y e a r s . S u b s e q u e n t lay e r s
of g r o w t h of t h e s t e m a r e n o lo n g e r in ti m a t ely joi n e d
wi t h t h e d e a d li m b, b u t a r e lai d a r o u n d it. H e n c e
d e a d b r a n c h e s p r o d u c e k n o t s w hi c h a r e n o t hi n g m o r e
t h a n p e g s in a h ol e, a n d lik ely t o d r o p o u t af t e r
t h e t r e e h a s b e e n s a w e d in t o lu m b er. In g r a di n g
lu m b e r a n d s t r u c t u r al ti m b er, k n o t s a r e cl a s sifi e d
a c c o r di n g t o t h ei r for m , siz e, s o u n d n e s s , a n d t h e
fir m n e s s wi t h w hi c h t h ey a r e h el d in pl a c e.[ 3 2]
[Foo t n o t e 3 2: S e e S t a n d a r d cl a s sific a tio n of
s t r u c t u r al ti m b er. Yea r b o o k Am. S o c. fo r
Tes ti n g M a t e ri al s, 1 9 1 3, p p . 3 0 0-3 0 3. Co n t ai n s
t h r e e pl a t e s s h o wi n g s t a n d a r d d ef e c t s.]
96
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Kno t s m a t e ri ally affe c t c h e c ki n g a n d w a r pi n g, e a s e
in w o r ki n g, a n d cl e av a bility of ti m b er. Th ey
a r e d ef e c t s w hic h w e a k e n ti m b e r a n d d e p r e ci a t e it s
v al u e fo r s t r u c t u r al p u r p o s e s w h e r e s t r e n g t h is a n
i m p o r t a n t c o n si d e r a tio n. T h e w e a k e ni n g effe c t
is m u c h m o r e s e rio u s w h e r e ti m b e r is s u bj e c t e d t o
b e n di n g a n d t e n sio n t h a n w h e r e u n d e r c o m p r e s sio n.
Th e ex t e n t t o w hi c h k n o t s affe c t t h e s t r e n g t h of a
b e a m d e p e n d s u p o n t h ei r p o si tio n, siz e, n u m b er, di r e c tio n
of fib r e, a n d c o n di tio n. A k n o t o n t h e u p p e r si d e
is c o m p r e s s e d, w hile o n e o n t h e low e r si d e is s u bj e c t e d
t o t e n sio n. Th e k n o t, e s p e ci ally ( a s is oft e n
t h e c a s e) if t h e r e is a s e a s o n c h e c k in it, offe r s
lit tl e r e sis t a n c e t o t hi s t e n sil e s t r e s s. S m all,
k n o t s, h o w ev er, m a y b e s o loc a t e d in a b e a m alo n g t h e
n e u t r al pl a n e a s a c t u ally t o inc r e a s e t h e s t r e n g t h
by t e n di n g t o p r e v e n t lo n gi t u di n al s h e a ri n g.
Kno t s in a b o a r d o r pl a n k a r e le a s t inju rio u s w h e n
t h e y ex t e n d t h r o u g h it a t ri g h t a n gl e s t o it s b r o a d e s t
s u rf a c e. Kno t s w hi c h o c c u r n e a r t h e e n d s of a
b e a m d o n o t w e a k e n it. S o u n d k n o t s w hic h o c c u r
in t h e c e n t r al p o r tio n o n e-fo u r t h t h e h ei g h t of t h e
b e a m fro m ei t h e r e d g e a r e n o t s e rio u s d ef e c t s.
Ex t e n siv e e x p e ri m e n t s by t h e U.S. Fo r e s t S e r vic e[ 3 3]
in dic a t e t h e followi n g eff e c t s of k n o t s o n s t r u c t u r al
ti m b e r s :
[Foo t n o t e 3 3: Bul. 1 0 8, p p . 5 2 e t s e q . ]
(1) Kno t s d o n o t m a t e ri ally influ e n c e t h e s tiffn e s s
of s t r u c t u r al ti m b er.
(2) O nly d ef e c t s of t h e m o s t s e rio u s c h a r a c t e r aff e c t
t h e el a s tic li mit of b e a m s . S tiffn e s s a n d el a s tic
s t r e n g t h a r e m o r e d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e q u ality of t h e
w o o d fib r e t h a n u p o n d ef e c t s in t h e b e a m .
(3) T h e effe c t of k n o t s is t o r e d u c e t h e diffe r e n c e
b e t w e e n t h e fib r e s t r e s s a t el a s tic li mit a n d t h e
m o d ul u s of r u p t u r e of b e a m s . Th e b r e a ki n g s t r e n g t h
97
is v e ry s u s c e p ti bl e t o d ef e c t s.
(4) S o u n d k n o t s d o n o t w e a k e n w o o d w h e n s u bj e c t t o
c o m p r e s sio n p a r all el t o t h e g r ai n.[ 3 4]
[Foo t n o t e 3 4: Bul. 1 1 5, U.S. Fo r e s t S e rvic e:
M e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s of w e s t e r n h e ml o c k, p . 2 0.]
FROST SPLITS
A c o m m o n d ef e c t in s t a n di n g ti m b e r r e s ul t s fro m r a di al
s plit s w hic h e x t e n d in w a r d fro m t h e p e ri p h e r y of t h e
t r e e , a n d al m o s t, if n o t al w ay s, n e a r t h e b a s e .
It is m o s t c o m m o n in t r e e s w hi c h s plit r e a dily, a n d
t h o s e wi t h la r g e r a y s a n d t hi n b a r k. Th e p ri m a ry
c a u s e of t h e s plit ti n g is fro s t, a n d v a rio u s t h e o ri e s
h a v e b e e n a d v a n c e d t o e x pl ai n t h e a c tio n.
R. H a r ti g[ 3 5] b eli ev e s t h a t fr e e zi n g fo r c e s o u t a
p a r t of t h e i m bi bitio n w a t e r of t h e c ell w alls, t h e r e by
c a u si n g t h e w o o d t o s h ri n k, a n d if t h e in t e rio r lay e r s
h a v e n o t y e t b e e n c ool e d, t a n g e n ti al s t r ai n s a ri s e
w hi c h fin ally p r o d u c e r a di al cl eft s.
[Foo t n o t e 3 5: H a r ti g, R.: Th e di s e a s e s of
t r e e s (t r a n s. by S o m e rville a n d Wa r d), Lo n d o n a n d
N e w York, 1 8 9 4, p p . 2 8 2-2 9 4 .]
Anot h e r t h e o ry h ol d s t h a t t h e w a t e r is n o t d riv e n
o u t of t h e c ell w alls, b u t t h a t diffe r e n c e in t e m p e r a t u r e
c o n di tio n s of in n e r a n d o u t e r lay e r s is it s elf s uffici e n t
t o s e t u p t h e s t r ai n s , r e s ul ti n g in s plit ti n g.
An ai r t e m p e r a t u r e of 1 4 d e g.F. o r le s s is c o n si d e r e d
n e c e s s a r y t o p r o d u c e fro s t s plit s.
98
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A s till m o r e r e c e n t t h e o ry is t h a t of Bu s s e[ 3 6] w h o
c o n si d e r s t h e m e c h a ni c al a c tio n of t h e wi n d a v e ry
i m p o r t a n t fac t or. H e o b s e rv e d: (a)
F r o s t s plit s s o m e ti m e s o c c u r a t hi g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s
t h a n 1 4 d e g.F. (b ) M o s t s plit s t a k e pl a c e s h o r tly
b efo r e s u n ri s e, i.e., a t t h e ti m e of lo w e s t
ai r a n d s oil t e m p e r a t u r e; t h ey a r e n e v e r h e a r d t o
t a k e pl a c e a t n o o n, af t e r n o o n, o r e v e ni n g. ( c )
Th ey al w a y s o c c u r b e t w e e n t w o r o o t s o r b e t w e e n t h e
c oll a r s of t w o r o o t s, (d ) T h ey a r e m o s t fr e q u e n t
in ol d, s t o u t-r o o t e d, b r o a d-c r o w n e d t r e e s; in yo u n g e r
s t a n d s it is al w ay s t h e s t o u t e s t m e m b e r s t h a t a r e fo u n d
wi t h fro s t s plit s, w hil e in q ui t e yo u n g s t a n d s t h ey
a r e al t o g e t h e r a b s e n t, (e ) T r e e s o n w e t sit e s
a r e m o s t lia bl e t o s plit s, d u e t o diffe r e n c e in w o o d
s t r u c t u r e , ju s t a s diffe r e n c e in w o o d s t r u c t u r e m a k e s
diffe r e n t s p e ci e s v a ry in t hi s r e g a r d. (f)
F r o s t s plit s a r e m o s t n u m e r o u s le s s t h a n t h r e e fe e t
a b ov e t h e g r o u n d .
[Foo t n o t e 3 6: Bu s s e, W.: F r o s t-, Ri n g- u n d
Ke r n ri s s e. Fo r s t wi s s. C e n t r al b., XXXII,
2, 1 9 1 0, p p . 7 4-8 1.]
W h e n a t r e e is s w ay e d by t h e wi n d t h e r o o t s a r e c o u n t e r a c ti n g
fo r c e s, a n d t h e w o o d fib r e s a r e t e s t e d in t e n sio n a n d
c o m p r e s sio n by t h e o p p o si n g fo r c e s; w h e r e t h e r o o t s
e x e r ci s e t e n sio n s t r e s s e s m o s t eff e c tiv ely t h e eff e c t
of c o m p r e s sio n s t r e s s e s is a t a mi ni m u m; o nly w h e r e
t h e p r e s s u r e is in e x c e s s of t h e t e n sio n, i.e.,
b e t w e e n t h e r o o t s, c a n a s e p a r a tio n of t h e fib r e r e s ul t.
H e n c e , w h e n by fro s t a t e n sio n o n t h e e n ti r e p e ri p h e r y
is e s t a blis h e d , a n d t h e wi n d loc aliz e s a d di tio n al
s t r ai n s, fail u r e o c c u r s . T h e s t r o n g e r t h e c o m p r e s sio n
a n d t e n sio n, t h e s ev e r e r t h e s t r ai n s a n d t h e oft e n e r
failu r e s o c c ur. Th e o c c u r r e n c e of r e p o r t s of
fro s t s plit s o n wi n d-s till d a y s is b eli ev e d by Bu s s e
t o b e d u e t o t h e o p e ni n g of ol d fro s t s plit s w h e r e
t h e t e n sio n p r o d u c e d by t h e fro s t al o n e is s uffici e n t.
F r o s t s plit s m a y h e al ov e r t e m p o r a rily, b u t u s u ally
99
o p e n u p a g ai n d u ri n g t h e follo wi n g wi n t er. Th e
p r e s e n c e of ol d s plit s is oft e n in dic a t e d by a ri d g e
of c allo u s, t h e r e s ul t of t h e c a m bi u m’s effo r t
t o o c cl u d e t h e w o u n d . F r o s t s plit s n o t o nly aff e c t
t h e v al u e of lu m b er, b u t al s o affo r d a n e n t r a n c e in t o
t h e livin g t r e e fo r di s e a s e a n d d e c ay.
SHAKES, GALLS, PITCH POCKETS
H e ar t s h a k e o c c u r s in n e a rly all ov e r m a t u r e
ti m b er, b ei n g m o r e fr e q u e n t in h a r d w o o d s (e s p e ci ally
o a k) t h a n in c o nif e r s. In ty pic al h e a r t s h a k e
t h e c e n t r e of t h e h ol e s h o w s in dic a tio n s of b e c o mi n g
h ollo w a n d r a di al cl eft s of v a ryi n g siz e e x t e n d o u t w a r d
fro m t h e pi t h, b ei n g wi d e s t in w a r d. It fr e q u e n tly
aff e c t s o nly t h e b u t t lo g, b u t m a y e x t e n d t o t h e e n ti r e
h ol e a n d e v e n t h e la r g e r b r a n c h e s. It u s u ally
r e s ul t s fro m a s h ri n k a g e of t h e h e a r t w o o d d u e p r o b a bly
t o c h e mi c al c h a n g e s in t h e w o o d.
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W h e n it c o n si s t s of a si n gl e cl eft e x t e n di n g a c r o s s
t h e pi t h it is t e r m e d si m pl e h e ar t s h a k e .
S h a k e of t hi s c h a r a c t e r in s t r ai g h t-g r ai n e d t r e e s
aff e c t s o nly o n e o r t w o c e n t r al b o a r d s w h e n c u t in t o
lu m b er, b u t in s pi r al-g r ai n e d ti m b e r t h e d a m a g e is
m u c h g r e a t er. W h e n s h a k e c o n si s t s of s ev e r al r a di al
cl eft s it is t e r m e d s t ar s h a k e . In s o m e
in s t a n c e s o n e o r m o r e of t h e s e cl eft s m a y e x t e n d n e a rly
t o t h e b a r k. In fell e d o r c o nv e r t e d ti m b e r cl eft s
d u e t o h e a r t s h a k e m a y b e di s ti n g ui s h e d fro m s e a s o ni n g
c r a c k s by t h e d a r k e r c olo r of t h e e x p o s e d s u rf a c e s .
S u c h cl eft s, h o w ev er, t e n d t o o p e n u p m o r e a n d m o r e
a s t h e ti m b e r s e a s o n s .
C u p o r ri n g s h a k e r e s ul t s fro m t h e p ullin g
a p a r t of t w o o r m o r e g r o w t h ri n g s. It is o n e
of t h e m o s t s e rio u s d ef e c t s t o w hi c h s o u n d ti m b e r
is s u bj e c t, a s it s e rio u sly r e d u c e s t h e t e c h nic al
p r o p e r ti e s of w o o d. It is ve ry c o m m o n in sy c a m o r e
a n d in w e s t e r n la r c h, p a r ti c ul a rly in t h e b u t t p o r tio n.
It s o c c u r r e n c e is m o s t fr e q u e n t a t t h e ju n c tio n of
t w o g r o w t h lay e r s of v e ry u n e q u al t hic k n e s s .
Co n s e q u e n tly it is lik ely t o o c c u r in t r e e s w hic h
h a v e g r o w n slo wly fo r a ti m e , t h e n a b r u p tly inc r e a s e d ,
d u e t o i m p r ov e d c o n di tio n s of lig h t a n d foo d, a s in
t hi n ni n g. Ol d ti m b e r is m o r e s u bj e c t t o it t h a n
yo u n g t r e e s . Th e d a m a g e is la r g ely c o nfi n e d t o
t h e b u t t log. C u p s h a k e is oft e n a s s o ci a t e d wi t h
o t h e r fo r m s of s h a k e , a n d n o t inf r e q u e n tly s h o w s t r a c e s
of d e c ay.
Th e c a u s e s of c u p s h a k e a r e u n c e r t ai n. Th e s w ayi n g
a c tio n of t h e wi n d m a y r e s ul t in s h e a ri n g a p a r t t h e
g r o w t h lay e r s , e s p e ci ally in t r e e s g r o wi n g in e x p o s e d
pl a c e s. F r o s t m a y in s o m e in s t a n c e s b e r e s p o n si bl e
fo r c u p s h a k e o r a t le a s t a c o n t ri b u ti n g fa c t or, al t h o u g h
t r e e s g r o wi n g in r e gio n s fr e e fro m fro s t oft e n h a v e
ri n g s h a k e . S h ri n k a g e of t h e h e a r t w o o d m a y b e
c o n c e n t ri c a s w ell a s r a di al in it s a c tio n, t h u s p r o d u ci n g
c u p s h a k e in s t e a d of, o r in c o n n e c tio n wi t h, h e a r t
sh ake.
101
A loc al d ef e c t s o m e w h a t si mil a r in eff e c t t o c u p s h a k e
is k n o w n a s ri n d g all. If t h e c a m bi u m
lay e r is e x p o s e d by t h e r e m ov al of t h e e n ti r e b a r k
o r ri n d it will di e. S u b s e q u e n t g r o w t h ov e r t h e
d a m a g e d p o r tio n d o e s n o t c o h e r e wi t h t h e w o o d p r evio u sly
fo r m e d by t h e ol d c a m bi u m . T h e d ef e c t r e s ul ti n g
is t e r m e d ri n d g all. Th e m o s t c o m m o n c a u s e s of
it a r e fir e, g n a wi n g, bl a zi n g, c hi p pi n g, s u n s c al d,
lig h t ni n g, a n d a b r a sio n s.
H e ar t b r e a k is a t e r m a p pli e d t o a r e a s of c o m p r e s sio n
failu r e al o n g t h e g r ai n fo u n d in o c c a sio n al lo g s.
S o m e ti m e s t h e s e b r e a k s a r e invisibl e u n til t h e w o o d
is m a n uf a c t u r e d in t o t h e finis h e d a r ticl e. T h e
o c c u r r e n c e of t hi s d ef e c t is m o s tly limit e d t o t h e
d e n s e h a r d w o o d s, s u c h a s hi ck o ry a n d t o h e a vy t r o pi c al
s p e ci e s . It is t h e s o u r c e of c o n si d e r a bl e los s
in t h e fa n cy v e n e e r in d u s t ry, a s t h e ve n e e r fro m v al u a bl e
lo g s s o affe c t e d d r o p s t o pi e c e s.
Th e c a u s e of h e a r t b r e a k is n o t p o sitiv ely k n o w n.
It is hi g hly p r o b a bl e, h o w ev er, t h a t w h e n t h e t r e e
is fell e d t h e t r u n k s t rik e s a c r o s s a r o c k o r a n o t h e r
lo g, a n d t h e i m p a c t c a u s e s a c t u al fail u r e in t h e log
a s in a b e a m .
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R e si n o r pi t c h p o c k e t s a r e of c o m m o n
o c c u r r e n c e in t h e w o o d of la r c h, s p r u c e , fir, a n d
e s p e ci ally of lon gl e af a n d o t h e r h a r d pi n e s.
Th ey a r e d u e t o a c c u m ul a tio n s of r e si n in o p e ni n g s
b e t w e e n a dj a c e n t lay e r s of g r o w t h . Th ey a r e m o r e
fr e q u e n t in t r e e s g r o wi n g alo n e t h a n in t h o s e of d e n s e
s t a n d s . Th e p o c k e t s a r e u s u ally a fe w in c h e s
in g r e a t e s t di m e n sio n a n d aff e c t o nly o n e o r t w o g r o w t h
lay e r s. Th ey a r e hi d d e n u n til e x p o s e d by t h e
s aw, r e n d e ri n g it i m p o s si bl e t o c u t lu m b e r wi t h r ef e r e n c e
t o t h ei r p o si tio n. Oft e n s ev e r al b o a r d s a r e d a m a g e d
by a si n gl e p o c k e t. In g r a di n g lu m b er, pi t c h
p o c k e t s a r e cl a s sifi e d a s s m all, s t a n d a r d , a n d la r g e ,
d e p e n di n g u p o n t h ei r wi d t h a n d le n g t h.
INSECT INJURIES[37]
[Foo t n o t e 3 7: Fo r d e t ail e d info r m a tio n r e g a r di n g
in s e c t inj u ri e s, t h e r e a d e r is r ef e r r e d t o t h e v a rio u s
p u blic a tio n s of t h e U.S. Bu r e a u of E n t o m olo gy,
Wa s hi n g t o n, D.C.]
Th e la rv a e of m a n y in s e c t s a r e d e s t r u c tiv e t o w o o d.
S o m e a t t a c k t h e w o o d of livin g t r e e s, o t h e r s o nly
t h a t of felle d o r c o nv e r t e d m a t e ri al. Ev e ry h ol e
b r e a k s t h e c o n ti n ui ty of t h e fib r e s a n d i m p ai r s t h e
s t r e n g t h , a n d if t h e r e a r e v e ry m a n y of t h e m t h e m a t e ri al
m a y b e r ui n e d fo r all p u r p o s e s w h e r e s t r e n g t h is r e q ui r e d.
S o m e of t h e m o s t c o m m o n in s e c t s a t t a c ki n g t h e w o o d
of livin g t r e e s a r e t h e o a k ti m b e r w o r m , t h e c h e s t n u t
ti m b e r w o r m , c a r p e n t e r w o r m s , a m b r o si a b e e tl e s, t h e
loc u s t b o r er, t u r p e n ti n e b e e tl e s a n d t u r p e n ti n e b o r e r s,
a n d t h e w hi t e pi n e w e evil.
Th e in s e c t inj u ri e s t o fo r e s t p r o d u c t s m a y b e cl a s s e d
a c c o r di n g t o t h e s t a g e of m a n uf a c t u r e of t h e m a t e ri al.
Th u s r o u n d ti m b e r wi t h t h e b a r k o n, s u c h a s p ol e s,
103
p o s t s, m i n e p r o p s , a n d s a wlo g s, is s u bj e c t t o s e rio u s
d a m a g e by t h e s a m e cl a s s of in s e c t s a s t h o s e m e n tio n e d
a b ov e, p a r ti c ul a rly by t h e r o u n d-h e a d e d b o r e r s , ti m b e r
w o r m s , a n d a m b r o si a b e e tl e s. M a n uf a c t u r e d u n s e a s o n e d
p r o d u c t s a r e s u bj e c t t o d a m a g e fro m a m b r o si a b e e tl e s
a n d o t h e r w o o d b o r e r s . S e a s o n e d h a r d w o o d lu m b e r
of all ki n d s, r o u g h h a n dl e s, w a g o n s t o c k, e t c .,
m a d e p a r ti ally o r e n ti r ely of s a p w o o d, a r e oft e n r e d u c e d
in v al u e fro m 1 0 t o 9 0 p e r c e n t by a cl a s s of in s e c t s
k n o w n a s p o w d e r-p o s t b e e tl e s. Fi ni s h e d h a r d w o o d
p r o d u c t s s u c h a s h a n dl e s, w a g o n, c a r ri a g e a n d m a c hi n e ry
s t o c k, e s p e ci ally if a s h o r hi c k o ry, a r e oft e n d e s t r oy e d
by t h e p o w d e r-p o s t b e e tl e s. Co n s t r u c tio n ti m b e r s
in b uildi n g s, b ri d g e s a n d t r e s tl e s, c r o s s-ti e s, p ol e s,
m i n e p r o p s , fe n c e p o s t s, e t c ., a r e s o m e ti m e s
s e rio u sly inj u r e d by w o o d-b o ri n g la rv a e , t e r mi t e s ,
bl a c k a n t s , c a r p e n t e r b e e s, a n d p o w d e r-p o s t b e e tl e s,
a n d s o m e ti m e s r e d u c e d in v al u e fro m 1 0 t o 1 0 0 p e r
c e n t. I n t r o pi c al c o u n t ri e s t e r mi t e s a r e a ve ry
s e rio u s p e s t in t his r e s p e c t.
MARINE WOOD-BORER INJURIES
Vas t a m o u n t s of ti m b e r u s e d fo r pil e s in w h a rv e s a n d
o t h e r m a ri n e s t r u c t u r e s a r e c o n s t a n tly b ei n g d e s t r oy e d
o r s e rio u sly inju r e d by m a ri n e b o r e r s . Alm o s t
inv a ri a bly t h e y a r e c o nfi n e d t o s al t w a t er, a n d all
t h e w o o d s c o m m o nly u s e d for pili n g a r e s u bj e c t t o
t h ei r a t t a c k s. T h e r e a r e t w o g e n e r a of m oll u s k s,
X ylo tr y a a n d Ter e d o , a n d t h r e e of c r u s t a c e a n s ,
Li m n o ria, C h el ur a , a n d S p h o e r o m a , t h a t
d o s e rio u s d a m a g e in m a n y pl a c e s alo n g b o t h t h e Atla n ti c
a n d P a cific c o a s t s.
104
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Th e s e m oll u s k s, w hi c h a r e p o p ul a rly k n o w n a s “s hi p w o r m s ,”
a r e m u c h alik e in s t r u c t u r e a n d m o d e of life.
Th ey a t t a c k t h e e x p o s e d s u rf a c e of t h e w o o d a n d i m m e di a t ely
b e gi n t o b o r e . T h e t u n n el s, oft e n a s la r g e a s
a le a d p e n cil, e x t e n d u s u ally in a lo n gi t u di n al di r e c tio n
a n d follo w a ve ry ir r e g ul ar, t a n gl e d c o u r s e .
H a r d w o o d s a r e a p p a r e n tly p e n e t r a t e d a s r e a dily a s
s oft w o o d s, t h o u g h in t h e s a m e ti m b e r t h e s oft e r p a r t s
a r e p r ef e r r e d . Th e foo d c o n si s t s of inf u s o ri a
a n d is n o t o b t ai n e d fro m t h e w o o d s u b s t a n c e .
Th e s ol e o bj e c t of b o ri n g in t o t h e w o o d is t o o b t ai n
s h el t er.
Alt ho u g h s hi p w o r m s c a n live in c ol d w a t e r t h e y t h riv e
b e s t a n d a r e m o s t d e s t r u c tiv e in w a r m w a t er.
Th e le n g t h of ti m e r e q ui r e d t o d e s t r oy a n a v e r a g e
b a r k e d, u n p r o t e c t e d pi n e pil e o n t h e Atl a n tic c o a s t
s o u t h fro m C h e s a p e a k e B ay a n d alo n g t h e e n ti r e P a cific
c o a s t v a ri e s fro m b u t o n e t o t h r e e ye a r s .
Of t h e c r u s t a c e a n b o r e r s , Li m n o ria, o r t h e
“w oo d lo u s e,” is t h e o nly o n e of g r e a t
i m p o r t a n c e , al t h o u g h S p h o e r o m a is r e p o r t e d
d e s t r u c tiv e in pl a c e s. Li m n o ria is a b o u t t h e
siz e of a g r ai n of ri c e a n d t u n n el s in t o t h e w o o d
fo r b o t h foo d a n d s h el t er. Th e g all e ri e s e x t e n d
in w a r d r a di ally, si d e b y si d e, in c o u n tl e s s n u m b e r s ,
t o t h e d e p t h of a b o u t o n e-h alf in c h. Th e t hi n
w o o d p a r ti tio n s r e m ai ni n g a r e d e s t r oy e d by w a v e a c tio n,
s o t h a t a fr e s h s u rf a c e is e x p o s e d t o a t t a c k.
Bo t h h a r d a n d s oft w o o d s a r e d a m a g e d , b u t t h e r a t e
is fa s t e r in t h e s oft w o o d s o r s oft e r p o r tio n s of
a w o o d.
Ti m b e r s s e rio u sly a t t a c k e d by m a ri n e b o r e r s a r e b a dly
w e a k e n e d o r c o m pl e t ely d e s t r oy e d. If t h e o ri gi n al
s t r e n g t h of t h e m a t e ri al is t o b e p r e s e rv e d it is
n e c e s s a r y t o p r o t e c t t h e w o o d fro m t h e b o r e r s .
This is s o m e ti m e s a c c o m plis h e d by p r o p e r inj e c tio n
of c r e o s o t e oil, a n d m o r e o r le s s s u c c e s sf ully by t h e
u s e of v a rio u s ki n d s of e x t e r n al c o a ti n g s .[ 3 8] N o t r e a t m e n t,
105
h o w ev er, h a s p r ov e d e n ti r ely s a ti sf a c t o ry.
[Foo t n o t e 3 8: S e e S mi t h, C. S t o w ell: P r e s e rv a tio n
of pilin g a g ai n s t m a ri n e w o o d b o r e r s . Cir. 1 2 8,
U.S. Fo r e s t S e rvic e, 1 9 0 8 , p p. 1 5 .]
FUNGOUS INJURIES[39]
[Foo t n o t e 3 9: S e e Von S c h r e n c k, H .: Th e
d e c ay of ti m b e r a n d m e t h o d s of p r ev e n ti n g it.
B ul. 1 4, U.S. B u. Pl a n t In d u s t ry, Was hi n g t o n,
D.C., 1 9 0 2 . Also B uls. 3 2 , 1 1 4, 2 1 4, 2 6 6 .
M ei n e o k e, E.P.: Fo r e s t t r e e di s e a s e s c o m m o n in
C alifo r ni a a n d N e v a d a , U.S. Fo r e s t S e r vic e, Wa s hi n g t o n,
D.C., 1 9 1 4 .
H a r ti g, R.: Th e di s e a s e s of t r e e s . Lo n d o n
a n d N e w York, 1 8 9 4 .]
F u n gi a r e r e s p o n si bl e fo r al m o s t all d e c a y of w o o d.
S o fa r a s k n o w n, all d e c a y is p r o d u c e d by livin g o r g a ni s m s ,
ei t h e r fu n gi o r b a c t e ri a. S o m e s p e ci e s a t t a c k
livin g t r e e s , s o m e ti m e s killin g t h e m , o r m a ki n g t h e m
h ollow, o r in t h e c a s e of p e c ky cy p r e s s a n d inc e n s e
c e d a r fillin g t h e w o o d wi t h g all e ri e s lik e t h o s e of
b o ri n g in s e c t s. A m u c h la r g e r v a ri e ty w o r k o nly
in fell e d o r d e a d w o o d, e v e n af t e r it is pl a c e d in
b uil di n g s o r m a n uf a c t u r e d a r ti cl e s. In a n y c a s e
106
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t h e p r o c e s s of d e s t r u c tio n is t h e s a m e . Th e m y c eli al
t h r e a d s p e n e t r a t e t h e w alls of t h e c ells in s e a r c h
of foo d, w hic h t h ey fin d ei t h e r in t h e c ell c o n t e n t s
(s t a r c h e s , s u g a r s , e t c .), o r in t h e c ell w all
it s elf. Th e b r e a ki n g d o w n of t h e c ell w alls t h r o u g h
t h e c h e mi c al a c tio n of s o-c all e d “ e n zy m e s ”
s e c r e t e d by t h e fu n gi follow s, a n d t h e e v e n t u al p r o d u c t
is a r o t t e n, m oi s t s u b s t a n c e c r u m blin g r e a dily u n d e r
t h e sli g h t e s t p r e s s u r e . S o m e s p e ci e s r e m ov e t h e
lig n e o u s m a t t e r a n d le av e al m o s t p u r e c ell ulo s e, w hi c h
is w hi t e, lik e c o t t o n; o t h e r s di s s olv e t h e c ell ulos e,
le avi n g a b ri t tl e, d a r k b r o w n m a s s of lig n o-c ell ulos e.
F u n gi (s u c h a s t h e bl ui n g fu n g u s) w hic h m e r ely s t ai n
w o o d u s u ally d o n o t affe c t it s m e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s
u nl e s s t h e a t t a c k s a r e e x c e s siv e.
It is e vi d e n t, t h e n, t h a t t h e a c tio n of r o t-c a u si n g
fu n gi is t o d e c r e a s e t h e s t r e n g t h of w o o d, r e n d e ri n g
it u n s o u n d, b ri t tl e, a n d d a n g e r o u s t o u s e . Th e
m o s t d a n g e r o u s ki n d s a r e t h e s o-c all e d “ d ry-r o t”
fu n gi w hic h w o r k in m a n y ki n d s of lu m b e r af t e r it is
pl a c e d in t h e b uil di n g s. Th ey a r e p a r ti c ul a rly
t o b e d r e a d e d b e c a u s e u n s e e n , w o r ki n g a s t h e y d o wi t hi n
t h e w alls o r in si d e of c a si n g s. S ev e r al s e rio u s
w r e c k s of la r g e b uildi n g s h a v e b e e n a t t ri b u t e d t o
t hi s c a u s e. It is s t a t e d[ 4 0] t h a t in t h e t h r e e
y e a r s (1 9 1 1-1 9 1 3) m o r e t h a n $ 1 0 0, 0 0 0 w a s r e q ui r e d t o
r e p ai r d a m a g e d u e t o d ry r o t.
[Foo t n o t e 4 0: D ry r o t in fa c t o ry ti m b e r s , by
In s p e c tio n D e p t. As so ci a t e d F a c t o ry M u t u al Fi r e
In s u r a n c e Co s., 3 1 Milk S t r e e t , Bo s t o n, 1 9 1 3.]
D ry r o t d e v elo p s b e s t a t 7 5 d e g.F. a n d is s ai d t o
b e kille d by a t e m p e r a t u r e of 1 1 0 d e g.F.[4 1] F ully
7 0 p e r c e n t h u m i dity is n e c e s s a ry in t h e ai r in w hi c h
a ti m b e r is s u r r o u n d e d fo r t h e g r o w t h of t hi s fu n g u s ,
a n d p r o b a bly t h e w o o d m u s t b e q ui t e n e a r it s fib r e
s a t u r a tio n c o n di tio n. N e v e r t h el e s s M e r uli u s
lacr y m a n s (o n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s p e ci e s) h a s
b e e n fou n d t o live fo u r ye a r s a n d ei g h t m o n t h s in
107
a d r y c o n di tio n.[ 4 2] Tho r o u g h kiln-d ryi n g will kill
t hi s fu n g u s , b u t will n o t p r e v e n t it s r e d e v elo p m e n t.
Antis e p ti c t r e a t m e n t , s u c h a s c r e o s o ti n g, is t h e b e s t
p r e v e n tio n.
[Foo t n o t e 4 1: F alck, Ric h a r d: Di e M e r uli u sf a u el e
d e s B a u h olz e s, H a u s s c h w a m mfo r s c h u n g e n , 6. H ef t.,
Je n a, 1 9 1 2 .]
[Foo t n o t e 4 2: M e z, C a rl: D e r H a u s s c h w a m m .
D r e s d e n , 1 9 0 8, p. 6 3.]
All fu n gi r e q ui r e m oi s t u r e a n d ai r[ 4 3] fo r t h ei r g r o w t h.
D e p riv e d of ei t h e r of t h e s e t h e fu n g u s di e s o r c e a s e s
t o d e v elo p. Jus t w h a t d e g r e e of m oi s t u r e in w o o d
is n e c e s s a ry fo r t h e “d ry-r o t” fu n g u s
h a s n o t b e e n d e t e r mi n e d, b u t it is e vi d e n tly c o n si d e r a bly
a b ov e t h a t of t h o r o u g hly ai r-d r y ti m b er, p r o b a bly
m o r e t h a n 1 5 p e r c e n t m oi s t u r e. H e n c e t h e im p o r t a n c e
of fr e e ci r c ul a tio n of ai r a b o u t all ti m b e r s in a
b uil di n g.
[Foo t n o t e 4 3: A c ul t u r e of fu n g u s pl a c e d in a
gl a s s ja r a n d t h e ai r p u m p e d o u t c e a s e s t o g r ow, b u t
will s t a r t a g ai n a s s o o n a s oxy g e n is a d m i t t e d.]
108
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Wa r m t h is al s o c o n d u civ e t o t h e g r o w t h of fu n gi, t h e
m o s t favo r a bl e t e m p e r a t u r e b ei n g a b o u t 9 0 d e g.F.
Th ey c a n n o t g r o w in e x t r e m e c ol d, al t h o u g h n o d e g r e e
of c ol d s u c h a s o c c u r s n a t u r ally will kill t h e m .
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d, hi g h t e m p e r a t u r e will kill t h e m ,
b u t t h e s p o r e s m a y s u rviv e e v e n t h e b oilin g t e m p e r a t u r e .
M o ul d fu n g u s h a s b e e n o b s e rv e d t o d e v elo p r a pi dly
a t 1 3 0 d e g.F. in a d ry kiln in m oi s t air, a c o n di tio n
u n d e r w hi c h a n a ni m al c a n n o t live m o r e t h a n a fe w
m i n u t e s . This fu n g u s w a s kille d, h o w ev er, a t
a b o u t 1 4 0 d e g . o r 1 4 5 d e g .F.[4 4]
[Foo t n o t e 4 4: Ex p e ri m e n t s in kiln-d ryi n g E u c aly p t u s
in B e r k el ey, U.S. Fo r e s t S e rvic e.]
Th e fu n g u s (E n d o t hia p ar a si tica An d.) w hi c h
c a u s e s t h e c h e s t n u t blig h t kills t h e t r e e s b y gi r dli n g
t h e m a n d h a s n o di r e c t eff e c t u p o n t h e w o o d s av e p o s si bly
t h e fo u r o r five g r o w t h ri n g s of t h e s a p w o o d.[ 4 5]
[Foo t n o t e 4 5: S e e An d e r s o n, P a ul J.: Th e
m o r p h olo gy a n d life hi s t o ry of t h e c h e s t n u t blig h t
fu n g u s . B ul. N o. 7, P e n n a. C h e s t n u t
Tr e e Blig h t Co m., H a r ri s b u r g, 1 9 1 4, p. 1 7.]
PARASITIC PLANT INJURIES.[46]
[Foo t n o t e 4 6: S e e York, H a rl a n H .: T h e a n a t o m y
a n d s o m e of t h e biolo gic al a s p e c t s of t h e “Am e ric a n
m i s tl e t o e.” B ul. 1 2 0, S ci. S er.
N o. 1 3, U niv. of Tex a s, Aus ti n, 1 9 0 9.
B r ay, W m. L.: Th e m i s tl e t o e p e s t in t h e S o u t h w e s t.
B ul. 1 6 6, U.S. Bu. Pl a n t In d., Was hi n g t o n,
1 9 1 0.
M ei n e c k e , E.P.: Fo r e s t t r e e di s e a s e s c o m m o n in
C alifo r ni a a n d N e v a d a . U.S. Fo r e s t S e rvic e,
109
Wa s hi n g t o n, 1 9 1 4, p p. 5 4-5 8.]
Th e m o s t c o m m o n of t h e hi g h e r p a r a si tic pl a n t s d a m a gi n g
ti m b e r t r e e s a r e m i s tl e t o e s . M a ny s p e ci e s of
d e ci d u o u s t r e e s a r e a t t a c k e d by t h e c o m m o n m i s tl e t o e
(P hor a d e n d r o n flav e s c e n s ). It is ve ry
p r e v al e n t in t h e S o u t h a n d S o u t h w e s t a n d w h e n p r e s e n t
in s ufficie n t q u a n ti ty d o e s c o n si d e r a bl e d a m a g e .
Th e r e is al s o a c o n si d e r a bl e n u m b e r of s m all e r m i s tl e t o e s
b elo n gi n g t o t h e g e n u s R a z o u m o f s k y a (Ar c e u t h o bi u m )
w hi c h a r e wi d ely di s t ri b u t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t ry,
a n d s ev e r al of t h e m a r e c o m m o n o n c o nife r o u s t r e e s
in t h e Ro cky M o u n t ai n s a n d alo n g t h e P a cific c o a s t.
O n e eff e c t of t h e c o m m o n m i s tl e t o e is t h e fo r m a tio n
of la r g e s w ellin g s o r t u m o r s . Oft e n t h e e n ti r e
t r e e m a y b e c o m e s t u n t e d o r di s t o r t e d. Th e w e s t e r n
m i s tl e t o e is m o s t c o m m o n o n t h e b r a n c h e s , w h e r e it
p r o d u c e s “wit c h e s’ b r o o m.” It
fr e q u e n tly a t t a c k s t h e t r u n k a s w ell, a n d b o a r d s c u t
fro m s u c h t r e e s a r e fille d wi t h lo n g, r a di al h ol e s
w hi c h s e rio u sly d a m a g e o r d e s t r oy t h e v al u e of t h e
ti m b e r aff e c t e d.
LOCALITY OF GROWTH
Th e d a t a a v ail a bl e r e g a r di n g t h e eff e c t of t h e loc ality
of g r o w t h u p o n t h e p r o p e r ti e s of w o o d a r e n o t s uffici e n t
t o w a r r a n t d efi nit e c o n cl u sio n s. Th e s u bj e c t
h a s, h o w e v er, b e e n k e p t in m i n d in m a n y of t h e U.S.
Fo r e s t S e rvic e ti m b e r t e s t s a n d t h e follo wi n g q u o t a tio n s
a r e a s s e m bl e d fro m v a rio u s r e p o r t s:
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“I n b o t h t h e C u b a n a n d lo n gl e af pi n e t h e loc ality
w h e r e g r o w n a p p e a r s t o h a v e b u t lit tl e influ e n c e o n
w ei g h t o r s t r e n g t h, a n d t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o b eli ev e
t h a t t h e lo n gl e af pi n e fro m o n e S t a t e is b e t t e r t h a n
t h a t fro m a ny o t h er, si n c e s u c h v a ri a tio n s a s a r e
cl ai m e d c a n b e fo u n d o n a ny 4 0-a c r e lot of ti m b e r in
a n y S t a t e . Bu t wi t h lo blolly a n d s till m o r e wit h
s h o r tl e af t hi s s e e m s n o t t o b e t h e c a s e . B ei n g
wi d ely di s t ri b u t e d ov e r m a n y loc aliti e s diffe r e n t
in s oil a n d cli m a t e , t h e g r o w t h of t h e s h o r tl e af pi n e
s e e m s m a t e ri ally influ e n c e d by loc a tio n. Th e w o o d
fro m t h e s o u t h e r n c o a s t a n d g ulf r e gio n a n d e v e n Ark a n s a s
is g e n e r ally h e a vi e r t h a n t h e w o o d fro m loc aliti e s
fa r t h e r n o r t h . Very lig h t a n d fin e-g r ai n e d w o o d
is s el d o m m e t n e a r t h e s o u t h e r n li mi t of t h e r a n g e ,
w hil e it is al m o s t t h e r ul e in Mi s s o u ri, w h e r e for m s
r e s e m bli n g t h e N o r w ay pi n e a r e by n o m e a n s r a r e .
Th e lo blolly, o c c u pyi n g b o t h w e t a n d d ry s oils, v a ri e s
a c c o r di n gly.” Cir. N o. 1 2, p. 6.
" ... It is cl e a r t h a t a s all loc aliti e s h a v e
t h ei r h e a vy a n d t h ei r lig h t ti m b er, s o t h e y all s h a r e
in s t r o n g a n d w e a k, h a r d a n d s oft m a t e ri al, a n d t h e
diffe r e n c e in q u ality of m a t e ri al is e vi d e n tly fa r
m o r e a m a t t e r of in divi d u al v a ri a tio n t h a n of s oil
o r cli m a t e .” Ibi d., p . 2 2
“A r e p r e s e n t a tiv e c o m m i t t e e of t h e C a r ri a g e
B uild e r s’ Ass o ci a tio n h a d p u blicly d e cl a r e d
t h a t t hi s i m p o r t a n t in d u s t ry c o ul d n o t d e p e n d u p o n
t h e s u p pli e s of s o u t h e r n ti m b er, a s t h e o a k g r o w n
in t h e S o u t h la c k e d t h e n e c e s s a ry q u aliti e s d e m a n d e d
in c a r ri a g e c o n s t r u c tio n. Wit h o u t e x p e ri m e n t t hi s
s t a t e m e n t c o ul d b e lit tl e b e t t e r t h a n a g u e s s , a n d
w a s d o u bly u n w a r r a n t e d , si n c e it c o n d e m n e d a n e n o r m o u s
a m o u n t of m a t e ri al, a n d o n e p r o d u c e d u n d e r a g r e a t
v a ri e ty of c o n di tio n s a n d by a t le a s t a d oz e n s p e ci e s
of t r e e s , involvin g, t h e r efo r e , a c o m pl exity of p r o bl e m s
diffic ult e n o u g h fo r t h e c a r ef ul inv e s ti g a t or, a n d
e n ti r ely b e yo n d t h e fe w u n s y s t e m a ti c o b s e rv a tio n s of
t h e m e m b e r s of a c o m mi t t e e o n a flyin g t ri p t h r o u g h
111
o n e of t h e g r e a t e s t ti m b e r r e gio n s of t h e w o rl d.
“A n u m b e r of s a m pl e s w e r e a t o n c e c oll e c t e d
(p a r t of t h e m s u p pli e d by t h e c a r ri a g e b uil d e r s’
c o m mi t t e e), a n d t h e falla cy of t h e b r o a d s t a t e m e n t
m e n tio n e d w a s fully d e m o n s t r a t e d by a s h o r t s e ri e s
of t e s t s a n d a m o r e e x t e n siv e s t u dy in to s t r u c t u r e
a n d w ei g h t of t h e s e m a t e ri al s. F r o m t h e s e t e s t s
it a p p e a r s t h a t pi e c e s of w hi t e o a k fro m Ark a n s a s
e x c ell e d w ell-s el e c t e d pi e c e s fro m Co n n e c tic u t, b o t h
in s tiffn e s s a n d e n d wis e c o m p r e s sio n (t h e t w o m o s t
i m p o r t a n t for m s of r e si s t a n c e).” R e p o r t
u p o n t h e fo r e s t ry inv e s ti g a tio n s of t h e U.S.D.A. 1 8 7 7-1 8 9 8,
p . 3 3 1. S e e al s o R e p. of Div. of For., 1 8 9 0 ,
p . 2 0 9.
“I n s o m e r e gio n s t h e r e a r e m a n y s m all, s t u n t e d
hi c ko ri e s, w hic h m o s t u s e r s will n o t t o u c h. T h ey
h a v e n a r r o w s a p, a r e lik ely t o b e bi r d p e c k e d , a n d
s h o w v e ry slo w g r o w t h. Yet five of t h e s e t r e e s
fro m a s t e e p, d ry s o u t h slo p e in Wes t Vir gi ni a h a d
a n a v e r a g e s t r e n g t h fully e q u al t o t h a t of t h e pi g n u t
fro m t h e b e t t e r si t u a tio n, a n d w e r e s u p e rio r in t o u g h n e s s ,
t h e w o r k t o m a xi m u m lo a d b ei n g 3 6. 8 a s a g ai n s t 3 1 . 2
fo r pi g n u t. Th e t r e e s h a d a b o u t t wi c e a s m a n y
ri n g s p e r inc h a s o t h e r s fro m b e t t e r si t u a tio n s.
112
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“This, h o w e v er, is n o t v e ry si g nific a n t, a s
t r e e s of t h e s a m e s p e ci e s, a g e , a n d siz e, g r o wi n g
si d e by si d e u n d e r t h e s a m e c o n di tio n s of s oil a n d
si t u a tio n, s h o w g r e a t v a ri a tio n in t h ei r t e c h ni c al
v al u e. It is h a r d t o a c c o u n t fo r t hi s diffe r e n c e ,
b u t it s e e m s t h a t t r e e s g r o wi n g in w e t o r m oi s t si t u a tio n s
a r e r a t h e r inf e rio r t o t h o s e g r o wi n g o n fr e s h e r s oil;
al s o, it is cl ai m e d by m a n y hi c ko ry u s e r s t h a t t h e
w o o d fro m li m e s t o n e s oils is s u p e rio r t o t h a t fro m
s a n d y s oils.
“O n e of t h e m o o t q u e s tio n s a m o n g hi c ko ry m e n
is t h e r el a tiv e v al u e of n o r t h e r n a n d s o u t h e r n hic k o ry.
Th e im p r e s sio n p r e v ails t h a t s o u t h e r n hi c k o ry is m o r e
p o r o u s a n d b r a s h t h a n hi c ko ry fro m t h e n o r t h.
Th e t e s t s ... in dic a t e t h a t s o u t h e r n hi c ko ry is a s
t o u g h a n d s t r o n g a s n o r t h e r n hi c ko ry of t h e s a m e a g e .
B u t t h e s o u t h e r n hi c ko ri e s h a v e a g r e a t e r t e n d e n cy
t o b e s h a ky, a n d t hi s r e s ul t s in m u c h w a s t e .
In t r e e s fro m s o u t h e r n riv e r b o t t o m s t h e los s t h r o u g h
s h a k e s a n d g r u b-h ol e s in m a n y c a s e s a m o u n t s t o a s
m u c h a s 5 0 p e r c e n t.
“It is cl e ar, t h e r efo r e, t h a t t h e diffe r e n c e
in n o r t h e r n a n d s o u t h e r n hi c k o ry is n o t d u e t o g e o g r a p hi c
loc a tio n, b u t r a t h e r t o t h e c h a r a c t e r of ti m b e r t h a t
is b ei n g c u t. N e a rly all of t h a t fro m s o u t h e r n
riv e r b o t t o m s a n d fro m t h e C u m b e rl a n d M o u n t ai n s is
fro m la r g e , ol d-g r o w t h t r e e s; t h a t fro m t h e n o r t h is
fro m yo u n g e r t r e e s w hi c h a r e g r o w n u n d e r m o r e favo r a bl e
c o n di tio n s , a n d it is d u e si m ply t o t h e g r e a t e r a g e
of t h e s o u t h e r n t r e e s t h a t hi c ko ry fro m t h a t r e gio n
is lig h t e r a n d m o r e b r a s h t h a n t h a t fro m t h e n o r t h.”
B ul. 8 0, p p . 5 2-5 5.
SEASON OF CUTTING
113
It is g e n e r ally b eli ev e d t h a t wi n t e r-felle d ti m b e r
h a s d e ci d e d a dv a n t a g e s ov e r t h a t c u t a t o t h e r s e a s o n s
of t h e y e ar, a n d t o t h a t c a u s e alo n e a r e fr e q u e n tly
a s c ri b e d m u c h g r e a t e r d u r a bility, le s s lia bility t o
c h e c k a n d s plit, b e t t e r c olor, a n d e v e n in c r e a s e d
s t r e n g t h a n d t o u g h n e s s. Th e c o n cl u sio n fro m t h e
v a rio u s e x p e ri m e n t s m a d e o n t h e s u bj e c t is t h a t w hil e
t h e ti m e of fellin g m ay, a n d oft e n d o e s, affe c t t h e
p r o p e r ti e s of w o o d, s u c h r e s ul t is d u e t o t h e w e a t h e r
c o n di tio n s r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e c o n di tio n of t h e w o o d.
Th e r e a r e t w o p h a s e s of t hi s q u e s tio n. O n e is
c o n c e r n e d wi t h t h e p h y siolo gic al c h a n g e s w hi c h m i g h t
t a k e pl a c e d u ri n g t h e y e a r in t h e w o o d of a livin g
t r e e . T h e o t h e r d e al s wi t h t h e p u r ely p hy sic al
r e s ul t s d u e t o t h e w e a t h er, a s diffe r e n c e s in t e m p e r a t u r e ,
h u mi di ty, m oi s t u r e , a n d o t h e r fe a t u r e s t o b e m e n tio n e d
la t er.
Tho s e w h o a d h e r e t o t h e fir s t vie w m ai n t ai n t h a t w o o d
c u t in s u m m e r is q ui t e diffe r e n t in c o m p o sitio n fro m
t h a t c u t in wi n t er. O n e o pi nio n is t h a t in s u m m e r
t h e “s a p is u p,” w hil e in wi n t e r it is
“ do w n,” c o n s e q u e n tly wi n t e r-felle d ti m b e r
is d ri er. A va ri a tio n of t hi s b eli ef is t h a t
in s u m m e r t h e s a p c o n t ai n s c e r t ai n c h e mi c al s w hic h
aff e c t t h e p r o p e r ti e s of w o o d a n d d o e s n o t c o n t ai n
t h e m in wi n t er. Ag ai n it is s o m e ti m e s a s s e r t e d
t h a t w o o d is a c t u ally d e n s e r in wi n t e r t h a n in s u m m er,
a s p a r t of t h e w o o d s u b s t a n c e is di s s olv e d o u t in
t h e s p ri n g a n d u s e d fo r pl a n t foo d, b ei n g r e s t o r e d
in t h e fall.
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It is o bvio u s t h a t s u c h vi e w s c o ul d a p ply o nly t o
s a p w o o d, si n c e it alo n e is in livin g c o n di tio n a t
t h e ti m e of c u t ti n g. H e a r t w o o d is d e a d w o o d a n d
h a s al m o s t n o fu n c tio n in t h e e xi s t e n c e of t h e t r e e
o t h e r t h a n t h e p u r ely m e c h a ni c al o n e of s u p p o r t.
H e a r t w o o d d o e s u n d e r g o c h a n g e s, b u t t h ey a r e g r a d u al
a n d al m o s t e n ti r ely in d e p e n d e n t of t h e s e a s o n s.
S a p w o o d m i g h t r e a s o n a bly b e e x p e c t e d t o r e s p o n d t o
s e a s o n al c h a n g e s , a n d t o s o m e e x t e n t it d o e s .
Jus t b e n e a t h t h e b a r k t h e r e is a t hi n lay e r of c ells
w hi c h d u ri n g t h e g r o wi n g s e a s o n h a v e n o t a t t ai n e d
t h ei r g r e a t e s t d e n si ty. Wit h t h e e x c e p tio n of
t hi s o n e a n n u al ri n g, o r p o r tio n of o n e, t h e d e n si ty
of t h e w o o d s u b s t a n c e of t h e s a p w o o d is n e a rly t h e
s a m e t h e y e a r r o u n d. Sli g h t v a ri a tio n s m a y o c c u r
d u e t o i m p r e g n a tio n wi t h s u g a r a n d s t a r c h in t h e wi n t e r
a n d it s di s s ol u tio n in t h e g r o wi n g s e a s o n. T h e
ti m e of c u t ti n g c a n h a v e n o m a t e ri al eff e c t o n t h e
in h e r e n t s t r e n g t h a n d o t h e r m e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s
of w o o d e x c e p t in t h e o u t e r m o s t a n n u al ri n g of g r o w t h.
Th e p o p ul a r b eli ef t h a t s a p is u p in t h e s p ri n g a n d
s u m m e r a n d is d o w n in t h e wi n t e r h a s n o t b e e n s u b s t a n ti a t e d
by e x p e ri m e n t. Th e r e a r e s e a s o n al diffe r e n c e s
in t h e c o m p o sitio n of s a p , b u t s o fa r a s t h e a m o u n t
of s a p in a t r e e is c o n c e r n e d t h e r e is fully a s m u c h,
if n o t m o r e , d u ri n g t h e wi n t e r t h a n in s u m m er.
Win t e r-c u t w o o d is n o t d ri er, t o b e gi n wi t h, t h a n
s u m m e r-felle d—in r e ali ty, it is lik ely t o
b e w e t t er.[ 4 7]
[Foo t n o t e 4 7: S e e R e c o r d, S.J.: S a p in r el a tio n
t o t h e p r o p e r ti e s of w o o d. P r o c. Am.
Woo d P r e s e rv e r s’ Ass n., B alti m o r e, M d., 1 9 1 3,
p p. 1 6 0-1 6 6 .
Ke m pf er, W m. H .: Th e ai r-s e a s o ni n g of ti m b er.
In B ul. 1 6 1, Am. Ry. E n g . Ass n., 1 9 1 3,
p . 2 1 4.]
115
Th e im p o r t a n t c o n si d e r a tio n in r e g a r d t o t hi s q u e s tio n
is t h e s e ri e s of ci r c u m s t a n c e s a t t e n di n g t h e h a n dli n g
of t h e ti m b e r af t e r it is felle d. Woo d d ri e s
m o r e r a pi dly in s u m m e r t h a n in wi n t er, n o t b e c a u s e
t h e r e is le s s m oi s t u r e a t o n e ti m e t h a n a n o t h er, b u t
b e c a u s e of t h e hi g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e in s u m m er. This
g r e a t e r h e a t is oft e n a c c o m p a ni e d by lo w h u mi dity,
a n d c o n di tio n s a r e favo r a bl e for t h e r a pi d r e m ov al
of m oi s t u r e fro m t h e e x p o s e d p o r tio n s of w o o d.
Woo d d ri e s by e v a p o r a tio n, a n d o t h e r t hi n g s b ei n g
e q u al, t hi s will p r o c e e d m u c h fa s t e r in h o t w e a t h e r
t h a n in c ol d.
It is a m a t t e r of c o m m o n o b s e rv a tio n t h a t w h e n w o o d
d ri e s it s h ri n k s, a n d if s h ri n k a g e is n o t u nifo r m
in all di r e c tio n s t h e m a t e ri al p ulls a p a r t, c a u si n g
s e a s o n c h e c k s. (S e e Fi g. 2 7.) If e v a p o r a tio n p r o c e e d s
m o r e r a pi dly o n t h e o u t si d e t h a n in si d e, t h e g r e a t e r
s h ri n k a g e of t h e o u t e r p o r tio n s is b o u n d t o r e s ul t
in m a n y c h e c k s, t h e n u m b e r a n d siz e inc r e a si n g wi t h
t h e d e g r e e of in e q u ality of d r yi n g.
In c ol d w e a t h er, d r yi n g p r o c e e d s slo wly b u t u nifo r mly,
t h u s allo wi n g t h e w o o d el e m e n t s t o a dj u s t t h e m s elv e s
wi t h t h e le a s t a m o u n t of r u p t u ri n g. I n s u m m er,
d ryi n g p r o c e e d s r a pi dly a n d ir r e g ul a rly, s o t h a t m a t e ri al
s e a s o n e d a t t h a t ti m e is m o r e lik ely t o s plit a n d
c h e c k.
116
Page 60
Th e r e is le s s d a n g e r of s a p r o t w h e n t r e e s a r e fell e d
in wi n t e r b e c a u s e t h e fu n g u s d o e s n o t g r o w in t h e
v e ry c ol d w e a t h er, a n d t h e lu m b e r h a s a c h a n c e t o
s e a s o n t o b elo w t h e d a n g e r p oi n t b efo r e t h e fu n g u s
g e t s a c h a n c e t o a t t a c k it. If t h e log s in e a c h
c a s e c o ul d b e c u t in t o lu m b e r i m m e di a t ely af t e r fellin g
a n d giv e n e x a c tly t h e s a m e t r e a t m e n t, for e x a m pl e,
kil n-d ri e d, n o diffe r e n c e d u e t o t h e s e a s o n of c u t ti n g
w o ul d b e n o t e d.
WATER CONTENT[48]
[Foo t n o t e 4 8: S e e Ti e m a n n , H .D.: Effe c t
of m oi s t u r e u p o n t h e s t r e n g t h a n d s tiffn e s s of w o o d.
B ul. 7 0, U.S. Fo r e s t S e rvic e, Was hi n g t o n, D.C.,
1 9 0 6; al s o Cir. 1 0 8 , 1 9 0 7.]
Wa t e r o c c u r s in livin g w o o d in t h r e e c o n di tio n s, n a m ely:
(1) in t h e c ell w alls, (2) in t h e p r o t o pl a s mi c c o n t e n t s
of t h e c ells, a n d (3) a s fr e e w a t e r in t h e c ell c aviti e s
a n d s p a c e s . I n h e a r t w o o d it o c c u r s o nly in t h e
fir s t a n d la s t fo r m s . Woo d t h a t is t h o r o u g hly
ai r-d ri e d r e t ai n s fro m 8 t o 1 6 p e r c e n t of w a t e r in
t h e c ell w alls, a n d n o n e, o r p r a c tic ally n o n e , in t h e
o t h e r fo r m s . Ev e n ov e n-d ri e d w o o d r e t ai n s a s m all
p e r c e n t a g e of m oi s t u r e , b u t fo r all e x c e p t c h e m ic al
p u r p o s e s , m a y b e c o n si d e r e d a b s ol u t ely d ry.
Th e g e n e r al effe c t of t h e w a t e r c o n t e n t u p o n t h e w o o d
s u b s t a n c e is t o r e n d e r it s oft e r a n d m o r e pli a bl e.
A si mil a r eff e c t of c o m m o n o b s e rv a tio n is in t h e s oft e ni n g
a c tio n of w a t e r o n r a w hi d e, p a p er, o r clo t h.
Wit hi n c e r t ai n li mit s t h e g r e a t e r t h e w a t e r c o n t e n t
t h e g r e a t e r its s oft e ni n g eff e c t.
D ryin g p r o d u c e s a d e ci d e d in c r e a s e in t h e s t r e n g t h
of w o o d, p a r ti c ul a rly in s m all s p e ci m e n s . An
e x t r e m e e x a m pl e is t h e c a s e of a c o m pl e t ely d ry s p r u c e
117
bloc k t w o inc h e s in s e c tio n, w hi c h will s u s t ai n a
p e r m a n e n t lo a d fo u r ti m e s a s g r e a t a s t h a t w hic h a
g r e e n blo c k of t h e s a m e siz e will s u p p o r t.
Th e g r e a t e s t in c r e a s e d u e t o d r yi n g is in t h e ul ti m a t e
c r u s hi n g s t r e n g t h , a n d s t r e n g t h a t el a s tic li mi t in
e n d wi s e c o m p r e s sio n; t h e s e a r e follo w e d by t h e m o d ul u s
of r u p t u r e , a n d s t r e s s a t el a s tic li mi t in c r o s s-b e n di n g,
w hil e t h e m o d ul u s of el a s ticity is le a s t aff e c t e d.
Th e s e r a tio s a r e s h o w n in Ta bl e XV, b u t it is t o b e
n o t e d t h a t t h ey a p ply o nly t o w o o d in a m u c h d ri e r
c o n di tio n t h a n is u s e d in p r a c tic e. Fo r ai r-d r y
w o o d t h e r a tio s a r e c o n si d e r a bly low er, p a r ti c ul a rly
in t h e c a s e of t h e ul ti m a t e s t r e n g t h a n d t h e el a s tic
li mit. S tiffn e s s (wit hi n t h e el a s tic li mi t),
w hil e followi n g a si mil a r law, is le s s aff e c t e d.
In t h e c a s e of s h e a r p a r all el t o t h e g r ai n, t h e g e n e r al
eff e c t of d ryi n g is t o inc r e a s e t h e s t r e n g t h , b u t
t hi s is oft e n offs e t by s m all s plit s a n d c h e c k s c a u s e d
by s h ri n k a g e .
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| TABLE XV |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------|
| E F F E CT O F DRYING O N TH E M E C HA NICAL P RO P ERTIE S O F WOOD,
S HOWN IN |
| RATIO O F I N CR EAS E DU E TO RED U CI NG M OI STUR E CO NT E NT
FROM |
| TH E GRE E N CO N DITIO N TO KIL N-DRY (3. 5 P E R C E NT) |
| (Fo r e s t S e r vic e B ul. 7 0 , p . 8 9) |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------|
| KIND O F STRE N GT H | Lo n gl e af | S p r u c e | C h e s t n u t |
| | pi n e | | |
|----------------------------+ - ------------+ - ------------+ - -
-----------|
| | (1) (2) | (1) (2) | (1) (2) |
| | | | |
| C r u s hi n g s t r e n g t h p a r all el | | | |
| t o g r ai n | 2. 8 9 2. 6 0 | 3. 7 1 3. 4 1 | 2. 8 3 2. 5 5 |
| El a s tic limit in | | | |
| c o m p r e s sio n | | | |
| p a r all el t o g r ai n | 2. 6 0 2. 3 4 | 3. 8 0 3. 4 9 | 2. 4 0 2. 2 6 |
| M o d ul u s of r u p t u r e in | | | |
| b e n di n g | 2. 5 0 2. 2 0 | 2. 8 1 2. 5 0 | 2. 0 9 1. 8 2 |
| S t r e s s a t el a s tic li mit in | | | |
| b e n di n g | 2. 9 0 2. 5 5 | 2. 9 0 2. 5 8 | 2. 3 0 2. 0 0 |
| C r u s hi n g s t r e n g t h a t ri g h t | | | |
| a n gl e s t o g r ai n | | 2. 5 8 2. 4 8 | |
| S h e a ri n g s t r e n g t h p a r all el | | | |
| t o g r ai n | 2. 0 1 1. 9 1 | 2. 0 3 1. 9 5 | 1. 5 5 1. 4 7 |
| M o d ul u s of el a s ti city in | | | |
| c o m p r e s sio n p a r all el t o | | | |
| g r ai n | 1. 6 3 1. 4 7 | 2. 2 6 2. 0 8 | 1. 4 3 1. 2 9 |
| M o d ul u s of el a s ti city in | | | |
| b e n di n g | 1. 5 9 1. 3 5 | 1. 4 3 1. 2 3 | 1. 4 4 1. 2 1 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------|
| N OT E.--Th e fig u r e s in t h e fir s t c ol u m n s h o w t h e r el a tiv e in c r e a s e in |
119
| s t r e n g t h b e t w e e n a g r e e n s p e ci m e n a n d a kil n-d ry s p e ci m e n of e q u al |
| siz e. Th e fig u r e s in t h e s e c o n d c ol u m n s h o w t h e r el a tiv e inc r e a s e of |
| s t r e n g t h of t h e s a m e blo c k af t e r b ei n g d ri e d fro m a g r e e n c o n di tio n |
| t o 3. 5 p e r c e n t m oi s t u r e , c o r r e c tio n h a vi n g b e e n m a d e for s h ri n k a g e . |
| Th a t is, in t h e fir s t c ol u m n t h e s t r e n g t h v al u e s p e r a c t u al u ni t of |
| a r e a a r e u s e d; in t h e s e c o n d t h e v al u e s p e r u ni t of a r e a of g r e e n |
| w o o d w hi c h s h ri n k s t o s m all e r siz e w h e n d ri e d. |
| |
| S e e al s o Cir. 1 0 8 , Fi g. 1, p. 8. |
Th e m oi s t u r e c o n t e n t h a s a d e ci d e d b e a ri n g al s o u p o n
t h e m a n n e r in w hic h w o o d fails. In c o m p r e s sio n
t e s t s o n ve ry d ry s p e ci m e n s t h e e n ti r e pi e c e s plit s
s u d d e nly in t o pi e c e s b efo r e a n y b u c klin g t a k e s pl a c e
(s e e Fi g. 9.), w hil e wit h w e t m a t e ri al t h e blo c k giv e s
w a y g r a d u ally, d u e t o t h e b u c klin g o r b e n di n g of t h e
w alls of t h e fib r e s alo n g o n e o r m o r e s h e a ri n g pl a n e s .
(S e e Fi g. 1 4 .) In b e n di n g t e s t s o n w e t b e a m s , fir s t
failu r e o c c u r s by c o m p r e s sio n o n t o p of t h e b e a m ,
g r a d u ally e x t e n di n g d o w n w a r d t o w a r d t h e n e u t r al a xi s.
Fi n ally t h e b e a m r u p t u r e s a t t h e b o t t o m . I n t h e
c a s e of ve ry d ry b e a m s t h e failu r e is u s u ally by s plit ti n g
o r t e n sio n o n t h e u n d e r si d e (s e e Fi g. 1 7.), wi t h o u t
c o m p r e s sio n o n t h e u p p er, a n d is oft e n s u d d e n a n d wi t h o u t
w a r ni n g, a n d e v e n w hile t h e lo a d is s till inc r e a si n g.
Th e effe c t v a ri e s s o m e w h a t wi t h diffe r e n t s p e ci e s,
c h e s t n u t, fo r e x a m pl e, b e c o mi n g m o r e b ri t tl e u p o n
d ryi n g t h a n d o a s h , h e ml o c k, a n d lo n gl e af pi n e.
Th e t e n sil e s t r e n g t h of w o o d is le a s t aff e c t e d by
d ryi n g, a s a r ul e.
In d r yi n g w o o d n o in c r e a s e in s t r e n g t h r e s ul t s u n til
t h e fr e e w a t e r is e v a p o r a t e d a n d t h e c ell w alls b e gi n
t o d ry[ 4 9]. This c ri tic al p oi n t h a s b e e n c alle d
t h e fi br e-s a t u r a tio n p oi n t . (S e e Fi g.
2 4 .) Co nv e r s ely, af t e r t h e c ell w alls a r e s a t u r a t e d
wi t h w a t er, a n y inc r e a s e in t h e a m o u n t of w a t e r a b s o r b e d
m e r ely fills t h e c aviti e s a n d in t e r c ell ul a r s p a c e s ,
a n d h a s n o eff e c t o n t h e m e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s.
H e n c e , s o a ki n g g r e e n w o o d d o e s n o t le s s e n it s s t r e n g t h
u nl e s s t h e w a t e r is h e a t e d , w h e r e u p o n a d e ci d e d w e a k e ni n g
r e s ul t s.
[Foo t n o t e 4 9: Th e w o o d of E u c aly p t u s glo b ul u s
(bl u e g u m) a p p e a r s t o b e a n e x c e p tio n t o t his r ul e.
Ti e m a n n s ay s: “T h e w o o d of bl u e g u m b e gi n s
t o s h ri n k i m m e di a t ely fro m t h e g r e e n c o n di tio n, e v e n
120
a t 7 0 t o 9 0 p e r c e n t m oi s t u r e c o n t e n t, in s t e a d of
fro m 3 0 o r 2 5 p e r c e n t a s in o t h e r s p e ci e s of h a r d w o o d s.”
P r o c. S o c. Am. For., Was hi n g t o n, Vol.
VIII, N o. 3, O c t., 1 9 1 3, p. 3 1 3 .]
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 2 4.—R el a tio n of
t h e m oi s t u r e c o n t e n t t o t h e v a rio u s s t r e n g t h v al u e s
of s p r u c e . F S P = fib r e-s a t u r a tio n p oi n t.]
Th e s t r e n g t h e ni n g eff e c t s of d r yi n g, w hil e v e ry m a r k e d
in t h e c a s e of s m all pi e c e s, m a y b e fully offs e t in
s t r u c t u r al ti m b e r s by in h e r e n t w e a k e ni n g eff e c t s d u e
t o t h e s plit ti n g a p a r t of t h e w o o d el e m e n t s a s a r e s ul t
of ir r e g ul a r s h ri n k a g e , a n d in s o m e c a s e s al s o t o
t h e slit ti n g of t h e c ell w alls (s e e Fi g. 2 5).
Co n s e q u e n tly wi t h la r g e ti m b e r s in c o m m e r ci al u s e it
is u n s af e t o c o u n t u p o n a n y g r e a t e r s t r e n g t h, e v e n
af t e r s e a s o ni n g, t h a n t h a t of t h e g r e e n o r fr e s h c o n ditio n.
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 2 5.—C r o s s s e c tio n
of t h e w o o d of w e s t e r n la r c h s h o wi n g fiss u r e s in t h e
t hick-w all e d c ells of t h e la t e w o o d. H i g hly m a g nifi e d.
P ho t o b y U. S . For e s t S e r vi c e. ]
In g r e e n w o o d t h e c ells a r e all in ti m a t ely join e d
t o g e t h e r a n d a r e a t t h ei r n a t u r al o r n o r m al siz e w h e n
s a t u r a t e d wi t h w a t er. Th e c ell w alls m a y b e c o n si d e r e d
a s m a d e u p of littl e p a r ti cl e s wi t h w a t e r b e t w e e n
t h e m . W h e n w o o d is d ri e d t h e fil m s of w a t e r b e t w e e n
t h e p a r ti cl e s b e c o m e t hi n n e r a n d t hi n n e r u n til al m o s t
e n ti r ely g o n e . As a r e s ul t t h e c ell w alls g r o w
t hi n n e r wit h los s of m oi s t u r e ,—in o t h e r
w o r d s, t h e c ell s h ri n k s.
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Page 63
It is a t o n c e e vi d e n t t h a t if d r yi n g d o e s n o t t a k e
pl a c e u nifo r mly t h r o u g h o u t a n e n ti r e pi e c e of ti m b er,
t h e s h ri n k a g e a s a w h ol e c a n n o t b e u nifo r m . Th e
p r o c e s s of d r yi n g is fro m t h e o u t si d e in w a r d , a n d
if t h e los s of m oi s t u r e a t t h e s u rf a c e is m e t by a
s t e a d y c a pill a ry c u r r e n t of w a t e r fro m t h e in si d e,
t h e s h ri n k a g e , s o fa r a s t h e d e g r e e of m oi s t u r e aff e c t e d
it, w o ul d b e u nifo r m . In t h e b e s t ty p e of d r y
kil n s t hi s c o n di tio n is a p p r oxi m a t e d b y fir s t h e a ti n g
t h e w o o d t h o r o u g hly in a m oi s t a t m o s p h e r e b efo r e allo wi n g
d ryi n g t o b e gi n.
In ai r-s e a s o ni n g a n d in o r di n a ry d ry kiln s t hi s c o n di tio n
t o o oft e n is n o t a t t ai n e d, a n d t h e r e s ul t is t h a t
a d r y s h ell is fo r m e d w hi c h e n clo s e s a m ois t in t e rior.
(S e e Fi g. 2 6 .) S u b s e q u e n t d ryi n g o u t of t h e in n e r
p o r tio n is r e n d e r e d m o r e diffic ult by t hi s “c a s e-h a r d e n e d”
c o n di tio n. As t h e o u t e r p a r t d ri e s it is p r e v e n t e d
fro m s h ri n ki n g b y t h e w e t in t e rior, w hi c h is s till
a t its g r e a t e s t vol u m e . This o u t e r p o r tio n m u s t
ei t h e r c h e c k o p e n o r t h e fib r e s b e c o m e s t r ai n e d in
t e n sio n. If t hi s o u t e r s h ell d ri e s w hil e t h e
fib r e s a r e t h u s s t r ai n e d t h ey b e c o m e “s e t”
in t hi s c o n ditio n, a n d a r e n o lo n g e r in t e n sio n.
L a t e r w h e n t h e in n e r p a r t d ri e s, it t e n d s t o s h ri n k
a w a y fro m t h e h a r d e n e d o u t e r s h ell, s o t h a t t h e in n e r
fib r e s a r e n o w s t r ai n e d in t e n sio n a n d t h e o u t e r fib r e s
a r e in c o m p r e s sio n. If t h e s t r e s s e x c e e d s t h e
c o h e sio n, n u m e r o u s c r a c k s o p e n u p, p r o d u ci n g a “ ho n e y-c o m b e d ”
c o n di tio n, o r “ h ollo w-h o r ni n g,” a s it is
c all e d. If s u c h a c a s e-h a r d e n e d s tic k of w o o d
b e r e s a w e d , t h e t w o h alv e s will c u p fro m t h e in t e r n al
t e n sio n a n d e x t e r n al c o m p r e s sio n, wi t h t h e c o n c av e
s u rf a c e in w a r d.
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 2 6.—P r o g r e s s of
d ryi n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e le n g t h of a c h e s t n u t b e a m , t h e
bl a c k s p o t s in dic a ti n g t h e p r e s e n c e of fr e e w a t e r
in t h e w o o d. Th e fir s t s e c tio n a t t h e left w a s
c u t o n e-fo u r t h inc h fro m t h e e n d, t h e n ex t o n e-h alf
in c h, t h e n e x t o n e inc h, a n d all t h e o t h e r s o n e inc h
122
a p a r t . T h e illu s t r a tio n s h o w s c a s e-h a r d e ni n g
v e ry cl e a rly. Ph o t o b y U. S . For e s t S e r vic e. ]
Fo r a giv e n s u rf a c e a r e a t h e los s of w a t e r fro m w o o d
is al w ay s g r e a t e r fro m t h e e n d s t h a n fro m t h e si d e s,
d u e t o t h e fa c t t h a t t h e ve s s el s a n d o t h e r w a t e r-c a r ri e r s
a r e c u t a c r o s s, allo wi n g r e a d y e n t r a n c e of d ryi n g
ai r a n d o u tl e t fo r t h e w a t e r v a p or. Wa t e r d o e s
n o t flow o u t of b o a r d s a n d ti m b e r s of it s o w n a c c o r d,
b u t m u s t b e e v a p o r a t e d , t h o u g h it m a y b e fo r c e d o u t
of v e ry s a p py s p e ci m e n s by h e a t. In d r yi n g a
lo g o r p ol e wit h t h e b a r k o n, m o s t of t h e w a t e r m u s t
b e e v a p o r a t e d t h r o u g h t h e e n d s , b u t in t h e c a s e of
p e el e d ti m b e r s a n d s a w n b o a r d s t h e los s is g r e a t e s t
fro m t h e s u rf a c e b e c a u s e t h e a r e a e x p o s e d is s o m u c h
g r e a t er.
Th e m o r e r a pi d d r yi n g of t h e e n d s c a u s e s loc al s h ri n k a g e ,
a n d w e r e t h e m a t e ri al s uffici e n tly pl a s tic t h e e n d s
w o ul d b e c o m e bl u n tly t a p e ri n g. Th e ri gi di ty of
t h e w o o d s u b s t a n c e p r e v e n t s t hi s a n d t h e fib r e s a r e
s plit a p a r t. La t er, a s t h e r e m ai n d e r of t h e s tic k
d ri e s m a n y of t h e c h e c k s will c o m e t o g e t h er, t h o u g h
s o m e of t h e la r g e s t will r e m ai n a n d e v e n inc r e a s e in
siz e a s t h e d ryi n g p r o c e e d s . (S e e Fi g. 2 7.)
123
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[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 2 7.—Exc e s siv e
s e a s o n c h e c ki n g. Ph o t o b y U. S . For e s t S e r vic e. ]
A w o o d c ell s h ri n k s ve ry lit tl e le n g t h wi s e. A
d ry w o o d c ell is, t h e r efo r e , p r a c tic ally of t h e s a m e
le n g t h a s it w a s in a g r e e n o r s a t u r a t e d c o n di tio n,
b u t is s m all e r in c r o s s s e c tio n, h a s t hi n n e r w alls,
a n d a la r g e r c avity. It is a t o n c e e vi d e n t t h a t
t hi s fa c t m a k e s s h ri n k a g e m o r e ir r e g ul ar, fo r w h e r e v e r
c ells c r o s s e a c h o t h e r a t a d e ci d e d a n gl e t h e y will
t e n d t o p ull a p a r t u p o n d r yi n g. This o c c u r s w h e r e v e r
pi t h r a y s a n d w o o d fib r e s m e e t . A c o n si d e r a bl e
p o r tio n of e v e ry w o o d is m a d e u p of t h e s e r a y s, w hic h
fo r t h e m o s t p a r t h a v e t h ei r c ells lyin g in a r a di al
di r e c tio n in s t e a d of lo n gi t u di n ally. (S e e F r o n ti s pi e c e.)
In pi n e , ov e r 1 5, 0 0 0 of t h e s e o c c u r o n a s q u a r e inc h
of a t a n g e n ti al s e c tio n, a n d e v e n in o a k t h e v e ry
la r g e r a y s w hi c h a r e r e a dily visibl e t o t h e e y e a s
flak e s o n q u a r t e r-s a w e d m a t e ri al r e p r e s e n t s c a r c ely
o n e p e r c e n t of t h e n u m b e r w hi c h t h e m i c r o s c o p e r e v e al s.
A pi t h r a y s h ri n k s in h ei g h t a n d wi d t h, t h a t is, ve r tic ally
a n d t a n g e n ti ally a s a p pli e d t o t h e p o sitio n in a s t a n di n g
t r e e , b u t ve ry lit tl e in le n g t h o r r a di ally.
Th e o t h e r el e m e n t s of t h e w o o d s h ri n k r a di ally a n d
t a n g e n ti ally, b u t al m o s t n o n e le n g t h wi s e o r ve r ti c ally
a s a p pli e d t o t h e t r e e . H e r e , t h e n, w e fin d t h e
s h ri n k a g e of t h e r a y s t e n di n g t o s h o r t e n a s tic k of
w o o d, w hil e t h e o t h e r c ells r e si s t it, a n d t h e t e n d e n cy
of a s tic k t o g e t s m all e r in ci r c u mf e r e n c e is r e si s t e d
by t h e e n d wi s e r e a c tio n o r t h r u s t of t h e r a y s.
O nly in a t a n g e n ti al di r e c tio n, o r a r o u n d t h e s tic k
in di r e c tio n of t h e a n n u al ri n g s of g r o w t h, d o t h e
t w o fo r c e s c oi n ci d e. Ano t h e r fa c t o r t o t h e s a m e
e n d is t h a t t h e d e n s e r b a n d s of la t e w o o d a r e c o n ti n u o u s
in a t a n g e n ti al di r e c tio n, w hile r a di ally t h e y a r e
s e p a r a t e d b y al t e r n a t e zo n e s of le s s d e n s e e a rly w o o d.
Co n s e q u e n tly t h e s h ri n k a g e alo n g t h e ri n g s (t a n g e n ti al)
is fully t wi c e a s m u c h a s t o w a r d t h e c e n t r e (r a di al).
(S e e Tabl e XIV.) This e x pl ai n s w hy s o m e c r a c k s o p e n
m o r e a n d m o r e a s d r yi n g a d v a n c e s . (S e e Fi g. 2 7 .)
124
Alt ho u g h a c t u al s h ri n k a g e in le n g t h is s m all, n e v e r t h el e s s
t h e t e n d e n cy of t h e r a y s t o s h o r t e n a s tic k p r o d u c e s
s t r ai n s w hi c h a r e r e s p o n si bl e fo r s o m e of t h e s plit ti n g
o p e n of ti e s, p o s t s, a n d s a w e d ti m b e r s wi t h b ox h e a r t .
At t h e v e ry c e n t r e of a t r e e t h e w o o d is lig h t a n d
w e a k, w hil e fa r t h e r o u t it b e c o m e s d e n s e r a n d s t r o n g er.
Lo n gi t u di n al s h ri n k a g e is a c c o r di n gly le a s t a t t h e
c e n t r e a n d g r e a t e r t o w a r d t h e o u t si d e, t e n di n g t o b e c o m e
g r e a t e s t in t h e s a p w o o d. W h e n a r o u n d o r a b ox-h e a r t
ti m b e r d ri e s fa s t it s plit s r a di ally, a n d a s d r yi n g
c o n ti n u e s t h e cl eft wi d e n s p a r tly o n a c c o u n t of t h e
g r e a t e r t a n g e n ti al s h ri n k a g e a n d al s o b e c a u s e t h e
g r e a t e r c o n t r a c tio n of t h e o u t e r fib r e s w a r p s t h e
s e c tio n s a p a r t. If a s m all h a r d w o o d s t e m is s plit
w hil e g r e e n fo r a s h o r t di s t a n c e a t t h e e n d a n d pl a c e d
w h e r e it c a n d ry o u t r a pi dly, t h e s e c tio n s will b e c o m e
b o w-s h a p e d wi t h t h e c o n c av e si d e s o u t. Th e s e
v a rio u s fa c t s, t a k e n t o g e t h er, e x pl ai n w hy, fo r e x a m pl e,
a n o a k ti e, p ol e, o r log m a y s plit o p e n it s e n ti r e
le n g t h if d r yi n g p r o c e e d s r a pi dly a n d fa r e n o u g h.
Initi al s t r e s s e s in t h e livin g t r e e s p r o d u c e a si mil a r
eff e c t w h e n t h e log is s a w n in t o b o a r d s . This
is e s p e ci ally s o in E u c aly p t u s glo b ul u s a n d
t o a le s s e x t e n t wit h a n y r a pi dly g r o w n w o o d.
125
Page 65
Th e u s e of S-s h a p e d t hi n s t e el cl a m p s t o p r e v e n t la r g e
c h e c k s a n d s plit s is n o w a c o m m o n p r a c tic e in t hi s
c o u n t ry wi t h c r o s s ti e s a n d p ol e s a s it h a s b e e n fo r
a lo n g ti m e in E u r o p e a n c o u n t ri e s. Th e s e d evic e s
a r e d riv e n in t o t h e b u t t s of t h e ti m b e r s s o a s t o
c r o s s inci pi e n t c h e c k s a n d p r e v e n t t h ei r wi d e ni n g.
In pl a c e of t h e r e g ul a r S-h o o k a n o t h e r of c ri m p e d iro n
h a s b e e n d e vis e d. (S e e Fi g. 2 8.) Thi n s t r a p s of iro n
wi t h o n e t a p e r e d e d g e a r e r u n b e t w e e n in t e r m e s hi n g
c o g s a n d c ri m p e d , af t e r w hi c h t h ey m a y b e c u t off
a n y le n g t h d e si r e d. Th e ti m e fo r d rivi n g S-iro n s
of ei t h e r fo r m is w h e n t h e c r a c k s fir s t a p p e ar.
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 2 8.—Co n t r ol of
s e a s o n c h e c ki n g by t h e u s e of S-iro n s. P ho t o b y
U. S . For e s t S e r vic e. ]
Th e t e n d e n cy of lo g s t o s plit e m p h a siz e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e
of c o nv e r ti n g t h e m in to pl a n k s o r ti m b e r s w hil e in
a g r e e n c o n ditio n. O t h e r wis e t h e p r e s e n c e of
la r g e c h e c k s m a y r e n d e r m u c h lu m b e r w o r t hl e s s w hi c h
m i g h t h a v e b e e n c u t o u t in g o o d c o n di tio n. Th e
los s w o ul d n o t b e s o g r e a t if lo g s w e r e p e rf e c tly
s t r ai g h t-g r ai n e d, b u t t hi s is s el d o m t h e c a s e , m o s t
t r e e s g r o wi n g m o r e o r le s s s pi r ally o r ir r e g ul a rly.
L a r g e pi e c e s c r a c k m o r e t h a n s m all e r o n e s , q u a r t e r e d
lu m b e r le s s t h a n t h a t s a w e d t h r o u g h a n d t h r o u g h, t hi n
pi e c e s, e s p e ci ally v e n e e r s , le s s t h a n t hic k e r b o a r d s .
In o r d e r t o p r e v e n t c r a c k s a t t h e e n d s of b o a r d s ,
s m all s t r a p s of w o o d m a y b e n ail e d o n t h e m o r t h ey
m a y b e p ai n t e d. T his m e t h o d is u s u ally c o n si d e r e d
t o o e x p e n siv e, e x c e p t in t h e c a s e of v al u a bl e m a t e ri al.
S q u a r e s u s e d fo r s h u t tl e s, fu r ni t u r e , g u n-s t o c k s,
a n d t o ol h a n dl e s s h o ul d al w ay s b e p r o t e c t e d a t t h e
e n d s . O n e of t h e b e s t m e a n s is t o di p t h e m in t o
m e l t e d p a r affin e, w hic h s e al s t h e e n d s a n d p r e v e n t s
los s of m ois t u r e t h e r e . Anot h e r m e t h o d is t o
gl u e p a p e r o n t h e e n d s. In s o m e c a s e s a b r o a d
p a p e r is gl u e d o n t o all t h e s u rf a c e s of v al u a bl e
e xo tic b alk s. O t h e r s u b s t a n c e s s o m e ti m e s e m ploy e d
126
fo r t h e p u r p o s e of s e alin g t h e w o o d a r e g r e a s e , c a r b oli n e u m ,
w a x, cl ay, p e t r ol e u m , lin s e e d oil, t ar, a n d s ol u bl e
gl a s s . In pl a c e of s oli d b e a m s , b uilt-u p m a t e ri al
is oft e n p r ef e r a bl e, a s t h e di s a s t r o u s r e s ul t s of
s e a s o n c h e c k s a r e t h e r e b y la r g ely ov e r c o m e o r m i ni miz e d.
TEMPERATURE
Th e effe c t of t e m p e r a t u r e o n w o o d d e p e n d s v e ry la r g ely
u p o n t h e m oi s t u r e c o n t e n t of t h e w o o d a n d t h e s u r r o u n di n g
m e di u m. If a b s ol u t ely d r y w o o d is h e a t e d in a b s ol u t ely
d ry ai r t h e w o o d e x p a n d s . Th e ex t e n t of t hi s
e x p a n sio n is d e n o t e d by a c o effici e n t c o r r e s p o n di n g
t o t h e inc r e a s e in le n g t h o r o t h e r di m e n sio n s fo r
e a c h d e g r e e ri s e in t e m p e r a t u r e divi d e d by t h e o ri gi n al
le n g t h o r o t h e r di m e n sio n of t h e s p e ci m e n. T h e
c o efficie n t of lin e a r e x p a n sio n of o a k h a s b e e n fo u n d
t o b e .0 0 0 0 0 4 9 2; r a di al e x p a n sio n, .0 0 0 0 5 4 4, o r a b o u t
el ev e n ti m e s t h e lo n gi t u di n al. S p r u c e e x p a n d s
le s s t h a n o a k, t h e r a tio of r a di al t o lo n git u di n al
e x p a n sio n b ei n g a b o u t six t o o n e . M e t al s a n d
gl a s s e x p a n d e q u ally in all di r e c tio n s, si n c e t h e y
a r e h o m o g e n e o u s s u b s t a n c e s, w hil e w o o d is a c o m plic a t e d
s t r u c t u r e . Th e c o efficie n t of e x p a n sio n of iro n
is .0 0 0 0 2 8 5 , o r n e a rly six ti m e s t h e c o effici e n t of
lin e a r e x p a n sio n of o a k a n d s ev e n ti m e s t h a t of s p r u c e[ 5 0].
127
Page 66
[Foo t n o t e 5 0: S e e S c hlic h’s M a n u al of Fo r e s t ry,
Vol. V. (r ev. e d.), p . 7 5.]
U n d e r o r di n a ry c o n di tio n s w o o d c o n t ai n s m o r e o r le s s
m oi s t u r e , s o t h a t t h e a p plic a tio n of h e a t h a s a d r yi n g
eff e c t w hi c h is a c c o m p a ni e d by s h ri n k a g e . This
s h ri n k a g e c o m pl e t ely o b s c u r e s t h e e x p a n sio n d u e t o
t h e h e a ti n g.
Ex p e ri m e n t s m a d e a t t h e Yale Fo r e s t S c h o ol r ev e al e d
t h e effe c t of t e m p e r a t u r e o n t h e c r u s hi n g s t r e n g t h
of w e t w o o d. In t h e c a s e of w e t c h e s t n u t w o o d
t h e s t r e n g t h d e c r e a s e s 0. 4 2 p e r c e n t fo r e a c h d e g r e e
t h e w a t e r is h e a t e d a b ov e 6 0 d e g . F.; in t h e c a s e
of s p r u c e t h e d e c r e a s e is 0. 3 2 p e r c e n t.
Th e effe c t s of hi g h t e m p e r a t u r e o n w e t w o o d a r e v e ry
m a r k e d. Boilin g p r o d u c e s a c o n di tio n of g r e a t
pli a bility, e s p e ci ally in t h e c a s e of h a r d w o o d s.
If w o o d in t hi s c o n di tio n is b e n t a n d allo w e d t o d ry,
it ri gi dly r e t ai n s t h e s h a p e of t h e b e n d , t h o u g h it s
s t r e n g t h m a y b e s o m e w h a t r e d u c e d. Exc e p t in t h e
c a s e of ve ry d ry w o o d t h e eff e c t of c ol d is t o inc r e a s e
t h e s t r e n g t h a n d s tiffn e s s of w o o d. Th e fr e e zi n g
of a n y fr e e w a t e r in t h e p o r e s of t h e w o o d will a u g m e n t
t h e s e c o n di tio n s.
Th e effe c t of s t e a mi n g u p o n t h e s t r e n g t h of c r o s s-ti e s
w a s inv e s ti g a t e d by t h e U.S. Fo r e s t S e rvic e in
1 9 0 4. Th e c o n cl u sio n s w e r e s u m m a riz e d a s follo w s:
“(1) Th e s t e a m a t p r e s s u r e u p t o 4 0 p o u n d s a p pli e d
fo r 4 h o u r s , o r a t a p r e s s u r e of 2 0 p o u n d s u p t o 2 0
h o u r s , inc r e a s e s t h e w ei g h t of ti e s. At 4 0 p o u n d s’
p r e s s u r e a p pli e d for 4 h o u r s a n d a t 2 0 p o u n d s fo r
5 hou rs th e wood b e g a n to b e scorch e d.
“(2) Th e s t e a m e d a n d s a t u r a t e d w o o d, w h e n t e s t e d
i m m e di a t ely af t e r t r e a t m e n t , e x hi bi t e d w e a k n e s s e s
in p r o p o r tio n t o t h e p r e s s u r e a n d d u r a tio n of s t e a m i n g.
(S e e Tabl e XVI.) If allo w e d t o ai r-d ry s u b s e q u e n tly
128
t h e s p e ci m e n s r e g ai n e d t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of t h ei r s t r e n g t h,
p r ovi d e d t h e p r e s s u r e a n d d u r a tio n h a d n o t e x c e e d e d
t h o s e cit e d u n d e r (1). S u b s e q u e n t im m e r sio n in
w a t e r of t h e s t e a m e d w o o d a n d d ri e d s p e ci m e n s s h o w e d
t h a t t h e y w e r e w e a k e r t h a n n a t u r al w o o d si mil a rly
d ri e d a n d r e s o a k e d ."[5 1]
[Foo t n o t e 5 1: Cir. 3 9. Ex p e ri m e n t s o n t h e
s t r e n g t h of t r e a t e d ti m b er, p . 1 8.]
|------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------|
| TABLE XVI |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------|
| E F F E CT O F STEAMI NG O N T H E STR E NGT H O F GRE E N
LOBLOLLY PI N E |
| (Fo r e s t S e rvic e, Cir. 3 9) |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------|
| | Cylin d e r c o n di tio n s | Strength |
| |---------------------------------+ - ------------
-------------------------------|
| | St e a ming | S t a tic | Impact | |
| |---------------------------------+ - ------------
--------+ - ---------| Ave r a g e |
“(3) A hi g h d e g r e e of s t e a mi n g is inj u rio u s
t o w o o d in s t r e n g t h a n d s pik e-h ol di n g p o w er.
Th e d e g r e e of s t e a m i n g a t w hi c h p r o n o u n c e d h a r m r e s ul t s
will d e p e n d u p o n t h e q u ality of t h e w o o d a n d it s d e g r e e
of s e a s o ni n g, a n d u p o n t h e p r e s s u r e (t e m p e r a t u r e)
of s t e a m a n d t h e d u r a tio n of its a p plic a tio n.
Fo r loblolly pi n e t h e li mit of s af e ty is c e r t ai nly
3 0 p o u n d s fo r 4 h o u r s , o r 2 0 p o u n d s fo r 6 h o u r s ."[5 2]
129
Page 68
[Foo t n o t e 5 2: Ibi d., p. 2 1. S e e al s o
Cir. 1 0 8, p . 1 9, t a bl e 5.]
Ex p e ri m e n t s m a d e a t t h e Yale Fo r e s t S c h o ol s h o w e d
t h a t s t e a mi n g a b ov e 3 0 p o u n d s’ g a u g e p r e s s u r e
r e d u c e s t h e s t r e n g t h of w o o d p e r m a n e n tly w hil e w e t
fro m 2 5 t o 7 5 p e r c e n t .
PRESERVATIVES
Th e ex a c t eff e c t s of c h e mi c al i m p r e g n a tio n u p o n t h e
m e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s of w o o d h a v e n o t b e e n fully
d e t e r mi n e d , t h o u g h t h ey h a v e b e e n t h e s u bj e c t of c o n si d e r a bl e
inv e s ti g a tio n.[ 5 3] M o r e d e p e n d s u p o n t h e m e t h o d of
t r e a t m e n t t h a n u p o n t h e p r e s e rv a tiv e s u s e d . Th u s
p r eli mi n a ry s t e a mi n g a t t o o hi g h p r e s s u r e o r fo r t o o
lo n g a p e rio d will m a t e ri ally w e a k e n t h e w o o d, (S e e
TE M P ERATURE, a b ov e.)
[Foo t n o t e 5 3: H a t t , W. K.: Ex p e ri m e n t s o n
t h e s t r e n g t h of t r e a t e d ti m b er. Cir. 3 9, U.S.
Fo r e s t S e rvic e, 1 9 0 6, p . 3 1.]
Th e p r e s e n c e of zin c c hlo ri d e d o e s n o t w e a k e n w o o d
u n d e r s t a ti c lo a di n g, al t h o u g h t h e in dic a tio n s a r e
t h a t t h e w o o d b e c o m e s b ri t tl e u n d e r i m p a c t. If
t h e s ol u tio n is t o o s t r o n g it will d e c o m p o s e t h e w o o d.
S o a ki n g in c r e o s o t e oil c a u s e s w o o d t o s w ell, a n d
a c c o r di n gly d e c r e a s e s t h e s t r e n g t h t o s o m e ex t e n t,
b u t n o t n e a rly s o m u c h s o a s s o a ki n g in w a t er.[5 4]
[Foo t n o t e 5 4: Te e s d al e, Clyd e II.: Th e a b s o r p tio n
of c r e o s o t e by t h e c ell w alls of w o o d. Cir. 2 0 0 ,
U. S. Fo r e s t S e rvic e, 1 9 1 2 , p . 7.]
S o a ki n g in k e r o s e n e s e e m s t o h a v e n o si g nific a n t w e a k e ni n g
eff e c t.[ 5 5]
130
[Foo t n o t e 5 5: Tie m a n n, H .D.: Effe c t of m oi s t u r e
u p o n t h e s t r e n g t h a n d s tiffn e s s of w o o d. Bul.
7 0 , U. S. Fo r e s t S e rvic e, 1 9 0 7 , p p. 1 2 2-1 2 3, t a bl e s
4 3-4 4.]
PART III TIMBER TESTING[56]
[Foo t n o t e 5 6: Th e m e t h o d s of ti m b e r t e s ti n g d e s c ri b e d
h e r e a r e fo r t h e m o s t p a r t t h o s e e m ploy e d by t h e U.
S. Fo r e s t S e r vic e. S e e Cir. 3 8 (r ev. e d.), 1 9 0 9.]
WORKING PLAN
P r eli mi n a ry t o m a ki n g a s e ri e s of ti m b e r t e s t s it
is v e ry i m p o r t a n t t h a t a w o r ki n g pl a n b e p r e p a r e d
a s a g ui d e t o t h e inv e s ti g a tio n. This s h o ul d
e m b r a c e: (1) t h e p u r p o s e of t h e t e s t s; (2) ki n d,
siz e, c o n di tio n, a n d a m o u n t of m a t e ri al n e e d e d; (3)
full d e s c ri p tio n of t h e sy s t e m of m a r ki n g t h e pi e c e s;
(4) d e t ails of a n y s p e ci al a p p a r a t u s a n d m e t h o d s e m pl oy e d;
(5) p r o p o s e d m e t h o d of a n alyzi n g t h e d a t a o b t ai n e d
a n d t h e n a t u r e of t h e fin al r e p o r t. G r e a t c a r e
s h o ul d b e t a k e n in t h e p r e p a r a tio n of t hi s pl a n in
o r d e r t h a t all p r o bl e m s a ri si n g m a y b e a n tici p a t e d
s o fa r a s p o s si bl e a n d d el ay s a n d u n n e c e s s a ry w o r k
a v oi d e d. A c o m p r e h e n siv e s t u dy of p r e vio u s inv e s ti g a tio n s
alo n g t h e s a m e o r r el a t e d lin e s s h o ul d p r ov e ve ry
h el pf ul in o u tlini n g t h e w o r k a n d p r e p a ri n g t h e r e p o r t .
(Fo r s a m pl e w o r ki n g pl a n s e e App e n dix.)
FORMS OF MATERIAL TESTED
131
Page 69
In g e n e r al, fo u r fo r m s of m a t e ri al a r e t e s t e d , n a m ely:
(1) la r g e ti m b e r s , s u c h a s b ri d g e s t ri n g e r s , c a r sills,
la r g e b e a m s , a n d o t h e r pi e c e s five fe e t o r m o r e in
le n g t h, of a c t u al siz e s a n d g r a d e s in c o m m o n u s e;
(2) b uilt-u p s t r u c t u r al fo r m s a n d fa s t e ni n g s , s u c h
a s b uilt-u p b e a m s , t r u s s e s, a n d v a rio u s ki n d of join t s;
(3) s m all cl e a r pi e c e s, s u c h a s a r e u s e d in c o m p r e s sio n,
s h e ar, cl e av a g e, a n d s m all c r o s s-b r e a ki n g t e s t s; (4)
m a n uf a c t u r e d a r ti cl e s, s u c h a s a xl e s, s p o k e s , s h aft s,
w a g o n-t o n g u e s , c r o s s-a r m s , in s ul a t o r pi n s , b a r r el s,
a n d p a c ki n g b ox e s.
As t h e m oi s t u r e c o n t e n t is of fu n d a m e n t al im p o r t a n c e
(s e e WATER CO NTE NT, a b ov e.), all s t a n d a r d t e s t s a r e
u s u ally m a d e in t h e g r e e n c o n di tio n. Ano t h e r
s e ri e s is al s o u s u ally r u n in a n ai r-d ry c o n di tio n
of a b o u t 1 2 p e r c e n t m ois t u r e . In all c a s e s t h e
m oi s t u r e is v e ry c a r ef ully d e t e r mi n e d a n d s t a t e d wi t h
t h e r e s ul t s in t h e t a bl e s.
SIZE OF TEST SPECIMENS
Th e siz e of t h e t e s t s p e ci m e n m u s t b e g ov e r n e d la r g ely
by t h e p u r p o s e fo r w hic h t h e t e s t is m a d e . If
t h e effe c t of a si n gl e fa c t or, s u c h a s m oi s t u r e , is
t h e o bj e c t of e x p e ri m e n t, it is n e c e s s a ry t o u s e s m all
pi e c e s of w o o d in o r d e r t o eli mi n a t e s o fa r a s p o s si bl e
all di s t u r bi n g fac t o r s. If t h e s p e ci m e n s a r e t oo
la r g e , it is i m p o s si bl e t o s e c u r e e n o u g h p e rf e c t pi e c e s
fro m o n e t r e e t o fo r m a s e ri e s fo r v a rio u s t e s t s .
M o r e ov er, t h e d ryi n g p r o c e s s wi t h la r g e ti m b e r s is
v e ry diffic ul t a n d ir r e g ul ar, a n d r e q ui r e s a lo n g
p e rio d of ti m e , b e si d e s c a u si n g c h e c k s a n d in t e r n al
s t r e s s e s w hi c h m a y o b s c u r e t h e r e s ul t s o b t ai n e d .
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d, t h e s m all e r t h e di m e n sio n s of t h e
t e s t s p e ci m e n t h e g r e a t e r b e c o m e s t h e r el a tiv e eff e c t
of t h e in h e r e n t fa c t o r s aff e c ti n g t h e m e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s.
132
Fo r ex a m pl e, t h e eff e c t of a k n o t of giv e n siz e is
m o r e s e rio u s in a s m all s tic k t h a n in a la r g e o n e.
M o r e ov er, t h e s m all e r t h e s p e ci m e n t h e fe w e r g r o w t h
ri n g s it c o n t ai n s, h e n c e t h e r e is g r e a t e r o p p o r t u ni ty
fo r v a ri a tio n d u e t o ir r e g ul a ri ti e s of g r ai n.
Tes t s o n la r g e ti m b e r s a r e c o n si d e r e d n e c e s s a ry t o
fu r ni s h d e si g n e r s d a t a o n t h e p r o b a bl e s t r e n g t h of
t h e diffe r e n t siz e s a n d g r a d e s of ti m b e r o n t h e m a r k e t;
t h ei r c o efficie n t s of el a s ticity u n d e r b e n di n g (si n c e
t h e s tiffn e s s r a t h e r t h a n t h e s t r e n g t h oft e n d e t e r mi n e s
t h e siz e of a b e a m ); a n d t h e m a n n e r of failu r e, w h e t h e r
in b e n di n g fib r e s t r e s s o r h o rizo n t al s h e ar. It
is b eli ev e d t h a t t hi s info r m a tio n c a n o nly b e o b t ai n e d
by di r e c t t e s t s o n t h e diffe r e n t g r a d e s of c a r sills,
s t ri n g e r s , a n d o t h e r m a t e ri al in c o m m o n u s e .
W h e n s m all pi e c e s a r e s el e c t e d fo r t e s t t h e y ve ry
oft e n a r e cl e a r a n d s t r ai g h t-g r ai n e d, a n d t h u s of
s o m u c h b e t t e r g r a d e t h a n t h e la r g e s tic k s t h a t t e s t s
u p o n t h e m m a y n o t yiel d u ni t v al u e s a p plic a bl e t o
t h e la r g e r siz e s. Ex t e n siv e ex p e ri m e n t s s h ow,
h o w ev er, (1) t h a t t h e m o d ul u s of el a s tici ty is a p p r oxi m a t ely
t h e s a m e fo r la r g e ti m b e r s a s fo r s m all cl e a r s p e ci m e n s
c u t fro m t h e m , a n d (2) t h a t t h e fib r e s t r e s s a t el a s tic
li mit fo r la r g e b e a m s is, e x c e p t in t h e w e a k e s t ti m b e r s ,
p r a c tic ally e q u al t o t h e c r u s hi n g s t r e n g t h of s m all
cl e a r pi e c e s of t h e s a m e m a t e ri al.[5 7]
133
Page 70
[Foo t n o t e 5 7: Bul. 1 0 8, U. S. Fo r e s t S e rvic e:
Tes t s of s t r u c t u r al ti m b e r s , p p . 5 3-5 4.]
MOISTURE DETERMINATION
In o r d e r fo r t e s t s t o b e c o m p a r a bl e, it is n e c e s s a ry
t o k n o w t h e m oi s t u r e c o n t e n t of t h e s p e ci m e n s a t t h e
zo n e of failu r e . This is d e t e r mi n e d fro m di s k s
a n inc h t hi c k c u t fro m t h e ti m b e r i m m e di a t ely af t e r
t e s ti n g.
In c a s e s , a s in la r g e b e a m s , w h e r e it is d e si r a bl e
t o k n o w n o t o nly t h e a v e r a g e m oi s t u r e c o n t e n t b u t
al s o it s di s t ri b u tio n t h r o u g h t h e ti m b er, t h e dis k s
a r e c u t u p s o a s t o o b t ai n a n o u t si d e, a m i d dl e, a n d
a n in n e r p o r tio n, of a p p r oxi m a t ely e q u al a r e a s .
Th u s in a s e c tio n 1 0 ” x 1 2” t h e o u t e r s t ri p
w o ul d b e o n e inc h wi d e, a n d t h e s e c o n d o n e a lit tl e
m o r e t h a n a n in c h a n d a q u a r t er. M oi s t u r e d e t e r mi n a tio n s
a r e m a d e fo r e a c h of t h e t h r e e p o r tio n s s e p a r a t ely.
Th e p r o c e d u r e is a s follow s:
(1) I m m e di a t ely af t e r s a wi n g, loos e s pli n t e r s a r e
r e m ov e d a n d e a c h s e c tio n is w ei g h e d.
(2) T h e m a t e ri al is p u t in to a d r yi n g ov e n a t 1 0 0
d e g. C. (2 1 2 d e g. F.) a n d d ri e d u n til t h e
v a ri a tio n in w ei g h t fo r a p e rio d of t w e n t y-fou r h o u r s
is le s s t h a n 0. 5 p e r c e n t .
(3) T h e di s k is a g ai n c a r ef ully w ei g h e d .
(4) T h e los s in w ei g h t e x p r e s s e d in p e r c e n t of t h e
d ry w ei g h t in dic a t e s t h e m oi s t u r e c o n t e n t of t h e s p e ci m e n
fro m w hi c h t h e s p e ci m e n w a s c u t.
134
MACHINE FOR STATIC TESTS
Th e s t a n d a r d s c r e w m a c hi n e s u s e d fo r m e t al t e s t s a r e
al s o u s e d fo r w o o d, b u t in t h e c a s e of w o o d t e s t s
t h e r e a di n g s m u s t b e t a k e n “o n t h e fly,”
a n d t h e m a c hi n e o p e r a t e d a t a u nifo r m s p e e d wi t h o u t
in t e r r u p tio n fro m b e gi n ni n g t o e n d of t h e t e s t.
This is o n a c c o u n t of t h e ti m e fa c t o r in t h e s t r e n g t h
of w o o d. (S e e S P E ED O F TE STI NG MAC HI N E, b elow.)
Th e s t a n d a r d m a c hi n e s fo r s t a tic t e s t s c a n b e u s e d
fo r t r a n s v e r s e b e n di n g, c o m p r e s sio n, t e n sio n, s h e ar,
a n d cl e av a g e . A c o m m o n for m c o n si s t s of t h r e e
m ai n p a r t s, n a m ely: (1) t h e s t r ai ni n g m e c h a ni s m ,
(2) t h e w ei g hi n g a p p a r a t u s , a n d (3) t h e m a c hi n e ry
fo r c o m m u ni c a ti n g m o tio n t o t h e s c r e w s .
Th e s t r ai ni n g m e c h a ni s m c o n si s t s of t w o p a r t s , o n e
of w hic h is a m ov a bl e c r o s s h e a d o p e r a t e d by fo u r (so m e ti m e s
t w o o r t h r e e ) u p ri g h t s t e el s t r ai ni n g s c r e w s w hic h
p a s s t h r o u g h o p e ni n g s in t h e pl a tfo r m a n d b e a r u p w a r d
o n t h e b e d of t h e m a c hi n e u p o n w hi c h t h e w ei g hi n g
pl a tfo r m r e s t s a s a fulc r u m . At t h e low e r e n d s
of t h e s e s c r e w s a r e g e a r e d n u t s all r o t a t e d si m ul t a n e o u sly
by a sy s t e m of g e a r s w hi c h c a u s e t h e m ov a bl e c r o s s h e a d
t o ri s e a n d fall a s d e si r e d.
Th e s t a tio n a r y p a r t of t h e s t r ai ni n g m e c h a ni s m , w hi c h
is u s e d o nly fo r t e n sio n a n d cl e av a g e t e s t s, c o n si s t s
of a s t e el c a g e a b ov e t h e m ov a bl e c r o s s h e a d a n d r e s t s
di r e c tly u p o n t h e w ei g hi n g pl a tfo r m . Th e t o p
of t h e c a g e c o n t ai n s a s q u a r e h ol e in t o w hi c h o n e
e n d of t h e t e s t s p e ci m e n m a y b e cl a m p e d , t h e c r o s s h e a d
c o n t ai ni n g a si mil a r cl a m p fo r t h e o t h e r e n d , in m a ki n g
t e n sio n t e s t s .
135
Page 71
Fo r t e s ti n g lo n g b e a m s a s p e ci al fo r m of m a c hi n e wi t h
a n e x t e n d e d pl a tfo r m is u s e d . (S e e Fi g. 2 9.)
Th e w ei g hi n g pl a tfo r m r e s t s u p o n k nife e d g e s c a r ri e d
by p ri m a ry lev e r s of t h e w ei g hi n g a p p a r a t u s , t h e fulc r u m
b ei n g o n t h e b e d of t h e m a c hi n e , a n d a n y p r e s s u r e
u p o n it is di r e c tly t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h a s e ri e s of
lev e r s t o t h e w ei g hi n g b e a m . This b e a m is a dj u s t e d
by m e a n s of a p oi s e r u n ni n g o n a s c r ew. In o p e r a tio n
t h e b e a m is k e p t flo a ti n g by m e a n s of a n o t h e r p ois e
m ov e d b a c k a n d for t h by a s c r e w w hic h is o p e r a t e d
by a h a n d w h e el o r a u t o m a ti c ally. Th e la r g e r
u ni t s of s t r e s s a r e r e a d fro m t h e g r a d u a tio n s al o n g
t h e si d e of t h e b e a m , w hil e t h e in t e r m e di a t e s m all e r
w ei g h t s a r e o b s e rv e d o n t h e di al o n t h e r e a r e n d of
the be a m.
Th e m a c hi n e is d riv e n by p o w e r fro m a s h af t o r a m o t o r
a n d is s o g e a r e d t h a t va rio u s s p e e d s a r e o b t ai n a bl e.
O n e m a n c a n o p e r a t e it.
In m a ki n g t e s t s t h e o p e r a tio n of t h e s t r ai ni n g s c r e w s
is al w ay s d o w n w a r d s o a s t o b ri n g p r e s s u r e t o b e a r
u p o n t h e w ei g hi n g pl a tfo r m . Fo r t e s t s in t e n sio n
a n d cl e av a g e t h e s p e ci m e n is pl a c e d b e t w e e n t h e t o p
of t h e s t a tio n a r y c a g e a n d t h e m ov a bl e h e a d a n d s u bj e c t e d
t o a p ull. Fo r t e s t s in t r a n s v e r s e b e n di n g, c o m p r e s sio n,
a n d cl e av a g e t h e s p e ci m e n is pl a c e d b e t w e e n t h e m ov a bl e
h e a d a n d t h e pl a tfo r m , a n d a di r e c t c o m p r e s sio n fo r c e
a p pli e d.
Tes ti n g m a c hi n e s a r e u s u ally c ali b r a t e d t o a p o r tio n
of t h ei r c a p a city b efo r e le avi n g t h e fa c t o ry.
Th e d elic a cy of t h e w ei g hi n g lev e r s is v e rifie d by
d e t e r mi ni n g t h e n u m b e r of p o u n d s n e c e s s a r y t o m ov e
t h e b e a m b e t w e e n t h e s t o p s w hil e a lo a d of 1, 0 0 0 p o u n d s
r e s t s o n t h e pl a tfo r m . Th e u s u al r e q ui r e m e n t is
t h a t t e n p o u n d s s h o ul d a c c o m plis h t hi s m ov e m e n t.
Th e siz e of m a c hi n e s ui t a bl e fo r c o m p r e s sio n t e s t s
o n 2” X 2” s tic k s o r fo r 2” X 2”
136
b e a m s wi t h 2 6 t o 3 6-in c h s p a n h a s a c a p a ci ty of 3 0, 0 0 0
p o u n d s.
SPEED OF TESTING MACHINE
In ins t r u c tio n s fo r m a ki n g s t a tic t e s t s t h e r a t e of
a p plic a tio n of t h e s t r e s s, i.e., t h e s p e e d
of t h e m a c hi n e, is giv e n b e c a u s e t h e s t r e n g t h of w o o d
v a ri e s wi t h t h e s p e e d a t w hic h t h e fib r e s a r e s t r ai n e d .
Th e s p e e d of t h e c r o s s h e a d of t h e t e s ti n g m a c hi n e
is p r a c ti c ally n e v e r c o n s t a n t , d u e t o m e c h a ni c al d ef e c t s
of t h e a p p a r a t u s a n d v a ri a tio n s in t h e s p e e d of t h e
m o t or, b u t s o lo n g a s it d o e s n o t ex c e e d 2 5 p e r c e n t
t h e r e s ul t s will n o t b e a p p r e ci a bly aff e c t e d.
In fa c t, a c h a n g e in s p e e d of 5 0 p e r c e n t will n o t
c a u s e t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e w o o d t o v a ry m o r e t h a n 2
p e r c e n t.[ 5 8]
[Foo t n o t e 5 8: S e e Ti e m a n n , H a r r y Do n al d:
Th e effe c t of t h e s p e e d of t e s ti n g u p o n t h e s t r e n g t h
a n d t h e s t a n d a r diz a tio n of t e s t s fo r s p e e d . P r o c.
Am. S o c. fo r Tes ti n g M a t e ri al s, Vol. VIII,
P hil a d el p hi a, 1 9 0 8.]
Followi n g a r e t h e for m ul a e u s e d in d e t e r mi ni n g t h e
s p e e d of t h e m ov a bl e h e a d of t h e m a c hi n e in in c h e s
p e r m i n u t e (n):
(1) Fo r e n d wi s e c o m p r e s sio n n = Z l
137
Page 72
Z l^{2}
(2) Fo r b e a m s (c e n t r e lo a di n g) n = ---------
6h
Z l^{2}
(3) Fo r b e a m s (t hi r d-p oi n tlo a di n g) n = ---------
5. 4 h
Z = r a t e of fib r e s t r ai n p e r in c h
of fib r e le n g t h.
l = s p a n of b e a m o r le n g t h of c o m p r e s sio n s p e ci m e n.
h = h ei g h t of b e a m .
Th e v al u e s c o m m o nly u s e d fo r Z a r e a s follow s:
B e n di n g la r g e b e a m s Z = 0. 0 0 0 7
B e n di n g s m all b e a m s Z = 0. 0 0 1 5
E n d wi s e c o m p r e s sio n-la r g e s p e ci m e n s Z = 0. 0 0 1 5
E n d wi s e c o m p r e s sio n-s m all " Z = 0. 0 0 3
Rig h t-a n gl e d c o m p r e s sio n-la r g e " Z = 0. 0 0 7
Rig h t-a n gl e d c o m p r e s sio n-s m all " Z = 0. 0 1 5
S h e a ri n g p a r all el t o t h e g r ai n Z = 0. 0 1 5
Ex a m pl e: At w h a t s p e e d s h o ul d t h e c r o s s h e a d m ov e
t o giv e t h e
r e q ui r e d r a t e of fib r e s t r ai n in t e s ti n g a s m all b e a m
2” X 2” X
3 0 ”. (S p a n = 2 8".) S u b s ti t u ti n g t h e s e v al u e s
in e q u a tio n (2)
a b ov e:
(0. 0 0 1 5
X 28 ^ 2)
n = -----------------
= 0. 1 inc h p e r mi n u t e.
(6
X 2)
In o r d e r t h a t t e s t s m a y b e in t ellig e n tly c o m p a r e d ,
it is i m p o r t a n t t h a t a c c o u n t b e t a k e n of t h e s p e e d
a t w hi c h t h e s t r e s s w a s a p pli e d. In d e t e r m i ni n g
t h e b a si s fo r a r a tio b e t w e e n ti m e a n d s t r e n g t h t h e
r a t e of s t r ai n, w hic h is c o n t r oll a bl e, a n d n o t t h e
138
r a tio of s t r e s s , w hi c h is ci r c u m s t a n ti al, s h o ul d b e
u s e d. I n o t h e r w o r d s, t h e r a t e a t w hic h t h e m ov a bl e
h e a d of t h e t e s ti n g m a c hi n e d e s c e n d s a n d n o t t h e r a t e
of inc r e a s e in t h e lo a d is t o b e r e g ul a t e d. This
r a tio, t o w hi c h t h e n a m e s p e e d-s t r e n g t h m o d ul u s
h a s b e e n giv e n, m a y b e e x p r e s s e d a s a c o effici e n t
w hi c h, if m ul ti pli e d in t o a ny p r o p o r tio n al c h a n g e in
s p e e d , will giv e t h e p r o p o r tio n al c h a n g e in s t r e n g t h.
This r a tio is d e riv e d fro m e m pi ri c al c u rv e s. (S e e
Ta bl e XVII.)
|------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------|
139
Page 73
|------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------|
| TABLE XVII TABLE XVII
|
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------|
| S P E E D-STR E NGT H M OD ULI AND R ELATIVE I N CREAS E
I N STR E N GT H AT RATE S O F F IBRE STRAIN IN CREASI NG I N
G EO M ETRICAL RATIO. (Tie m a n n, loc. ci t.) |
| (Val u e s in p a r e n t h e s e s a r e
a p p r oxi m a t e) |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------|
| R a t e of fib r e s t r ai n. | | | |
| | | |
| Te n-t h o u s a n d t h s inc h | 2/ 3 | 2 | 6 |
18 | 54 | 162 | 486 |
| p e r m i n u t e p e r in c h | | | |
| | | |
|-------------------------+ - ----------------------+ - --------
--------------+ - ----------------------+ - ----------------------+ - ----------------------
+ - ----------------------+ - ----------------------|
| C | S p e e d of c r o s s h e a d . | | | |
| | | |
| O | I n c h e s p e r mi n u t e | 0. 0 0 0 3 8 3 | 0. 0 0 1 1 5 |
0. 0 0 3 4 5 | 0. 0 1 0 3 | 0. 0 3 1 0 | 0. 0 9 3 1 | .
279 |
| M | | | | |
| | | |
| P |---------------------+ - ----------------------+ - --------
--------------+ - ----------------------+ - ----------------------+ - ----------------------
+ - ----------------------+ - ----------------------|
| R | S p e ci m e n s | Wet | D ry | All | Wet | D ry | All | Wet | D ry |
All | Wet | D ry | All | Wet | D ry | All | Wet | D ry | All | Wet | D ry
| All |
| E |---------------------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ -
------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------
+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------|
140
BENDING LARGE BEAMS
A p p ar a t u s : A s t a ti c b e n di n g m a c hi n e (d e s c ri b e d
a b ov e), wi t h a s p e ci al c r o s s h e a d fo r t hi r d-p oi n t lo a di n g
a n d a lo n g pl a tfo r m b e a ri n g k nife-e d g e s u p p o r t s , is
r e q ui r e d . (S e e Fi g. 2 9.)
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 2 9.—S t a ti c b e n di n g
t e s t o n la r g e b e a m . N o t e a r r a n g e m e n t of wi r e
a n d s c al e fo r m e a s u ri n g d efl e c tio n; al s o m e t h o d of
a p plyi n g lo a d a t “t hi r d-p oi n t s.”]
Pr e p ari n g t h e m a t e rial: S t a n d a r d siz e s
a n d g r a d e s of b e a m s a n d ti m b e r s in c o m m o n u s e a r e
e m pl oy e d. Th e e n d s a r e r o u g hly s q u a r e d a n d t h e
s p e ci m e n w ei g h e d a n d m e a s u r e d , t a ki n g t h e c r o s s-s e c tio n al
di m e n sio n s m i d w ay of t h e le n g t h. Weig h t s s h o ul d
b e t o t h e n e a r e s t p o u n d , le n g t h s t o t h e n e a r e s t 0. 1
in c h, a n d c r o s s-s e c tio n al di m e n sio n s t o t h e n e a r e s t
0. 0 1 inc h.
M a r ki n g a n d s k e t c hi n g : Th e b u t t e n d of
t h e b e a m is m a r k e d A a n d t h e t o p e n d B .
W hil e fa ci n g A , t h e t o p si d e is m a r k e d a,
t h e ri g h t h a n d b , t h e b o t t o m c , t h e left
h a n d d . S k e t c h e s a r e m a d e of e a c h si d e
a n d e n d, s h o wi n g (1) siz e, loc a tio n, a n d c o n di tio n
of k n o t s, c h e c k s, s plit s, a n d o t h e r d ef e c t s; (2) ir r e g ul a ri ti e s
of g r ai n; (3) di s t ri b u tio n of h e a r t w o o d a n d s a p w o o d;
a n d o n t h e e n d s: (4) t h e loc a tio n of t h e pi t h
a n d t h e a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e g r o w t h ri n g s, (5) n u m b e r
of ri n g s p e r inc h, a n d (6) t h e p r o p o r tio n of la t e
w o o d.
Th e n u m b e r of ri n g s p e r inc h a n d t h e p r o p o r tio n of
la t e w o o d s h o ul d al w a y s b e d e t e r m i n e d al o n g a r a di u s
o r a lin e n o r m al t o t h e ri n g s. Th e a v e r a g e n u m b e r
of ri n g s p e r inc h is t h e t o t al n u m b e r of ri n g s divid e d
by t h e le n g t h of t h e lin e c r o s si n g t h e m . Th e
p r o p o r tio n of la t e w o o d is e q u al t o t h e s u m of t h e
wi d t h s of t h e la t e w o o d c r o s s e d by t h e lin e, divi d e d
by t h e le n g t h of t h e lin e. Ri n g s p e r in c h s h o ul d
141
b e t o t h e n e a r e s t 0. 1; la t e w o o d t o t h e n e a r e s t 0. 1
p e r c e n t.
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Si n c e in la r g e b e a m s a g r e a t v a ri a tio n in r a t e of
g r o w t h a n d r el a tiv e a m o u n t of la t e w o o d is lik ely
in diffe r e n t p a r t s of t h e s e c tio n, it is a d vis a bl e
t o c o n si d e r t h e c r o s s s e c tio n in t h r e e vol u m e s , n a m ely,
t h e u p p e r a n d lo w e r q u a r t e r s a n d t h e m i d dl e h alf.
Th e d e t e r m i n a tio n s h o ul d b e m a d e u p o n e a c h vol u m e
s e p a r a t ely, a n d t h e a v e r a g e fo r t h e e n ti r e c r o s s s e c tio n
o b t ai n e d fro m t h e s e r e s ul t s.
At t h e c o n cl u sio n of t h e t e s t t h e failu r e , a s it a p p e a r s
o n e a c h s u rf a c e, is t r a c e d o n t h e s k e t c h e s, wi t h t h e
failu r e s n u m b e r e d in t h e o r d e r of t h ei r oc c u r r e n c e .
If t h e b e a m is s u b s e q u e n tly c u t u p a n d u s e d fo r o t h e r
t e s t s a n a d di tio n al s k e t c h m a y b e d e si r a bl e t o s h o w
t h e loc a tio n of e a c h pi e c e.
A dj u s ti n g s p e ci m e n in m a c hi n e : Th e b e a m
is pl a c e d in t h e m a c hi n e wi t h t h e si d e m a r k e d a
o n t o p, a n d wi t h t h e e n d s p r oj e c ti n g e q u ally b e yo n d
t h e s u p p o r t s. I n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t c r u s hi n g of
t h e fib r e a t t h e p oi n t s w h e r e t h e s t r e s s is a p pli e d
it is n e c e s s a r y t o u s e b e a ri n g bloc k s of m a pl e o r o t h e r
h a r d w o o d wi t h a c o nv ex s u rf a c e in c o n t a c t wit h t h e
b e a m . Roll e r b e a ri n g s s h o ul d b e pl a c e d b e t w e e n
t h e b e a ri n g blo c k s a n d t h e k nif e e d g e s of t h e c r o s s h e a d
t o allo w fo r t h e s h o r t e ni n g d u e t o flex u r e . (S e e Fi g.
2 9 .) Thi r d-p oi n t lo a di n g is u s e d , t h a t is, t h e lo a d
is a p pli e d a t t w o p oi n t s o n e-t hi r d t h e s p a n of t h e
b e a m a p a r t . (S e e Fi g. 3 0.) This affo r d s a u nifo r m
b e n di n g m o m e n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e c e n t r al t hi r d of t h e
b ea m.
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 3 0.—Two m e t h o d s
of lo a di n g a b e a m , n a m ely, t hi r d-p oi n t lo a di n g (u p p e r),
a n d c e n t r e lo a di n g (lo w e r).]
M e a s u ri n g t h e d e fl e c tio n : Th e m e t h o d of
m e a s u ri n g t h e d efl e c tio n s h o ul d b e s u c h t h a t a n y c o m p r e s sio n
a t t h e p oi n t s of s u p p o r t o r a t t h e a p plic a tio n of
t h e lo a d will n o t aff e c t t h e r e a di n g. This m a y
b e a c c o m plis h e d by d rivi n g a s m all n ail n e a r e a c h
143
e n d of t h e b e a m , t h e e x a c t loc a tio n b ei n g o n t h e n e u t r al
pl a n e a n d v e r tic ally a b ov e e a c h k nif e-e d g e s u p p o r t.
B e t w e e n t h e s e n ails a fin e wi r e is s t r e t c h e d fr e e
of t h e b e a m a n d k e p t t a u t b y m e a n s of a r u b b e r b a n d
o r c oile d s p ri n g o n o n e e n d. Be hi n d t h e wi r e
a t a p oi n t o n t h e b e a m m i d w a y b e t w e e n t h e s u p p o r t s
a s t e el s c al e g r a d u a t e d t o h u n d r e d t h s of a n in c h is
fa s t e n e d v e r ti c ally by m e a n s of t h u m b-t a c k s o r s m all
s c r e w s p a s si n g t h r o u g h h ol e s in it. Att a c h m e n t
s h o ul d b e m a d e o n t h e n e u t r al pl a n e .
Th e firs t r e a di n g is m a d e w h e n t h e s c al e b e a m is b al a n c e d
a t z e r o lo a d, a n d af t e r w a r d a t r e g ul a r in c r e m e n t s
of t h e lo a d w hi c h is a p pli e d c o n ti n u o u sly a n d a t a
u nifo r m s p e e d . (S e e S P E ED O F TE STI NG MAC HI N E, a b ov e.)
If d e si r e d, h o w ev er, t h e lo a d m a y b e r e a d a t r e g ul a r
in c r e m e n t s of d efl e c tio n. Th e d efl e c tio n r e a di n g s
s h o ul d b e t o t h e n e a r e s t 0. 0 1 in c h. To a voi d e r r o r
d u e t o p a r all ax, t h e r e a di n g s m a y b e t a k e n by m e a n s
of a r e a di n g t el e s c o p e a b o u t t e n fe e t di s t a n t a n d
a p p r oxi m a t ely o n a lev el wi t h t h e wi r e. A m i r r o r
fa s t e n e d t o t h e s c al e will in c r e a s e t h e a c c u r a cy of
t h e r e a di n g s if t h e t el e s c o p e is n o t u s e d . As
in all t e s t s o n ti m b er, t h e s t r ai n m u s t b e c o n ti n u o u s
t o r u p t u r e, n o t in t e r m i t t e n t , a n d r e a di n g s m u s t b e
t a k e n “o n t h e fly.” Th e w ei g hi n g
b e a m is k e p t b al a n c e d af t e r t h e yiel d p oi n t is r e a c h e d
a n d t h e m a xi m u m lo a d, a n d a t le a s t o n e p oi n t b ey o n d
it, n o t e d .
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L o g of t h e t e s t : Th e p r o p e r log s h e e t
fo r t hi s t e s t c o n si s t s of a pi e c e of c r o s s-s e c tio n
p a p e r wi t h s p a c e a t t h e m a r gi n fo r n o t e s . (S e e Fi g.
3 2 .) Th e lo a d in s o m e c o nv e ni e n t u ni t (1, 0 0 0 t o 1 0, 0 0 0
p o u n d s, d e p e n di n g u p o n t h e di m e n sio n s of t h e s p e ci m e n)
is e n t e r e d o n t h e o r di n a t e s, t h e d efl e c tio n in t e n t h s
of a n inc h o n t h e a b s ci s s a e . Th e in c r e m e n t s of
lo a d s h o ul d b e c h o s e n s o a s t o fu r nis h a b o u t t e n p oi n t s
o n t h e s t r e s s-s t r ai n di a g r a m b elo w t h e el a s tic limit.
As t h e r e a di n g s of t h e wi r e o n t h e s c al e a r e m a d e
t h e y a r e e n t e r e d di r e c tly in t h ei r p r o p e r pl a c e o n
t h e c r o s s-s e c tio n p a p er. I n m a n y c a s e s a t e s t
s h o ul d b e c o n ti n u e d u n til c o m pl e t e failu r e r e s ul t s.
Th e p oi n t s w h e r e t h e v a rio u s failu r e s o c c u r a r e in dic a t e d
o n t h e s t r e s s-s t r ai n di a g r a m . A b ri ef d e s c ri p tio n
of t h e fail u r e is m a d e o n t h e m a r gi n of t h e lo g s h e e t,
a n d t h e fo r m t r a c e d o n t h e s k e t c h e s .
Dis p o s al of t h e s p e ci m e n : Two o n e-inc h
s e c tio n s a r e c u t fro m t h e r e gio n of failu r e t o b e
u s e d in d e t e r mi ni n g t h e m oi s t u r e c o n t e n t . (S e e M OI ST URE
D ETER MI NATION, a b ov e.) A t w o-inc h s e c tio n m a y b e c u t
fo r s u b s e q u e n t r ef e r e n c e a n d id e n tific a tio n, a n d p o s si bl e
m i c r o s c o pic s t u dy. Th e r e m a i n d e r of t h e b e a m m a y
b e c u t in t o s m all b e a m s a n d c o m p r e s sio n pi e c e s .
Calc ula ti n g t h e r e s ult s : Th e fo r m ul a e
u s e d in c alc ul a ti n g t h e r e s ul t s of t e s t s o n la r g e
r e c t a n g ul a r si m pl e b e a m s lo a d e d a t t hi r d p oi n t s of
t h e s p a n a r e a s follo w s:
0. 7 5 P
(1) J = --------
b h
l (P_{ 1 } + 0. 7 5 W)
(2) r = --------------------
b h ^{2}
l (P + 0. 7 5 W)
145
(3) R = ----------------
b h ^{2}
P_ { 1 } l ^ { 3 }
(4) E = ---------------
4. 7 D b h ^ { 3 }
0. 8 7 P_ { 1 } D
(5) S = --------------
2 V
b , h , l = b r e a d t h , h ei g h t, a n d s p a n
of s p e ci m e n , inc h e s.
D = t o t al d efl e c tio n a t el a s ti c li mit, inc h e s.
P = m a xi m u m lo a d, p o u n d s .
P_ { 1 } = lo a d a t el a s tic li mit, p o u n d s.
E = m o d ul u s of el a s ticity, p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e in c h.
r = fib r e s t r e s s a t el a s tic li mi t, p o u n d s p e r s q.
in c h.
R = m o d ul u s of r u p t u r e , p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e in c h.
S = el a s tic r e sili e n c e o r w o r k t o el a s ti c li mi t,
in c h-p o u n d s
p e r c u. in.
J = g r e a t e s t c al c ul a t e d lo n gi t u di n al s h e ar, p o u n d s
per square
in c h.
V = vol u m e of b e a m , c u bi c in c h e s .
W = w ei g h t of t h e b e a m .
In la r g e b e a m s t h e w ei g h t s h o ul d b e t a k e n in t o a c c o u n t
in c al c ul a ti n g t h e fib r e s t r e s s. In (2) a n d (3)
t h r e e-fo u r t h s of t h e w ei g h t of t h e b e a m is a d d e d t o
t h e lo a d fo r t hi s r e a s o n.
BENDING SMALL BEAMS
A p p ar a t u s : An o r di n a ry s t a ti c b e n di n g
m a c hi n e , a s t e el I-b e a m b e a ri n g t w o a dj u s t a bl e k nif e-e d g e
s u p p o r t s t o r e s t o n t h e pl a tfo r m , a n d a s p e ci al d efl e c t o m e t er,
a r e r e q ui r e d. (S e e Fi g. 3 1.)
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 3 1.—S t a ti c b e n di n g
t e s t o n s m all b e a m . N o t e t h e u s e of t h e d efl e c t o m e t e r
146
wi t h in dic a t o r a n d di al fo r m e a s u ri n g t h e d efl e c tio n;
al s o r oll e r b e a ri n g s b e t w e e n b e a m a n d s u p p o r t s .]
147
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Pr e p ari n g t h e m a t e rial: Th e s p e ci m e n s
m a y b e of a n y c o nv e ni e n t siz e, t h o u g h b e a m s 2”
X 2” X 3 0 ” t e s t e d ov e r a 2 8-inc h s p a n ,
a r e c o n si d e r e d b e s t. T h e b e a m s a r e s u rf a c e d o n
all fo u r si d e s, c a r e b ei n g t a k e n t h a t t h ey a r e n o t
d a m a g e d by t h e r oll e r s of t h e s u rf a ci n g m a c hi n e .
M a t e ri al fo r t h e s e t e s t s is s o m e ti m e s c u t fro m la r g e
b e a m s af t e r failu r e . Th e s p e ci m e n s a r e c a r ef ully
w ei g h e d in g r a m s , a n d all di m e n sio n s m e a s u r e d t o t h e
n e a r e s t 0. 0 1 in c h. If t o b e t e s t e d in a g r e e n
o r fr e s h c o n ditio n t h e s p e ci m e n s s h o ul d b e k e p t in
a d a m p b ox o r c ov e r e d wi t h m oi s t s a w d u s t u n til n e e d e d .
N o d ef e c t s s h o ul d b e allo w e d in t h e s e s p e ci m e n s .
M a r ki n g a n d s k e t c hi n g : S k e t c h e s a r e m a d e
of e a c h e n d of t h e s p e ci m e n t o s h o w t h e c h a r a c t e r
of t h e g r o w t h, a n d af t e r t e s ti n g, t h e m a n n e r of failu r e
is s h o w n fo r all fou r si d e s. In o b t ai ni n g d a t a
r e g a r di n g t h e r a t e of g r o w t h a n d t h e p r o p o r tio n of
la t e w o o d t h e s a m e p r o c e d u r e is follow e d a s wi t h la r g e
b e a m s.
A dj u s ti n g s p e ci m e n in m a c hi n e : Th e b e a m
s h o ul d b e c o r r e c tly c e n t r e d in t h e m a c hi n e a n d e a c h
e n d s h o ul d h a v e a pl a t e wit h r oll e r b e a ri n g s b e t w e e n
it a n d t h e s u p p o r t. C e n t r e lo a di n g is u s e d.
B e t w e e n t h e m ov a bl e h e a d of t h e m a c hi n e a n d t h e s p e ci m e n
is pl a c e d a b e a ri n g blo c k of m a pl e o r o t h e r h a r d w o o d,
t h e low e r s u rf a c e of w hi c h is c u rv e d in a di r e c tio n
alo n g t h e b e a m , t h e c u rv a t u r e of w hic h s h o ul d b e slig h tly
le s s t h a n t h a t of t h e b e a m a t r u p t u r e , in o r d e r t o
p r e v e n t t h e e d g e s fro m c r u s hi n g in t o t h e fib r e s of
t h e t e s t pi e c e .
M e a s u ri n g t h e d e fl e c tio n : Th e m e t h o d of
m e a s u ri n g d efl e c tio n of la r g e b e a m s c a n b e u s e d fo r
s m all siz e s, b u t b e c a u s e of t h e s h o r t n e s s of t h e s p a n
a n d c o n s e q u e n t slig h t d efo r m a tio n in t h e la t t er, it
is h a r dly a c c u r a t e e n o u g h for g o o d w o r k. Th e s p e ci al
d efl e c t o m e t e r s h o w n in Fi g. 3 1 allo w s clos e r r e a di n g,
a s it m a g nifi e s t h e d efl e c tio n t e n ti m e s . It
148
r e s t s o n t w o s m all n ails d riv e n in t h e b e a m o n t h e
n e u t r al pl a n e a n d ve r tic ally a b ov e t h e s u p p o r t s.
Th e fin e wi r e o n t h e w h e el a t t h e b a s e of t h e in dic a t o r
is a t t a c h e d t o a n o t h e r s m all n ail d riv e n in t h e b e a m
o n t h e n e u t r al pl a n e m i d w a y b e t w e e n t h e e n d n ails.
All t h r e e n ails s h o ul d b e in pl a c e b efo r e t h e b e a m
is p u t in t o t h e m a c hi n e. Th e in dic a t o r is a dj u s t a bl e
by m e a n s of a t h u m b-s c r e w a t t h e b a s e a n d is s e t a t
z e r o b efo r e t h e lo a d is a p pli e d. D efl e c tio n s
a r e r e a d t o t h e n e a r e s t 0. 0 0 1 inc h. Fo r r a t e of
a p plic a tio n of lo a d s e e S P E E D O F TESTI NG MAC HI N E, a b ov e.
Th e s p e e d s h o ul d b e u nifo r m fro m s t a r t t o finis h wi t h o u t
s t o p pi n g. R e a di n g s m u s t b e m a d e “o n t h e
fly.”
L o g of t h e t e s t : Th e log s h e e t s u s e d fo r
s m all b e a m s (s e e Fi g. 3 2) a r e t h e s a m e a s for la r g e
siz e s a n d t h e p r o c e d u r e is p r a c tic ally id e n tic al.
Th e s t r e s s-s t r ai n di a g r a m is c o n ti n u e d t o o r b e y o n d
t h e m a xi m u m lo a d, a n d in a p o r tio n of t h e t e s t s s h o ul d
b e c o n ti n u e d t o six-in c h d efl e c tio n o r u n til t h e s p e ci m e n
fails t o s u p p o r t a lo a d of 2 0 0 p o u n d s . D efl e c tio n
r e a di n g s fo r e q u al in c r e m e n t s of lo a d a r e t a k e n u n til
w ell b e yo n d t h e el a s tic li mit, af t e r w hic h t h e s c al e
b e a m is k e p t b al a n c e d a n d t h e lo a d r e a d fo r e a c h 0. 1
in c h d efl e c tio n. Th e lo a d a n d d efl e c tio n a t firs t
failu r e, t h e m a xi m u m lo a d, a n d a n y p oi n t s of s u d d e n
c h a n g e s h o ul d b e s h o w n o n t h e di a g r a m , e v e n t h o u g h
t h e y d o n o t o c c u r a t o n e of t h e r e g ul a r p oi n t s.
A b ri ef d e s c ri p tio n of t h e failu r e a n d t h e n a t u r e
of a n y d ef e c t s is e n t e r e d o n t h e log s h e e t.
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[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 3 2.—S a m pl e lo g
s h e e t, givi n g full d e t ails of a t r a n sv e r s e b e n di n g
t e s t o n a s m all pi n e b e a m .]
Calc ula ti n g t h e r e s ult s : Th e fo r m ul a e
u s e d in c alc ul a ti n g t h e r e s ul t s of t e s t s o n s m all
r e c t a n g ul a r si m pl e b e a m s a r e a s follo w s:
0. 7 5 P
(1) J = --------
b h
1. 5 P_ { 1 } l
(2) r = -------------
b h ^{2}
1. 5 P l
(3) R = ---------
b h ^{2}
P_ { 1 } l ^ { 3 }
(4) E = -------------
4 D b h ^{3}
P_ { 1 } D
(5) S = ---------
2 V
Th e s a m e le g e n d is u s e d a s in BE NDI NG LARGE BEAMS.
Th e w ei g h t of t h e b e a m its elf is di s r e g a r d e d.
ENDWISE COMPRESSION
A p p ar a t u s : An o r di n a ry s t a ti c t e s ti n g
m a c hi n e a n d a c o m p r e s s o m e t e r a r e r e q ui r e d. (S e e Fi g.
3 3 .)
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 3 3.—E n d wi s e c o m p r e s sio n
150
t e s t , s h o wi n g m e t h o d of m e a s u ri n g t h e d efo r m a tio n
by m e a n s of a c o m p r e s s o m e t er.]
Pr e p ari n g t h e m a t e rial: Two cl a s s e s of
s p e ci m e n s a r e c o m m o nly u s e d, n a m ely, (1) p o s t s 2 4
in c h e s in le n g t h , a n d (2) s m all cl e a r bloc k s a p p r oxi m a t ely
2” X 2” X 8”. Th e s p e ci m e n s
a r e s u rf a c e d o n all fo u r si d e s a n d b o t h e n d s s q u a r e d
s m o o t hly a n d e v e nly. Th ey a r e c a r ef ully w ei g h e d,
m e a s u r e d , r a t e of g r o w t h a n d p r o p o r tio n of la t e w o o d
d e t e r mi n e d , a s in b e n di n g t e s t s. Aft e r t h e t e s t
a m oi s t u r e s e c tio n is c u t a n d w ei g h e d . O r di n a rily
t h e s e s p e ci m e n s s h o ul d b e fr e e fro m d ef e c t s.
S k e t c hi n g : S k e t c h e s a r e m a d e of e a c h e n d
of t h e s p e ci m e n s t o s h o w t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e g r o w t h .
Aft e r t e s ti n g, t h e m a n n e r of fail u r e is s h o w n fo r
all fo u r si d e s, a n d t h e va rio u s p a r t s of t h e failu r e
a r e n u m b e r e d in t h e o r d e r of t h ei r o c c u r r e n c e .
A dj u s ti n g s p e ci m e n in m a c hi n e : Th e c o m p r e s s o m e t e r
c oll a r s a r e a dj u s t e d, t h e di s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e m b ei n g
2 0 in c h e s fo r t h e p o s t s a n d 6 in c h e s fo r t h e blo c k s.
If t h e t w o e n d s of t h e blo c k s a r e n o t e x a c tly p a r all el
a b all-a n d-s o c k e t bloc k c a n b e pl a c e d b e t w e e n t h e
u p p e r e n d of t h e s p e ci m e n a n d t h e m ov a bl e h e a d of
t h e m a c hi n e t o ov e r c o m e t h e ir r e g ul a rity. If t h e
bloc k s a r e t r u e t h ey c a n si m ply b e s t o o d o n e n d u p o n
t h e pl a tfo r m a n d t h e m ov a bl e h e a d allo w e d t o p r e s s
di r e c tly u p o n t h e u p p e r e n d .
M e a s u ri n g t h e d e f or m a tio n : Th e d efo r m a tio n
is m e a s u r e d by a c o m p r e s s o m e t er. (S e e Fi g. 3 3.) Th e
la t t e r r e gi s t e r s t o 0. 0 0 1 in c h. In t h e c a s e of
p o s t s t h e c o m p r e s sio n b e t w e e n t h e c olla r s is c o m m u ni c a t e d
t o t h e fo u r p oi n t s o n t h e a r m s by m e a n s of b r a s s r o d s ;
wi t h s h o r t bloc k s, a s in Fi g. 3 3 , t h e p oi n t s of t h e
a r m s a r e in di r e c t c o n t a c t wi t h t h e c oll a r s.
Th e o p e r a t o r low e r s t h e fulc r u m of t h e a p p a r a t u s by
m ovi n g t h e m i c r o m e t e r s c r e w s a t s u c h a r a t e t h a t t h e
s e t-s c r e w in t h e r e a r e n d of t h e u p p e r lev e r is k e p t
b a r ely t o u c hi n g t h e fixe d a r m b elo w it, b ei n g g ui d e d
by a b ell o p e r a t e d by el e c t ri c c o n t a c t.
L o g of t h e t e s t : Th e lo a d is a p pli e d c o n ti n u o u sly
a t a u nifo r m r a t e of s p e e d. (S e e S P E ED O F TE STI NG
151
MAC HI N E, a b ov e.) R e a di n g s a r e t a k e n fro m t h e s c al e
of t h e c o m p r e s s o m e t e r a t r e g ul a r in c r e m e n t s of ei t h e r
lo a d o r c o m p r e s sio n. Th e s t r e s s-s t r ai n di a g r a m
is c o n ti n u e d t o a t le a s t o n e d efo r m a tio n p oi n t b e y o n d
t h e m a xi m u m lo a d, a n d in e v e n t of s u d d e n failu r e , t h e
di r e c tio n of t h e c u rv e b e yo n d t h e m a xi m u m p oi n t is
in dic a t e d . A b ri ef d e s c ri p tio n of t h e failu r e
is e n t e r e d o n t h e log s h e e t. (S e e Fi g. 3 4.)
152
Page 80
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 3 4.—S a m pl e lo g
s h e e t of a n e n d wi s e c o m p r e s sio n t e s t o n a s h o r t pi n e
c ol u m n .]
In s h o r t s p e ci m e n s t h e failu r e u s u ally o c c u r s in o n e
o r s ev e r al pl a n e s di a g o n al t o t h e a xi s of t h e s p e ci m e n .
If t h e e n d s a r e m o r e m ois t t h a n t h e m i d dl e a c r u s hi n g
m a y o c c u r o n t h e e x t r e m e e n d s in a h o rizo n t al pl a n e .
S u c h a t e s t is n o t v alid a n d s h o ul d al w ay s b e c ull e d.
If t h e g r ai n is di a g o n al o r t h e s t r e s s is u n e v e nly
a p pli e d a di a g o n al s h e a r m a y o c c u r fro m t o p t o b o t t o m
of t h e t e s t s p e ci m e n . S u c h t e s t s a r e al s o inv ali d
a n d s h o ul d b e c ull e d. W h e n t h e pl a n e (o r s ev e r al
pl a n e s) of failu r e o c c u r s t h r o u g h t h e b o dy of t h e
s p e ci m e n t h e t e s t is v ali d. It m a y s o m e ti m e s
b e a d v a n t a g e o u s t o allo w t h e e x t r e m e e n d s t o d ry sli g h tly
b efo r e t e s ti n g in o r d e r t o b ri n g t h e pl a n e s of failu r e
wi t hi n t h e b o dy. Thi s is a p e rf e c tly le gi ti m a t e
p r o c e d u r e p r ovi d e d n o d ryi n g is allo w e d fro m t h e si d e s
of t h e s p e ci m e n, a n d t h e m oi s t u r e di s k is c u t fro m
t h e r e gio n of failu r e.
Calc ula ti n g t h e r e s ult s: Th e for m ul a e u s e d
in c al c ul a ti n g t h e r e s ul t s of t e s t s o n e n d wi s e c o m p r e s sio n
a r e a s follo w s:
P
(1) C = -----
A
P_ { 1 }
(2) c = -------
A
P_ { 1 } l
(3) E = ---------
AD
P D
(4) S = -----
2 V
153
C = crushing strength, pounds per square inch. c = fibre strength at elastic limit, pounds
per square inch. A = area of cross section, square inches. l = distance between centres
of collars, inches. D = total shortening at elastic limit, inches. V = volume of specimen,
cubic inches.
R e m ai n d e r of le g e n d a s in BE NDI NG LARGE BEAMS, a b ov e.
COMPRESSION ACROSS THE GRAIN
A p p ar a t u s : An o r di n a ry s t a ti c t e s ti n g
m a c hi n e , a b e a ri n g pl a t e , a n d a d efl e c t o m e t e r a r e
r e q ui r e d . (S e e Fi g. 3 5.)
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 3 5.—Co m p r e s sio n
a c r o s s t h e g r ai n. N o t e m e t h o d of m e a s u ri n g t h e
d efo r m a tio n by m e a n s of a d efl e c t o m o t er.]
Pr e p ari n g t h e m a t e rial: Two cl a s s e s of
s p e ci m e n s a r e u s e d, n a m ely, (1) s e c tio n s of c o m m e r ci al
siz e s of ti e s, b e a m s , a n d o t h e r ti m b e r s , a n d (2) s m all,
cl e a r s p e ci m e n s wi t h t h e le n g t h s ev e r al ti m e s t h e
wi d t h. S o m e ti m e s s m all c u b e s a r e t e s t e d, b u t
t h e r e s ul t s a r e h a r dly a p plic a bl e t o c o n di tio n s in
p r a c tic e. In (2) t h e si d e s a r e s u rf a c e d a n d t h e
e n d s s q u a r e d . Th e s p e ci m e n s a r e t h e n c a r ef ully
m e a s u r e d a n d w ei g h e d, d ef e c t s n o t e d , r a t e of g r o w t h
a n d p r o p o r tio n of la t e w o o d d e t e r m i n e d, a s in b e n di n g
t e s t s. (S e e BE N DI NG LARGE BEAMS, a b ov e.) Aft e r t h e
t e s t a m oi s t u r e s e c tio n is c u t a n d w ei g h e d .
S k e t c hi n g : S k e t c h e s a r e m a d e a s in e n d wi s e
c o m p r e s sio n t e s t s. (S e e E N DWI S E CO M P R E S SION,
a b ov e.)
A dj u s ti n g s p e ci m e n in m a c hi n e : Th e s p e ci m e n
is lai d h o rizo n t ally u p o n t h e pl a tfo r m of t h e m a c hi n e
a n d a s t e el b e a ri n g pl a t e pl a c e d o n it s u p p e r s u rf a c e
i m m e di a t ely b e n e a t h t h e c e n t r e of t h e m ov a bl e h e a d .
Fo r t h e la r g e r s p e ci m e n s t hi s pl a t e is six in c h e s
wi d e; fo r t h e s m all e r siz e s, t w o in c h e s wi d e.
Th e pl a t e in all c a s e s p r oj e c t s ov e r t h e e d g e s of t h e
t e s t pi e c e, a n d in n o c a s e s h o ul d t h e le n g t h of t h e
la t t e r b e le s s t h a n fou r ti m e s t h e wi d t h of t h e pl a t e.
154
Page 81
M e a s u ri n g t h e d e f or m a tio n : Th e c o m p r e s sio n
is m e a s u r e d by m e a n s of a d efl e c t o m e t e r (s e e Fi g.
3 5), w hic h, af t e r t h e fir s t in c r e m e n t of lo a d is a p pli e d,
is a dj u s t e d (by m e a n s of a s m all s e t s c r e w ) t o r e a d
z e r o. Th e a c t u al d o w n w a r d m o tio n of t h e m ov a bl e
h e a d (co r r e s p o n di n g t o t h e c o m p r e s sio n of t h e s p e ci m e n)
is m ul ti pli e d t e n ti m e s o n t h e s c al e fro m w hic h t h e
r e a di n g s a r e m a d e .
L o g of t h e t e s t : Th e lo a d is a p pli e d c o n ti n u o u sly
a n d a t u nifo r m s p e e d (s e e S P E E D O F TE STI NG MAC HI N E,
a b ov e), u n til w ell b e y o n d t h e el a s tic li mi t.
Th e c o m p r e s sio n r e a di n g s a r e t a k e n a t r e g ul a r lo a d
in c r e m e n t s a n d e n t e r e d o n t h e c r o s s-s e c tio n p a p e r
in t h e u s u al w ay. U s u ally t h e r e is n o r e al m a xi m u m
lo a d in t hi s c a s e , a s t h e s t r e n g t h c o n ti n u ally in c r e a s e s
a s t h e fib r e s a r e c r u s h e d m o r e c o m p a c tly t o g e t h er.
Calc ula ti n g t h e r e s ult s : O r di n a rily o nly
t h e fib r e s t r e s s a t t h e el a s tic li mi t (c) is c o m p u t e d.
It is e q u al t o t h e lo a d a t el a s tic li mi t (P_{ 1 } ) divi d e d
by t h e a r e a u n d e r t h e pl a t e (B). { P_ { 1 } }
{ c = ------- } { B }
SHEAR ALONG THE GRAIN
A p p ar a t u s : An o r di n a ry s t a ti c t e s ti n g
m a c hi n e a n d a s p e ci al t ool d e si g n e d fo r p r o d u ci n g
si n gl e s h e a r a r e r e q ui r e d . (S e e Fi g s. 3 6 a n d 3 7.)
This s h e a ri n g a p p a r a t u s c o n si s t s of a s olid s t e el
fr a m e wi t h s e t s c r e w s fo r cl a m pi n g t h e blo c k wi t hi n
it fir mly in a v e r ti c al p o si tio n. In t h e c e n t r e
of t h e fr a m e is a ve r tic al slo t in w hic h a s q u a r e-e d g e d
s t e el pl a t e sli d e s fr e ely. W h e n t h e t e s ti n g blo ck
is in p o si tio n, t his pl a t e i m pi n g e s s q u a r ely alo n g
t h e u p p e r s u rf a c e of t h e t e n o n o r lip, w hi c h, a s ve r tic al
p r e s s u r e is a p pli e d, s h e a r s off.
155
[Illu s t r a tio n: Fi g. 3 6.—Ver tic al s e c tio n
of s h e a ri n g t o ol.]
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 3 7.—F r o n t vie w
of s h e a ri n g t o ol wi t h t e s t s p e ci m e n a n d s t e el pl a t e
in p o sitio n fo r t e s ti n g.]
Pr e p ari n g t h e m a t e rial: Th e s p e ci m e n s
a r e u s u ally in t h e for m of s m all, cl e ar, s t r ai g h t-g r ai n e d
bloc k s wi t h a p r oj e c ti n g t e n o n o r lip t o b e s h e a r e d
off. Two c o m m o n fo r m s a n d siz e s a r e s h o w n in
Fi g u r e 3 8. P a r t of t h e blo ck s a r e c u t s o t h a t
t h e s h e a ri n g s u rf a c e is p a r all el t o t h e g r o w t h ri n g s ,
o r t a n g e n ti al; o t h e r s a t ri g h t a n gl e s t o t h e g r o w t h
ri n g s , o r r a di al. It is i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e u p p e r
s u rf a c e of t h e t e n o n o r lip b e s a w e d e x a c tly p a r all el
t o t h e b a s e of t h e blo c k. W h e n t h e fo r m wi t h a
t e n o n is u s e d t h e u n d e r c u t is e x t e n d e d a s h o r t di s t a n c e
h o rizo n t ally in t o t h e blo ck t o p r e v e n t a n y c o m p r e s sio n
fro m b elow.
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 3 8.—Two fo r m s
of s h e a r t e s t s p e ci m e n s .]
In d e si g ni n g a s h e a ri n g s p e ci m e n it is n e c e s s a r y t o
t a k e int o c o n si d e r a tio n t h e p r o p o r tio n s of t h e a r e a
of s h e ar, si n c e, if t h e le n g t h of t h e p o r tio n t o b e
s h e a r e d off is t o o g r e a t in t h e di r e c tio n of t h e s h e a ri n g
fa c e, fail u r e w o ul d o c c u r b y c o m p r e s sio n b efo r e t h e
pi e c e w o ul d s h e ar. In a s m u c h a s t h e e n d wi s e c o m p r e s siv e
s t r e n g t h is s o m e ti m e s n o t m o r e t h a n five ti m e s t h e
s h e a ri n g s t r e n g t h, t h e s h e a ri n g s u rf a c e s h o ul d b e le s s
t h a n five ti m e s t h e s u rf a c e t o w hic h t h e lo a d is a p pli e d.
This c o n di tio n is fulfille d in t h e s p e ci m e n s illu s t r a t e d .
156
Page 82
S h e a ri n g s p e ci m e n s a r e fr e q u e n tly c u t fro m b e a m s af t e r
t e s ti n g. I n t hi s c a s e t h e s p e cific g r a vity (d ry),
p r o p o r tio n of la t e w o o d, a n d r a t e of g r o w t h a r e a s s u m e d
t o b e t h e s a m e a s al r e a dy r e c o r d e d fo r t h e b e a m s .
In s p e ci m e n s n o t s o t a k e n, t h e s e q u a n ti ti e s a r e d e t e r mi n e d
in t h e u s u al w ay. Th e s h e a r e d-off p o r tio n is
u s e d fo r a m oi s t u r e s e c tio n.
A dj u s ti n g s p e ci m e n in m a c hi n e : Th e t e s t
s p e ci m e n is pl a c e d in t h e s h e a ri n g a p p a r a t u s wi t h
t h e t e n o n o r lip u n d e r t h e slidi n g pl a t e, w hic h is
c e n t r e d u n d e r t h e m ov a bl e h e a d of t h e m a c hi n e.
(S e e Fi g. 3 9 .) In o r d e r t o r e d u c e t o a m i ni m u m t h e
fric tio n d u e t o t h e la t e r al p r e s s u r e of t h e pl a t e
a g ai n s t t h e b e a ri n g s of t h e slo t, t h e a p p a r a t u s is
s o m e ti m e s pl a c e d u p o n s e v e r al p a r all el s t e el r o d s
t o fo r m a r oll e r b a s e . A sli g h t initi al lo a d is
a p pli e d t o t a k e u p t h e los t m o tio n of t h e m a c hi n e ry,
a n d t h e b e a m b al a n c e d.
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 3 9.—M a ki n g a s h e a ri n g
t e s t .]
L o g of t h e t e s t : Th e lo a d is a p pli e d c o n ti n u o u sly
a n d a t a u nifo r m r a t e u n til fail u r e , b u t n o d efo r m a tio n s
a r e m e a s u r e d . Th e p oi n t s n o t e d a r e t h e m a xi m u m
lo a d a n d t h e le n g t h of ti m e r e q ui r e d t o r e a c h it.
S k e t c h e s a r e m a d e of t h e fail u r e . If t h e failu r e
is n o t p u r e s h e a r t h e t e s t is c ull e d.
Th e s h e a ri n g s t r e n g t h p e r s q u a r e inc h is fou n d by
dividi n g t h e
{
P }
m a xi m u m lo a d by t h e c r o s s-s e c tio n al a r e a . { Q = —–
}
{
A }
157
IMPACT TEST
A p p ar a t u s : Th e r e a r e s e v e r al ty p e s of
i m p a c t t e s ti n g m a c hi n e s.[ 5 9] O n e of t h e si m pl e s t a n d
m o s t effici e n t fo r u s e wi t h w o o d is illu s t r a t e d in
Fi g u r e 4 0. Th e b a s e of t h e m a c hi n e is 7 fe e t
lo n g, 2. 5 fe e t wi d e a t t h e c e n t r e, a n d w ei g h s 3, 5 0 0
p o u n d s. Two u p ri g h t c ol u m n s , e a c h 8 fe e t lon g,
a c t a s g ui d e s fo r t h e s t riki n g h e a d . At t h e t o p
of t h e c ol u m n is t h e h oi s ti n g m e c h a ni s m fo r r ai si n g
o r low e ri n g t h e s t riki n g w ei g h t s. Th e p o w e r for
o p e r a ti n g t h e m a c hi n e is fu r ni s h e d by a m o t o r s e t o n
t h e t o p. Th e h ois ti n g-m e c h a ni s m is all c o n t r oll e d
by a si n gl e o p e r a ti n g lev er, s h o w n o n t h e si d e of
t h e c ol u m n, w h e r e b y t h e s t riki n g w ei g h t m a y b e r ai s e d,
low e r e d, o r s t o p p e d a t t h e will of t h e o p e r a t or.
Th e r e is a n a u t o m a ti c s af e ty d e vic e fo r s t o p pi n g t h e
m a c hi n e w h e n t h e w ei g h t r e a c h e s t h e t o p.
[Foo t n o t e 5 9: Fo r d e s c ri p tio n of U.S. Fo r e s t
S e rvic e a u t o m a tic a n d a u t o g r a p hi c i m p a c t t e s ti n g m a c hi n e,
s e e P r o c. Am. S o c. fo r Tes ti n g M a t e ri al s,
Vol. VIII, 1 9 0 8, p p. 5 3 8-5 4 0.]
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 4 0.—I m p a c t t e s ti n g
m a c hi n e .]
Th e w ei g h t is lift e d by a c h ai n, o n e e n d of w hi c h
p a s s e s ov e r a s p r o c k e t w h e el in t h e h oi s ti n g m e c h a ni s m .
O n t h e low e r e n d of t h e c h ai n is h u n g a n el e c t r o-m a g n e t
of s uffici e n t m a g n e ti c s t r e n g t h t o s u p p o r t t h e h e a vi e s t
s t riki n g w ei g h t s . W h e n it is d e si r e d t o d r o p
t h e s t riki n g w ei g h t t h e el e c t ri c c u r r e n t is b r o k e n
a n d r e v e r s e d by m e a n s of a n a u t o m a ti c s wi t c h a n d c u r r e n t
b r e a k er. T h e h ei g h t of d r o p m a y b e r e g ul a t e d by
s e t ti n g a t t h e d e si r e d h ei g h t o n o n e of t h e c ol u m n s
a t ri p pi n g pi n w hi c h t h r o w s t h e s wit c h o n t h e m a g n e t
a n d s o b r e a k s a n d r e v e r s e s t h e c u r r e n t.
158
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Th e r e a r e fo u r s t riki n g w ei g h t s, w ei g hi n g r e s p e c tiv ely
5 0 , 1 0 0, 2 5 0, a n d 5 0 0 p o u n d s , a n y o n e of w hic h m a y
b e u s e d, d e p e n di n g u p o n t h e d e si r e d e n e r g y of blow.
W h e n u s e d fo r c o m p r e s sio n t e s t s a fla t s t e el h e a d
six in c h e s in di a m e t e r is s c r e w e d in t o t h e lo w e r e n d
of t h e w ei g h t. Fo r t r a n s v e r s e t e s t s, a w ell-r o u n d e d
k nife e d g e is s c r e w e d in t o t h e w ei g h t in pl a c e of t h e
fla t h e a d . Knife e d g e s fo r s u p p o r ti n g t h e e n d s
of t h e s p e ci m e n t o b e t e s t e d, a r e s e c u r ely b olt e d
t o t h e b a s e of t h e m a c hi n e.
Th e r e c o r d of t h e b e h a vio r of t h e s p e ci m e n a t ti m e
of i m p a c t is t r a c e d u p o n a r ev olvin g d r u m by a p e n cil
fixe d in t h e s t riki n g h e a d . (S e e Fi g. 4 1 .) W h e n a
d r o p is m a d e t h e p e n cil c o m e s in c o n t a c t wi t h t h e
d r u m a n d is h el d in pl a c e by a s p ri n g. Th e d r u m
is r e volv e d v e ry slo wly, ei t h e r a u t o m a tic ally o r by
h a n d. Th e s p e e d of t h e d r u m c a n b e r e c o r d e d b y
a p e n cil in t h e e n d of a t u ni n g fo r k w hi c h giv e s a
k n o w n n u m b e r of vib r a tio n s p e r s e c o n d.
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 4 1.—D r u m r e c o r d
of i m p a c t b e n di n g t e s t.]
O n e siz e of t hi s m a c hi n e will h a n dl e s p e ci m e n s fo r
t r a n s v e r s e t e s t s 9 in c h e s wi d e a n d 6-foot s p a n; t h e
o t h er, 1 2 inc h e s wi d e a n d 8-foot s p a n . Fo r c o m p r e s sio n
t e s t s a fr e e fall of a b o u t 6. 5 fe e t m a y b e o b t ai n e d.
Fo r t r a n sv e r s e t e s t s t h e fall is a lit tl e le s s, d e p e n di n g
u p o n t h e siz e of t h e s p e ci m e n.
Th e m a c hi n e is c alib r a t e d by d r o p pi n g t h e h a m m e r u p o n
a c o p p e r cyli n d er. Th e a xi al c o m p r e s sio n of t h e
pl u g is n o t e d. Th e e n e r g y u s e d in s t a tic t e s t s
t o p r o d u c e t hi s a xi al c o m p r e s sio n u n d e r s t r e s s in
a lik e pi e c e of m e t al is d e t e r mi n e d. Th e e x t e r n al
e n e r g y of t h e blo w (i.e., t h e w ei g h t of t h e
h a m m e r X t h e h ei g h t of d r o p) is c o m p a r e d wi t h t h e
e n e r g y u s e d in s t a tic t e s t s a t e q u al a m o u n t s of c o m p r e s sio n.
Fo r in s t a n c e:
159
E n e r g y d eliv e r e d , i m p a c t t e s t 3 5, 0 0 0 inc h-p o u n d s
E n e r g y c o m p u t e d fro m s t a tic t e s t .2 6, 4 0 0 " "
Effici e n cy of blo w of h a m m e r .7 5. 3 p e r c e n t.
Pr e p ari n g t h e m a t e rial: Th e m a t e ri al u s e d
in m a ki n g i m p a c t t e s t s is of t h e s a m e siz e a n d p r e p a r e d
in t h e s a m e w a y a s fo r s t a tic b e n di n g a n d c o m p r e s sio n
t e s t s. B e n di n g in i m p a c t t e s t s is m o r e c o m m o nly
u s e d t h a n c o m p r e s sio n, a n d s m all b e a m s wi t h 2 8-inc h
s p a n a r e u s u ally e m pl oy e d.
M e t h o d : In m a ki n g a n i m p a c t b e n di n g t e s t
t h e h a m m e r is allo w e d t o r e s t u p o n t h e s p e ci m e n a n d
a z e r o o r d a t u m lin e is d r a w n. T h e h a m m e r is
t h e n d r o p p e d fro m inc r e a si n g h ei g h t s a n d d r u m r e c o r d s
t a k e n u n til fir s t failu r e. Th e fir s t d r o p is o n e
in c h a n d t h e in c r e a s e is by in c r e m e n t s of o n e in c h
u n til a h ei g h t of t e n inc h e s is r e a c h e d , af t e r w hi c h
in c r e m e n t s of t w o inc h e s a r e u s e d u n til c o m pl e t e failu r e
o c c u r s o r 6-in c h d efl e c tio n is s e c u r e d .
Th e 5 0-p o u n d h a m m e r is u s e d w h e n wi t h d r o p s u p t o
6 8 in c h e s it is r e a s o n a bly c e r t ai n it will p r o d u c e
c o m pl e t e failu r e o r 6-inc h d efl e c tio n in t h e c a s e
of all s p e ci m e n s of a s p e ci e s; fo r all o t h e r s p e ci e s
a 1 0 0-p o u n d h a m m e r is u s e d.
160
Page 84
R e s ul t s : Th e t r a ci n g o n t h e d r u m (s e e
Fi g. 4 1) r e p r e s e n t s t h e a c t u al d efl e c tio n of t h e s tic k
a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t r e b o u n d s fo r e a c h d r o p. T h e
di s t a n c e fro m t h e lo w e s t p oi n t in e a c h c a s e t o t h e
d a t u m lin e is m e a s u r e d a n d it s s q u a r e in t e n t h s of
a s q u a r e in c h e n t e r e d a s a n a b s ci s s a o n c r o s s-s e c tio n
p a p er, wi t h t h e h ei g h t of d r o p in in c h e s a s t h e o r di n a t e .
Th e el a s tic limit is t h a t p oi n t o n t h e di a g r a m w h e r e
t h e s q u a r e of t h e d efl e c tio n b e gi n s t o in c r e a s e m o r e
r a pi dly t h a n t h e h ei g h t of d r o p. Th e diffe r e n c e
b e t w e e n t h e d a t u m lin e a n d t h e fin al r e s ti n g p oi n t
af t e r e a c h d r o p r e p r e s e n t s t h e s e t t h e m a t e ri al h a s
r e c eiv e d.
Th e fo r m ul a e u s e d in c alc ul a ti n g t h e r e s ul t s of i m p a c t
t e s t s in b e n di n g w h e n t h e lo a d is a p pli e d a t t h e c e n t r e
u p t o t h e el a s ti c li mit a r e a s follow s:
3 WH l
(1) r = -----------
D b h ^{2}
F S l^{2}
(2) E = -----------
6 Dh
W H
(3) S = -------
lb h
H = h ei g h t of d r o p of h a m m er, in cl u di n g
d efl e c tio n, inc h e s.
S = m o d ul u s of el a s ti c r e silie n c e , inc h-p o u n d s p e r
c u bi c inc h.
W = w ei g h t of h a m m er, p o u n d s .
R e m ai n d e r of le g e n d a s in BE NDI NG LARGE BEAMS, a b ov e.
161
HARDNESS TEST: ABRASION AND INDENTATION
A b r a sio n : Th e m a c hi n e u s e d by t h e U.S.
Fo r e s t S e rvic e is a m o difie d fo r m of t h e Do r ry a b r a sio n
m a c hi n e . (S e e Fi g. 4 2.) U p o n t h e r ev olvin g h o rizo n t al
di s k is gl u e d a c o m m e r ci al s a n d p a p er, k n o w n a s g a r n e t
p a p er, w hi c h is c o m m o nly e m ploy e d in fa c t o ri e s in
finis hi n g w o o d.
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 4 2.—Ab r a sio n m a c hi n e
fo r t e s ti n g t h e w e a ri n g q u aliti e s of w o o d s.]
A s m all blo ck of t h e w o o d t o b e t e s t e d is fixe d in
o n e cl a m p a n d a si mil a r bloc k of s o m e w o o d c h o s e n
a s a s t a n d a r d , a s s u g a r m a pl e, a t 1 0 p e r c e n t m oi s t u r e ,
in t h e o p p o si t e, a n d h el d a g ai n s t t h e s a m e zo n e of
s a n d p a p e r by a w ei g h t of 2 6 p o u n d s e a c h . Th e
siz e of t h e s e c tio n u n d e r a b r a sio n fo r e a c h s p e ci m e n
is 2 ” X 2”. Th e c o n di tio n s fo r w e a r
a r e t h e s a m e fo r b o t h s p e ci m e n s. Th e s p e e d of
r o t a tio n is 6 8 r e v ol u tio n s a m i n u t e .
Th e t e s t is c o n ti n u e d u n til t h e s t a n d a r d s p e ci m e n
is w o r n a s p e cifie d a m o u n t, w hi c h v a ri e s wit h t h e
ki n d of w o o d u n d e r t e s t. A c o m p a ri s o n of t h e
w e a r of t h e t w o blo ck s affo r d s a fai r id e a of t h ei r
r el a tiv e r e si s t a n c e t o a b r a sio n.
Anot h e r m e t h o d m a k e s u s e of a s a n d bl a s t t o a b r a d e
t h e w o o d s a n d is t h e o n e e m ploy e d in N e w S o u t h Wale s.[6 0]
Th e a p p a r a t u s c o n si s t s e s s e n ti ally of a n ozzl e t h r o u g h
w hi c h s a n d c a n b e p r o p ell e d a t a hi g h velocity a g ai n s t
t h e t e s t s p e ci m e n b y m e a n s of a s t e a m je t.
[Foo t n o t e 6 0: S e e Wa r r e n, W.H.: Th e s t r e n g t h ,
el a s ticity, a n d o t h e r p r o p e r ti e s of N e w S o u t h Wal e s
h a r d w o o d ti m b e r s. D e p t. For., N.S.W., S y d n ey,
1 9 1 1, p p. 8 8-9 5 .]
Th e w o o d t o b e t e s t e d is c u t in t o blo ck s 3”
X 3” X 1’, a n d t h e s e a r e w ei g h e d t o t h e
n e a r e s t g r ai n ju s t b efo r e pl a ci n g in t h e a p p a r a t u s.
S t e a m fro m t h e b oil e r a t a p r e s s u r e of a b o u t 4 3 p o u n d s
162
p e r s q u a r e inc h is ej e c t e d fro m a n ozzl e in s u c h a
w a y t h a t p a r ticl e s of fin e q u a r t z s a n d a r e c a u g h t
u p a n d t h r o w n viol e n tly a g ai n s t t h e blo c k w hi c h is
b ei n g r o t a t e d . O nly s u p e r h e a t e d s t e a m s t ri k e s
t h e blo ck, t h u s le avi n g t h e w o o d d ry. Th e t e s t
is c o n ti n u e d fo r t w o m i n u t e s, af t e r w hi c h t h e s p e ci m e n
is r e m ov e d a n d i m m e di a t ely w ei g h e d.
163
Page 85
By c o m p a ri s o n wit h t h e o ri gi n al w ei g h t t h e los s fro m
a b r a sio n is d e t e r m i n e d , a n d by c o m p a ri s o n wi t h a c e r t ai n
w o o d c h o s e n a s a s t a n d a r d , a c o efficie n t of w e a r-r e si s t a n c e
c a n b e o b t ai n e d . Th e a m o u n t of w e a r will v a ry
m o r e o r le s s a c c o r di n g t o t h e s u rf a c e e x p o s e d, a n d
in t h e s e t e s t s q u a r t e r-s a w e d m a t e ri al w a s u s e d wi t h
t h e e d g e g r ai n t o t h e bl a s t.
In d e n t a tio n : Th e t o ol u s e d fo r t hi s t e s t
c o n si s t s of a p u n c h wi t h a h e m i s p h e ric al e n d o r s t e el
b all h avi n g a di a m e t e r of 0. 4 4 4 in c h, givin g a s u rf a c e
a r e a of o n e-fo u r t h s q u a r e inc h. It is fitt e d
wi t h a g u a r d pl a t e , w hi c h w o r k s loos ely u n til t h e
p e n e t r a tio n h a s p r o g r e s s e d t o a d e p t h of 0. 2 2 2 inc h,
w h e r e u p o n it ti g h t e n s . (S e e Fi g. 4 3.) Th e effe c t is
t h a t of si n ki n g a b all h alf its di a m e t e r in t o t h e
s p e ci m e n . This a p p a r a t u s is fit t e d in t o t h e m ov a bl e
h e a d of t h e s t a tic t e s ti n g m a c hi n e.
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 4 3.—D e si g n of
t o ol fo r t e s ti n g t h e h a r d n e s s of w o o d s b y in d e n t a tio n.]
Th e w o o d t o b e t e s t e d is c u t s q u a r e wi t h t h e g r ai n
in t o r e c t a n g ul a r bloc k s m e a s u ri n g 2” X 2”
X 6”. A blo c k is pl a c e d o n t h e pl a tfo r m
a n d t h e e n d of t h e p u n c h for c e d in t o t h e w o o d a t t h e
r a t e of 0. 2 5 in c h p e r m i n u t e . Th e o p e r a t o r k e e p s
m ovi n g t h e s m all h a n dl e of t h e g u a r d pl a t e b a c k a n d
fo r t h u n til it ti g h t e n s . At t hi s in s t a n t t h e
lo a d is r e a d a n d r e c o r d e d .
Two p e n e t r a tio n s e a c h a r e m a d e o n t h e t a n g e n ti al a n d
r a di al s u rf a c e s , a n d o n e o n e a c h e n d of e v e ry s p e ci m e n
tested.
In c h o o si n g t h e pl a c e s o n t h e bloc k fo r t h e in d e n t a tio n s,
effo r t s h o ul d b e m a d e t o g e t a fai r a v e r a g e of h e a r t w o o d
a n d s a p w o o d, fin e a n d c o a r s e g r ai n, e a rly a n d la t e
w o o d.
Anot h e r m e t h o d of t e s ti n g by in d e n t a tio n involv e s
164
t h e u s e of a ri g h t-a n gl e d c o n e ins t e a d of a b all.
Fo r d e t ails of t hi s t e s t a s u s e d in N e w S o u t h Wal e s
s e e loc. cit., p p . 8 6-8 7.
CLEAVAGE TEST
A s t a ti c t e s ti n g m a c hi n e a n d a s p e ci al cl e a v a g e t e s ti n g
d evic e a r e r e q ui r e d. (S e e Fi g. 4 4.) Th e la t t e r c o n sis t s
e s s e n ti ally of t w o h o o k s, o n e of w hi c h is s u s p e n d e d
fro m t h e c e n t r e of t h e t o p of t h e c a g e, t h e o t h e r
e x t e n d e d a b ov e t h e m ov a bl e h e a d.
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 4 4.—D e si g n of
t o ol fo r cl e av a g e t e s t .]
Th e s p e ci m e n s a r e 2” X 2” X 3. 7 5”.
At o n e e n d a o n e-in c h h ol e is b o r e d, wi t h it s c e n t r e
e q ui di s t a n t fro m t h e t w o si d e s a n d 0. 2 5 in c h fro m
t h e e n d. (S e e Fi g. 4 5.) This m a k e s t h e c r o s s s e c tio n
t o b e t e s t e d 2” X 3 ”. S o m e of t h e
bloc k s a r e c u t r a di ally a n d s o m e t a n g e n ti ally, a s
in dic a t e d in t h e fig u r e.
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 4 5.—D e si g n of
cl e av a g e t e s t s p e ci m e n .]
Th e fr e e e n d s of t h e h o o k s a r e fit t e d in t o t h e n o t c h
in t h e e n d of t h e s p e ci m e n. Th e m ov a bl e h e a d
of t h e m a c hi n e is t h e n m a d e t o d e s c e n d a t t h e r a t e
of 0. 2 5 inc h p e r m i n u t e , p ulli n g a p a r t t h e h o o k s a n d
s plit ti n g t h e blo c k. T h e m a xi m u m lo a d o nly is
t a k e n a n d t h e r e s ul t e x p r e s s e d in p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e
in c h of wi d t h. A pi e c e o n e-h alf in c h t hi ck is
s plit off p a r all el t o t h e failu r e a n d u s e d fo r m oi s t u r e
d e t e r mi n a tio n.
165
Page 86
TENSION TEST PARALLEL TO THE GRAIN
Si n c e t h e t e n sil e s t r e n g t h of w o o d p a r all el t o t h e
g r ai n is g r e a t e r t h a n t h e c o m p r e s siv e s t r e n g t h, a n d
e x c e e di n gly g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s h e a ri n g s t r e n g t h, it
is v e ry diffic ul t t o m a k e s a ti sf a c t o ry t e n sio n t e s t s,
a s t h e h e a d a n d s h o ul d e r s of t h e t e s t s p e ci m e n (w hic h
is s u bj e c t e d t o b o t h c o m p r e s sio n a n d s h e a r) m u s t b e
s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e p o r tio n s u bj e c t e d t o a p u r e t e n sil e
str ess.
Vario u s d e si g n s of t e s t s p e ci m e n s h a v e b e e n m a d e .
Th e o n e fir s t e m ploy e d by t h e Divisio n of Fo r e s t ry[ 6 1]
w a s p r e p a r e d a s follo w s: S ti ck s w e r e c u t m e a s u ri n g
1. 5” X 2. 5” X 1 6”. Th e t hic k n e s s
a t t h e c e n t r e w a s t h e n r e d u c e d t o t h r e e-ei g h t h s of
a n inc h by c u t ti n g o u t ci r c ul a r s e g m e n t s wi t h a b a n d
s aw. This left a b r e a ki n g s e c tio n of 2. 5”
X 0. 3 7 5”. C a r e w a s t a k e n t o c u t t h e s p e ci m e n
a s n e a rly p a r all el t o t h e g r ai n a s p o s si bl e, s o t h a t
it s failu r e w o ul d o c c u r in a c o n di tio n of p u r e t e n sio n.
Th e s p e ci m e n w a s t h e n pl a c e d b e t w e e n t h e pl a n e w e d g e-s h a p e d
s t e el g ri p s of t h e c a g e a n d t h e m ov a bl e h e a d of t h e
s t a ti c m a c hi n e a n d p ull e d in t w o. O nly t h e m a xi m u m
lo a d w a s r e c o r d e d . (S e e Fi g. 4 6, N o. 1.)
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 4 6.—D e si g n s of
t e n sio n t e s t s p e ci m e n s u s e d in U ni t e d S t a t e s .]
[Foo t n o t e 6 1: Bul. N o. 8: Ti m b e r p h y sic s,
P a r t II., 1 8 9 3, p. 7.]
Th e diffic ulty of m a ki n g s u c h t e s t s c o m p a r e d wi t h
t h e m i n o r i m p o r t a n c e of t h e r e s ul t s is s o g r e a t t h a t
t h e y a r e a t p r e s e n t o mi t t e d by t h e U.S. Fo r e s t
S e rvic e. A fo r m of s p e ci m e n is s u g g e s t e d, h o w e v er,
a n d is a s follow s: “A r o d of w o o d a b o u t
o n e in c h in di a m e t e r is b o r e d by a h ollo w d rill fro m
t h e s tic k t o b e t e s t e d. T h e e n d s of t hi s r o d
a r e in s e r t e d a n d gl u e d in c o r r e s p o n di n g h ol e s in p e r m a n e n t
166
h a r d w o o d w e d g e s. Th e s p e ci m e n is t h e n s u b mi t t e d
t o t h e o r di n a ry t e n sio n t e s t. T h e b r o k e n e n d s
a r e p u n c h e d fro m t h e w e d g e s."[6 2] (S e e Fi g. 4 6, N o.
2.)
[Foo t n o t e 6 2: Cir. 3 8: In s t r u c tio n s t o e n gi n e e r s
of ti m b e r t e s t s , 1 9 0 6, p. 2 4.]
Th e fo r m u s e d b y t h e D e p a r t m e n t of Fo r e s t ry of N e w
S o u t h Wal e s[ 6 3] is a s s h o w n in Fi g. 4 7. Th e s p e ci m e n
h a s a t o t al le n g t h of 4 1 inc h e s a n d is ci r c ul a r in
c r o s s s e c tio n. O n e a c h e n d is a h e a d 4 inc h e s
in di a m e t e r a n d 7 inc h e s lo n g. B elo w e a c h h e a d
is a s h o ul d e r 8. 5 in c h e s lo n g, w hi c h t a p e r s fro m a
di a m e t e r of 2. 7 5 in c h e s t o 1. 2 5 in c h e s. In t h e
m i d dl e is a cyli n d ri c al p o r tio n 1. 2 5 inc h e s in di a m e t e r
a n d 1 0 in c h e s lo n g.
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 4 7.—D e si g n of
t e n sio n t e s t s p e ci m e n u s e d in N e w S o u t h Wal e s.]
[Foo t n o t e 6 3: Wa r r e n , W.H.: Th e s t r e n g t h ,
el a s ticity, a n d o t h e r p r o p e r ti e s of N e w S o u t h Wal e s
h a r d w o o d ti m b e r s, 1 9 1 1, p p . 5 8-6 2.]
In m a ki n g t h e t e s t t h e s p e ci m e n is fitt e d in t h e m a c hi n e,
a n d a n e x t e n s o m e t e r a t t a c h e d t o t h e m i d dl e p o r tio n
a n d a r r a n g e d t o r e c o r d t h e e x t e n sio n b e t w e e n t h e g a u g e
p oi n t s 8 inc h e s a p a r t . T h e a r e a of t h e c r o s s
s e c tio n t h e n is 1. 2 2 6 s q u a r e in c h e s , a n d t h e t e n sil e
s t r e n g t h is e q u al t o t h e t o t al b r e a ki n g lo a d a p pli e d
divid e d by t hi s a r e a .
167
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TENSION TEST AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE GRAIN
A s t a ti c t e s ti n g m a c hi n e a n d a s p e ci al t e s ti n g d e vic e
(s e e Fi g. 4 8) a r e r e q ui r e d. Th e la t t e r c o n si s t s
e s s e n ti ally of t w o d o u bl e h o o k s o r cl a m p s , o n e of
w hi c h is s u s p e n d e d fro m t h e c e n t r e of t h e t o p of t h e
c a g e , t h e o t h e r e x t e n d e d a b ov e t h e m ov a bl e h e a d .
Th e s p e ci m e n s a r e 2” X 2” X 2. 5”.
At e a c h e n d a o n e-in c h h ol e is b o r e d wi t h it s c e n t r e
e q ui di s t a n t fro m t h e t w o si d e s a n d 0. 2 5 in c h fro m
t h e e n d s . This m a k e s t h e c r o s s s e c tio n t o b e t e s t e d
1” X 2”.
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 4 8.—D e si g n of
t o ol a n d s p e ci m e n fo r t e s ti n g t e n sio n a t ri g h t a n gl e s
t o t h e g r ai n.]
Th e fr e e e n d s of t h e cl a m p s a r e fit t e d in t o t h e n o t c h e s
in t h e e n d s of t h e s p e ci m e n. Th e m ov a bl e h e a d
of t h e m a c hi n e is t h e n m a d e t o d e s c e n d a t t h e r a t e
of 0. 2 5 inc h p e r m i n u t e , p ulli n g t h e s p e ci m e n in t w o
a t ri g h t a n gl e s t o t h e g r ai n. Th e m a xi m u m lo a d
o nly is t a k e n a n d t h e r e s ul t e x p r e s s e d in p o u n d s p e r
in c h of wi d t h. A pi e c e o n e-h alf in c h t hi ck is
s plit off p a r all el t o t h e failu r e a n d u s e d fo r m oi s t u r e
d e t e r mi n a tio n.
TORSION TEST[64]
[Foo t n o t e 6 4: Woo d is s o s el d o m s u bj e c t e d t o
a p u r e s t r e s s of t hi s ki n d t h a t t h e t o r sio n t e s t is
u s u ally o mi t t e d.]
A p p ar a t u s : Th e t o r sio n t e s t is m a d e in
a Ri e hl e-Mill e r t o r sio n al t e s ti n g m a c hi n e o r it s e q uiv al e n t.
(S e e Fi g. 4 9 .)
168
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 4 9.—M a ki n g a t o r sio n
t e s t o n hi c ko ry.]
Pr e p ar a tio n of m a t e rial: Th e t e s t pi e c e s
a r e cylin d ric al, 1. 5 in c h e s in di a m e t e r a n d 1 8 inc h e s
g a u g e le n g t h , wi t h s q u a r e d e n d s 4 in c h e s lo n g joi n e d
t o t h e cyli n d ri c al p o r tio n wit h a fille t. T h e
di m e n sio n s a r e c a r ef ully m e a s u r e d , a n d t h e u s u al d a t a
o b t ai n e d in r e g a r d t o t h e r a t e of g r o w t h , p r o p o r tio n
of la t e w o o d, loc a tio n a n d ki n d of d ef e c t s. Th e
w ei g h t of t h e cylin d ri c al p o r tio n of t h e s p e ci m e n
is o b t ai n e d af t e r t h e t e s t.
M a ki n g t h e t e s t : Aft e r t h e s p e ci m e n is
fit t e d in t h e m a c hi n e t h e lo a d is a p pli e d c o n ti n u o u sly
a t t h e r a t e of 2 2 d e g . p e r m i n u t e . A t r o p t o m e t e r
is u s e d in m e a s u ri n g t h e d efo r m a tio n. R e a di n g s
a r e m a d e u n til failu r e o c c u r s , t h e p oi n t s b ei n g e n t e r e d
o n t h e c r o s s-s e c tio n p a p er. Th e c h a r a c t e r of
t h e fail u r e is d e s c ri b e d. M oi s t u r e d e t e r mi n a tio n s
a r e m a d e by t h e di s k m e t h o d.
R e s ul t s : Th e c o n di tio n s of ul ti m a t e r u p t u r e
d u e t o t o r sio n a p p e a r n o t t o b e g ov e r n e d by d efi nit e
m a t h e m a ti c al la w s; b u t w h e r e t h e m a t e ri al is n o t ov e r s t r ai n e d ,
la w s m a y b e a s s u m e d w hi c h a r e s uffici e n tly ex a c t for
p r a c tic al c a s e s. Th e fo r m ul a e c o m m o nly u s e d fo r
c o m p u t a tio n s a r e a s follo w s:
5. 1 M
(1) T = -------
c ^{3}
1 1 4. 6 T f
(2) G = -----------
a c
a = a n gl e m e a s u r e d by t r o p t o m e t e r
a t el a s tic li mi t, in
d e g r e e s.
c = di a m e t e r of s p e ci m e n, in c h e s .
f = g a u g e le n g t h of s p e ci m e n , inc h e s. G =
m o d ul u s of
el a s ticity in s h e a r a c r o s s t h e g r ai n, p o u n d s
per square
in c h.
169
M = m o m e n t of t o r sio n a t el a s tic li mit, in c h-p o u n d s .
T = o u t e r fib r e t o r sio n al s t r e s s a t el a s ti c li mit,
pounds per
s q u a r e inc h.
170
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SPECIAL TESTS
S pi k e-p ullin g Te s t
S pik e-p ullin g t e s t s a p ply t o p r o bl e m s of r ail ro a d
m ai n t e n a n c e, a n d t h e r e s ul t s a r e u s e d t o c o m p a r e t h e
s pik e-h ol di n g p o w e r s of v a rio u s w o o d s, b o t h u n t r e a t e d
a n d t r e a t e d wi t h diffe r e n t p r e s e rv a tiv e s, a n d t h e
effici e n cy of v a rio u s fo r m s of s pik e s. S p e ci al
t e s t s a r e al s o m a d e in w hic h t h e s pik e is s u bj e c t e d
t o a t r a n sv e r s e lo a d a p pli e d r e p e ti tiv ely by a blow.
Fo r d e t ails of t e s t s a n d r e s ul t s s e e :
Cir. 3 8, U.S.F.S.: In s t r u c tio n s t o e n gi n e e r s
of ti m b e r t e s t s , p. 2 6. Cir. 4 6, U.S.F.S.:
H ol di n g fo r c e of r ail r o a d s pik e s in w o o d e n ti e s.
B ul. 1 1 8, U.S.F.S,: P r olo n gi n g t h e life of c r o s s-ti e s,
p p. 3 7-4 0.
Pac ki n g B o x e s
S p e ci al t e s t s o n t h e s t r e n g t h of p a c ki n g b ox e s of
v a rio u s w o o d s h a v e b e e n m a d e by t h e U.S. Fo r e s t
S e rvic e t o d e t e r mi n e t h e m e ri t s of diffe r e n t ki n d s
of w o o d s a s b ox m a t e ri al wi t h t h e vi e w of s u b s ti t u ti n g
n e w ki n d s for t h e m o r e ex p e n siv e o n e s n o w in u s e.
Th e m e t h o d s of t e s t s c o n sis t e d in a p plyin g a lo a d al o n g
t h e di a g o n al of a b ox, a n a c tio n si mil a r t o t h a t w hic h
o c c u r s w h e n a b ox is d r o p p e d o n o n e of it s c o r n e r s .
Th e lo a d w a s m e a s u r e d a t e a c h o n e-fo u r t h in c h in d efl e c tio n,
a n d n o t e s w e r e m a d e of t h e p ri m a ry a n d s u b s e q u e n t
failu r e s.
Fo r d e t ails of t e s t s a n d r e s ul t s, s e e :
Cir. 4 7, U.S.F.S.: S t r e n g t h of p a c ki n g b ox e s
of v a rio u s w o o d s .
Cir. 2 1 4, U.S.F.S.: Tes t s of p a c ki n g b ox e s of
v a rio u s fo r m s.
Ve hicl e a n d I m pl e m e n t W o o d s
171
Tes t s w e r e m a d e by t h e U.S. Fo r e s t S e rvic e t o
o b t ai n a b e t t e r k n o wl e d g e of t h e m e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s
of t h e w o o d s a t p r e s e n t u s e d in t h e m a n uf a c t u r e of
v e hi cl e s a n d i m pl e m e n t s a n d of t h o s e w hi c h m i g h t b e
s u b s ti t u t e d fo r t h e m . Tes t s w e r e m a d e u p o n t h e
followi n g m a t e ri al s: hi c ko ry b u g gy s p o k e s (s e e
Fi g. 5); hi c ko ry a n d r e d o a k b u g gy s h aft s; w a g o n t o n g u e s;
Do u gl a s fir a n d s o u t h e r n pi n e c ul tiv a t o r p ol e s.
D e t ails of t h e t e s t s a n d r e s ul t s m a y b e fo u n d in:
Cir. 1 4 2, U.S.F.S.: Tes t s o n v e hicl e a n d i m pl e m e n t
w o o d s.
Cr o s s-ar m s
In t e s t s by t h e U.S. Fo r e s t S e rvic e o n c r o s s-a r m s
a s p e ci al a p p a r a t u s w a s d e vis e d in w hic h t h e lo a d
w a s di s t ri b u t e d alo n g t h e a r m a s in a c t u al p r a c tic e.
Th e lo a d w a s a p pli e d by r o d s p a s si n g t h r o u g h t h e pi n h ol e s
in t h e a r m s . N u t s o n t h e s e r o d s p ull e d d o w n o n
t h e w o o d e n b e a ri n g-blo c k s s h a p e d t o fit t h e u p p e r
si d e of t h e a r m . Th e low e r e n d s of t h e s e r o d s
w e r e a t t a c h e d t o a sy s t e m of e q u alizin g lev e r s, s o
a r r a n g e d t h a t t h e lo a d a t e a c h pi n h ol e w o ul d b e t h e
s a m e . In all t h e t e s t s t h e lo a d w a s a p pli e d ve r tic ally
by m e a n s of t h e s t a ti c m a c hi n e .
S e e Cir. 2 0 4, U.S.F.S.: S t r e n g t h t e s t s of c r o s s-a r m s .
O t h e r Te s t s
M a n y o t h e r ki n d s of t e s t s a r e m a d e a s o c c a sio n d e m a n d s .
O n e ki n d c o n si s t s of b a r r el s a n d liq ui d c o n t ai n e r s,
m a t c h-b ox e s, a n d e x plo siv e c o n t ai n e r s . Th e s e
a r ticl e s a r e s u bj e c t e d t o s h o c k s s u c h a s t h e y w o ul d
r e c eiv e in t r a n si t a n d in h a n dli n g, a n d al s o t o h y d r a ulic
p r e s s u r e.
172
Page 89
O n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t e s t s fro m a p r a c tic al s t a n d p oi n t
is t h a t of b uilt-u p s t r u c t u r e s s u c h a s c o m p o u n d e d
b e a m s c o m p o s e d of s m all pi e c e s b ol t e d t o g e t h er, m o r ti s e d
join t s, w o o d e n t r u s s e s , e t c . Tes t s of t hi s
ki n d c a n b e s t b e w o r k e d o u t a c c o r di n g t o t h e s p e cific
r e q ui r e m e n t s in e a c h c a s e .
APPENDIX
S A M PLE W O R KI N G PLA N OF T H E U.S . FOR E S T S ERVICE
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODS GROWN IN
THE UNITED STATES
Wo rki n g Pl a n N o. 1 2 4
PURPOSE OF WORK
It is t h e g e n e r al p u r p o s e of t h e w o r k h e r e o u tlin e d
t o p r ovi d e:
(a ) R eli a bl e d a t a for c o m p a ri n g t h e m e c h a ni c al
p r o p e r ti e s of v a rio u s s p e ci e s;
(b ) D a t a fo r t h e e s t a blis h m e n t of c o r r e c t s t r e n g t h
fu n c tio n s o r w o r ki n g s t r e s s e s;
(c ) D a t a u p o n w hi c h m a y b e b a s e d a n alys e s of
t h e infl u e n c e o n t h e m e c h a nic al p r o p e r ti e s of s u c h
fa c t o r s a s:
Loc ality;
173
Dis t a n c e of ti m b e r fro m t h e pi t h of t h e t r e e;
H ei g h t of ti m b e r in t h e t r e e;
C h a n g e fro m t h e g r e e n t o t h e ai r-d ri e d c o n di tio n,
etc.
Th e m e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s w hic h will b e c o n si d e r e d
a n d t h e p ri n ci p al t e s t s u s e d t o d e t e r mi n e t h e m a r e
a s follo w s:
S t r e n g t h a n d s tiffn e s s—
S t a ti c b e n di n g;
Co m p r e s sio n p a r all el t o g r ai n;
Co m p r e s sio n p e r p e n di c ul a r t o g r ai n;
S h e ar.
Tou g h n e s s—
I m p a c t b e n di n g;
S t a ti c b e n di n g;
Work t o m a xi m u m lo a d a n d t o t al w o r k.
Cl e av a bility—
Cl e av a g e t e s t.
H a r d n e s s—
M o dific a tio n of Ja n k a b all t e s t fo r s u rf a c e
h a r d n ess.
MATERIAL
S e l e c tio n a n d N u m b e r of T r e e s
Th e m a t e ri al will b e fro m t r e e s s el e c t e d in t h e fo r e s t
by o n e q u alifie d t o d e t e r mi n e t h e s p e ci e s. F r o m
e a c h loc ality, t h r e e t o five d o mi n a n t t r e e s of m e r c h a n t a bl e
siz e a n d a p p r oxi m a t ely a v e r a g e a g e will b e s o c h o s e n
a s t o b e r e p r e s e n t a tiv e of t h e d o mi n a n t t r e e s of t h e
s p e ci e s . E a c h s p e ci e s will e v e n t u ally b e r e p r e s e n t e d
by t r e e s fro m five t o t e n loc aliti e s. Th e s e loc aliti e s
will b e s o c h o s e n a s t o b e r e p r e s e n t a tiv e of t h e c o m m e r ci al
r a n g e of t h e s p e ci e s. T r e e s fro m o n e t o t h r e e
loc aliti e s will b e u s e d t o r e p r e s e n t e a c h s p e ci e s u n til
174
m o s t of t h e im p o r t a n t s p e ci e s h a v e b e e n t e s t e d.
Th e 1 6-foo t b u t t lo g will b e t a k e n fro m e a c h t r e e
s el e c t e d a n d t h e e n ti r e m e r c h a n t a bl e h ol e of o n e a v e r a g e
t r e e fo r e a c h s p e ci e s.
Fi el d N o t e s a n d S hi p pi n g In s tr u c tio n s
Fi el d n o t e s a s o u tli n e d in Fo r m— a
S hi p m e n t D e s c ri p tio n, M a n u al of t h e B r a n c h of P r o d u c t s,
will b e fully a n d c a r ef ully m a d e by t h e c oll e c t or.
Th e a g e of e a c h t r e e s el e c t e d will b e r e c o r d e d a n d
a n y o t h e r info r m a tio n lik ely t o b e of in t e r e s t o r
i m p o r t a n c e will al s o b e m a d e a p a r t of t h e s e fiel d
n o t e s . E a c h log will h a v e t h e b a r k left o n.
It will b e pl ai nly m a r k e d in a c c o r d a n c e wi t h di r e c tio n s
giv e n u n d e r D e t ail e d In s t r u c tio n s. All m a t e ri al
will b e s hi p p e d t o t h e la b o r a t o ry im m e di a t ely af t e r
b ei n g c u t . N o t r e e s will b e c u t u n til t h e c olle c t o r
is n o tifie d t h a t t h e la b o r a t o ry is r e a dy t o r e c eiv e
t h e m a t e ri al.
175
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DETAILED INSTRUCTIONS
Par t of Tr e e t o b e Tes t e d
(a ) Fo r d e t e r mi ni n g t h e v al u e of t r e e a n d loc ality
a n d t h e infl u e n c e o n t h e m e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s of
di s t a n c e fro m t h e pi t h, a 4-foo t b ol t will b e c u t
fro m t h e t o p e n d of e a c h 1 6-foo t b u t t log.
(b ) Fo r inv e s ti g a ti n g t h e v a ri a tio n of p r o p e r ti e s
wi t h t h e h ei g h t of ti m b e r in t h e t r e e , all t h e lo g s
fro m o n e a v e r a g e t r e e will b e u s e d.
(c ) Fo r inv e s ti g a ti n g t h e eff e c t of d ryi n g
t h e w o o d, t h e b ol t n e x t b elo w t h a t p r ovi d e d fo r in
(a ) will b e u s e d in t h e c a s e of o n e t r e e fro m
e a c h loc ality.
M a r ki n g a n d Gro u pi n g of M a t e rial
Th e m a r ki n g will b e s t a n d a r d e x c e p t a s n o t e d.
E a c h lo g will b e c o n si d e r e d a “ pi e c e.”
Th e pi e c e n u m b e r s will b e pl ai nly m a r k e d u p o n t h e
b u t t e n d of e a c h lo g by t h e c oll e c t or. Th e n o r t h
si d e of e a c h lo g will al s o b e m a r k e d .
W h e n o nly o n e b ol t fro m a t r e e is u s e d it will b e
d e si g n a t e d by t h e n u m b e r of t h e lo g fro m w hi c h it
is c u t. W h e n e v e r m o r e t h a n o n e b ol t is t a k e n
fro m a t r e e , e a c h 4-foo t b olt o r le n g t h of t r u n k will
b e giv e n a le t t e r ( m a r k), a, b , c, e t c .,
b e gi n ni n g a t t h e s t u m p .
All b ol t s will b e s a w e d in t o 2-1/ 2” X 2-1/ 2”
s tic k s a n d t h e s ti ck s m a r k e d a c c o r di n g t o t h e s k e t c h,
Fi g. 5 0. Th e le t t e r s N, E, S , a n d W
in dic a t e t h e c a r di n al p oi n t s w h e n k n o w n; w h e n t h e s e
a r e u n k n o w n, H , K, L, a n d M will b e u s e d .
Th u s , N 5 , K 8, S 7 , M 4 a r e s tic k n u m b e r s , t h e
le t t e r b ei n g a p a r t of t h e s ti ck n u m b er.
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 5 0.—M e t h o d of
176
c u t ti n g a n d m a r ki n g t e s t s p e ci m e n s .]
O nly s t r ai g h t-g r ai n e d s p e ci m e n s, fr e e fro m d ef e c t s
w hi c h will aff e c t t h ei r s t r e n g t h, will b e t e s t e d .
Car e of M a t e rial
N o m a t e ri al will b e k e p t in t h e b ol t o r log lo n g e n o u g h
t o b e d a m a g e d o r di sfi g u r e d b y c h e c k s, r o t, o r s t ai n s.
Gr e e n m a t e rial: Th e m a t e ri al t o b e t e s t e d
g r e e n will b e k e p t in a g r e e n s t a t e by b ei n g s u b m e r g e d
in w a t e r u n til n e a r t h e ti m e of t e s t . It will
t h e n b e s u rf a c e d, s a w e d t o le n g t h, a n d s t o r e d in d a m p
s a w d u s t a t a t e m p e r a t u r e of 7 0 d e g.F. ( a s n e a rly a s
p r a c tic a bl e) u n til ti m e of t e s t. C a r e s h o ul d b e
t a k e n t o a v oi d a s m u c h a s p o s si bl e t h e s t o r a g e of
g r e e n m a t e ri al in a n y fo r m.
Air-d r y m a t e rial: Th e m a t e ri al t o b e ai r-d ri e d
will b e c u t in to s ti ck s 2-1/ 2” X 2-1/ 2”
X 4’. Th e e n d s of t h e s e s tic k s will b e
p a r affin e d t o p r e v e n t c h e c ki n g. Thi s m a t e ri al
will b e s o pil e d a s t o le av e a n ai r s p a c e of a t le a s t
o n e-h alf inc h o n e a c h si d e of e a c h s tic k, a n d in s u c h
a pl a c e t h a t it will b e p r o t e c t e d fro m s u n s hi n e, r ai n,
s n ow, a n d m oi s t u r e fro m t h e g r o u n d . Th e s tic k s
will b e s u rf a c e d a n d c u t t o le n g t h ju s t p r e vio u s t o
t est.
Or d e r of Te s t s
Th e o r d e r of t e s t s in all c a s e s will b e s u c h a s t o
eli mi n a t e s o fa r a s p o s si bl e fro m t h e c o m p a ri s o n s
t h e effe c t of c h a n g e s of c o n di tio n of t h e s p e ci m e n s
d u e t o s u c h fa c t o r s a s s t o r a g e a n d w e a t h e r c o n di tio n s.
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Th e m a t e ri al u s e d fo r d e t e r mi ni n g t h e eff e c t of h ei g h t
in t r e e will b e t e s t e d in s u c h o r d e r t h a t t h e a v e r a g e
ti m e el a p si n g fro m ti m e of c u t ti n g t o ti m e of t e s t
will b e a p p r oxi m a t ely t h e s a m e fo r all b ol t s fro m
a ny one tr e e.
Te s t s o n Gr e e n M a t e rial
Th e t e s t s o n all b ol t s, e x c e p t t h o s e fro m w hi c h a
c o m p a ri s o n of g r e e n a n d d r y ti m b e r is t o b e g o t t e n,
will b e a s follo w s:
S t a ti c b e n di n g : O n e s ti ck fro m e a c h p air.
A p ai r c o n si s t s of t w o a dj a c e n t s tic k s e q ui dis t a n t
fro m t h e pi t h, a s N 7 a n d N 8, o r H 5
a n d H 6.
I m p a c t b e n di n g : Fo u r s tic k s; o n e t o b e
t a k e n fro m n e a r t h e pi t h; o n e fro m n e a r t h e p e ri p h e ry;
a n d t w o r e p r e s e n t a tiv e of t h e c r o s s s e c tio n.
Co m p r e s sio n p ar all el t o g r ai n : O n e s p e ci m e n
fro m e a c h s ti ck. Th e s e will b e m a r k e d “1”
in a d di tio n t o t h e n u m b e r of t h e s tic k fro m w hic h
t h e y a r e t a k e n.
Co m p r e s sio n p e r p e n dic ular t o g r ai n : O n e
s p e ci m e n fro m e a c h of 5 0 p e r c e n t of t h e s t a ti c b e n di n g
s tic k s. Th e s e will b e m a r k e d “ 2”
in a d di tio n t o t h e n u m b e r of t h e s tic k fro m w hic h t h e y
a r e c u t.
H ar d n e s s : O n e s p e ci m e n fro m e a c h of t h e
o t h e r 5 0 p e r c e n t of t h e s t a tic b e n di n g s tic k s.
Th e s e s p e ci m e n s will b e m a r k e d “4.”
S h e a r : Six s p e ci m e n s fro m s ti ck s n o t t e s t e d
in b e n di n g o r fro m t h e e n d s c u t off in p r e p a ri n g t h e
b e n di n g s p e ci m e n s . Two s p e ci m e n s will b e t a k e n
fro m n e a r t h e pi t h; t w o fro m n e a r t h e p e ri p h e ry; a n d
t w o t h a t a r e r e p r e s e n t a tiv e of t h e a v e r a g e g r o w t h.
O n e of e a c h t w o will b e t e s t e d in r a di al s h e a r a n d
178
t h e o t h e r in t a n g e n ti al s h e ar. Th e s e s p e ci m e n s
will h a v e t h e m a r k “3.”
Cl e a v a g e : Six s p e ci m e n s c h o s e n a n d divi d e d
jus t a s t h o s e fo r s h e a ri n g. Th e s e s p e ci m e n s will
h a v e t h e m a r k “ 5.” (Fo r s k e t c h e s s h o wi n g
r a di al a n d t a n g e n ti al cl e av a g e , s e e Fi g. 4 5.)
W h e n it is i m p o s si bl e t o s e c u r e cl e a r s p e ci m e n s fo r
all of t h e a b ov e t e s t s, t e s t s will h a v e p r e c e d e n c e
in t h e o r d e r in w hi c h t h ey a r e n a m e d .
Te s t s t o D e t e r m i n e t h e E ff e c t of Air-d r yi n g
Th e s e t e s t s will b e m a d e o n m a t e ri al fro m t h e a dj a c e n t
b olt s m e n tio n e d in “c ” u n d e r P a r t
of Tr e e t o b e Tes t e d. Bo t h b ol t s will b e c u t
a s o u tli n e d a b ov e. O n e-h alf t h e s tic k s fro m e a c h
b olt will b e t e s t e d g r e e n , t h e o t h e r h alf will b e ai r-d ri e d
a n d t e s t e d . Th e divisio n of g r e e n a n d ai r-d r y
will b e a c c o r di n g t o t h e follo wi n g s c h e m e :
STICK N U M B E R S
Low e r b ol t, 1, 4, 5, 8, 9,
} Tes t e d
etc.
} green
U p p e r b olt, 2, 3, 6, 7, 1 0,
}
Low e r b ol t, 2, 3, 6, 7, 1 0,
} Air-d ri e d
etc.
} and
U p p e r b olt, 1, 4, 5, 8, 9,
} tested
All g r e e n s tic k s fro m t h e s e t w o b olt s will b e t e s t e d
a s if t h ey w e r e fro m t h e s a m e b olt a n d a c c o r di n g t o
t h e pl a n p r e vio u sly o u tlin e d fo r g r e e n m a t e ri al fro m
si n gl e b ol t s. Th e t e s t s o n t h e ai r-d ri e d m a t e ri al
will b e t h e s a m e a s o n t h e g r e e n e x c e p t fo r t h e diffe r e n c e
of s e a s o ni n g.
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Th e m a t e ri al will b e t e s t e d a t a s n e a r 1 2 p e r c e n t
m oi s t u r e a s is p r a c ti c a bl e. Th e a p p r oxi m a t e w ei g h t
of t h e ai r-d ri e d s p e ci m e n s a t 1 2 p e r c e n t m oi s t u r e
will b e d e t e r m i n e d by m e a s u ri n g w hil e g r e e n 2 0 p e r
c e n t of t h e s tic k s t o b e ai r-d ri e d a n d a s s u mi n g t h ei r
d ry g r a vity t o b e t h e s a m e a s t h a t of t h e s p e ci m e n s
t e s t e d g r e e n . T his 2 0 p e r c e n t will b e w ei g h e d
a s oft e n a s is n e c e s s a ry t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p r o p e r ti m e
of t e s t.
M e t h o d s of Te s t
All t e s t s will b e m a d e a c c o r di n g t o Ci r c ul a r 3 8 e x c e p t
in c a s e of c o nflic t wi t h t h e in s t r u c tio n s giv e n b el o w:
S t a ti c b e n di n g : Th e t e s t s will b e o n s p e ci m e n s
2” X 2” X 3 0” o n 2 8-in c h s p a n .
Lo a d will b e a p pli e d a t t h e c e n t r e .
In all t e s t s t h e lo a d-d efl e c tio n c u rv e will b e c a r ri e d
t o o r b e yo n d t h e m a xi m u m lo a d. I n o n e-t hi r d of
t h e t e s t s t h e lo a d-d efl e c tio n c u rv e will b e c o n ti n u e d
t o 6-in c h d efl e c tio n, o r till t h e s p e ci m e n fails t o
s u p p o r t a 2 0 0-p o u n d lo a d. D efl e c tio n r e a di n g s
fo r e q u al in c r e m e n t s of lo a d will b e t a k e n u n til w ell
p a s t t h e el a s tic li mi t, af t e r w hi c h t h e s c al e b e a m
will b e k e p t b al a n c e d a n d t h e lo a d r e a d fo r e a c h 0. 1-in c h
d efl e c tio n. Th e lo a d a n d d efl e c tio n a t fir s t
failu r e, m a xi m u m lo a d a n d p oi n t s of s u d d e n c h a n g e ,
will b e s h o w n o n t h e c u rv e s h e e t e v e n if t h e y d o n o t
o c c u r a t o n e of t h e r e g ul a r lo a d o r d efl e c tio n in c r e m e n t s .
I m p a c t b e n di n g : Th e i m p a c t b e n di n g t e s t s
will b e o n s p e ci m e n s of t h e s a m e siz e a s t h o s e u s e d
in s t a tic b e n di n g. T h e s p a n will b e 2 8 inc h e s .
Th e t e s t s will b e by inc r e m e n t d r o p. Th e fir s t
d r o p will b e 1 inc h a n d t h e in c r e a s e will b e by in c r e m e n t s
of 1 inc h till a h ei g h t of 1 0 inc h e s is r e a c h e d , af t e r
w hi c h inc r e m e n t s of 2 in c h e s will b e u s e d u n til c o m pl e t e
failu r e o c c u r s o r 6-inc h d efl e c tio n is s e c u r e d.
180
A 5 0-p o u n d h a m m e r will b e u s e d w h e n wi t h d r o p s u p
t o 6 8 in c h e s it is p r a c tic ally c e r t ai n t h a t it will
p r o d u c e c o m pl e t e failu r e o r 6-in c h d efl e c tio n in t h e
c a s e of all s p e ci m e n s of a s p e ci e s. Fo r all o t h e r
s p e ci e s , a 1 0 0-p o u n d h a m m e r will b e u s e d.
In all c a s e s d r u m r e c o r d s will b e m a d e u n til fir s t
failu r e. Also t h e h ei g h t of d r o p c a u si n g c o m pl e t e
failu r e o r 6-inc h d efl e c tio n will b e n o t e d.
Co m p r e s sio n p ar all el t o g r ai n : This t e s t
will b e o n s p e ci m e n s 2” X 2” X 8”
in siz e. O n 2 0 p e r c e n t of t h e s e t e s t s lo a d-c o m p r e s sio n
c u rv e s fo r a 6-inc h c e n t r ally loc a t e d g a u g e le n g t h
will b e t a k e n . R e a di n g s will b e c o n ti n u e d u n til
t h e el a s tic li mit is w ell p a s s e d . Th e o t h e r 8 0
p e r c e n t of t h e t e s t s will b e m a d e fo r t h e p u r p o s e
of o b t ai ni n g t h e m a xi m u m lo a d o nly.
Co m p r e s sio n p e r p e n dic ular t o g r ai n : This
t e s t will b e o n s p e ci m e n s 2” X 2” X 6”
in siz e. Th e b e a ri n g pl a t e s will b e 2 inc h e s
wi d e. Th e r a t e of d e s c e n t of t h e m ovi n g h e a d will
b e 0. 0 2 4 in c h p e r m i n u t e . Th e lo a d-c o m p r e s sio n
c u rv e will b e plo t t e d t o 0. 1 in c h c o m p r e s sio n a n d
t h e t e s t will t h e n b e di s c o n ti n u e d.
H ar d n e s s : Th e t o ol s h o w n in Fi g. 4 3 (a n
a d a p t a tio n of t h e a p p a r a t u s u s e d by t h e G e r m a n inv e s ti g a t or,
Ja n k a) will b e u s e d . Th e r a t e of d e s c e n t of t h e
m ovi n g h e a d will b e 0. 2 5 inc h p e r m i n u t e . W h e n
t h e p e n e t r a tio n h a s p r o g r e s s e d t o t h e p oi n t a t w hi c h
t h e pl a t e “a” b e c o m e s ti g h t, d u e
t o b ei n g p r e s s e d a g ai n s t t h e w o o d, t h e lo a d will b e
r e a d a n d r e c o r d e d.
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Two p e n e t r a tio n s will b e m a d e o n a t a n g e n ti al s u rf a c e,
t w o o n a r a di al, a n d o n e o n e a c h e n d of e a c h s p e ci m e n
t e s t e d . Th e c h oic e b e t w e e n t h e t w o r a di al a n d
b e t w e e n t h e t w o t a n g e n ti al s u rf a c e s a n d t h e di s t ri b u tio n
of t h e p e n e t r a tio n s ov e r t h e s u rf a c e s will b e s o m a d e
a s t o g e t a fai r a v e r a g e of h e a r t a n d s a p, slo w a n d
fa s t g r o w t h , a n d s p ri n g a n d s u m m e r w o o d. S p e ci m e n s
will b e 2 ” X 2” X 6”.
S h e a r : Th e t e s t s will b e m a d e wi t h a t o ol
slig h tly m o difie d fro m t h a t s h o w n in Ci r c ul a r 3 8.
Th e s p e e d of d e s c e n t of h e a d will b e 0. 0 1 5 in c h p e r
m i n u t e . Th e o nly m e a s u r e m e n t s t o b e m a d e a r e
t h o s e of t h e s h e a ri n g a r e a . Th e offs e t will b e
1/ 8 inc h. S p e ci m e n s will b e 2” X 2”
X 2-1/ 2” in siz e. (Fo r d efi nitio n of offs e t
a n d fo r m of t e s t s p e ci m e n, s e e Fi g. 3 8.)
Cl e a v a g e : Th e cl e av a g e t e s t s will b e m a d e
o n s p e ci m e n s of t h e fo r m a n d siz e s h o w n in Fi g. 4 5 .
Th e a p p a r a t u s will b e a s s h o w n in Fi g. 4 4. Th e
m a xi m u m lo a d o nly will b e t a k e n a n d t h e r e s ul t e x p r e s s e d
in p o u n d s p e r in c h of wi d t h. Th e s p e e d of t h e
m ovi n g h e a d will b e 0. 2 5 inc h p e r m i n u t e .
M oi s t u r e D e t e r m i n a tio n s
M oi s t u r e d e t e r m i n a tio n s will b e m a d e o n all s p e ci m e n s
t e s t e d e x c e p t t h o s e t o b e p h o t o g r a p h e d o r k e p t fo r
e x hi bi t. A 1-inc h dis k will b e c u t fro m n e a r
t h e p oi n t of fail u r e of b e n di n g a n d c o m p r e s sio n p a r all el
s p e ci m e n s , fro m t h e p o r tio n u n d e r t h e pl a t e in t h e
c a s e of t h e c o m p r e s sio n p e r p e n di c ul a r s p e ci m e n s , a n d
fro m t h e c e n t r e of t h e h a r d n e s s t e s t s p e ci m e n s .
Th e b e a d s fro m t h e s h e a r s p e ci m e n s will b e u s e d a s
m oi s t u r e di s k s. In t h e c a s e of t h e cl e av a g e s p e ci m e n s
a pi e c e 1/ 2 in c h t hi ck will b e s plit off p a r all el
t o t h e failu r e a n d u s e d a s a m oi s t u r e di s k.
182
RECORDS
All r e c o r d s will b e s t a n d a r d.
PHOTOGRAPHS
Cr o s s S e c tio n s
Jus t b efo r e c u t ti n g in t o s ti ck s, t h e fr e s hly c u t e n d
of a t le a s t o n e b ol t fro m e a c h t r e e will b e p h o t o g r a p h e d.
A s c al e of in c h e s will b e s h o w n in t his p h o t o g r a p h.
S p e ci m e n s
Th r e e p h o t o g r a p h s will b e m a d e of a g r o u p c o n si s ti n g
of fo u r 2” X 2” X 3 0” s p e ci m e n s
c h o s e n fro m t h e m a t e ri al fro m e a c h loc ality.
Two of t h e s e s p e ci m e n s will b e r e p r e s e n t a tiv e of a v e r a g e
g r o w t h , o n e of fa s t a n d o n e of slo w g r o w t h . Th e s e
p h o t o g r a p h s will s h o w r a di al, t a n g e n ti al, a n d e n d s u rf a c e s
fo r e a c h s p e ci m e n.
Failur e s
Typic al a n d a b n o r m al fail u r e s of m a t e ri al fro m e a c h
si t e will b e p h o t o g r a p h e d .
Dis p o si tio n of M a t e rial
Th e s p e ci m e n s p h o t o g r a p h e d t o s h o w ty pic al a n d a b n o r m al
failu r e s will b e s av e d fo r p u r p o s e s of e x hi bi t u n til
d e e m e d by t h e p e r s o n in c h a r g e of t h e la b o r a t o ry t o
b e of n o fu r t h e r v al u e.
SHRINKAGE AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Ap p e n dix t o Worki n g Pl a n 1 2 4
PURPOSE OF WORK
183
Page 94
It is t h e p u r p o s e of t hi s w o r k t o s e c u r e d a t a o n t h e
s h ri n k a g e a n d s p e cific g r a vity of w o o d s t e s t e d u n d e r
P r oj e c t 1 2 4. Th e fig u r e s t o b e o b t ai n e d a r e fo r
u s e a s a v e r a g e w o r ki n g v al u e s r a t h e r t h a n a s t h e b a si s
fo r a d e t ail e d s t u dy of t h e p ri n ci pl e s involve d.
MATERIAL
Th e m a t e ri al will b e t a k e n fro m t h a t p r ovid e d fo r
m e c h a ni c al t e s t s.
RADIAL AND TANGENTIAL SHRINKAGE
S p e ci m e n s
Pr e p ar a tio n : Two s p e ci m e n s 1 in c h t hi ck,
4 inc h e s wi d e, a n d 1 inc h lon g will b e o b t ai n e d fro m
n e a r t h e p e ri p h e ry of e a c h “d ”
b olt. Th e s e will b e c u t fro m t h e s e c t o r-s h a p e d
s e c tio n s left af t e r s e c u ri n g t h e m a t e ri al fo r t h e
m e c h a ni c al t e s t s o r fro m dis k s c u t fro m n e a r t h e e n d
of t h e b ol t. Th ey will b e t a k e n fro m a djoi ni n g
pi e c e s c h o s e n s o t h a t t h e r e s ul t s will b e c o m p a r a bl e
fo r u s e in d e t e r mi ni n g r a di al a n d t a n g e n ti al s h ri n k a g e .
(W h e n a di s k is u s e d , c a r e m u s t b e t a k e n t h a t it is
g r e e n a n d h a s n o t b e e n affe c t e d by t h e s h ri n k a g e a n d
c h e c ki n g n e a r t h e e n d of t h e b ol t.)
O n e of t h e s e s p e ci m e n s will b e c u t wi t h it s wi d t h
in t h e r a di al di r e c tio n a n d will b e u s e d fo r t h e d e t e r mi n a tio n
of r a di al s h ri n k a g e . Th e o t h e r will h av e its
wi d t h in t h e t a n g e n ti al di r e c tio n a n d will b e u s e d
fo r t a n g e n ti al s h ri n k a g e . Th e s e s p e ci m e n s will
n o t b e s u rf a c e d.
184
M a r ki n g : Th e s h ri n k a g e s p e ci m e n s will
r e t ai n t h e s hi p m e n t a n d pi e c e n u m b e r s a n d m a r k s of
t h e b ol t s fro m w hi c h t h e y a r e t a k e n, a n d will h a v e
t h e a d di tio n al m a r k 7 R o r 7 T a c c o r di n g
a s t h ei r wi d t h s a r e in t h e r a di al o r t a n g e n ti al di r e c tio n.
S h ri n k a g e m e a s u r e m e n t s : Th e s h ri n k a g e
s p e ci m e n s will b e c a r ef ully w ei g h e d a n d m e a s u r e d s o o n
af t e r c u t ti n g. Ri n g s p e r in c h, p e r c e n t s a p ,
a n d p e r c e n t s u m m e r w o o d will b e m e a s u r e d. Th ey
will t h e n b e ai r-d ri e d in t h e la b o r a t o ry t o c o n s t a n t
w ei g h t, a n d af t e r w a r d ov e n-d ri e d a t 1 0 0 d e g .C. (2 1 2
d e g.F.), w h e n t h e y will a g ai n b e w ei g h e d a n d m e a s u r e d .
VOLUMETRIC SHRINKAGE AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
S p e ci m e n s
S e l e c tio n a n d p r e p ar a tio n : Fo u r 2”
X 2” X 6” s p e ci m e n s will b e c u t fro m t h e
m e c h a ni c al t e s t s ti ck s of e a c h “ d ”
b olt; al s o fro m e a c h of t h e c o m p o si t e b ol t s u s e d in
g e t ti n g a c o m p a ri s o n of g r e e n a n d ai r-d ry. O n e
of t h e s e s p e ci m e n s will b e t a k e n fro m n e a r t h e pi t h
a n d o n e fro m n e a r t h e p e ri p h e r y; t h e o t h e r t w o will
b e r e p r e s e n t a tiv e of t h e a v e r a g e g r o w t h of t h e b olt.
Th e si d e s of t h e s e s p e ci m e n s will b e s u rf a c e d a n d
th e en ds s mooth sawn.
M a r ki n g : E a c h s p e ci m e n will r e t ai n t h e
s hi p m e n t, pi e c e, a n d s tic k n u m b e r s a n d m a r k of t h e
s tic k fro m w hic h it is c u t, a n d will h a v e t h e a d di tio n al
m a r k “S .”
185
Page 95
M a ni p ula tio n : S o o n af t e r c u t ti n g, e a c h
s p e ci m e n will b e w ei g h e d a n d it s volu m e will b e d e t e r mi n e d
by t h e m e t h o d d e s c ri b e d b elow. Th e ri n g s p e r
in c h a n d p e r c e n t s u m m e r w o o d, w h e r e p o s si bl e, will
b e d e t e r mi n e d , a n d a c a r b o n i m p r e s sio n of t h e e n d
of t h e s p e ci m e n m a d e . It will t h e n b e ai r-d ri e d
in t h e la b o r a t o ry t o a c o n s t a n t w ei g h t a n d af t e r w a r d
ov e n-d ri e d a t 1 0 0 d e g .C. W h e n d ry, t h e s p e ci m e n
will b e t a k e n fro m t h e ov e n, w ei g h e d, a n d a c a r b o n
i m p r e s sio n of its e n d m a d e . W hile s till w a r m
t h e s p e ci m e n will b e di p p e d in h o t p a r affin e.
Th e vol u m e will t h e n b e d e t e r mi n e d by t h e follo wi n g
m e t h o d:
O n o n e p a n of a p ai r of b al a n c e s is pl a c e d a c o n t ai n e r
h a vi n g in it w a t e r e n o u g h fo r t h e c o m pl e t e s u b m e r sio n
of t h e t e s t s p e ci m e n . This c o n t ai n e r a n d w a t e r
is b al a n c e d by w ei g h t s pl a c e d o n t h e o t h e r s c al e p a n .
Th e s p e ci m e n is t h e n h el d c o m pl e t ely s u b m e r g e d a n d
n o t t o u c hi n g t h e c o n t ai n e r w hil e t h e s c al e s a r e a g ai n
b al a n c e d . T h e w ei g h t r e q ui r e d t o b al a n c e is t h e
w ei g h t of w a t e r di s pl a c e d by t h e s p e ci m e n , a n d h e n c e
if in g r a m s is n u m e ric ally e q u al t o t h e vol u m e of
t h e s p e ci m e n in c u bic c e n ti m e t r e s . A di a g r a m m a ti c
s k e t c h of t h e a r r a n g e m e n t of t hi s a p p a r a t u s is s h o w n
in Fi g. 5 1.
[Illu s t r a tio n: F IG. 5 1.—Di a g r a m of
s p e cific g r a vity a p p a r a t u s , s h o wi n g a b al a n c e wit h
c o n t ai n e r (c ) fille d wi t h w a t e r in w hi c h t h e
t e s t blo c k (b ) is h el d s u b m e r g e d by a lig h t
r o d (a) w hic h is a dj u s t a bl e v e r ti c ally a n d
p r ovi d e d wi t h a s h a r p p oi n t t o b e d riv e n in t o t h e
s p e ci m e n .]
Air-d r y s p e ci m e n s will b e di p p e d in w a t e r a n d t h e n
wi p e d d r y af t e r t h e fir s t w ei g hi n g a n d jus t b efo r e
b ei n g i m m e r s e d fo r w ei g hi n g t h ei r di s pl a c e m e n t .
All di s pl a c e m e n t d e t e r mi n a tio n s will b e m a d e a s q ui c kly
a s p o s si bl e in o r d e r t o m i ni miz e t h e a b s o r p tio n of
186
w a t e r b y t h e s p e ci m e n.
STRENGTH VALUES FOR STRUCTURAL TIMBERS
(F r o m Cir. 1 8 9, U.S. Fo r e s t S e r vic e)
Th e follo wi n g t a bl e s b ri n g t o g e t h e r in c o n d e n s e d fo r m
t h e a v e r a g e s t r e n g t h v al u e s r e s ul ti n g fro m a la r g e
n u m b e r of t e s t s m a d e by t h e Fo r e s t S e rvic e o n t h e
p ri n ci p al s t r u c t u r al ti m b e r s of t h e U ni t e d S t a t e s .
Th e s e r e s ul t s a r e m o r e c o m pl e t ely di s c u s s e d in o t h e r
p u blic a tio n s of t h e S e rvic e, a lis t of w hi c h is giv e n
in BIBLIOGRAP HY, PART III.
Th e t e s t s w e r e m a d e a t t h e la b o r a t o ri e s of t h e U.S.
Fo r e s t S e rvic e, in c o o p e r a tio n wi t h t h e follo wi n g
in s tit u tio n s: Yale Fo r e s t S c h o ol, P u r d u e U niv e r si ty,
U niv e r si ty of C alifo r ni a, U niv e r sity of O r e g o n, U niv e r si ty
of Wa s hi n g t o n, U niv e r si ty of Colo r a d o, a n d U niv e r si ty
of Wis co n si n.
Ta bl e s XVIII a n d XIX giv e t h e a v e r a g e r e s ul t s o b t ai n e d
fro m t e s t s o n g r e e n m a t e ri al, w hil e Ta bl e s XX a n d
XXI giv e a v e r a g e r e s ul t s fro m t e s t s o n ai r-s e a s o n e d
m a t e ri al. Th e s m all s p e ci m e n s , w hi c h w e r e inv a ri a bly
2” X 2” in c r o s s s e c tio n, w e r e fr e e fro m
d ef e c t s s u c h a s k n o t s, c h e c k s, a n d c r o s s g r ai n; all
o t h e r s p e ci m e n s w e r e r e p r e s e n t a tiv e of m a t e ri al s e c u r e d
in t h e o p e n m a r k e t . Th e r el a tio n of s t r e s s e s
187
Page 96
d ev elo p e d in diffe r e n t s t r u c t u r al fo r m s t o t h o s e d ev elo p e d
in t h e s m all cl e a r s p e ci m e n s is s h o w n fo r e a c h fa c t o r
in t h e c ol u m n h e a d e d “R a tio t o 2 ” X 2".”
Tes t s t o d e t e r mi n e t h e m e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s of diffe r e n t
s p e ci e s a r e oft e n c o nfi n e d t o s m all, cl e a r s p e ci m e n s .
Th e r a tio s incl u d e d in t h e t a bl e s m a y b e a p pli e d t o
s u c h r e s ul t s in o r d e r t o a p p r oxi m a t e t h e s t r e n g t h
of t h e s p e ci e s in s t r u c t u r al siz e s, a n d c o n t ai ni n g
t h e d ef e c t s u s u ally e n c o u n t e r e d , w h e n t e s t s o n s u c h
fo r m s a r e n o t a v ail a bl e.
A c o m p a ri s o n of t h e r e s ul t s of t e s t s o n s e a s o n e d m a t e ri al
wi t h t h o s e fro m t e s t s o n g r e e n m a t e ri al s h o w s t h a t ,
wi t h o u t e x c e p tio n, t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e 2” X
2” s p e ci m e n s is inc r e a s e d b y lo w e ri n g t h e m oi s t u r e
c o n t e n t , b u t t h a t inc r e a s e in s t r e n g t h of o t h e r siz e s
is m u c h m o r e e r r a ti c. S o m e s p e ci m e n s , in fa c t,
s h o w a n a p p a r e n t los s in s t r e n g t h d u e t o s e a s o ni n g.
If s t r u c t u r al ti m b e r s a r e s e a s o n e d slo wly, in o r d e r
t o a v oi d e x c e s siv e c h e c ki n g, t h e r e s h o ul d b e a n inc r e a s e
in t h ei r s t r e n g t h . In t h e lig h t of t h e s e fa c t s
it is n o t s af e t o b a s e w o r ki n g s t r e s s e s o n r e s ul t s
s e c u r e d fro m a ny b u t g r e e n m a t e ri al. Fo r a di s c u s sio n
of fa c t o r s of s af e ty a n d s af e w o r ki n g s t r e s s e s fo r
s t r u c t u r al ti m b e r s s e e t h e M a n u al of t h e Am e ric a n
R ail w ay E n gi n e e ri n g Ass o ci a tio n, C hi c a g o, 1 9 1 1.
A t a bl e fro m t h a t p u blic a tio n, givin g w o r ki n g u ni t
s t r e s s e s for s t r u c t u r al ti m b er, is r e p r o d u c e d in t his
b o o k, s e e Tabl e XXII.
|------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| TABLE XVIII TABLE XVIII
|
|-----------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| BE N DI N G TE ST S O N GRE E N MATERIAL
|
|-----------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| | Siz e s | | | | F.S. a t E.L. | M . of R. | M.
188
of E. | C alc ul a t e d |
| |-----------------| N u m- | P e r | Ri n g s | | |
| shear |
| S p e ci e s | | | ber | cent | per
|-----------------+ - ----------------+ - ----------------+ - ----------------|
| | C r o s s | S p a n | of | m oi s- | in c h | Ave r a g e | R a tio | Ave r a g e |
R a tio | Ave r a g e | R a tio | Ave r a g e | R a tio |
| | S e c tio n | | tests | ture | | p e r s q. | t o 2” | p e r s q. | t o 2” |
p e r s q. | t o 2” | p e r s q. | t o 2” |
| | | | | | | inc h | by 2” | inc h | by 2” | in c h
| by 2” | inc h | b y 2” |
|-----------------+ - ---------+ - -----+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------
+ - --------+ - ------+ - --------+ - ------+ - --------+ - ------+ - --------+ - ------|
|------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| TABLE XIX TABLE XIX
|
|-----------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| CO M P R E S SIO N AND S H EAR TE ST S O N
GRE E N MATERIAL |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
|------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| TABLE XX TABLE XX
|
|-----------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------|
|------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| TABLE XXI TABLE XXI
|
|-----------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| CO M P R E S SIO N AND S H EAR TE ST S O N AIR-
S EASO N ED MATERIAL |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| | Co m p r e s sio n | Co m p r e s sio n
| Shear |
|------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------|
| TABLE XXII TABLE XXII
|
189
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----|
| [b]WORKING U N IT-STR E S S E S
F O R STRU CTURAL TIMBER[c] |
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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o n t h e m e c h a ni c al
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1 8 9 2.
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211
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——: Th e s t r e n g t h , el a s tici ty,
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In s tit u t e s a u s g ef u e h r t. 1 8 9 7.
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PART III. P UBLICATIO N S O F TH E U.S. GOVER N M E NT O N T H E
M E C HA NICAL
P RO P ERTIE S O F WO OD, AND TIMBER TE STI NG
M I S C ELLA N EO U S
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212
By J. B a u s c hi n g er. Tr a n sl a t e d by O.M. C a r t e r
a n d E.A. Gie s el er. 1 8 9 6, p p . 4 4.
Wa r D e p t. Doc. 1 1. O n t e s t s of c o n s t r u c tio n
m a t e ri al s. Tr a n sl a tio n s fro m t h e F r e n c h a n d fro m
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Gi e s el er. 1 8 9 6, p p . 8 4.
H o u s e Doc. N o. 1 8 1 , 5 5 t h Co n g., 3 d s e s s.
R e p o r t u p o n t h e fo r e s t ry inv e s ti g a tio n s of t h e U.S.
D e p a r t m e n t of Ag ric ul t u r e , 1 8 7 7-1 8 9 8. By B.E.
F e r n ow, 1 8 9 9 , p p. 4 0 1. Co n t ai n s c h a p t e r o n Th e
w o r k in ti m b e r p h y sic s in t h e Divisio n of Fo r e s t ry,
by Filib e r t Ro t h, p p . 3 3 0-3 9 5.
FOREST SERVICE
Cir. 7—Th e Gov e r n m e n t ti m b e r t e s t s [1 8 9-],
p p. 4.
Cir. 8—S t r e n g t h of “b ox e d”
o r “t u r p e n ti n e” ti m b er. 1 8 9 2, p p. 4.
B ul. 6—Ti m b e r P hy sic s. P t. I.
P r eli mi n a ry r e p o r t . 1. N e e d of t h e inv e s ti g a tio n.
2. S c o p e a n d hi s t o ri c al d ev elo p m e n t of t h e s ci e n c e
of “ti m b e r p h y sic s.” 3. O r g a niz a tio n
a n d m e t h o d s of ti m b e r e x a mi n a tio n s in t h e Divisio n
of Fo r e s t ry. By B.E. F e r n ow, 1 8 9 2, p p . 5 7.
U n n u m b e r e d Cir.—In s t r u c tio n s fo r t h e c oll e c tio n
of t e s t pi e c e s of pi n e s fo r ti m b e r inv e s ti g a tio n s
[1 8 9 3], p p . 4.
Cir. 9—Effe c t of t u r p e n ti n e g a t h e ri n g o n
t h e ti m b e r of lon gl e af pi n e. By B.E. F e r n o w
[1 8 9 3], p. 1.
B ul. 8—Ti m b e r p h y sic s. P t. II.
P r o g r e s s r e p o r t. R e s ul t s of inv e s ti g a tio n s o n
lo n gl e af pi n e. 1 8 9 3, p p. 9 2.
B ul. 1 0—Ti m b e r: a n el e m e n t a r y di s c u s sio n
213
of t h e c h a r a c t e ri s tic s a n d p r o p e r ti e s of w o o d.
By Filib e r t Ro t h. 1 8 9 5, p p . 8 8.
214
Page 121
B ul. 1 2—E c o n o mi c al d e si g ni n g of ti m b e r
t r e s tl e b ri d g e s . By A.L. Joh n s o n, 1 8 9 6,
p p. 5 7 .
Cir. 1 2—S o u t h e r n pi n e, m e c h a ni c al a n d p h y sic al
p r o p e r ti e s. 1 8 9 6, p p. 1 2.
Cir. 1 5—S u m m a r y of m e c h a ni c al t e s t s o n
t hi r ty-t w o s p e ci e s of Am e ri c a n w o o d s . 1 8 9 7 , p p. 1 2 .
Cir. 1 8—P r o g r e s s in ti m b e r p h y sic s. 1 8 9 8,
p p. 2 0 .
Cir. 1 9—P r o g r e s s in ti m b e r p h y sic s:
B al d cy p r e s s (Taxo di u m di s tic h u m ). By
Fili b e r t Ro t h, 1 8 9 8, p p . 2 4.
Y.B. Ex tr. 2 8 8—Tes t s o n t h e p h y sic al
p r o p e r ti e s of w o o d s. By F.E. Ol m s t e a d, 1 9 0 2,
p p. 5 3 3-5 3 8 .
U n n u m b e r e d Cir.—Ti m b e r t e s t s. [1 9 0 3], p p .
15.
U n n u m b e r e d Cir.—Ti m b e r p r e s e rv a tio n a n d
ti m b e r t e s ti n g a t t h e
Lo uisi a n a P u r c h a s e Ex p o sitio n. 1 9 0 4, p p. 6.
Cir. 3 2—P r o g r e s s r e p o r t o n t h e s t r e n g t h
of s t r u c t u r al ti m b er.
By W.K. H a t t, 1 9 0 4, p p. 2 8.
B ul. 5 8—Th e r e d g u m . By Alfr e d C hi t t e n d e n .
In cl u d e s a di s c u s sio n of T h e m e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s
of r e d g u m w o o d, by W.K. H a t t. 1 9 0 5, p p. 5 6.
Cir. 3 8—In s t r u c tio n s t o e n gi n e e r s of ti m b e r
t e s t s. By W.K.
H a t t, 1 9 0 6, p p. 5 5. R evis e d e di tio n, 1 9 0 9, p p .
56.
215
Cir. 3 9—Ex p e ri m e n t s o n t h e s t r e n g t h of
t r e a t e d ti m b er. By W.K.
H a t t, 1 9 0 6, p p. 3 1. R evis e d e di tio n, 1 9 0 8.
B ul. 7 0—Effe c t of m oi s t u r e u p o n t h e s t r e n g t h
a n d s tiffn e s s of w o o d. By H .D. Tie m a n n ,
1 9 0 6, p p. 1 4 4 .
Cir. 4 6—H ol di n g fo r c e of r ail ro a d s pik e s
in w o o d e n ti e s. By
W.K. H a t t , 1 9 0 6, p p . 7.
Cir. 4 7—S t r e n g t h of p a c ki n g b ox e s of v a rio u s
w o o d s. By W.K.
H a t t, 1 9 0 6, p p. 7.
Cir. 1 0 8—Th e s t r e n g t h of w o o d a s influ e n c e d
by m oi s t u r e . By
H .D. Tie m a n n , 1 9 0 7, p p. 4 2.
Cir. 1 1 5—S e c o n d p r o g r e s s r e p o r t o n t h e
s t r e n g t h of s t r u c t u r al ti m b er. By W.K. H a t t,
1 9 0 7, p p. 3 9.
Cir. 1 4 2—Tes t s of v e hicl e a n d i m pl e m e n t
w o o d s. By H .B. H ol r oy d a n d H .S. B e t t s,
1 9 0 8, p p. 2 9.
Cir. 1 4 6—Ex p e ri m e n t s wi t h r ailw ay c r o s s-ti e s.
By H .B. E a s t m a n , 1 9 0 8, p p . 3 2.
Cir. 1 7 9—U tiliz a tio n of C alifo r ni a e u c aly p t s.
By H .S. Be t t s a n d C. S t o w ell S mi t h, 1 9 1 0, p p.
30.
B ul. 7 5—C alifo r ni a t a n b a r k o a k. P a r t
II, U tiliz a tio n of t h e w o o d of t a n b a r k o a k, by H .S.
B e t t s, 1 9 1 1, p p . 2 4-3 2.
B ul. 8 8—P r o p e r ti e s a n d u s e s of Do u gl a s
fir. By M cG a rv ey Clin e a n d J.B. Kn a p p, 1 9 1 1 ,
p p. 7 5 .
Cir. 1 8 9—S t r e n g t h v al u e s fo r s t r u c t u r al
ti m b e r s . By M cG a rv ey Clin e, 1 9 1 2, p p . 8.
216
Cir. 1 9 3—M e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s of r e d w o o d.
By A.L. H ei m, 1 9 1 2 , p p. 3 2 .
B ul. 1 0 8—Tes t s of s t r u c t u r al ti m b e r s .
By M cG a rv ey Clin e a n d A.L. H ei m , 1 9 1 2, p p . 1 2 3 1.
B ul. 1 1 2—Fi r e-kille d Do u gl a s fir:
a s t u dy of it s r a t e of d e t e rio r a tio n, u s a bility, a n d
s t r e n g t h . By J.B. Kn a p p, 1 9 1 2, p p . 1 8.
B ul. 1 1 5—M e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s of w e s t e r n
h e ml o c k. By O.P.M. Gos s, 1 9 1 3 , p p. 4 5 .
B ul. 1 2 2—M e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s of w e s t e r n
la r c h. By O.P.M. Gos s, 1 9 1 3, p p . 4 5.
Cir. 2 1 3—M e c h a ni c al p r o p e r ti e s of w o o d s
g r o w n in t h e U ni t e d S t a t e s. 1 9 1 3 , p p. 4.
217
Page 122
Cir. 2 1 4—Tes t s of p a c ki n g b ox e s of v a rio u s
fo r m s . By Joh n A. N e wli n, 1 9 1 3, p p. 2 3.
R evi e w Fo r e s t S e rvic e Inv e s ti g a tio n s. 1 9 1 3. [O u tlin e
of inv e s ti g a tio n s.] Vol. I, p p . 1 7-2 1. A
m i c r o s c o pic s t u dy of t h e m e c h a ni c al fail u r e of w o o d,
by Wa r r e n D. B r u s h. Vol. II, p p. 3 3-3 8.
B ul. 6 7, U.S.D.A.—Tes t s of Roc ky M o u n t ai n
w o o d s fo r t el e p h o n e p ol e s. By N o r m a n d eW.
B e t t s a n d A.L. H ei m, 1 9 1 4, p p . 2 8.
B ul. 7 7, U.S.D.A.—Ro cky M o u n t ai n mi n e ti m b e r s .
By N o r m a n d eW. B e t t s, 1 9 1 4, p p . 3 4.
B ul. 8 6, U.S.D.A.—Tes t s of w o o d e n b a r r el s.
By J.A. N e wli n, 1 9 1 4, p p . 1 2.
R E P ORTS O F TE STS O N T H E STR E N GT H O F STR UCTURAL MATERIAL,
MADE AT
T H E WATERTOW N ARS E NAL, MASS.
H o u s e Ex. Do c. N o. 1 2, 4 7 t h Co n g., 1 s t s e s s.,
1 8 8 2. S t r e n g t h of w o o d g r o w n o n t h e P a cific slo p e,
p p. 1 9-9 3.
S e n a t e Ex. Doc. N o. 1, 4 7 t h Co n g., 2 d s e s s .,
1 8 8 3. R e si s t a n c e of w hi t e a n d y ello w pi n e s t o
fo r c e s of c o m p r e s sio n in t h e di r e c tio n of t h e fib e r s,
a s u s e d for c ol u m n s , o r p o s t s, p p. 2 3 9-3 9 5.
S e n a t e Ex. Doc. N o. 5, 4 8 t h Co n g., 1 s t s e s s .,
1 8 8 4. Tes t s of C alifo r ni a la u r el w o o d by c o m p r e s sio n,
in d e n t a tio n, s h e a ri n g, t r a n sv e r s e t e n sio n, p p. 2 2 3-2 3 6.
Tes t s of N o r t h Am e ric a n w o o d s (u n d e r s u p e rvi sio n of
P r of. C.S. S a r g e n t in c h a r g e of t h e fo r e s t ry
divisio n of t h e Ten t h C e n s u s ), wit h 1 6 p h o t o g r a p h s
of fr a c t u r e s of Am e ri c a n w o o d s , p p . 2 3 7-3 4 7 .
S e n a t e Ex. Doc. N o. 3 5, 4 9 t h Co n g., 1 s t
s e s s., 1 8 8 5 . Ad h e sio n of n ails, s pik e s, a n d s c r e w s
in v a rio u s w o o d s. Ex p e ri m e n t s o n t h e r e si s t a n c e
218
of c u t n ails, wi r e n ails (s t e el), w o o d s c r e w s , la g
s c r e w s in w hi t e pi n e, y ello w pi n e, c h e s t n u t, w hi t e
o a k, a n d la u r el, p p . 4 4 8-4 7 1 .
H o u s e Ex. Do c. N o. 1 4, 5 1 s t Co n g., 1 s t s e s s.,
1 8 9 0. Ad h e sio n of s pik e s a n d b ol t s in r ail ro a d
ti e s, p p. 5 9 5-6 1 7.
H o u s e Ex. Do c. N o. 1 6 1, 5 2 d Co n g., 1 s t s e s s .,
1 8 9 2. Ad h e sio n of n ails in w o o d, p p. 7 4 4-7 4 5.
H o u s e Ex. Do c. N o. 9 2, 5 3 d Co n g., 3 d s e s s.,
1 8 9 5.
Woo d s—c o m p r e s sio n t e s t s (e n d wi s e c o m p r e s sio n),
p p. 4 7 1-4 7 6 .
H o u s e Doc. N o. 5 4, 5 4 t h Co n g., 1 s t s e s s., 1 8 9 6.
Co m p r e s sio n t e s t s o n Do u gl a s fir w o o d, p p. 5 3 6-5 6 3.
Ex p a n sio n a n d c o n t r a c tio n of o a k a n d pi n e w o o d, p p .
5 6 7-5 7 4 .
H o u s e Doc. N o. 1 6 4 , 5 5 t h Co n g., 2 d s e s s., 1 8 9 8.
Co m p r e s sio n t e s t s of ti m b e r p o s t s, p p . 4 0 5-4 1 1.
N e w p o s t s of yello w pi n e a n d s p r u c e , p p . 4 1 3-4 5 0;
Ol d y ello w pi n e p o s t s fro m Bo s t o n Fi r e B rick Co. b uil di n g,
N o. 3 9 4 F e d e r al S t ., Bos t o n, M a s s ., p p. 4 5 1-4 7 3.
H o u s e Doc. N o. 1 4 3 , 5 5 t h Co n g., 3 d s e s s., 1 8 9 9.
Fi r e-p r o of e d w o o d ( e n d wi s e a n d t r a n sv e r s e t e s t s),
p p. 6 7 6-6 8 1 .
H o u s e Doc. N o. 1 9 0 , 5 6 t h Co n g., 2 d s e s s., 1 9 0 1.
Cy p r e s s w o o d fo r U ni t e d S t a t e s E n gi n e e r Co r p s; c o m p r e s sio n
a n d t r a n s v e r s e t e s t s, p p. 1 1 2 1-1 1 2 6. Ol d w hi t e
pi n e a n d r e d o a k fro m r o of t r u s s e s of Ol d S o u t h C h u r c h,
Bo s t o n, M a s s ., p p . 1 1 2 7-1 1 3 0. Co m p r e s sio n of
r u b b er, b al a t a , a n d w o o d b uff e r s, p p. 1 1 4 9-1 1 5 8.
219
Page 123
H o u s e Doc. N o. 3 3 5 , 5 7 t h Co n g., 2 d s e s s., 1 9 0 3.
Do u gl a s fir a n d w hi t e o a k w o o d s. Tr a n sv e r s e a n d
s h e a ri n g t e s t s; al s o o b s e rv a tio n s o n h e a t c o n d u c tivity
of s tic k s ov e r w o o d fir e s a n d a s tic k ex p o s e d t o low
t e m p e r a t u r e . Ex p a n sio n c r o s s wis e t h e g r ai n of
w o o d af t e r s u b m e r sio n, p p. 5 1 9-5 6 1. Ad h e sio n of
la g s c r e w s a n d b olt s in w o o d, p p . 5 6 3-5 7 8.
220
Page 109
| EXPRE S S E D I N P O U N D S P E R
S Q UARE I N C H |
| (F r o m M a n u al of t h e Am e ri c a n R ailw ay
E n gi n e e ri n g Ass n., 1 9 1 1, p. 1 5 3) |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----|
| N OT E.--Th e w o r ki n g u ni t-s t r e s s e s giv e n in t h e t a bl e a r e in t e n d e d fo r
r ailr o a d b ri d g e s a n d t r e s tl e s. Fo r hi g h w a y b ri d g e s a n d t r e s tl e s t h e u ni t-
s t r e s s e s m a y b e inc r e a s e d |
| t w e n ty-five (2 5) p e r c e n t. Fo r b uildi n g s a n d si mil a r s t r u c t u r e s, in w hic h
t h e ti m b e r is p r o t e c t e d fro m t h e w e a t h e r a n d p r a c ti c ally fr e e fro m i m p a c t,
t h e u ni t-s t r e s s e s m a y b e |
| in c r e a s e d fifty (5 0) p e r c e n t. To c o m p u t e t h e d efl e c tio n of a b e a m u n d e r
lo n g-c o n ti n u e d lo a di n g in s t e a d of t h a t w h e n t h e lo a d is fir s t a p pli e d, o nly
fifty (5 0) p e r c e n t of t h e |
| c o r r e s p o n di n g m o d ul u s of el a s ti city giv e n in t h e t a bl e is t o b e e m ploy e d.
|
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----|
| | BE N DI NG | S H EARI NG |
CO M P R E S SIO N | |
| |---------------------------------+ - ------
----------------------------------+ - ------------------------------------------------------------------------|
R a tio |
| | Ex t r e m e | M o d ul u s of | P a r all el t o | Lo n gi t u di n al
| P e r p e n di c ul a r | P a r all el t o | Fo r | Fo r m ul a e fo r | of |
| | fib r e | el a s ticity | t h e g r ai n | s h e a r in | to
t h e g r ai n | t h e g r ai n | c ol u m n s | w o r ki n g s t r e s s in | le n g t h |
| KIND O F | stress | | | beams |
| | u n d e r 1 5 | lo n g c ol u m n s ov e r | of |
| TIMB ER |--------------------+ - -----------+ - ------
-------------+ - -------------------+ - -------------------+ - -------------------| di a m e t e r s | 1 5
di a m e t e r s | s t ri n g e r |
| | Ave r a g e | Worki n g | | Ave r a g e | Wor ki n g | El a s tic |
Wo rki n g | El a s tic | Wo rki n g | Ave r a g e | Wor ki n g | w o r ki n g | |
to |
| | ul ti m a t e | s t r e s s | Ave r a g e | ul ti m a t e | s t r e s s | li mit | s t r e s s
| li mit | s t r e s s | ul ti m a t e | s t r e s s | s t r e s s | | depth |
|-----------------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - -----------+ - ------
221
---+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ----------
+ - ------------------+ - ---------|
222
Page 110
| Do u gl a s fir | 6 1 0 0 | 1 2 0 0 | 1, 5 1 0, 0 0 0 | 6 9 0 | 1 7 0 | 2 7 0 |
1 1 0 | 6 3 0 | 3 1 0 | 3 6 0 0 | 1 2 0 0 | 9 0 0 | 1 2 0 0( 1- l/6 0_d_) | 1 0 |
|-----------------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - -----------+ - ------
---+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ----------
+ - ------------------+ - ---------|
| Lo n gl e af pi n e | 6 5 0 0 | 1 3 0 0 | 1, 6 1 0, 0 0 0 | 7 2 0 | 1 8 0 | 3 0 0 |
1 2 0 | 5 2 0 | 2 6 0 | 3 8 0 0 | 1 3 0 0 | 9 8 0 | 1 3 0 0( 1- l/6 0_d_) | 1 0 |
|-----------------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - -----------+ - ------
---+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ----------
+ - ------------------+ - ---------|
| S h o r tl e af pi n e | 5 6 0 0 | 1 1 0 0 | 1, 4 8 0, 0 0 0 | 7 1 0 | 1 7 0 | 3 3 0 |
1 3 0 | 3 4 0 | 1 7 0 | 3 4 0 0 | 1 1 0 0 | 8 3 0 | 1 1 0 0( 1- l/6 0_d_) | 1 0 |
|-----------------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - -----------+ - ------
---+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ----------
+ - ------------------+ - ---------|
| W hit e pi n e | 4 4 0 0 | 9 0 0 | 1, 1 3 0, 0 0 0 | 4 0 0 | 1 0 0 | 1 8 0 |
7 0 | 2 9 0 | 1 5 0 | 3 0 0 0 | 1 0 0 0 | 7 5 0 | 1 0 0 0( 1- l/6 0_d_) | 1 0 |
|-----------------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - -----------+ - ------
---+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ----------
+ - ------------------+ - ---------|
| Spruce | 4 8 0 0 | 1 0 0 0 | 1, 3 1 0, 0 0 0 | 6 0 0 | 1 5 0 | 1 7 0 |
7 0 | 3 7 0 | 1 8 0 | 3 2 0 0 | 1 1 0 0 | 8 3 0 | 1 1 0 0( 1- l/6 0_d_) | |
|-----------------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - -----------+ - ------
---+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ----------
+ - ------------------+ - ---------|
| N o r w a y pi n e | 4 2 0 0 | 8 0 0 | 1, 1 9 0, 0 0 0 | 5 9 0[ d] | 1 3 0 | 2 5 0 |
100 | | 1 5 0 | 2 6 0 0[ d] | 8 0 0 | 6 0 0 | 8 0 0( 1- l/6 0_d_) | |
|-----------------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - -----------+ - ------
---+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ----------
+ - ------------------+ - ---------|
| Ta m a r a c k | 4 6 0 0 | 9 0 0 | 1, 2 2 0, 0 0 0 | 6 7 0 | 1 7 0 | 2 6 0 |
100 | | 2 2 0 | 3 2 0 0[ d] | 1 0 0 0 | 7 5 0 | 1 0 0 0( 1- l/6 0_d_) | |
|-----------------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - -----------+ - ------
---+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ----------
+ - ------------------+ - ---------|
| Wes t e r n h e mlo c k | 5 8 0 0 | 1 1 0 0 | 1, 4 8 0, 0 0 0 | 6 3 0 | 1 6 0 | 2 7 0[ d]
| 1 0 0 | 4 4 0 | 2 2 0 | 3 5 0 0 | 1 2 0 0 | 9 0 0 | 1 2 0 0( 1- l/6 0_d_) |
|
|-----------------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - -----------+ - ------
---+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ----------
+ - ------------------+ - ---------|
223
| Redwood | 5 0 0 0 | 9 0 0 | 8 0 0, 0 0 0 | 3 0 0 | 8 0 | | |
400 | 150 | 3 3 0 0 | 9 0 0 | 6 8 0 | 9 0 0( 1- l/6 0_d_) | |
224
Page 111
|-----------------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - -----------+ - ------
---+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ----------
+ - ------------------+ - ---------|
| B al d cy p r e s s | 4 8 0 0 | 9 0 0 | 1, 1 5 0, 0 0 0 | 5 0 0 | 1 2 0 | |
| 3 4 0 | 1 7 0 | 3 9 0 0 | 1 1 0 0 | 8 3 0 | 1 1 0 0( 1- l/6 0_d_) | |
|-----------------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - -----------+ - ------
---+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ----------
+ - ------------------+ - ---------|
| Red cedar | 4 2 0 0 | 8 0 0 | 8 0 0, 0 0 0 | | | | |
4 7 0 | 2 3 0 | 2 8 0 0 | 9 0 0 | 6 8 0 | 9 0 0( 1- l/6 0_d_) | |
|-----------------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - -----------+ - ------
---+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - --------+ - ----------
+ - ------------------+ - ---------|
| W hit e o a k | 5 7 0 0 | 1 1 0 0 | 1, 1 5 0, 0 0 0 | 8 4 0 | 2 1 0 | 2 7 0 |
1 1 0 | 9 2 0 | 4 5 0 | 3 5 0 0 | 1 3 0 0 | 9 8 0 | 1 3 0 0( 1- l/6 0_d_) | 1 2 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----|
| Th e s e u ni t-s t r e s s e s a r e fo r a g r e e n c o n di tio n of ti m b e r a n d a r e
l = Le n g t h in in c h e s . |
| t o b e u s e d wi t h o u t in c r e a si n g t h e live lo a d s t r e s s e s fo r i m p a c t.
d = L e a s t si d e in inc h e s . |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----|
|[F oo t n o t e b: Ado p t e d , Vol. 1 9 0 9, p p . 5 3 7, 5 6 4, 6 0 9-6 1 1.]
|
|[F oo t n o t e c: G r e e n ti m b e r in e x p o s e d w o r k.]
|
|[F oo t n o t e d: P a r ti ally ai r-d ry]
|
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----|
225
Page 106
| | p a r all el t o g r ai n | p e r p e n di c ul a r t o
g r ai n | |
| |-----------------------------------------
-------------+ - ------------------------------------------+ - -------------------------|
| | | | | Cr. | | Cr. | | | | | Cr.
| | | |
| S p e ci e s | | | P e r | s tr. | M. of | s tr. | | | | Per
| s tr. | | Per | |
| | Siz e of | N o. | c e n t | a t | E. | a t m a x. | S t r e s s | | N o.
| c e n t | a t m a x. | N o. | c e n t | S h e a r |
| | s p e ci m e n | of | of | E. L. | p e r | ld.,. | a r e a | H ei g h t | of
| of | ld., | of | of | s t r e n g t h |
| | | t e s t s | m oi s- | p e r | s q u a r e | p e r | | | tests |
m oi s- | p e r | t e s t s | m oi s- | |
| | | | t u r e | s q u a r e | in c h | s q u a r e | | | |
ture | square | | ture | |
| | | | | inc h | | inc h | | | | | inc h
| | | |
|-----------------+ - ---------+ - ------+ - ------+ - -------+ - ----
---+ - --------+ - -------+ - -------+ - ------+ ------+ - --------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ---------|
| | | | | | 1, 0 0 0 | | | | | |
| | | |
| | In c h e s | | | Lb s. | lb s. | Lb s. | In c h e s | I n c h e s | |
| Lb s. | | | Lb s. |
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | |
| Lo n gl e af pi n e | 4 by 5 | 4 6 | 2 6. 3 | 3, 4 8 0 | | 4, 8 0 0 | 4 by 5 | 4
| 2 2 | 2 5. 1 | 5 7 2 | 5 2 | 2 0. 2 | 984 |
| Do u gl a s fir | 6 b y 6 | 2 5 9 | 2 0. 3 | 3, 2 7 1 | 1, 0 3 8 | 4, 2 5 8 | 4 by 8 |
1 6 | 4 4 | 2 0. 8 | 7 3 2 | 4 6 5 | 2 2. 1 | 822 |
| | 2 by 2 | 2 4 7 | 1 8. 7 | 3, 8 4 2 | 1, 0 8 4 | 5, 0 0 2 | 4 by 8 | 1 0 |
3 2 | 1 8. 1 | 5 8 4 | | | |
| | | | | | | | 4 by 4 | 8 | 5 1 | 2 0. 2 |
638 | | | |
| | | | | | | | 4 by 4 | 6 | 4 9 | 2 4. 0 |
613 | | | |
| | | | | | | | 4 by 4 | 4 | 2 9 | 2 4. 8 |
603 | | | |
| S h o r tl e af pi n e | 6 by 6 | 2 9 | 1 5. 7 | 4, 0 7 0 | 1, 9 5 1 | 6, 0 3 0 | 8 by 5 |
1 6 | 4 | 1 7. 8 | 7 2 5 | 8 5 | | 1, 1 3 5 |
226
| | 2 by 2 | 5 7 | 1 4. 2 | | | 6, 3 8 0 | 8 b y 5 | 14 | 3 |
16.3 | 757 | | | |
227
Page 107
| | | | | | | | 8 by 5 | 1 2 | 5 | 1 5. 1 |
730 | | | |
| | | | | | | | 5 by 5 | 8 | 6 | 1 3. 0 |
918 | | | |
| | | | | | | | 2 by 2 | 2 | 5 7 | 1 3. 9 |
926 | | | |
| Wes t e r n la r c h | 6 by 6 | 1 1 2 | 1 6. 0 | | | 5, 4 4 5 | 8 b y 6 | 1 6 |
1 7 | 1 8. 8 | 4 9 1 | 1 9 3 | 1 5. 0 | 905 |
| | 4 by 4 | 8 1 | 1 4. 7 | | | 6, 1 6 1 | 8 b y 6 | 1 2 | 1 8 |
17.6 | 526 | | | |
| | 2 by 2 | 2 7 0 | 1 4. 8 | | | 5, 9 3 4 | 5 by 4 | 8 | 22 |
13.3 | 735 | | | |
| Lo blolly pi n e | 6 b y 6 | 2 3 | | 3, 3 5 7 | 1, 6 9 3 | 5, 0 0 5 | 8 by 5 | 1 6
| 1 2 | 1 9. 8 | 6 0 2 | 1 5 6 | 1 1. 3 | 1, 1 1 5 |
| | 5 by 5 | 1 0 | 2 2. 4 | 2, 2 1 7 | 5 4 5 | 2, 9 5 0 | 8 by 5 | 8 |
7 | 2 2. 9 | 6 7 9 | | | |
| | 4 by 8 | 8 | 1 9. 4 | 3, 0 1 0 | 6 3 3 | 3, 9 2 0 | 4 b y 5 | 8 | 8
| 1 9. 5 | 7 1 5 | | | |
| | 2 by 2 | 6 9 | | | | 5, 5 4 7 | | | | |
| | | |
| Ta m a r a c k | 6 by 7 | 3 | 1 5. 7 | 2, 2 5 7 | 1, 0 4 2 | 3, 3 2 3 | 2 by 2 | 2
| 5 7 | 1 6. 2 | 6 9 7 | 6 0 | 1 4. 0 | 879 |
| | 4 by 7 | 3 | 1 3. 6 | 3, 7 8 0 | 1, 3 0 1 | 4, 8 2 3 | | | |
| | | | |
| | 4 by 4 | 5 7 | 1 4. 9 | 3, 3 8 6 | 1, 3 5 3 | 4, 3 4 6 | | | |
| | | | |
| | 2 by 2 | 6 6 | 1 4. 6 | | | 4, 7 9 0 | | | | |
| | | |
| Wes t e r n h e mlo c k | 6 by 6 | 1 0 2 | 1 8. 6 | 4, 8 4 0 | 2, 1 4 0 | 5, 8 1 4 | 7 by 6 |
1 5 | 2 5 | 1 8. 2 | 5 1 4 | 1 3 1 | 1 7. 7 | 924 |
| | 2 by 2 | 4 6 3 | 1 7. 0 | 4, 5 6 0 | 1, 9 2 3 | 5, 4 0 3 | 6 by 6 | 6 |
2 6 | 1 6. 8 | 4 3 1 | | | |
| | | | | | | | 4 by 4 | 4 | 6 | 1 5. 9 |
488 | | | |
| Redwood | 6 by 6 | 1 8 | 1 6. 9 | | | 4, 2 7 6 | 8 by 6 | 1 6 |
5 | 2 5. 4 | 5 4 8 | 9 5 | 1 2. 4 | 671 |
| | 2 by 2 | 1 1 5 | 1 4. 6 | | | 5, 1 1 9 | 6 by 6 | 1 2 | 6 |
14.7 | 610 | | | |
| | | | | | | | 7 by 6 | 9 | 5 | 1 4. 8 |
500 | | | |
228
| | | | | | | | 3 by 6 | 14 | 2 | 1 2. 6 |
470 | | | |
229
Page 108
| | | | | | | | 2 by 6 | 1 2 | 2 | 1 6. 2 |
498 | | | |
| | | | | | | | 2 by 6 | 1 0 | 4 | 1 4. 3 |
511 | | | |
| | | | | | | | 2 by 6 | 8 | 2 | 1 3. 2 |
429 | | | |
| | | | | | | | 2 by 2 | 2 | 14 5 | 13.8 |
564 | | | |
| N o r w a y pi n e | 6 b y 7 | 4 | 1 5. 2 | 2, 6 7 0 | 1, 1 8 2 | 4, 2 1 2 | 2 by 2 |
2 | 3 6 | 1 0. 0 | 9 2 4 | 4 4 | 1 1. 9 | 1, 1 4 5 |
| | 4 by 7 | 2 | 2 2. 2 | 3, 2 7 5 | 1, 7 2 4 | 4, 5 7 5 | | | |
| | | | |
| | 4 by 4 | 5 5 | 1 6. 6 | 3, 0 4 8 | 1, 3 6 7 | 4, 2 1 7 | | | |
| | | | |
| | 2 by 2 | 4 4 | 1 1. 2 | | | 7, 5 5 0 | | | | |
| | | |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| N o t e .--Follo wi n g is a n e x pla n a tio n of t h e a b b r e via tio n s u s e d in t h e
for e g oi n g t a bl e s: |
| F.S. a t E.L. = Fi b e r s t r e s s a t el a s tic li mi t.
|
| M . of E. = M o d ul u s of el a s ti city.
|
| M . of R. = M o d ul u s of r u p t u r e .
|
| Cr. s tr. a t E.L. = C r u s hi n g s t r e n g t h a t el a s ti c li mi t.
|
| Cr. s tr. a t m a x. ld. = C r u s hi n g s t r e n g t h a t m a xi m u m lo a d.
|
|-----------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
230
Page 103
| BE N DI NG TE ST S O N AIR-S EASO N ED
MATERIAL |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| | Siz e s | | | | F.S. a t E.L. | M . of R. | M.
of E. | C alc ul a t e d |
| |-----------------| N u m- | P e r | Ri n g s | | |
| shear |
| S p e ci e s | | | ber | cent | per
|-----------------+ - ----------------+ - ----------------+ - ----------------|
| | C r o s s | S p a n | of | m oi s- | in c h | Ave r a g e | R a tio | Ave r a g e |
R a tio | Ave r a g e | R a tio | Ave r a g e | R a tio |
| | S e c tio n | | tests | ture | | p e r s q. | t o 2” | p e r s q. | t o 2” |
p e r s q. | t o 2” | p e r s q. | t o 2” |
| | | | | | | inc h | by 2” | inc h | by 2” | in c h
| by 2” | inc h | b y 2” |
|-----------------+ - ---------+ - -----+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------
+ - --------+ - ------+ - --------+ - ------+ - --------+ - ------+ - --------+ - ------|
| | | | | | | | | | | 1, 0 0 0 | |
| |
| | In c h e s | In s. | | | | Lb s. | | Lb s. | | lb s. |
| Lb s. | |
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
| |
| Lo n gl e af pi n e | 8 by 1 6 | 1 8 0 | 5 | 2 2. 2 | 1 6. 0 | 3, 3 9 0 | 0. 5 0 | 4, 2 7 4
| 0. 3 7 | 1, 7 4 7 | 1. 0 0 | 2 8 8 | 0. 7 5 |
| | 6 by 1 6 | 1 3 2 | 1 | 2 3. 4 | 1 7. 1 | 3, 4 7 0 | .5 1 | 6, 6 1 0 | .5 7
| 1, 5 0 1 | .8 6 | 3 8 8 | 1. 0 1 |
| | 6 by 1 0 | 1 7 7 | 2 | 1 9. 0 | 8. 8 | 4, 5 6 0 | .6 8 | 7, 8 8 0 | .6 8
| 1, 7 2 2 | .9 9 | 2 1 4 | .5 6 |
| | 4 by 1 1 | 1 8 0 | 1 | 1 8. 4 | 2 3. 9 | 3, 0 7 8 | .4 6 | 8, 0 0 0 | .6 9
| 1, 6 6 0 | .9 5 | 2 5 1 | .6 6 |
| | 6 by 8 | 1 7 7 | 6 | 2 0. 0 | 1 3. 7 | 4, 2 2 7 | .6 3 | 8, 1 9 6 | .7 1
| 1, 6 3 4 | .9 4 | 1 7 7 | .4 6 |
| | 2 by 2 | 3 0 | 1 7 | 1 5. 9 | 1 3. 9 | 6, 7 5 0 | 1. 0 0 | 1 1, 5 2 0 |
1. 0 0 | 1, 7 4 0 | 1. 0 0 | 3 8 3 | 1. 0 0 |
| Do u gl a s fir | 8 b y 1 6 | 1 8 0 | 9 1 | 2 0. 8 | 1 3. 1 | 4, 5 6 3 | .6 8 | 6, 3 7 2 |
.6 1 | 1, 5 4 9 | .9 1 | 2 6 9 | .6 4 |
| | 5 by 8 | 1 8 0 | 3 0 | 1 4. 9 | 1 2. 2 | 5, 0 6 5 | .7 6 | 6, 7 7 7 | .6 5
| 1, 8 5 3 | 1. 0 9 | 2 1 8 | .5 2 |
| | 2 by 2 | 2 4 | 2 1 1 | 1 9. 0 | 1 6. 4 | 6, 6 8 6 | 1. 0 0 | 1 0, 3 7 8 |
231
1. 0 0 | 1, 6 9 5 | 1. 0 0 | 4 1 9 | 1. 0 0 |
| S h o r tl e af pi n e | 8 by 1 6 | 1 8 0 | 3 | 1 7. 0 | 1 2. 3 | 4, 2 2 0 | .5 4 | 6, 0 3 0
| .5 0 | 1, 5 1 7 | .8 5 | 3 9 8 | .9 8 |
| | 8 by 1 4 | 1 8 0 | 3 | 1 6. 0 | 1 2. 3 | 4, 2 5 3 | .5 5 | 5, 3 4 7 | .4 4
| 1, 7 5 7 | .9 8 | 3 0 7 | .7 6 |
232
Page 104
| | 8 by 1 2 | 1 8 0 | 7 | 1 6. 0 | 1 2. 4 | 5, 0 5 1 | .6 5 | 7, 3 3 1 | .6 0
| 1, 8 0 3 | 1. 0 1 | 3 6 1 | .8 9 |
| | 5 by 8 | 1 8 0 | 6 | 1 2. 2 | 2 2. 5 | 7, 1 2 3 | .9 2 | 9, 3 7 3 | .7 7
| 1, 9 8 5 | 1. 1 1 | 3 0 1 | .7 4 |
| | 2 by 2 | 3 0 | 6 7 | 1 4. 2 | 1 3. 7 | 7, 7 8 0 | 1. 0 0 | 1 2, 1 2 0 |
1. 0 0 | 1, 7 9 2 | 1. 0 0 | 4 0 4 | 1. 0 0 |
| Wes t e r n la r c h | 8 by 1 6 | 1 8 0 | 2 3 | 1 8. 3 | 2 1. 9 | 3, 3 4 3 | .5 7 | 5, 4 4 0
| .5 3 | 1, 4 0 9 | .9 0 | 3 4 9 | .9 6 |
| | 8 by 1 2 | 1 8 0 | 2 9 | 1 7. 8 | 2 3. 4 | 3, 6 3 1 | .6 2 | 6, 1 8 6 | .
6 0 | 1, 5 4 9 | .9 9 | 2 9 5 | .8 1 |
| | 5 by 8 | 1 8 0 | 1 0 | 1 3. 6 | 2 7. 6 | 4, 7 3 0 | .8 0 | 7, 2 5 8 | .7 1
| 1, 6 2 0 | 1. 0 4 | 2 2 1 | .6 1 |
| | 2 by 2 | 3 0 | 2 4 0 | 1 6. 1 | 2 6. 8 | 5, 8 8 0 | 1. 0 0 | 1 0, 2 5 4 |
1. 0 0 | 1, 5 6 4 | 1. 0 0 | 3 6 4 | 1. 0 0 |
| Lo blolly pi n e | 8 b y 1 6 | 1 8 0 | 1 4 | 2 0. 5 | 7. 4 | 4, 1 9 5 | .8 1 | 6, 7 3 4 |
.7 2 | 1, 6 1 9 | 1. 1 0 | 4 6 2 | 1. 4 5 |
| | 6 by 1 6 | 1 2 6 | 4 | 2 0. 2 | 5. 0 | 2, 4 3 2 | .4 7 | 4, 2 9 5 | .4 6
| 1, 3 2 4 | .9 0 | 2 6 6 | .8 4 |
| | 6 by 1 0 | 1 7 4 | 3 | 2 1. 3 | 4. 7 | 3, 1 0 0 | .6 0 | 6, 1 6 7 | .6 6
| 1, 4 4 9 | .9 9 | 1 7 3 | .5 4 |
| | 4 by 1 2 | 1 7 4 | 4 | 1 9. 8 | 4. 7 | 2, 7 1 3 | .5 2 | 5, 7 4 5 | .6 1
| 1, 2 4 9 | .8 5 | 1 8 5 | .5 8 |
| | 8 by 8 | 1 8 0 | 9 | 2 2. 9 | 4. 9 | 2, 9 0 3 | .5 6 | 4, 5 5 7 | .4 8 |
1, 1 3 6 | .7 7 | 9 3 | .2 9 |
| | 6 by 7 | 1 4 4 | 2 | 2 1. 1 | 5. 0 | 2, 9 9 0 | .5 8 | 4, 9 6 8 | .5 3 |
1, 2 8 6 | .8 8 | 1 1 6 | .3 6 |
| | 4 by 8 | 1 3 2 | 8 | 1 9. 5 | 9. 1 | 3, 3 8 4 | .6 5 | 6, 1 9 4 | .6 6 |
1, 2 0 0 | .8 2 | 1 9 6 | .6 2 |
| | 2 by 2 | 3 0 | 1 2 3 | 1 7. 6 | 6. 6 | 5, 1 7 0 | 1. 0 0 | 9, 4 0 0 |
1. 0 0 | 1, 4 6 7 | 1. 0 0 | 3 1 8 | 1. 0 0 |
| Ta m a r a c k | 6 by 1 2 | 1 6 2 | 5 | 2 3. 0 | 1 5. 1 | 3, 4 3 4 | .4 5 | 5, 6 4 0 |
.4 3 | 1, 3 3 0 | .8 2 | 3 1 8 | .7 5 |
| | 4 by 1 0 | 1 6 2 | 4 | 1 4. 4 | 9. 7 | 4, 1 0 0 | .5 4 | 5, 3 2 0 | .4 1
| 1, 3 8 6 | .8 4 | 2 5 2 | .5 9 |
| | 2 by 2 | 3 0 | 4 7 | 1 1. 3 | 1 6. 2 | 7, 6 3 0 | 1. 0 0 | 1 3, 0 8 0 |
1. 0 0 | 1, 6 2 0 | 1. 0 0 | 4 2 5 | 1. 0 0 |
| Wes t e r n h e mlo c k | 8 by 1 6 | 1 8 0 | 4 4 | 1 7 . 7 | 1 7. 8 | 4, 3 9 8 | .6 9 |
6, 4 2 0 | .6 2 | 1, 7 3 7 | 1. 0 4 | 4 0 6 | 1. 0 6 |
| | 2 by 2 | 2 8 | 3 1 1 | 1 7. 9 | 1 9. 4 | 6, 3 3 3 | 1. 0 0 | 1 0, 3 6 9 |
1. 0 0 | 1, 6 6 6 | 1. 0 0 | 3 8 2 | 1. 0 0 |
| Redwood | 8 by 1 6 | 1 8 0 | 6 | 2 6. 3 | 2 2. 4 | 3, 7 9 7 | .7 9 | 4, 4 2 8 |
233
.5 7 | 1, 1 0 7 | .9 6 | 2 9 4 | 1. 0 5 |
| | 6 by 1 2 | 1 8 0 | 6 | 1 6. 1 | 1 7. 7 | 3, 1 7 5 | .6 6 | 3, 3 5 3 | .4 3
| 7 2 8 | .6 4 | 1 6 7 | .6 0 |
| | 7 by 9 | 1 8 0 | 6 | 1 5. 9 | 1 5. 2 | 3, 2 8 0 | .6 9 | 4, 0 0 2 | .5 1
| 1, 1 0 4 | .9 6 | 1 4 7 | .5 3 |
234
Page 105
| | 3 by 1 4 | 1 8 0 | 6 | 1 3. 1 | 2 4. 4 | | | 5, 0 3 3 | .6 4 |
| | 2 9 1 | 1. 0 4 |
| | 2 by 1 2 | 1 8 0 | 5 | 1 3. 8 | 1 4. 4 | 3, 9 2 8 | .8 2 | 5, 3 3 6 | .6 8
| 1, 2 4 9 | 1. 0 9 | 2 6 0 | .9 3 |
| | 2 by 1 0 | 1 8 0 | 5 | 1 3. 8 | 2 4. 8 | 3, 7 5 7 | .7 9 | 4, 6 0 6 | .5 9
| 1, 1 9 8 | 1. 0 5 | 1 8 6 | .6 7 |
| | 2 by 8 | 1 8 0 | 6 | 1 3. 7 | 2 0. 7 | 4, 3 1 4 | .9 0 | 5, 0 5 0 | .6 5
| 1, 3 1 3 | 1. 1 5 | 1 6 6 | .6 0 |
| | 2 by 2 | 2 8 | 1 2 2 | 1 5. 2 | 1 8. 8 | 4, 7 7 7 | 1. 0 0 | 7, 7 9 8 |
1. 0 0 | 1, 1 4 6 | 1. 0 0 | 2 7 9 | 1. 0 0 |
| N o r w a y pi n e | 6 b y 1 2 | 1 6 2 | 5 | 1 6. 7 | 8. 1 | 2, 9 6 8 | .5 6 | 5, 2 0 4
| .6 1 | 1, 1 2 3 | .9 7 | 2 8 6 | 1. 0 2 |
| | 4 by 1 0 | 1 6 2 | 5 | 1 3. 7 | 1 2. 0 | 5, 1 7 0 | .9 8 | 6, 9 0 4 | .8 2
| 1, 7 1 2 | 1. 4 8 | 3 1 7 | 1. 1 3 |
| | 2 by 2 | 3 0 | 6 0 | 1 4. 9 | 1 1. 2 | 5, 2 8 0 | 1. 0 0 | 8, 4 7 0 |
1. 0 0 | 1, 1 5 8 | 1. 0 0 | 2 8 1 | 1. 0 0 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| N o t e .--Follo wi n g is a n e x pla n a tio n of t h e a b b r e via tio n s u s e d in t h e
for e g oi n g t a bl e s: |
| F.S. a t E.L. = Fi b e r s t r e s s a t el a s tic li mi t.
|
| M . of E. = M o d ul u s of el a s ti city.
|
| M . of R. = M o d ul u s of r u p t u r e .
|
| Cr. s tr. a t E.L. = C r u s hi n g s t r e n g t h a t el a s ti c li mi t.
|
| Cr. s tr. a t m a x. ld. = C r u s hi n g s t r e n g t h a t m a xi m u m lo a d.
|
|-----------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------|
235
Page 100
| | Co m p r e s sio n | Co m p r e s sio n
| Shear |
| | p a r all el t o g r ai n | p e r p e n di c ul a r t o
g r ai n | |
| |-----------------------------------------
-------------+ - ------------------------------------------+ - -------------------------|
| | | | | Cr. | | Cr. | | | | | Cr.
| | | |
| S p e ci e s | | | P e r | s tr. | M. of | s tr. | | | | Per
| s tr. | | Per | |
| | Siz e of | N o. | c e n t | a t | E. | a t m a x. | S t r e s s | | N o.
| c e n t | a t m a x. | N o. | c e n t | S h e a r |
| | s p e ci m e n | of | of | E. L. | p e r | ld.,. | a r e a | H ei g h t | of
| of | ld., | of | of | s t r e n g t h |
| | | t e s t s | m oi s- | p e r | s q u a r e | p e r | | | tests |
m oi s- | p e r | t e s t s | m oi s- | |
| | | | t u r e | s q u a r e | in c h | s q u a r e | | | |
ture | square | | ture | |
| | | | | inc h | | inc h | | | | | inc h
| | | |
|-----------------+ - ---------+ - ------+ - ------+ - -------+ - ----
---+ - --------+ - -------+ - -------+ - ------+ ------+ - --------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ---------|
| | | | | | 1, 0 0 0 | | | | | |
| | | |
| | In c h e s | | | Lb s. | lb s. | Lb s. | In c h e s | I n c h e s | |
| Lb s. | | | Lb s. |
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | |
| Lo n gl e af pi n e | 4 by 4 | 4 6 | 2 6. 3 | 3, 4 8 0 | | 4, 8 0 0 | 4 by 4 | 4
| 2 2 | 2 5. 3 | 5 6 8 | 4 4 | 2 1. 8 | 973 |
| | 2 by 2 | 1 4 | 3 4. 7 | | | 4, 4 0 0 | | | | |
| | | |
| Do u gl a s fir | 6 b y 6 | 5 1 5 | 3 0. 7 | 2, 7 8 0 | 1, 1 8 1 | 3, 5 0 0 | 4 by 8 |
1 6 | 2 5 9 | 3 0. 3 | 5 7 0 | 5 3 1 | 2 9. 7 | 765 |
| | 5 by 6 | 1 7 0 | 3 0. 9 | 2, 7 2 0 | 2, 1 2 3 | 3, 4 9 0 | | | |
| | | | |
| | 2 by 2 | 9 0 2 | 2 9. 8 | 3, 5 0 0 | 1, 9 2 5 | 4, 0 3 0 | | | |
| | | | |
| Do u gl a s fir | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | |
236
| (fir e-kill e d) | 6 by 6 | 1 0 8 | 3 4 . 8 | 2, 6 2 0 | 1, 8 0 1 | 3, 2 9 0 | 6 by 8 | 16
| 2 4 | 3 3. 7 | 3 6 8 | 7 7 | 3 5. 8 | 631 |
237
Page 101
| | 2 by 2 | 2 0 4 | 3 7. 9 | | | 3, 4 3 0 | | | | |
| | | |
| S h o r tl e af pi n e | 6 by 6 | 9 5 | 4 1. 2 | 2, 5 1 4 | 1, 5 6 5 | 3, 4 3 6 | 5 by 8 |
1 6 | 1 2 | 3 7. 7 | 3 6 1 | 1 7 9 | 4 7. 0 | 704 |
| | 5 by 8 | 2 3 | 4 3. 5 | 2, 2 4 1 | 1, 5 2 9 | 3, 4 2 3 | 5 by 8 | 1 4 |
1 2 | 4 2. 8 | 3 6 6 | | | |
| | 2 by 2 | 2 8 1 | 5 1. 4 | | | 3, 5 7 0 | 5 by 8 | 1 2 | 2 4 |
53.0 | 325 | | | |
| | | | | | | | 5 by 5 | 8 | 2 4 | 47.0 |
344 | | | |
| | | | | | | | 2 by 2 | 2 | 2 7 7 | 4 8. 5 |
400 | | | |
| Wes t e r n la r c h | 6 by 6 | 1 0 7 | 4 9. 1 | 2, 6 7 5 | 1, 5 7 5 | 3, 5 1 0 | 6 by 8 |
1 6 | 2 2 | 4 3. 6 | 4 1 7 | 1 7 9 | 4 0. 7 | 700 |
| | 2 by 2 | 4 9 1 | 5 0. 6 | 3, 0 2 6 | 1, 5 4 5 | 3, 6 9 6 | 6 by 8 | 1 2 |
2 0 | 4 0. 2 | 4 1 6 | | | |
| | | | | | | | 4 by 6 | 6 | 5 3 | 52.8 |
478 | | | |
| | | | | | | | 4 by 4 | 4 | 3 0 | 50.4 |
472 | | | |
| Lo blolly pi n e | 8 b y 8 | 1 4 | 6 3. 4 | 1, 5 6 0 | 3 6 5 | 2, 1 4 0 | 8 by 4 | 8
| 1 6 | 6 7. 2 | 3 9 2 | 1 2 1 | 8 3. 2 | 630 |
| | 4 by 8 | 1 8 | 6 0. 0 | 2, 4 3 0 | 6 9 1 | 3, 5 6 0 | 4 by 4 | 8 |
3 8 | 4 4. 6 | 5 4 6 | | | |
| | 2 by 2 | 5 3 | 7 4. 0 | | | 3, 2 4 0 | | | | |
| | | |
| Ta m a r a c k | 6 by 7 | 4 | 4 9. 9 | 2, 3 3 2 | 1, 4 3 2 | 3, 0 3 2 | | |
| | | 2 4 | 3 9. 2 | 668 |
| | 4 by 7 | 6 | 2 7. 7 | 2, 4 4 4 | 1, 3 3 4 | 3, 3 6 0 | | | |
| | | | |
| | 2 by 2 | 1 6 5 | 3 6. 8 | | | 3, 1 9 0 | | | | |
| | | |
| Wes t e r n h e mlo c k | 6 by 6 | 8 2 | 4 6 . 6 | 2, 9 0 5 | 1, 6 1 7 | 3, 3 5 5 | 6 by 4 |
6 | 3 0 | 4 8. 7 | 4 3 4 | 5 4 | 6 5. 7 | 630 |
| | 2 by 2 | 1 3 1 | 5 5. 6 | 2, 9 3 8 | 1, 7 3 7 | 3, 3 9 2 | | | |
| | | | |
| Redwood | 6 by 6 | 3 4 | 8 3. 6 | 3, 1 9 4 | 1, 2 4 0 | 3, 8 8 2 | 6 by 8 |
1 6 | 1 3 | 8 6. 7 | 4 7 3 | 1 4 8 | 8 4. 2 | 742 |
| | 2 by 2 | 1 4 3 | 3 6. 8 | 3, 4 9 0 | 1, 2 2 2 | 3, 9 8 0 | 6 by 6 | 1 2 |
1 4 | 8 3. 0 | 4 2 4 | | | |
238
| | | | | | | | 6 by 7 | 9 | 1 3 | 74.7 |
477 | | | |
239
Page 102
| | | | | | | | 6 by 3 | 1 4 | 1 3 | 7 5. 6 |
411 | | | |
| | | | | | | | 6 by 2 | 1 2 | 1 2 | 6 6. 5 |
430 | | | |
| | | | | | | | 6 by 2 | 1 0 | 1 1 | 5 5. 0 |
423 | | | |
| | | | | | | | 6 by 2 | 8 | 1 2 | 56.7 |
396 | | | |
| | | | | | | | 2 by 2 | 2 | 1 8 6 | 7 5. 5 |
569 | | | |
| N o r w a y pi n e | 6 b y 7 | 5 | 2 9. 0 | 1, 9 2 8 | 9 0 5 | 2, 4 0 4 | | |
| | | 2 0 | 2 6. 7 | 589 |
| | 4 by 7 | 8 | 2 8. 4 | 2, 1 5 4 | 1, 0 6 3 | 2, 6 5 2 | | | |
| | | | |
| | 2 by 2 | 1 7 8 | 2 6. 8 | | | 2, 5 0 4 | | | | |
| | | |
| Red spruce | 2 by 2 | 5 8 | 3 5. 4 | | | 2, 7 5 0 | 2 by 2 | 2 |
4 3 | 3 1. 8 | 3 1 0 | 3 0 | 3 2. 0 | 758 |
| W hit e s p r u c e | 2 b y 2 | 8 4 | 6 1. 0 | | | 2, 3 7 0 | 2 by 2 | 2 |
4 6 | 5 0. 4 | 2 7 0 | 4 0 | 5 8. 0 | 651 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| N o t e .--Follo wi n g is a n e x pla n a tio n of t h e a b b r e via tio n s u s e d in t h e
for e g oi n g t a bl e s: |
| F.S. a t E.L. = Fi b e r s t r e s s a t el a s tic li mi t.
|
| M . of E. = M o d ul u s of el a s ti city.
|
| M . of R. = M o d ul u s of r u p t u r e .
|
| Cr. s tr. a t E.L. = C r u s hi n g s t r e n g t h a t el a s ti c li mi t.
|
| Cr. s tr. a t m a x. ld. = C r u s hi n g s t r e n g t h a t m a xi m u m lo a d.
|
|-----------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
240
Page 97
| | | | | | | | | | | 1, 0 0 0 | |
| |
| | In c h e s | In s. | | | | Lb s. | | Lb s. | | lb s. |
| Lb s. | |
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
| |
| Lo n gl e af pi n e | 1 2 by 1 2 | 1 3 8 | 4 | 2 8. 6 | 9. 7 | 4, 0 2 9 | 0. 8 3 | 6, 7 1 0
| 0. 7 4 | 1, 5 2 3 | 0. 9 9 | 2 6 1 | 0. 8 6 |
| | 1 0 by 1 6 | 1 6 8 | 4 | 2 6. 8 | 1 6. 7 | 6, 4 5 3 | .8 5 | 6, 4 5 3 | .
7 1 | 1, 6 2 6 | 1. 0 5 | 3 0 6 | 1. 0 1 |
| | 8 by 1 6 | 1 5 6 | 7 | 2 8. 4 | 1 4. 6 | 3, 1 4 7 | .6 4 | 5, 4 3 9 | .6 0
| 1, 3 6 8 | .8 9 | 3 9 0 | 1. 2 9 |
| | 6 by 1 6 | 1 3 2 | 1 | 4 0. 3 | 2 1. 8 | 4, 1 2 0 | .8 3 | 6, 4 6 0 | .7 1
| 1, 1 9 0 | .7 7 | 3 7 8 | 1. 2 5 |
| | 6 by 1 0 | 1 8 0 | 1 | 3 1. 0 | 6. 2 | 3, 5 8 0 | .7 2 | 6, 5 0 0 | .7 2
| 1, 4 1 2 | .9 2 | 1 7 5 | .5 8 |
| | 6 by 8 | 1 8 0 | 2 | 2 7. 0 | 8. 2 | 3, 7 3 5 | .7 5 | 5, 7 4 5 | .6 3 |
1, 2 8 2 | .8 3 | 1 2 1 | .4 0 |
| | 2 by 2 | 3 0 | 1 5 | 3 3. 9 | 1 4. 1 | 4, 9 5 0 | 1. 0 0 | 9, 0 7 0 |
1. 0 0 | 1, 5 4 0 | 1: 0 0 | 3 0 3 | 1. 0 0 |
| Do u gl a s fir | 8 b y 1 6 | 1 8 0 | 1 9 1 | 3 1. 5 | 1 1. 0 | 3, 9 6 8 | .7 6 | 5, 9 8 3
| .7 2 | 1, 5 1 7 | .9 5 | 2 6 9 | .8 1 |
| | 5 by 8 | 1 8 0 | 8 4 | 3 0. 1 | 1 0. 8 | 3, 6 9 3 | .7 1 | 5, 1 7 8 | .6 3
| 1, 5 3 3 | .9 6 | 1 7 2 | .5 2 |
| | 2 by 1 2 | 1 8 0 | 2 7 | 3 5. 7 | 2 0. 3 | 3, 7 2 1 | .7 1 | 5, 2 7 6 | .
6 4 | 1, 6 4 2 | 1. 0 3 | 2 5 6 | .7 7 |
| | 2 by 1 0 | 1 8 0 | 2 6 | 3 2. 9 | 2 1. 6 | 3, 1 6 0 | .6 0 | 4, 6 9 9 | .
5 7 | 1, 5 9 3 | 1. 0 0 | 1 8 9 | .5 7 |
| | 2 by 8 | 1 8 0 | 2 9 | 3 3. 6 | 1 7. 6 | 3, 5 9 3 | .6 9 | 5, 3 5 2 | .6 5
| 1, 6 0 7 | 1. 0 1 | 1 7 1 | .5 1 |
| | 2 by 2 | 2 4 | 5 6 8 | 3 0. 4 | 1 1. 6 | 5, 2 2 7 | 1. 0 0 | 9, 0 7 0 |
1. 0 0 | 1, 5 4 0 | 1. 0 0 | 3 0 3 | 1. 0 0 |
| Do u gl a s fir | | | | | | | | | | | |
| |
| (fir e-kill e d) | 8 by 1 6 | 1 8 0 | 3 0 | 3 6. 8 | 1 0 . 9 | 3, 5 0 3 | .8 0 | 4, 9 9 4 |
.6 4 | 1, 5 3 1 | .9 4 | 3 3 0 | 1. 1 9 |
| | 2 by 1 2 | 1 8 0 | 3 2 | 3 4. 2 | 1 7. 7 | 3, 4 8 9 | .8 0 | 5, 0 8 5 | .
6 6 | 1, 6 2 4 | .9 9 | 2 4 7 | .8 9 |
| | 2 by 1 0 | 1 8 0 | 3 2 | 3 8. 9 | 1 8. 1 | 3, 8 5 1 | .8 8 | 5, 3 5 9 | .
6 9 | 1, 7 1 6 | 1. 0 5 | 2 1 6 | .7 8 |
| | 2 by 8 | 1 8 0 | 3 1 | 3 7. 0 | 1 5. 7 | 3, 4 0 3 | .7 8 | 5, 3 0 5 | .6 8
241
| 1, 6 7 6 | 1. 0 2 | 1 6 9 | .6 1 |
| | 2 by 2 | 3 0 | 2 9 0 | 3 3. 2 | 1 7. 2 | 4, 3 6 0 | 1. 0 0 | 7, 7 5 2 |
1. 0 0 | 1, 6 3 6 | 1. 0 0 | 2 7 7 | 1. 0 0 |
| S h o r tl e af pi n e | 8 by 1 6 | 1 8 0 | 1 2 | 3 9. 5 | 1 2. 1 | 3, 1 8 5 | .7 3 | 5, 4 0 7
| .7 0 | 1, 4 3 8 | 1. 0 3 | 3 6 2 | 1. 4 0 |
242
Page 98
| | 8 by 1 4 | 1 8 0 | 1 2 | 4 5. 8 | 1 2. 7 | 3, 2 3 4 | .7 4 | 5, 7 8 1 | .
7 5 | 1, 4 9 4 | 1. 0 7 | 3 3 8 | 1. 3 1 |
| | 8 by 1 2 | 1 8 0 | 2 4 | 5 2. 2 | 1 1. 8 | 3, 2 6 5 | .7 5 | 5, 5 0 3 | .
7 1 | 1, 4 8 0 | 1. 0 6 | 2 7 7 | 1. 0 7 |
| | 5 by 8 | 1 8 0 | 2 4 | 4 7. 8 | 1 1. 5 | 3, 5 1 9 | .8 1 | 5, 7 3 2 | .7 4
| 1, 4 8 5 | 1. 0 6 | 1 8 5 | .7 2 |
| | 2 by 2 | 3 0 | 2 5 4 | 5 1. 7 | 1 3. 6 | 4, 3 5 0 | 1. 0 0 | 7, 7 1 0 |
1. 0 0 | 1, 3 9 5 | 1. 0 0 | 2 5 8 | 1. 0 0 |
| Wes t e r n la r c h | 8 by 1 6 | 1 8 0 | 3 2 | 5 1. 0 | 2 5. 3 | 3, 2 7 6 | .7 7 | 4, 6 3 2
| .6 4 | 1, 2 7 2 | .9 7 | 2 9 8 | 1. 1 1 |
| | 8 by 1 2 | 1 8 0 | 3 0 | 5 0. 3 | 2 3. 2 | 3, 3 7 6 | .7 9 | 5, 2 8 6 | .
7 3 | 1, 3 3 1 | 1. 0 2 | 2 5 4 | .9 4 |
| | 5 by 8 | 1 8 0 | 1 4 | 5 6. 0 | 2 5. 6 | 3, 5 2 8 | .8 3 | 5, 3 3 1 | .7 4
| 1, 4 3 2 | 1. 0 9 | 1 6 9 | .6 3 |
| | 2 by 2 | 2 8 | 1 8 9 | 4 6. 2 | 2 6. 2 | 4, 2 7 4 | 1. 0 0 | 7, 2 5 1 |
1. 0 0 | 1, 3 1 0 | 1. 0 0 | 2 6 9 | 1. 0 0 |
| Lo blolly pi n e | 8 b y 1 6 | 1 8 0 | 1 7 | 1 5. 8 | 6. 1 | 3, 0 9 4 | .7 5 | 5, 3 9 4 |
.6 9 | 1, 4 0 6 | .9 8 | 3 8 3 | 1. 4 4 |
| | 5 by 1 2 | 1 8 0 | 9 4 | 6 0. 9 | 5. 9 | 3, 0 3 0 | .7 4 | 5, 0 2 8 | .6 4
| 1, 3 8 3 | .9 6 | 2 2 1 | .8 3 |
| | 2 by 2 | 3 0 | 4 4 | 7 0. 9 | 5. 4 | 4, 1 0 0 | 1. 0 0 | 7, 8 7 0 | 1. 0 0
| 1, 4 4 0 | 1. 0 0 | 2 6 5 | 1. 0 0 |
| Ta m a r a c k | 6 by 1 2 | 1 6 2 | 1 5 | 5 7. 6 | 1 6 . 6 | 2, 9 1 4 | .7 5 | 4, 5 0 0
| .6 6 | 1, 2 0 2 | 1. 0 5 | 2 5 5 | 1. 1 1 |
| | 4 by 1 0 | 1 6 2 | 1 5 | 4 3. 5 | 1 1. 4 | 2, 7 1 2 | .7 0 | 4, 6 1 1 | .
6 8 | 1, 2 3 8 | 1. 0 8 | 2 0 9 | .9 1 |
| | 2 by 2 | 3 0 | 8 2 | 3 8. 8 | 1 4. 0 | 3, 8 7 5 | 1. 0 0 | 6, 8 2 0 |
1. 0 0 | 1, 1 4 1 | 1. 0 0 | 2 2 9 | 1. 0 0 |
| Wes t e r n h e mlo c k | 8 by 1 6 | 1 8 0 | 3 9 | 4 2 . 5 | 1 5. 6 | 3, 5 1 6 | .8 0 |
5, 2 9 6 | .7 3 | 1, 4 4 5 | 1. 0 1 | 2 6 1 | .9 2 |
| | 2 by 2 | 2 8 | 5 2 | 5 1. 8 | 1 2. 1 | 4. 4 0 6 | 1. 0 0 | 7, 2 9 4 |
1. 0 0 | 1, 4 2 8 | 1. 0 0 | 2 8 4 | 1. 0 0 |
| Redwood | 8 by 1 6 | 1 8 0 | 1 4 | 8 6. 5 | 1 9 . 9 | 3, 7 3 4 | .7 9 | 4, 4 9 2
| .6 4 | 1, 0 1 6 | .9 6 | 3 0 0 | 1. 2 1 |
| | 6 by 1 2 | 1 8 0 | 1 4 | 8 7. 3 | 1 7. 8 | 3, 7 8 7 | .8 0 | 4, 4 5 1 | .
6 4 | 1, 0 6 8 | 1. 0 0 | 2 2 4 | .9 0 |
| | 7 by 9 | 1 8 0 | 1 4 | 7 9. 8 | 1 6. 7 | 4, 4 1 2 | .9 3 | 5, 2 7 9 | .7 6
| 1, 3 2 4 | 1. 2 5 | 1 9 9 | .8 0 |
| | 3 by 1 4 | 1 8 0 | 1 3 | 8 6. 1 | 2 3. 7 | 3, 5 0 6 | .7 4 | 4, 3 6 4 | .
6 2 | 9 4 7 | .8 9 | 2 5 5 | 1. 0 3 |
| | 2 by 1 2 | 1 8 0 | 1 2 | 7 0. 9 | 1 8. 6 | 3, 1 0 0 | .6 5 | 3, 7 5 3 | .
243
5 4 | 1, 0 5 2 | .9 9 | 1 8 7 | .7 5 |
| | 2 by 1 0 | 1 8 0 | 1 3 | 5 5. 8 | 2 0. 0 | 3, 2 8 5 | .6 9 | 4, 0 7 9 | .
5 8 | 1, 1 0 7 | 1. 0 4 | 1 6 9 | .6 8 |
| | 2 by 8 | 1 8 0 | 1 3 | 6 3. 8 | 2 1. 5 | 2, 9 8 9 | .6 3 | 4, 0 6 3 | .5 8
| 1, 1 4 1 | 1. 0 8 | 1 3 4 | .5 4 |
244
Page 99
| | 2 by 2 | 2 8 | 1 5 7 | 7 5. 5 | 1 9. 1 | 4, 7 5 0 | 1. 0 0 | 6, 9 8 0 |
1. 0 0 | 1, 0 6 1 | 1. 0 0 | 2 4 8 | 1. 0 0 |
| N o r w a y pi n e | 6 b y 1 2 | 1 6 2 | 1 5 | 5 0. 3 | 1 2. 5 | 2, 3 0 5 | .8 2 | 3, 5 7 2
| .6 9 | 9 8 7 | 1. 0 3 | 2 0 1 | 1. 1 7 |
| | 4 by 1 2 | 1 6 2 | 1 8 | 4 7. 9 | 1 4. 7 | 2, 6 4 8 | .9 4 | 4, 1 0 7 | .
7 9 | 1, 2 5 5 | 1. 3 1 | 2 3 8 | 1. 3 8 |
| | 4 by 1 0 | 1 6 2 | 1 6 | 4 5. 7 | 1 3. 3 | 2, 6 7 4 | .9 5 | 4, 2 0 5 | .
8 1 | 1, 3 0 6 | 1. 3 6 | 1 9 8 | 1. 1 5 |
| | 2 by 2 | 3 0 | 1 3 3 | 3 2. 3 | 1 1. 4 | 2, 8 0 8 | 1. 0 0 | 5, 1 7 3 |
1. 0 0 | 9 6 0 | 1. 0 0 | 1 7 2 | 1. 0 0 |
| Red spruce | 2 by 1 0 | 1 4 4 | 1 4 | 3 2. 5 | 2 1. 9 | 2, 3 9 4 | .6 6 | 3, 5 6 6
| .6 0 | 1, 1 8 0 | 1. 0 2 | 1 8 1 | .8 0 |
| | 2 by 2 | 2 6 | 6 0 | 3 7. 3 | 2 1. 3 | 3, 6 2 7 | 1. 0 0 | 5, 9 0 0 |
1. 0 0 | 1, 1 5 7 | 1. 0 0 | 2 2 7 | 1. 0 0 |
| W hit e s p r u c e | 2 b y 1 0 | 1 4 4 | 1 6 | 4 0. 7 | 9. 3 | 2, 2 3 9 | .7 2 | 3, 2 8 8
| .6 3 | 1, 0 8 1 | 1. 0 8 | 1 6 6 | .8 3 |
| | 2 by 2 | 2 6 | 8 3 | 5 8. 3 | 1 0. 2 | 3. 0 9 0 | 1. 0 0 | 5, 1 8 5 |
1. 0 0 | 9 9 8 | 1. 0 0 | 1 9 9 | 1. 0 0 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| N o t e .--Follo wi n g is a n e x pla n a tio n of t h e a b b r e via tio n s u s e d in t h e
for e g oi n g t a bl e s: |
| F.S. a t E.L. = Fi b e r s t r e s s a t el a s tic li mi t.
|
| M . of E. = M o d ul u s of el a s ti city.
|
| M . of R. = M o d ul u s of r u p t u r e .
|
| Cr. s tr. a t E.L. = C r u s hi n g s t r e n g t h a t el a s ti c li mi t.
|
| Cr. s tr. a t m a x. ld. = C r u s hi n g s t r e n g t h a t m a xi m u m lo a d.
|
|-----------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------|
245
Page 74
| S | R el a tiv e | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
| S | c r u s hi n g | | 1 0 0. 0 | 1 0 0 . 0 | 1 0 0. 0 | 1 0 3. 4 | 1 0 0. 8 |
1 0 1. 5 | 1 0 7. 5 | 1 0 2. 7 | 1 0 3. 8 | 1 1 3. 9 | 1 0 5. 5 | 1 0 7. 9 | 1 2 1. 3 | 1 0 8. 3 | 1 1 6. 4 |
1 2 8. 8 | 1 1 0. 0 | 1 1 8. 9 |
| I | strength | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
| O | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
| N | S p e e d-s t r e n g t h | | 0. 0 1 7 |( 0. 0 0 6) |( 0. 0 0 9) | 0. 0 3 3 |
0. 0 1 2 | 0. 0 1 6 | 0. 0 4 7 | 0. 0 2 1 | 0. 0 2 9 | 0. 0 5 3 | 0. 0 2 7 | 0. 0 3 9 | 0. 0 6 0 | 0. 0 2 3 |
0. 0 4 9 |( 0. 0 5 2) |( 0. 0 1 5) |( 0. 0 4 0) |
| | m o d ul u s, T | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
|---+ - --------------------+ - ----------------------+ - --------
--------------+ - ----------------------+ - ----------------------+ - ----------------------
+ - ----------------------+ - ----------------------|
| | S p e e d of c r o s s h e a d. | | | |
| | | |
| | In c h e s p e r m i n u t e | 0. 0 0 7 2 | 0. 0 2 1 6 | 0. 0 6 4 8
| 0. 1 9 4 | 0. 5 8 3 | 1. 7 5 | 5. 2 5 |
| B| | | | |
| | | |
| E |---------------------+ - ----------------------+ - --------
--------------+ - ----------------------+ - ----------------------+ - ----------------------
+ - ----------------------+ - ----------------------|
| N | S p e ci m e n s | We t | D ry | All | We t | D ry | All | Wet | D ry |
All | Wet | D ry | All | Wet | D ry | All | Wet | D ry | All | Wet | D ry
| All |
| D |---------------------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ -
------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------
+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------+ - ------|
| I | R el a tiv e | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
| N | c r u s hi n g | 9 7. 4 | 9 9. 0 | 9 8. 2 | 1 0 0. 0 | 1 0 0. 0 | 1 0 0. 0 | 1 0 5. 1 |
1 0 2. 1 | 1 0 3. 7 | 1 1 1. 3 | 1 0 5. 8 | 1 0 8. 1 | 1 1 7. 9 | 1 0 8. 6 | 1 1 2. 7 | 1 2 3. 7 | 1 0 9. 6 |
1 1 6. 3 | 1 2 6. 3 | 1 1 0. 3 | 1 1 8. 9 |
| G | strength | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
246
Page 75
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
| | S p e e d-s t r e n g t h |( 0. 0 1 4) |( 0. 0 0 5) | 0. 0 1 2 | 0. 0 3 3 | 0. 0 1 4 | 0. 0 2 6 | 0. 0 4 9
| 0. 0 2 6 | 0. 0 3 7 | 0. 0 5 3 | 0. 0 3 3 | 0. 0 3 8 | 0. 0 4 9 | 0. 0 1 4 | 0. 0 3 5 | 0. 0 3 8 | 0. 0 0 6 |
0. 0 2 5 |( 0. 0 2 3) |( 0. 0 0 4) |( 0. 0 1 4) |
| | m o d ul u s, T | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------|
| N OT E.--Th e u s u al s p e e d s of t e s ti n g a t t h e U.S. Fo r e s t S e r vic e la b o r a t o ry
a r e a t r a t e s of fib r e s t r ai n
|
| of 1 5 a n d 1 0 t e n-t h o u s a n d t h s in. p e r m i n. p e r in. fo r c o m p r e s sio n a n d
b e n di n g r e s p e c tiv ely.
|
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------|
247
Page 67
| Tr e a t m e n t | | | | B e n di n g | Co m p r e s- | H ei g h t | of t h e |
| | | | | m o d ul u s | sio n | of d r o p | t h r e e |
| | P e rio d | P r e s s u r e | Te m p e r a t u r e | of | p a r all el | c a u si n g |
strengths |
| | | | | r u p t u r e | t o g r ai n | c o m pl e t e | |
| | | | | | | failu r e | |
|-----------+ - -------+ - ---------+ - ------------+ - ---------+ - -
--------+ - ---------+ - ----------|
| | | Lb s. p e r | | Per ce n t | Per ce nt | Per ce n t | Per c en t |
| | H r s . | s q. in c h | d e g.F. | | | | |
| | | | | Untre ate d wood = 10 0% |
| | | | | | | | |
| Ste a m, | 4 | | 2 3 0[ a] | 9 1 . 3 | 7 9. 1 | 9 6. 4 | 8 8. 9 |
| at | 4 | 10 | 238 | 7 8. 2 | 9 3. 7 | 9 3. 3 | 8 8 . 4 |
| v a rio u s | 4 | 20 | 253 | 8 3. 3 | 8 4. 2 | 9 1. 4 | 8 0. 8 |
| pressures | 4 | 30 | 269 | 8 0. 4 | 7 8. 4 | 8 9. 8 | 8 2. 9 |
| | 4 | 40 | 283 | 7 8. 1 | 7 4. 4 | 7 4. 0 | 7 5. 5 |
| | 4 | 50 | 292 | 7 5. 8 | 7 1. 5 | 6 3. 9 | 7 0. 4 |
| | 4 | 100 | 337 | 4 1. 4 | 6 5. 0 | 5 5 . 2 | 5 3. 9 |
|-----------+ - -------+ - ---------+ - ------------+ - ---------+ - -
--------+ - ---------+ - ----------|
| Ste a m, | 1 | 20 | 257 | 1 0 0. 6 | 9 8. 6 | 8 6. 7 | 9 5. 3 |
| fo r | 2 | 20 | 267 | 8 8. 4 | 9 3. 0 | 1 0 7. 0 | 9 6. 1 |
| v a rio u s | 3 | 20 | 260 | 9 0. 0 | 9 3. 6 | 8 4. 1 | 8 9. 2 |
| p e rio d s | 4 | 20 | 253 | 8 3. 3 | 8 4. 2 | 9 1. 4 | 8 6. 3 |
| | 5 | 20 | 253 | 8 5. 0 | 7 8. 1 | 8 4. 2 | 8 2. 4 |
| | 6 | 20 | 242 | 9 5. 2 | 8 9. 8 | 7 6. 0 | 8 7. 0 |
| | 10 | 20 | 255 | 7 3. 7 | 8 2. 0 | 7 6 . 0 | 7 7. 2 |
| | 20 | 20 | 258 | 6 7. 5 | 6 5. 0 | 9 9 . 0 | 7 7. 2 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------|
| [Foo t n o t e a : It will b e n o t e d t h a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e w a s 2 3 0 d e g.. This is
t h e m a xi m u m |
| t e m p e r a t u r e by t h e m a xi m u m-t e m p e r a t u r e r e c o r di n g t h e r m o m e t er, a n d is
d u e t o t h e h a n dli n g |
| of t h e e x h a u s t v alv e. Th e a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e w a s t h a t of e x h a u s t
s t e a m .] |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------|
248
Page 62
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------|
249
Page 46
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------|
| | | S p e cific g r a vi ty | S h ri n k a g e fro m g r e e n t o |
| | | ov e n-d ry, b a s e d o n | ov e n-d r y c o n di tio n |
| CO M M O N NA M E | |--------------------+ - --------------------------|
| O F S P E CI E S | M oi s- | Volu m e | Volu m e | In | | Ta n g e n- |
| | t u r e | w h e n | w h e n | vol u m e | R a di al | ti al |
| | c o n t e n t | g r e e n | ov e n-d ry | | | |
|-----------------+ - --------+ - --------+ - ---------+ - -------+ -
-------+ - --------|
| | Per | | | Per | Per | Per |
| | cent | | | cent | cent | cent |
| | | | | | | |
| Co nif e r s | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
| Ar bo rvit a e | 5 5 | .2 9 3 | .3 1 5 | 7. 0 | 2. 1 | 4. 9 |
| C e d ar, inc e n s e | 8 0 | .3 6 3 | | | | |
| Cy p r e s s , b al d | 7 9 | .4 5 2 | .5 1 3 | 1 1. 5 | 3. 8 | 6. 0 |
| Fir, al pi n e | 4 7 | .3 0 6 | .3 2 1 | 9. 0 | 2. 5 | 7. 1 |
| a m a bilis | 1 1 7 | .3 8 3 | | | | |
| Do u gl a s | 3 2 | .4 1 8 | .4 5 8 | 1 0. 9 | 3. 7 | 6. 6 |
| w hi t e | 1 5 6 | .3 5 0 | .4 3 7 | 1 0. 2 | 3. 4 | 7. 0 |
| H e m lo c k (e a s t.) | 1 2 9 | .3 4 0 | .3 9 4 | 9. 2 | 2. 3 | 5. 0 |
| Pi n e, lod g e p ol e | 4 4 | .3 7 0 | .4 1 5 | 1 1. 3 | 4. 2 | 7. 1 |
| " | 5 8 | .3 7 1 | .4 0 7 | 1 0. 1 | 3. 6 | 5. 9 |
| lo n gl e af | 6 3 | .5 2 8 | .5 9 9 | 1 2. 8 | 6. 0 | 7. 6 |
| red or Nor | 5 4 | .4 4 0 | .5 0 7 | 1 1. 5 | 4. 5 | 7. 2 |
| s h o r tl e af | 5 2 | .4 4 7 | | | | |
| sugar | 1 2 3 | .3 6 0 | .3 8 6 | 8. 4 | 2. 9 | 5. 6 |
| w e s t yello w | 9 8 | .3 5 3 | .3 9 5 | 9. 2 | 4. 1 | 6. 4 |
| " " | 1 2 5 | .3 7 7 | .4 3 3 | 1 1. 5 | 4. 3 | 7. 3 |
| " " | 9 3 | .3 9 1 | .4 3 5 | 9. 9 | 3. 8 | 5. 8 |
| w hi t e | 7 4 | .3 6 3 | .3 9 1 | 7. 8 | 2. 2 | 5. 9 |
| Redwood | 8 1 | .3 3 4 | | | | |
| " | 6 9 | .3 6 6 | | | | |
| Sp r uce, | | | | | | |
| E n g el m a n n | 4 5 | .3 2 5 | .3 5 9 | 1 0. 5 | 3. 7 | 6. 9 |
| " | 1 5 6 | .2 9 9 | .3 3 5 | 1 0. 3 | 3. 0 | 6. 2 |
| red | 3 1 | .3 9 6 | | | | |
| w hi t e | 4 1 | .3 1 8 | | | | |
250
Page 47
| Ta m a r a c k | 5 2 | .4 9 1 | .5 5 8 | 1 3. 6 | 3. 7 | 7. 4 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------|
251
Page 45
| bi g s h ellb a r k | 6 4 | .6 0 1 | | 1 7 . 6 | 7. 4 | 1 1. 2 |
| " " | 5 5 | .6 6 6 | | 2 0. 9 | 7. 9 | 1 4. 2 |
| bi t t e r n u t | 6 5 | .6 2 4 | | | | |
| mockernut | 6 4 | .6 0 6 | | 1 6. 5 | 6. 9 | 1 0. 4 |
| " | 5 7 | .6 6 2 | | 1 8. 9 | 8. 4 | 1 1. 4 |
| " | 4 8 | .6 6 6 | | | | |
| nutmeg | 7 6 | .5 5 8 | | | | |
| pi g n u t | 5 9 | .6 2 7 | | 1 5. 0 | 5. 6 | 9. 8 |
| " | 5 4 | .6 6 7 | | 1 5. 3 | 6. 3 | 9. 5 |
| " | 5 5 | .6 6 7 | | 1 6. 9 | 6. 8 | 1 0. 9 |
| " | 5 2 | .6 6 7 | | 2 1. 2 | 8. 5 | 1 3. 8 |
| shagbark | 6 5 | .6 0 8 | | 1 6. 0 | 6. 5 | 1 0. 2 |
| " | 5 8 | .6 4 6 | | 1 8. 4 | 7. 9 | 1 1. 4 |
| " | 6 4 | .6 1 7 | | | | |
| " | 6 0 | .6 5 3 | | 1 5. 5 | 6. 5 | 9. 7 |
| water | 7 4 | .6 3 0 | | | | |
| Loc u s t, h o n ey | 5 3 | .6 9 5 | .7 5 9 | 8. 6 | | |
| M a pl e, r e d | 6 9 | .5 1 2 | | | | |
| sugar | 5 7 | .5 4 6 | .6 4 3 | 1 4 . 3 | 4. 9 | 9. 1 |
| " | 5 6 | .5 7 7 | | | | |
| O a k, p o s t | 6 4 | .5 9 0 | .7 3 2 | 1 6. 0 | 5. 7 | 1 0. 6 |
| red | 8 0 | .5 6 8 | .6 6 0 | 1 3 . 1 | 3. 7 | 8. 3 |
| s w a m p w hi t e | 7 4 | .6 3 7 | .7 9 2 | 1 7. 7 | 5. 5 | 1 0. 6 |
| tanbark | 8 8 | .5 8 5 | | | | |
| w hi t e | 5 8 | .5 9 4 | .7 0 4 | 1 5. 8 | 6. 2 | 8. 3 |
| " | 6 2 | .6 0 3 | .6 9 6 | 1 4. 3 | 4. 9 | 9. 0 |
| " | 7 8 | .6 0 0 | .7 0 8 | 1 6. 0 | 4. 8 | 9. 2 |
| y ello w | 7 7 | .5 7 3 | .6 6 9 | 1 4 . 2 | 4. 5 | 9. 7 |
| " | 8 0 | .5 5 0 | | | | |
| Osage orange | 3 1 | .7 6 1 | .8 3 8 | 8. 9 | | |
| Sy c a m o r e | 8 1 | .4 5 4 | .5 2 6 | 1 3 . 5 | 5. 0 | 7. 3 |
| Tu p elo | 1 2 1 | .4 7 5 | .5 4 5 | 1 2. 4 | 4. 4 | 7. 9 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------|
252
Page 35
| lo n gl e af | 187 | 180 |
| red | 161 | 154 |
| sugar | 168 | 189 |
| w e s t e r n yello w | 162 | 187 |
| w hi t e | 144 | 160 |
| S p r u c e , E n g el m a n n | 110 | 135 |
| Ta m a r a c k | 167 | 159 |
|---------------------------------------------|
253
Page 33
| 5 Po s t o a k | 1, 0 9 9 | 1, 1 3 9 | 1, 0 6 8 | 1, 0 8 1 |
| 6 Bl a c k o a k | 1, 0 6 9 | 1, 0 9 3 | 1, 0 8 3 | 1, 0 3 1 |
| 7 Red oak | 1, 0 4 3 | 1, 1 0 7 | 1, 0 2 0 | 1, 0 0 2 |
| 8 W hit e a s h | 1, 0 4 6 | 1, 1 2 1 | 1, 0 0 0 | 1, 0 1 7 |
| 9 Beech | 9 4 2 | 1, 0 1 2 | 897 | 918 |
| 1 0 S u g a r m a pl e | 937 | 992 | 918 | 901 |
| 1 1 Roc k el m | 910 | 954 | 883 | 893 |
| 1 2 H a c k b e r ry | 799 | 829 | 795 | 773 |
| 1 3 Slip p e ry el m | 788 | 919 | 757 | 687 |
| 1 4 Yellow bi r c h | 778 | 827 | 768 | 739 |
| 1 5 Tu p elo | 738 | 814 | 666 | 733 |
| 1 6 R e d m a pl e | 671 | 766 | 621 | 626 |
| 1 7 Syc a m o r e | 608 | 664 | 560 | 599 |
| 1 8 Bl a c k a s h | 551 | 565 | 542 | 546 |
| 1 9 W hit e el m | 496 | 536 | 456 | 497 |
| 20 Basswood | 239 | 273 | 226 | 217 |
| | | | | |
| Co nif e r s | | | | |
| | | | | |
| 1 Lo n gl e af pi n e | 532 | 574 | 502 | 521 |
| 2 Do u gl a s fir | 410 | 415 | 399 | 416 |
| 3 B al d cy p r e s s | 390 | 460 | 355 | 354 |
| 4 H e m lo c k | 384 | 463 | 354 | 334 |
| 5 Ta m a r a c k | 384 | 401 | 380 | 370 |
| 6 R e d pi n e | 347 | 355 | 345 | 340 |
| 7 W hit e fir | 346 | 381 | 322 | 334 |
| 8 Wes t e r n yello w pi n e | 3 2 8 | 334 | 307 | 342 |
| 9 Lo d g e p ol e pi n e | 318 | 316 | 318 | 319 |
| 1 0 W hit e pi n e | 299 | 304 | 294 | 299 |
| 1 1 E n g el m a n n pi n e | 266 | 272 | 253 | 274 |
| 1 2 Alpi n e fir | 241 | 284 | 203 | 235 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
--------|
| N OT E.--Bla c k loc u s t a n d hi c ko ry a r e n o t in cl u d e d in t hi s t a bl e, |
| b u t t h ei r p o sitio n w o ul d b e n e a r t h e h e a d of t h e lis t. |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
--------|
254
Page 31
| d ry | 52 | 54 | 19 | 27 |
| Lo blolly pi n e: | | | | |
| green | 111 | 40 | 53 | 7 |
| d ry | 25 | 60 | 12 | 28 |
| Ta m a r a c k: | | | | |
| green | 30 | 37 | 53 | 10 |
| d ry | 9 | 45 | 22 | 33 |
| Wes t e r n h e mlo c k: | | | | |
| green | 39 | 21 | 74 | 5 |
| d ry | 44 | 11 | 66 | 23 |
| R e d w o o d: | | | | |
| green | 28 | 43 | 50 | 7 |
| d ry | 12 | 83 | 17 | |
| N o r w a y pi n e: | | | | |
| green | 49 | 18 | 76 | 6 |
| d ry | 10 | 30 | 60 | 10 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
|
| N OT E.--Th e s e t e s t s w e r e m a d e o n ti m b e r s r a n gi n g in c r o s s |
| s e c tio n fro m 4” x 1 0” t o 8 ” x 1 6”, a n d wi t h a s p a n of 1 5 |
| fe e t. |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
|
255
Page 19
| Beech | 5, 2 2 3 | Loc u s t | 7, 1 7 6 |
| Bir c h | 5, 5 9 5 | M a pl e | 6, 3 5 5 |
| C e d a r (w hi t e) | 1, 3 7 2 | O a k | 4, 4 2 5 |
| C e d a r (w hi t e) | 1, 5 1 9 | O a k (live) | 8, 4 8 0 |
| C e d a r (C e n t r al Am er.) | 3, 4 1 0 | Pi n e (w hit e) | 2, 4 8 0 |
| Cher ry | 2, 9 4 5 | Pi n e (no r t h e r n y ello w) | 4, 3 4 0 |
| Chestnut | 1, 5 3 6 | Pi n e (so u t h e r n y ello w) | 5, 7 3 5 |
| Do g w o o d | 6, 5 1 0 | Pi n e (ve ry r e si n o u s yello w) | 5, 0 5 3 |
| E b o ny | 7, 7 5 0 | Po pl a r | 4, 4 1 8 |
| Gu m | 5, 8 9 0 | S p r u c e | 3, 2 5 5 |
| H e m lo c k | 2, 7 5 0 | Wal n u t (bl a c k) | 4, 7 2 8 |
| Hi c ko ry | 6, 0 4 5 | Waln u t (co m m o n) | 2, 8 3 0 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------|
| N OT E.--Two s p e ci m e n s of e a c h w e r e t e s t e d. All w e r e fai rly s e a s o n e d a n d
|
| wi t h o u t d ef e c t s. Th e pi e c e s h e a r e d off w a s 5/ 8 in. Th e si n gl e ci r c ul a r |
| a r e a of e a c h pi n w a s 0. 3 2 2 s q. in. |
|-----------------------------------------------------------
----------------|
256
Page 18
| red | 812 | 741 |
| sugar | 702 | 714 |
| w e s t e r n yello w | 686 | 706 |
| w hi t e | 649 | 639 |
| S p r u c e , E n g el m a n n | 607 | 624 |
| Ta m a r a c k | 883 | 843 |
|---------------------------------------------|
257
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