6.

Common and divergent features of predicative word-groups in English and

Ukrainian.
English predicative word-groups are only partly found in present-day Ukrainian.
Completely ISOMORPHIC are primary predication word-groups, which are singled
out in the sentence and comprise the subject and the predicate. For example: The student
works hard. Студент працює.
Secondary Predication Word-Groups. ("clauses"). These pertain to the English
language, but some similar structures are also in Ukrainian utterances. Secondary predication
word-groups are represented in English in the following structural types which are often
referred to as complexes:
1. The objective with the infinitive constructions. Ex.: I heard him roll in blankets.
2. The subjective with the infinitive constructions. eg: He is reported to have been
taken into custody.
3. The infinitival prepositional constructions: For you to go there fast now would be to
walk into a trap with your eyes open. (Voynich)
4. The objective with the participle constructions: I'm sorry to have kept you waiting...
5. The subjective with the participle constructions: He could be seen following her
with his eyes.
6. The gerundial constructions. Hope you don't mind my comings.
7. The objective with the adjective, stative, or noun constructions: Get the coffee
ready. I woke... and found George awake.
8. The nominative absolute participle constructions: They having the keys, no entrance
was possible.
The Ukrainian language has only two structurally similar, if not identical, models of
Word-Groups expressing the so-called secondary predication. They are:
1) the participle constructions For example: Пам'ятаю хлопця/його накульгуючим;
дівчина/вона застала двері зачиненими/вікно розбитим;
2) the second type of objective secondary predication constructions. Ми вибрали
Іваненка головою; Вони назвали хлопця Петром.

12. Isomorphic and allomorphic features in the structural forms of English and
Ukrainian one- and two-member sentences.
According to the way in which the expressed content correlates with reality, there are
distinguished in the contrasted languages the following common structural types of
sentences: 1) two-member sentences 2) one-member sentences.
ISOMORPHIC:
–The basic kernel structure of two-member sentences constitutes the binary S — P
(Subject — Predicate) model which can be extended through complementation to S — P —
O, S — P — O — M. This process of extension can be observed in Ukrainian as well: Дейв
залишився, Дейв залишився в будинку, Дейв залишався жити в будинку ще якихось
чотири місяці.
–The bulk of two-member sentences are of common structural form in the contrasted
languages. These are sentences with the subject expressed by a notional word or its
equivalent and the predicate expressed by a finite verb. Common in the contrasted languages
are also two-member sentences with the simple nominal predicate expressed by a noun, an
adjective, a numeral, an infinitive, a participle or a phrase.
-–Simple two-member sentences in the contrasted languages are equally exposed to
the syntactic process of expansion, i. e. enlargement of their component part through the co-
ordinate catenation of homogeneous elements/parts of the sentence.
Two-member sentences in the contrasted languages may be of two subkinds:
1) conventionally complete and 2) properly complete.
ALLOMORPHIC:
At the same time two-member sentences have a larger representation in English than
in Ukrainian, which constitutes a typologically allomorphic feature of the two languages.
The only two-member sentences, which are non-existent in Ukrainian, are the following:
1. Impersonal sentences which are introduced by the impersonal pro noun/subject it: It
is thundering. It drizzles. It snowed. It has rained/ snowed.
2. Sentences with the introductory "it" or "there" like It is time to start. There is
nothing/much to say.
3. Sentences with the implicit agent and passive predicate verb followed by a
preposition: He was sent for.
4. Sentences with the secondary predication constructions: I thought him to be a
teacher.
Such English two-member sentences have in Ukrainian either simple or complex
definite personal sentences for their semantic equivalents. Cf. Ми бачили, як він переходив
вулицю. Кажуть, що він спортсмен.
5. Sentences with the gerundial complexes used as predicative (secondary predication)
constructions. These sentences have in Ukrainian complex or simple sentences for their
semantic equivalents. For example: We learnt of his being decorated. Ми дізналися про
його нагородження (про те, що його нагороджено).

One-Member Sentences in English and Ukrainian

ALLOMORPHIC:
Unlike two-member sentences, which have a larger quantitative representation of
paradigmatic/structural types in English, one-member sentences, on the contrary, have a
larger number of paradigmatic classes in Ukrainian. This is due to the morphological nature
of Ukrainian as a mainly synthetic structure language.
ISOMORPHIC: Nevertheless, there exist common types of one-member sentences in
both contrasted languages.
COMMON in English and Ukrainian are the following paradigmatic types of one-
member sentences:
Nominal sentences.
ISOMORPHIC : Nominal sentences which characterized in English and Ukrainian by
some isomorphic and allomorphic features. Isomorphic is the structural form of nominal
sentences which can be either extended or expanded. Expanded Nom. Sentences consist of
two or more nominal components connected by means of co-ordinate conjunctions.
ALLOMORPHIC: The components in extended English nominal sentences may be
connected both syndetically or asyndetically whereas in Ukrainian the synthetic or analytico-
synthetic connection prevails;.
Infinitival sentences in both contrasted languages have practically identical structural
forms. They may be extended or unextended E.g to be or not to be? - бути чи не бути?
The definite personal sentences which are widely used in literary and colloquial Uk.
Speech. The doer (виконавець) of the action in these sentences is indicated by the finite verb
and its personal ending correlating with the main part of the sentence. E.g Люблю(я) пісні
мойого краю;
Imperative (or inducive) sentences containing a verb and having a V or VP pattern
structures Keep aside, не підходь!
Exclamatory sentences may structurally often coincide in English and Ukrainian with
nominal and infinitival sentences
ALLOMORPHIC:
-Since English and Ukrainian are structurally different language types, there is
generally no identity in the grammatical means of connection of the same component parts in
the same nominal sentences. Thus, in English the component parts are mostly connected with
the help of analytical means, whereas in the same Ukrainian nominal sentences synthetic or
analytic-synthetic means are used.
-the types of one-member sentences have a larger representation in Ukrainian than in
English. Thus, among these Ukrainian types are the following not pertained to the English
syntactic system:
A. The definite personal sentences,
B. The indefinite personal sentences They have their actor, i. e. the logico-grammatical
doer which is not definitely indicated.
C. generalised personal sentences. The action of their main part in such sentences
refers to any (generalised) person correlating with the second (rarer — other) person in
singular or plural in the indicative or imperative mood. For example: Поживемо —
побачимо!
D. impersonal sentences which are represented in some subtypes, the most common of
which are the following:
a) Impersonal proper (власне безособові) one-member sentences with the principal
part expressed by the finite (predicate) verb, eg: Світає.
B) Impersonal sentences with the principal part expressed by verbs in -HO, -то:
Роботу покинуто.
C) Impersonal sentences with modal predicative phrases functioning as part of the
modal verbal predicate, eg: Йому не слід було дивитись.

13. Isomorphism and allomorphism in the nature and structural forms of

simple, formal (if any) expanded/extended and complex parts of the sentence in the
contrasted languages.
All parts of the sentence in the contrasted languages have both an isomorphic
functional meaning and lexico-grammatical nature. Common/ isomorphic is also the
traditional subdivision of them into a) the main and into b) secondary parts of the sentence.
The main parts are the subject (підмет) and the predicate (присудок). The secondary parts
are the object, the attribute and different adverbial modifiers (додаток, означення,
обставинні члени речення).
The subject and the predicate in the contrasted languages are considered to be
interdependent parts of the sentence. They are bearers of predication forming the sentence.
Other parts of the sentence are usually dependent on the subject, on the predicate or on one
another.
The structure of the parts of the sentence in the contrasted languages is characterised
by isomorphic features in the main. There are distinguished the following structurally
common types of them in English and Ukrainian:
1) simple, i.e. expressed by a single word-form (synthetic or analytical);
 2) extended or expanded, i.e. expressed by a subordinate or by a co-ordinate word-
group;
3) complex (when expressed by a secondary predication construction/word-group).
The English parts of the sentence have two structural typed not found (allomorphic)
in Ukrainian, they are:
1) complex parts of the sentence, expressed by verbal and non-verbal predicative
constructions;
2) formal subject and object.

15. Isomorphism and allomorphism in the structural forms and means of

expressing the principal parts of the sentence in English and Ukrainian.
Subject (с.344)
LANGUAGE E Uk

Simple + +
Structural Form

Expanded + +
Extended + +
Formal (there, it) + -
Quotation words/expression + +
Complex + -

Про структуру вот только то, что в таблице

Ways of expressing the subject are found only in English:

1) by means of the indefinite pronouns one, you, they, eg: When one loves one's art,
no service seems too hard
2) by means of the impersonal or introductory pronoun it, eg: It was just very dark
3) by means of the formal/ introductory "there", eg: "There's nothing wrong with
him."
4) by means of the infinitival secondary predication for-phrase, eg: For me to come is
impossible",
5) by means of the subjective with the infinitive or participle construction forming,
like the for + to + infinitive construction, the so-called complex subject, eg He was seen
arguing with the ship's doctor...
6) by the gerundial construction, eg: Tom's coming here was a blessing

Predicate (c. 346)

The main features of the predicate are ISOMORPHIC in English and Ukrainian.
ALLOMORPHISM is pertained only to some forms of expressing it in English (by the
continuous and perfect forms of the finite verb or by the gerund).
As to its structure, the predicate may be Simple and Compound in both languages .
Simple Predicates:
1) Simple verbal;
2) Simple nominal, which is very widely used in Ukrainian and much rarer in English.
E.g.: "Splendid game, cricket". Чудова гра крикет!;
3) Phraseological predicates expressed by verbal set expressions. Clare gave him a
sweet look. Клер звела на нього ніжний погляд.
Pertaining only to English (ALLOMORPHISM) is the simple contaminated predicate
consisting of a verb in any tense and aspect form and of a past participle. e.g. The air-raids
on Berlin in March 1945 had continued unabated. Повітряні рейди... тривали
безперестанку / не припинялися
The Compound Predicate and Ways of Expressing It
There exists complete ISOMORPHISM in the nature, meaning and structural types of
the compound predicate in the contrasted languages. Their subtypes are generally common
too.
1.The Compound Verbal Modal Predicate which comprises a modal verb or its
equivalent and the infinitive or gerund (the latter in English only). "You ought to be working
now." Ви мали б працювати зараз. " I couldn't help smiling. Я не міг втриматися від
посмішки.
Common in both languages is also the compound verbal predicate, which comprises
verbs denoting desire, intention, determination, hope, attempt, etc. Eg: I want to go home. Я
хочу йти додому. І was trying to learn German. Я пробував учити німецьку мову.
The compound modal verbal predicate may include phraseological units/set
expressions: He said I should take it easy a bit. Він казав, щоб я це не брав близько до
серця. "I'd better get up by the driver." Я б краще сіла коло шофера.
2.The Compound Verbal Aspective Predicate consisting of verbs denoting the
beginning, duration or cessation of an action/state plus the imperfective infinitive or gerund
(in English). Eg: Her legs began to tire. (Dreiser) Ноги її почали стомлюватися. When
she was a child she used to sit on the lowest step nursing a rag doll. (Ibid.) ... дитиною вона
бувало висиджувала зі своєю ганчір'яною лялькою при землі на останньому східці.
(ALLOMORPHISM): Only in English, however, there is the so-called compound
double verbal predicate formed by the subjective with the infinitive construction, eg: He
seemed to have completely lost interest in everything. The space mission is unlikely to finish
this week.
3. The Compound Nominal Predicate consists in both languages (ISOMORPHISM) of
linking verbs which may have a vague lexical meaning (to be, to get) or preserve its lexical
meaning (to remain, to become, to grow, to turn, to look, to seem, to feel), which have direct
lexical equivalents in Ukrainian. The nominal part of the compound predicate in English
may be expressed by the gerund and by predicative constructions, missing in Ukrainian
(ALLOMORPHISM). Eg: deciding is acting. That is for me to decide. It was his reading
which impressed me.
Apart from the compound nominal predicate of being the linking verb in both
contrasted languages may have the meaning of becoming. Eg: Bob, who was growing deaf,
could not hear her. Боб, який ставав усе глухішим, не міг розчути її. The night has become
more and more raw. Ніч ставала все сирішою і сирішою. The snow turned into cold rain.
Сніг переходив у холодний дощ.
Of ISOMORPHIC nature is also the compound nominal predicate of remaining: He
remained silent for a while and spoke again. Він продовжував мовчати якусь мить... The
winter continued damp and wet. Зима продовжувалась вологою і мокрою.
The nominal predicate in both languages (ISOMORPHIC) may also be of seeming and
appearing: They all seemed very confident he would be back for Christmas. Всі вони
здавалися дуже впевненими, що він повернеться до Різдва. His face turned red and then
purple. Його обличчя стало перш червоним/ почервоніло, а потім стало пурпуровим.
4. The Compound Nominal Double Predicate is common in both languages
(ISOMORPHIC) as well, eg: The sunlight sifted golden and heavy... Наталка прибігла
сердита, захекана. Шлях лежить великий.
5. The mixed types of the compound predicate are of ISOMORPHIC nature in English and
Ukrainian. They are
a) the compound modal nominal predicate: "It must have been one of the servants". The
boy must be forty by now. Цьому хлопцеві має бути сорок років. Вона може бути
вчителькою;
b) the compound phrasal nominal predicate: The scared lad continued to remain silent.
Заляканий учень продовжував бути мовчазним/продовжував мовчати;
с) the compound modal phrasal predicate: "You must stop pretending ignorance." "Ти
мусиш кинути прикидатися невинною"

Simple Predicate Compound Predicate

Verbal Nominal
Phraseological

Contaminated
Secondary

Mixt-type
Language

Nominal
Nominal

Phrasal

Double

Double
Aspect
Verbal

Modal

English + + + + + + + + + + + +
Ukrainian + + + — — + + + + + + +

16. Typological characteristics of the secondary parts of the sentence. Isomorphism

and allomorphism in the structural forms of the object and the attribute in the
contrasted languages.
The secondary parts of the sentence in the contrasted languages are as follows: objects,
attributes and adverbial modifiers.
The general implicit morphological nature, the syntactic function and the
nomenclature of the secondary parts of the sentence are generally isomorphic in the
contrasted languages.
Allomorphic features are observed, as a rule, in the structural forms of some types of
English objects, attributes and adverbial modifiers, though some Ukrainian secondary parts
of the sentence are also characterised by divergent features of their own.
1. The object has in English and Ukrainian both isomorphic and allomorphic features.
As to its structural forms, the object in both contrasted languages may be:
a) simple: (Isomorphic)
- I thought that the bank rented it. А я думав, що банк позичив їх (гроші).
- Then she heard music. Потім вона почула музику.
b) simple prepositional: (Isomorphic)
- He was afraid of this. Він не думав про це.
- "May I speak to Lucy?" "Можна звернутися до Люсі?"
с) extended (expressed by a subordinate word-group): (Isomorphic)
- "I do so dislike the summer crowds." Мені так надокучають юрби людей влітку.
- In his book he had drawn some pretty nasty characters. У своїй книжці він
змалював кілька вельми неприємних персонажів.
d) expanded objects (expressed by the co-ordinate word-groups): (Isomorphic,  но с
исключением)
- The other two women continued to discuss the gas and electricity bills. Дві інші
жінки обговорювали рахунки за газ та електрику.
- ...the car brought his father and mother home. Машина привезла його батька й
матір додому.
The first of the expanded objects in Ukrainian (рахунки за газ та електроенергію)
may also be treated as the expanded prepositional object, since it is preceded by the
preposition.
------
there are also other COMMON types of the object/adjective complement in the
contrasted languages. The first to be named are the following traditionally distinguished
ones:
1) the direct non-prepositional or prepositional (in English) object: (Allomorphic -
direct prepositional object doesn’t exist in Ukrainian)
- He could make the money easy. I have heard of it... Він міг легко заробити гроші.
Я це/про це чув.
- Не went to Oxford, studied engineering and played rugger. Він поїхав до
Оксфорда, вивчав машинобудування і захоплювався регбі.
Direct in both languages is also the cognate object: (Isomorphic, но структурная ли
это форма?)
- Clare slept the sleep of one who has spent a night in the car. (Galsworthy) Клер
спала сном людини, що провела ніч у машині.
The prepositional object in the contrasted languages, as has been pointed out, is
preceded/introduced by the preposition:
- She felt cold in nothing but her nightdress and the light wrap, and with the shiver of
cold she felt fear. Вона ні в що не мерзла, але в нічній одежині та легенькій фантині і
від дрижаків та від холоду їй було лячно.
- "І must not panic", she said to herself. "Я мушу тримати себе в руках,"- сказала
вона сама до себе.
Not all English prepositional objects have prepositional equivalent in Ukrainian. Some
prepositional objects are declinable in Ukrainian. (ТАМ ДАНЫ КАКИЕ-ТО ОБРЫВКИ
ПРИМЕРОВ, НАПРИМЕР, ТОЛЬКО АНГЛ ВАРИАНТ, ОТ НИХ НЕТ ТОЛКУ) No
morphological expression of the syntactic dependence is observed in the so-called addressee
object "to herself" which corresponds to the indirect object "собі", though it may be
conveyed as an indirect prepositional object as well (cf. сказала вона сама до себе, про
себе).
One more peculiar feature of the English prepositional object is that the preposition
may sometimes be split from the object itself. (Allomorphic? Почему peculiar feature..?
Странный пример в украинском)
- Who do they (children) belong to? (Maugham) Котрої з них вони/Вони котрої з
них?
2. the indirect object: (там это не пронумеровано, я предполагаю, что это
отдельный тип)
In both languages it has an indirect case form which is expressed in English only by
the personal pronoun in the objective case and by the interrogative and relative pronoun
"who".
- I know they told me that. Це вони мені сказали.
- The doctor gave me pills to take tranquillisers. Лікар дав мені пігулки для
заспокоєння.
- Не handed her the paper. Він передав їй папірець.
The Ukrainian indirect object may also be a noun, any pronoun or numeral (В англ не
так, Allomorphic, в англ только то, что подчеркнуто вверху) (дати щось комусь:
Петрові, Марії, обом). Or in the following Ukrainian sentences: Він послав Ганні книжку.
Він послав книжку Ганні/дня Ганни. Гамір не давав дитині (дітям) спати.
Taking all this into consideration, i.e. the absenсe of any morphological expression of
indirect cases in almost all English notionals (except the objective case form of the personal
pronouns me, him, her, them, us) and the relative/ interrogative pronoun whom, it would be
typologically more expedient to use also the term "complements" instead of the tradition
term "object". (ТО ЖЕ САМОЕ)
------
Apart from the above-mentioned subtypes of the direct object in the contrasted
languages, two more structural forms of it are to be singled out. These are: (Почему зис а и
одна цифра только?????)

1) the clausal object/expressed by the object subordinate clause:

- You're always telling me how good you are. Ти завжди повторюєш мені, яка ти
добра.
- I suppose she's been telling you that I'm a selfish brute. Гадаю, вона вам сказала,
що я жахливий егоїст.
-------
The formal object is an allomorphic feature/phenomenon pertained to the English
language only. This object is expressed by the formal pronoun "it" which has an implicit
meaning, as can be seen in the following sentences:
- On Saturday she would clean it, wash it, and air it. По суботах вона прибирала,
мила й провітрювала (всі кімнати, приміщення).
- І found it impossible to utter the next word. У мене не було жодної змоги сказати
хоч слово.
- We can walk it very quickly. Ми швидко пройдемось (туди).
The complex object is not a completely allomorphic feature for Ukrainian either,
though some of its structural forms are alien to it. These are, for instance, the objective with
the infinitive, the objective with the present participle or the gerundial
complexes/constructions, which have nouns or subordinate clauses for their equivalents in
Ukrainian.
- If I could only see him laugh once more. She had expected him to be more
sympathetic. I heard someone weeping. I hear him calling her name.
Apart from these there are some isomorphic or similar complexes, which are observed
in both languages. There are cases:
- It would be better for us to leave him. There was need for him to be economical.
Було б краще для нас залишити його. У нього настала необхідність економити.
These English complexes have structurally different equivalents in Ukrainian: either
the prepositional object (для нас) or the direct object (залишити його). In the second
sentence (for him to be economical) the equivalent is again different in Ukrainian: у нього
(prepositional object) and to be economical becomes an attribute in Ukrainian (потреба бути
економним). (?????)
Isomorphism is observed in both contrasted languages in the function and structure of
the objective with the past participle complexes:
- They found the door unlocked/the soldier wounded. Вони застали двері
відімкненими/знайшли бійця пораненим.
 - І remember the actor younger. Я пам'ятаю цього актора молодшим.
These participial (and adjectival) components and constructions are treated in
Ukrainian as the double predicate.

2. The attribute in both languages functions as an adjunct to a noun head in a word-

group. The categorial meanings of English and Ukrainian adjuncts differ considerably,
however, since English adjuncts can not express gender (Allomorphic), case and only rarely
number as in the example with the demonstrative pronouns this/that+Nsing - these/those +
Nplur; such a + Nsing - such+ Nplur, many a+ Nsing- many+ Nplur.
Almost all Ukrainian attributive adjuncts, however, mostly agree with the head noun
in gender, case, and number. These adjuncts are: adjectives, numerals, pronouns, participles:
гарний день, мій брат, перше літо, працююча зміна, засіяне поле, моя батьківщина, etc.
There are some non-declinable adjuncts in Ukrainian as well:
- Number 17 was on the second floor. Номер 17 був на третьому поверсі.
Here the adjunct "17" does not agree in Ukrainian in gender (like in English) with its
head word "number"'/номер).
Neither is there any syntactic agreement in English and, as will be shown further, even
in Ukrainian word-groups between the adverbial, infinitival and some phrasal adjuncts. Cf.
in English: George was the first to recover. (J. K. Jerome), the then government, sugar cane
production, a to-be-or-not-to-be question, the sentence below, books to read, the House of
Commons debate, etc. Similarly there is no syntactic agreement of adverbial and infinitival
adjuncts with their noun heads in Ukrainian either. Cf. Гвідо вибрав шлях наліво... (Л.
Українка), бажання виграти, спроба виправдатись.
Some adverbial adjuncts in English  may be post-posed, eg: A voice inside said. But:
In the light of after events... (Что-то громоздкое без особого объяснения)
Common in English and Ukrainian (Isomorphic) is the use of prepositional adjuncts
and adjunct clauses:
- There were only two houses of any importance in King's Abbot. My friend of whom
I spoke was a young man... Біля шарабанів коні в хомутах. Мій приятель, про якого я
казав...
Isomorphic are also noun adjuncts as in the sentence:
- I heard Joanie's voice. Я чув голос Джоані (or Джоанін голос).
Pertaining to English only (Allomorphic), however, are adjuncts consisting:
a) of clusters of nouns: sugar cane production;
b) of statival adjuncts to nouns: Miss Ackroyd saw her uncle alive at a quarter to ten;
c) of gerundial adjuncts to nouns: "You have not spoiled my pleasure in meeting you,
Mr. Gray";
d) of the contextual adjuncts expressed by articles having a lexical meaning in the text:
The thought was fire in him.  "I want the Dorian Gray I used to paint..." Ця думка пекла
його вогнем. Я хочу мати справу з тим Доріаном Ґреєм..., якого я малював...".

17. Isomorphism and allomorphism in the structural forms of the adverbial parts of
the sentence in the contrasted languages
Adverbial parts of the sentence in the contrasted languages have most features in
common. Their use in the sentence/word-group is predetermined by a concrete need to
characterise the action, process or state from the viewpoint of manner, time, place, purpose,
measure or degree of its preceding.
 Despite some structural/grammatical differences distinguishing the systems of English
and Ukrainian, both languages still have a common nomenclature of adverbial complement
parts of the sentence. Common is also their quantitative representation, sometimes even the
ambiguity of meaning of some parts of the sentence in both contrasted languages.
Divergent/allomorphic features find their reflection, as has already been noted, in the
morphological (cf. the gerund) or structural nature (cf. predicative complexes) of some
semantic classes of English adverbial parts of the sentence. These divergences in the nature
and structure of some English adverbial complements do not change in any measure the
qualitative (and quantitative) correlation in the system of their semantic classes in the
contrasted languages. Among the most occurred adverbial complements/ modifiers in the
contrasted languages are those of place, time and manner/attendant circumstances. These the
are followed by some less occurred, but equally important in English and Ukrainian,
semantic classes of adverbial complements modifying the verb or any of its non-finite forms
in the utterance.
The Adverbial Complement (Modifier) of Place (Обставина місця)
(Про структуру ничего)
The Adverbial Complement of Time /Обставина часу
The means of expressing time are both common and divergent. Common are the
following means: а и b Isomorphic ? Это структура?₽
a) lexical means (adverbs of time and frequency: now, then, often, seldom, tonight —
зараз, тоді, часто, рідко, сьогодні, вчора).
b) lexico-syntactic means (non-prepositional and prepositional phrases) like any day,
last week, late at night, early in the morning, in September, at 5 o'clock — будь-якого дня,
минулого тижня, пізно ввечері, у вересні, на початку жовтня, о 5 годині.
Lexico-syntactic by nature are also participles/participle phrases preceded in English
by such conjunctions as often, "when" or "while", whose Ukrainian equivalents are either
temporal clauses or diyepryslivnyks: (это типа тоже Isomorphic?)
- Reaching the room, she turned on all the lights. Зайшовши до кімнати, вона
повмикала скрізь світло.
The temporal "when" may also precede a noun, an adjective or adverb (cf. when a
child, when busy, when there, when at school — ще хлопцем — хлопцем ще, ще
молодим, ще тоді — тоді ще). Isomorphic?
Relative (відносний) time and duration has isomorphic forms of expression in both
contrasted languages. The means include non-prepositional and prepositional phrases like
"each time, every day, from time to time" (щоразу, кожного дня, від часу до часу,
щогодини). Subordinate clauses of time are equally used to express time as well:
- A couple of minutes later he was snoring like mad. Через кілька хвилин він уже
хріп, як навіжений.
- He kept on singing until he came downstairs. Він співав, доки не зійшов сходами
вниз.
Allomorphic Means of Expressing Complements of Time
Several means of expressing temporal complements pertain to English or to Ukrainian
only, as can be seen below.
In English:
1. By an infinitive:
- she lived to be eighty-nine.
2. By a gerund with a preposition/ prepositional gerundial phrase:
 - George, on hearing the story, grinned.
In Ukrainian:
1. Nouns in indirect case forms with or without governing prepositions:
- прийти темної ночі, на тижні/цього тижня.
2. Nouns in the accusative case with or without prepositions:
- Це тривало день/ цілу ніч; впродовж ночі, за добу, через рік, у дні свят/ у дні
подорожі, при грошах, о п'ятій годині.
3. Nouns in the locative case with the prepositions:
- о (о десятій годині), по/по ночах/на тижні, при/при світлі; при Непі).
4. Adverbial nouns in instrumental case:
- (днями, тижнями, роками/ днями й ночами) or adverbs as навесні.
The Adverbial Complement of Manner/Обставина способу дії
The expression of the manner of action in English and Ukrainian may be performed by
lexical and lexico-syntactic means. Isomorphic is the expression of this complement by the
following means:
1. By qualitative adverbs or adverbs of manner/ adverbial phrases:
- William's pen began to write badly. Вільямове (Шекспірове) перо стало погано
писати.
- We spent much time together. Ми проводили багато часу разом/ вкупі.
- He came in griping about how cold it was out. Він зайшов, щулячись і видаючи
зовні, як холодно надворі.
- I brought the boat along the bank dipping my blades noiselessly. Я плив човном
вздовж берега, нечутно веслуючи лопатями.
2. Equally possible in Ukrainian is also the expression of attendant circumstances by
infinitival phrases:
- I woke up in the morning to find myself famous. Я прокинувся вранці, щоб
дізнатися, що я став славетним. Or: Я прокинувся вранці і дізнався, що я став
славнозвісною людиною.
3. By prepositional nouns or other nominal parts of speech that have indirect case
forms for their equivalents in Ukrainian (which are not available in present-day English):
- She looked with interest at the girl on the platform. Вона з цікавістю
подивилася/глянула на дівчину, що стояла на платформі.
4. By an infinitive preceded by a conjunction:
- She moved her hand as if to stop him. Вона ворухнула рукою немов аби/щоб
зупинити його.
Allomorphism is observed in the expression of English complements of manner with
the help of the gerund and the nominative absolute participle construction, having semantic
and partly functional equivalents in Ukrainian diyepryslivnyks and indirect case forms of
nominal parts of speech:
- You learn a language best by hearing it spoken. Найкраще вивчати іноземну мову,
чуючи її в живому мовленні.
The corresponding meanings of manner may often be expressed in Ukrainian with the
help of adverbs, adverbial phrases and nouns in indirect case forms.
- А тепер парами, все по парі, все по парі. Свирид на превелику силу витяг з
води Луку. (Коцюбинський) Співають, ідучи, дівчата. (Шевченко).
The Adverbial Complement of Cause (Reason)/Обставина причини
The means of expressing the adverbial complement of cause/ reason, despite its
common nature in English and Ukrainian, can be both isomorphic and allomorphic.
1. Isomorphic is the expression of the complement by nominals preceded by the
conjunctive prepositions «because of, due to, owing to, thanks to, on account of», which
have their semantic and раrtly structural equivalents in Ukrainian (через, через те що,
внаслідок, завдяки, дякуючи, в результаті):
2. Some prepositions in English and Ukrainian aquire causal meaning before nouns
denoting psychological or physical state. (These prepositions are for, from, out of, with —
від, з/зі, через), eg: isomorphic
- He could hardly speak for fear. Від страху він не міг слова промовити/ сказати.
- They would be there out of curiosity. Вони прийдуть туди просо із цікавості.
3. Partly common is the expression of this part of the sentence, i.e. complement also
by means of participial constructions corresponding to Ukrainian diyepryslivnyk
constructions:
- The men were weary, having run behind the beasts all day. Вибігавши за худобою
весь день чоловіки натомилися.
4. Allomorphism in the expression of this part of the sentence in English is restricted
to a) nominative absolute participial constructions and b) to the gerund (gerundial
complexes):
- He was in jail for having killed a person in a fight.
Pertaining only to Ukrainian (Allomorphic) is the expression of the adverbial meaning
of cause by nouns in indirect case forms and by diyepryslivnyks or adverbs of cause/result:
- Очі від утоми закрилися.
- Од хвилювання Тетяна не могла спокійно говорити.
- З радощів він мало не збожеволів.
The Adverbial Complement of Purpose / Обставина мети
It may be expressed in English and Ukrainian by the following common/isomorphic
means:
1. By an infinitive/infinitival phrase often introduced in Ukrainian by the conjunction
щоб:
- I smiled to her to show my sympathy. Я посміхнувся їй, щоб показати висловити
своє співчуття.
2. By infinitives introduced by the phrase conjunction so as corresponding to
Ukrainian щоб/так щоб:
- ...he got into the habit of ...thrusting the hand inside his shirt so as to rest the thumb
in the warmth of his armpit ...у нього вже стало звичкою... засовувати руку за пазуху, так
щоб зігріти великого пальця під пахвою.
3. By prepositional nouns which have indirect case forms in Ukrainian:
- ...I came out to the islands for my health. Я приїхав на ці острови за здоров'ям
(задля лікування, щоб набратись здоров'я).
4. The allomorphic expression of the adverbial complement of purpose is realised in
English with the help of the prepositional gerund and through the secondary predications for
— to constructions with the infinitive, eg:
- The boy stood aside for him to go by. (Galsworthy) In Ukrainian the preposition
для+noun (для збереження) or the conjunction щоб+the infinitive con struction is used to
express this same meaning (as in the last sentence): Хлопець відступився (став убік, дав
дорогу), щоб він пройшов.
The Adverbial Complements of Result (Consequence)/Обставина наслідку
 This complement may be expressed:
1. By an infinitive:
- It was a great landlocked harbour, big enough to hold a fleet of battleships. Це була
закрита природна гавань, така завбільшки, що в ній сховається цілий флот бойових
кораблів.
2. Sometimes English predicative constructions, like the for to + the infinitive, may
also be used to express the complement of result. The Ukrainian semantic equivalents of the
construction is the infinitive.
- His experience of women was great enough for him to be aware that the negative
offer meant nothing more than the preface to the affirmative. Його досвід у стосунках із
жінками був досить великим/багатим для того, аби зрозуміти, що їх початкова відмова
означала не що інше, як преамбула до кінцевої згоди.
3. The infinitival complement of result may be followed in English and Ukrainian by a
subordinate object clause.
- At first she was too puzzled to understand what had happened. (Wells) Спочатку
вона була так приголомшена, що не зрозуміла, що трапилося/Спочатку вона була
надто приголомшена, аби зрозуміти, що трапилося.
The Adverbial Complement of Condition/Обставина умови
1. The adverbial complement of condition in the contrasted languages is usually
expressed by a noun or pronoun preceded by a preposition or a prepositional phrase (but, for,
except for, without). The corresponding Ukrainian prepositions aлe, за, у, при/за таких
обставин, у випадку, за умови. For example:
- This time Pedro let him take the rifle without a murmur of protest. Цього разу
Педро дозволив йому взяти рушницю без жодних заперечень/Навіть не спробував
заперечити.
- But for his open eyes, he might have been asleep. Коли б не розплющені очі,
можна було б подумати, що він спить.
2. This adverbial meaning can also be expressed in English and Ukrainian by a
participle or adjective preceded by the conjunctions if or un less/якби, якщо:
- If ifs and ands were pots and pans. Якби знаття, що в кума пиття.
- Nobody spoke, unless spoken to... Ніхто не починав розмову, якщо/коли до нього
не зверталися.
3. The complement of condition may also be expressed in English by an infinitive, a
participle or a secondary predication construction, which are usually conveyed in Ukrainian
with the help of conditional clauses introduced by the conjunctions якби or якщо.
- She would have done better not to notice him. Weather permitting, everybody will
continue the trip. Було б краще, якби вона не помічала його. Якщо погода дозволить, всі
продовжать свій похід.
Ukrainian allomorphic complements of condition can also be expressed by
diyepryslivnyks / diyepryslivnyk phrases as in the following proverbs and sayings. Лежачи і
сокира ржавіє. Не спитавши броду, не лізь у воду.
The Adverbial Complement of Concession/Обставина допусту
These are, first of all the adverb nevertheless and the introductory phrase in spite of
that/ this. Their Ukrainian counterparts are незважаючи (на), попри.
- In spite of her big nose I liked her very much. Незважаючи на її великий ніс, вона
всеж дуже подобалася мені.
- Though frightened, he carried it off very well. Хоч і настрашений, він з усім добре
справлявся.
A concessive meaning may be created in English without the prepositions, connectives
and the conjunction though, which is impossible in Ukrainian (Allomorphic):
- With all his witty tricks he was a snob. In Ukrainian, however, the conjunction or
connective is always used: Незважаючи) на всі його дотепні витівки, він усе ж був
недотепою/снобом.
Adverbial Complements of Attendant Circumstances/ Обставини
супроводжуючих способів дії
These adverbial complements may be expressed in the contrasted languages both by
isomorphic and by allomorphic means, the latter being observed mainly in English.
Isomorphic is the expression of attendant circumstances by means of adverbs of manner or
prepositional word-groups with semantically corresponding adverbs, prepositional noun
phrases or diyepryslivnyks in Ukrainian. Eg:
- ...she began to speak in a limping whisper ...вона почала своє звертання пошепки
й запикуючись.
- Winter set in early and unexpectedly with a heavy fall of snow. Зима лягла рано і з
непередбачено/ несподівано великими снігопадами.
An allomorphic expression of attendant circumstances is also observed in English
when it finds its realisation through gerundial and nominative absolute participial
constructions:
- Now I can go to bed at last without dreading tomorrow. Тепер я можу лягати спати,
не боячись уже куняти зранку.
The Adverbial Complement of Comparison/Обставина порівняння
This adverbial complement is introduced in English by the conjunctions than, as, as if,
as though or by the preposition like, all having direct semantic and functional equivalents in
Ukrainian (ніж, як, за, ще).
The preposition like, on the other hand, acquires a connective function joining the
predicative part of the sentence and the adverbial complement of comparison, as it is also in
Ukrainian. Cf.
- The man spoke English like an Oxford graduate. Чоловік розмовляв по-англійськи,
як оксфордський випускник.
There exist some ambiguous conjunctive constructions in which the complement of
comparison overlaps the adverbial meaning of degree:
- Be as clear and short as possible. Будь чітким і виразним, наскільки можливо.
Transparent comparison is also expressed when objects and phenomena are compared
by the conjunctions as and than in sentences of each of the contrasted languages. For
example:
- Her eyes are bright as diamonds bluer than the skies above. Її очі яскраві, як
діаманти, і блакитніші, ніж небеса над нами.
The Adverbial Complement of Degree/Обставина ступеня
The complement is mostly expressed in English and Ukrainian by common means, the
main being the following:
a) by adverbs of degree:
- I think he was pretty surprised to hear it from me. Гадаю, він був вельми (аж
надто) здивований, почувши це від мене.
b) by adverbial phrases of degree:
- ...I'll come inmost mousy-quiet. Я ввійду дуже тихо, як мишка.
 c) The adverb of degree may sometimes complement (i.e. be an adjunct to) a noun:
- She is quite a beauty. Вона просто-таки красуня.
The Adverbial Complement of Measure/Обставина міри
The meaning of measure in the contrasted languages is expressed by numerals with
nouns denoting a unit of measure (length, weight, time, temperature, etc.) as well as by some
word-groups and adverbs expressing quantity. Isomorphic
1. Nouns of measure in word-groups of both languages are mostly preceded by
numerals:
In three steps the grandmother reached the door. За три кроки бабуня дійшла до
дверей.
2. No less frequent is the expression of the complement of measure by substantival
word-groups of quantitative meaning, eg:
He stood still a long while, surveying the hillside. Довгий час він стояв нерухомо,
оглядаючи горбистий краєвид.
3. Adverbs denoting measure also express these adverbial complements: Measure
twice, cut once/score twice before you cut once. He is twice the man. Similarly in Ukrainian:
Лінивий двічі ходить, скупий двічі платить.

19. Typology of the composite sentence in the contrasted languages. The compound
sentence in English and Ukrainian.
A composite sentence in English and Ukrainian contains two or more primary
predication centres mostly represented by as many corresponding clauses. The structural
types of the composite sentence are identified on the ground of the syntactic reflection (and
connection) of its predicate parts which are not always distinctly identified. Thus, common
in the syntactic systems of English and Ukrainian are sentences that are semantically
intermediate between simple extended on the one hand and composite sentences on the
other. These are the so-called semi-compound and semi-complex sentences. For example,
the sentence "One does not give up a god easily and so with White Fang." can not be treated
as a simple extended one. Neither can it be identified as a composite sentence since the
second part in it (and "so with White Fang") contains no subject and no predicate and wholly
depends on the predicative centre of the first clause. Though the implicitly perceivable
subject is the demonstrative pronoun "it" which logically requires the predicate verb "be".
Cf. One does not give up a god easily, and so (it is/or was) with White Fang in Ukrainian
equivalents are as follows:
1) He так легко відмовитися від свого 2) Не так легко відмовитися від
власника — бога, саме так і в свого власника — бога, саме
Білозубця. так (було це) і Білозубцеві.
Similarly with English extended sentences containing the secondary predication
constructions or complexes, as they are traditionally called, that represent semi-complex
sentences as well. They mostly correspond to Ukrainian complex sentences. Cf. White Fang
felt fear mounting in him again. (London) Білозубець відчув, що "ним опановує страх"
(the construction "fear mounting in him" becomes an object clause: White Fang felt
/how?/that fear was mounting in him).
Ukrainian has only some similar constructions of this nature. Cf. 1) Він застав двері
зачиненими. == Він застав двері (вони були) зачиненими. 2) Санітари знайшли вояка
пораненим. == ... (він був) пораненим.
АЛОМОРФ: The absence of almost all the secondary predication constructions in
Ukrainian makes it impossible to obtain direct correlative transforms of some simple and
composite sentences. Hence, English compound sentences may have complex sentences for
their equivalents in Ukrainian. Cf.
He leaned far out of the window and Він висунувся далеко з вікна і
he saw the first light spread. помітив, що починають
пробиватися перші промені.
Because of the objective with the infinitive construction in the second English clause
of the compound sentence above the Ukrainian equivalent of it can be only an object
subordinate clause.
Я В ЭТО НЕ ВНИКЛА, ЧЕСТНО ГОВОРЯ: The composite sentence has some
isomorphic features of its own. In the contrasted languages, they are as follows:
1) The complex sentence has a poly-predicative nature;
2) It is characterized by the subordinate way of joining the clauses to the
principal/matrix clause;
3) It may consist of homogeneous clauses or of consecutively dependent clauses
joined to the matrix clause or to each other syndetically or asyndetically;
4) The arsenal of syndetic means of connection includes conjunctions, connective
pronouns, connective adverbs and subordinating connective words;
5) The connectors join clauses and express some logical-grammatical relations formed
within the complex sentence.

Clauses in compound sentences of the contrasted languages are mostly joined by

means of co-ordinate conjunctions which provide parataxal relations between them.
Conjunctions joining clauses in compound sentences of the contrasted languages are
practically of the same semantic nature: copulative, adversative, and causal/or (in English
only). Equally common in the contrasted languages are various connectives that join
coordinate clauses. These are as follows: therefore, consequently, accordingly, then, hence,
so, while, as well as and some explanatory connective words (that is to say, such as, like, let
me say and others), which have corresponding functional (and semantic) equivalents in
Ukrainian (отже, та, а саме, звідси, тобто, тоді, як-то, так-як, ...так, скажімо, т
о...то).
Co-ordinate conjunctions, as well as various connectives, realize their functional and
semantic meaning in structurally and semantically identical English and Ukrainian
compound sentences. This is to be explained by the existence of common relations that are
created between the coordinate clauses of compound sentences and to a large degree by the
semantic meanings of conjunctions/connectives that join these clauses. As a result,
isomorphism, if not exact likeness, is observed in the nature of some subtypes of English and
Ukrainian compound sentences. These isomorphic features find their expressions in the
existence of the following subtypes of them:
 1. compound sentences with free/ netral Interrelation between their clauses ( when
you transform the coordinate clauses in the sentence, the meaning is not changed)
2. compound sentences with adversative interrelation between their clauses ( but,
still, yet), the placement of clauses is fixed and predetermined because the second part
is semantically dependent, the nature of the conjunction or connective word requires
such an order, there are more then one conjunction, there are can be another sentences
joined with the following, the existence of extension or expansion of component
clauses.
3. Contrastive and adversative compound sentences transformation of this kind is
impossible in both languages when their clauses are semantically bound to one object
or action.
4. compound sentences with asyndetically adjoined classes.

20. Typology of the complex sentence. Isomorphic and allomorphic features in the
structure of nominal/N-clauses of the contrasted languages
TYPOLOGY OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
The nature of the many logico-grammatical relations created between the subordinate and
the matrix clause generally corresponds to the nature of relations created between the
adjuncts/complements and their heads in subordinate word-groups. Hence, there are
distinguished the following typologically relevant groups of subordinate clauses:
In English/In Ukrainian
1. Substantive-nominal/Субстантивно-номінативні:
a) subject subordinate clauses /підметові підрядні речення
b) predicative subordinate clauses/присудкові підрядні речення
c) objective subordinate clauses / додаткові підрядні речення
2. Qualitatively-nominal/ Квалітативно-номінативні:
a) descriptive attributive clauses/ описові атрибутивні підрядні речення
b) restrictive/limiting attributive clauses/обмежуючі атрибутивні підрядні речення
3. Adverbial Clauses/ Адвербіальні підрядні речення:
of time, place, purpose, cause, attending circumstances, condition, concession, result, etc. /
часу, місця, мети, причини, способу, дії, умови, допусту, наслідку тощо.
N-CLAUSE
Isomorphic:
-structurally extended or unextended;
-the arsenal of syndetic means of connection includes conjunctions, connective pronouns,
connective adverbs and subordinating connective words;
-has a polypredicative nature;
-it is characterised by the subordinate way of joining the clauses to the principal/matrix
clause;
-it may consist of homogeneous clauses or of consecutively dependent clauses joined to
the matrix clause or to each other syndetically or asyndetically;
Allomorphic:
-No structural equivalents have in Ukrainian some transforms of English subject clauses
introduced by the emphatic pronoun it;
-they always follow in English their matrix clause whereas in Ukrainian they may
sometimes occupy a front position and even a midposition in the complex sentence;
 -Pertaining to only Ukrainian are complex sentences whose matrix clauses have a simple
nominal predicate expressed by a demonstrative pronoun, which may be preceded by the
negative particle не, or by an adjective often emphasised by a demonstrative pronoun.
-Allomorphism is also observed in the nature and structure of some Ukrainian connectors
among which there is the particle чи corresponding to the English conjunctions whether and
if

22. Isomorphic and allomorphic features in the structural types of attributive clauses
of the contrasted languages.
The ISOMORPHIC features:
1) they always follow the antecedent (preceding) noun, pronoun or numeral which they
modify/ specify;
2) they may sometimes be substituted for the corresponding participial constructions
performing an attributive function;
3) They may often be joined to the English antecedent (preceding) asyndetically (без
союза).
He could be somebody who could He could be somebody playing
play the piano. the piano.
Similar transformations are possible in Ukrainian, though postposed participial
constructions can rarely substitute an attributive clause. More often the past participle can be
used instead, which may be substituted for an attributive clause:
Слова, підхоплені на парті, йому припали до душі.— Слова, які/що були підхоплені на
парті, йому припали до душі.
ISOMORPHIC: Attributive clauses in the contrasted languages have some other common
features, namely:
a) they can be joined to the antecedent of the matrix clause by means of conjunctions that,
as if/as though, whether (що, мов, ніби):
Gilbert has just told me something Джільберт щойно сказав мені
that I can hardly bring myself to таке, у що я ніяк не можу no-
believe. вірити.
b) they are much more often joined to the matrix clause by means of relative pronouns and
relative adverbs (who, whose, what, which, that, when, whence, where, how — хто, кого,
ким, який, що, де, коли, звідки, куди, чому):
І glanced at Daisy, who was staring Я глянув на Дейзі, яка злякано
between Gatsby and her husband. дивилася кудись поміж Ґетсбі й
своїм чоловіком.
А ВОТ ТО, ЧТО ДАЛЬШЕ Я НЕ УВЕРЕНА, МОЖЕТ ОНО И НЕ НАДО, но там есть
хоть один аломорф
ISOMORPHIC: Common in the contrasted languages are some traditionally distinguished
groups of attribute clauses like the following:
1.Appositive clauses which are joined to an antecedent noun having a most general
abstract meaning or to a pronoun (mostly indefinite) with the help of a relative pronoun or
pronominal adverb:
This was the time when they looked now. /І от настав час, коли очі вже бачили.
2.Restrictive attributive clauses in English and Ukrainian are very closely connected with
the antecedent which is determined or identified/ particularised by the subordinate clause
without which the matrix clause is incomplete:
There was a legend among the Між людьми ходила легенда,
people that the island had once been що острів колись був покритий
covered with tall trees. високими деревами.
3. Descriptive attributive clauses give some additional information about the antecedent.
Due to this the clauses in both contrasted languages may be omitted without affecting the
semantic completeness of the sentence:
...his eyes were fixed upon the prin- ...його очі не відривалися від
cess, who sat to the right of his принцеси, яка сиділа праворуч
father. від батька-короля.
Attributive clauses in both languages may be joined to the matrix clause by prepositional
relative pronouns. ALLOMORPHIC(?) Common, though more characteristic of Ukrainian
than of English, are the so-called continuative attributive clauses which have no correlating
relative pronoun to the nominal antecedent in the matrix clause. These clauses are introduced
by the conjunction що/that, eg:
Почуття волі були такими гаря- The feeling of freedom became so
чими, що серце солодко захлину- warm that his heart chocked with
лося, попливло... enthusiasm and floated...
Very often, however, English relative pronouns referring to antecedents denoting person
can be substituted in Ukrainian for a relative pronoun or for the conjunction що:
I looked at my cousin, who began to Я повернувся до двоюрідної сестри,
ask me questions... яка/що стала розпитувати мене...
English attributive clauses, which specify antecedents denoting non-person, are mostly
introduced by the relative pronoun which (sometimes preceded by a preposition) or by the
conjunction that, eg: On the second floor were managerial offices, to which after some
inquiry, she was now directed. I decided to pack the things that I would take to the cave on
the ravine. ALLOMORPHIC(?) In Ukrainian, however, the relative pronoun, as a rule,
agrees in number and gender with the antecedent noun or pronoun of the matrix clause e.g...і
великий став би художник, який зумів би передати все це. (Гончар) В штабі
запанувала пауза, в якій чути було далеку канонаду...
As was pointed out, one more ALLOMORPHIC feature of English attributive clauses
is the omission of the joining/connecting element before the subordinate clause which is
impossible in Ukrainian. "There's crowds of artists [ ] have asked me- sometimes it's just
funny stuff, of course, but mostly it's genuine."