High Voltage Measurements

and Testing

17.1 TYPES OF TESTS 2. Constant Direct Current Tests

The growing extension, interconnections and Modern trend in electric power transmission is to
use of higher voltages in electric power systems has use as high voltages as possible. This is because
been only possible due to extensive research work increase in trans- mission voltage results in an increase
carried in the sphere of high voltage measurements in efficiency of transmission. Overhead lines are in
and testing. Due to this research work in the high actual operation which employ voltages as high as 750
voltage field, it has been possible to reduce the size kV while cables for 275 kV have been made and tested.
of the equipment to economic and manageable propor­ Before high voltage lines are energised, the
tions. Thus it is logical that the high voltage testing of insulation of every part connected with the lines must
electric equipment has come into prominence and withstand continuously for half an hour, a voltage as
sometimes it is the sole design criterion for the specified below :
determination sizes of high voltage electrical apparatus.
Table 17.1 Test Voltages
High voltage testing includes a large number of Normal system voltage Test voltage
methods. Due to limitations of space, we will be Below 10 kV Twice the normal voltage j
considering a few important methods only. The high
Above 10 kV Normal voltage + 20 kV
voltage tests are classified as :
From above it is clear that the transmission lines
A Sustained low frequency tests.
and high voltage cables would be subjected to very
A Constant direct current tests. high voltages for a considerably long interval of time,
A High frequency tests. (i.e., 30 minutes). If such voltage tests are carried out
A Surge or Impulse tests. with an a.c. voltage supply, the high voltage trans­
former required for the purpose would have to be of a
1. Sustained Low Frequency Tests very large capacity owing to the heavy charging
These tests are most commonly used. The (capacitive) currents drawn by the lines or the cables.
frequency employed is 50 Hz in India. These tests are This means that a large expenditure has to be incurred
carried out on : for procuring the high voltage testing transformer.
(z) Motors, switchgear and other electrical Also there would be great difficulties involved in
apparatus for routine voltage testing after transporting the testing transformer to the site of
manufacture or in some cases after installa­ testing owing to its large size.
tion. The voltage normally used is 2 to 3 kV. Thus in order to overcome the difficulties
(z'z) Specimens of insulation for the determination encountered above, high voltage d.c. testing is done in
of dielectric constant and dielectric loss. place of a.c. testing.
(zzz) Supply mains for routine testing. 3. High Voltage High Frequency Tests
(zz?) High voltage transformers, porcelain The break-down and flash over of porcelain
insulators and high voltage cables, etc. for insulators used on power transmission lines is often
works testing. The test voltage in such cases due to high frequency' disturbances in the trans­
may be as high as 2000 kV. mission lines. These high frequency disturbances are
(513)
 514 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

either due to switching operations or due to some The danger to the electric installations comes from
external causes and are usually damped high the fact that this over-voltage acts across the insulation
frequency oscillations. and that the time taken by the voltage to rise to its
It has been found that even though the porcelain peak value is very small, i.e., of the order of one­
insulator has satisfactorily withstood the sustained millionth of a second. This imposes very severe
low frequency high voltage tests, it breaks down at a voltage stresses on the insulators, transformer windings,
much lower voltage at high frequencies owing to circuit breakers, bushings and other equipment. If the
increased dielectric loss and heating. Thus to insure voltage stress exceeds the strength of the insulation, a
reliable operation of insulators under disturbances flash over or a puncture results causing a short circuit
caused by switching and arcing earths, they must be and power outage. If a power arc follows, there may
subjected to high frequency tests. be disastrous results in damage to the equipment
whose repair may cost considerable amount of money
High frequency tests are also carried out for
insulators used for communication purposes. and time.
Frequencies ranging from several kHz to a MHz or Since power systems are frequently exposed to
more are used for such purposes. lightning strokes and consequent voltage surge,
impulse testing is necessary for coordination of
4. Surge or Impulse Tests insulation of the system in order that these surges are
These tests are recommended with the object of not allowed to damage the insulation of the important
determining the effect of voltage surges due to associated equipment.
atmospheric disturbances of very short duration on
electrical installations and their individual parts. The 17.2 TESTING APPARATUS
dangerous over-voltages to which power systems are The following testing apparatus is used for
exposed to are caused by lightning. Lightning may sustained low frequency tests. This apparatus is
produce an over-voltage on an overhead line either by usually common for all types of high voltage tests.
a direct stroke to the line or by an indirect stroke. An (z) high voltage testing transformer,
indirect stroke occurs when a charged cloud above
(zz) equipment for voltage regulation,
and near to the line, electrostatically induces charges
of opposite sign to that of its own charge, in the line. (zzz) control gear and protective devices and
These charges are bound as long as the cloud remains (zu) equipment for voltage measurement.
In addition to above, high voltage d.c. tests, high
frequency tests and impulse (surge) tests require some
other apparatus also which will be described along
with these tests later into this chapter.

17.2.1 High Voltage Transformers

High voltage testing transformers are single
phase core type, oil immersed and self-cooled type.
They are designed for operation at the same frequency
as the normal working frequency at which the test
Fig. 17.1 Surge wave. specimens operate i.e., power frequency. They may
also be used for higher frequencies with rated voltage,
near without discharging its electricity by lightning
or for lower frequencies, if the voltages are reduced
stroke. But if the cloud is suddenly discharged, the
depending upon the frequency in order to avoid
induced charges in the line are no longer bound, but
saturation of the iron core.
travel with the velocity of light along the line to
equalize the potential everywhere. The result is that a The kVA output and the fundamental design of
voltage wave travels along the line. The nature of the the iron core and the windings, there is not much
wave is shown in Fig. 17.1. The wave is characterised difference between a H.V. testing and a single phase
by a steep rise of voltage up to its peak value followed power transformer as regards the thermal rating.
by a slower drop to zero voltage. The probable However, H.V. testing transformers are designed with
maximum voltage appearing on a line due to direct a smaller value of flux density in the core to avoid
stroke is 10-15 MV and that by an indirect stroke is excessive magnetizing currents which contain higher
500 kV. Fortunately direct strokes are rare. harmonics that are introduced in the voltage regulator
High Voltage Measurements and Testing 5‘ 5

circuits supplying the test transformer. The testing between testing transformer and the test object. In
transformers are also designed with compact and well Fig. 17.2(b) the active part of the transformer is placed
insulated high voltage winding. Therefore, a single in an isolating shell, thereby avoiding the use of a
phase testing transformer may be compared with a bushing. This construction of Fig. 17.2(b) reduces the
potential transformer as regards its construction. height of the transformer, however, the heat dissipation
A single phase core type H.V. testing transformer is impaired with this arrangement. In both the arrange­
is shown in Fig. 17.2. The primary winding is usually ments, tanks are filled with high quality transformer
rated for rated voltages below 1 kV, but might often be oil as most of the windings are oil-paper insulated.
split up in two or more winding sections which can be The primary winding (I.v. winding) is close to the
connected in series or parallel to increase voltage iron core and is surrounded by the h.v. winding. This
regulation capabilities. The iron core is earthed and so arrangement reduces the leakage flux and increases
are the one terminal of each of the two primary and the coupling between the two windings. The shape
secondary windings. Two possible types of and cross-section of h.v. winding is a reference to
layout of this coil : the beginning (grounded end) of
the h.v. winding is located at a side close to the core,
and the end close to a sliced metal shield, which
prevents too high field intensities at h.v. potential.
Between both ends, the single turns are arranged in
layers, which are carefully insulated from each other
by solid materials like kraft paper sheets. Adjacent
layers, therefore, form co-axial capacitors of high
values. In order to keep the potential distribution
uniform under transient conditions, the capacitances
have to be made equal. This is done by using reduced
width of insulating layers with increasing diameters.
Thus, we have trapezoidal shape for the h.v. winding.
The transformers used for insulation testing need
not be of a high kVA rating because the current taken
by the transformer is limited by inserting external
resistances when the specimen under test breaks
down. However, transformers used for cable testing
are designed to deliver large currents owing to
capacitive (charging) currents drawn by the cables.
Attention must be paid to regulation and cooling
methods employed for such transformers.
Special constructional features are incorporated in
high voltage transformers to eliminate corona effects
as far as possible. The high voltage terminal of the
secondary winding and all other metal parts which
have a high potential with respect to earth, must be
constructed in such a manner that sharp comers are
avoided. This is done to avoid excessive voltage
Fig.17.2 High voltage testing transformers. gradients which cause corona. If this arrangement is
construction are shown in Figs. 17.2(a) and 17.2(b). In not possible, corona shields (which are usually
both cases the layout arrangement of core and windings aluminium spinnings) should be provided.
is the same. Figure 17.2(a) shows a grounded metal For voltages upto about 500 kV, a single
tank, for which a h.v. bushing is necessary to bring the transformer is used. For voltages above 500 kV ; the
high voltage out of the tank. Figure 17.2(b) shows another connection of two or more transformers in cascade is
arrangement, wherein the bushing is dispensed with, more economical than the use of a single transformer
and a co-axial cable is used for high voltage because at very high voltages a single-transformer
connection which results in improved connection tends to be of very large size and is thus costly.
 516 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

A general arrangement of two transformers the testing transformer or an available supply is being
connected in cascade is shown in Fig. 17.3. fed to the testing transformer. A separate alternator is
normally used except in the case of small testing
establishments which carry out routine testing work.
When a separate alternator is used, the voltage
regulation is carried out by variation of the alternator
field current.
In case a separate alternator is not used, the
voltage regulation is done :
(z) by insertion of resistance in the supply
circuit,
(zz) by insertion of inductance in the supply
circuit,
(zzz) by means of a tapped transformer,
(iv) by means of a variac, and
Fig. 17.3 Cascade connection of transformers.
(y) by means of an induction regulator.
A low voltage supply is given to the primary 1. Voltage control by variation of alternator
winding of transformer 1. The tank of this transformer field current. This method is applicable when a
is earthed. One end of the secondary winding of this separate alternator is used to supply the testing transfor­
transformer is also earthed. A lead is taken from the mer. When the field current of an alternator is varied
other end of the secondary winding. This lead is taken its output voltage changes as shown in Fig. 17.4.
out of the transformer through a high voltage bushing
which provides insulation for full secondary voltage
between this lead and the tank (earth). The secondary
winding is tapped at a point and another lead is taken
out of the tank through the h.v. bushing. These two
leads are connected to the primary winding of
transformer 2. One end of the secondary winding of
transformer 2 is connected to the tank which is insulated
from earth for a voltage equal to the secondary voltage
of transformer 1. The other end of the secondary
winding of transformer 2 is taken out with the help of Fig. 17.4 Variation of output voltage of alternator
a lead passing through a high voltage bushing. This with field current.
lead forms the high voltage terminal of the transfor­
The alternator used should give a sinusoidal
mer. The output voltage for test purpose, is taken
output voltage at no load and the distortion caused
between the h.v. terminal and earth. This is equal to
under load conditions should be small. This requires
the sum of the secondary voltages of the two transfor­
the length of air gap of the machine should be large, as
mers. The output voltage can be increased further by
in that case the armature reaction is limited and also
addition of more transformers connected in cascade.
there is no saturation owing to increased reluctance
1 7.2.2 Voltage Control offered by a large air gap length.
It is very important in high voltage measurements The armature winding of the alternator should be
that the output voltage which is fed to the test specially designed and also the number and shape of
specimen is varied smoothly. Any abrupt or crude slots should be properly regulated so that the output
changes in voltage will impress voltage surges on the voltage wave shape does not contain lower order or
specimen and will also affect the accuracy of higher order (slot) harmonics.
measurements. It is equally important that the voltage The field current of the alternator is directly
regulating device should not distort the waveform of varied in the case of small alternators but in the case of
output voltage. large alternators, the field current of exciter is varied,
The method of voltage regulation depends upon which varies the output voltage of the exciter thus
whether a separate alternator is being used to supply varying the alternator field current.
High Voltage Measurements and Testing 517

Figures 17.5 and 17.6 show the two connections This is because a smooth voltage regulation from zero
employed. A potential divider arrangement is used in to full voltage is obtained. This method is usually used
both the cases and the connections are so arranged for small capacity sets of about 2-3 kVA rating.
that a small current in the reverse direction to the
normal one may be obtained. Thus for this arrange­
ment zero output voltage is obtained. Referring to
Fig. 17.4, the output voltage due to residual magnetism
is OA and a field current OB (in the reverse direction)
is required to bring the output voltage down to zero.

Fig. 17.7 Voltage control by resistance potential

divider.

The method has the following advantages :

(i) It is cheap and convenient.
(ii) It gives smooth voltage variation.
(iii) The input voltage is free from distortions.
Fig. 17.5 Voltage control by use of a potential divider
in the field circuit of alternator. However the method suffers from the following
disadvantages :
The potential divider is designed to have a large (i) There is a large power loss in the potential
number of turns so that a gradual smooth variation of divider.
output voltage is obtained.
(ii) The arrangement cannot be used for large
capacity plants owing to very large size and
heavy costs of the resistance potential
divider.
3. Reactance voltage control. A choke coil
connected in series with the primary winding of the
h.v. testing transformer may be used for voltage
regulation. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 17.8
wherein a choke of variable inductance is used. The
reactance of the choke can be varied by withdrawal or
Fig. 17.6 Voltage control by use of a potential divider insertion of iron core in the coil and thus the input
in the field circuit of the exciter of
voltage to h.v. testing transformer can be varied.
alternator.
The advantages of this method are :
(/) Smooth voltage regulation from zero to full
voltage is obtained.
(iz) There are no impedances in the circuit of
supply to the h.v. transformer and therefore
the input voltage waveform is not distorted.
(iii) The method is convenient and simple.
(iv) There are no disturbances caused due to
frequent short circuiting of secondary Fig. 17.8 Variation of voltage by using
winding of h.v. transformer owing to series reactance.
breakdown of test specimens.
2. Voltage control by resistance potential The advantage of this method is that there is
divider. This method is used when a separate considerably smaller power loss owing to use of a
alternator is not used. Potential divider arrangement choke coil in place of a resistance and consequently
as shown in Fig. 17.7 is preferred to a series resistance. the efficiency is high.
 518 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

The method suffers from many disadvantages : 5. Voltage control by variac. A variac may be
(z) The size of the coil is large when the power used to supply the h.v. transformer. The arrangement
to be handled is large. is simple and is shown in Fig. 17.10. The method has
(zz) Due to non-linear characteristics of the iron the advantage that it gives smooth voltage regulation
core of the choke coil the input voltage from zero to full value of voltage.
waveform is distorted.
(zzz) The power factor of the load is usually
leading as test specimens are insulating
materials and therefore the use of a choke
coil results in an increase in the input voltage
to the transformer with increase in load.
4. Voltage control by tapped transformer.
Figure 17.9 shows the arrangement for voltage
regulation with the help of a tapped transformer. An
inter- mediate regulating transformer is used for the Fig. 17.10 Voltage control by Variac.
purpose of tappings. The primary winding of the
tapped transformer is supplied from a l.v. supply. The 6. Voltage control by induction regulators. An
secondary winding of this transformer is provided induction regulator may be used to give a smooth
with a number of tappings with the help of which the voltage regulation. The voltage is varied by changing
voltage fed to primary of the h.v. testing transformer the position of secondary winding with respect to
can be varied. In order to avoid surges due to sudden primary winding. The connections are shown in
opening of secondary circuit of regulating transformer Fig. 17.11. If the primary and secondary windings of
when the tapping switch is moved, two contact an induction regulator have equal number of turns,
brushes are used which make contacts with adjacent the voltage supplied to the primary winding of the
tapping points. A buffer resistor or a reactance coil is high voltage transformer can be varied from zero to
used between the two contact brushes to prevent the 2 E where E is the induced voltage of each winding of
short-circuiting of a portion of the secondary winding induction regulator.
by the brushes.

Fig. 17.9 Voltage control by a tapped transformer. Fig. 17.11 Voltage control by induction regulator.

In order to obtain smooth voltage regulation a The advantages of this method are :
large number of tappings should be used. The
(z) It gives a gradual and a smooth voltage
advantages of this method are :
regulation.
(z) It has a high efficiency.
(zz) It can be used for all loads and power factors.
(zz) It gives a very small distortion of voltage
(zzz) Voltage waveform distortion can be avoided
waveform.
by using a carefully designed induction
The disadvantages are : regulator.
(z) The voltage regulation is not smooth unless (m) This method of voltage regulation is
a large number of tappings is used. particularly suited for cable testing
(zz) The equipment becomes expensive if the equipment owing to its adaptability for any
power to be handled is large. load.
High Voltage Measurements and Testing 519

17.3 CONTROL GEAR AND PROTECTIVE DEVICES The protective devices on the high voltage side of
the test transformer are :
The primary side of the high voltage transformer
is provided with : (?) Protective resistances. When the specimen
under test or sphere gap breaks down, voltage surges
(z) Main switch. It is required to isolate the testing are produced. In order to protect the high voltage
apparatus from the supply. transformer from the effects of these surges a high
(zz) Fuses. resistance or a choke is connected in series with the
secondary winding of h.v. transformer. The resistance
(zzz) Automatic circuit breaker. It is used to
is about 0.5 Q/V.
protect the testing apparatus from damage in case of
failure of supply. It is provided with a no volt coil so (z’z) Sphere gaps. A sphere gap is connected
that it automatically trips if the supply goes off. across the high voltage transformer. In case of over
voltage, the sphere gap breaks down and thus
(z’v) Over-voltage relay. It is used to protect the bypasses the surge. In order to prevent pitting of
apparatus from the effects of over voltages. This relay sphere gaps, a resistance is used to limit the current at
short circuits the no volt coil of the circuit breaker in breakdown. This resistance is about 1 ohm per volt so
case of over voltage and therefore the latter trips that the current is limited to 1 ampere at breakdown.
automatically isolating the apparatus from the Some difficulties arise in H.V. testing at power
supply.
frequencies and these are primarily due to corona effect.
(u) Interlocks. The interlocking arrangements are Corona. This is a phenomenon which occurs
used : when the voltage gradient at the surface of a high
(a) to ensure that the primary winding of h.v. voltage conductor exceeds the breakdown strength of
air. This results in ionization of surrounding air
testing transformer is switched on to a low
accompanied by a faint glow and hissing sound.
voltage,
Corona results in power loss and distortion of
(b) to make it impossible for the operator to waveform. Thus it influences the breakdown and
enter the h.v. testing enclosure while the flash-over voltages on account of surges in the circuit
supply is on. This is in the form of a gate and because of presence of ionized air in the test room.
switch. The supply to the primary winding
Steps should be taken to eliminate corona as far as
of h.v. testing transformer is through a gate
possible. Since the voltage gradient at the surface
operated switch. When the gate is open, the
decreases as the diameter increases, the conductors
switch is off and therefore the operator can
used in high voltage circuits should be made much
safely go inside the enclosure.
more larger in size than is necessitated by current
(yi) Earthing. All the metal parts which should carrying considerations. Also care should be taken to
be at earth potential must be earthed. This includes avoid sharp bends and small radii of curvature.
transformer tanks, metal framework of switchgear, Figure 17.12 shows a simple diagram of
enclosure and one end of each transformer connections of a high voltage testing set up using a
winding. separate alternator.

Fig. 17.12 Circuit for h.v. testing at power frequencies.

 520 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

17.4 EQUIPMENT FOR VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT Another method of improving the uniformity of
The high voltages encountered in practice involve the field is to insert, between the main plates, a series
a large range of frequencies extending from zero in the of intermediate electrodes. A capacitance divider, thus
case of d.c. to very high frequencies of surges caused formed, preserves a uniform distribution of voltage
by lightning. Most methods of measurement of high between plates.
voltages described in the following pages are suitable An inherent feature of these instruments is the
for measurement at comparatively low frequencies. tendency for the electrostatic force to make the disc
However, some of them give satisfactory results even unstable so that an adequate elastic or electromagnetic
for surge frequencies. force trying to keep the disc in coplanar position is
The methods of measurement of voltage are necessary. Also when alternating voltages are being
divided into two categories : measured, care must be exercised to ensure that the
forced vibrations due to pulsating component of force,
(?) Methods used for measurement of rms values of
are minimized.
voltage. We are interested in measurement of
rms values of voltage because not only they The electrostatic force is usually balanced by an
have a direct bearing on the dielectric losses, opposing gravitational or electro-magnetic force. The
but through internal heating they have a lack of balance can be detected by the displacement of
close connection with dielectric constant also. the disc from its coplanar position and therefore very
sensitive methods of measuring displacement are
(n) Methods of measurement of peak values of
required in order to achieve a high degree of accuracy.
voltage. The measurement of peak values of
Automatic adjustment of balance can be done through
voltage is also necessary because of the fact
a servo-loop, the actuating signal is obtained from the
that the actual breakdown or flash-over of
output of the displacement detector. A disc may be
the specimen under test is dependent upon
loaded with a weight of approximately 90 g, or
the peak value of the applied voltage.
alternatively 360 g, corresponding to the attractive
17.4.1 Measurement of R.M.S. Values of Voltage forces on the disc at electrostatic stresses of 5 kV/mm
and 10 kV/mm and a servo-system adjusts the
1. Electrostatic Voltmeters electrode spacing till the appropriate stress is
These instruments have been described in details obtained. The voltage is then read directly from a
in chapter 9, page 282. The following instruments may micrometer scale which indicates the spacing between
be used for measuring rms values of high voltages. the electrodes.
(/) Attracted disc voltmeter. At high voltages, the Alternatively, with a given electrode spacing the
design of the attracted disc voltmeter becomes servo-system can be arranged to adjust the current in a
difficult. A large spacing between plates is necessary coil coupled to the disc. This current produces an
in order to avoid flash-over and corona. electromagnetic force which balances the electrostatic
The simple expression for voltage given by Eqn. 9.84 force and in addition stabilizes the disc powerfully in
(page 286) does not hold good and corrections have to the coplanar position. The electromagnetic system is
gravitationally calibrated.
be applied.
(n) Attracted sphere voltmeter. The tremendous
In order to overcome the above difficulty, an
classical theoretical analysis of the electrostatic field
absolute high voltage attracted disc voltmeter has
between two spherical electrodes has led to the
been evolved by making use of gas at high pressure or
development of Attracted Sphere Voltmeters. The
a high vacuum, in the region between plates. Both the
voltage measurement is based upon measurement of
designs make it possible to reach high field intensities electrostatic force between two spheres. A wide
than with air at atmospheric pressure ; consequently variety of sphere voltmeters has been produced
the spacing between the plates can be decreased with wherein forces amounting to 4.2 to 7.5 N are produced
no resultant side effects. with direct voltages which will flash over gaps of
In high vacuum, for example, a voltage difference 100 mm and 500 mm between spheres of 1 m diameter.
of 300 kV requires a spacing of only 3 cm. At the same The attractive forces between the spheres can be
time, however, the small spacing reduces the measured with a stiff elastic support. The errors
tolerances in flatness and parallelism of the plates. involved are less than 1% for voltages as high as 1 MV.
Moreover the attracted electrode needs close Another method of measuring the electrostatic
adjustment to the plane of guard ring. force is to observe the change produced in the period
High Voltage Measurements and Testing 521

of oscillation of one of the spheres, swinging over a This method assumes that the ratio of transfor­
small arc. The voltage is proportional to mation remains the same (= ri) irrespective of the load
and power factor on the secondary side. Owing to this
VF? reason, the method though simple, gives wrong results.
where f = oscillating frequency with applied
voltage,
and f0 = oscillating frequency without applied
voltage.
The values of f and f do not differ greatly as the
restoring force is gravitational in nature. However, by
using a rigid pendulum, the mass of the sphere can be
counter-balanced. The value of f is, therefore, reduced
nearly to zero so that frequency of oscillations, f, is ..A'""' '.

approximately proportional to the applied voltage. Fig. 17.13 Measurement of rms voltage by
(zzz) Oscillating ellipsoid voltmeter. This is transformer ratio method.
another system for which the attractive force between In some high voltage transformers, a separate
two electrodes can be obtained with a high degree of voltage coil is provided whose voltage is measured
accuracy from the period of oscillation of an electrode. with the help of a low voltage voltmeter. The
The voltage to be measured is applied to a pair of secondary voltage in this case is given by :
discharge free parallel plate pair of electrodes lying in vs=(Ns/Nc).vs
vertical planes and a small conducting electrode of
where N$ = number of turns of the secondary
accurate prolate spheroidal shape is suspended at its
winding,
mid-point by a long unspun silk thread so that it
hangs in the uniform field between the central parts of Nc = number of turns of the coil,
the plates with its long axis horizontal. When a voltage and Vc = Voltage across the coil.
is applied an electrostatic field is produced due to This method cannot be used for cascade arrangement
which charges of opposite polarity and of calculable of transformers. It gives an accuracy of 1 to 2 percent.
magnitude accumulate on the two ends of the
The advantage of this system lies in its
ellipsoid. The ellipsoid, therefore, tends to align its
convenience as a means of taking continuous reading
long axis along the direction of the field. The ellipsoid
after being calibrated by comparison with one of the
oscillates about its final position on account of the
direct systems of measurements.
moment of inertia. The controlling torque produced
by the silk thread is very small. Therefore frequency of 3. Potential Divider Methods
oscillations is approximately proportional to the
In this method a potential divider is connected
applied voltage. The constant of proportionality can
across the secondary winding (high voltage winding)
be calculated from the mass and dimensions of the
of high voltage testing transformer and a definite
ellipsoid and the geometry of the plate electrodes.
fraction of secondary voltage is measured by a low
The disadvantage of the ellipsoid voltmeter is that voltage electrostatic voltmeter. A C.R.O is used to
the average electrostatic stress is much smaller than
obtain records of peak values of surge voltages.
that which can be obtained when either attracted disc
or attracted sphere voltmeters are used. This is on Two types of potential divider arrangements are used:
account of the concentration of the stress at the tips of (z) Resistance potential divider, and
the ellipsoid. (zz) Capacitance potential divider.
2. Transformer Ratio Method Both these potential divider methods have been
In this method the primary voltage of the high described in Chapter 9 (see pages 286).
voltage testing transformer is measured with a low We should use these methods only when either :
voltage voltmeter (Fig. 17.13) and the secondary (a) the connection of the low voltage voltmeter
voltage is obtained as : has negligible effect on the voltage distri­
bution, or.
where Vs,V = terminal voltages of secondary (F) appropriate allowance for low voltage
and primary windings respectively. voltmeter impedance is made in computing
n = turns ratio. the potential divider ratio.
 522 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

(i) Resistance potential divider. Upto about 10 kV (i) They are simple in construction.
an electrostatic voltmeter can be used successfully (ii) They are free from heating effects.
with an unshielded resistance potential divider with (iii ) They are comparatively free from effects o
resistance units wound on flat insulating sheets. stray magnetic fields and can be easily
However, for voltages above 10 kV, resistance shunted.
potential divider requires careful electrostatic
shielding to minimise stray capacitance effects. For
ideal shielding each point on the resistance should be
shielded at its own potential, but in practice it is
possible only to divide the total resistance Into a
number of equal sections each at its average potential.
Figure 17.14 shows an arrangement where the shield
potentials are correctly maintained by an auxiliary
potential divider.
Main potential voltmeter

Fig. 17.15 Capacitance potential divider.

Capacitance of standard capacitor should be

accurately known and the capacitor should be free
from dielectric loss. Air capacitors are usually used
with capacitances ranging from 50 pF to 100 pF.
(ii i) Compensated capacitive potential dividers.
For any particular frequency a capacitance potential
Auxiliary Electrostatic
potential voltmeter divider should have a ratio and phase angle
divider independent of the load connected on the secondary
Fig. 17.14 Resistance potential divider.
side. This is achieved by connecting an inductance L in
series with the load as shown in Fig. 17.16.
(n) Capacitance potential divider. This
arrangement is shown in Fig. 17.15. In this method an
electrostatic voltmeter having a capacitance Cv is
connected in parallel with a capacitor C2 and the
combination is connected in series with a standard
capacitor across the high voltage winding of testing
transformer :
Let Vs = voltage of the h.v. winding,
and v = voltage across the voltmeter
V = C1 + C2 + Cvv

s Q
Now if C2 is very large as compared to C^,
17 ^"1 + ^"2
Vs=~L^V

Since the capacitance Cv of voltmeter varies with

deflection therefore the capacitance C2 of capacitor
which shunts the voltmeter is made large in order that
Fig. 17.16 Compensation for constant voltage
the effects of variation of capacitance of voltmeter are ratio irrespective of load.
swamped as is clear from the above expression.
(a) No load conditions. Figure 17.16(a) represents
The use of capacitance potential divider as
the no load conditions and the voltage ratio is,
compared to resistance potential for use at high
voltage has the following advantages : Vs/v = (C1 + C2)/C1
High Voltage Measurements and Testing

Suppose ZL is the impedance of the load connected moving iron or electrodynamometer milliammeters
on the secondary side as shown in Fig. 17.16(D). The for measurements of voltages upto 100 kV. Moving
requirement that transformation ratio V / v remains coil instrument is useful for d.c. only while the others
the same irrespective of the load on the secondary are used for measurement of rms values of a.c. voltages.
winding, the value of inductance L should be such that
it gives resonance with CT and C2 in parallel.
or oj2L= 1/(C1 + C2)
This is explained as under :
At load, V = 2 (I1 + I2) _ JL
coC1 coC2
Voltage across load
T7 r-f(L+i9) Fig. 17.17 Measurement of voltage by
r=vi- -- y 2 standard impedance method.
5. Potential Transformer Method
i,
- L + coL L Modern potential transformers have accuracies
wC2 1 comparable with those of good potential dividers. In
.'.Voltage ratio comparison with potential dividers they have the
advantages that:
(?) the indicating instrument is isolated from
the high voltage circuit,
(zz) within limits, the instrument impedance has
negligible effect on the ratio of transfor­
qtq + C2)+I2C2 mation.
For measurement of very high voltages two stage
q [i1 + i2co2lc2] reduction by means of a combination of a potential
Substituting the value of divider and potential transformer proves very useful.
cd £ = 1/(^4- C2)in the above expression Potential transformers may be used with electro­
V [I1(C1 + C2)+I2C9](C1 + C2) dynamometer, moving iron, or electrostatic instru­
v C1[I1(C1 + C2)+I2C2] ments for measurement of rms values of a.c. voltages
upto 200 kV.
_ q + c2
The range may be extended by capacitor potential
transformers (see Art. 10.6.7 page 335)
, . V Ct + q
or voltage ratio — = —----- -
v q 17.4.2 Measurement of Peak Values of Voltages
1. Transformer ratio method. The measurement
This is the same value of ratio as we obtain on no load.
of rms value of voltage with this method has already
4. Standard Impedance Methods been explained. In order that the peak value of
A standard high impedance is connected across secondary voltage be measured, we must determine
the terminals of the high voltage winding. The the secondary voltage waveform. From the voltage
impedance may be a standard air capacitor or a high waveform the crest factor is evaluated.
_ . l peak voltage
resistance. The current flowing through the impedance Crest factor = ------------- —
may be measured by a thermocouple ammeter rms voltage
(Fig. 17.17) by measuring voltage across a known or peak voltage of secondary winding
resistance ; using an electro- static voltmeter or by = crest factor x nV
using a valve voltmeter.
where V? = rms voltage of primary winding,
Secondary voltage Vs = i x Z
and n = ratio of secondary to primary winding
where Z = impedance connected across the h.v. turns.
winding terminals
Sphere gaps. The breakdown voltage of a
2.
The impedance may be a series resistor. Series spark gap between two metal spheres may be used as
resistors are used in conjunction with moving coil, a measure of voltages upto the highest encountered in
 524 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

high voltage testing. The normal arrangement consists Advantages :

of two equal sized, polished aluminium or
(i) The sphere gaps may be conveniently used
(aluminium alloy) spheres separated by an air gap.
for determination of peak value of a voltage
The spheres are usually mounted vertically one above
wave. Their main use is for calibration of
the other, with the lower sphere earthed. The
voltmeters and voltage measuring devices
arrangement for voltage measurement with sphere for high voltage tests.
gaps is shown in Fig. 17.18. The voltage between the
(ii) The method is simple and peak voltages may
spheres is raised till a spark passes between the two
be measured from about 2 to 2500 kV by
spheres. The value of voltage required to spark over
getting a spark over and then referring to the
(breakdown) depends upon the dielectric strength of
calibration tables.
air, the size of spheres, the distance between the
spheres and many other factors. (Ui) Sphere gaps may also be used for measure­
ment of voltage in surge (impulse) tests.
(iv) Method of voltage measurement with sphere
gaps is cheap, simple and reliable.
Disadvantages

(i) The sphere gaps do not give a continuous

record of voltage.
(ii) Voltage measurements carried out by sphere
gaps can be relied upon to be accurate within
2-3% provided suitable precautions are
taken. This is not a high accuracy in
comparison with other electrical measure­
ments. However even this accuracy is
acceptable owing to difficult conditions of
working in high voltage testing.
Precautions :

(i) Ionization of air gap depresses the spark

over voltage and therefore ultra-violet or
other ionization radiation should be avoided.
However, in high frequency work this small
Typical vertical sphere-gap, S, showing limiting ionization has an advantage and this may be
dimensions of components and clearances,
provided by mild corona on high voltage
D = sphere gap diameter, cables or from a remote source of ultra-violet
P = sparking point of H.V. sphere radiation.
A = Distance of P to earth plane,
(ii) In order to avoid pitting of spheres, a current
B = radius of space around P free from external structures.
limiting resistance of 1 ohm per volt may be
Fig. 17.18 Measurement of voltage with sphere gaps. inserted in the sphere gap circuit.
(Ui) After testing, the spheres should be properly
Calibration tables have been compiled on the
cleaned to remove any extraneous matter.
basis of experimental work with different sizes of
spheres, different gap lengths at specified conditions (iv) The spheres should not be highly polished.
of pressure and temperature. The breakdown voltages (v) No conductor or body having a conducting
corresponding to actual working conditions may be surface (except the supporting shanks) shall
directly read off from the calibration tables. However, be near the sparking-point of the h.v. sphere
corrections must be applied for temperature and than the distance given by the expression
pressure conditions. 0.25 + V/300 m where V is the voltage in kV
(peak) which is to be measured.
These calibration tables give the rms values of
spark-over voltages. To obtain peak voltages from (vi) The time interval between consecutive flash
results given in the tables the rms values must be overs should be large enough to avoid
multiplied by -72. appreciable heating of spheres.
High Voltage Measurements and Testing 525

3. Rectified capacitor charging current method. v = Vm sin cot where V)n is the peak voltage.
This method depends upon the fact that the average Charging current at any instant
charging current of a standard air capacitor is V
proportional to the peak voltage. This charging i= - sin (cof + it / 2) = V wC cos (of
1 / (oC m
current is rectified and its average value is then
measured by a permanent magnet moving coil Referring to Fig. 17.20, average charging current
milliammeter or a d'Arsonval galvanometer.
Figure 17.19 shows the circuit for measurement of 2 t/4
J ^„wCcos(ofrff = 4Vm/C
peak voltage. C is a high voltage compressed gas
1 0
capacitor across which practically whole of the high
voltage is dropped. Specially designed rectifiers may
v T-
be used for the rectification of alternating currents. A
is the milliammeter for measurement of average
charging current. Thus V„=l„,/4Cf ...(17.1)

Standard Equation 17.1 gives the value of peak voltage if

capacitor, C the value of capacitance and frequency and average
current are known.
The method is accurate for sine waves provided
that the impedance of the rectifier is negligibly small
as compared with that of the capacitor.
The method is satisfactory for all wave-shapes
with the exception of:
(z) wave-shapes with different positive and
negative maxima, and
(iz) wave-shapes with more than one-peak in
each half cycle.
Example 17.1 A permanent magnet moving coil
ammeter indicates 20 mA when connected to opposite
corners of a bridge rectifier. The other two corners of the
Fig. 17.19 Rectified capacitor charging
current method. bridge rectifier are connected to a secondary of a 50 Hz high
voltage transformer through a 707 pF capacitor. Calculate
Suppose the impedance of rectifier is negligible as the peak value of the voltage assuming it to be sinusoidal.
compared with that of capacitor. Therefore the impe­
Solution. From Eqn. 17.1, peak voltage of
dance offered to the path of current is on account of secondary of h.v. transformer,
capacitor only and thus the charging current leads the
applied voltage by 90°. Let v be the voltage at any V = av
instant. m ACf
20xl0~3
----- V = V2 xlOOkV
4 x 707 x 10"12 x 50

4. Ryall crest voltmeter. Figure 17.21 shows a

simplified arrangement of measuring Crest (Peak)
voltage with Ryall Crest Transformer Voltmeter. It
consists of two capacitors C1 and C2 connected in
series across the high voltage winding of the test
transformer. Capacitor C1 is variable while C2 is fixed.
The capacitance of variable capacitor C} is very large
as compared to that of C2 with the result that almost
the entire voltage is across capacitor C,.
A neon lamp of special type is connected across
Fig. 17.20 Time diagram of Fig 17.19. the variable capacitor Cr Neon lamps have the
 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

property that they commence to glow when the potential gradient rises above a critical value. Thus
voltage applied to them reaches a definite value called peak voltage of the measured supply must exceed the
a.c. striking voltage. critical voltage for part of a cycle before an indication
is obtained. The part of the cycle where voltage is more
than the critical is only effective in the cooling
[see Fig.l7.22(b)]. It follows that the instrument is not a
true peak voltmeter and a knowledge of waveform is
essential in order to determine the value of peak voltage.

Fig. 17.21 Ryall crest voltmeter.

In this method the capacitance of capacitor Cj is

gradually reduced so that there is an increased voltage
across it. This voltage is increased until the lamp
strikes. Then the peak voltage is given by :
( C
Vm = Vacs 1 + -1
p ',

where Vfl£S = a.c. striking voltage of the neon lamp.

This voltmeter has the advantage that its
indication is independent of the frequency. It can be
designed to read upto 150 kV.
5. Ionic wind voltmeter. The principle on which
this voltmeter works is given below : When the stress
at a highly charged electrode in a given gas exceeds
the ionization value, the ions so produced are repelled
by high intensity field. During their movement the
ions collide with the uncharged molecules and set
them in motion away from the point, giving-rise to an Fig. 17.22 Ionic wind voltmeter.
ionic wind.
The principal advantages of this voltmeter are :
Figure 17.22(a) shows the set up of the voltmeter. A
(z) The high voltage may be measured by an
hot wire of platinum gold alloy is included in one arm
observer at some distance from the charged
of the Wheatstone bridge. This wire also forms the
conductor.
earthed electrode of the voltmeter. The bridge
network is balanced initially. The high voltage to be (zz) It is robust in construction.
measured is applied to the voltmeter and this starts an (zzz) Its indications are free from disturbances,
ionic wind which is directed on to the hot wire. The weather and temperature conditions. So it
hot wire cools and therefore its resistance changes. can be used for outdoor work also. These
This causes an appreciable out of balance voltage to voltmeters are used upto 300 kV.
appear in the bridge network and this is indicated by 17.4.3 Measurement of D.C. Voltages
the galvanometer. The cooling and hence the
Most of the methods described in the preceding
galvanometer deflection depends upon the potential
paragraphs are suitable for measurement on high
gradient (applied voltage), the temperature of the
voltage d.c. and a.c. systems but for a few exceptions.
electrode, the nature and pressure of the gas and upon The methods employing capacitance potential dividers,
the frequency. potential transformers or the capacitor charging
Apart from a small initial cooling effect due to current method and also transformer ratio method
convection, the main cooling action starts when the cannot be used for d.c. measurements.
High Voltage Measurements and Testing 527

Resistance potential dividers can be used. The complications with use of high frequencies and there­
series resistance method is also satisfactory when a fore normally alternators are used to supply power at
high resistance is used in series with a current 50 Hz which is converted into d.c. by rectifiers.
operated d.c. instrument. The rectifying circuits commonly used are shown
in Figs. 17.24 to 17.27.
17.4.4 Measurement of Instantaneous Voltage
High voltage cathode ray oscilloscope with
suitable potential divider where necessary, is used for
measurement of instantaneous values. A treatment of
cathode ray oscilloscope is given in Chapter 21.

17.5 LOW FREQUENCY H.V. TESTS

Figure 17.23 shows the arrangement for sustained
low frequency H.V. testing.

Fig. 17.24 Rectifying circuit.

Fig. 17.25 Rectifying circuit.

potentiometer

Fig. 17.23 Sustained low frequency high

voltage testing.

17.6 HIGH VOLTAGE D.C. TESTING

In addition to the equipment required for low Fig. 17.26 Rectifying circuit.
frequency tests, a source for generation of d.c. is
required for high voltage d.c. testing.
Generation of d.c. at high voltage by rotating
electrical machines is not possible owing to limitations
imposed by commutator and commutation
conditions. Therefore high voltage d.c. is always
obtained by rectification of alternating currents.
Electronic oscillators working at 30-100 kHz may be
used to feed the rectifiers upto a voltage of 50 kV as
use of high frequency a.c. reduces the size of high
Fig
* 17.27 Rectifying circuit.
voltage transformer. But there are some extra
 523 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

For the sake of clarity many essential parts of the Therefore the rectifier charges the capacitor Cj to a
rectifying equipment like smoothing circuits, voltage + Vm. The voltage of the end 'a' of transformer
protective resistors to limit the current during winding varies between + V and -V with respect to
breakdown of test specimen have not been shown. earth and therefore the voltage of point A oscillates
Figure 17.24 shows a single phase half wave between 0 and +2 V with respect to earth E.
circuit. Figure 17.25 shows a bi-phase half wave Nov/ if we connect a capacitor C2 as shown in
circuit. Figure 17.26 shows a full wave circuit and Fig. 17.28(b), this capacitor will be charged to a voltage
Fig. 17.27 shows a voltage doubler circuit. +2Vm through rectifier 2.
For high voltage working these circuits require The complete Cockcroft-Wal ton circuit is shown
many special constructional features particularly with in Fig. 17.29. It is in fact a cascade connection. As the
regards to the insulation problem. potential of A varies between zero and +2 Vm, F being
In the circuits shown the capacitor charges upto at a steady potential of +2 V the voltage applied to
peak of the voltage applied across it. It is prevented capacitor C3 via rectifier if C3 were uncharged would
from discharging through the transformer by the vary between zero and +2 Vm. Thus C3 charges upto
the peak of this voltage i.e., +2 V)n. The potential of B
rectifier but can discharge through the load (which is
therefore oscillates between +2-Vm and +4Vm. This
represented by a resistance).
gives a voltage of +2 Vm across C4, as F is already at a
These circuits are used upto a voltage of 100 kV or potential of +2V Thus C4 charges to a steady
more in some cases. potential of +2 V. The potential of G with respect to
earth becomes +4Vm. The portion BCHG of the circuit
17.7 COCKCROFT WALTON CIRCUIT
is a 3rd stage and output of the whole circuit is +6V„r
This circuit is used to get very high voltage a.c. For an n stage circuit, the output voltage would be
supply without using high voltage transformer of +2 n Vm. Therefore if we go on adding stages, higher
more than 100 kV rating. and higher voltages can be obtained.
Let us consider the circuit shown in Fig. 17.28(a).
The peak voltage on H.V. side of the high voltage
transformer is V.

Fig. 17.29 Cockcroft Walton circuit.

17.8 HIGH VOLTAGE D.C. TESTING OF CABLES

Figure 17.30 shows a circuit for cable testing.
Current passes for only one half wave of the cycle.
During this time the capacitor formed by cable cores
and sheath is charged to a potential V i.e., the peak
voltage of secondary winding of h.v. transformer.
During the next half cycle, the potential of this cable
capacitor remains the same and the potential of
cathode rises to V in the other direction and therefore
Fig. 17.28 Basics of Cockcroft Walton circuit. the rectifier must be designed to withstand a voltage
of2Vm.
High Voltage Measurements and Testing 529

The charging and leakage currents are indicated Figure 17.32 shows the connections for testing a 3
by a milliammeter as shown. A resistance of about core cable with two rectifiers.
0.25 MQ is connected in the anode circuit for
protection against surge effects.

Fig. 17.32 High voltage d.c. test on cable upto

200 kV using 2 rectifiers.
A voltage of 2 V is obtained between the cores
and Vm between cores and earth.
For testing a single core cable, a voltage doubler
Fig. 17.30 High voltage d.c. test on 3 core cable. circuit is used as shown in Fig. 17.33. The cables are
usually tested in the field and therefore these testing
Three core cables are tested by two other sets for field duty are made portable. A small engine
connections as shown in Figs. 17.31(a) and 17.31(b). driven alternator is used for supplying the l.v.
For tests upto 200 kV, two rectifiers are used. winding of the high voltage testing transformer. The
voltage regulation is done by an auto transformer and
fine adjustments are done by a choke coil connected in
series with the primary winding (l.v.) circuit. The
voltage is measured with an electrostatic voltmeter. A
sphere gap is also used alongside.

Fig. 17.33 High voltage d.c. test on cables using

voltage doubler circuit.

The testing circuit should be protected from

voltage surges which cause breakdown of apparatus.
Therefore care should be taken to increase the voltage
gradually and to discharge the cable through a high
resistance after the test. The discharging connection
should be maintained for a considerably long period
in order to avoid subsequent rise of voltage of cable
which may result owing to dielectric absorption.

17.8.1 Equivalence of D.C. & A.C. Test Voltage

* (b) Owing to the "electric osmosis" effect, any
moisture, which may exist within the cable dielectric,
Fig- 17.31 High voltage d.c. test on 3 core cable.
 530 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

tends to move towards the negatively charged Table 17.2 D.C. and A.C. voltaqes for cables
electrode (the sheath or one of the cores, depending Standard test Average thick­
Working Voltage Ratio
upon the test), when a d.c. voltage is applied. ness of
Voltage D.C./A.C
Although the amount of such moisture is usually A.C. D.C. dielectric
small, it may yet be sufficient to cause breakdown due 11 kV 20 kV 30 kV 1.5 7.62 mm
to its concentration near the negative electrode. If the
22 kV 44 kV 75 kV 1.71 10.2 mm
applied voltage is alternating no such movement of
moisture occurs, the moisture remaining uniformly 33 kVx ' 66 kV 100 kV 1.52 12.7 mm
distributed. Again, breakdown may occur when
testing cable-samples due to surges which are 17.9 LOCALIZATION OF FAULTS IN
produced by spark-discharge and corona effects at the HIGH VOLTAGE CABLES
cable ends. These effects are more severe with a.c. than The resistance presented by high voltage cable
with d.c. under fault conditions is very high and therefore such
faults cannot be located with accuracy by the methods
For these reasons it is obvious that there are other
already described in chapter 14. In high-voltage cables
considerations beyond mere equivalence of potential
breakdown occurs at the time of application of the
gradient which must determine to what alternating
high voltage especially when the oil in the cable and
voltage a given direct voltage is equivalent from the
cable joints breaks down and therefore presents a low
point of view of insulation breakdown.
resistance. However, when the applied voltage is
N.A. Allen gives a table showing the ratio of d.c. withdrawn, the oil recovers its insulating property and
to a.c. test voltages, quoted by various authorities as the cable again presents high insulation resistance.
giving an equivalent breakdown test upon cables and The fault resistance may be reduced by a continued
dielectrics. For paper-insulated cables, although a application of the high voltage so as to carbonize (or
d.c./a.c. ratio of 2.5 has been used, Allen suggests that burn out) the insulation at the point of the fault. After
a ratio of 1.5 to 2.0 would be more satisfactory. the insulation resistance is so reduced ; ordinary
Owing to the fact, also, that this ratio increases loop-tests may then be applied to determine the
with increasing insulation thickness, he suggests the position of the fault.
adoption of a ratio 1.5 for cables upto 33 kV, and a A more satisfactory method which is generally
ratio of about 2.0 for voltages above this. Table 17.2 adopted is to perform the Murry loop-test at high
gives the d.c./a.c. ratio usually adopted by cable voltage obtained from either half-wave or full-wave
makers. rectifier. Figure 17.34 gives the circuit arrangement for

Fig- 17.34 Localisation of faults in high voltage cables.

High Voltage Measurements and Testing

localization of faults in high-voltage cables. The Undamped high frequency voltages upto a
rectified supply at about 60 kV is obtained from a frequency of 30 kHz may be produced by alternators.
high-vacuum diode. A higher voltage, if desired, may Arc generators can also be used for the purpose but
be obtained with two valves. A step up high voltage they have the disadvantage that smooth voltage
transformer is used to feed the rectifier. A current regulation is not possible.
limiting high resistance and a milliammeter are Usually electronic circuits are used for production
included in the supply circuit for the limitation and of high frequency high voltages. Equipments have
measurement of the fault current respectively. An been developed which give an output of 150 kV and a
electrostatic voltmeter is used to measure the voltage frequency of 100 kHz.
at the junction point of the ratio arms. A loop is made 2. Tests with dumped high frequency oscilla­
connecting together the faulty and sound cables with tions. Figure 17.35 shows a circuit for production of
the help of a short circuiting link. For varying the ratio high frequency damped oscillations. This circuit uses
arms (P, Q) a highly insulated slide-wire, having a a Tesla coil which is in the form of a high voltage
sliding contact which can be operated by a long transformer. The capacitor C;, on the primary side is
insulating handle is used. 'The spark gap is used for
the protection of the galvanometer. The procedure
adopted for the test is detailed below : The circuit is
energised and the tap at the primary of the H.V.
transformer is adjusted to give a low fault current of
the order of 5 mA at the time of break down of the
cable. The bridge is balanced by varying P/Q ratio. The
tap of the primary of H.V. transformer is then changed
to increase the fault current to about 50 mA. The
bridge is rebalanced. It may be mentioned at thp time Fir. 17.35 High frequency high voltage testing.
of break-down, a very large drop of voltage occurs
charged to a potential which causes a trigger gap to
across the protective high resistance and therefore the
breakdown with the result that the capacitor
voltage across the cable is low. However, if the fault
discharges. Due to this discharge, a train of damped
clears, the voltage across the cable would rise
high frequency oscillations is produced in the circuit
suddenly and it is on this account highly insulated containing Cp, trigger gap and the primary of the Tesla
slide-wire is used for the safety of the operator. coil. The charge and discharge of capacitor C takes
The position of the fault can be obtained using place two times in one voltage cycle. Therefore, there
equations given for Murray loop test in Chapter 14. will be 100 trains of frequency oscillations (Fig. 17.36)
(see Eqns. 14.53 and 14.54, on page 446) in a second for a 50 Hz supply.

17.10 HIGH FREQUENCY HIGH VOLTAGE TESTS

It has been explained earlier that the behaviour of
insulating materials working at high frequencies is
different from that at ordinary power frequencies. The
difference is mainly due to increased dielectric loss at
high frequencies. This dielectric loss produces internal
heating with the result that the breakdown strength of Time —>
insulating materials is lower at high frequencies. High
frequency tests are also useful for detection of in Fig. 17.36 Damped high frequency oscillations.
homogeneity in compound filled porcelain insulators.
The frequency of oscillations
Two types of high frequency tests are done :
/=1/(2kL),C|,)Hz
1. Tests with undamped high frequency
oscillations. These tests are done on porcelain This frequency is of the order of 100 kHz. The
insulators used for communication purposes. highest frequency from which any trouble can be
Undamped high frequencies are not encountered in expected in a transmission system is about 80 kHz and
power systems and the insulators used therein are not hence 100 kHz is the maximum frequency required for
subjected to these tests. testing.
 532 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Since the primary winding of the Tesla coil carries Normally 1/50 ps impulse voltages are used for
an oscillatory current, oscillations are induced in the testing. This voltage indicates that it rises to its peak
secondary winding. If the primary and secondary value in 1 ps and falls to 50 percent of its peak value in
windings are tuned i.e., L Cp = LCf the frequency of 50 ps.
oscillations in the secondary winding will be the same 2. Impulse flash-over voltage. 50 percent impulse
as in the primary. flash-over voltage : It is the peak value of that impulse
These damped high frequency oscillations are voltage which causes flashover of the object under test
impressed upon the test specimen as shown in for about half the number of applied impulses.
Fig. 17.35. 3. Impulse puncture voltage. The impulse
A sphere gap is used for voltage measurement puncture voltage is the peak value of that impulse
and a cathode ray oscilloscope may be used to record voltage which causes the puncture of the specimen
the waveform of secondary voltages of the Tesla coil. under test when puncture occurs on wave tail and is
the value of the voltage at the instant of puncture
17.11 SURGE (IMPULSE) TESTING when puncture occurs on the wavefront.
The following terms are defined related to surge 4. Impulse ratio for flashover. The impi
testing. ratio for flashover is the ratio of impulse flash
1. Impulse voltage. An impulse voltage is a voltage to the peak value of power fre
unidirectional voltage which rises rapidly to its flashover voltage.
maximum value and falls more or less rapidly to zero. The impulse ratio for puncture can al.'
An impulse voltage is shown in Fig. 17.37. in a similar manner.

17.11 .1 Basic Impulse Generate

Consider the case of a
generator as shown in Fig.
impulse generators are derived,
charged from an independent d.c. source t, am
discharged through inductance L and resistance R.
The impulse voltage is developed across resistance R.
The capacitor is charged to a voltage E and the switch
Fig. 17.37 Full surge wave.
S is closed and the capacitor discharges through R.L.
If an impulse voltage develops without causing a
flash-over or puncture, it is called a full impulse
voltage. However if a flash-over or a puncture occurs,
it is called a chopped impulse voltage (Fig. 17.38).

Fig. 17.39 Basic impulse generator circuit.

We will be using Heaviside's operational ca

for the analysis.
Voltage across resistance R is :
Fig. 17.38 Chopped surge wave.
v =--------- «---------___________________ El
A full impulse voltage is characterized by two R+pL+l/pC p2LC+pRC + l
time intervals fj and f-> defined below. The impulse
voltage is conveniently expressed as a t1 /12 wave. The solution of the above equation is
Time interval f is the time taken by the impulse
voltage to rise to its peak value and f9 is the time taken
p=W> + y )<■>■»
to fall to 50 percent of its peak value (see Fig. 17.37). N<°) 41...
High Voltage Measurements and Testing 533
Now M(p) = EpCR, Let R=30Q, L = 15pHand C=2pH
M(0)=0, and N(p) = p2LC + pRC + 1 With these values a, b, a and 0 can be calculated.
Differentiating N(p) we have : a=106' b =0.983x 106, a =0.017x 106and0 = 1.983
N'(p)-2pLC + RC v=1.017E(e-0017xl°6'-e-1-983x,(,6f)
The roots of equation p2LC + pRC + 1= 0
and if E = 1000V and t is in ps.
-RC±\Fr2C2-4LC v =1017(c"° 017' -e"1-983')
are Pi P2 = 2LC The wave is plotted in Fig. 17.40. With these
R + [R^ values R, L and C we obtain an approximately
2L~^4L2 =-a ±b 2.4/44 ps wave. By adjustment of parameters R, L and
C any desired wave shape may be obtained.
.'. Voltage across resistance R.
P=W)+ y MWeP' 17.11 .2 Single Stage Impulse Generators
N(°) *-6- PtN'W Impulse generators can be single stage or of
multi-stage construction. The single stage generator
=0+ £PiCRgF1' EftCRe'V
has a simple circuit of the type shown in Fig. 17.41.
pA (2 p} LC + RC) p2 (2 p2 LC + ~RQ This circuit is mainly employed in low voltage
rR( applications.
= E — -------------- +--------------
L\2px + RIL 2p2+R/L; The choice between a single or a multi-stage
generator depends upon the output voltage desired
rL e~(a-b)t e4«+l’)f
= E —---------------------- 1--------------- ------------ and the type of equipment providing d.c. input to the
L{-2(a-b) + R/L -2(a + b)+ R/L generator.
_e~(a+b)t^ Where expense is not the main consideration,
^t_b single stage generators mav be used upto a voltage
*
= E-[e~at -£-
'] output of 200 kV and even higher. However, small d.c.
b J equipments with ratings of 4 kV and 10 kV are
relatively inexpensive so that single stage generators
where a - a - b, and [3 = a + b.
are readily used at these voltages. For that matter
This is a typical exponential wave of (e~at multistage impulse generators with outputs of 100 kV
form. If values of R, L and C are inserted, the shape of are readily made using (say) 10 stages and a charging
wave can be found by plotting.
voltage of 10 kV.
Figure 17.41 shows a 200 V single stage impulse
generator. The design is the same whether the output
voltage is .10 kV or merely 200 V.
The proper single generator circuit is shown by
thick lines.
A transformer supplies a rectifier which may be a
value, a metal or a solid state rectifier. For rectification
any of the circuits shown in Figs. 17.24 to 17.27 may be
used. Resistance R} between charging equipment and
generator circuit is a limiting resistance which is used
to protect the rectifiers against damage when switch is
closed.
The voltage across the capacitor is measured by
an electrostatic voltmeter.
The recording equipment (C.R.O. etc.) may be
directly connected if the generator voltage is low. In
case the generator voltage is high, connections for
recording purposes must be taken through a potential
Fig. 17.40 A 2.4/44 ps surge wave. divider arrangement.
 534 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Fig. 17.41 Single stage impulse generator.

17.11 .3 Multi-stage Impulse Generator

The origin of the multi-stage impulse generator circuit in which capacitors are charged in parallel and
discharged in series is due to Prof. Marx. A Marx circuit (with modifications by Goodlet) is shown in Fig. 17.42.

Fig. 17.42 Marx circuit.

Cj,C2,C3... are capacitors which are connected in parallel with highest resistances and rlzr2... etc.
between them g0,g1,g2 are the trigger spark gaps.
The capacitors are charged, in parallel, from a high voltage transformer through a rectifying device. At a
certain voltage depending upon their setting, the gaps break down and connect the capacitors in series.
The operation of the circuit is explained below :

Fig. 17.43 Charging circuit.

The gaps g0,g]zg2 etc. are set to spark one after another. Gap gQ sparks when the charging voltage has
attained a voltage + E. All the capacitors will therefore charge in parallel through the resistors shown until they
reach a potential of + E. Their lower plates are at earth potential because of their connection to ground through
resistances.
 g
High Voltage Measurements and Testing

As soon as a voltage + £ is attained, gap g() breaks down and there is momentary redistribution of charge
potential on capacitor C.. Its top plate falls to zero potential and its lower plate potential becomes -£ suddenly.
Therefore a potential of 2 £ (i.e., -E to +£) suddenly appears across gap g] and this gap then instantly breaks
down. This process is repeated, the potential of lower plates of capacitors of successive stages becoming
-2E,-3E,...,-nE, if there are n stages.
Thus if there are n stages, output voltage is -n£ if the charging (input) voltage is + £. Figures 17.43 and 17.44
show the charging and discharging circuits respectively.
/4 rl B r2 c r3 £ r4 E
__ AAA____ . __ AAA __ AAA
• t___VVv
AAA._
Ci C2 c5
H H ‘ II

F < .____ AAA____ , .___ AAA___ . VVV

.____Wv
AAA.__ ».__ 'VW
AAA.__ •
<>
7/ < 7/ £
*3 *4 J R5 L

Fig. 17.44 Discharging circuit.

17.11.4 Impulse Testing of Transformers

The impulse voltages at which transformers are tested are specified in the IS specifications. The impulse test
voltage depends upon the rated voltage of the transformers.
The procedure for testing is as follows :
1. Prior to application of surge, the impulse generator is adjusted to give required "1/50" gs wave at 75%
of required test voltage. The lightning arrester, the voltage measuring equipment and recording
devices are connected in circuit. From these calibrations, the generator settings for actual tests are
estimated and during tests, no change is made in any part of the circuit.
2. For full wave tests, the generator is set to give full test voltage (specified) and lightning arrester is
disconnected to prevent flashover.
3. For chopped wave tests the lightning arrester is connected in circuit, and to insure that it chops on the
tail of the wave, the impulse generator is set to give 15% in excess of specified test voltage. Two shots
are taken.
4. Another full wave shot is taken.
During impulse test, observations are made to detect the failure of insulation (it is done by taking
oscillograms of applied voltage and impulse current).
In Europe chopped wave tests are not done. Impulse tests are only type tests and are done by specific
agreement between manufacturer and purchaser. Although when a transformer is made according to new
specifications it has to stand an impulse test.

17.12 TESTING OF INSULATING MATERIALS

The dielectric strength of an insulating material may be defined as the minimum voltage gradient at which
electrical failure or breakdown occurs under prescribed conditions. Though breakdown of insulation may be
caused by leakage current, it is generally caused by voltage stress exceeding the dielectric strength of the
material. The dielectric strength is expressed in terms of voltage per unit thickness.
There are wide variations of dielectric strength as it varies with the following factors :
(i) structure homogeneity and quality of sample,
(if) shape of electrodes,
(iii) thickness of sample,
(iv) waveform of test voltage and duration and rate of application of voltage,
(v) moisture content of specimen, and
(vi) heat capacity of electrodes.
 536 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Dielectric strength is not proportional to higher than the flash-over voltage. This means that in
thickness, but is relatively greater for thin sheets. It is case of a sudden over-voltage, the air at insulator
also a function of time of application, being greater surface breaks down earlier and thus the insulator is
lesser is the time. not punctured and is saved from total destruction.
Measurements of capacitance, permittivity, Therefore flash-over tests are very important in the
dielectric loss and loss angle of insulating materials is case of porcelain insulators.
very important. These measurements are usually The flash-over voltage for an insulator depends
made at high voltages. All these quantities vary with upon :
voltages used for measurements and for some (z) barometric pressure,
applications values measured at low voltages are of
(z’z) temperature,
no use at all. Schering Bridge explained on page 489
(zzz) shape of the electrostatic field,
is normally used for determination of these
quantities. (zu) humidity,
(u) nature of contact between electrodes and
17.13 HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING OF CABLES insulator.
The tests carried out in the field after the installa­ The various flash-over tests applied are :
tion of cables have been explained earlier in this (z) 50 percent dry impulse flash-over tests with
chapter. Here we will describe some acceptance tests 1/50 ps impulse voltage.
which convince the customer about the reliability of (zz) Dry flash-over.and dry one minute test. In this
the cable when put in service. The dielectric loss and test the voltage is gradually raised to a
loss angle of a cable rather than its breakdown specified value in approximately 10 seconds
strength are an index of its reliability in service. and is maintained for one minute. The
Therefore measurements of these quantities is voltage is then gradually raised until a
essential. flash-over occurs.
It has been found that the dielectric loss in a cable (zzz) Wet flash-over and one minute rain test. During
is not proportional to square of the voltage as is the this test the insulator is sprayed constantly
case in most dielectrics. Also the loss angle of a cable with water and the same procedure as for
does not remain constant. The dielectric loss increases dry flash-over and dry one minute test is
in proportion to some power of voltage greater than followed.
second and the power factor rises with voltage. 3. Sample tests. These include mechanical tests,
Therefore measurements of loss angles with temperature cycle tests, porosity tests, puncture tests
different voltages is made and a curve plotted etc.
between loss angle and voltage. The curve should be
4. Routine tests. These tests are applied to all
flat and if there are variations in the loss angle, the
the insulators. The insulators are initially subjected to
cable will not work satisfactorily. Also the loss angle
a low voltage which is rapidly increased till a
should not change very much with temperature.
flash-over occurs every few seconds. The voltage is
Breakdown tests of the cables with voltages applied
maintained at this value for a minimum of 5 minutes
for different intervals of time are also done and time
or if failure occurs, for five minutes after the last
versus breakdown voltage curves are plotted.
punctured piece has been removed. The voltage is
17.14 HIGH VOLTAGE TESTS ON PORCELAIN gradually reduced to |rd of its value before supply is
switched off.
INSULATORS
The following tests are applied to porcelain The porcelain insulators used for communication
purposes are tested with high frequency undamped
insulators :
oscillations.
1. Power frequency tests. The frequency used is
between 25 to 100 Hz of approximately sinusoidal 17.15 TESTING OF ELECTRIC STRENGTH
waveform with peak value of voltage not to exceed OF INSULATING OILS
1.45 times the rms value. An extract of IS specifications 6792-1972 "Method
2. Flashover tests. Porcelain insulators are for determination of Electric strength of insulating
designed in such a way that their puncture voltage is oils" is given on next page.
 High Voltage Measurements and Testing 53 ?

General. This method is primarily intended for Test method. The oil is poured in the dry and
the new insulating oils at the time of their delivery. clean cell and is stirred so that the impurities are
However, in principle, it is applicable to all classes of evenly distributed and there are no visible air bubbles.
new and used oils for transformers, circuit breakers, The temperature of oil is the same as that of ambient
oil filled cables and capacitors. air preferably 27°C, but a temperature range of 15°C to
The test method consists of subjecting the oil 35°C is acceptable.
contained in a specified apparatus, to an a.c. electric An increasing a.c. voltage of frequency 40-60 Hz is
field with a continuously increasing voltage till the oil applied to the electrodes. The rate of increase of
breaks down. voltage is uniform and is approximately equal to
Test cell. The test cell is transparent and 2 kV/s starting from zero to the value producing
non-absorbent. It is made of glass or plastic and has an breakdown. The breakdown voltage is the voltage
effective volume of 200-500 ml. It is preferably closed. reached during the test at the time first spark occurs
between electrodes. The test is carried out six times on
Two types of cells are used and they are shown in
the same cell filling. The electric strength is the
Figs. 17.45 and 17.46.
arithmetic mean of the six results obtained.
Electrodes. The electrodes may be made of
Electrical apparatus. The characteristics of the
copper, brass, bronze or stainless steel. The polished
electrical apparatus comply with the following
electrodes are either spherical (12.5 to 13.0 mm
requirements.
diameter) as shown in Fig. 17.45 or spherical surfaced
of the shape and dimensions as shown in Fig. 17.46. Transformer. The test voltage is obtained by
The electrodes • are mounted 2.5 mm apart with an using a step up transformer supplied form a.c. The
accuracy of ± 0.1 mm. The axis of the electrodes is low voltage side has a frequency of 40 to 62 Hz. The
immersed to a depth of approximately 40 mm. The primary voltage is gradually increased, either
electrodes are replaced as soon as pitting caused by manually or by an automatic control device. The
discharges is observed. voltage applied to the electrodes has approximately a

Fig. 17.45 Test cell (All dimensions in mm)

 538 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Voltage regulation. Voltage regulation may be

insured by one of the following methods :
(z) Variable ratio auto-transformer,
(z'z) resistance type voltage regulator,
(zzz) generator field excitation and
(zu) induction regulator.

Preference is given to an automatic system for

increasing voltage, since it is difficult to obtain
manually a reasonably uniform rate of voltage rise as a
function of time.
Measurement of test voltage. For the purpose
of this standard, the magnitude of test voltage is
defined as its peak value divided by 72. The peak
value of the test voltage is measured by a peak
voltmeter. The test voltage is determined by a
voltmeter suitably connected to the input or output
side of the testing transformer or to a voltmeter
suitably connected to input or output side of the
testing transformer or to a voltmeter winding
provided thereon and calibrated against a sphere gap
in place of the test cell.
The voltage should be measured to an
accuracy better than ±4%.

Fig. 17.46 Test cell (All dimensions in mm). Results. The test report should include
(z) Reference to the standard,
sinusoidal waveform such that peak factor is within (zz) breakdown voltages obtained during each
1.34 to 1.48 i.e., J2± 5%. The transformer and test,
associated equipment are designed to produce a (zzz) average of breakdown voltages,
minimum short circuit current of 20 mA for a voltage (zu) types of electrodes,
higher than 15 kV. In order to avoid damage to (u) frequency of test voltage and
electrodes the short circuit current is limited to 1 A, if (uz) oil temperature.
necessary, by addition of external impedance.
The extract of IS specification 335-1972
Protective gear. The test is carried out so as to "Specification for new insulating oils for transformers
and switch gear" is given below :
prevent high frequency oscillations as far as
possible. The electric strength (breakdown voltage) of new
insulated oil for transformers and switch gear should
In order to protect the equipment and to avoid have a minimum value of 3 kV/mm (rms). If this value
excessive decomposition of the oil at the instant of is not attained, the oil has to be treated. The
breakdown, a resistance, limiting the current is breakdown voltage after treatment should be atleast
inserted in the test cell circuit. The primary circuit of 5 kV/mm (rms).
the high voltage transformer is fitted with a circuit The maximum dielectric dissipation factor at 90°C
breaker operated by the current flowing, following the is 0.005. The resistivity is 13xlOloQm (minimum) at
breakdown of the sample, and with a delay not more 90°C and 500x 10l0Qm (minimum) at 27°C.
than 0.02 s. The circuit breaker is fitted with a no volt
Permittivity should be approximately 2.2 (- 0.001)
coil to protect equipment.
at 60°C.
High Voltage Measurements and Testing

Review Questions
1. Why is high voltage testing important for electrical the precautions taken when using sphere gaps for
power apparatus and insulating materials ? measurement of high voltages.
Describe briefly the different high voltage tests 9. Describe the rectified capacitor charging current
done on electrical apparatus. method for measurement of peak values of high
2. Describe the constructional details of a H.V. voltages. Describe its advantages and limitations.
transformer and explain the reasons for difference 10. Describe the working, advantages and disadvan­
in construction of H.V. testing transformers and tages of the following types of voltmeters used for
power transformers. measurement of peak values of high voltages.
3. Explain the reasons for connecting H.V. transfor­ (?) Ryall crest voltmeter,
mers in cascade. Explain, with the help of a diagram,
(ii) Ionic wind voltmeter.
tlve cascade connections of two transformers.
11. Describe the Cockcroft Walton circuit for
4. Describe the different methods of voltage control
production of high voltage d.c.
used for high voltage test circuits. Explain their
applications, advantages and disadvantages. 12. Explain why transmission lines and cables, which
are used for power transmission and distribution
5. Draw the circuit diagram for high voltage testing of a.c. voltages, are tested with high voltage d.c.
at power frequencies. Explain the functions of the Describe the circuits used for high voltage d.c.
control and protective devices.
testing of cables. Describe why is it necessary to
6. Describe the different electrostatic type of establish an equivalence between d.c. and a.c. test
voltmeters used for measurement of r.m.s. value of voltages.
high voltages. Explain their advantages and 13. Describe the circuit of a single stage impulse
disadvantages. generator. Describe how surge voltages are
7. Explain the following potential divider methods generated by applying a step voltage to an RLC
for measurement of r.m.s. value of high voltages, series circuit.
(/) resistance potential divider, 14. Describe the working of Marx circuit used for
impulse testing. Explain the impulse testing of
(ii) capacitive potential divider and
transformers.
(iii) compensated capacitive potential divider.
15. Describe the various high voltage tests that are
8. Describe the use of sphere gaps for measurement carried out on porcelain insulators.
of peak voltages. Discuss the advantages and 16. Explain the method for testing the dielectric
disadvantages of using sphere gaps. Also describe strength of insulating oil according to IS specifications.

Objective Type Questions

Tick (v) the most appropriate answer 2. High frequency high voltage tests are carried out
1. A.C. transmission lines and cables are tested by on porcelain insulators because
using d.c. (a) they can withstand an a.c. voltage at low
(a) they may be used for d.c. if required frequency but fail to withstand that voltage
when applied at high frequency
(b) they draw high values of charging current and
hence would require a large sized h.v. trans­ (b) the insulators, though used on power
former if tested with a.c. frequency circuits, may be subjected to high
frequency voltages on account of disturbances
(c) h.v. testing transformers cannot be used for
caused by switching which produce high
long times that are required for testing
dielectric loss and heating that may cause
(d) all the above. failure of insulator at a lower voltage
 540 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

(c) the insulators may be used for communication 7. A Cockcroft Walton circuit for generation of high
purposes wherein the frequencies may be of voltage d.c. has n stages. If the voltage of the
the order of MHz secondary winding of the high voltage transformer
is Vm, the output voltage of the circuit is :
(d) all the above.
(a)nVm (b)2(«-l)Vw
3. If the sizes of power transformers and high voltage
testing transformers of equal kVA rating are (c)2(n+l)Vm (d)2nVm
compared : 8. The impulse voltage wave shape is defined as
(a) the size of a h.v. testing transformer is greater t-J t2 where :
than that of a power transformer (fl) t1 = time taken by the impulse voltage to rise to
(b) the size of a h.v. testing transformer is smaller its peak and
than that of a power transformer t2= time taken to fall to zero
(c) the size of a h.v. testing transformer is the same (b) t j = time taken by the impulse voltage to rise to
as that of a power transformer. its peak and
4. Cascade connection of transformers is normally t2 = time taken to fall to 50% of its peak
used when a single transformer cannot be used (c) = time taken by the impulse voltage to rise to
because the minimum test voltage : 50% of its peak and
(a) is about 100 kV (b) is about 500 kV
t2 = time taken to fall to zero
(c) is about 1000 kV
(d) none of the above.
(d) all the above.
9. In a Marx's circuit,
5. The voltage control circuits do not use resistance
potential dividers because : (a) the capacitors are charged in series and
discharged in series
(a) they involve a large power loss
(b) they cause distortion of waveform (b) the capacitors are charged in parallel and
discharged in parallel
(c) they do not give a smooth variation of voltage
(d) they have non-linear characteristics. (c) are charged in series and discharged in parallel

6. Sphere gaps are used for measurement of : (ii ) charged in parallel and discharged in series.

(a) instantaneous values of voltage 10. The electric strength of new insulating oil should
have a minimum strength (r.m.s.) of
(b) r.m.s. values of voltage
(a) 30 kV/mm (b) 3 kV/mm
(c) peak values of voltage
(c) 50 kV/mm (d) 5 kV/mm
(d) average values of voltage.

1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (fl) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (b)