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Conversion To On-Site Sodium Hypochlorite Generation: Water and Wastewater Applications

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100% found this document useful (2 votes)
284 views199 pages

Conversion To On-Site Sodium Hypochlorite Generation: Water and Wastewater Applications

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Adrian
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Conversion to On-Site

Sodium Hypochlorite
Generation
Water and Wastewater
Applications
Leonard W. Casson • James W. Bess, Jr.

LEWIS PUBLISHERS
A CRC Press Company
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Casson, Leonard W.
Conversion to on-site sodium hypochlorite generation : water and wastewater
applications / Leonard W. Casson, James W. Bess, Jr.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-58716-094-3 (alk. paper)
1. Hypochlorinators. 2. Water—Purification—Disinfection. 3.
Sewage—Purification—Disinfection. I. Bess, James W. II. Title.

TD463 .C37 2002


628.1′ 662—dc21 2002190726

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material
is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot
assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use.

Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or
retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.

The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for
creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC
for such copying.

Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.

Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works


International Standard Book Number 1-58716-094-3
Library of Congress Card Number 2002190726
Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Printed on acid-free paper

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Dedication
To Jenny for her patience and support during
my first book-writing endeavor.

Jim

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Preface
This book addresses the design and operation of on-site sodium hypochlorite
generation systems and their application for disinfection in water and waste-
water treatment facilities. Prior to discussing the details of these systems,
we review the origins of sodium hypochlorite generation. The current and
pending regulations governing the use of chlorine are delineated in Chapter
2. Chapter 3 provides a brief overview of disinfection alternatives as applied
to water and wastewater treatment. Chapter 4 explains the chemistry of
disinfection. Chapter 5 provides an in-depth discussion of electrolyzer sys-
tems and the components of these systems. In Chapter 6 we highlight issues
and problems to approach with caution when designing electrochlorination
systems. Chapter 7 provides the reader with economic evaluation principles
for electrolysis systems. Chapter 8 is intended to provide the reader with
practical electrochlorination system installation, operation, and maintenance
requirements. We examine system design and trouble analysis in Chapter 9.
Finally, Chapter 10 outlines system safety concerns associated with on-site
sodium hypochlorite generation systems.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Acknowledgments
I appreciate the support and understanding of Susan, Andrew, and Emily
Jo in this writing endeavor. I am grateful for the advice of my colleagues
and the prayers of my family, which helped bring this project to completion.

Leonard W. Casson

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


About the authors
Leonard W. Casson, Ph.D., P.E., D.E.E., is an associate professor of environ-
mental engineering in the department of civil and environmental engineer-
ing at the University of Pittsburgh. Dr. Casson’s research focus is the adsorp-
tion, fate, and transport of particles, chemicals, and environmental pathogens
in unit processes and the natural environment. Dr. Casson is a professional
engineer in Florida and Pennsylvania. He has also received specialty certi-
fication as a diplomate in the specialty of water supply and wastewater by
the American Academy of Environmental Engineers. Dr. Casson is the author
of over 50 papers in the water and wastewater treatment area.

James W. Bess, Jr., is a director of technology at Electrolytic Technologies


Corporation in Aventura, FL. He has worked worldwide in the fields of
dimensionally stable anodes, separated and unseparated electrolyzer cell
research and development, and on-site sodium hypochlorite system engi-
neering and installation for over 30 years. He also holds several electrolyzer
cell-related patents.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Table of contents
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Origins of sodium hypochlorite generation
1.2 Bleach
1.3 On-site generation of sodium hypochlorite
1.4 Dimensionally stable anodes
References

Chapter 2 Federal regulations and pending regulations


2.1 USEPA clean air act risk management plan
2.2 USEPA office of pesticide programs
2.3 OSHA process safety management standard
2.4 Local and state regulations

Chapter 3 Disinfection applications and alternatives


3.1 Chlorine gas
3.2 Bulk manufactured sodium hypochlorite
3.3 Ozone
3.4 Chlorine dioxide
References

Chapter 4 Disinfection chemistry


4.1 Chlorine application chemistry
4.1.1 Basic principles of disinfection
4.1.2 Chemistry of elemental chlorine
and sodium hypochlorite in water
4.1.3 Chlorine demand reactions
4.1.3.1 Demand reactions with ammonia
4.1.3.2 Demand reactions with organic
and inorganic matter
4.1.4 Disinfection kinetics
4.2 On-site sodium hypochlorite generation chemistry
4.2.1 Electrolytic cell reactions
References

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Chapter 5 Electrolyzer systems
5.1 Electrolyzer system types and principles of operation
5.2 Brine system: general description
5.3 Seawater system: general description
5.4 Electrolytic cells
5.4.1 Tubular and plate electrolytic cell designs
5.4.1.1 ELCAT — Chloromat
5.4.1.2 PEPCON — ChlorMaster™
5.4.1.3 Diamond Shamrock — Sanilec®
5.4.1.4 DeNora — SEACELL®
5.4.1.5 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
— Marine Growth Preventing System
5.4.1.6 Daiki Engineering — Hychlorinator
5.4.2 Cell module groupings
5.4.2.1 Vertical cell circuits — seawater electrolysis
5.4.2.2 Horizontal cell circuits
— seawater electrolysis
5.4.2.3 Horizontal cell circuits — brine electrolysis
5.5 Electrolysis systems
5.5.1 Equipment
5.5.2 Instruments
5.6 Materials of construction
5.6.1 Plastic materials
5.6.1.1 PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and CPVC
(chlorinated polyvinyl chloride)
5.6.1.2 Polypropylene (PP)
5.6.1.3 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
5.6.1.4 Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF, Kynar®)
and polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon®)
5.6.1.5 FRP (fiberglass reinforced plastic)
5.6.2 Elastomeric sealing materials
5.6.2.1 Fluorocarbon elastomer (Viton®)
5.6.2.2 Ethylene propylene diene methylene (EPDM)
5.6.2.3 Buna-N
5.6.2.4 Neoprene
5.6.3 Metals
5.6.3.1 Titanium (Ti)
5.6.3.2 Hastelloy® C 276 (Hast. C)
5.6.3.3 316L stainless steel (316L)
5.7 DC power rectifiers
5.7.1 Rectifier metering, control, and operation
5.7.1.1 Cooling
5.7.1.2 Area classification
5.7.1.3 Maintenance
5.7.2 DC rectifier operating status
5.7.2.1 DC rectifier independent alarm conditions
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
5.7.3 DC rectifier safety equipment
5.8 Control panel
5.8.1 Instrumentation
5.9 Pressure and differential pressure equipment
5.10 Liquid flow equipment
5.11 Cell level and temperature
5.12 Water and brine instrumentation
5.13 Inlet seawater strainers
5.14 Brine system water softening
5.15 Temperature sensing equipment
5.16 Cell level and temperature
5.17 Tank level equipment
5.18 Salt storage-dissolver tanks
5.18.1 Dissolver level controls
5.18.2 Internal distribution and brine removal piping
5.18.3 Salt addition
5.19 Product storage
5.19.1 Tanks
5.20 Pump equipment
5.20.1 Seawater booster pumps and seawater
hypochlorite dosing pumps
5.20.2 Brine system product dosing
5.21 Pipe, valves, and fittings for electrolysis systems
5.21.1 PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and CPVC
(chlorinated polyvinyl chloride)
5.21.2 Polypropylene
5.21.3 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
5.21.4 Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon®)
5.21.5 FRP (fiberglass reinforced plastic)
5.22 Hydrogen handling practices
5.23 Brine system applications
5.23.1 Cooling system applications
5.23.2 Food processing
5.23.3 Beverage operations
5.23.4 Water disinfection
5.23.5 Swimming pools
5.23.6 Cyanide destruction
5.23.7 Industrial bleaching
5.23.8 Odor control
5.24 Seawater system applications
5.24.1 Power stations
5.24.2 Oil field water
5.24.3 Cooling system applications
5.24.4 Oil platforms
5.24.5 Mammal pools

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Chapter 6 Electrolysis system design considerations
6.1 Brine hypochlorite systems
6.2 Seawater hypochlorite systems
6.2.1 Local regulations and codes
6.2.2 Site type
6.2.3 Local environmental conditions
6.2.4 Available water pressure
6.2.5 Dosing point pressure requirements
6.2.6 Dosage control methods
6.2.7 Power supply requirements
6.2.8 System sizing
6.2.9 Biofouling control

Chapter 7 Economic evaluation principles for electrolysis systems


7.1 System installation
7.2 System operations
7.2.1 Operating economics
7.2.1.1 Brine system operating costs
7.2.1.2 Seawater system operating costs

Chapter 8 Electrolysis system installation, operation,


and maintenance
8.1 Brine systems: general commissioning procedure
8.2 Seawater systems: general commissioning procedure

Chapter 9 System design and trouble analysis

Chapter 10 System safety


10.1 Chemical safety
10.1.1 Sodium hypochlorite handling (NaOCI)
10.1.2 Hydrochloric acid handling (HCI)
10.2 Electrical safety
10.3 First aid
10.3.1 Eye Burns — acid and alkali materials
10.3.2 Skin burns — sodium hypochlorite, acid,
or alkali materials
10.3.3 Ingestion or gassing — sodium hypochlorite
or alkali materials
10.3.4 Electrical shock

Technical Standard Documents

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


TX943_Book Page 1 Thursday, October 31, 2002 8:12 AM

chapter 1

Introduction
1.1 Origins of sodium hypochlorite generation
Chlorine gas was first prepared in 1774 by Karle Scheele of Sweden. It was
not until 1810, however, that Humphry Davy declared it an element before
the Royal Society of London (White, 1999). Davy proposed the name of
chlorine based on the Greek word chloros translated to green, greenish yellow,
or yellowish green. The gas was liquified by compression in 1805 by Thomas
Northmore (White, 1999).
In 1883, Faraday postulated the laws governing the passing of electric
current through an aqueous salt solution, coining the word electrolysis
(White, 1999). These fundamental laws are:

• The weight of a given element liberated at an electrode is directly


proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the solu-
tion. The electrical unit quantity is the coulomb.
• The weights of different elements liberated by the same quantity of
electricity are proportional to the equivalent weights of the elements.

The first commercial production of chlorine began in 1890 by the Elek-


tron Company (now Fabwerke-Hoechst A.G.) of Griesheim, Germany
(White, 1999). The first electrolytic plant in the United States was started at
Rumford Falls, Maine in 1892. In 1894, the Mathieson Chemical Company
acquired the rights for the Castner mercury cell for the manufacture of
bleaching powder at a demonstration plant in Saltville, Virginia (White,
1999). This facility subsequently moved to Niagara Falls, New York in 1897
and operated successfully until 1960 (White, 1999).
At first, the original electrolytic process was used primarily for caustic
production. In 1909, the first commercial manufacturing of liquid chlorine
began. This liquid was stored in 100-pound cylinders supplied from Ger-
many. Tank cars were manufactured in the United States in 1909, as well,
with a capacity of 15 tons. It was not until 1917 that 1-ton containers came
into use for the U. S. military (White, 1999).

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


TX943_Book Page 2 Thursday, October 31, 2002 8:12 AM

1.2 Bleach
Bleach was used as a bleaching agent starting in 1785 by mixing Scheele’s
gas in water and adding caustic potash (White, 1999). In 1789, Berthollet
Tennent produced another liquid bleaching agent termed chlorinated milk
of lime. This original product was greatly improved when it was dried to
form bleaching powder (White, 1999).
Commercial bleach manufacture for domestic use was begun by the
Mathieson Chemical Company in 1897 as a by-product of caustic manufac-
ture to utilize some of the excess chlorine from the process. Chlorine that
was not used in the bleach process or to manufacture hydrochloric acid was
dumped into the Niagara River as a waste material (White, 1999).

1.3 On-site generation of sodium hypochlorite


While on-site generation was feasible at the turn of the 20th century, the
limitation was the electrode materials, carbon or platinum, which would
dissolve in service causing cell damage and poor product quality or were
too expensive for practical use. No cell developed during this period pro-
vided reliable on-site sodium hypochlorite generation. Not until the devel-
opment of the dimensionally stable anode for the chlorine industry in 1967
by an independent Belgian scientist, Henry Beer, was a reliable economic
on-site generation cell practical (White, 1999). In 1971 J.E. Bennett, using the
dimensionally stable anode, developed an unseparated electrolytic cell that
was patented by Diamond Shamrock Corporation. Many variations in the
electrodes and cell configurations have become available in the marketplace
during the ensuing 25 years for electrolysis of both dissolved salt solution
and seawater as the system feed stock.

1.4 Dimensionally stable anodes


The primary difference in the production of chlorine gas and on-site gen-
eration of bleach is the separation of the two basic cell products. In the
production of chlorine the gas is separated on the anode side of the cell
from the caustic (sodium hydroxide) solution produced on the cathode
side through the reaction of sodium with feed water releasing hydrogen
as a by-product gas. Each product is packaged separately when removed
from the generation cell for use in unrelated processes such as pulp and
paper bleaching using chlorine and caustic, chlorinating hydrocarbons for
products such as PVC, and caustic used for glass manufacture. On-site
generating cells do not separate the chlorine and caustic; thus the two
products react together to form weak bleach solution up to 1.2% strength,
also releasing by-product hydrogen gas.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


TX943_Book Page 3 Thursday, October 31, 2002 8:12 AM

References
White, G.C., (1999) Handbook of Chlorination and Alternative Disinfectants, Fourth
Edition, Wiley Interscience, New York.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


TX943_Book Page 5 Thursday, October 31, 2002 8:12 AM

chapter 2

Federal regulations
and pending regulations
The implementation of the Clean Air Act (CAA) risk management plan
(RMP) for the storage of hazardous chemicals by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA) (June 1999) and the reregistration of chlorine
gas by USEPA office of pesticide programs as a pesticide (Spring 2001)
have accelerated the use of liquid sodium hypochlorite in the water and
wastewater treatment industry. Below is a brief discussion of each of
these regulations.

2.1 USEPA clean air act risk management plan


Congress passed the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. One section of
these regulations required the USEPA to publish regulations and guidance
for chemical accident prevention at facilities using extremely hazardous
substances. The risk management program rule (RMP rule) implemented
Section 112(r) of the CAA amendments. The RMP rule was written based
upon existing industry codes and standards. This rule requires companies
of all sizes that use certain flammable and toxic substances to develop a risk
management program, which includes all of the following:

• A hazard assessment that details the potential effects of an accidental


release, an accident history of the last five years, and an evaluation
of worst-case and alternative accidental releases.
• A prevention program that includes safety precautions and mainte-
nance, monitoring, and employee training measures.
• An emergency response program that spells out emergency health
care, employee training measures, and procedures for informing the
public and response agencies (e.g., the fire department) should an
accident occur.
• A summary of the facility’s risk management program must be
submitted to the USEPA by June 21, 1999, which will make the
TX943_Book Page 6 Thursday, October 31, 2002 8:12 AM

information available to the public. The plans must be revised and


resubmitted every five years.

The risk management program was created to reduce chemical risk at


the local level. The information included in the plan was intended to help
local fire, police, and emergency response personnel (who must prepare for
and respond to chemical accidents), and be useful to citizens in understand-
ing the chemical hazards in communities. The USEPA anticipates that mak-
ing the RMPs available to the public will stimulate communication between
industry and the public to improve accident prevention and emergency
response practices at the local level. A complete description of the risk
m a n a g e m e n t p l a n c a n b e f o u n d o n t h e Wo r l d Wi d e We b a t
http://www.epa.gov/swercepp/bi-rima.htm.
The RMP defines threshold quantities (in pounds) of chemicals stored
at a site as shown in Table 2.1. Exceeding these quantities at a single
location requires the development of a risk management plan. A complete
listing of chemicals and threshold quantities can be found at
http://www.epa.gov/ceppo/caalist.html.

Table 2.1 Threshold Quantities for the Clean Air Act


Risk Management Plan
Threshold Quantity
Chemical (Pounds)
Chlorine 2,500
Chlorine dioxide 1,000
Chlorine monoxide 10,000
Chlorine oxide 10,000

2.2 USEPA office of pesticide programs


On February 22, 1999, the USEPA office of pesticide programs (OPP)
http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/ issued a reregistration eligibility deci-
sion (RED) on the pesticide chlorine gas. The RED required chlorine gas
registrants to submit a revised labeling plan to the USEPA. This RED also
allowed for re-examination of the required training and education proce-
dures for people handling and dispensing chlorine gas. Although comple-
tion of this process was anticipated early in 2001, it was still incomplete
as of October 2002.
The USEPA OPP has received and examined comments by several trade
groups, state governments, universities, and individuals. The antimicrobials
division of the OPP is still in the process of obtaining information from state
agencies concerning possible methods of chlorine gas handling and dispens-
ing training program implementation. Once the information gathering pro-
cess is completed, a final decision on chlorine gas reregistration is expected.
TX943_Book Page 7 Thursday, October 31, 2002 8:12 AM

The current status of the reregistration decision may be found using the URL
http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/reregistration/status.htm
The outcome of this RED impacts the water and wastewater treatment
industry as follows:

• To promote uniformity, the USEPA is re-examining the training re-


quired for all people handling and dispensing chlorine gas. There-
fore, the training for water and wastewater treatment plant operators
using chlorine gas may be affected or altered.
• Although the USEPA OPP would prefer not to require additional
training (above that presently required) for water and wastewater
operators, each state must determine how the RED will be imple-
mented.
• No action regarding the changing training requirements may be com-
pleted until the USEPA OPP finalizes the reregistration process.

In addition to the training issues discussed above, possible public con-


cern over the treating of drinking water with a chemical classified as a
pesticide may be substantial. This increased concern may be the result of a
perceived increased risk.

2.3 OSHA process safety management standard


The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) process safety
management standard (PSM) of highly hazardous chemicals; explosives and
blasting agents (29 CFR 1910.119) is a set of procedures in thirteen manage-
ment areas designed to protect worker health and safety in case of accidental
chemical releases. This rule is similar to the USEPA RMP. See
http://www.osha-slc.gov/SLTC/processsafetymanagement/
Chlorine gas is regulated by both the USEPA RMP (discussed earlier)
and OSHA PSM. On-site generated sodium hypochlorite is not included
in either regulation. The threshold limit for chlorine gas to be regulated
by OSHA PSM is 1500 pounds. This threshold limit (shown in Table 2.2)
is 1000 pounds less than the 2500-pound threshold limit specified in the
USEPA risk management plan.

Table 2.2 Threshold Quantities for the OSHA Process


Safety Management Standard
Threshold Quantity
Chemical (Pounds)
Chlorine 1500
Chlorine dioxide 1000
Chlorine pentrafluoride 1000
Chlorine trifluoride 1000
TX943_Book Page 8 Thursday, October 31, 2002 8:12 AM

2.4 Local and state regulations


In addition to the above federal regulations, state regulators and local
enforcement agencies may have more stringent regulations for the storage
and transport of hazardous chemicals. As an example, the Los Angeles
County Fire Department, which enforces the hazardous materials state
reporting requirements, developed for the state of California and applied
within Los Angeles County states that “a mixture that contains one percent
or more of a hazardous ingredient is a hazardous material.”
chapter 3

Disinfection applications
and alternatives
Many chemical alternatives exist for the disinfection of water and wastewa-
ter treatment facilities. This publication addresses on-site sodium hypochlo-
rite generation, however, this chapter will briefly address some of the other
current chemical disinfection alternatives and their applications. Although
ultraviolet light is becoming a more common disinfectant for wastewater
and some water treatment facilities, it will not be included in the following
discussion of chemical disinfectants.

3.1 Chlorine gas


Previously, water and wastewater treatment disinfection in the United States
was almost exclusively associated with chlorine gas. Many events have
contributed to a move away from the application of gaseous chlorine in
water and wastewater treatment plants. First and foremost was the link
between gaseous chlorine application and the formation of trihalomethanes
(THMs) in the potable water distribution systems or wastewater outfalls.
Other chemicals (e.g., ozone or chlorine dioxide) have been used to supple-
ment or replace gaseous chlorine in some applications. However, the inex-
pensive nature of this disinfectant and its ease of application allowed it to
be a primary disinfectant in the United States.
The implementation of the Clean Air Act (CAA) risk management plan
(RMP) for the storage of hazardous chemicals by the USEPA (June 1999) and
the reregistration of chlorine gas by USEPA office of pesticide programs as
a pesticide (Spring 2001) have accelerated the use of liquid sodium hypochlo-
rite in the water and wastewater treatment industry. Some utilities were
reluctant to become involved with the development, implementation, and
updating of a risk management plan required for continued use of chlorine
gas as a disinfectant.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


3.2 Bulk manufactured sodium hypochlorite
The majority of utilities in the United States transitioned from using gaseous
chlorine to the bulk manufactured sodium hypochlorite. Commercial grade
sodium hypochlorite can be produced by chemical manufacturers at concen-
trations as high as 16 weight % chlorine. However, typical commercial grade
sodium hypochlorite concentrations are between 12 and 15 weight % chlo-
rine. Concerns associated with the use of commercially produced sodium
hypochlorite include high transportation costs and a lack of long-term sta-
bility. In addition, safety concerns exist and are associated with the handling,
dosing, dilution, and accidental spilling or release of commercial grade
sodium hypochlorite.
The stability of a sodium hypochlorite solution is dependent upon the
following:

• The concentration of the hypochlorite solution


• The alkalinity and pH of the hypochlorite solution
• Storage temperature of the hypochlorite solution
• Concentration of impurities (e.g., Ni2+ and Cu2+) that may catalyze
hypochlorite decomposition
• Exposure to sunlight

The rate of reduction in the strength of a sodium hypochlorite solution


increases with increasing hypochlorite strength, increasing solution temper-
ature, and increasing holding time. The half-life of sodium hypochlorite (time
to reach half of the original concentration) at ambient temperatures varies
between 60 and 1700 days for solutions of 18 and 3%, respectively (Baker,
1969; Laubusch, 1963). Based on these data, a factor of six reduction in
sodium hypochlorite concentration (18 to 3%) resulted in an almost 30-fold
increase in sodium hypochlorite stability.
Gordon et al. (1997) also presented data on sodium hypochlorite stability
and chlorate ion formation as shown in Table 3.1. In this study, commercially
produced sodium hypochlorite was used at the original delivered strength
and diluted to 10 and 5% solutions. These solutions were held in glass
containers in the dark at 13 and 27 °C for 28 days.
The above data indicates that, as expected, the free available chlorine
concentration reduction increases with increasing sodium hypochlorite
strength and increasing temperature. Reductions in free available chlorine
concentration of 12% and 10% were observed at 13°C in the 28-day holding
period. Note that no significant change in concentration was observed in the
5% solution at 13°C after the 28-day period. As expected, data at 27°C show
a higher reduction in free available chlorine concentration for the 15 and
10% free available chlorine solutions. Although reductions in free available
chlorine concentrations as high as 28% were observed for the 15% solution
at 27°C after 28 days, no significant change was observed for the 5% sodium
hypochlorite solution.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Table 3.1 Free Available Chlorine and Chlorate Ion Concentrations in Commercial
Strength Sodium Hypochlorite held in the dark for 28 days.
Commercial
Hypochlorite
Free Available Measured Reduction in Measured ClO3-
Chlorine Temperature Free Available Free Available Concentration
(%) (°C) Chlorine (g/l) Chlorine (%) (g/l)
15 13 132.6 12 2.99
10 90.1 10 1.17
5 53.5 N/C 0.50
15 27 108.1 28 12.71
10 83.5 17 4.56
5 50.1 N/C 1.07

Note: N/C = No Change


Source: Reprinted from Journal AWWA, Vol. 89, No. 4 (April 1997), by permission. Copyright
American Water Works Association.

Typically, commercial grade sodium hypochlorite is held for 14 days at


a concentration of approximately 15% . On-site generated sodium hypochlo-
rite is typically stored for only 1 day at a concentration of 5 to 8% providing
for a very stable free available chlorine concentration. Based on the above
data, it can be reasoned that if sodium hypochlorite is to be held for extended
periods of time, it should be held at lower strength concentrations (e.g., 5%
free available chlorine concentrations).
Reductions in concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the storage tank
may make it difficult for some operators to apply the correct chlorine dose.
An incorrect chlorine dose may result in an insufficient residual being main-
tained in a drinking water distribution system (a health risk) or an excess of
chlorine being discharged from a wastewater treatment plant into a receiving
water (an environmental quality issue).
Gordon et al. (1995b) performed preliminary metal ion experiments to
obtain general information concerning the reduction in free available chlo-
rine in stored commercial sodium hypochlorite in the presence of individual
transition metals. In these experiments 1 mg/l of Ni2+, Cu2+, Mn2+, and Fe3+
were separately added to commercial sodium hypochlorite solutions, stored
in the dark at 25°C, and periodically analyzed during a 60-day period. The
sodium hypochlorite decomposition results were compared to a sodium
hypochlorite blank containing no transition metals.
These preliminary experiments showed that addition of 1 mg/l of Cu2+
accelerated sodium hypochlorite decomposition by a factor of 1.4 relative
to the blank. The addition of 1 mg/l of Ni2+ was observed to greatly enhance
the rate of sodium hypochlorite decomposition. The addition of 1 mg/l
Mn2+ and Fe3+ resulted in no increase in the rate of sodium hypochlorite
decomposition relative to the blank. These data indicate the necessity of
specifying low transition metals concentrations in commercial strength
sodium hypochlorite.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Gordon et al. (1995a) reported that the role of transition metals in the
decomposition of sodium hypochlorite is complex. However, the maximum
concentration of transition metals should be limited to less than 0.1 mg/l of
Ni2+ and 1 mg/l Cu2+ in stored sodium hypochlorite. Ferric iron and man-
ganese, when present alone, are effective catalysts for sodium hypochlorite
decomposition. It should be noted that on-site generated sodium hypochlo-
rite is less susceptible to transition metal effects due to its lower initial
concentration and the short time from production to application.
The loss of strength in sodium hypochlorite solutions may also result in
the formation of undesirable by-products (e.g., chlorate) as shown in the
following equation (Bolyard et al., 1992).

3 ClO- = 2Cl– + ClO3–

Bolyard et al. (1992; 1993) reported that the mass concentration of chlo-
rate ranges from 1.7 to 220% of the mass concentration of free available
chlorine. However, the concentration of chlorate in stock solutions is a func-
tion of solution strength, aging time, temperature, pH, and the presence of
metal catalysts (Gordon et al., 1993; 1995). Gordon et al. (1997) also presented
data concerning chlorate ion formation in commercial sodium hypochlorite
held in the dark in glass containers for 28 days (see Table 3.1). As expected,
these data indicate that increasing chlorate ion formation was observed with
increasing sodium hypochlorite strength. The most dramatic increase in
chlorate ion formation is observed with increasing the temperature of the
sodium hypochlorite during the 28-day holding period. When comparing
the 27°C data with the 13°C data the following was observed after the 28-
day holding period (see Table 3.1):

• A 425% increase in chlorate ion concentration for the 15% solution


• A 390% increase in chlorate ion concentration for the 10% solution
• A 214% increase in chlorate ion concentration for the 5% solution

Again, as with the stability information (discussed above) less chlorate


ion is formed in lower strength sodium hypochlorite (e.g., 5% free avail-
able chlorine) than in commercial strength sodium hypochlorite regard-
less of temperature.
Presently, chlorate ion is not regulated in the current USEPA primary
drinking water regulations. However, as of January 1, 2002, chlorite ion is
regulated for systems using chlorine dioxide as a disinfectant. The maximum
contaminant level for chlorite is 1.0 mg/l and the maximum contaminant
level goal is 0.8 mg/l. It should be noted that chlorate ion is not listed in the
USEPA candidate contaminant list (CCL) for drinking water. However, per-
chlorate is listed in the CCL.
Gordon et al. (1997) developed a computer-based sodium hypochlorite
decomposition model (the Gordon-Adam model) that was also shown to be
a good predictor of chlorate ion formation in stored sodium hypochlorite.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Following extensive testing of the model, Gordon recommended three basic
strategies for minimizing chlorate ion concentration and increasing the sta-
bility of commercial grade sodium hypochlorite as follows:

• Dilute concentrated sodium hypochlorite immediately after delivery.


• Use lower storage temperatures.
• Avoid sunlight during storage

3.3 Ozone
Ozone is a very effective disinfectant for both water and wastewater treat-
ment applications. It has been shown to be excellent for the disinfection of
pathogens of concern in both water treatment distribution systems and
wastewater treatment outfalls (e.g., Giardia and Cryptosporidium). It also does
not readily contribute to the formation of trihalomethanes in drinking water
treatment and distribution systems or wastewater treatment outfalls. How-
ever, the primary drawback to ozone applications in drinking water treat-
ment systems is its lack of an ability to provide a disinfectant residual for
the distribution system. It is also relatively more expensive than other dis-
infectants discussed in this chapter.

3.4 Chlorine dioxide


Although chlorine dioxide was first produced in 1811, it was not until the
middle 1960s when its widespread use occurred due to changes in the man-
ufacturing process. As with ozone, chlorine dioxide is an effective disinfec-
tant in both water and wastewater treatment systems. It also does not have
a tendency to form trihalomethanes in water treatment distribution systems
or wastewater treatment outfalls. Chlorine dioxide applications have typi-
cally been associated with medium-sized treatment facilities in the United
States.

References
Baker, R.J., (1969), “Characteristics of Chlorine Compounds,” Journal of the Water
Pollution Control Federation, 41:482.
Boylard, M., Fair, P.S., and Hautman, D.P., (1992), “Occurrence of Chlorate in Hy-
pochlorite Solutions Used for Drinking Water Disinfection,” Environmental
Science and Technology, 26(8):1663-1665.
Boylard, M., Fair, P.S., and Hautman, D., (1993), “Sources of Chlorate Ion in US
Drinking Water,” Journal AWWA, 85(9):81-88.
Gordon, G.L., Adam, C., Bubnis, B.P., Hyot, B., Gillette, S.J., and Wilczak, A., (1993),
“Controlling the Formation of Chlorate Ion in Liquid Hypochlorite Feed-
stocks,” Journal AWWA, 85(9):89-97.
Gordon, G., Adam, L., and Bubnis, B., (1995a), Minimizing Chlorate Ion Formation in
Drinking Water When Hypochlorite Ion is the Chlorinating Agent, American Water
Works Association Research Foundation (Order Number 90675).
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Gordon, G., Adam, L., Bubnis, B., (1995b), “Minimizing Chlorate Ion Formation in
Drinking Water When Hypochlorite Ion is the Chlorinating Agent, Journal of
the American Water Works Association, 87:6, 97-106.
Gordon, G., Adam, L., Bubnis, B., Kuo, C. Cushing, R., and Sakaji, R., (1997), “Pre-
dicting Liquid Bleach Decomposition,” Journal of the American Water Works
Association, 89:4, 142-149.
Laubusch, E., (1963), “Sulfur Dioxide,” Public Works, 94(8):117.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


chapter 4

Disinfection chemistry
4.1 Chlorine application chemistry
4.1.1 Basic principles of disinfection
Disinfection in water and wastewater treatment systems may be defined as
the destruction of pathogens (e.g., bacteria, viruses, protozoan, or amoebic
cysts) to provide public health protection. Disinfectant chemicals for use in
water, wastewater, and cooling tower applications include chlorine and chlo-
rine compounds (elemental chlorine, chloramines, sodium hypochlorite, cal-
cium hypochlorite, and chlorine dioxide), ozone, UV radiation, and a variety
of other physical and chemical agents.
Design considerations and operational factors for disinfectant systems
are as follows: the microorganisms to be inactivated; the concentration of
the microorganisms in the water; the water quality in which disinfection will
occur; the variability of the water quality; the type of disinfectant chosen for
application; the dose or concentration of the disinfectant applied; and the
contact time of the disinfectant with the water.
Generally, the adequacy of disinfection in water and wastewater treat-
ment systems is determined by the product CT, where C is the final residual
concentration of the disinfectant in the water and T is the contact time that
is exceeded by 90% of the fluid (Haas, 1999). CT values necessary to achieve
varying levels of disinfection in water treatment systems have been pub-
lished in USEPA guidance documents for chlorine and chlorine com-
pounds, ozone, chlorine dioxide, and chloramines (Malcolm Pirnie and
HDR Engineering, 1991). It should be noted that CT values published in
the above referenced document also include an acceptable margin of safety
for design purposes.

4.1.2 Chemistry of elemental chlorine and sodium hypochlorite


in water
Chlorine is used in water and wastewater treatment processes as both a
disinfectant and an oxidizing agent. Chlorine may be applied as gaseous

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


chlorine that is dissolved in water, liquid sodium hypochlorite, or solid
calcium hypochlorite. All three forms of chlorine application are chemically
equivalent due to the rapid equilibrium between each of the forms when
they are injected into water.
Elemental chlorine (Cl2) is a dense gas that condenses to a liquid when
subjected to pressures in excess of its vapor pressure. Note that cylinder
pressure at sea level is approximately 160 lbs/in2 (psi). As a result, commer-
cial shipments of chlorine are made in pressurized tanks to reduce shipment
volume. When the pressurized chlorine liquid is dispensed, the pressure is
reduced (via a vaporizer) to vaporize the compressed liquid chlorine into a
gas for application. The dissolution of gaseous chlorine in water forms aque-
ous chlorine. This reaction may be expressed by Henry’s law and the corre-
sponding Henry’s Law Constant (H).

Cl2(g) = Cl2(aq)

H (mol/ l–atm) = [Cl2(aq)]/PCl2

where H is Henry’s Law Constant, [Cl2(aq)] is the molar concentration of


aqueous chlorine, and PCl2 is the partial pressure of chlorine in the gas phase
in equilibrium with the liquid (measured in atmospheres).
When aqueous chlorine is combined with water it rapidly forms hypochlo-
rous acid, protons, and chloride ions according to the following equation.

Cl2(aq) + H2O = HOCl + H+ + Cl–

Hypochlorous (HOCl) acid is a relatively weak monoprotic acid that


may dissociate according the following equation.

HOCL = OCl– + H+

where pKA = 7.54 at 25οC (see Figure 4.1).


Free available chlorine is a term used to refer to the concentrations of
molecular chlorine (Cl2), hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and hypochlorite ion
(OCl-) in water expressed as available chlorine. The term available chlorine
is used to express the relative amount of chlorine present in chlorine gas or
hypochlorite salts. Available chlorine is expressed by determining the elec-
trochemical equivalent amount of Cl2 to the compound present in water
(Haas, 1999).
The distribution of free chlorine in water between hypochlorous acid
and hypochlorite ion as a function of pH is shown in Figure 4.1. Note that
at very high pH values, almost all the free chlorine exists as hypochlorite
ion. At very low pH values, almost all the free chlorine exists as hypochlo-
rous acid. Equal quantities of hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion exist
at the pKA value of 7.54.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0
HOCl OCl-
0.9

0.8
Fraction of free chlorine

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
5 6 7 8 9 10
pH

Figure 4.1 Effect of pH on the fraction of hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion
at 20οC. (From Haas, C.N., Water Quality and Treatment: A Handbook of Community
Water Supplies, AWWA, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1999. With permission.)

Based on the equation shown below, one mole of elemental chlorine is


capable of reacting with two electrons to form chloride:

Cl2 + 2e– = 2 Cl–

Since one mole of hypochlorite (OCl-) also reacts with two electrons to
form chloride (as shown below), one mole of hypochlorite is electrochemi-
cally equivalent to one mole of elemental chlorine. Thus, one mole of ele-
mental chlorine and one mole of hypochlorite both contain approximately
71 g of available chlorine (Haas, 1999).

OCl– + 2e– +2H+ = Cl– + H2O

4.1.3 Chlorine demand reactions


The amount of chlorine added to water for disinfection purposes is termed
the dose and is usually reported in pounds of chemical applied per day.
Some fraction of the applied disinfectant will react with substances (both
organic and inorganic) in the water, causing a reduction in the amount of
disinfectant remaining in the water (this disinfectant reduction is termed
the demand). The amount of disinfectant remaining in the system after a
set time period is called the residual and usually reported in mg/l or ppm

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


(parts per million). The following equation expresses the relationship dis-
cussed above:

Dose = Demand + Residual

Chlorine demand reactions will be divided into two sections for


purposes of discussion. First, chlorine reactions with ammonia and their
significance to disinfection practice will be presented and discussed.
Next, chlorine reactions with organic and inorganic matter will be pre-
sented and discussed.

4.1.3.1 Demand reactions with ammonia


When free chlorine is added to water in the presence of ammonia, it reacts
in a stepwise manner to form monochloramine (NH2Cl), dichloramine
(NHCl2), and trichloramine (NCl3), which is otherwise known as nitrogen
trichloride (Davis and Cornwell, 1998).

NH4+ + HOCl = NH2Cl + H2O + H+

monochloramine

NH2Cl + HOCl = NHCl2 + H2O

dichloramine

NHCl2 + HOCl = NCl3 + H2O

trichloramine or nitrogen trichloride

The sum of these three compounds is usually defined as the combined


chlorine residual in water. The distribution of the species among the three
chloramine species is a function of time, temperature, pH, and the initial
Cl2:NH4-N ratio.
Figure 4.2 is a schematic of a breakpoint chlorination curve. This sche-
matic may be divided into three zones. Zone 1 is where all chlorine added
to the water results in the formation of chloramines. This zone occurs at
chlorine doses below a Cl2:NH4-N ratio of 5. During this zone there is no
change in the nitrogen concentration in the water. Chloramines are oxidized
in zone 2, resulting in a loss of nitrogen occurring in the water also in zone
2. The breakpoint occurs at a Cl2:NH4-N ratio of 7.6 where all of the chloram-
ines have been oxidized and zone 3 begins. In zone 3, all chlorine added to
the water exists as free chlorine. The breakpoint indicates the amount of
chlorine that must be added to a water containing ammonia before a stable
free chlorine residual can be obtained.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Zone Zone Zone
HOCl
1 2 3

Total
chlorine
applied
ΣN conc

Ammonia-N conc.
Chlorine conc.

Hump
Measured
chlorine
residual

Breakpoint
Irreducible
minimum chlorine
residual
0 5 7.6
Cl2:NH+4 – N ratio

Figure 4.2 Idealized schematic of a breakpoint chlorination curve. (From White, G.C.,
Handbook of Chlorination and Alternative Disinfectants, Copyright © 1999. This material
is used by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

4.1.3.2 Demand reactions with organic and inorganic matter


Chlorine can react with both inorganic and organic material to form a variety
of substances. Granstrom and Lee (1957) observed that phenol could be
chlorinated by free chlorine to form chlorophenols. Morris (1967) determined
that organic amines react with free chlorine to form organic monochloram-
ines. Murphy (1975) indicated that phenols, amines, aldehydes, ketones, and
pyrrole groups are susceptible to chlorination. Wojtowicz (1979) summarized
the reaction rates for free chorine residuals and inorganic compounds. More
recently, Krasner (1986) determined that free chlorine was capable of remov-
ing tastes and odors associated with organic sulfur compounds.

4.1.4 Disinfection kinetics


Microorganism inactivation during disinfection is based upon the initial work
of Chick (1908) who developed the relationship between microbial inactivation
by chemical disinfectants and chemical reactions as shown below:

r = –kN

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


where k is the reaction rate constant, r is the inactivation rate, and N is the
concentration of viable microorganisms.
Watson (1908) proposed an equation that related the rate constant of
inactivation (k) to the disinfectant concentration (C). The combination of the
concepts from these two equations resulted in the classical formulation of
the Chick-Watson law shown below:

ln(N/No) = k’Cnt

where N and No are the concentrations of viable microorganisms at time


t and time zero, respectively. Other terms in the equation are defined as
shown above.
In 1972, Hom developed a modification of the Chick-Watson law in the
following form;

r = –k’mtm–1NCn

Following integration and simplification, the Hom model takes on the fol-
lowing form:

ln(N/No) = = k’Cntm

A detailed overview of the principles of disinfection modeling was presented


by Gyurek and Finch (1998).

4.2 On-site sodium hypochlorite generation chemistry


The objective of an electrochemical process is to control the conditions in an
electrolytic cell so that the desired products are generated. An electrochem-
ical process requires three basic components as shown below:

• A source of direct electrical current (usually a rectifier connected to


an AC power source)
• An electrolytic cell
• Electrical conductors

Although the electrolytic cell has many proprietary components, it can be


divided into the following components necessary for an electrochemical
process to occur:

• A cell body to contain the cell components


• Electrodes
• Anode — positive electrode – electron deficient
• Cathode — negative electrode – electron rich
• Electrolyte (water plus an acid, base or salt)
• Electrical connectors
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
4.2.1 Electrolytic cell reactions
Once power is provided to the cell, electrons move from the anode to the
cathode. This electron transfer results in the development of an electrical
potential between the two electrodes. Several chemical reactions may occur
singularly or in combination at the electrodes as listed below:

• Dissolution of the anode


• Oxidation of an anion at the anode
• Reduction of a cation at the cathode by the following reactions
• Deposition of a metal ion
• Reduction of water to hydrogen
• Forcing an atom or molecule to accept one of more electrons
without either deposition of a metal ion or reduction of water to
generate hydrogen

The net reaction in the hypochlorite cell to produce sodium hypochlorite


is shown below where sodium chloride and water produces sodium
hypochlorite and hydrogen gas:

NaCl + H2O = NaOCl + H2

The amount of sodium hypochlorite produced is a function of the amount


of direct electrical current passed through the electrolytic cell. The above
reaction can be divided into the principal reactions at the anode. In this
reaction, chloride ion is oxidized as shown below:

2Cl– – 2e = Cl2

The principal reactions in the solution occur after the chloride generated at
the anode is rapidly hydrolyzed into hypochlorous acid.

Cl2 + 2H2O = HOCl + H+ + Cl–

The principal reaction in the hypochlorite cell at the cathode is:

2H2O + 2e = H2 + 2OH–

HOCl = H+ + OCl–

In addition to the principal reactions in the electrolytic cell, there are


also parasitic reactions occurring in the cell that reduce the amount of
hypochlorite produced in the system. The parasitic reactions at the anode
are shown below:

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


2H2O = O2 + 4H+ + 4e (oxygen producing)

6OCl– + 3H2O = 2ClO3– + 6H+ + 4Cl– + 1.5 O2 +6e (oxygen producing)

ClO– + H2O + 2e = 2H+ + Cl– + O2 (oxygen producing)

The parasitic reaction occurring at the cathode is as follows:

OCl– + H2O + 2e = Cl– + 2OH–

The parasitic reaction in the solution is:

2HOCl + OCl– = ClO3 + 2H+ + 2Cl–

In addition to the principal reactions and the parasitic reactions occur-


ring to a hypochlorite cell as shown above, an additional oxygen producing
reaction may also occur as shown below:

2ClO– = O2 + 2Cl–

Water hardness can also form a scale on the cathode of the cell. The
reactions for scale formation are as follows:

HCO3– + NaOH = CO32– + H2O + Na+

Once generated, the carbonate ion reacts with the calcium present in the feed
water to form calcium carbonate according to the following chemical equation.

Ca+ + CO32– = CaCO3

This calcium carbonate forms a scale that may adhere to the cathode depend-
ing upon the water quality conditions in the cell. These and other deleterious
reactions in the cell, their impact on system, system design, and operation
will be discussed in subsequent chapters.

References
Chick, H., (1908), “An Investigation of the Laws of Disinfection,” Journal of Hygiene,
8:92-157.
Davis, M.L. and Cornwell, D.A., (1998), Introduction to Environmental Engineering,
McGraw-Hill, 3rd ed., New York.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Fair, G.M., Morris, J.C., Chang, S. L., Weil, I., and Burden, R.P., (1948), “The Behavior
of Chlorine as a Water Disinfectant,” Journal of the American Water Works
Association, 40:1051-1061.
Gordon, G., Adam, L., and Bubnis, B., (1995a), Minimizing Chlorate Ion Formation in
Drinking Water When Hypochlorite Ion is the Chlorinating Agent, American Water
Works Association Research Foundation (Order Number 90675).
Gordon, G., Adam, L., and Bubnis, B., (1995b), “Minimizing Chlorate Ion Formation
in Drinking Water When Hypochlorite Ion is the Chlorinating Agent, Journal
of the American Water Works Association, 87:6, 97-106.
Gordon, G., Adam, L., Bubnis, B., Kuo, C. Cushing, R., and Sakaji, R., (1997), “Pre-
dicting Liquid Bleach Decomposition,” Journal of the American Water Works
Association, 89:4, 142-149.
Gordon, G., (1998), “Electrochemical Mixed Oxiddant Treatment: Chemical Detail of
Electrolyzed Salt Brine Technology,” USEPA, May, 1998.
Granstrom, M.L. and Lee, G.F., (1957), “Rates and Mechanisms of Reactions Involving
Oxychlorine Compounds,” Applied Environmental Microbiology, 46:619.
Gyurek, L.L. and Finch, G.R., (1998), “Modeling Water Treatment Chemical Disinfec-
tion Kinetics,” Journal of Environmental Engineering, 124(9), 783-793.
Haas, C.N., (1999), “Disinfection,” Water Quality and Treatment: A Handbook of Com-
munity Water Supplies, AWWA, McGraw-Hill, Letterman, R.D., Ed., New York.
Haas, C.N. and Karra, S.B., (1984), “Kinetics of Microbial Inactivation by Chlorine.
II. Kinetics in the Presence of Chlorine Demand,” Water Research, 18:1451-1454.
Hoff, J., (1986), “Inactivation of Microbial Agents by Chemical Disinfectants,”
EPA/600/2-86/067, USEPA.
Hom, L.W., (1972), “Kinetics of Chlorine Disinfection of an Ecosystem,” Journal of
Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE, 98(SA1):183-194.
Krasner, S., (1996), Presented at the AWWA Annual Conference, Denver, CO.
Malcolm Pirnie and HDR Engineering, (1991), Guidance Manual for Compliance with
Filtration and Disinfection Requirements for Public Water Systems Using Surface
Water Sources, American Water Works Association.
Morris, J., (1967), “Kinetics of Reactions Between Aqueous Chlorine and Nitrogen
Compounds,” Principles and Applications of Water Chemistry, S. Faust, Ed., John
Wiley & Sons, New York.
Murphy, K., (1975), “Effect of Chlorination Practice on Soluble Organics,” Water
Research, 9:389.
Oliveri, V. et al., (1971), “Inactivation of Virus in Sewage,” ASCE Journal of Sanitary
Engineering Division, 97(5), 661.
Sodium Hypochlorite Manual, The Chlorine Institute, Inc., Pamphlet 96, Edition 2, May,
2000.
Sodium Hypochlorite Stability Information Required for EPA Labels and Chlorine Institute
Stability Test Data, The Chlorine Institute, Inc., Member Information Report,
143.
Trumm, J., (1994), “SCOLA Characterization: An Analysis of the Products of Brine
Electrolysis,” M.S. thesis, The University of New Mexico, December, 1994.
Venczel, L.V., Arrowood, M., Hurd, M., and Sobsey, M.D., (1997), “Inactivation of
Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts and Clostridium perfringes spores by a
mixed-oxidant disinfectant and by free chlorine,” Applied Environmental Mi-
crobiology, 63, 4, 1598-1601.
Watson, H.E., (1908), “A Note on the Variation of the Rate of Disinfection with Change
in the Concentration of the Disinfectant,” Journal of Hygiene, 8:536-542.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


White, G.C., (1999), Handbook of Chlorination and Alternative Disinfectants, John Wiley
& Sons, New York.
Wojtowicz, J.A., (1979), “Chlorine Monoxide, Hypochlorous Acid and Hypochlo-
rites,” Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 3rd ed., vol. 5, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 580-611.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


chapter 5

Electrolyzer systems
5.1 Electrolyzer system types and principles of operation
Electrolyzer systems can be classified into two basic types, brine electrolysis
and seawater electrolysis. The basis for classification is the feedstock derived
from either crystallized salt for brine systems or seawater feed for seawater
electrolysis systems.
Although the product of each system is the same sodium hypochlorite
disinfectant, differences in the electrolysis method exist as a result of the
variations in the calcarious hardness and other properties of the feed mate-
rial. Since crystallized salt is dissolved and used for electrolysis in brine
systems, control of the calcarious components may be achieved using water
softening or selecting the desired quality of the crystallized salt. Seawater
does not allow for easy methods of calcarious component control. Thus, an
entirely different approach to electrolysis is used in seawater systems.
To electrolyze a brine solution for sodium hypochlorite production, brine
electrolysis cells are designed for very low brine feed flow rates with narrow
electrode gaps that produce sodium hypochlorite concentrations approach-
ing 1%. The seawater system approach is to use very high seawater flow
rates with wide electrode gaps that produce sodium hypochlorite concen-
trations of less than 0.3% to reduce the rate of deposit formation on the
cathodes. Brine systems have an average current efficiency of 65% while
seawater systems have an average current efficiency greater than 80%. This
difference in current efficiency has an effect on power consumption and, for
the brine system, on salt consumption.

5.2 Brine system: general description


Brine systems can be used for any application requiring chorine or chloram-
ines as a part of the disinfection regimen. These systems are nearly always
installed inland and are designed to provide substantial quantities of stored
sodium hypochlorite. Brine systems are designed with excess product stor-
age to assure that disinfection capacity is always available to the end user.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


To accommodate these requirements systems are generally configured with
the following components and operate in the manner described below:

• Water softener: Essential for removal of calcium and magnesium


from the feed water
• Salt dissolver: Provides the required salt solution for electrolysis
• Electrolyzer cell or cells: Electrolyzes the dilute brine solution
• DC power rectifier: Provides the direct current for electrolysis
• Storage tanks: Product storage to meet dosing requirements as well as
any excess capacity essential to assure continuous dosing capabilities
• Hydrogen dilution blowers: Provided to dilute the by-product hy-
drogen produced during the electrolysis process
• Dosing pumps with dosing controls: Provide the needed disinfection
dose based upon the chlorine residual or flow rate at the point of
disinfection
• Cell cleaning system: Used to remove the calcarious material depos-
ited on the cell cathodes during the production process
• Central control panel: Performs the system production control function

A simple brine system operation begins with the client’s domestic water
supply flowing through the water softener where the water hardness is
reduced. A portion of the softened water is added to the salt dissolver to
make a concentrated salt brine solution of approximately 300 g/l. The con-
centrated salt brine is then mixed with the main stream of softened water
to produce a final brine concentration of approximately 3% (30 g/l) salt
concentration. This final brine solution is then pumped through the electro-
lyzer cell. The cell electrolyzes the final brine solution into sodium hypochlo-
rite that is then forced by the incoming water pressure to flow to the storage
tank. Sodium hypochlorite from the storage tank is used as a supply source
for dosing pumps. These pumps are operationally controlled by either a
residual analysis or a flow-pacing signal to supply sodium hypochlorite to
the point of disinfection application. Because the calcarious material is con-
trolled in this system, electrolyzer cell cleaning frequency varies from 1
month to 6 months. Cell cleaning is accomplished using either hydrochloric
or sulfamic acid at a concentration ranging from 5 to 10%. Note, raw water
hardness should always be less than 50 mg/l as calcium carbonate in the
cell feed to control monthly cathode acid cleaning.
Brine systems are susceptible to water temperatures less than 15οC. If
water temperatures are less than 15οC, the water temperature must be
raised by adding some form of heat exchanger to the outlet of the cell. The
inlet feed water is passed through one side of the exchanger and heated
product through the opposing side. Exchangers are sized to assure that the
system inlet water is heated to at least 15οC. Heat exchangers normally
have a plastic or stainless steel shell with titanium tubes, tube sheets, and
heads or, alternatively, plate exchangers of titanium with EPDM or Viton
sealing materials.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
5.3 Seawater system: general description
Seawater systems are, as the name implies, applicable only in coastal areas.
These systems are applied to control biological activity in all forms of circu-
lating cooling systems where seawater is the cooling media such as power
stations, refinery complexes, fertilizer plants, etc. Many of these applications
are remote from other sources of disinfection, making seawater electrochlo-
rination very cost effective.
Seawater electrochlorinators utilize high seawater feed flow rates to
help control cathode fouling from the naturally occurring magnesium and
calcium in seawater. As a result, the product concentration of sodium
hypochlorite is low and operating current efficiency is high. Because sea-
water provides a “free” source of salt, these systems contain smaller
equipment of less variety than brine electrolysis systems. The equipment
for a seawater system is shown below, and generally operates in the
manner described:

• Inlet seawater strainers: Essential for removing particulate material


from the seawater feed stream
• Seawater booster pumps: Provide seawater at the appropriate pres-
sure and flow to the electrolyzer system
• Electrolyzer cell or cells: Electrolyzes the seawater feed to sodium
hypochlorite
• DC power rectifier: Provides the direct current for electrolysis
• Hydrogen degassing storage tanks: For removing by-product hydro-
gen and product storage to meet shock dosing requirements
• Hydrogen degassing cyclone: An alternate degassing method where
only continuous disinfectant dosing is required and hydrogen remov-
al is desirable
• Hydrogen gas seal pot: Used with the cyclone where hydrogen is
vented to the atmosphere without dilution
• Hydrogen dilution blowers: Provided to dilute the by-product hy-
drogen produced during the electrolysis process. These blowers may
be applied to either tank or cyclone hydrogen removal systems
• Dosing pumps: Provide the needed disinfection dose to distant or
high pressure applications. Direct current variation controls the dose
rate rather than control of the pump flow
• Cell cleaning system: Used to remove the calcarious material depos-
ited on the cathode

Seawater systems are less complex than brine systems; there are no water
softening or brine dissolving requirements. Seawater is drawn from a source
and pumped through seawater strainers to remove larger suspended mate-
rial. From the strainers seawater passes through a flow controller and flow
meter to the electrolyzer cells where direct current converts the solution to
sodium hypochlorite. The product then enters either a storage tank or a

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


cyclone assembly for hydrogen removal. Hydrogen removed from the liquid
stream is diluted by air fans to 2% or less, then vented to atmosphere. Where
a storage tank is used, the dosing pumps operate from level controls for
either continuous, a combination of continuous and shock dosing, or shock
dosing only. Dosing rate control is provided by adjusting the direct current
applied to the eletrolyzer cells while maintaining a stable seawater flow to
the cells.
Seawater cells are designed with both a wide electrode gap and very
high flow velocities to control deposit formation, always a problem in sea-
water electrolysis. Seawater can have wide variations in deposit causing
hardness in different ocean locations. For example, hardness found in Ara-
bian Gulf seawater is approximately 500 mg/l calcium and 1500 mg/l mag-
nesium. However, seawater around Taiwan has 400 mg/l calcium and 1250
mg/l magnesium.
Another issue for seawater cells is operation in low salinity water con-
ditions. Salinity is classified as 18,980 mg/l chloride at 100% seawater con-
ditions. Systems designed for operations at chloride conditions below 80 %
(15,185 mg/l chloride) must be sized for reduced output performance as
empirically derived by the individual cell manufacturer. Anode coatings
designed for elevated oxygen conditions have been built and operated in
salinity levels down to 2500 mg/l chloride. Note, it should be understood
that the quantity of cells required to meet a specific need must be increased
to assure adequate sodium hypochlorite production.
As with the brine systems discussed above, similar conditions also exist
for cells in operation where water temperatures are below 15οC. As noted,
both the electrode coatings used and the number of cells employed in a
system must be adjusted to assure adequate system performance.

5.4 Electrolytic cells


Electrolytic cells capable of producing sodium hypochlorite have been in
existence on a laboratory scale for well over 100 years. Cell equipment before
the invention of dimensionally stable anodes (DSA) was very inefficient,
cumbersome, and costly. DSA development simplified cell designs to allow
cost efficient production of sodium hypochlorite on-site.
Electrolytic cells may be designed having monopolar or bipolar electrode
configurations. Each of these design configurations is discussed below.
A monopolar cell consists of an anode (direct current positively
charged member) and cathode (direct current negatively charged member)
each joined to the power source by a separate power connection. These
electrodes are separated by a space that allows the salt solution to flow
between the plates for electrolysis to occur. Multiple electrodes may be
connected to a common input connection in a parallel configuration within
each electrolyzer assembly. Each electrode set polarity is defined by its
connection polarity, anodes only on the positive connection and cathodes
only on the negative connection.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Bipolar electrodes differ from those discussed above in that each elec-
trode will serve as both an anode and a cathode. The bipolar cell design will
have terminal electrodes for the positive and negative power input points
and interstitial bipolar electrodes. Direct current is delivered to the positive
DSA coated terminal electrode face, emitted from that electrode face through
the brine solution, then is received on the cathode face of the adjacent plate
and passes through the plate to the anode face of the same electrode. Each
electrode has a DSA coated portion and a non-DSA coated portion. Current
flow through the cell proceeds alternately through each bipolar electrode set
in the cell to the non-DSA coated cathodic terminal electrode.
Cell designs are divided into many basic categories as follows (Table 5.1):

A. Flat plate type bipolar cells that utilize a filter press configuration
wherein one face of each electrode is anodic and the other face cathodic
B. Flat plate bipolar arrangements in an FRP, PVC or acrylic tube/pipe
having individual compartments within the cell and a terminal elec-
trode set for each DC power connection
C. Flat plate monopolar arrangements in a rectangular rubber lined
steel, FRP, PVC, or polypropylene body having electrode connections
from one side to allow connection to both the positive and negative
DC power connections
D. Tubular bipolar arrangements of titanium. In this cell, the inner tube
is bipolar and the outer tubes are monopolar. The bipolar tube is half
coated, half non-coated. An opposite polarity monopolar outer tube
mate to each bipolar section is where the DC power is connected to
the cell.

Cell designs are defined by their application because operating condi-


tions vary widely between brine and seawater electrolysis. Table 5.1 sum-
marizes electrolytic cell manufactures, the type of electrolytic cell design
classification, and the general equipment application.

5.4.1 Tubular and plate electrolytic cell designs


Electrolyzer cells can be divided into two basic design categories, plate
electrode designs and tubular electrode designs. The major variation on these
Table 5.1 Electrolytic Cell Manufacturers
Company Design Electrolysis Use
Japan Carlit A Brine systems
Severn Trent Services – ClorTec B, D Brine systems
Severn Trent DeNora B, C, D Seawater systems
USFilter Electrocatalytic D Seawater systems
USFilter Wallace and Tiernan B Brine systems
Pepcon, USA B Seawater systems
Mitsubishi, Japan C Seawater systems
Daiki B Seawater systems

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


two designs is the tubular cell with plate electrodes. Table 5.2 summarizes
the electrolytic cell configurations used by various manufacturers.
Cell performance is defined as the power efficiency to produce 1 lb (kg)
of chlorine equivalent. This performance is controlled by several variables:
seawater salt content, seawater temperature, seawater flow rate, anode coat-
ing, cathode type, cell current density, and the number of cells connected in
series hydraulically. Because most cells today use very similar anode coatings
and cathode types, the dominant variables affecting performance, in order
of importance, are: number of cells in series, cell operating current density,
seawater salt content, and seawater temperature.
As the number of cells in series is increased, the product concentration
increases. At concentrations above 2.0 g/l (0.2%) operating current efficiency
falls below 80% regardless of the variable combination employed. This reduc-
tion in efficiency translates to increased power consumption.
A high product concentration does not increase disinfection performance
nor does it improve the system cost structure. Generally, the most power
efficient system will provide low product concentrations, less than 1 g/l
(0.1%), and support disinfection needs very effectively.

5.4.1.1 ELCAT — Chloromat


A tubular cell arrangement was patented in 1972, U.S. Patent 1,396,019, by
Engelhard Minerals and Chemicals, Ltd. and subsequently sold to a group
of investors for the Electrocatalytic Corporation, which was subsequently
purchased in 2000 by USFilter Corporation. The tube inside a tube configu-
ration is very successful in providing reliable seawater electrolysis in a 1
lb/h (24 lb/d) per cell format.
Since the cell output is small, many cells may be required to produce a
large quantity of sodium hypochlorite. This system may not be suitable for
large hypochlorite capacity requirements. For example, a plant requiring 1
metric ton of chlorine equivalent must have 92 cells to meet only specific
needs without regard for back-up capacity to assure that chlorine is always
available for system disinfection.
This cell is a bipolar design where the inner tube is the bipolar
element. The terminal electrodes are the mono-polar outer tubes. Elec-
trode spacing is controlled by a centering arrangement at the cell ends.
Uniform electrode spacing and seawater flow through the cell controls
fluid velocity in the annulus between the electrodes, reducing the require-
ment for cathode cleaning.
Cathode cleaning is a necessary part of any seawater electrolyzer main-
tenance program. An alkaline, sodium hydroxide, layer is created on the
cathode surface during electrolysis reacting with the magnesium and cal-
cium in the seawater to cause cathodic surface deposits (primarily magne-
sium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, and calcium carbonate). It is important
to note that cell cleaning is required regardless of the electrolytic cell
design. Acid cleaning is essential to reliability of the electrolyzer cell. The
materials used for this procedure are hydrochloric and sulfamic acids. Acid
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
concentrations vary with manufacturer; however, a concentration range of
5 to 10% is generally acceptable for all cell designs.
Originally developed in England, once patented in the United States,
the tubular cell was very successfully marketed to consulting engineering
firms for offshore platform cooling and firewater systems, ocean going ship
cooling systems, and power station open loop cooling systems.
Tubular electrolyzer arrangements are normally a horizontally mounted
series of cells using multiple hydraulically and electrically parallel rack
mounted trains attached to a single rectifier. The seawater supply and
sodium hypochlorite headers are mounted at the front of the module assem-
bly forming a U-shaped loop on each parallel train to each header. Normally
the number of cells in series is limited to 12 per train. This cell design is able
to withstand test pressures of 150 psig offering some advantages in specific
applications by occasionally eliminating the need for dosing pumps.
Electrical connections are made where the positive connection is made
to the middle of the loop and the negative connection is made on the inlet
and outlet. The DC current path is then parallel down each side of the loop
while the inlet and outlet are neutral to ground. Although this configuration
helps prevent current leakage into the surrounding piping systems, this
electrical arrangement also creates a problem for balancing the parallel elec-
trical circuits. Since the cells are another form of electrical resistor, a resistance
change in any parallel cell segment will cause the current to increase in the
segment with lower resistance or vice versa, in turn causing reduced anode
life and increased deposit formation due to the higher current.
Claims are made that these cells require no cleaning. However, all seawater
cells must have routine cleaning and maintenance. Although the very high
fluid velocities in this cell tend to scrub deposit formations, it will not entirely
eliminate deposit formation. A cleaning frequency of at least once every 6
months should be maintained to assure good cell electrode life. This low
cleaning frequency is often considered an advantage of the tubular cell design.

5.4.1.2 PEPCON — ChlorMaster™


Pacific Engineering and Construction (Pepcon) developed an ammonium
perchlorate manufacturing electrolytic cell, the product used for solid rocket
fuel. This cell utilizes a carbon electrode inserted into a titanium tube.
The cell is a monopolar design with only one large diameter lead
dioxide coated anode and one closed end titanium tube cathode. Although
lead dioxide is not as electrochemically efficient as DSA related coatings,
the coating was effective in producing sodium hypochlorite from seawater.
Given the lack of conversion efficiency of this coating, cell power con-
sumption is approximately 25 to 50% greater than competitive cells oper-
ating under the same conditions. The loss of the lead dioxide during
operation of this cell did not cause a cell malfunction because carbon will
perform well as an anode. Carbon will, however, gradually dissolve,
increasing the cell operating voltage and therefore increasing operating
power consumption.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Cathode deposits are more rapid in this design compared to the other
designs due to the lower seawater flow velocity. The cell flow inlet and
outlet are in the top of the cathode tube causing very low circulation
conditions. Cell modules are usually designed with vertically mounted
cells series both hydraulically and electrically. Multiple cell racks are com-
bined for complete systems to meet various disinfection demand require-
ments. Pepcon recommends that deposits be removed using a 5% nitric
acid solution.
Pepcon recently designed and built a cell using DSA type coated tita-
nium plate material in a pipe arrangement. This cell uses multiple flow paths
over the electrodes to reduce cathodic fouling. The cells are mounted hori-
zontally on a rack one above the other where a feed header will distribute
the seawater into the bottom cell at multiple points for flow over the elec-
trodes. Flow exits from the top of the horizontally mounted body into the
cells above in series and discharges the sodium hypochlorite solution and
gas into a product header.
Few plants employing this cell are known by the authors to have been
installed. Plate cell testing began in the early 1970s as a spin-off technology
of chlorine cell dimensionally stable anode technology by Diamond Sham-
rock, DeNora of Italy, and Mitsubishi of Japan. Each of these companies was
affiliated with the DSA business for chlorine cell electrodes.

5.4.1.3 Diamond Shamrock — Sanilec®


A patent was awarded to Diamond Shamrock in 1975, U.S. Patent 3,893,902,
for a plate cell configuration. This cell is a mono-polar design using DSA
coated expanded titanium anodes and titanium or nickel alloy Hastelloy® C
plate cathodes. The flanged cell body is either machined PVC or molded PP
having titanium internal spacers and fasteners while using silicone and
Viton® rubber o-ring seals. Electrode spacing is controlled by swage PVDF
buttons in the expanded titanium anodes. The cell cover is unique. It is
acrylic material allowing the user, when mounted vertically, to see the cell
operation or deposits forming on the cathodes.
These cells can be mounted vertically on racks with interconnecting
piping and bus bars or mounted horizontally with the cover face-to-face
stacked flange-to-flange four cells in height. Most installations are in the
rack-mounted configuration in many cooling water applications. Offshore
installations are nearly all horizontally mounted as a means of space con-
servation. The horizontal arrangement also has the advantage of reducing
interconnecting cell piping.
Cell cleaning is necessary once a month unless the system design is
modified to accommodate higher cell seawater flow velocities. Because the
system is designed with an acid system as part of the equipment supplied
and the cleaning duration short, 4 h of cell cleaning is not usually considered
a maintenance problem.
Diamond Shamrock began cell testing in Peabody, Massachusetts where
the cell was installed with expanded metal anodes and cathodes. After a few
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
days operation it was apparent that the expanded metal cathodes had to be
replaced because cathode deposits built up extremely quickly.
Another major discovery at the Peabody site was the effect of manga-
nese on anode performance for hypochlorite production. Manganese as a
dissolved solid in the seawater reacts on the anode surface to form man-
ganese dioxide. A manganese dioxide contaminated surface reacted elec-
trochemically to form oxygen rather than chlorine, resulting in a loss of
cell efficiency. Acid cleaning for the removal of manganese dioxide is
difficult. Therefore, a test was designed to reverse the polarity of the anode
to remove the MnO2 deposit. Note the design was not for reverse current.
To reverse the current would dissolve the cathode into granular material
in the cell.
As a note of information, cell assemblies installed with the electrode
current reversed will, with alloy cathodes such as Hastelloy® C, dissolve the
cathodes in less than 8 h of operation. Titanium is not as susceptible to current
reversal cathode failure because the necessary polarity voltage is approxi-
mately 3 times the voltage for accepted alloy cathodes. Also the rectifier
normally will not have the voltage capacity to pass current when cell cath-
odes are titanium.

5.4.1.4 DeNora — SEACELL®


The SEACELL was developed by Oronzio DeNora Spa of Milan, Italy during
the 1970–1974 time period. This cell is a bipolar plate electrode assembly
within a tubular filament wound FRP body having a PVC liner. The electrode
coatings are DSA because DeNora was part of the original group of compa-
nies responsible for DSA coating development patented by independent
researcher Henry Beer of Belgium. Electrode spacers are PVDF and the cell
heads are rubber-lined steel.
Power consumption ranges from 3.5 to 4 kWh per kilogram. This power
consumption is achieved by increasing the anode surface area to reduce the
current density and thus, the cell voltage. Lower current density in turn
reduces the power consumption associated with bipolar titanium cathodes.
Small capacity cells are mounted horizontally in multiple units to meet
disinfection requirements. Large capacity cells are singly mounted vertically.
Generally, DeNora has focused on the large capacity electrolytic systems.

5.4.1.5 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries — Marine Growth


Preventing System
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) became an electrolytic cell manufacturer
as a result of building large power stations. The MHI cells utilize a rubber-
lined steel casing and cover, platinum coated titanium anodes, bipolar elec-
trodes and Hastelloy C terminal cathodes. The electrode gap is 0.118 in.
(3 mm). Power consumption is usually greater than 4 kWh per kg of product
at the usually accepted electrode current density of 1 amp/in2 (1.55 kA/m2).
Seawater flow through the cell is 123 gpm (28 m3/h) and the final sodium
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
hypochlorite concentration produced by the cell is approximately 1500 mg/l
(0.15%) at the rated operating current.
Electrode spacing and the use of electrode modifications to change the
cathode current density at the edges reduces the acid cleaning requirement
for this cell design to once every 6 months. U.S. Patent 3,645,880 claims
cathode deposit reductions because the cathode gaps are 5 times the elec-
trode gaps at each end of the anode. The cells are mounted in numbers up
to 12 and connected in series hydraulically and electrically.

5.4.1.6 Daiki Engineering — Hychlorinator


Daiki cells are designed as bipolar cells contained in a rubber lined steel body.
Covers are gasketed PVC. The electrodes consist of platinum coated terminal
electrodes, platinum coated bipolar electrodes, and a Hastelloy C terminal
cathode. Coating life is suggested to be 5 years for Daiki’s platinum coating.
The electrode gap is quite wide at 0.14 in. (3.5 mm). Power consumption
is 1.8 to 2 kWh/lb of chlorine produced. This power consumption indicates
the current density is below that of competitive cell designs. Reduced current
is necessary to achieve the low power consumption figure, discussed above,
as a result of platinum coating’s lower chlorine conversion efficiency and
the wide electrode gap.
Seawater flow through the cell is 186 gpm (42 m3/h). This flow rate is
relatively high. Chlorine concentrations in the area of 1000 mg/l (0.1%) are
normal for cells operating at these flow rates. According to the literature
acid cleaning is not required.

5.4.2 Cell module groupings


Electrolytic cell modules consist of a group of cells connected together
hydraulically and electrically in series to form a complete cell circuit. The
cells in these groupings can be oriented in the vertical or horizontal position.
From an electrochemical perspective, a cell will provide product regardless
of its orientation as long as proper operating conditions exist. Cell cathode
deposit formation is a function of seawater velocity, specific seawater con-
ditions, operating current, and hydrogen level; therefore these are the pri-
mary cell circuit design considerations.

5.4.2.1 Vertical cell circuits — seawater electrolysis


The combination of cell design, cell flow arrangement, and hydrogen pro-
duction make vertical cells a desirable system configuration for all cell man-
ufacturers supplying seawater systems. Interconnecting piping and electrical
bus bars are brought together in this configuration primarily to minimize
hydrogen pocketing in the piping system and bus bar costs.
All manufacturers use variations of the vertical cell arrangement in
their designs. How the cells are configured in a circuit is dependent on
individual cell output.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Vertical cell configurations assure that produced hydrogen always enters
the cell bottom and exits the cell top. In the case of a low cell flow condition,
the cell will be flooded should the water flow sensor not stop system oper-
ation. This arrangement requires additional interconnecting piping. Electri-
cal bus bar needs are not reduced in this configuration because the power
requirements are the same regardless of cell orientation.
Hydrogen is normally passed through the cell circuit. Early Diamond
Shamrock Sanilec cell modules contained a hydrocyclone to remove the
hydrogen interstitially from the cell circuit. There is a small power consump-
tion savings (1–3%) when hydrogen is removed in this manner. The removed
hydrogen is then inserted into the product discharge line to be carried to a
shock dosing tank for air dilution, through a second removal cyclone for
discharge to atmosphere or sent directly to the dosing point. The authors
are not aware of other manufacturers practicing interstitial hydrogen
removal in vertical cell circuits. This practice was employed in early Sanilec
designs to improve large project power consumption for very large electro-
lytic systems.
Frame assemblies are painted structural steel or fiberglass reinforced
plastic (FRP). In all cases the desire for corrosion control is an important
client consideration whether indoors or in direct weather conditions. Three
and four part paint specifications suitable for offshore environments should
be considered regardless of site conditions.
Because FRP frames are not prone to corrosion one should only be
concerned with the assembly fasteners as noted below. Careful inspection
of the support members is also essential. FRPs structural properties require
added support members to assure good frame stability. System suppliers
have provided painted and unpainted FRP frames. Painted frames are given
a light abrasive blast surface roughening and then coated with a suitable
epoxy finish.
As mentioned above, fasteners are an important issue. This issue is not
readily apparent for a new system. Yet as maintenance is required when
the installation ages, the importance of high quality fastener materials
becomes readily apparent. The authors recommend using 316 stainless steel
fasteners for frames, piping, and associated equipment. Using 316 stainless
steel will allow for less system maintenance in the future. If coated mild
steel fasteners are used in systems installed in open weather, they will
corrode and make disassembly difficult. Steel anchor bolts in concrete will
eventually cause the concrete to crack as the rust expands the original bolt
size. This recommendation applies to all equipment exposed to seawater
and sodium hypochlorite.

5.4.2.2 Horizontal cell circuits — seawater electrolysis


The same equipment and conditions are used to design circuits having a
horizontal cell orientation. It is the practice of Electrocatalytic (ELCAT) to
install multiple tubular cells horizontally in multiple horizontal circuits. This
configuration allows the designer to provide a single large rectifier serving
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
many cell circuits. Horizontal tubular cells are easily assembled on racks one
above the other, having a common inlet seawater supply header and product
discharge header.
No hydrogen removal within the circuits is necessary for the ELCAT
cells in the horizontal configuration. The hydraulic velocity and number of
cells in series eliminates hydrogen removal.
Electrical design configures each parallel cell circuit with the negative
DC connections on the inlet and outlet cells. Positive DC power is supplied
to the center of the circuit and split in each direction to the inlet and outlet
cells. A monitoring system is necessary to assure the cells are operating with
relatively balanced current on each parallel circuit. Should one or several
circuits electrically in parallel have excessive resistance, the low resistance
circuits will operate at high current. High current will then cause shortened
anode life and much higher cathode deposit rates.
DeNora utilizes horizontal configurations when employing smaller
cells in series. Very large cell systems utilize a vertical cell orientation.
These cells are extremely large requiring large overhead cranes for cell
removal and maintenance.
DeNora’s cell design employs vertically oriented plates in a horizontal
tube where the hydrogen escapes vertically to the headspace above the plates,
travels through the cell to the following cell in the circuit, is removed after the
second cell of the circuit where there are more than two cells in the arrange-
ment, or is passed in the cell stream to the gas disengaging/dosing tank.
Hydrogen is removed interstitially in DeNora’s medium-sized cell
module configurations. The hydrogen is re-inserted into the product
discharge line to be carried to a gas disengaging/dosing tank for air
dilution, or sent directly to the dosing point. The authors are unaware of
any other manufacturers practicing interstitial hydrogen removal in hor-
izontal cell circuits.

5.4.2.3 Horizontal cell circuits — brine electrolysis


All brine electrolysis cells presently available have a horizontal orientation.
Each cell, regardless of manufacturer, has several compartments in each
body. A single cell or several cell assemblies are connected in series hydrau-
lically and electrically. The cell is designed to assure that the hydrogen
separates to the top of each compartment and flows through the cell to
discharge with the product to the next cell or to product storage.
Electrode arrangements vary by being oriented either vertically or hor-
izontally, with vertical the preferred arrangement. Horizontal arrangements
require the electrodes to be expanded metal to assure effective hydrogen
release from the electrode assembly. These cells perform well as long as the
system is properly maintained with a strict cell cleaning maintenance sched-
ule. Vertically oriented electrodes are generally made of sheet material since
the hydrogen will release quickly due to the hydrogen/water specific gravity
difference. Sheet material also provides easy bipolar electrodes where one
face or one end is anodic and the opposite is cathodic.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Recently patented developments by Severn Trent Services’ ClorTec divi-
sion have revolutionized brine electrolyzer performance through the use of
modified cell flow schemes, feed water cooling, improved performance
anode coatings and cathode coatings. The combination of these changes has
increased efficiency from 65% to over 80% current efficiency, reduction of
DC power consumption to 1.8 DC kWh per pound of chlorine, reduction of
by-product chlorates from 400 mg/l to less than 150 mg/l and, most impor-
tantly, reduced salt consumption from 3.5 to 3.0 lb of salt per pound of
chlorine produced.

5.5 Electrolysis systems


5.5.1 Equipment
As outlined in the brine and seawater system general descriptions above,
each part of the electrolysis system has an important role in the sodium
hypochlorite production. All of the equipment listed is essential to assure a
complete and operationally reliable package.
The need for the electrolyzer cell and DC rectifier is obvious since, without
both pieces of equipment, no electrolysis is possible. The following narrative
is a discussion of the ancillary equipment to the cell/rectifier combination.
It is not essential for brine systems to include a water softener and have
high quality salt for the cell-rectifier system to function. However, if these
recommendations are not followed, the cathodic deposits from the salt and
water may accumulate in the cell. These deposits will close the electrode
gap, causing reduced electrolysis and electrode degradation. The same prob-
lem will occur in seawater cells if the seawater flow rate is not maintained
at the supplier recommended level. Consequently, frequent acid cleaning is
necessary to protect the electrodes. Otherwise, a probable reduction in cell
electrode life could result. Such deposits retain an alkaline layer on the anode
surface that renders the coating inactive. This coating activity loss is referred
to as coating passivation.
Cell cleaning is an essential part of a system maintenance program.
Salt, water, and seawater contain calcarious material that reacts with the
cathodic alkaline layer. Calcium and magnesium are the elemental mate-
rials that cause the deposits. The predominant deposit in brine systems
is calcium carbonate, while the seawater system’s deposit is primarily
magnesium hydroxide. These different deposits are caused by differences
in the cell feed brine. Seawater has high magnesium levels and an average
pH of 8.5. Brine system feed has high calcium levels and essentially a
somewhat neutral pH since drinking water is the source water. Although
both deposit forms are easily removed by hydrochloric acid, the carbonate
form in the brine system is more quickly dissolved, shortening the clean-
ing cycle. Most electrolysis systems are supplied with an acid cleaning
system consisting of a tank, pump, and associated piping and valves.
Note that cell cleaning must be performed on the schedule recommended

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


by the electrochlorinator vendor to assure an adequate life from the
electrolyzer cell system.
Hydrogen dilution fans are considered part of all systems, yet their
importance is defined by the system location and local conditions. For exam-
ple, many systems are designed without fans because they are located away
from ignition sources. In some cases, the hydrogen is vented from the degas
device directly to the atmosphere through a water seal. Other systems use
open top tanks to allow the hydrogen to separate and disperse. Brine systems
typically have closed tanks; therefore fans are required for normal dilution,
although some tanks may be directly vented.
Although pumps typically require very little maintenance, they are
essential to effective system performance. Whether they supply water to the
system or product to the dosing point, routine maintenance is required to
assure system reliability.
Brine systems will normally have only product dosing pumps. Generally,
they are positive displacement pumps to overcome system dosing point
pressures. Variable speed drive controls are common to assure correct prod-
uct addition. Some systems may require a centrifugal pump on the inlet
water supply to boost the pressure due to low resident system pressure.
These pumps interface with the control scheme for operation whenever the
system is in operation.
Seawater systems will normally have centrifugal pumps on the inlet
water supply to meet flow and pressure requirements in the system.
Systems having low dosing pressure and no shock requirement seldom
have dosing pumps. A substantial number of systems require centrifugal
pumps to meet continuous and shock dose chlorination requirements.
Tanks of sufficient size are provided for hydrogen removal and for a
positive pump suction head.

5.5.2 Instruments
System instruments are designed to provide continuous system monitoring
for conditions outside acceptable operating limits. They also form an essen-
tial part of the control and safety logic.
All electrolysis systems are designed to have water and brine flow
indication, cell level sensors, cell temperature sensors, tank level indica-
tion, hydrogen fan indication, and dosing point residual indication. All
of these sensors can, depending in the vendor’s control logic design, have
alarm and shutdown set points. Systems from all vendors will have the
same general alarm and status indicators to confirm proper operation.
With few exceptions, each of these alarm situations will shut down system
operations to prevent serious damage to the equipment or hazard to the
personnel. The following discussion will provide general guidelines for
specific alarm conditions.
Cell operation is prevented during filling at start up and after acid
cleaning. This lockout mode assures that the electrodes are always covered

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


by brine solution. Should the electrodes become exposed while generating
hypochlorite, hydrogen detonation may occur. Although the electrodes
may be partially immersed in brine solution, a spark potential may still
exist. Such actions as closing the cell discharge valve should immediately
stop cell electrolysis if the flow switch is functioning properly. If not, the
cell liquid level will quickly be depressed exposing the electrodes to
hydrogen by the generated gas pressure. In addition, the cell will have
some increase in oxygen production due to the brine depletion from loss
of flow. Cell level switches normally are not used on seawater systems.
Therefore, the flow switch is even more important in seawater systems
than in brine systems.
Water and brine flow meters are essential to confirm a generally accepted
water to brine ratio of 10:1. Flow alarms are required to be certain that the
cell temperature does not exceed 140οF (60οC) or cell damage will occur. The
addition of a temperature sensor is part of a comprehensive safety system
to stop cell electrolysis should the flow sensor fail.
Tank level instruments are designed to operate the system when refilling
the tank is necessary, protect the dosing pumps, and prevent tank overflow.
Generally, two operating set points and two alarm points are used for tank
level instruments. The operating set points maintain the tank level by oper-
ating the system via the control scheme. The low-level alarm set point will
stop the pumps and alarm while maintaining generator operation. A high-
level alarm setting will alarm and stop generator operation.
Hydrogen dilution fan switches will alarm and stop generator produc-
tion. The dilution fan switches assure that the large volume of hydrogen in
tanks is always properly diluted. Systems without fans are also without air
flow switches. The location of open air system hydrogen venting is important
to assure that safe atmospheric dilution occurs.
Residual analysis or oxidation reduction potential (ORP) analysis is often
applied to control dosing pumps or, in the case of seawater systems, DC
rectifier operating current. Analog signals are used through a PID controller
to assure stable operation of the pump or rectifier. Historically, residual
analysis has been the control method of choice, however, as instrumentation
becomes more sophisticated ORP is becoming more accepted. The use of
chloramines for residual maintenance in water systems requires the compar-
ison of free to combined chlorine concentrations.

5.6 Materials of construction


5.6.1 Plastic materials
5.6.1.1 PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and CPVC (chlorinated
polyvinyl chloride)
These two materials are suitable for all applications within the realm of on-
site hypochlorite generation, system supply potable water, seawater, and
concentrated brine (300 g/l strength or 26.39% salt by weight, brine basis)
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
and sodium hypochlorite product up to 15 weight percent (150 g/l). The
maximum recommended upper operating temperature limit for this material
is 140οF (60οC).
Although all U.S. suppliers of these materials combine ultraviolet (UV)
inhibitors in their products, care must be taken in some extreme sunlight
environments to prevent UV degradation of PVC or CPVC. Ultraviolet deg-
radation exhibits itself via a white surface discoloration, loss of material
elasticity, and a reduction of impact resistance. Ultraviolet degradation is
prevented using a white latex paint coating. Pipe surface preparation is
provided using materials such as methyethyl keytone, methanol or acetone.
Joining methods are important to consider with these materials. The
most common joining methods are solvent cementing, threading, and flang-
ing. Natural stress relieving properties inherent in PVC and related polymer
compounds, with few exceptions, generally prevent reliable threaded joints.
Threaded connections present the most difficulty in achieving reliable
leak-free performance. Field experience has proven that commonly used
Teflon tape causes the threaded female fitting to randomly split and leak.
Several commercially available joining compounds have also been used with
sporadic results. The compound found most reliable for PVC threaded joints
is manufactured by Rectorseal of Houston, Texas under the market trade name
of Rectorseal 5. This material is a soft set compound acceptable for a broad
spectrum of pipe materials, is UL classified, suitable for a variety of service
including potable water, and is non-toxic in accordance with NSF 61 standards.
Solvent cementing the joints is the most reliable sealing method. While
sloppy joining techniques may be used for water, seawater, and salt brine
solution, supplier recommended joining solvents and cements, joint prepa-
ration methods, and cement application methods must be adhered to strictly
to assure long-term reliability in sodium hypochlorite service. Sodium
hypochlorite strengths of 0.5 to 1.3% generated from dissolved salt brine
may degrade the cement causing eventual seepage in poorly prepared and
assembled joints.
The use of CPVC is generally regarded as an unnecessary additional
cost compared to PVC. CPVC will average two times the price of PVC for
pipe, valves, and fittings with no apparent service advantage over PVC in
on-site hypochlorite applications. In instances where CPVC material was
utilized, frequent failures have occurred during shipping and field storage.
These failures resulted in delayed commissioning on overseas projects.
Analysis indicated the failures were the result of stress breakage due to
the harder yet more brittle CPVC material in areas of true union valve
connection nuts and flange cement joint sockets. While there have been
similar experiences with PVC, they were rare.

5.6.1.2 Polypropylene (PP)


This material is suitable for more limited applications within on-site sodium
hypochlorite generation operations, system supply water, seawater, and con-
centrated brine (300 g/l strength or 26.39% salt by weight, brine basis).
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Polypropylene is not recommended by the authors for sodium hypochlorite
service. Experience has proven that sodium hypochlorite may adversely
affect the long-term reliability of polypropylene. The upper operating tem-
perature limit for this material is 180οF (82οC).
Long-term operation of welded parts in the adjacent weld effect area
and machined parts in the region of sharp corners such as on pump housings
are very prone to radial and stress corrosion cracking. Although parts that
have been molded do not have the same propensity for this condition,
caution should be exercised for all sodium hypochlorite applications. Some
U.S. suppliers of these materials combine an ultraviolet (UV) inhibitor in
their products by applying black pigment in their compounding.
Because this thermoplastic cannot be dissolved by the strongest solvents,
the most common joining methods are thermosealing, threading, and
flanges. The natural stress-relieving properties inherent in polypropylene,
with few exceptions, generally prevent reliable threaded connections. Fusion
welding and hot gas welding are the preferred methods for socket type joints.
Careful application of the manufacturer’s procedures is essential to assure
proper bonding and pressure ratings.

5.6.1.3 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)


This material is suitable for water, brine, and raw seawater applications
within the realm of on-site sodium hypochlorite generation. It is also suitable
for system supply water, seawater, and concentrated brine (300 g /l strength
or 26.39% salt by weight, brine basis) exposure. Manufacturers are not will-
ing to recommend the use of this material for sodium hypochlorite service
due to long-term service failure prospects. This material’s upper operating
temperature limit is slightly higher than PVC at 160οF (71οC).
Joining methods are important to consider with this material. The natural
stress-relieving properties inherent in polymer compounds, with few excep-
tions, prevent reliable threaded connections. The most common joining
methods are solvent cementing, threading, and flanging.

5.6.1.4 Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF, Kynar®)


and polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon®)
These materials are suitable for all applications within on-site hypochlo-
rite generation systems, e.g., system supply water, seawater, and concen-
trated brine (300 g/l strength or 26.39% salt by weight, brine basis) and
sodium hypochlorite product up to 15 weight percent (150 g/l). The
maximum recommended operating temperature for these materials is
280οF (138οC).
Joining methods are limited for these materials. The natural stress
relieving properties inherent in polymer compounds, with few exceptions,
prevent reliable threaded connections. Of these materials, Teflon is a par-
ticular offender due to cold flow. Because the strongest solvents will not
dissolve this polymer, the most common joining methods are thermoseal-
ing, threading, and flanges.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
5.6.1.5 FRP (fiberglass reinforced plastic)
This material is suitable for all applications within on-site hypochlorite gen-
eration systems provided the correct resin materials, recommended by man-
ufacturers, are used to assure excellent life characteristics. The resin of choice,
regardless of the manufacturer, is a vinyl ester based with a BPO-DMA
(benzoyl peroxide-dimethylaniline) cure catalyst. The upper operating tem-
perature limit is 140οF (60οC).
Although all U.S. suppliers of these materials combine ultraviolet (UV)
inhibitors in their products, care must be taken in extreme sunlight environ-
ments to prevent UV degradation. Ultraviolet degradation exhibits itself via
surface resin degradation exposing the outer resin layer of chopped fiber-
glass. This degradation can be prevented by painting the pipe with white
latex paint. The pipe surface preparation is provided with such materials as
commercial solvents or slight surface roughening with sandpaper.
Joining methods are very important for this material. The natural stress-
relieving properties inherent in other polymer compounds will seldom be
exhibited for FRP threaded connecting joints. The most common joining
methods are epoxy resin cementing, threading, and flanging.
Epoxy resin cement joints are the most reliable; however, sloppy joint
preparation and epoxy application will cause seep leaks through the joint resin.
Therefore, one must strictly adhere to the supplier recommended joining epoxy
materials, joint preparation methods, and epoxy resin application techniques
to assure long-term sodium hypochlorite system service reliability. Experience
has proven that 0.5 to 1.3% sodium hypochlorite, generated from dissolved salt
brine, will attack poorly assembled joints causing eventual failure.

5.6.2 Elastomeric sealing materials


5.6.2.1 Fluorocarbon elastomer (Viton®)
This fluoroelastomeric material is a copolymer of hexafluoropropylene and
1,1-difluoroethylene. It is suitable for all application areas of sodium hypochlo-
rite systems. The temperature limits are –13οF (–26οC) to 350οF (176οC).

5.6.2.2 Ethylene propylene diene methylene (EPDM)


This material is an ethylene-propylene diene methylene compound blend
elastomer suitable for application in system feed water, seawater, all strengths
of sodium salt solutions and very low strength hypochlorite solution. The
temperature limits are –65οF (–53οC) to 300οF (150οC). Material usage includes
valve o-rings, valve seats, and full-faced flange gaskets. This material is not
recommended for use in hypochlorite service. Only full-faced flange gaskets
provide acceptable long-term service in sodium hypochlorite systems.

5.6.2.3 Buna-N
This material is a copolymer of acrylonitrile and butadiene suitable for
application in system feed water, seawater, and all strengths of sodium salt

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


solutions. The temperature limits are –120οF (–50οC) to 250οF (120οC). Mate-
rial usage includes valve o-rings, valve seats, and full-faced flange gaskets.
Once again use only the full-faced flange gaskets in hypochlorite service
for reliable service.

5.6.2.4 Neoprene
This material is a synthetic rubber in use for over 70 years as suitable for
application in system feed water, seawater, and all strengths of salt solutions.
The temperature limits are –10οF (–23οC) to 200οF (93οC). Material usage
includes valve o-rings, valve seats, and full-faced flange gaskets only as
noted for the above application services. Use this material only for full-faced
flange gaskets in hypochlorite for reliable service.

5.6.3 Metals
5.6.3.1 Titanium (Ti)
This metal is impervious to all materials used to generate sodium hypochlorite
product. Titanium is the substrate for the DSA anodes (positively charged
electrode) and, in most cell configurations, the cathodes (negatively charged
electrode). Titanium may be considered to be electrolysis cell exposure tolerant.
Titanium of varying purity can be used in most sodium hypochlorite
applications. However, manufacturers of sodium hypochlorite equipment
generally use chemically pure (CP) grade 2 or better material because spe-
cialized metallurgical properties are not required.
Welding titanium should be carried out under an argon gas atmosphere
using a TIG (tungsten inert gas) torch with parent metal or wire filler metal.
MIG (metal inert gas) welding using a wire feed system can cause feed
reliability problems. Titanium has a surface texture resulting from the wire
extrusion process causing wire guide abrasion and subsequent wire feed
failures. Good back shielding is essential to assure contamination-free
welded joints having parent metal ductility.
Material cost and specific needs define the best application for this
material (e.g., cell electrodes and fasteners). Although some electrochlorina-
tion facilities have been installed using titanium centrifugal pumps, titanium
is seldom used beyond cell internal component applications.

5.6.3.2 Hastelloy® C 276 (Hast. C)


This metal is also impervious to all materials used to generate sodium
hypochlorite product. This alloy will tolerate the severe corrosion environ-
ment of hypochlorite applications.
Hastelloy is available in varying alloys. Manufacturers of sodium
hypochlorite equipment generally recommend Hastelloy C 276 grade since
its special properties offer excellent service life.
Welding Hastelloy C should be carried out under an argon gas atmo-
sphere using a TIG (tungsten inert gas) torch with parent metal or wire filler.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


MIG (metal inert gas) welding is also used with specific wire alloys to assure
proper weldment ductility. As with titanium, good back shielding is essential
to assure contamination free welds.
Material cost, electrical properties, and corrosion resistance make this
material excellent for seawater cell cathodes and pumps. The seawater
electrolyzer cell is virtually the exclusive domain where Hastelloy C 276
is used as cathode material due to high cost when compared with less
expensive alternatives.

5.6.3.3 316L stainless steel (316L)


This metal is only used on the seawater supply portion of seawater electro-
lyzer systems. Material cost, corrosion resistance, and specific applications
define this material’s use as seawater booster pumps and seawater strainers.
Many electrochlorination facilities have installed horizontal or submersible
centrifugal pumps and manual or automatic strainer assemblies using this
material for acceptable service life.

5.7 DC power rectifiers


Three major types of rectifier units used in electrocatalytic sodium
hypochlorite generation are described in this section. Each of these recti-
fiers has its own merits based upon needs specific to operational and
environmental requirements.
Tap switch voltage control rectifiers — These units have no accurate
current control mechanism. Rectifier control is provided from transformer
primary tap points using a multipoint click switch regulator. The regulator
varies the input voltage to the transformer resulting in a secondary voltage
variation. For this reason, the rectifier current varies as the solution temper-
ature or salt content changes the cell resistance. For units of this type it is
very important that the system has a closely maintained feed water temper-
ature and salinity level.
Thyristor rectifiers — Thyristor rectifiers, often called SCR (silicon con-
trol rectifier) controlled, are the most commonly used for electrolysis cells
where more than 100 amp DC service is required. Thyristor designs allow
the use of AC input voltages up to 11,000 V and normal 50 or 60 Hz require-
ments. Most thyristor rectifier designs operate in the range of 75 to 90%
efficiency at a power factor of 0.7 to 0.85 when at full load.
Switching power supplies — Switching power supplies operate at a high
frequencies, normally in the range of 10 to 200 kHz. While there are large units
that will accept 480 V 3 phase input power, normally this type of rectification
operates with 110/220 V AC single phase power. High frequency devices will
have a power factor of 0.99 and efficiencies of 75 to 85%. Higher output systems
will eventually be available and should be utilized to assure further reductions
in operating cost. Switching power supplies offer the advantage of a very small
transformer resulting from a high operating frequency.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


5.7.1 Rectifier metering, control, and operation
Switching power supplies manufactured in the United States normally are
supplied with digital meters because the system is fully electronic. Analog
meters are generally used for tap switch and thyristor type DC rectifiers.
When digital meters are used for tap switch and thyristor rectifiers, addi-
tional electronic control cards are essential for proper meter function.
Tap switch rectifiers have very simple controls. The current is adjusted
via individual AC line taps. These line taps adjust the transformer second-
ary line voltage by making the transformer slightly out of balance between
each phase. The current requirements for proper cell operation are based
upon the cell resistance. The resistance is controlled by the feed water salt
concentration, feed water temperature, and the nominal cell electrode resis-
tance. Any variation in these parameters will affect the cell operating
current, increasing current for reduced cell resistance and decreasing cur-
rent for increased cell resistance, which is caused by a decrease or increase
in cell voltage.
SCR power supplies have numerous configurations. The two dominant
configurations are for rectifiers having thyristors (SCRs) on the AC line
before the transformer and those having thyristors (SCRs) after the trans-
former. Both types of units are controlled via electronic circuit boards having
internal safety circuits and both DC voltage or current control capability.
These devices are designed to have 6, 12 or, rarely, 24 pulse DC outputs. The
purpose of 12 and 24 pulse units is to improve power factor and to reduce
harmonic distortion on the AC power line. Designers accomplish 12 and 24
pulse outputs by phase shifting the secondary output using Delta-Wye and
Delta-Delta configurations for the main power transformers.
Switching power supplies are all electronic by design, thus, have similar
controls to SCR type supplies. Most units are designed for DC voltage control
that relates to their usage in the computer power supply industry. Units
supplied for on-site sodium hypochlorite electrolyzers require constant cur-
rent with floating voltage. Therefore, manufacturer modifications are usually
made to the power supply for a current controlled design.

5.7.1.1 Cooling
While a myriad of cooling schemes exist in sodium hypochlorite generation
(e.g., air, water, and oil), by far the most common cooling method is fan
operated forced air cooling. Local environmental and safety conditions will
determine the cooling method most acceptable for reliable equipment life.
Rectifier units are designed to operate at maximum ambient tempera-
tures of 105οF to 125οF (40οC to 50οC) to assure that control and power
electronics can survive possible installed environmental service stresses. All
DC power systems are designed around these temperatures, unless more
stringent specifications are necessary resulting from local conditions.
DC power equipment installed under cover as partial or full environ-
mental coverage can be designed to rather low National Electrical Manufac-

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


turers Association (NEMA) classifications. These types are most often used
in plant applications where local weather conditions are the primary protec-
tion consideration. Forced air is the preferred cooling method with equip-
ment having one or more high volume low-pressure fans exhausting from
the top of the power component cabinet. Cabinets are built to NEMA 1 or
NEMA 3 (IP 23 to IP 32) cabinet classifications for air-cooled applications.
Side exhaust units are built to allow uncovered outdoor installations,
however, the manufacturer must increase fan size approximately 25% for
efficiency losses due to the air flow direction change required. Also, the side
mounted cover design must minimize additional air pressure losses.
Rectifier DC device and transformer cooling efficiency is dependent
upon the internal cabinet equipment location. DC devices require 500 to 1000
linear ft/min air passage over the cooling heat sinks. Baffling arrangements
are usually installed to direct the flow of air over the thyristor heat sink.
Where the transformer is mounted inside a single enclosure below the DC
devices, manufacturers design for transformer heat losses. Present transformer
materials for construction such as Nomex are very temperature tolerant. Trans-
formers designed and manufactured using these materials provide excellent
life cycle performance with minimum air flow requirements.
Isolated instances have occurred where systems were designed for much
higher temperatures than discussed above. Installations in the Middle East,
Saudi Arabia, for example, normally require a sun-shade and independent
cooling in the control cabinet to prevent premature control electronics failure.
Thermometers placed in control cabinets in full sun have demonstrated
temperatures above 175οF (80οC). Unless electronic components are mil-spec
equipment, early failure is assured.
Cooling methods for indoor or outdoor temperate locations are normally
forced air having the air exit from the top or side of the thyristor power
cabinet. Screening is placed in the bottom of the cabinet. Course filters also
are often added to the cabinet bottom for efficient debris ingress control in
the air stream.
DC power equipment in severe environment installations for seawater
electroclorination requires special attention. The same is true for offshore
oil applications, oilrig and floating production storage operation (FPSO)
cooling loop, and offshore water flooding. These are plant applications
where the designer must account for severe temperatures and seawater
mist-laden atmospheres.
Designers must consider the use of sealed circulating forced air cooling
where an external water source, seawater or potable water, is applied to
an internal water/air exchanger for controlling the internal Btu loads
released by the power components. Designs include units using oil cooling
in an external transformer remote from the DC power devices and a closed-
loop water to air circulation systems for cooling thyristor DC power
devices. When the power requirements are not excessive, the system is
designed with external isolated thyristors mounted to a cooling block that
can accept virtually any water cooling source.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Oil immersion cooling is used on rectifiers where the environment is
severely corrosive. Desert and offshore locations are prime examples of temper-
ature, airborne dust and sand, and salt laden atmospheric conditions where oil
immersion prevents premature equipment failure. The design principles applied
are identical large power transformers. The internal components are rack
mounted for easier removal and immersed from the top in a tank of oil with
external cooling coils to provide convection circulation of the oil. Note that the
term “easier” means that one must bring a portable crane to the site to lift the
rack from the oil tub rather than draining the oil from the tank and removing
side panels. When designing cooling systems, the authors recommend that the
engineer ensure 1) there is no need for air fans and 2) the manufacturer has
provided sufficient convection cooling surface area for the oil cooling coils.
Thyristor devices are mounted in the rack arrangement to assure exposure to
the circulating oil after it is cooled in the exchanger. All the equipment is
designed to 50οC or 60οC ambient temperatures as a further reliability factor.

5.7.1.2 Area classification


Electrochlorination systems designed for applications in refineries and off-
shore platforms require particular attention to temporary or constant explo-
sive gas environmental conditions.
Control equipment for area classifications NEMA class 1 Division 2
Groups C and D are most often configured with a Z purge wherein the
controls are always under instrument air pressure of several inches water
column. Normal air requirements are 1 to 3 ft3/h to maintain the pressure
protection with a sealed cabinet. Several manufacturers have UL approved
air control instrumentation to meet mandated flow and pressure specifica-
tions while providing a system safety shut down should pressure loss occur.
NEMA Class 1 Division 1 Groups A and B areas where explosive con-
ditions can exist continuously do not normally allow Z purging. These con-
ditions require NEMA 7 sealed aluminum control enclosures, frequently
referred to as coffins, because they are aluminum castings designed to con-
tain an explosion within the enclosure while sealed.
DC power components do not require stringent control enclosure or
purging requirements noted above because DC components are non-arcing
devices when compared to relays and control contactors. Cabinetry used for
these applications is sealed only to minimize the ingress of water and debris.

5.7.1.3 Maintenance
While minimal maintenance is required for water and oil cooled systems,
regular oil and closed loop cooling media inspections must be performed.
Each manufacturer should provide inspection guidelines to assure that the
inspector will detect problems before they become equipment failure incidents.
Forced air cooled systems require quarterly cooling fan and motor inspection,
quarterly filter screen cleaning, semi-annual wire and cable termination con-
nection inspection, and DC device and transformer cleaning. It is best to use
a compressed air nozzle for cleaning transformers and DC devices.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
5.7.2 DC rectifier operating status
The DC rectifier is a singular stand-alone unit connected to an electrolyzer
cell circuit in sodium hypochlorite generation systems. While these units
may be operated from remotely located control panels, each unit should
have its own independent controls and safety equipment.
Rectifier unit controls and DC output current and voltage meters indi-
cating operating levels are on the face of the rectifier panel. Internal temper-
ature sensors for the thyristors, diodes, and transformer are interlocked with
the AC power supply controls to provide unit shut down if there is excessive
temperature rise. Alternating current safety circuits meeting NEMA motor
control safety requirements are normally supplied in the rectifier system,
eliminating the need for remote motor control connections unless required
by local regulations.
Large rectifier units are designed with DC fusing to prevent a direct AC
phase-to-phase short fault caused by a DC device failure. These are high
speed fuses installed in line with each device and will often have an indicator
fuse across the circuit to indicate the failed fuse and shut down input power
until the problem is corrected.
Remote DC output operating status is easily indicated on an operator
interface panel via analog signals from rectifier internal electronic interface
cards. Interface electronics are also available to provide DC current control
from the PLC. System voltage must float, thus voltage control is not required.
These arrangements are normally add-on cards allowing the use of standard
rectifier control electronics. Care must be used when controlling from the
PLC panel with feedback control systems. Because the system may oscillate,
a PID control loop must be added to assure control stability. While the control
loop can be part of the PLC program, one should consider the use of a small
PID loop control unit. This type of unit allows one to program sensitivity
changes in the control loop without the need for PLC program changes.

5.7.2.1 DC rectifier independent alarm conditions


Alarm conditions that cause shut down and alarm are high SCR temperature,
high diode temperature, high transformer temperature, high transformer oil
temperature, SCR fuse failure, diode fuse failure, fan motor fuse failure, and
low fan pressure, where applicable.

5.7.3 DC rectifier safety equipment


Direct current power supply units are normally supplied as stand-alone
equipment with all required operational and safety equipment included as
part of the package. Cabinet design standards and electrical design codes to
which they are built must be specified to assure installation codes are fol-
lowed. Asia, Europe, and Canada adhere to very similar electrical code
requirements as does the United States and Central and South America.
Australia and New Zealand are similar to European standards having some

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


clear differences, thus one should request applicable standards to avoid
inspection acceptance issues.
Direct current rectifiers have two standard DC power-related safety
devices, thermo sensors on the thyristors and diodes, and thermo sensors in
the transformer windings. Other safety devices include fan pressure
switches, oil temperature sensors, oil level sensors, water flow sensors, and
water temperature sensors.
Thyristor sensors provide an adequate safety margin to assure that the
equipment is not operated too close to the upper temperature limits, usually
125οC. These devices are very reliable when design parameters assure normal
operation is at least 25% less than the maximum temperature recommended
by the manufacturer.
Diodes are able to operate at a temperature of 150οC. The same rule of
thumb applies to diodes as well; don’t design diodes to operate at temper-
atures more than 75% of the maximum operating temperature rating.
Air-cooled DC rectifiers are sometimes supplied with a fan pressure
switch as a substitute for a vane type air flow switch or a pitot tube. Pressure
switches can only be installed in equipment having an internal baffle at the
diodes or thyristors to assure sufficient pressure. This pressure is a differen-
tial pressure measurement referenced to atmospheric pressure. Experience
has demonstrated the necessity for a spare differential pressure switch avail-
able on-site. These switches are measuring pressure differences of 1/4 - to
3/ -inch water column against atmospheric conditions, are in generally harsh
4
environments, and are prone to develop sticky diaphragm failures over
extended operating times. Cooling fan motors and oil or water circulation
pump motors are always supplied with their own safety circuits in accor-
dance with local code requirements.

5.8 Control panel


Control panel equipment can be classified in two different categories, relay
logic based and programmable logic controller based. While relay logic control
system faults are usually more easily located and corrected in the field, today
these systems are being used much less. This change is the result of widespread
use of distributed control systems where complete system integration requires
sophisticated field signal instrumentation. Also, because of the increased use
of powerful intelligent screen equipment allowing full system status monitor-
ing, these changes are evolving much more rapidly. For this reason and
because of the rapid development, acceptance, and use of computer based
systems we will discuss programmable logic control systems having all the
control features necessary for proper system control.

5.8.1 Instrumentation
Status, control, and alarm condition requirements for systems should include
some or all of the following on each installation:

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


• Pressure and differential pressure control, sensing, indication, and
pressure relief
• Liquid flow control, sensing, indication, and alarm
• Temperature sensing, indication, and alarm
• Tank level control, sensing, indication, and alarm
• DC rectifier operating status
• DC rectifier independent alarm conditions
• Dosing system operating control and status
• Chlorine residual analysis, control and indication
• Hydrogen detection and alarm conditions

5.9 Pressure and differential pressure equipment


On-site hypochlorite generation systems do not require sophisticated pres-
sure indication (e.g., pressure transmitters and transducers) or controls. Pres-
sure gauges used throughout the industry provide sufficient operating infor-
mation for most applications. Gauges used in all except potable water
applications should have diaphragm gauge seals to protect internal gauge
components from liquid-borne corrosion associated with salt water and
sodium hypochlorite. Gauge seals are assembled, vacuum evacuated, and
filled with glycerin or silicone oil. They must then be bench-calibrated to
assure accuracy. The use of oil filled gauges and stainless steel case materials
provide excellent service life at minimum cost.
Situations arise in which the need for pressure control is essential to the
safety of the system. Plant operations having very high water supply pres-
sure will require at least a spring-operated diaphragm pressure regulator, a
pressure control valve system or, at a minimum, an in-line orifice designed
to create pressure reduction at required system flows. The diaphragm pres-
sure regulator and pressure control valve will not allow the pressure to
exceed a preset value. This pressure limitation will protect piping and equip-
ment throughout a specific operating range. System protection is not part of
plate orifice pressure drop systems except when there is design flow through
the system. Plate orifice systems allow line pressure equalization at the
highest available pressure when the flow is stopped. For this reason, the
system water flow isolation valve should be placed on the high-pressure
side of the orifice arrangement. Valves in this application are often tapered
plug valves that allow good closure at high pressure.
Differential pressure (DP) devices are used on strainer systems in sea-
water applications for strainer cleaning. Differential pressure switches act as
a control scheme override when the strainer receives an unusual filtration
load before normal cleaning cycle operation is scheduled. Switches in this
application are available with and without DP indication. One may use a
DP transmitter, rather than a switch, connected to a PLC controller for
indication and control. Those with DP indication must be installed where
environmental conditions are not severe or one must design them into a
protective panel. As with pressure gauges, DP instrument protection and
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
calibration using oil-filled diaphragm seals is recommended to assure excel-
lent instrument service in the field.
Pressure relief equipment is applied occasionally on brine electrolysis
systems and nearly always to seawater electrolyzer equipment. With the
exception of the ELCAT tubular cell design, a means of pressure relief is
essential to protect cell equipment from excessive pressure. Particular atten-
tion must be given to the materials of construction to assure that corrosion
will not cause loss of the relief device’s safety function.
The two most common pressure relief devices employed in electrolysis
systems are spring-loaded relief valves and rupture discs. PVC relief valves
employed on seawater systems are not designed to provide full-flow, there-
fore it is necessary to provide two valves in parallel when full-flow is a
requirement. Large metal valves, while not often used, can be sized to meet
full-flow requirements. In each case, the material must be lined to protect
against salt solution corrosion. Rupture discs are rarely used because they
are one-time devices. If, for example, a high pressure water line upset occurs
that causes disc failure, the system will stop and an extended shut down
ensues to replace the failed disc. Continued operation is an advantage of the
spring-loaded pressure relief valves.

5.10 Liquid flow equipment


Liquid flow control is essential to system performance, flow sensing to
system safety, and flow indication to assure one of the essential conditions
for maximum system performance and efficiency.
Though flow control devices vary widely, simple schemes are sufficient
for effective operational control. Brine electrolysis systems are dominated
by regulated pressure water supplies utilizing globe or tapered plug type
control valves on the water and brine flow circuit. The importance of
accurate pressure control must be emphasized to assure proper flow reg-
ulation. In fact, a pressure regulator for water flow control has been the
most effective where system water pressure is unstable. This method of
control works well when an ejector is used to draw brine solution from
the brine dissolver for stable water pressure and accurate brine flow control
as well.
Seawater systems are not as bound by close flow control requirements,
therefore multi-orifice flexible flow controllers are used. These controllers
employ many small rubber orifices installed in a plate and are accurate to
± 15% with the emphasis on plus. In situations where it is important to
control flow more closely to a specific requirement, it is necessary to tune
the orifice equipment. This tuning is accomplished by adjusting several of
the small orifices to a larger or smaller size to achieve the desired flow rate
at accepted operating pressures.
Flow sensing is normally accomplished by using paddle or vane type
sensors. Where there are small flows of clean water (e.g., small brine elec-
trolyzers), Hall Effect flow sensors are applied.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Small paddle sensors for water or brine flow using micro switches to
indicate a condition change have the most utility for electrolyzer systems.
These sensors are built with materials that will withstand both brine and
hypochlorite environments, can be installed in very tight spaces, and provide
sufficient accuracy for good safety protection. Applications include water,
seawater, brine, and hypochlorite streams. Construction consists of Hastel-
loy, Viton, Ryton, and plastic body components. Sensors of this type are
commonly applied to seawater feed circuits, electrolyzer cell outlet piping,
hypochlorite dosing systems, and the like.
Vane sensors most often used are part of a variable area flow meter and
applied almost exclusively to seawater feed piping. In this sensor, the vane
is mounted to a cross shaft and flow passes through and beneath the vane.
Mounted to the vane shaft are an indicator pointer and a cam unit. Inside a
side mounted enclosure is a roller type side mounted micro switch. Using
the cross shaft mounted cam to actuate the micro switch, a signal can be sent
to the control panel to indicate operational status. These same vane sensors
are available with analog signal outputs for use in control or as a PLC screen
flow indicator.
Hall Effect sensors use a magnetic rotor spinning at a rate proportional
to the flow. The rotor magnets cause a series of magnetic fields exciting the
Hall Effect sensor. The pulse frequency is compared to a preset adjustable
frequency activating the internal relay for a make or brake condition. This
signal can be an RFO type 4.5-V to 24-V pulsed output signal or an RFA type
0–10 VDC analog signal to the PLC, then used to display the flow rate on a
screen display. These small sensors are used predominantly on the water
feed in small brine electrolysis systems. They are not as robust as is desirable
for most field applications.
Flow indication generally consists of either a variable area flow meter
or digital flow indication utilizing a signal from a Hall Effect sensor or an
analog signal source. Variable area meters are the most commonly used being
either tubular or an in-line paddle type arrangement. Because hypochlorite
systems do not require extremely close control, accuracy of 5% is acceptable.
Alarm signals are achieved for most system designs by providing either
a micro switch or a proximity switch contact closure. Where Hall Effect
switches are used, the PLC is programmed to alarm when the signal is below
a preset value. Micro switches are used in vane type variable area meters
while proximity switches are most often applied to tube type variable area
flow meters. All of these signals can be used with a PLC controlled system;
however, Hall Effect devices must have an installed contact set for use in
relay logic controls.

5.11 Cell level and temperature


All electrolyzer cells operating in a brine electrolysis environment will have
cell level and temperature sensors. The level sensor provides assurance the
cell is filled before applying DC power to the cell. The temperature sensor
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
acts as a redundant sensor should the flow monitoring equipment fail to
operate properly.
Level sensor failure or bypassing the electrical safety controls will cause
premature DC power supply start up. If the electrodes are not completely
covered there will be excessive liquid heating and undesirable bare electrode
gas exposure. This situation will not normally be a problem; however, there
is always the possibility for a spark occurrence between the electrodes.
Because the electrolyzer always has some oxygen in the hydrogen mixture,
the result of dissolved gas and anode inefficiency, this unflooded condition
has the potential to ignite should any sparking occur in the cell.
The temperature sensor is further assurance that flow through the cell
is sufficient to prevent cell and piping damage by sensing the cell exit liquid
temperature. If the cell were made from titanium, then there would be no
melt down; not so with plastics. Plastic cell bodies normally used will slowly
fail at temperatures above 180οF (82οC).

5.12 Water and brine instrumentation


Water supply hardware feeding electrolyzer cells is either a small pump or
flow meters with control valves using residential water pressure. Small
pumps are used where the system is very small and stable water flow control
presents a problem. Small diaphragm or bellows pumps provide the neces-
sary control to assure that a small system, less than 50 lb/d (22.8 kg/d) will
perform properly.
Small pumps must be chosen carefully. Local conditions having very
cold water, less than 50οF (10οC), will cause premature failure of the bellows
assembly in a bellows pump. In this case, a diaphragm pump is the best
choice because diaphragms do not have severe flexing associated with bel-
lows assemblies.
Flow meters for large systems normally are acrylic materials allowing
corrosion resistance and cost effective installation ease in PVC piping. These
meters are available with integral proximity sensors connected to the control
system. This system assures that cell power will be stopped to prevent cell
damage due to low water flow conditions. Low flow conditions will cause
cell overheating and could cause a fire if electrode short circuits occur.
Flow monitors are employed on water feed systems where flow meters
are not available with proximity sensors. Flow meters for flows less than 2
gal/min (8 l/min) require external sensors to monitor the water flow, again
to prevent potential cell damage noted above. Brine flow control is normally
by small positive displacement pumps to assure good flow control.

5.13 Inlet seawater strainers


Redundant strainer arrangements are normally required for large plants to
assure reliable electrochlorinator (EC) operation. The use of both automatic
and manual strainers is the most common. Engineering companies prefer
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
automatic strainers to reduce cleaning maintenance and manual strainers in
a parallel line to allow maintenance of the automatic unit.
Seawater systems require strainer assemblies for size control of seawater
borne suspended solids. Particle sizes considered small enough to pass
through a seawater electrolyzer must be less than 0.030 in. (0.8 mm). Some
locations will experience an occasional plankton bloom. While this small
aquatic animal passes through the recommended strainer opening, plankton
will plug automatic strainers by their sheer numbers.
The separator media is either screen material in a supporting basket
structure or wedge wire assembled to provide a straight tube type assembly.
Wedge wire separators, being structurally stronger, allow less outside sup-
port. However, the supporting arrangement functions to hold the spiral
wound wire at the proper position to maintain correct separator size require-
ments. Wedge wire assemblies also provide a very smooth surface for the
scraper assembly to remove captured material built up on the surface.
Strainers are available having both manual and automatic cleaning capa-
bilities. Materials of construction used in seawater are cast iron, brass,
Monel®, copper-nickel, 316L stainless steel or related alloys 25–6Mo and Al-
6XN and PVC. Fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) and high order metals
such as titanium are used very rarely.
Basket strainers must be opened and cleaned manually through a gasket-
sealed removable top. Bronze and stainless steel are preferred body construc-
tion materials. Seldom are more exotic materials used in body construction.
Cast iron also serves well in basket units when proper cathodic protection
is installed. Baskets are most often Monel or a stainless alloy.
Large, cast iron basket strainers have been used on seawater electrochlori-
nation plants with good success. When basket strainers are paired with auto-
mated strainers the material of construction is usually stainless steel. Offshore
platform EC applications are less susceptible to large quantities of suspended
material. There, parallel PVC bodied strainers are used with good success,
having one operational and one standby using Monel or stainless steel baskets.
Candle filters have been used where large seawater volume filtration is
required. These are also manually cleaned arrangements. The body assem-
blies are made from cast iron and designed with upright filter units mounted
to the assembly false bottom. Filtered seawater flows from the center of each
candle into a collection area beneath the false bottom and is piped out of the
casing bottom to the point of use. Separated material is dropped to the false
bottom and removed from the side of the filter assembly. This type of strain-
ing device is not often used due to manual maintenance requirements.
Automated strainers are supplied in three basic design configurations,
the spiral scraper, straight bar scraper, and plunger scraper types. Each
design has been used successfully for seawater EC systems.
Spiral scraper and straight bar scraper designs are the most frequently
used configurations. Flow rate sizing for all automatic strainers should allow
for a 10 to 15% blow down rate. This assures that your system is not starved
of seawater during normal operation.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Electrical control panels are supplied as part of these strainers providing
a systematic cleaning cycle for operational maintenance. A differential pres-
sure switch is normally connected across the strainer inlet and outlet to
provide random cleaning, which is necessary only when unusual events
cause strainer media blockage. This switch is electrically connected to the
cleaning cycle timer controlling these random backwash cycles.
Gear reducers and motors are required for slow speed scraper operation.
Scraper speeds of 2 to 4 r/min are used to remove the collected material
from the strainer assembly. Removed material is then discharged from the
bottom of the outer casing through an automatic valve to a drain.
Plunger designs are becoming more accepted in EC applications as they
prove their reliability. This strainer design uses an air driven piston to push
trapped material off of the wedge wire media. As with spiral and straight
bar strainers, the piston can cycle nearly continuously in very severe deposit
conditions. Removed material is scraped to the strainer body bottom and
discharged via an automatic valve.
Control panels designed for piston scrapers are operated using air con-
trol logic. Differential pressure switches are not often used since the design
is for the strainer to cycle continuously on a regularly timed basis. Frequency
is adjusted in the control panel to meet requirements of the environment.

5.14 Brine system water softening


The water softener is used in brine electrolyzer systems to prevent calcium
and magnesium hardness salts from depositing on the negatively charged
cathodic electrode. As will be discussed later, systems can be operated
without softened water; however, the potential for electrode damage
becomes highly probable unless frequent stringent maintenance proce-
dures are followed.
Water softening via ion exchange utilizes the replacement of calcium and
magnesium ions in the water by an equivalent number of sodium ions. This
system eliminates the undesirable characteristic of calcarious deposits because
sodium salts do not form hardness type scales on the cathodic electrode.
The exchange ability of a resin is controlled by the total number of
exchangable sodium ions. This exchange ability is referred to as resin capac-
ity. When calcium and magnesium ions have replaced all the available
sodium ions on the resin, the resin is then referred to as exhausted.
The total capacity of the resin, only present in the resin’s full sodium
form, requires a large excess of brine for each regeneration cycle. For this
reason, a more economical volume of brine is used to obtain a reasonable
operating capacity. In this respect, the regeneration efficiency, i.e., the total
amount of hardness removed per pound of salt used, is important to mini-
mize total salt usage for an on-site hypochlorite generation system.
The water softener contains a cation exchange resin (negatively charged),
which is the same as used in home water softeners. Typical resin data are
shown in Table 5.2.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Table 5.2 Ion Exchange Resin Properties
Structure Crosslinked styrene/divinylbenzene
Form Spherical Beads
Screen size, U.S. Std. 16–40
Swelling 5%
Water retention 45–47%
pH Range (stability) 45–48%
Approximate weight 52 lb/ ft3
Nominal capacity 30,000–35,000 grains
Chlorine maximum 1 ppm

Water hardness may be expressed as grains per gallon. One grain per
gallon is equal to 17.1 parts per million (ppm) per grain. For example, water
with 10 grains of hardness will be equal to 171 ppm.
Regeneration of the ion exchange resin is achieved by drawing some of
the brine solution from the electrolyzer salt dissolver. Each regeneration valve
has a brine suction ejector which is properly sized by the on-site generator
manufacturer or regeneration valve manufacturer to provide the correct
amount of salt to assure the resin achieves its maximum operating capacity.
Two types of water softeners generally available in the marketplace
that are used with brine electrolyzer systems are single and double tank
water softeners.
Tanks are fabricated from steel or FRP. Large tanks of steel construction
remain in some situations, often with a liner material to provide long-term
corrosion protection. The sizes required for on-site hypochlorite generator
systems are now fabricated from FRP.
Regeneration valves are either electrically or hydraulically operated.
Electrically operated valves will use either a water volume usage sensor
or a 24-hour tab type timer to initiate the regeneration cycle. Hydraulically
operated timers use only a water volume usage sensor for regeneration
cycle initiation.
Materials of construction for regeneration valves consist of brass and
molded plastics. Many manufacturers are moving away from brass to
eliminate the leaching prospect of the alloying materials in the treated
water. Plastic material such as Noryl® is often used due to its molding ease
and accuracy.
Both single and double tank style units are available with electrically
operated 3-cycle or 5-cycle regeneration valves. The 3-cycle valve has brine,
slow rinse and service functions while the 5-cycle valve has backwash,
brine/slow rinse, fast rinse and service functions.
Single tank equipment will expose the electrolysis cell to some hardness.
This occurs because the valve bypasses raw influent water during the regen-
eration cycle. As a practical matter however, either valve is satisfactory for
use on the brine electrolysis systems since the water hardness exposure time
for the electrolytic cell when using single tank equipment is low, approxi-
mately 3% of the total operating time.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


On-site generator manufacturers provide the water softener with their
equipment to assure the customer will achieve long reliable cell electrode
service from the cell electrodes. Softeners also reduce the need for chemical
cleaning since a significant portion of the calcium material is resident in
domestic potable water rather than the salt used in the electrolysis process.
An example of water softener importance is as follows. The water has
100 mg/l hardness and the salt has 1500 mg/l for the cell feed material. The
salt is dissolved to a 30% solution to form a solution hardness 550 mg/l
(1500 mg/l · 0.3 + 100 mg/l). This solution is then further diluted by a 10:1
ratio. Therefore, the salt contributes 55 mg/l (1/10th of 550 mg/l) and the
water contributes 100 mg/l. As you can see above, the electrolyzer cell is
exposed to 3 times the hardness when no water softener is installed in an
electrolyzer system.

5.15 Temperature sensing equipment


Temperature sensing falls into two areas of a hypochlorite generation system,
cell discharge liquid temperature and DC rectifiers. Direct current rectifier
temperature sensing and control will be discussed in the DC rectifier section
of this chapter.
Cell liquid temperature is used as an independent back up safety circuit
for the flow sensing equipment in brine systems. Temperature indication is
seldom used in brine electrolyzer cells primarily because the flow rate in brine
systems is quite sufficient to prevent excessive temperature rise in the cell. The
use of only a cell thermo switch is required for adequate protection. Metallic
thermo sensors must be protected with either corrosion resistant metallic or
plastic coated thermo wells. This protection may create a sensitivity problem
when the well delays the temperature ingress to the thermo sensor device.
Seawater systems have been installed with temperature switches and
indicators. This equipment was protected as noted above with thermo well
assemblies in the hypochlorite stream. Seawater systems operate at very high
flows where the solution temperature rise across the system is normally less
than 3οF (2οC), therefore the likelihood of a temperature related shutdown
is extremely remote. For this reason few systems have installed temperature
switches. The authors have experienced one seawater system shut down
from high temperature. In that case a workman’s leather glove was caught
in the vane flow monitor causing low flow.
Another cause for high temperature in the cell that will normally not
be recorded, is when the cell has not been properly acid cleaned (an
essential maintenance procedure). In this situation, the cell will have a
small channel in the deposits through which the flow passes at very high
velocity. The electrodes are at risk of damage when this condition occurs.
Deposits encapsulate the electrodes and damage both the anodes and the
cathodes, yet there are no problem indications. This problem occurs fre-
quently to those operators who do not maintain their cell properly despite
the built-in safety features.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Systems are designed to shut down and alarm whenever there is a
temperature related alarm. Sensor set points of 140οF (60οC) for brine elec-
trolyzer cells are normal. Temperatures exceeding 140οF (60οC) put the PVC
piping usually used in these systems at risk of sagging on poorly installed
pipe runs and joint failure at elevated pressures.
Seawater systems are normally set to shut down and alarm at 105οF
ο
(40 C). This temperature is elevated sufficiently to provide for the tempera-
ture rise through the cells in the hottest climates. Seawater temperatures
above 95οF (35οC) are very rare, thus the choice of a set point of 105οF.

5.16 Cell level and temperature


All electrolyzer cells operating in a brine electrolysis environment should
have cell level and temperature sensors. The level sensor provides assurance
the cell is filled before applying DC power to the cell. The temperature sensor
acts as a redundant sensor, should the flow monitoring equipment fail to
operate properly.
Level sensor failure or bypassing the electrical safety controls will
cause premature DC power supply start up. If the electrodes are not
completely covered, there will be excessive liquid heating and undesir-
able bare electrode gas exposure. This condition will not normally be a
problem; however, there is always the possibility for a spark occurrence
between the electrodes. Because the electrolyzer always has some oxygen
in the hydrogen mixture as a result of dissolved gas and anode ineffi-
ciency, this unflooded condition has the potential to ignite if sparking
occurs in the cell.
The temperature sensor is employed as further assurance that flow
through the cell is sufficient to prevent cell and piping damage by sensing
the cell exit liquid temperature. If the cell were made from titanium, then
no melting would occur as with plastics. Plastic cell bodies normally used
will slowly fail at temperatures above 180οF (82οC).

5.17 Tank level equipment


Tank level control schemes offer a variety of reliable level control devices.
The circuit design for both brine systems and for seawater systems usually
is designed with four set points, two for alarms and specific system opera-
tional conditions and two for normal operation as noted below.
Low–Low tank level — The hypochlorite generation system is able to
operate while the dosing pumps are locked out to prevent pump damage
from a dry running condition. This condition will cause an alarm, must be
manually reset for the system to begin operation, and will clear automatically
upon reaching the Low level.
Low level — The system is fully functional. This level is the system
starting level where hypochlorite generation is initiated to refill the tank and
the dosing pumps are fully operational. This level is at least 6 in. (152 mm)
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
above the dosing pump suction outlet for flat bottom tanks and much greater
for coned or radius bottom tanks.
High level — At this level, the hypochlorite generation system operation
is stopped and the dosing pumps are operating or operational depending
upon the dosing scheme.
High – High level — This level should be below the overflow line level,
override the high level shut down control, and provide a condition alarm.
The pumps should be operating or have an operational fault.
Systems designed in the early days of on-site hypochlorite generation
used air operated differential pressure systems where either pressure
switches or cam actuated micro switches provided set point control. The
pressure switch circuit would incorporate a face-mounted level indicating
gauge in the control panel door with the air controls and internally panel-
mounted pressure switches connected to the control logic. Cam actuated
arrangements used a bellows operator to indicate the level and switches
within the body also connected to the control logic. The control logic would
be set to cause an alarm should the tank level exceed a preset value. Float
type level switches were also installed in some early systems. Some materials
of construction issues caused reliability problems that were easily overcome
by using air operated systems.
Today’s level control units are more likely to be ultrasonic sensors, prox-
imity switch arrangements, or differential pressure (D/P) switch designs.
Ultrasonic level systems are very reliable if installed in an environment with
minimum vapor condensation to cause corrosion and interfere with the unit
accuracy; therefore, these sensors must have good air circulation. System
PLC connections allow operational control and alarms for the system while
the use of user interface screens can illustrate tank level.
Proximity switch systems offer very reliable operation. Mounting is on
the side of the tank from flanges, allowing level indication locally and vari-
ation of the sensors along the level indicator member. Proximity switches
provide contract sets for system operation only without the benefit of control
panel level indication.
D/P switches are becoming the most frequently applied level control
equipment. Differential pressure equipment offers many benefits for the
control designer: accurate level measurement, 4–20 mA analog output,
NEMA 4X weather rating, severe classified area compatibility, wide pres-
sure range capability, and ease of tank connection. The reliability of D/P
cells and the removal of air as a system operational requirement are
becoming a requirement by engineering firms for field installations. Mate-
rials of construction are to have Hastelloy C diaphragms and bodies for
corrosion prevention and a level range up to 250 in. (6350 mm) of water
column head.
Some engineering firms may require a separate D/P device for alarm
functions to reduce the possibility of a total system failure. Redundant equip-
ment is attached to the same tank outlet connection with independent liquid
isolation valves also with independent instrument cabling.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Differential pressure units are very cost effective when connected to
integrated control systems in use today. A PLC used with computer inte-
grated screen systems allows the designer to put the system flow sheet on
the screen to indicate the tank operating level.

5.18 Salt storage-dissolver tanks


Salt dissolver systems are designed to meet a myriad of sizes, brine demands,
and filling methods. Dissolver units for brine electrolysis systems are avail-
able in three designs to meet sizing needs. These units vary from tank type
dissolvers to high capacity pit dissolvers. Smaller system dissolvers are sized
for 3 to 7 days between refills while large dissolver systems are designed for
a minimum of 15 days storage to minimize delivery requirements.
Dissolver tanks are normally built of polyethylene (PE), fiberglass rein-
forced plastic (FRP), or concrete. These materials of construction are
defined primarily by tank size and the loading method required to accom-
modate the required electrolyzer system salt volume. Tanks of 2000 lb or
smaller are nearly always installed indoors or under cover. Large FRP tanks
and pit dissolvers will always be outside the electrolyzer building for easy
loading access.
Small tanks constructed from PE or FRP are designed for up to one ton
of salt. Tanks of this size require hand loading from 50-lb salt bags available
from local suppliers on pallets. These dissolvers are usually used for systems
smaller than 200 lb of chlorine per day because manual loading is required.
Large tanks are also constructed from FRP and sized from 12 tons to 100
tons using blower trucks to offload the salt into the tank. Bags mounted
outside the tank are designed to capture the fine salt to prevent salt dust
from causing local hardware corrosion. Units having this capacity are used
with systems of several hundred to several thousand pounds chlorine capac-
ity per day.
Pit dissolvers are used on projects where there is a very large volume
of chlorine required. Loading methods vary widely from dump truck to rail
car arrangements. These systems are common in plants where it is more
convenient or more cost effective to receive bulk shipments. Pit dissolvers
require almost no maintenance particularly if the salt quality is low in sus-
pended solids, preventing bottom sludge buildup.

5.18.1 Dissolver level controls


Level control systems use float assemblies or electric conductance probes to
control salt dissolver water addition. Float type systems usually use multiple
ceramic float units assembled with a stainless steel wire suspended from the
top of the tank and connected to a top works assembly housing the electrical
switch arrangement. The level float arrangement is enclosed in an FRP pipe
also suspended from the tank top. The floats are protected from the salt and
modulate with the tank brine level. Mercury type switches are connected to

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


an actuation assembly in the top works. These mercury switches connect to
and actuate the inlet water control valve.
Conductance probes are inserted in a standpipe assembly on the outside
of the tank via a flange near the bottom of the tank. There are three probes
on the head assembly, a reference probe, a high level and a low level probe.
Power conductance through these probes and the salt solution actuates the
control relay operating the water control valve on the inlet water line. The
brine dissolver is normally maintained at a liquid level, usually 2 to 3 ft of
solution, immersed in the stored salt.

5.18.2 Internal distribution and brine removal piping


The purpose of the distribution piping is to maximize the salt dissolving
rate. It is normal to have dissolving rates of 25 to 50 gal/min in tank type
dissolvers. Pit dissolvers have very high surface areas, therefore their dis-
solve rates are much higher. Dissolvers are used where there is a need for
high volumes of brine solution. These rates are not necessary in a brine
electrolysis system because the feed rates are comparatively low, less than
10 gal/min.
While the tanks are FRP material, internal water distribution piping is
normally PVC. Due to the piping arrangement, dissolver internal piping is
normally field erected to assure damage-free equipment for start up opera-
tion of the dissolver.
Brine removal is accomplished through two major devices, using
inverted hat type collectors or perforated pipe collectors across the bottom
of the dissolver tank. Dissolver systems most often use mined granular or
seawater evaporated solar salt. When granular material is used there is no
need to prevent granular material from being drawn into the collector system
since the salt acts as its own filter bed. In the case of refined purified salt it
is very important to provide a barrier of gravel over the collector system.
This gravel bed is placed in the dissolver, after all piping and distributors
have been installed, to a depth of approximately 12 in. (305 mm). The gravel
is graded in a layer of 3/8 – 1/2 in. (9.5 mm–12 mm) size over a layer of
1/8 – 1/4 in. (3 mm–6 mm) size material.

5.18.3 Salt addition


Salt addition methods are determined by tank design. Small tanks, up to
2000-lb capacity, are normally filled manually from 50-lb (23-kg) bags. Salt
delivery in these cases is usually by palletized bags to minimize bag handling.
Large tanks are filled by another method because the quantity of salt
required demands more efficient delivery methods. Most tanks used on large
electrolyzer systems utilize blower trucks delivering 20 tons of salt each. The
delivery line is usually 4 in. in diameter designed of aluminum having a
smooth long radius into the top of the tank. The interconnection between
the tank and truck is made using a cam-lock quick disconnect. The air is

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


discharged from the tank through a line with a bagged end to collect the
light salt dust blown out of the tank during the transfer procedure. Salt
transfer is an easy operation; however, it is important to assure that both
inlet and outlet lines always remain clear of obstructions. General mainte-
nance procedures applying to salt dissolvers can be found in the appendix
to assist you with frequently asked questions.

5.19 Product storage


Storage tanks allow the system to operate at full capacity to achieve optimum
performance, provide hydrogen gas removal and when applicable, provide
backup product supply during periods of maintenance down time. Materials
of construction most frequently consist of high density polyethylene (HDPE),
fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP), or a concrete pit having an impermeable
liner. High density polyethylene is preferred for smaller systems and FRP
for large systems. Concrete pit storage is used more for very large installa-
tions where plant design allows convenient pit integration. The plant design-
ers must consider freeze protection and take advantage of appropriate types
of material during plant construction. For all installations where a freezing
environment is possible, freeze protection must be provided to prevent tank
damage in all cases except pit designs.

5.19.1 Tanks
High density polyethylene-small polyethylene (PE) and high density polyeth-
ylene (HDPE) tanks up to 500 gal (2000 l), with a removable cover, are configured
with bulkhead fittings or hot air welded gusseted flanged nozzles for product
inlet and outlet connections. The cover must vent to a location outside the
building for hydrogen gas venting. Tanks of this size are seldom installed with
forced air blowers for hydrogen dilution. Blower use is controlled by local fire
code regulations, therefore regulations must be consulted to assure compliance.
Larger molded dome top tanks will have the same connection arrange-
ments as noted for small tanks. Because these tanks have no removable top,
a top-entry manway is part of the tank design to allow entry access for
maintenance. Each tank type is offered in translucent and black finish. When
using black tanks, installation consideration should be given to the solar
heating potential of the product resulting in product degradation.
Fiberglass reinforced plastic — Fiberglass tanks are typically used for
storage requirements of greater than 5000 gallons (19,000 liters). With few
exceptions, FRP tanks are custom built to suit each site’s specific require-
ments. The tanks are designed with flanged nozzles to accommodate product
handling, hydrogen dilution fan ducting, a side and/or top bolted access
manway, and anchor lugs around the bottom of the tank for mounting able
to withstand wind loads of 125 mi/h (210 km/h).
FRP tanks used to store sodium hypochlorite product should be man-
ufactured to ASTM D-3299, latest revision to assure tank quality. The tank

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


vendor must supply a 20 mil vinyl ester resin rich Nexus vail liner that
is BPO-DMA (benzoyl peroxide-dimethylaniline) cured as specified for
sodium hypochlorite service. Exterior tank material may be the less resis-
tant isophalic resin. A white gel coat should be applied to assure good
UV resistance, and, in climates where the tank is exposed to freezing
conditions, insulation and heat tracing must be added during the manu-
facturing process.
Pit storage — Pit storage is facilitated at the time the plant is being
designed. Since concrete is the material of choice, sodium hypochlorite and
salt corrosion properties require this storage facility be installed with a flex-
ible lining material. The liner provides corrosion control for the structural
reinforcing materials supporting the concrete. Liner material applied to
sodium hypochlorite storage is a plasticized PVC. This is available in 20 to
80 mil thickness having PVC’s corrosion resistance with the added benefit
of flexibility for easy installation.
Tanks or level controls require no maintenance unless there is an unusual
catastrophic failure. HDPE tanks are usually replaced while FRP tanks may
be field repaired. When repairing an FRP tank one must assure the repair
materials and procedures are suitable for the service application or one’s
courting a future failure.

5.20 Pump equipment


5.20.1 Seawater booster pumps and seawater hypochlorite
dosing pumps
Pumps to meet seawater supply and dosing requirements are always cen-
trifugal designs. For U.S. EC system manufacturers, the choice of an ANSI
B 73.1 pump design is the most suitable to facilitate interchangeability
between pump manufacturers. Cast iron, rubber lined steel, stainless steel,
and FRP are the most common materials of construction for seawater supply
requirements. Dosing pumps are limited to rubber lined steel, FRP, titanium,
and Hastelloy C due to the corrosive nature of sodium hypochlorite. Plastic
materials such as PVDF and PVC have been used for EC system applications
with good success. Most engineering firms are reluctant to accept plastics,
however, because most large sites are overseas, requiring heavy spares stock-
ing to assure reliable EC unit operation.
Today materials of choice for seawater handling requirements are nor-
mally FRP and stainless steel. The initial pump cost may be slightly less for
cast iron and rubber lined steel, while maintenance requirements are poten-
tially greater for pumps with plastic construction materials.
Recently, magnetically coupled pumps of sufficient volume and head
capacity have been introduced which eliminate seal leakage problems asso-
ciated with more traditional designs. Seal assemblies are chosen to avoid the
need for seal flush water systems when sites are remote from acceptable
flush water supplies. Internal flush arrangements are acceptable when the

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


pumped material is seawater or hypochlorite. The proper materials choice
is a ceramic stationary and a rotating carbon unit housed in Hastelloy or
titanium case and springs with Teflon, Viton, or EPDM seals. Care must be
applied to the carbon seal choice to confirm compatibility with hypochlorite
solution. Field experience has demonstrated that seals with these materials
of construction will withstand the environmental rigors of seawater and
hypochlorite exposure.
Motors should be of TEFC (totally enclosed fan cooled) design. This
system of motor enclosure assures water ingress problems are not visited
upon you soon after the system is operational. Also, with rare exception,
TEFC motors are accepted for NEMA classified areas with possible tempo-
rary explosive gas exposure such as NEMA Class 1 Division 2 Groups C&D
areas. Continuous gas exposure areas such as Class 1 Division 1 Group A&B
will always require explosion-proof motors.
Pump base assemblies can be an issue where the base is nonmetallic.
Nonmetallic bases must be properly grouted in the field to assure pump
stability in operation. Low level pump vibration over a long time period
will cause eventual structural failure of an ungrouted nonmetallic base.
This problem is particularly true when you are using very large pumps
and motors.
Couplings and coupling guards are supplied with these pumps as a
standard practice. Coupling alignment is completed at the pump supplier
facility, therefore field alignment should only be necessary when the motor
or pump is removed from the base. Alignment checking is then only
necessary to confirm the pump and motor are within acceptable alignment
tolerance limits.
Coatings on steel pump bases, motor housings, and coupling guards
should be suitable for the expected environment. Cast iron motor housings
will withstand most severe conditions regardless of the type of factory coat-
ing. Steel motor housings, base assemblies, and coupling guards are most
often neglected. Painting with a 3- to 4- part Carbolene of Ameron coating
system specified for offshore duty is recommended.
Pumps of choice for seawater and hypochlorite in the United States are
FRP material of construction. FRP pumps meet specification ANSI B73.1, are
applicable on either seawater or hypochlorite, and are vinyl ester resin hav-
ing a BPO-DMA (benzoyl peroxide-dimethylaniline) cure to assure high
resistance to either pumped materials.
Pumps manufactured from the various plastics other than FRP are
rarely used in these high volume sizes. While PVDF dosing pumps offer
excellent reliability, they have been used only on rare occasions since this
material is more expensive. PVC or PP pumps have also been employed
although the larger sizes are not as reliable in large volume extended
operation.
Metallic materials such as titanium or Hastelloy C are also not often
applied in seawater systems. On rare occasions where there is a need for
very high discharge pressure these pumps will be used. Most of these
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
applications are the requirement of an engineering firm or an end user
where metallic pumps offer a comfort level over alternatives.
Magnetically coupled pumps have been used for very small applications
very successfully. Data on large volume magnetic drive pumps indicate
similar effectiveness for these as well. Pricing is a consideration for these
pumps when compared to conventional pump drive designs, thus use is
presently limited to special situations or requirements.
In summary, all of the pumps defined will function well when chosen
for the application carefully. Care in choosing the materials of construction
and the seal design will assure excellent performance life. The authors
believe developing vendor lists for more cost effective magnetic drive pumps
will gradually shift this configuration as the design of choice in seawater
electrolysis applications.

5.20.2 Brine system product dosing


Brine electrolysis systems will generally have diaphragm or hose type pos-
itive displacement pumps serving chlorination dosing requirements. These
pumps do not have flow sensors to confirm dosing operations are function-
ing properly. Dosing control and monitoring are carried out by the system’s
residual analysis equipment outputting an analog feedback signal. Systems
used for water well disinfection will not normally have any residual analysis
because the well operates at a constant flow, therefore the dosing pump has
a set and forget condition.
Unusually large systems will have centrifugal pump dosing systems.
When centrifugal pumps are used in a system, flow monitors may be
applied. Such pump systems are designed to have a flow monitor where
the level of output is set greater than 35% of pump rated flow to prevent
pump damage. A centrifugal pump’s output control is normally via a
discharge control valve in turn controlled by the analog signal from a
residual analyzer. Care must be taken in the design phase to assure that
the system is not so oversized to cause nuisance pump shut off from low
output flow. Standard motor controls meeting local electrical codes are
used to protect the drive equipment in all pump circuits regardless of
pump design.
Diaphragm type positive displacement pumps — Diaphragm pumps
are most often used in dosing systems having less than 200 lb (90 kg)
chlorine capacity per day. The corrosive properties of sodium hypochlo-
rite require pump heads manufactured from PVC, acrylic, or PVDF uti-
lizing Viton or Teflon diaphragms. Although the product utilization tables
suggest that EPDM is an acceptable material for this application, experi-
ence has proven that EPDM is not a reliable diaphragm material. Ceramic
check valves must also be utilized to be confident of optimum pump
performance.
Peristaltic hose type positive displacement pumps — Peristaltic
pumps operate on the principle of rollers collapsing a hose to create a

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


vacuum drawing in fluid and discharging at elevated pressures. These
pumps utilize variable speed motor controls with either VFD or SCR
drive controllers. No check valves are required since the roller position
acts to prevent fluid backflow. Pressures of 230 psi (16 kg/cm2) can be
achieved when using these pumps. The hose assembly on larger pumps
has raised face flanges for ease of piping connection and a front cover
assembly facilitating hose exchange. One should always be aware of
flange end and hose end support sleeve construction materials to avoid
corrosion. When sodium hypochlorite is the application, titanium is the
material of choice.
Centrifugal pump designs — Centrifugal pumps are only considered
where large product volumes are required. Pump materials should be PVDF
or vinyl ester resin fiberglass with a catalyst cure specified for use in sodium
hypochlorite. Shaft sleeves and seals must be fully compatible with sodium
hypochlorite and can be designed for either external water flush or internal
product flush regimens.
Recent improvements in magnetically driven pumps assure this design
is reliable by eliminating the potential for seal leaks. Be reminded however,
the body and impeller construction materials must be compatible with
sodium hypochlorite.
Unlike positive displacement pump designs, external flow control
schemes are necessary to assure proper dosing control or level control. These
schemes are accomplished with flow control valves operating from an ana-
lyzer, flow indicator, or level control arrangement. Instrumentation designs
utilize an analog PID control loop. This control loop is connected to an I/P
(instrument to pneumatic) transducer air output providing a 3–15 psi output
to air valve motor operators or directly to an electric valve controller motor
accepting an analog control signal.
Pump controls — Manual control modes are used primarily for domestic
water well applications with a fixed flow rate and dosing requirement. Small
positive displacement pumps are used with a micrometer type graduated
adjustment in this application. Pump controls are configured to operate only
when the well pump is in operation, whereas an on-site sodium hypochlorite
generator will operate independently when the storage tank level controller
indicates tank refilling is necessary.
Plant water flow instrumentation provides an analog signal to PID loop
controllers pacing dosing pump speed or dosing valve position for water
system dosing flow control.
A continuous sampling residual analyzer will output an analog signal
to a PID loop controller pacing dosing pump speed or dosing valve position
for water system dosing flow control.
Integrated pacing dosing controls combine both plant flow and residual
analysis. Plant water flow and residual analyzer analog signals are integrated
using a PLC algorithm to define the trend, usually on a feed forward basis,
then output an analog signal to the dosing pump or valve arrangement for
dosing feed rate control.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
5.21 Pipe, valves, and fittings for electrolysis systems
5.21.1 PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and CPVC (chlorinated
polyvinyl chloride)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is the most cost effective material in all areas of
brine and seawater electrolysis. Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) is
less desirable, as previously noted, for cost reasons and the more brittle
nature of this compound.
Valves for these materials may be ball, butterfly, diaphragm, gate, globe,
needle, etc. Seal materials should be Teflon, Viton, or EPDM to assure good
service life. Where there may be severe deposits on the valves, ball valves
and butterfly valves should be avoided. An example of such a site would
be high salt brine wells where the deposits consist of calcium carbonate
rather than magnesium hydroxide experienced in seawater. Deposits will
destroy the seals, rendering the valves ineffective. In these rare cases the
valve of choice is the weir type diaphragm valve with a Teflon faced dia-
phragm assembly.

5.21.2 Polypropylene
Although this material is applicable for some portions of a brine electrolysis
system, its use is only recommended for water and brine handling on brine
systems. This material used as tubing and fittings is acceptable as it is the
most cost effective.

5.21.3 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)


This material is, as is polypropylene, only recommended for use for water,
brine, and seawater applications. Although the authors have seen this mate-
rial used in European and Asian supplied cell interconnection equipment, a
U.S. manufacturer will not recommend this material for reliable service in
sodium hypochlorite.

5.21.4 Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon®)


Kynar and Teflon are applicable throughout the system. Cost is the main
issue for this material, therefore use is generally limited to pump heads,
pump diaphragms of Teflon, and pump check assemblies utilizing ceramic
ball material. Both materials are tolerant throughout the application spec-
trum in brine and seawater electrolysis.

5.21.5 FRP (fiberglass reinforced plastic)


FRP is also an expensive material of construction. The authors would not
utilize FRP for on-site hypochlorite systems except where it is specified or
in unusual environmental or pressure conditions. High quality butterfly

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


valves are available and are used in situations where pressures can exceed
PVC pressure capacities when the temperature is elevated.

5.22 Hydrogen handling practices


Hydrogen is produced on all on-site sodium hypochlorite generators. As
you have seen in the equations in Chapter 4, hydrogen is a by-product
of the electrolysis process with virtually 100% electrolytic efficiency at
the cathode.
As hydrogen is produced in the cell it combines with dissolved air and
oxygen generated from the chlorine inefficiency of chlorine production at
the anode. The undiluted gas exiting the cell is approximately 3% air and
oxygen, therefore is below the lower explosive limit (LEL) of 4.0% in an air
environment. The explosive range of hydrogen with air is between 4.0 and
74.20%. In an oxygen environment the explosive range is 4.65 to 93.9%.
Air dilution requirements are dependent on the system output and
tank type. Although one cell design separates the hydrogen within the cell,
allowing its hydrogen to be directly vented to atmosphere without the need
for air dilution, all others include the hydrogen in the product stream to
the storage tank.
All brine electrolysis systems use storage tanks having closed tops, either
as loose or fixed covers, concentrating the hydrogen in the gas void area
above the liquid product. Without exception, storage tanks with closed tops
require dilution air to assure that this gas void fraction is below the hydrogen
LEL. To achieve low LEL levels the system should have air blowers installed
that will dilute the incoming hydrogen by 50:1 to 100:1 with air.
Blower duct arrangements must be designed to assure that the air has
unrestricted flow into the tank. Where multiple fans are used the ducting
must have an air check assembly to direct the air into the tank rather than
out the adjacent blower’s suction opening.
Open top tanks are used in seawater electrolysis systems where plant
locations are remote from possible ignition sources. In addition, hydrogen
in this application separates upon tank entry above the solution level dis-
persing into the atmosphere very rapidly. High dispersal rates are the result
of the difference in the specific gravity of hydrogen versus air, 0.0695:1, or
.00523 pounds per cubic foot, the weight density of a cubic foot of hydrogen.
Although hydrogen solubility in hypochlorite product is low, it is
important to remember that sodium hypochlorite generated on-site will be
hydrogen saturated. At a temperature of 25οC and atmospheric pressure
the theoretical hydrogen absorption at saturation is 0.0001535 g hydrogen
per 100 g of water. Because the solution is warm, 40 to 50οC, hydrogen
solubility is elevated, therefore as the solution cools additional entrained
and dissolved hydrogen will gradually release from the solution into the
tank gas void space. Normally this is not dangerous since the tank should
have an atmospheric vent to allow released hydrogen to escape where no
dilution blowers are used.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Seawater systems also utilize a hydrocyclone system taking advantage
of the high separation efficiency caused by the extremely low hydrogen
specific gravity.
Seawater systems with high production capacity also have high seawater
feed volume requiring a large inlet and outlet pipe connection size. A large
pipe connection size does not affect separation efficiency. Product streams
from a group of cells will have as much as 50% entrained hydrogen as small
bubbles, yet the hydrocyclone will separate 95% of this entrained gas. By
pooling the liquid in the hydrocyclone cone with a vortex breaker in the
discharge line, the vortex breaker prevents separated gas re-entrainment into
the discharge stream.
Separated gas is vented through a small titanium orifice from a top
discharge connection. The separated hydrogen is piped through a liquid seal
pot assembly for direct atmospheric venting or into a large diameter vertical
pipe. The vertical pipe will have dilution air blowers attached to dilute the
hydrogen below the LEL within the pipe before venting.
The hydrocyclone provides a convenient method of using the seawater
cell feedstock pressure as a form of dosing arrangement. Backpressure from
the dosing piping to the dosing point will balance the pooling level in the
hydrocyclone to avoid flooding, i.e., there is always a hydrogen head above
the liquid regardless of the system production level. As noted above, several
methods may be employed to dispose of the waste hydrogen generated
during on-site sodium hypochlorite production.
Use of a storage/degas tank with attached air blowers is the most com-
mon practice. For this scenario the tank serves as storage and as a pump
head tank for continuous and shock dosing regimens commonly applied to
large circulating cooling systems. The control schemes operate the EC system
to assure proper tank level–pump discharge coordination. Air blowers are
sized to dilute the hydrogen to below the lower explosive limit, LEL, of 4 %
in air. Here again, generally accepted practice is for 50 to 1 or 100 to 1 dilution.
When a small product degassing tank is provided, generally accepted
practice is to provide at least 3 minutes of tank residence to assure sufficient
hydrogen removal. This arrangement provides dosing pump suction head
for applications where the dosing point pressure is too great to utilize a
hydrocyclone. The controls provide proper tank level/pump discharge oper-
ation to avoid pump damage. The air blower sizing remains the same as
with large tanks, 50 to 1 or 100 to 1 dilution.
A third hydrogen removal practice is to employ a hydrocyclone in the
product discharge line. For this case no large tanks or dosing pumps are
utilized. Seawater supply pressure is utilized to provide the necessary pres-
sure to the dosing header. Because hydrogen’s specific gravity is 0.06 that
of air, separation is easily accomplished by the centrifugal force created in
the cyclone. A pool of product is maintained above the discharge line by a
vortex breaker baffle in the cyclone product discharge.
The separated hydrogen is passed from the top of the cyclone through
a small orifice. The orifice opening is very small regardless of the hydrogen
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
release volume requirements, having a size usually less than 0.188 in.
(4.75 mm). There is always a small amount of liquid bleed through the orifice
that must be released to a nearby drain. Liquid is released from the hydrogen
discharge line by a small U trap from the branch of a pipe tee installed a
small distance above the hydrogen discharge flange.
Hydrogen is directed to a water seal pot or a vertical pipe where air
blowers dilute the hydrogen to the required dilution level.
When a seal pot is used there is only a need to vent the hydrogen to
atmosphere well above any adjacent roof or above 15 ft (7 m) in an open
area. A continuous flow, either seawater or drinking water, is maintained
through the seal pot while the hydrogen is bubbled through 2 to 6 in. of the
flowing water. This design will prevent a hydrogen ignition flashback.
Where hydrogen dilution is required, cell produced gas discharged from
the cyclone enters a pad mounted vertical pipe that accepts the hydrogen
and required blower air venting the combination to atmosphere. The blower
sizing is consistent with previously noted practices.

5.23 Brine system applications


Sodium hypochlorite systems have been used in drinking water and waste-
water applications since their early development. Electrolytic cell develop-
ment in the early 1970s started the search for plants where this radically new
concept would be accepted. The result was to sell a few drinking water and
wastewater plants in the United States in the late 1970s with entrepreneurial
managers operational systems.
These systems were successful in proving on-site systems as a viable
alternative to chlorine gas for water treatment plants. The most severe obsta-
cle was the cost of chlorine gas throughout the United States. Plant users
could not operate this equipment cost effectively when compared to the cost
of chlorine gas. To the authors’ knowledge only one serious attempt to
improve unseparated electrolyzer cell performance to mitigate the deficit
with chlorine gas cost has been published in the previous 25 years. It was
not until the advent of the EPA regulatory requirements in 1998, noted earlier
in this book, that the cost of chlorine became a smaller issue.
Presently, water utilities are converting to on-site generation for small
to moderate plants particularly where plant upgrades are taking place. This
changeover continues to evolve slowly as the technology becomes more
accepted and as the advantages of small systems installed at remote well
sites or centralized in housing developments become evident. It is also useful
to note that approximately 80% of all drinking water systems in the United
States require less than 500 lb of chlorine per day.

5.23.1 Cooling system applications


Cooling water systems, both single pass and recirculating loops, have used
large brine electrolyzer systems where having chlorine on site was not

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


desirable, nuclear power stations in particular. These systems were
installed in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The reduced cost of commercial
bleach since this equipment was installed caused these plants to be decom-
missioned. The storage tanks installed with the system are utilized for
commercial bleach storage and the pumps changed to a smaller size to
allow for the higher strength product. Cooling tower applications have not
been pursued heavily because large water treatment chemical companies
such as Nalco contract for the tower care service, which includes the
necessary chemicals. Electrolyzer cell developments just now being
announced could well cause a return to on-site hypochlorite systems as a
cost effective alternative to commercial bleach.

5.23.2 Food processing


Food processing of all types use some form of chlorine disinfection chemistry.
Food processors, meat processors in particular, have a local USDA inspector
with significant control of the plant disinfection process since they are
responsible for plant bacterial conditions. On-site systems have been tested
in chicken processing plants with excellent success, controlling the level of
chlorine in the wash and chiller areas. In these cases, the chlorine level is
tested multiple times per day to assure it is within defined parameters,
usually between 20 and 35 mg/l . Besides meat, poultry and fish processors,
fruit and vegetable washing operations are application areas as well. Accep-
tance in this area will gradually occur as the advantages of on-site equipment
become clear.

5.23.3 Beverage operations


Beverage operations utilize various types of disinfection for bottle washing
operations, beverage water, and equipment and plant cleanup. In the early
1980s Coca Cola – Japan used on-site sodium hypochlorite generators to
disinfect in their bottle washing operations and bottle water. Very precise
testing of the water was performed to assure that the bottle water met the
strict standards required by Coca Cola. This equipment has also been
applied in South America in smaller bottling operations. While this is a
limited market the application is further proof of the diverse applications
for on-site systems.

5.23.4 Water disinfection


Irrigation water disinfection, while not essential, allows much more reliable
and longer drip system operation. The biological activity in most irrigation
system wells will plug the pores of irrigation lines, then requiring these lines
to be changed annually. Sodium hypochlorite is a common application for
disinfection; however, sodium in the water will eventually change the soil
sodium levels to a point that is very unfriendly to plants.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
An alternative to sodium hypochlorite is to use potassium hypochlorite.
Potassium hypochlorite offers the opportunity to disinfect the irrigation
system as well as provide an essential nutrient for the plants. Field tests have
proven that crop yields will increase substantially when potassium
hypochlorite is the irrigation disinfectant.

5.23.5 Swimming pools


Swimming pools have used on-site generators for over 2 decades in both
England and the United States. Large commercial and university pools are
an excellent fit for the disinfection quality and product safety. Pool systems
with either chlorine gas or commercial sodium hypochlorite take advantage
of this product when consideration is given the number of people potentially
exposed to material leaks. Many systems combine ozone and chlorination
for more effective control of the chloramines and pool clarity.
Today pool disinfection control systems generally utilize an oxidation
reduction potential (ORP) in combination with hand-tested chlorine results
to assure that the pool chemistry remains safe and stable.

5.23.6 Cyanide destruction


The authors know of only one system installed for cyanide destruction
purposes. This system was a small brine system used to destroy the cyanide
in a wire manufacturer’s waste stream. While this is an effective application
of on-site systems the application opportunities are very few.

5.23.7 Industrial bleaching


Industrial bleaching using on-site hypochlorite systems began in 1976. This
equipment was used primarily in large commercial and hospital laundries
where there is an excellent fit for systems of 20 to 50 lb/d. These systems
were generally used to their demise and seldom replaced.

5.23.8 Odor control


Sodium hypochlorite added to an air scrubber tower provides reasonable
control in odor control applications. Composting and rendering facilities are
two applications familiar to the authors where brine electrolysis has been
used. In each case the operation was satisfactory when the power supply
and controls were designed as NEMA 4X equipment. Composting applica-
tions exposed the equipment to high humidity causing corrosion of unsealed
equipment. Rendering plants have the unique opportunity to demonstrate
the effect of airborne fat. Everything becomes coated in a gummy mix caus-
ing equipment without proper protection to fail, thus the need for NEMA
4X equipment. Where there is an isolate and air conditioned room you may
use equipment that does not meet the NEMA 4X standard, otherwise you
will suffer failures if you do not adhere to this doctrine.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
5.24 Seawater system applications
5.24.1 Power stations
Power station circulating cooling was the first major use of sodium hypochlorite
generation with seawater as the cell feed stock. Engelhard Minerals used the
Chloromat tubular cell followed one to two years later by DeNora and Diamond
Shamrock. For any station located on a saline body of water this form of circu-
lating water system treatment is an ideal electrolysis application. The station
produces power and the salt for electrolysis is available for the cost of pumping
power. System designs will allow you to use nearly any salinity level because
the equipment can be designed to perform in the most severe conditions.

5.24.2 Oil field water


The first major electrolyzer system for oil field water flood systems was pro-
vided in the mid-1970s to Saudi Aramco for the Ghawar oil field. The water
treatment plant for this field located on the Arabian Gulf was designed to
process 4.5 million barrels of seawater and required a disinfection system of
12,000 lb/d. This system has been operating continuously since its installation
and expanded by another 2400 lb. Systems of much smaller scope have been
installed on platforms and floating production facilities worldwide.

5.24.3 Cooling system applications


Industrial cooling water applications include refineries, fertilizer plants,
LNG plants, chemical processing facilities, steel mills, and etc. With minor
variations all of these facilities have the same disinfection requirements as
power stations, therefore one would apply the same design principles to
equipment for these facilities.

5.24.4 Oil platforms


Oil field platform cooling and firewater disinfection applications can be
considered the same as those noted above. The major variations on the design
theme occur when the environmental conditions are considered. Here you
must pay heed to the area classification and the salt air conditions for all
your equipment designs. As oil becomes more difficult to locate, more off-
shore fields may be developed requiring this equipment.

5.24.5 Mammal pools


A rather unique application for seawater electrochlorination is the treatment
of mammal pools housing dolphins and whales. This equipment is used in
concert with ozone for bacterial and chloramine control. Electrochlorinatin
systems have been used for many years at such noteworthy facilities as the
Mirage Hotel in Las Vegas with excellent success.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


chapter 6

Electrolysis system design


considerations
In this chapter, the authors will highlight issues and problems to approach
with caution when designing electrochlorination systems. The authors will
not attempt to give code recommendations. Nationally accepted design
codes should be adhered to very scrupulously. In addition to nationally
accepted design codes, local design codes must be reviewed and compared
with the national codes to confirm compliance across all code requirements.
Codes that encompass the electrical, mechanical, and environmental
areas are pertinent to system design regardless of the equipment installation
location. For equipment supplied outside the United States this is doubly
true. With few exceptions, electrical code requirements are the most impor-
tant to apply, followed by environmental codes. United States Environmental
Protection Agency, National Electrical Manufacturing Association, and the
American Society for Testing of Materials codes will provide equipment
relatively violation-proof in the United States, while each country has its
own set of similar regulations, as painful past experience has proven.
Beyond the environmental codes there is the environment itself. Here
we cannot caution the reader enough to look at the operating environment
with a very jaundiced eye or severe costly warranty headaches can soon
follow. Corrosion caused by humidity and salt air will create electrical prob-
lems in tiny crevices that cannot be seen or foreseen until they occur. The
problem with looking carefully at this issue is that the system cost is escalated
at the quotation stage of the process by additional or more costly equipment.
As a supplier, more expensive equipment or additional equipment is not
an easy scenario when one is in a competitive bidding situation. The balance
between equipment reliability and cost is often difficult to recognize or
maintain. The bidder must balance losing the project with premature equip-
ment failure. The cost is clear when one considers losing the project, not so
with a warranty issue. When a project is overseas, even minor warranty
problems become major expenses where the cost of the equipment is usually
much less than the internal material handling and shipment to the site.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


6.1 Brine hypochlorite systems
Brine hypochlorite systems are typically used for disinfection of drinking
water (wells or surface water), wastewater disinfection, cooling water appli-
cations, or for food processing operations. With very few exceptions, most
of these sites are indoor installations where climate control is not a design
issue. If one must install a system in the elements, then serious freeze pro-
tection is essential for the cells, water lines, and product storage tanks.
Sodium brine solution will not freeze until below –20°F (–29°C) and yet it
is prudent to heat trace and insulate the lower section of these tanks.
Low water temperature or pressure can be a problem for brine
hypochlorite systems. Sites with feed water colder than 60οF (15οC) may
require one to warm the water to help prevent premature electrode coating
failure. Another problem caused by water colder than 40οF (5οC) is a
reduction in cell performance efficiency. Here again one must increase the
feed water temperature to maximize performance. Low water pressure
requires the installation of a booster pump in the water feed system.
Pressures below 40 psig are not normally acceptable for reliable brine
hypochlorite system operation.
To get the most efficient operation from on-site electrolyzer cells, the cell
feed temperature and the temperature rise through the cell are best controlled
between 60οF (15οC) and 95οF (35οC). Having maintained the feed water tem-
perature and cell temperature rise in this range, one should also reduce the
sodium chlorate in the product caused by chemical inefficiency reactions and
localized electrode reactions. It may be difficult to control inlet water tempera-
ture on small remote sites. Therefore, it is usually applied to sites of over 50 lb/d.
Larger systems usually include tanks of several thousand gallons (greater
than 10 m3) in the hypochlorite generation system. Excessive sun and increased
temperature in the product hypochlorite storage tanks will cause accelerated
degradation due to increased temperature and UV-light exposure. Fiberglass
tanks pose a less severe degradation problem than translucent tanks because
fiberglass tanks are protected by an exterior white gel coat. Also, proper
anchoring of larger tanks is essential to account for high wind loads.
Available AC power at the site is important to system design to ensure
the correct DC power supply. Wells and small system sites will most often
have single-phase power, larger sites three-phase power. In any of these
situations, the control panel will operate from 110 V or less using a step
down transformer to achieve the lower voltage. In all cases, the power service
at each installation must be sufficient to assure that the AC feed line current
is acceptable and meets all codes when all the equipment is in operation.
System sizing is normally based on a system’s daily demand for disin-
fectant at peak flow conditions. Equipment requirements must then be
defined by the necessary dosing residual, the desired excess on-site generator
production capacity, whether redundant generator equipment is important,
the excess storage capacity to meet Class 2 reliability, and the dosing control
scheme employed.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Having defined the production requirements, equipment sized for 100%
of necessary capacity is advisable. A more suitable size would be 50 to 70%
of a generator’s rated capacity. If the sodium hypochlorite production
requirement is very large, it is advisable to put in multiple systems of smaller
capacity, for example, three units of 50% generation capacity. This design
allows the performance of maintenance without loss of production capacity.
Redundant tanks are the accepted standard for on-site hypochlorite gen-
eration installations. These tanks provide backup storage and allow for bulk
commercial hypochlorite storage in the rare event that the on-site system is
inoperable for any length of time. The installation should include a mixing
system to enable commercial hypochlorite dilution to a 1% solution for proper
dosing control. Also, the diluted commercial hypochlorite solution will have
a much lower rate of degradation than commercial sodium hypochlorite.
Dosing control schemes are available in three basic formats, manually
adjusted, flow paced, and residual paced. There are instances where it is
desirable to combine flow and residual pacing. This combination is accom-
plished using a programmable logic control (PLC) system. Well sites will
most often have a manually adjusted dosing system since the well pump
flow is constant and the hypochlorite product has a stable concentration.
Flow and residual pacing require an analog signal be sent to the control
panel, in turn signaling the variable speed drive on the dosing pump to
adjust the flow to the proper residual. Part of the PLC function is to control
the disinfection dose rate of change to prevent severe oscillations in the
concentration of disinfectant applied.
An average dose of one to five milligrams per liter of sodium hypochlo-
rite is generally required for potable water. Wastewater dosing may vary up
to ten milligrams per liter. Isolated cases exist where the potable water dose
required for a reasonable residual can be much higher. Two examples of this
increased dosage requirement are for iron and manganese control and to
treat for high ammonia levels. For example, potable water doses up to 40
mg/l of sodium hypochlorite may be required to remove ammonia through
breakpoint chlorination.
Dosing volume and pressure will define the pump type required. Small
systems will generally use a diaphragm pump for sodium hypochlorite
application. Systems greater than 100 lb/d will often use positive displace-
ment hose pumps capable of higher volumes. PVDF, Teflon, Viton, titanium,
Hastelloy C, and ceramic are the construction materials of choice for pumps.
Money extended on these materials will serve as an insurance policy to
assure reliable system operation.

6.2 Seawater hypochlorite systems


Seawater electrolysis installations (onshore or offshore) are used where a
ready supply of saline water sufficient to electrolyze into disinfectant sodium
hypochlorite exists. Generally speaking, if there is a modest amount of salt,
greater than 2500 mg/l, electrolysis can be performed using a seawater cell.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
The applications outlined in Chapter 5 listed some of the design issues
associated with seawater sodium hypochlorite systems. These issues are
discussed in detail below.

6.2.1 Local regulations and codes


Local regulation and code review is much more important for seawater
systems than for brine systems due to their broad application worldwide.
Electrical codes can be particularly onerous when care is not taken in the
review process. Area classification for offshore systems, whether by Europe
or the United States, define specific needs to meet certain system limitations.
Although mechanical codes are equal whatever the origin, review is just as
important as with electrical code review.
Water discharge limitations are a consideration where local environmen-
tal regulations require stringent discharge controls. Most assuredly, this issue
will change the treatment approach employed at a specific site.
There have been instances where the site discharge requirements caused
severe fouling of the seawater cell. Although the generation system was capa-
ble of producing more sodium hypochlorite, it was constrained by discharge
limits. There have also been cases where a constant sodium hypochlorite
concentration could not meet the requirements even when no dosing limita-
tions were enacted. For example, seawater clams and oysters 1/4 inch to 2
inches in diameter grow very efficiently in a 0.3 to 0.4 mg/l environment with
high flow rates, warm water, dark, no predators, and with high nutrient levels
passing through the filters. Put another way, manually removing clam shells
from electrolyzer cells each day for 2 to 3 weeks in Saudi Arabia’s 110° heat
is no picnic. A power station located in Indonesia grew very small snails in
the circulating system when the chlorination level was less than 0.2 mg/l.

6.2.2 Site type


Site location and environmental conditions may control the approach taken to
provide reliable equipment. Whether the electrolyzer site is onshore or offshore,
the atmosphere will be salt laden. As well, desert locations will most assuredly
have very high densities of dust and dirt during sand storm conditions. With
a few exceptions, large systems, over 1000 lb/d (450 kg/d) are installed out-
doors and protected from the sun. Offshore systems, although quite small, are
seldom indoors and therefore exposed to whatever elements the site offers.

6.2.3 Local environmental conditions


Ambient air temperature and humidity should characterize material designs
for the DC power supply and the control panel; the cooling method and media
are important considerations to ensure reliable operation. Equipment expo-
sure to temperatures well below zero is not advisable without proper freeze
protection. On the other hand high temperatures will damage equipment if

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


cooling methods such as shading and air conditioning are not employed. The
authors experienced temperatures exceeding 180οF (82οC) in control panels
installed in Saudi Arabia unprotected from the sun.
Water temperatures are important to consider in seawater sodium
hypochlorite systems because the anode coatings are sensitive to tempera-
tures below 60οF (15οC). In cold water, the electrode coating is affected by
the increased oxygen concentration in the water. This increased oxygen
concentration results in increased oxygen generation by the anode. To over-
come this problem, several methods may be employed (e.g., reduction in the
operating current density and changes to the electrode coating to allow the
use of higher oxygen concentrations in the water).
Pipe, valves, and fittings must be designed for severe sun exposure (UV
rays) and ozone conditions in rare occasions. PVC pipe will usually surface
harden under these conditions and result in embrittlement, normally not a
problem unless the pipe receives a severe impact. The effects of both UV
and ozone on PVC pipe may be controlled by painting the pipe. Nearly any
latex paint, preferably a light color, will serve to block UV and ozone effec-
tively. With weather exposure, FRP pipe surfaces may expose glass fibers.
Painting FRP pipe may also solve these problems. However, specific painting
steps may be necessary for effective painting. These steps may include the
use of specific wash coat primers to ensure good paint adhesion.
FRP tanks should have a white gel coat as provided by the tank manu-
facturer to prevent gradual surface degradation.
Steel fabrications should always be seal welded to eliminate crevice
corrosion problems. The long-term corrosion control benefits may justify the
minor added cost of seal welding. Painting fabricated steel requires coatings
having at least a three-part system. This system provides a zinc base coat to
provide severe duty protection. Properly prepared and painted steel will
withstand very harsh salt environments and random hypochlorite exposure.

6.2.4 Available water pressure


System water supplies are determined by the source water pressure. Offshore
systems seldom require booster pumps because their cooling water systems
have sufficient pressure to support electrochlorinator requirements. Onshore
systems nearly always require seawater booster pumps where the circulating
cooling systems use low-pressure high volume equipment. The supply pres-
sures most often used in electrochlorinator systems are in the range of 100
to 150 ft (47.2 to 70.8 m) of discharge head.

6.2.5 Dosing point pressure requirements


Dosing point pressure generally is low for circulating pump intake structures
and for offshore platform pump caissons. These systems only require sea-
water booster pumps to provide both the seawater supply and the required
pressure to get to the dosing point.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Systems having high dose point pressure requirements usually require
a degassing tank and independent dosing pumps in addition to the seawater
booster pumps. The dosing tank serves as a positive suction head pump
supply and will usually require air fans to dilute the by-product hydrogen.
A few plants have used open top tanks for free hydrogen escape without
the need for fans. These systems are very effective and reduce required
electrochorination system equipment. A note of caution: When one is work-
ing with deep water hypochlorite injection situations, one must account for
the head losses below seawater level.
Be aware that seawater electrolysis produces magnesium hydroxide and
related calcium waste products. These deposits will settle in the storage tank
unless the tank and piping is designed to keep them in suspension. While
not all of these deposits can be removed, keeping them in suspension allows
them to be pumped from the tank.

6.2.6 Dosage control methods


Pump configurations for dosing systems most often used are: a single
pump in continuous dose operation, a single pump in shock dose opera-
tion, and a single pump for continuous operation using a second continu-
ous operation capable pump for shock dosing purposes. In all cases, regard-
less of the site, each pump in operation has a second pump in position to
support failure occurrences.

6.2.7 Power supply requirements


Three-phase supply power varies from more common 380, 415, and 460 V to
4,160, 6,600, and 11,000 V available. Systems having large DC power units will
frequently use 4,160 or greater voltage for large onshore plants. Designers
often prefer to use high voltage power, when available, to allow the use of
smaller sized cabling resulting from lower AC operating line currents and
existing high voltage switch gear. Depending upon the plant power distribu-
tion system, control voltage power is stepped down from the higher source
power by a transformer to 110 or 220 V from the main power supply line.
Power also may be supplied separately from an independent source. Systems
installed offshore, with few exceptions, use supply power of less than 600 V.

6.2.8 System sizing


System sizing is determined using several basic criteria: seawater chlorine
demand, dosing method (continuous only, shock only, combined continuous
and shock), seawater salinity, and temperature.
Chlorine demand is quite variable yet generally within a narrow range
of 2 to 3 mg/l. For example, in the Arabian Gulf the seawater chlorine
demand has been tested at 2.7 mg/l and in Singapore it was tested at 2.4

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


mg/l. There are always exceptions to this general rule. However, those
exceptions are rare and usually do not result in undersized systems.
Dosing method is a matter of past engineering practice and the influence
of previous chlorine gas disinfection operations on the dosing system design.
Many retrofitted electrochlorination systems will have both continuous and
shock dosing capabilities. These capabilities are similar to those used in gas
chlorination systems. In these dual systems, continuous dosing rates of 1 to
2 mg/l are the most common. Shock dose rates can range from 3 to 10 mg/l
for periods of 15 to 60 min depending upon the conditions. The dosing
regimen is integrated in the control panel operations to assure cooling system
performance is maintained.
Based upon the chlorine demand data, discussed above, systems are
initially sized to provide a continuous dose rate of 1 to 2 mg/l. This practice
of sizing electrolyzers to provide 1 to 2 mg is commonly employed for
most seawater electrochlorination systems, unless the client specifies oth-
erwise. The cooling systems in offshore sites function well when treated
in this manner for two reasons. First, the small larvae naturally occurring
in the seawater do not like the irritation associated with low levels of
chlorine. Secondly, bromine (approximately 50 mg/l) naturally present in
seawater is converted to hypobromous acid during electrochlorination.
This acid is a very effective biocide at the normal seawater pH of 8.5 where
the hypochlorous acid is less effective. Thus, the presence of bromine helps
to improve the efficacy of seawater generated hypochlorite when compared
to chlorine gas alone.
All dosing can be stopped for brief periods if an equipment failure
occurs. However, it is not prudent to be offline for longer than 24 h. After
that period the larvae for barnacles and bivalves will begin to deposit on
the circulating cooling system’s walls and crevices.
As discussed earlier, electrolyzer equipment capacity may be sensitive to
low seawater temperatures and low salt content conditions. Seawater salinity
of 80% (as chloride) of nominal seawater chloride content (18,980 mg/l) and
temperatures greater than 60οF (15οC) are required for normal electrolyzer
operation. In these cases where salinity or temperature is less than these values,
additional electrolyzers must be used to reduce the operating current density
in the cell. Alternatively, the electrolyzer electrode coatings may be modified
for operation at the lower temperatures and salinity.
The addition of electrolyzers to a given system is accomplished easily,
although the designer should be aware of the cost of the added electrolyzers.
The multiple cell modules design concept may provide for lower operating
current and operational redundancy. Designing excess capacity into large
onshore systems is based upon the chlorination requirements discussed
above. It is common to design with 2 × 50% modules, 3 x 50% modules, or
3 × 35% modules to provide excess capacity and redundancy.
Another consideration in system sizing is the possibility of future plant
expansion. In these cases, one may wish to consider the addition of seawater

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


supply pump capacity and piping as well as other applicable civil and
electrical requirements.

6.2.9 Biofouling control


Biofouling control is managed by varying the electrolyzer operating current
with manual or automatic controls to maintain a desired chlorine residual
in the circulating stream of the electrolyzer system.
Manual control is the most frequently employed method of maintaining
an appropriate chlorine residual in the circulating stream. Plant laboratories
or operations personnel will perform a manual chlorine residual test, on a
regular basis, daily or weekly, and the system output is adjusted via the
rectifier operating current. Experience has proven that weekly tests are usu-
ally sufficient to provide effective residual control due to the slow seasonal
change in seawater chlorine demand.
Automated control is normally achieved by using a chlorine residual
analyzer. This instrument sends an analog 4 to 20 mA signal to a controller
or the PLC control system with a control scheme that in turn provides an
analog signal to the DC rectifier for current control. The control loop is
essential to prevent the DC rectifier current oscillation caused by control
sensitivity. As noted earlier, the system will be very stable because, with the
exception of a plankton bloom, seawater chlorine demand changes are usu-
ally very slow.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


chapter 7

Economic evaluation
principles for electrolysis
systems
7.1 System installation
The economics of site engineering begin with site preparation including
concrete pads, shelter or building installation, and required water and
power services.
The authors have been responsible for or participated in the installation
of electrochlorination (EC) plants worldwide sized from 20 lb (9 kg) per day
to 57,600 lb (26 t) per day. Each site provided an opportunity to oversee the
requirements for both large and small sites.
A site’s location is important for effective EC system cost evaluation. For
example, seawater EC sites in Saudi Arabia require significant import cost
for raw materials and labor to complete a plant. A similar plant in Taiwan
or Singapore will have most of the required construction materials, i.e., rebar,
concrete, lumber, etc., readily available locally. Local labor does not exist in
countries such as Saudi Arabia, further adding to the contracting cost. In
such a case, labor personnel are imported from Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Philip-
pines, Indonesia, etc. at low wages and contracts of 2 to 3 years.
Installation time for a plant can vary widely for reasons of site location
and equipment scope. A 1000 lb/d (450 kg/d) domestic brine electrolysis
site having an existing building will usually require 6 to 8 weeks to install
and commission. This time allocation assumes that no civil work is required
to complete the installation. If civil work is not completed one must allow
12 to 16 weeks to complete installation and commissioning. Installation and
commissioning will require from 6 to 12 weeks of supervisory time after all
civil requirements are completed.
An undeveloped site is another matter entirely. This discussion will
provide an overview of the necessary elements to complete an installation.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


There are many small installation and commissioning issues that require
one to constantly monitor contractor progress. Dependence on the local
contractors to complete their portion of the installation demands careful
coordination and good cooperation.
When evaluating the site cost an engineering firm considers electrochlo-
rination plants as an offsite piece of plant. That is to say, it is not essential
to main plant function. As such, this equipment is added as an incremental
part of the main installation and the contractor treats main plant installation
issues with more urgency.
Overall installation costs for an on-site generator as described above will
be from 35 to 100% of the generator equipment cost. The complexity of site
requirements define these costs; e.g., does the system require a building, is
there air handling equipment required, is the installation an expansion, etc.
Therefore, unless a better cost basis is available, one may consider installation
cost to be approximately 50% of the EC plant equipment capital cost.

7.2 System operations


7.2.1 Operating economics
The major cost factors in a complete evaluation of on-site sodium hypochlo-
rite production are direct costs for water, salt, power, operating and main-
tenance labor, and operating supplies; fixed costs for fixed charges, depre-
cation, taxes, and insurance; plant overhead; and general expenses of
administration and financing costs. The following narrative defines the most
important issues when evaluating on-site generation operating costs. It is
not the intention of the authors to provide a complete analysis in this text
but to provide a cost basis for the readers to begin their analysis.
Brine systems require salt and power to supply the requisite sodium
hypochlorite. The same is not true of a seawater system since salt is freely
available. This difference has a significant impact on disinfectant cost.
For the purposes of this discussion, water does not contribute to on-site
production cost since water used in the generation process is returned to the
distribution system as part of the disinfectant.

7.2.1.1 Brine system operating costs


Power cost for on-site hypochlorite production, while widely variable,
contributes more than 50% to the production cost at 2.5 AC kWh/lb (5.5
AC kWh/kg). Most plants cannot see the power usage because the system
is so small compared to other plant power consumers. For example, a 50-
horsepower pump motor will consume 37 kW and a 5-lb/h (2.25 kg/h)
hypochlorite generator will consume 12.5 kW. Most plants operating this
size system also operate many large power consumers. Therefore, the
hypochlorite generation cost is somewhat hidden or masked in the day-
to-day power consumption variations. The power cost applied in this
discussion is $0.10 per kWh.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


The need for separate salt delivery contracts to the plant site does not
allow the same innocuous condition as seen with power usage. The need
for a brine system salt supply requires a readily available source of good
quality salt at reasonable prices near the electrolyzer installation. These
regular deliveries generally require long-term contracts for a reasonable
cost basis.
Three major categories of salt are sold in bulk, mined salt, solar salt
(evaporated sea salt), and purified salt. The cost of mined and solar salt is
considered equal, while purified (table grade) salts may (depending upon
your geographic location) cost 1 to 3 times that of mined or solar salt. Since
brine systems presently on the market do not require purified salt for reliable
operation, mined and solar salt will be the focus of the discussion.
The accepted standard for salt usage in brine systems is 3.5 lb salt per
pound of chlorine generated as sodium hypochlorite. Salt prices will fit into
a range of 0.02 dollars/lb (0.045 dollars/kg) to 0.10 dollars/lb (0.22 dol-
lars/kg) dependent upon quantity, quality, and transportation requirements.
The standard cost used for cost analysis purposes is 0.05 dollars/lb (0.11
dollars/ kg) delivered to the site.
The remaining items in a direct cost analysis are operating and mainte-
nance labor requirements, operating supplies, and a chemical index inflation
allowance. Labor is required for system oversight and to perform any
required maintenance for cleaning or equipment repairs. Operating supplies
refer to maintenance materials, acid for cleaning, etc., and replacement elec-
trodes whose reasonable life is 5 to 7 years. The inflation index uses chemical
price indices for material price inflation.
Labor of 15 minutes per day is the allowance for the two most important
maintenance requirements, cell cleaning and electrode replacement. The labor
cost used at the time of this writing is $12.00/h excluding plant overhead.
Without regard for EC plant warranties and because the authors have
no exact electrode replacement charges, a charge of $0.02/lb (0.045 dol-
lars/kg) of chlorine produced will be assumed. This accrual figure should
provide replacement electrodes after 5 years of system operation between
replacements.
The chemical price index used is the M&E index. The historical price
basis is established and offers adequate accuracy for cost analysis. In this
discussion, an inflation number of 3% based upon the consumer price index
will be used. This number is high for the present, however it is a long-term
average that will prevent gross analytical errors.
In summary, for the cost of product at 100 lb/d (45 kg/d) with no water
charge, salt at $0.175/ lb of Cl2 ($.05 x 3.5 lb), power at $0.25/lb of Cl2 ($0.10
x 2.5 kWh), unburdened labor at $.02/ lb of Cl2 ($12.00/60 x 10 min/d), the
consumer price index inflation at 3% of the total fixed costs equaling $.015/lb
of Cl2, the chemical price index inflation at 5% of the total fixed costs
equaling $0.022/lb of Cl2, and an electrode replacement cost of $0.02/lb of
chlorine. The total price of chlorine produced with a brine type sodium
hypochlorite generator on-site is $0.502/lb of chlorine.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Because the general labor and index cost structure is nearly equal regard-
less of the site location within a country, we tend to view production cost
as simply the cost of salt and power as in the example above where the raw
material cost is $0.425/lb of chlorine ($0.175 plus $0.25).
The most recent brine electrolyzer cell developments will further reduce
system salt and power consumption. The authors expect a reduction in cost
which will approach the cost of on-site production of small quantities of
chlorine gas.

7.2.1.2 Seawater system operating costs


Seawater systems eliminate the requirement for salt cost. The above brine
system analysis provides a foundation for the reader to understand seawater
electrolysis costs.
To elaborate further, the authors will adjust the summarized cost above.
Bearing in mind that the seawater electrolyzer cells are more power efficient
than brine electrolyzer cells, there is an inherent power cost advantage.
Seawater system costs 1.8 kWh versus brine system product at 2.5 kWh per
pound of chlorine.
To discuss seawater system cost analysis, a production requirement of
1000 lb/d (454 kg/d) chlorine equivalent requiring seawater booster pumps
and no product dosing pumps will be used. The cost of power for the
seawater booster pumps is assumed to be 5 kW for increasing the supply
pressure only. Booster pump power consumption is 5 kW times 24 h equaling
120 kWh divided by 1000 lb/d chlorine production equaling a pumping cost
of $0.012/lb of chlorine.
Assuming the plant must buy power at $0.1/kWh, production power
cost is $0.192 lb of Cl2 ($.1 × 1.8 kWh plus $0.012), unburdened labor at
$.02/lb of Cl2 ($12.00/60 × 10 min/d), the consumer price index inflation
at 3% of the total fixed costs equaling $.006/lb of Cl2, the chemical price
index inflation at 5% of the total fixed costs equaling $0.011/lb of Cl2, and
accrual for electrode replacement of $0.02/lb of chlorine. The total price of
chlorine produced with an on-site seawater sodium hypochlorite generator
is $0.249/lb of chlorine.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


chapter 8

Electrolysis system
installation, operation,
and maintenance
The intention of this chapter is to provide the reader with practical electro-
chlorination system installation, operation, and maintenance requirements.
These requirements are for reference only and in no way are intended to
usurp supplier recommendations. While brine and seawater electrochlori-
nation systems are very similar they are separated in this chapter to avoid
confusion. Note, no consideration is given in this discussion to civil instal-
lation requirements.
The lists below are general requirements to install an on-site hypochlorite
generation system, provide estimates of equipment and manpower, and the
approximate time to install the system size noted. One will then have a
reasonable order of magnitude to judge the requirements for larger or smaller
system installation requirements.
Mechanical and electrical installation requirements, hydraulic pressure
testing, and commissioning time requirements for either a brine system or
a seawater system of 1200 lb chlorine equivalent per day are shown in Tables
8.1, 8.2, and 8.3, respectively.
Outlined below are the major checkpoints for the start up and operation
of a brine electrolyzer system:

1. Confirm that all anchor locations are approximately correct.


a. Note: Equipment installation using permanently located anchors
is not recommended. Anchor tabs or concrete block-out holes in
the foundation are preferred for installation ease, leveling require-
ments, and the necessity to grout equipment regardless of pad
condition.
b. When the block-out method has been employed, use a zero datum
reference point as a location basis, then use a chalk line to correctly
locate the equipment.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Table 8.1 Equipment Weight
Estimated Dry Weight
Equipment Qty Description (lb)
1 Cell system 1800
1 DC Rectifier 1200
1 System control panel 500
1 40 ton dissolver 1500
2 20,000 gallon tanks 1500
2 Dosing pumps 150

Table 8.2 Equipment Installation Requirements


Installation Installation Duration Manpower
Set equipment 1 week 6 people + 1 supervisor
Pipe installation 2–3 weeks 3 people + 1 supervisor
Install Electrical 2–3 weeks 3 people + 1 supervisor

Note: Equipment setting requirements assume use of a 20-ton truck crane and a
front end loading fork truck

Table 8.3 Equipment Testing Requirements


Testing Test Duration Manpower
Hydro test 3–5 days 2 people + 1 supervisor
Electrical test 3–5 days 2 people + 1 supervisor
Commissioning tests 3–5 days 1 person + 1 supervisor
Performance tests 1–3 days 1 commissioning engineer

2. Set all major equipment in their respective positions.


3. Adjust all equipment to level and grout in position.
4. Set anchors or anchor tabs and grout in or tighten in position.
5. Using a chalk line, lay out piping and conduit positioning.
6. Position and anchor pipe and conduit supports.
7. Install pipe and conduit on their respective supports in accordance
with site drawings.
8. Complete flanged and threaded connections for all pipe and conduit.
9. Pull all power and electrical wire to the designated termination boxes.
10. Some sites will require a megger test of all installed wire. In this case
you must disconnect the terminations and test to assure there are no
voltage leaks to ground.
11. Perform termination wring-out tests on all power and instrument
cabling.
12. Terminate power and instrument wire.
13. Flood and hydraulically test piping sections starting at the inlet of
the system. Progress through each pipe section until complete, re-
pairing any leaks before moving to the next test section.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Next is the pre-commissioning checklist:

1. Piping connections
a. Confirm that all piping is installed and properly connected.
b. Confirm that all threaded and flanged connections are tight.
c. Hydrostatically test all piping to site specified pressures or to 1.5
times the system’s nominal operating pressure.
2. Power connections
a. Confirm that all electrical equipment meets local, state and federal
codes.
b. Confirm that the motor control center is installed and connected
properly and all electrical terminations are tight.
c. Disconnect and meager test the main power supply wiring from
the power source to the motor control center and from the motor
control center to the DC power supply to assure there is no dam-
aged wire or connection ground faults.
3. Instrumentation wiring
a. Perform loop checks of all instrumentation wiring to confirm all
instrument terminations are properly connected.
b. To assure that all analog signal systems are functioning properly,
use a digital signal generator to confirm proper field instrument
operation.
c. Confirm that all terminations are tight at the control panel and
the field instruments.
d. Apply anti-fungal lacquer to all field and control connections, if
required. This should be completed only after the systems are
thoroughly tested to assure no further changes are required.
4. Pump testing
a. Remove the flexible coupling guards and disconnect the flexible
couplings.
b. From the motor control center, bump the motor starter assembly
to confirm proper rotation. Correct motor rotation as required.
c. Reconnect the coupling assemblies and align the motor and pump
coupling per the manufacturer’s instructions.
d. Reinstall the coupling guards.
e. Remove the pump bearing oil addition plug and measure the
bearing housing oil level to confirm that there is sufficient oil
on the bearing housing. Making certain that you have the
manufacturer recommended oil, add oil as necessary to the
bearing assembly.
5. For pumps with seal flush systems
a. Disconnect the seal flush supply lines and flush the lines at full
flow for 15 min to remove any debris from the lines.
b. Reconnect the water supply line and set the water flow at the
proper flow rate. This flow for most seal assemblies is 0.5 gpm
(2 l/min).
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
6. Inlet automated strainer testing
a. Energize the strainer control panel.
b. Open the outlet strainer isolation valve and supply water to the
strainer by opening the inlet isolation valve sufficiently to fill
the strainer. This is to assure that you have some water in the
strainer to assure slight lubrication of the scraper assembly dur-
ing testing.
c. Start the manual strainer backwash sequence to confirm that the
strainer motor is functioning. Stop the motor as soon as you have
confirmed proper motor operation.
d. Confirm that the strainer drain valve opens and closes when the
system is in backwash.
e. Open the pressure differential switch and short pressure switch
control contacts to the strainer control panel. This should begin
the pressure switch initiated strainer backwash sequence. Con-
firm that the sequence of operations is correct and that the
duration of operation is per the expected local operating re-
quirements.
7. Dilution fans
a. Confirm that the power supply wiring is properly connected.
b. Remove the fan drive belt covers.
c. Remove the fan drive belts.
d. From the motor control center, bump the motor starter assembly
to confirm proper rotation. Correct motor rotation as required.
e. Reinstall the fan drive belts and the drive belt covers.
f. Start one of the fans and confirm that the in-line airflow switch
is functioning properly.
8. Systems with water softener controls
a. If the softener is an electrically operated unit, connect the softener
valve to the control power.
b. The water softener timer is normally factory set but should be
tested and adjusted to local water hardness conditions. Instruc-
tions for setting the regeneration cycle should be in your operat-
ing manual.
9. Systems with storage tanks and level controls
a. Manually fill the storage tank to 60 to 75% of capacity.
b. Open the tank manual outlet isolation valve to the pump suction
and the pump suction manual isolation valve at the pump.
c. Close the pump discharge manual isolation valve.
d. Confirm that the level control sensor, whether electronic or air, is
functioning properly by varying the signal, again electronic or air,
to the level control valve.
e. Supply power or air to the automated level control valve.
f. The storage tank level control valve should be open because the
tank is partially filled and the level sensor is functional.
g. Start the pump with the pump outlet valve closed.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
h. With the pump in operation slowly open the pump outlet manual
isolation valve. Observe that the automated level control valve
closes as the tank level recedes to the level control set point.
i. Stop the pump and isolate the tank in preparation for system
start up.

8.1 Brine systems: general commissioning procedure


The procedure is as follows:

1. Disconnect all electrical power from the DC rectifier and controls.


2. Disconnect the incoming water line to the water softener and flush
the line at full water flow for at least 10 min, then stop the water
flow and reconnect to the water softener.
3. Fill the salt dissolver to at least the 50% level.
4. Engage the power to the system control panel.
5. Confirm that proper power is available to the dissolver controls and
level control valve.
6. Open the manual valve supplying water to the salt dissolver.
7. Allow the brine dissolver to fill to the proper level. Be certain to
confirm that the level controls close the automatic water supply valve
to stop water flow.
8. Allow the salt to dissolve for at least 4 h and preferably 12 to 24 h.
9. Open all manual cell outlet valves to the system storage tank.
10. Close the system flush and drain valves.
11. Close cell water and brine feed control valves.
12. Open the supply water valve to the water softener at the recommend-
ed pressure, usually greater than 40 psig, adjusting as required.
13. Slowly open the water supply valve to fill the electrolyzer cell and
bleed all the air from the system piping to the storage tank, usually
3–5 min.
14. Set the water and brine flows at the recommended rates. Allow about
10 min to fill the system with brine solution.
15. Turn the DC rectifier control settings to 0.
16. Engage the power to the DC rectifier. Reconfirm that the AC power
to the rectifier is at the proper voltage.
17. If your rectifier has a voltage control, increase the DC voltage control
to 100%.
18. Start the rectifier power output by increasing the DC current control
pot to 25% of rated output and hold at that current for 15 min.
19. Test the incoming AC power supply lines to the rectifier to confirm
that all three phases are operating with balanced current, within 5%.
20. Increase DC power to the cell to 100% and allow it to operate for 30
min. Once again confirm that the three power supply phases have
balanced current.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


21. Using a DC voltmeter, test the cell operating voltages after the system
has operated for several hours at the nominal operating conditions.
22. Confirm that the remainder of the system is operating smoothly by
following the required inspection and test protocols provided with
your system.
23. Fill the storage tank to 30% of capacity.
24. Open the tank to pump supply valves.
25. Provide power to the system dosing pump and controls and manu-
ally confirm that the pump is operating properly.
26. Should you have an automatic dosing control system you must con-
firm that the pump control signal requirements are available and the
span required for proper control is set in accordance to instrument
instructions.
27. Switch the pump control from manual to automatic and confirm that
the pumping system is functioning to design requirements.

8.2 Seawater systems: general commissioning procedure


The procedure is as follows:

1. Disconnect all electrical power from the DC rectifier and controls.


2. Disconnect the incoming seawater supply line to the seawater strain-
er and flush the line at full water flow for at least 10 min, then stop
the water flow and reconnect to the seawater strainer.
3. Engage the power to the system control panel.
4. Confirm that the seawater strainer has proper voltage to the control
panel and the strainer cleaning motor.
5. Engage the AC power to the seawater booster pumps and the product
dosing pumps.
6. Confirm that the strainer drain valve is closed.
7. Close the seawater booster pump inlet and outlet isolation valves.
8. Open the strainer inlet and outlet isolation valves.
9. Open all cell outlet manual valves to the system storage tank.
10. Note: For a system with only a degassing device open the valves to
the system dosing point.
11. Close the cell system flush and drain valves.
12. Close the storage tank outlet isolation valve.
13. Open the seawater booster pump inlet isolation valve.
14. Start the seawater booster pump manually from the system control
panel.
15. Slowly open the seawater booster pump outlet isolation valve.
16. Confirm that the seawater pressure is at the recommended level.
17. Slowly open the seawater strainer inlet and outlet isolation valves.
This will provide seawater to the cell module inlet isolation valve.
18. Note: This step must be completed slowly to prevent cell and PVC
pipe waterhammer damage. Slowly open the seawater supply valve
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
to fill the electrolyzer cell module at 20 to 25 gal/min and bleed the
air from the system piping to the storage tank or degassing device,
usually less than 5 min.
19. Set the seawater flow to the vendor recommended rate.
20. Turn the DC rectifier control settings to 0.
21. Engage the power to the DC rectifier. Reconfirm that the AC power
to the rectifier is at the proper voltage.
22. If your rectifier has a voltage control device, increase the DC voltage
control pot to 100% and turn the DC current control pot at 0.
23. Start the rectifier power output by increasing the DC current control
pot to 25% of rated output and hold at that current for 5 min.
24. Test the incoming AC power supply lines to the rectifier to confirm
that all three phases are operating with balanced AC current,
within 5%.
25. Increase DC power to the cell module to 100% and allow it to operate
for sufficient time to confirm proper operation.
26. Once again confirm that the three power supply phases have bal-
anced current.
27. Confirm that the tank level control system is operational.
28. Confirm that the level control valve has power.
29. Using a DC voltmeter, test each cell’s operating voltage in the cell
module after the cell system has operated for several hours at the
nominal operating conditions.
30. Confirm that the remainder of the system is operating smoothly by
following the required inspection and test protocols provided by the
manufacturer for your system.
31. If your system has a storage/degas tank, fill the storage tank to 60
to 70% of capacity.
32. Close the dosing pump discharge isolation valves.
33. Open the storage tank outlet isolation valve from the storage/degas
tank to the dosing pumps.
34. Open the dosing pump inlet isolation valves.
35. When the dosing pumps are flooded start the dosing pump from the
control panel and slowly open the discharge isolation valve.
36. Should you have an automatic tank level or dosing control system
you must confirm that the dosing pump or tank level control signal
requirements are available and the signal span required for proper
control are set in accordance with the instrument instructions.
37. Switch the pump control from manual to automatic and confirm
that the dosing or level control system is functioning to design
requirements.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


chapter 9

System design
and trouble analysis
Systems designed today having the latest materials of construction will operate
reliably for many years with a minimum of equipment maintenance. The most
important maintenance is cell cleaning. This maintenance should be consid-
ered an essential part of a preventive maintenance program. All other equip-
ment will require mechanical, instrument, and electrical maintenance.
When systems malfunction, identifying the problem may be difficult
where the equipment environment is severe. The trend toward more complex
equipment control schemes provides an environment for complex instrument
and control failures. Offshore environments, Middle Eastern, and Southeast
Asia environments must be designed for high humidity and heat. If not, the
equipment may fail due to electrical junction corrosion faults. The use of anti-
fungal lacquer on electrical terminations and controls after all equipment is in
operation will assist in preventing these types of field problems.
Tables 9.1 and 9.2 provide some of the more common elements of elec-
trochlorinator fault analysis. A brief discussion of fault analysis is provided
as an example of an approach used to trace field problems. A high DC cell
voltage problem is used in the following example.
The symptom for this example problem is excessive cell voltage. Due to
this excessive voltage the operator is unable to maintain the operating
amperage of the cell at the desired level. This low operating amperage is
indicated by the rectifier voltmeter on the rectifier unit. Listed below are a
series of checks and tests that would be used to identify the problem. Note,
the example is divided into two procedures (one for seawater systems and
one for brine systems).
Seawater Systems— Test the incoming seawater for salt content:

1. Excessive rain will reduce the salt strength and cause this high DC
cell voltage problem.
2. The water temperature may have decreased to a temperature low
enough to cause excess voltage through increased solution resistance.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Table 9.1 Symptoms – Seawater systems

Poor or no hypo production


High temp shut down

Unit runs constantly


Low or no current
No system power
High DC voltage
Low DC voltage
High current

Flow loss
Probable Cause
Low seawater flow rate X X X X
DC current too high X X X
Cell deposit build-up X X X
Seawater flow high X
Bad DC electrical connection X X
Current control not set correctly X X X X
Water valves set improperly X X X X
Storage tank level control failure X X X
Cell flow switch failure X X
Temperature switch failure X X
Control panel switches set incorrectly X X
Vent line clogged
P.C. board failure X X X X
Cell piping clogged X X
Cell electrode wear X X X
Loss of main AC power X X X
Low AC supply voltage X X X
Control panel failure X X X X X
Rectifier P.C. board out of phase X X X
Power SCR or diode failure X X X

This condition will not improve until the inlet water temperature
improves.
3. The cell has excessive calcarious deposit formation.
a. Has the cell been acid cleaned as indicated in the maintenance
manual?
b. Measure the independent cell assemblies to confirm that no indi-
vidual cell pack or assembly has been excessively damaged.
4. The cell current is above the proper setting causing high cell voltage.
a. The current control pot is set incorrectly.
b. The control pot has failed.
c. A control circuit board in the rectifier has failed.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Table 9.2 Symptoms – Brine Systems

Poor hypo production or none at all


High temp system shut down

High operating current


Low or no cell current
No system AC power
High DC cell voltage

Unit runs constantly


Low cell voltage

Flow loss
Probable Cause
Low flow rate — Water or Brine X X X X X X
DC current too high X X X
Cell electrode deposit build-up X X X X
Salt brine flow too low X X X X
Salt brine flow too high X X
Bad DC electrical connection X X
Current control not set correctly X X X X
Improper valve settings X X X X X
Storage tank level control failure X X X X
Cell float switch failure X X
Temperature switch failure X X X
Panel switches positioned incorrectly X X X
Vent line clogged X
Rectifier P.C. board failure X X X X X
Cell piping clogged X
Cell electrode wear X X X
Loss of main AC power X X X
Low AC supply voltage X X X
Relay or PLC failure X X X X X
P.C. board out of phase X X X
Rectifier SCR or Diode failure X X X

5. There is a loose bus bar connection between the cells or between the
cells and rectifier.
a. This problem can occur occasionally due to bus bar expansion.
The connection fasteners must be tightened.
6. The cell voltage is high and no other corrective actions improve cell
voltage.
a. The cell is near the end of its useful life. New electrodes will have
to be installed to return the cell to its original condition.
i. Do a cell voltage scan to determine which cell assemblies are
causing a problem.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


ii. Replace all of the electrodes in the cell that is the proven
problem.

Brine systems— Test the incoming brine for salt content:

1. Brine systems have controlled water and brine flow, therefore check
a. Water pressure loss
b. Water flow loss
c. Brine pressure loss
d. Brine flow loss
2. Inlet water temperature has decreased.
a. A water heating method must be provided either by using the
product discharge heat or using a stand alone water heater.
3. The cell has excessive calcarious deposits.
a. Has the cell been acid cleaned as indicated in the maintenance
manual?
b. Measure the independent cell assemblies to confirm that no indi-
vidual cell pack or assembly has been excessively damaged.
4. The cell current is above the proper setting, causing high cell voltage.
a. The current control pot is set incorrectly.
b. The control pot has failed.
c. A control circuit on the rectifier control board has failed.
5. There is a loose bus bar connection between the cell and rectifier.
a. This problem can occasionally happen due to bus bar expansion.
The connection fasteners must be tightened.
b. The cell voltage is high and no other corrective actions improve
cell voltage.
c. The cell is near the end of its useful life. New electrodes will have
to be installed to return the cell to its original condition.
i. Do a cell voltage scan to determine which cell assemblies are
causing a problem.
ii. Replace all of the electrodes in the cell that is the proven
problem.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


chapter 10

System safety
Safety is an issue that must be considered whenever or wherever people are
involved with equipment operation. Previous chapters have addressed the
history, concepts, processes, specifications, operation, and maintenance of
both on-site brine and seawater hypochlorite generation systems. Due to the
importance of safety, this chapter provides the reader with a set of operating
safety instructions applicable to any on-site hypochlorite generation system
regardless of manufacturer or site.
Under normal operating conditions, hypochlorite systems are leak proof.
However, leakage and spillage may occur during system operations. Listed
below are safety instructions that can be used as guidelines to prevent injury
to operating personnel.
Safety can be categorized in two areas: chemical and electrical.

10.1 Chemical safety


Two types of chemicals associated with on-site generation of sodium
hypochlorite are considered hazardous and potentially dangerous to oper-
ating personnel:

1. NaOCI sodium hypochlorite


2. HCI hydrochloric acid

Be aware that the direct mixture of sodium hypochlorite solution with


hydrochloric acid while making the cleaning transition process will release
free chlorine gas.

Note: DO NOT MIX ACID WITH SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE.

10.1.1 Sodium hypochlorite handling (NaOCI)


Although the product from on-site sodium hypochlorite generation systems
has a lower strength than commercially available sodium hypochlorite, the

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


instructions below discuss the product as though it is the strongest hypochlo-
rite available.
It is essential that safety precautions are taken when carrying out any
duties which involve possible contact with sodium hypochlorite. Personnel
must be instructed on the properties of sodium hypochlorite and local safety
regulations for chemical handling must be adhered to at all times. First aid
equipment must be readily at hand and a hosed water supply must be
available before work is started. Eyewash bottles should be placed at stra-
tegic points throughout the hypochlorite plant.
The following information should be made available to all personnel:

• Sodium hypochlorite handling hazards


• Ingestion of NaOCI by mouth has a very serious poisoning effect,
which could lead to death.
• Inhalation of NaOCI vapor can give rise to headaches, irritation
of the mucous membrane, lack of coordination, and loss of
consciousness.
• Persistent absorption of NaOCI through the skin may lead to skin
disorders.
• Splashes on the skin
• Remove the affected clothing immediately and wash the skin
thoroughly until all contamination has been removed.
• Refer the patient to a doctor or a hospital for further treatment.
• Gassing and ingestion by mouth
• Obtain medical assistance immediately.
• Move the patient to a fresh air environment as soon as possible.
• Keep the patient warm with blankets and resting quietly.
• Oxygen must be administered by qualified personnel.
• If breathing fails, administer artificial respiration immediately
and continue until the patient breathes again or until a doctor
instructs otherwise.
• If NaOCI has been swallowed, do not induce vomiting but obtain
medical aid immediately.

10.1.2 Hydrochloric acid handling (HCI)


Muriatic acid (a 30% solution of hydrochloric acid) is used for cell cleaning.
This acid will cause serious chemical burns if it comes in contact with the
skin for more than a few seconds. If the acid comes in contact with the eyes,
it will rapidly cause serious damage resulting in impaired vision or total loss
of eyesight. It is poisonous if ingested. Always wear eye protection, protec-
tive clothing, and rubber gloves when handling.
In order to minimize the risk of these hazards, certain precautions must
be taken. These precautions are:

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


• Personnel must be fully instructed as to the characteristics of acid.
• Always avoid contact with the eyes, skin and clothing.
• Eye protection must always be worn when handling acid or dur-
ing any operation where there is the possibility of acid leakage.
• Certain protective clothing must also be worn. For normal tasks
such as handling carboys, etc., this may be confined to acid resis-
tant footwear and gloves. In other operations, where there is a
greater possibility of acid leakage, full protective clothing must
be worn.
• A plentiful supply of water must always be available. A bath or
shower adjacent to the work area is an advantage. Tepid water
should be supplied so that any possibility of shock is reduced to
a minimum. The shower must be equipped with a foolproof and
easily operated valve or switching-on device.
• Eyewash facilities must always be available and located in prom-
inent and readily accessible positions.
• Where acids may come into contact with metal, smoking or naked
lights must be prohibited because of the possibility of hydrogen
evolution.
• For the same reason, any mild steel drums containing acid should
always be regularly vented to prevent the build-up of pressure.
• Applying pressure to the container should never discharge acid
from carboys. Discharge should be by pouring or siphoning.

10.2 Electrical safety


This system requires a supply of AC electrical power, which is utilized to
perform the ammonium hydroxide process. Coming in contact with AC
power may be injurious or result in death. Do not operate the system with
equipment covers or panels removed. When maintenance or other operations
require removal of these panels, turn off, lock out, and tag the main breaker.

10.3 First aid


These items have been discussed previously. They are repeated for emphasis
and recommendation that training be given to all personnel involved with
the system.

10.3.1 Eye Burns — acid and alkali materials


Irrigate the eye immediately, before moving the patient for medical treat-
ment. If Neutralize or another approved eyewash is not available, use copi-
ous amounts of fresh water. Irrigate for at least 15 min, while holding the
eyelids apart and rotating the eye. Seek immediate medical treatment.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


10.3.2 Skin burns — sodium hypochlorite, acid, or alkali materials
Apply copious amounts of water to the burned area. Remove the affected
clothing. Do not neutralize acid with an alkaline solution. Seek immediate
medical assistance.

10.3.3 Ingestion or gassing — sodium hypochlorite or alkali


materials
Obtain emergency medical assistance. If the patient has been gassed, remove
him from the contaminated environment as soon as possible. If sodium
hypochlorite or ammonium hydroxide has been swallowed, do not induce
vomiting. Keep the patient warm and resting quietly. If breathing stops, and
if trained, apply CPR and continue until released by a doctor.

10.3.4 Electrical shock


DO NOT TOUCH A VICTIM BEFORE SWITCHING OFF THE POWER
SOURCE. If necessary and if trained, start CPR. Have someone call the
emergency number, e.g., 911.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


BRINE SYSTEM DATA SHEET

System serial number

Date

Name

Rectifier Data

Rectifier Clock Reading

AC Voltage A B C

AC Current A B C

DC Current meter A B C

DC Voltage meter A B C

Rectifier control Manual Yes No

Set point

Automatic setting

Feed Water Data

Inlet water temperature

Water flow meter setting

Brine flow meter setting

Cell feed specific gravity

Product Data

Product temperature

Product concentration

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


SEAWATER SYSTEM DATA SHEET

System serial number

Date

Name

Rectifier Data

Rectifier Clock Reading

AC Voltage A B C

AC Current A B C

DC Current meter A B C

DC Voltage meter A B C

Rectifier control Manual Yes No

Set point

Automatic setting

Feed Water Data

Inlet water temperature

Flow meter setting

Water specific gravity

Product Data

Product temperature

Product concentration

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-01
Standard Title:
Transformer/Rectifier Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Design:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Units
being provided shall be in full compliance with this document unless
an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC, client specifi-
cation is provided. In this case, the client specification has precedence
over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC aware of all such
conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on how to proceed.
1.1 Units shall be suitable for indoor use and shall be cooled by
means of forced air, unless stated otherwise in the project spec-
ification list. These units are to be used in electrochemical duty,
as defined in ANSI standard C34.2. The equipment defined in
this specification will be installed in a Tropical Environment,
and is expected to operate with minimum supervision and main-
tenance.
1.2 Ratings:
Input: Per Project
Output: Per Project
1.3 Rectification Circuit Design:
Vendor Standard
1.4 Control:
1.4.1 Constant current from 0 to 100% of rating shall be
achieved by thyristor phase control using a 10 turn pot.
Output shall be within (+/-) 1% over the combined effects
of 50 to 100% DC output voltage at rated ambient temper-
ature range and (+/-) 5% AC input line voltage variation.
1.4.2 Triggering circuits shall be inherent timing balance within
50 microseconds, and shall be sensitive to power system
distortion. Trigger shall inhibit output on the loss of an
input phase.
1.4.3 Gate trigger lockout shall be activated from either a front
panel switch, or an interlocking contact from the process
control system.
1.5 Environment:
Continuous operation is to be expected under maximum am-
bient conditions of 40°C with 100% relative humidity. The
units will be located indoors and may be shutdown for sig-
nificant periods with high humidity. The above shall be con-
sidered standard unless stated otherwise in the project spec-
ification list.
Strip heaters shall be provided in each cabinet, which will be
automatically energized on shutdown of the units. Protection
against excessive heating shall be provided by means of a
thermostat with a minimum range of 20°C to 60°C. Input pow-
er to the strip heaters shall be protected by circuit breakers.
Space heaters shall utilize an independent power feed for sup-
ply and logic.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
2.0 Construction:
2.1 Transformer:
2.1.1 Dry type air cooled, 130°C maximum rise.
2.1.2 Insulation class H.
2.1.3 Windings primary and secondary use electrolytic grade
copper.
2.1.4 Core — grain oriented steel, grade M6 or better.
2.1.5 Coils — Vacuum impregnated, epoxy coated.
2.1.6 All secondary connections shall be controlled in location,
so that all like transformers are interchangeable, and a
replacement may be installed at a later date with mini-
mum interference.
2.1.7 The transformer shall conform to the requirements of
ANSI standards C57.12.01 and C57.18 for electrochemical
duty.
2.1.8 The transformer shall be permanently tagged with the
transformer/rectifier unit serial number.
2.2 Cabinet:
2.2.1 Each cabinet shall be provided with a copper grounding
lug of sufficient size.
2.2.2 Transformer cubicle shall meet NEMA 1 standards, with
sufficient removable hinged access doors to permit service
of any component without prior disassembly of any other
components. All ventilation openings shall be fitted with
fine mesh screens to prevent the entrance of rodents, large
insects, or debris. Top ventilation opening shall have
means of connecting duct work for purpose of exhausting
heated air.
2.2.3 Control section shall meet NEMA 4X standards. The con-
trol space shall be of sufficient size as to facilitate service.
Provision shall be made for the purchaser’s cable/conduit
entrance from either the top or bottom. Twenty percent of
the panel space shall be left clear for future use. All com-
ponents shall be attached in a manner in which they can
be removed without removing the back pan.
2.2.4 EIC paint specification TS-025 shall apply.
2.2.5 Removable intake air filters that may be cleaned shall be
provided
2.3 Rectifier Section:
2.3.1 Conductors shall be electrolytic grade copper of at least
one square inch per 1250 Amps in each path for a forced
air unit. For a sealed cooling unit, 1000 amps shall be
utilized.
2.3.2 Power semiconductors shall have blocking voltage ratings
of a minimum of 1200 volts, but at least 10 times the
maximum DC voltage output under any conditions. Suf-
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
ficient cooling shall be provided to keep the maximum
case temperature at least 15°C below the maximum rating
for the device at rated current and at rated maximum
coolant temperature.
2.3.3 Secondary power semiconductors shall be individually
fused with current limiting fuses of the appropriate rat-
ing to isolate a faulted path without further damage to
the unit.
2.4 Cooling System:
2.4.1 Cooling of the power components is by forced air, unless
otherwise stated. Power semiconductors shall be mount-
ed on the properly sized, anodized or iridited aluminum
heat sinks.
2.5 Wiring:
2.5.1 Control wiring shall be of industrial quality, rated at 105°C
or better. Wire shall be rated for 600 V and the size shall
be 14 awg or larger, except for thyristor gate leads. Con-
ductor shall be fine stranded tinned copper and insulation
shall be PVC. Wire shall be UL listed. Manhattan style
#M216 is preferred.
2.5.2 Terminations shall be by full tongue compression type
terminals that provide a gas-tight connection, and have
insulated compression sleeves to grip the wire insula-
tion, or industrial grade clamp type terminal strips.
Alternatives may be utilized if approved by an EIC
engineer.
2.5.3 All wiring shall be labeled with permanent wire number
markers, with a consistent numbering scheme. All wire
numbers shall be shown on the electrical drawings. Wire
numbers for a series sequence of circuit elements shall
increase by one for each element passed through.
2.5.4 No more than two wires shall be landed on any termina-
tion point.
2.5.5 Wire ducts shall be used to organize and route control
wiring. Proper routing shall provide separation between
AC control and signal wiring. Wire ducts shall be sized so
that the enclosed wiring consumes no more than 50% of
the total available space.
2.5.6 Power wiring shall be of a size and insulation level ap-
propriate to its application.
2.5.7 Equipment should be assigned tag numbers and be indi-
cated with engraved plastic tags (Gravopoly) and attached
by stainless steel screws. Tags should be white with black
lettering. Tag numbers should correspond with all draw-
ings. Alternate tagging methods may be utilized if first
approved by EIC.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
2.6 Terminal Blocks:
2.6.1 All wiring for external field connections shall be terminat-
ed on a minimum number of conveniently located termi-
nal blocks.
2.6.2 Terminal blocks shall be mounted so that sufficient clear-
ance shall be provided for terminal marking, wire insertion
and removal, and for the purchaser’s wiring connection.
2.6.3 Terminal blocks shall be of adequate size and shall be
designed to receive purchaser’s incoming control cables.
2.6.4 A minimum of 20% spare positions shall be provided on
all terminal blocks.
2.7 Controls:
2.7.1 General service auxiliary control relays shall be of an octal
base, plug in type sealed design. They shall be IDEC or
equal. Only one contact of each form C pair is to be uti-
lized. Vendor may utilize PLC logic if approved by EIC.
2.7.2 Dry circuits (current < 50 mA, voltage < 30 V) must be
switched by relays rated for the application, IDEC type
RR3PA-UL or approved equal.
2.7.3 Push buttons, switches and lights shall be industrial
quality, oil tight construction suitable for NEMA 4X ap-
plication.
2.7.4 Electronic controls must be of printed circuit construction.
They must also be mechanical locking, and have corrosion
resistant contact materials.
Any edge connecting circuit boards must have a system
for mechanically securing the boards and have a corrosion
resistant plating system for the connecting edge, such as
Ni or Au. All electronic boards shall be completely tropi-
calized before installation. If any board adjustments are
made during testing these areas should be touched up.
2.7.5 Proper protection (i.e., fuse, circuit breakers) shall be pro-
vided for all equipment as dictated by the National Elec-
tric Code.
2.8 Tropicalization:
All electrical equipment, internal bus bars, and their enclosures
shall be tropicalized. Secondary wiring, coils, and other insula-
tions that are not fungus resistant, shall have a fungus resistant
coating applied, except where such coatings would interfere
with the proper operation. In such cases, the part shall be inher-
ently fungus resistant. Use Dolph’s Synthite AC-279–7s Clear
Air Drying Anti-fungal Varnish or EIC approved equal.
2.9 Motors:
All motors shall be totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC) rated for
the design ambient conditions. Insulation shall be Class F Con-
tinuous Duty.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
3.0 Protection and Metering:
3.1 Design:
Vendor shall be responsible for proper protection coordination
and shall supply to EIC coordination curves.
3.2 Protection:
3.2.1 Circuit protection shall be supplied as follows:
3.2.1.1 Fuses or an incoming power circuit breaker shall
be a manually operated type with an under-volt-
age trip. Design shall be sized to correctly protect
the transformer/rectifier.
3.2.1.2 Auxiliary power shall be protected by fuses or cir-
cuit breakers which are manually operated type.
Individual fuses or circuit breakers should be pro-
vided for the 110/120 VAC control power and for
the space heaters.
3.2.1.3 Circuit breakers shall be of the indicating type pro-
viding ON, OFF, and TRIPPED positions of the
operating handle. Multiple breakers shall be de-
signed so that an overload on one pole shall open
all poles.
3.2.2 Instantaneous AC over-currents in excess of 150% rated
input current shall immediately inhibit thyristor firing
pulses. Removal of the over-current condition shall allow
a smooth ramp recovery of output.
3.3 Alarms and Shutdowns:
3.3.1 Each of the following conditions shall be indicated locally
and cause shutdown. These indications shall be latching
indications, which are reset by an acknowledge push-but-
ton. A shutdown condition causes the thyristor triggering
to be inhibited, or the primary AC circuit breaker to be
opened. A test push-button should also be provided for
periodic testing of all lamp indicators. All alarm and shut-
down circuits shall be designed using Fail Safe logic.
3.3.1.1 AC over-current trip. A non-thermal, adjustable
over-current relay shall be provided, with any re-
quired current transformers, which shall trip the
unit for any input phase current greater than 15%
above the continuous rating of the unit.
3.3.1.2 Semiconductor fuse failure shutdown. Visual indica-
tion of individual failed devices shall be provided.
3.3.1.3 Semiconductor over-temperature shutdown (one
sensor for each semiconductor assembly).
3.3.1.4 Transformer over-temperature shutdown (one
sensor for each phase).
3.3.1.5 DC over-voltage shutdown, set at 105% of rated
output.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
3.3.1.6 DC over-current shutdown, set at 105% of rated
output.
3.3.1.7 Blower/Fan failure overload trip.
3.3.2 Remote indication shall be provided by means of a Form
C isolated contact for each of the following functions.
3.3.2.1 Rectifier On condition (AC Power Supplied).
3.3.2.2 Tripped - Fault Relay Contacts.
3.4 Metering:
The following meters shall be provided as a minimum on each
unit. Meters shall have an accuracy of +/- 2% of full scale. All
required instrument transformers shall be supplied.
3.4.1 DC Ammeter.
3.4.2 DC Voltmeter.
3.4.3 Elapsed running time meter.
3.5 Panel Controls:
The following panel controls will be mounted on the control
cabinet of each individual unit:
3.5.1 Auxiliary power (circuit breaker or fuses)
3.5.2 Current control potentiometer. One turn unit with indi-
cating knob, scaled 0–100% for 0 to rated output current.
4.0 Quality Control and Testing:
4.1 Documents:
4.1.1 Project schedule. Within two weeks of receipt of order,
the vendor shall provide an estimated project schedule
showing the anticipated dates of major events in the
project.
4.1.2 Approval drawings. The following drawings are required
for customer approval, before start of construction. For the
purpose of scheduling, assume 8 weeks from submittal
for drawing approval. One reproducible Mylar with a D
size border and 1/8” text is required during each submit-
tal stage.
4.1.2.1 Mechanical outline drawing showing detailed cab-
inet outline with dimensions, power and control
entry locations and dimensions, service access,
control locations and panel layout, and provisions
for moving the equipment.
4.1.2.2 Electrical schematic drawings showing the close-
up wiring, detailing all protective circuits and rec-
tifier control logic.
4.1.2.3 Bill of materials showing component specifications
of all major components such as power semicon-
ductors, protective relays, connectors, fuses, etc.
4.1.3. Final drawings. One reproducible with D size border and at
least 1/8” text shall be submitted of the following drawings.
4.1.3.1 Mechanical outline and installation drawing.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
4.1.3.2 Major component layout and service access drawing.
4.1.3.3 Internal schematic diagram(s) showing the power
circuit, protection circuits, controls, customer in-
terface, and metering circuits. All wire numbers
shall be shown. Drawing formats and symbols
shall comply with ISA Standards and IEEE Stan-
dards for electrical circuits.
4.1.3.4 Field installation wiring diagram, showing all re-
quired field terminations, terminal locations, ter-
minal numbers, and wire sizes.
4.1.3.5 Electronic control schematic and layout drawing.
4.1.3.6 Instruction manuals. Specified copies shall be sup-
plied, containing the following information. Note
that EIC standard vendor requirement is for three
(3) copies plus the amount specified by our cus-
tomers. Past history has shown that 12–18 copies
are required.
4.1.4 Installation, Operating, and Maintenance Manual. The
specified number of copies shall be submitted after the
draft copy is approved. Manuals should contain the fol-
lowing as a minimum.
4.1.4.1 Equipment description, layout and operation.
4.1.4.2 Maintenance instructions.
4.1.4.3 Electronic controls and testing.
4.1.4.4 Complete Bill of Materials showing manufacturers
and ratings. Copies of manufacturer’s catalog pag-
es or data sheets must be supplied. Supplier’s cor-
rect part numbers should be included.
4.1.4.5 Complete detailed test reports, as described else-
where.
4.1.4.6 Certified As Built drawings as described in Section
4.1.3 should be supplied as part of this manual.
4.2 Inspection:
4.2.1 In-process inspection. EIC reserves the right to inspect
progress on this project at any time.
4.2.2 Final inspection shall be witnessed by EIC, or their repre-
sentative, at full load of one unit. The vendor shall have
completed a full load heat run on all units prior to this
witness test. Vendor shall notify EIC at least 2 weeks prior
to that point of the test schedule. This inspection may be
waived by EIC.
4.2.3 Test reports. Test procedures and report forms shall be
submitted in detail to EIC for approval prior to testing
transformers and rectifiers. At least 2 weeks shall be al-
lowed for this approval process.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


4.2.4 Final test reports shall be submitted to EIC after inspection
and test.
4.3 Transformer tests:
4.3.1 Transformer tests shall be done in accordance with ANSI
standards C57.12.01 and C57.18. Test reports on each
transformer shall be traceable to the unit in which it is
installed. A copy of the transformer test report shall be
included in the instruction manual for that unit.
4.3.2 Type tests. The following tests shall be performed and
noted on the test report on one transformer, prior to in-
stallation in the rectifier units.
4.3.2.1 Excitation loss.
4.3.2.2 Copper loss.
4.3.3 Unit tests. Each transformer shall be given the following
tests prior to installation in the rectifier units. These tests
are to be noted on the test report and shall be traceable to
the transformer/rectifier serial number.
4.3.3.1 Dielectric test.
4.3.3.2 Ratio test.
4.3.3.3 Noise level should not exceed 85 dBA. Supplier
should guarantee this in writing.
4.4 Electronics:
4.4.1 Burn in tests. Each electronic control board shall be given
an operating, 2-hour burn in test, at an ambient tempera-
ture of 70°C. Alternate burn in procedures may be accept-
able if submitted for approval.
4.4.2 Documented tests conforming to written procedure ap-
proved by EIC shall be performed on each circuit board,
both before and after the burn in test. Some method of
board traceability must be provided.
4.4.3 Traceable calibration data shall be provided for any con-
trol requiring calibration.
4.5 Unit Tests:
4.5.1 The following tests shall be conducted in accordance with
ANSI standard C34.2. Copies of all test reports shall be
included in the instruction manual.
4.5.2 Type tests: These tests shall be conducted on one unit of
each design, prior to the witness test and shall be docu-
mented on the general test report.
4.5.2.1 Power losses.
4.5.3 Unit tests: These tests shall be conducted on each unit,
and documented on the unit test report.
4.5.3.1 Dielectric tests on each independent circuit section,
i.e., high voltage, DC output, AC control, protec-
tion circuits, etc.
4.5.3.2 Functional tests on all protective and control circuits.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
4.5.3.3 Full load test — Semiconductor case temperatures
are probed and recorded after one hour of operation.
4.5.3.4 Full current and full voltage tests per ANSI stan-
dard C34.2.
4.5.3.5 Temperature rise at full load. Temperature record-
ings shall be taken of transformer windings, semi-
conductor cases, magnetic cores, and the control
environment.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-01.1
Standard Title: Tap
Transformer/Rectifier Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Design:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Units
being provided shall be in full compliance with this document unless
an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC, client specifi-
cation is provided. In this case, the client specification has precedence
over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC aware of all such
conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on how to proceed.
1.1 Units shall be suitable for indoor use and shall be cooled by
means of forced air, unless stated otherwise in the project spec-
ification list. These units are to be used in electrochemical duty,
as defined in ANSI standard C34.2. The equipment defined in
this specification will be installed in a Tropical Environment,
and is expected to operate with minimum supervision and main-
tenance.
1.2 Ratings:
Input: Per Project
Output: Per Project
1.3 Control:
Current control from 0 to 100% of rating shall be achieved by AC
primary transformer tap switches. Output DC current shall be within
(+/-) 5% of setting at system operating equilibrium. DC voltage shall
float according to system requirements.
1.4 Environment:
Continuous operation is to be expected under maximum ambi-
ent conditions of 40°C with 100% relative humidity. The units
will be located indoors and may be shut down for significant
periods of high humidity. The above shall be considered stan-
dard unless stated otherwise in the project specification list.
2.0 Construction:
2.1 Transformer:
2.1.1 Dry type air cooled, 130°C maximum rise.
2.1.2 Insulation class H.
2.1.3 Windings, primary and secondary, shall use electrolytic
grade copper.
2.1.4 Core — grain oriented steel, grade M6 or better.
2.1.5 Coils — Vacuum impregnated, epoxy coated.
2.1.6 All secondary connections shall be controlled in location,
so that all like transformers are interchangeable, and a
replacement may be installed at a later date with mini-
mum interference.
2.1.7 The transformer shall conform to the requirements of
ANSI standards C57.12.01 and C57.18 for electrochemical
duty.
2.2 Cabinet:
2.2.1 Each cabinet shall be provided with a copper grounding
lug of sufficient size.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
2.2.2 Transformer cubicle shall meet NEMA 1 standards, with
sufficient removable hinged access doors to permit service
of any component without prior disassembly of any other
components. All ventilation openings shall be fitted with
fine mesh screens to prevent the entrance of rodents, large
insects, or debris. Top ventilation opening shall have
means of connecting duct work for purpose of exhausting
heated air.
2.2.3 Control section shall meet NEMA 12 standards. The con-
trol space shall be of sufficient size as to facilitate service.
Provision shall be made for the purchaser’s cable/conduit
entrance from either the top or bottom. Twenty percent of
the panel space shall be left clear for future use. All com-
ponents shall be attached in a manner in which they can
be removed without removing the backpan.
2.2.4 EIC paint specification shall apply:
Sandblast:
SSPC 10–85, Near White,
Less than 1 1/2 mil profile.
Primer Coat:
Red Lead Alkyd Primer, 2–3 mils DFT
(Carboline GP-30 or equal)
Intermediate Coat:
Red Lead Alkyd Primer, 1 1/2–2 mils
DFT tinted with carbon black or
lampblack to a color contrasting with
that of the primer.
(Carboline GP-30 or equal)
Finish Coat:
Modified Long Oil Alkyd, 1–2 mils
DFT (Carboline AD-51 or equal)
(Color Gray - C703)
2.3 Rectifier Section:
2.3.1 Conductors shall be electrolytic grade copper of at least
one square inch per 1250 Amps in each path for a forced
air unit. For a sealed cooling unit, 1000 amps shall be
utilized.
2.3.2 Power semiconductors shall have blocking voltage ratings
of a minimum of 200 volts, but at least 10 times the max-
imum DC voltage output under any conditions. Sufficient
cooling shall be provided to keep the maximum case tem-
perature at no higher than 15°C below the maximum rat-
ing for the device at rated current and at rated maximum
coolant temperature.
2.3.3 Secondary power semiconductors shall be individually
fused with current limiting fuses of the appropriate rating
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
to isolate a faulted path without further damage to the
unit.
2.4 Cooling System:
2.4.1 Cooling of the power components is by forced air, unless
otherwise stated. Power semiconductors shall be mounted
on the properly sized, anodized or iridited aluminum heat
sinks.
2.5 Wiring:
2.5.1 Control wiring shall be of industrial quality, rated at 105°C
or better. Wire shall be rated for 600 V and the size shall
be 14 awg or better. Thyristor gate leads. Conductor shall
be fine stranded tinned copper and insulation shall be
PVC. Wire shall be UL listed.
2.5.2 Terminations shall be by full tongue compression type
terminals that provide a gas tight connection, and have
insulated compression sleeves to grip the wire insulation,
or industrial grade clamp type terminal strips. Alterna-
tives may be utilized if approved by an EIC engineer.
2.5.3 All wiring shall be labeled with permanent wire number
markers, with a consistent numbering scheme. All wire
numbers shall be shown on the electrical drawings. Wire
numbers for a series sequence of circuit elements shall
increase by one for each element passed through.
2.5.4 No more than two wires shall be landed on any termina-
tion point.
2.5.5 Wire ducts shall be used to organize and route control
wiring. Proper routing shall provide separation between
AC control and signal wiring. Wire ducts shall be sized so
that the enclosed wiring consumes no more than 70% of
the total available space.
2.5.6 Power wiring shall be of a size and insulation level ap-
propriate to its application.
2.5.7 Equipment should be assigned tag numbers and be indi-
cated with engraved plastic tags (Gravopoly). Tags should
be white with black lettering. Tag numbers should corre-
spond with all drawings. Alternate tagging methods may
be utilized if first approved by an EIC engineer. Tag fas-
tening shall be by s.s. screws.
2.6 Terminal Blocks:
2.6.1 All wiring for external field connections shall be terminat-
ed on a minimum number of conveniently located termi-
nal blocks.
2.6.2 Terminal blocks shall be mounted so that sufficient clear-
ance shall be provided for terminal marking, insertion and
removal, and for the purchaser’s wiring connection.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


2.6.3 Terminal blocks shall be of adequate size and shall be
designed to receive purchaser’s incoming control cables.
2.6.4 A minimum of 20% spares shall be provided on all termi-
nal blocks.
2.7 Controls:
2.7.1 General Service auxiliary control relays shall be of an octal
base, plug in type sealed design. They shall be IDEC or
equal. Only one contact of each form C pair is to be uti-
lized. Vendor may utilize PLC logic if approved by an EIC
engineer.
2.7.2 Dry circuits (current < 50 mA, voltage < 30 V) must be
switched by relays rated for the application, IEDC type
RR3PA-UL or approved equal.
2.7.3 Push buttons, switches and lights shall be industrial qual-
ity, oil tight construction suitable for NEMA 4 application.
2.7.4 Proper protection (i.e., fuse, circuit breakers) shall be pro-
vided for all equipment as dictated by the National Elec-
tric Code.
2.8 Tropicalization:
All electrical equipment, internal bus bars and their enclosures shall
be tropicalized. Secondary wiring, coils and other insulations that
are not fungus resistant, shall have a fungus resistant coating applied,
except where such coatings would interfere with the proper opera-
tion. In such cases, the part shall be inherently fungus resistant. Use
Dolph’s Synthite AC-279–7s Clear Air Drying Anti-fungal Varnish or
EIC engineering approved equivalent.
2.9 Motors:
All motors shall be totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC) rated for the
design ambient conditions. Insulation shall be Class F Continuous
Duty.
3.0 Protection and Metering:
3.1 Design:
Vendor shall be responsible for proper protection coordination
and shall supply to EIC coordination curves.
3.2 Protection:
3.2.1 Circuit breakers shall be supplied as follows:
3.2.1.1 Incoming power circuit breaker shall be a manu-
ally operated type with an under-voltage trip. Cir-
cuit breaker should be sized to correctly protect
the transformer/rectifier.
3.2.1.2 Auxiliary power circuit breakers shall be a manu-
ally operated type. Individual breakers should be
provided for the 110 control power and for the
space heaters.
3.2.1.3 Circuit breakers shall be of the indicating type pro-
viding ON, OFF, and TRIPPED positions of the
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
operating handle. Multiple breakers shall be de-
signed so that an overload on one pole shall open
all poles.
3.3 Alarms and Shutdowns:
3.3.1 Each of the following conditions shall be indicated locally
and cause shutdown. These indications shall be latching
indications, which are reset by an acknowledge push-but-
ton. A shutdown condition causes the primary AC circuit
breaker to be opened. A test push-button should also be
provided for periodic testing of all lighted indicators. All
alarm and shutdown circuits shall be designed using Fail
Safe logic.
3.3.1.1 Semiconductor over-temperature shut-down (one
sensor for each semiconductor assembly).
3.3.1.2 Transformer over-temperature shut-down (one
sensor for each phase).
3.3.1.3 DC Over-voltage shutdown, set at 105% of rated
output.
3.3.1.4 DC Over-current shutdown, set at 105% of rated
output.
3.3.1.5 Blower/Fan failure overload trip.
3.3.2 Remote indication shall be provided by means of a Form
C isolated contact for each of the following functions.
3.3.2.1 Rectifier On condition (breaker closed).
3.3.2.2 Tripped - Fault Relay Contacts.
3.4 Metering:
The following meters shall be provided as a minimum on each unit.
Meters shall have an accuracy of +/- 2% of full scale.
3.4.1 DC Ammeter.
3.4.2 DC Voltmeter.
3.4.3 Elapsed running time meter.
3.5 Panel Controls:
The following panel controls will be mounted on the control cabinet
of each individual unit.
3.5.1 Auxiliary power switch (circuit breaker).
3.5.2 A.C. line 8 position tap switches for current control.
4.0 Quality Control and Testing:
4.1 Documents:
4.1.1 Project schedule. Within 2 weeks of receipt of order, the
vendor shall provide an estimated project schedule show-
ing the anticipated dates of major events in the project.
4.1.2 Approval drawings. The following drawings are required
for customer approval, before start of construction. For the
purpose of scheduling, assume 8 weeks from submittal
for drawing approval. One reproducible Mylar with a D

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


size border and 1/8” text is required during each submit-
tal stage.
4.1.2.1 Mechanical outline drawing showing detailed cab-
inet outline with dimensions, power and control
entry locations and dimensions, service access,
control locations and panel layout, and provisions
for moving the equipment.
4.1.2.2 Electrical schematic drawings showing the overall
wiring. detailing all protective circuits and rectifier
control logic.
4.1.2.3 Bill of materials showing component specifications
of all major components such as power semicon-
ductors, protective relays, connectors, fuses, etc.
4.1.3 Final drawings. One reproducible with D size border and
at least 1/8” text shall be submitted of the following draw-
ings.
4.1.3.1 Mechanical outline and installation drawing.
4.1.3.2 Major component layout and service access draw-
ing.
4.1.3.3 Internal schematic diagram(s) showing the power
circuit, protection circuits, controls, customer in-
terface, and metering circuits. All wire numbers
shall be shown. Drawing formats and symbols
shall comply with industry accepted standards.
4.1.3.4 Field installation wiring diagram, showing all re-
quired field terminations, terminal locations, ter-
minal numbers, and wire sizes.
4.1.3.5 Electronic control schematic and layout drawing.
4.1.3.6 Instruction manuals. Specified copies shall be sup-
plied, containing the following information. Note
that EIC standard vendor requirement is for three
(3) copies plus the amount specified by our cus-
tomers. Past history has shown that 12–18 copies
are required.
4.1.4 Installation, Operating, and Maintenance Manual. Speci-
fied copies shall be submitted after the draft copy is ap-
proved. Manuals should contain the following as a mini-
mum.
4.1.4.1 Equipment description, layout and operation.
4.1.4.2 Maintenance instructions.
4.1.4.3 Electronic controls and testing.
4.1.4.4 Complete Bill of Materials showing manufacturers
and ratings. Copies of manufacturer’s catalog pag-
es should be supplied where available. Supplier’s
correct part numbers should be included where
applicable.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
4.1.4.5 Complete detailed test reports, as described else-
where.
4.1.4.6 Certified As Built drawings as described in Section
4.1.3 should be supplied as part of this manual.
4.2 Inspection:
4.2.1 In process inspection. EIC reserves the right to inspect
progress on this project at any time.
4.2.2 Final inspection shall be witnessed by EIC, or their repre-
sentative, at full load of one unit. The vendor shall have
completed a full load heat run on said units prior to this
witness test. Vendor shall notify EIC at least 2 weeks prior
to that point of the test schedule. This inspection may be
waived by EIC if desired.
4.2.3 Test reports. Test procedures and report forms shall be
submitted in detail to EIC for approval prior to testing
transformers and rectifiers. At least 2 weeks shall be al-
lowed for this approval process.
4.2.4 Final test reports shall be submitted to EIC after inspection
and test.
4.3 Transformer tests:
4.3.1 Transformer tests shall be done in accordance with ANSI
standards C57.12.01 and C57.18. Test reports on each
transformer shall be traceable to the unit in which it is
installed. A copy of the transformer test report shall be
included in the instruction manual for that unit.
4.3.2 Type tests. The following tests shall be performed on one
of the transformers, prior to installation in the rectifier
units.
4.3.2.1 Excitation loss.
4.3.2.2 Copper loss.
4.3.3 Unit tests. Each transformer shall be given the following
tests prior to installation in the rectifier units.
4.3.3.1 Dielectric test.
4.3.3.2 Ratio test.
4.3.3.3 Noise level should not exceed 85 dBA. Supplier
shall guarantee this in writing.
4.4 Unit Tests:
4.4.1 The following tests shall be conducted in accordance with
ANSI standard C34.2. Copies of all test reports shall be
included in the instruction manual.
4.4.2 Type tests: These tests shall be conducted on one unit of
each design, prior to the witness test.
4.4.2.1 Power losses.
4.4.2.2 Temperature rise at full load. Temperature record-
ings shall be taken of transformer windings, semi-

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


conductor cases, magnetic cores, and the control
environment.
4.4.3 Unit tests: These tests shall be conducted on each unit,
and documented on the unit test report.
4.4.3.1 Dielectric tests on each independent circuit section,
i.e., high voltage, DC output, AC control, protec-
tion circuits, etc.
4.4.3.2 Functional tests on all protective and control cir-
cuits.
4.4.3.3 Full load test — one hour reading is to be recorded,
semiconductor case temperatures are to be probed
and recorded.
4.4.3.4 Full current and full voltage tests per ANSI stan-
dard C34.2.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-03
Standard Title: Electrolyzer
Module Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Design:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Units
being provided shall be in full compliance with this document unless
an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC, client specifi-
cation is provided. In this case, the client specification has precedence
over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC aware of all such
conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on how to proceed.

2.0 Electrolyzer Module:


2.1 This specification covers the electrolytic cells, interconnecting
piping and valves, bus-work, and all other equipment that is
necessary to make the production streams complete, contribut-
ing to smooth reliable plant operation.
2.2 The design of this plant ensures reliable operation in a chemical
and corrosive environment. The module frames shall be con-
structed of flame retardant extruded fiberglass or epoxy coated
steel structural shapes.
2.3 The electrolytic cell module assemblies shall be supplied with
seawater from a common header. The seawater shall be pres-
surized to a minimum of three (3) bar g and pumped through
strainer(s) to remove particles larger than 0.8 mm. The sodium
hypochlorite solution produced shall be sent to the injection
points after removal of entrained hydrogen gas.
2.4 The flow of seawater through the electrolytic modules shall be
kept at a constant rate and sufficient to minimize the build-up
of precipitated calcium and magnesium salts on the electrodes.
2.5 All cells shall be equipped with acrylic covers to allow easy
monitoring of deposit build-up that occurs on the cathodes due
to the calcium and magnesium in the seawater.
2.6 All cell assemblies shall be a monopolar plate type designed and
constructed to enable easy removal and replacement of cell elec-
trodes with due regard to the need for inspection and mainte-
nance.
2.7 The anodes and cathodes shall be spaced uniformly with a gap
of 2.5 mm providing optimum cell efficiency with a low water
pressure drop. Internal spacers shall be placed strategically over
the electrode surface to maintain a uniform gap. Spacer material
shall be Kynar® (polyvinyl difluoride) to withstand the turbulent
corrosive environment in which they operate.
2.8 Cell anodes shall be expanded titanium metal with a precious
metal oxide coating and operated at a current density of less
than 1600 amps/m2. They shall be dimensionally stable type and
shall preserve their shape and voltage characteristics under se-
vere electrolytic conditions.
2.9 Cell assembly cathodes shall be constructed of a Hastelloy C-
276 material to offer superior corrosion resistance to seawater
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
and sodium hypochlorite while improving power consumption
by 10% comparative to the use of titanium cathodes.
2.10 The cell housing shall be injection-molded polypropylene with
ultraviolet stabilizers and integrally molded flanges to ensure
positive sealing.
2.11 The maximum applied voltage differential (per cell) shall not
exceed 7 V DC during the operation. A seawater temperature
of 25 °C with a chloride content of 18,980 ppm should be used
for this basis.
2.12 All internal cell assembly fasteners shall be commercially pure
titanium. All external cell assembly fasteners shall be brass or
silicone bronze. All cell assembly gaskets or seals shall be either
Viton or silicone rubber.
2.13 Interconnecting cell assembly bus bar shall be constructed from
99.8% pure electrolytic grade copper.
2.14 All piping shall be Schedule 80 PVC with ultraviolet stabilizers,
Type 1, Grade 1. All PVC Schedule 80 pipe shall conform to
ASTM D-1784 and D-1785 standards. Schedule 80 socket fittings
shall meet ASTM D-2467 while threaded fittings shall conform
to ASTM D-2464. Both pipe and fittings shall be the product of
one manufacturer.
2.15 Valves shall be provided as follows:
2.16 Ball Valves: Shall be Schedule 80 PVC, True Union type with
Viton O-Ring seals and Teflon seats.
2.17 Butterfly Valves: Shall be Schedule 80 PVC with 316SS shafts,
EPDM seats and shaft seals. Fasteners shall be 316 stainless steel.
2.18 Actuators: Ball or butterfly valves shall be equipped with pneu-
matic operated or electric actuators. Permanent design shall be
Fail-Spring to Close. Actuator housings should be NEMA 4 con-
struction and should contain two (2) limit switches to be used
for remote indication.

3.0 Electrolyzer Module Instruments:


The electrolyzer module shall contain as a minimum the following
instruments:
1. Inlet Low Flow Indicating Switch:

Type: Rotary; Electro-mechanical basis.


Accuracy: +/- 2% of full range
Repeatability: +/- 0.5% of full range
Construction: PVDF with Hastelloy C shaft
Indication: Analog with Low Flow Switch
Switch Contact: SPDT, 3 A at 240 V AC
Enclosure: FRP Panel with Clear Cover

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


2. Pressure Relief Valve:

Schedule 80 PVC; Type 1,


Type: Grade 1; Angle Pattern Design
Seals: Viton
Shaft: Teflon
Fasteners: 316 Stainless Steel
Spring: Stainless Steel

3. Pressure Gauge (Inlet and Outlet):

Type: Process Gauge — Liquid Filled


Case Material: Glass Reinforced Thermoplastic or S.S.
Window Material: Acrylic
Dial Size: 4.5"
Accuracy: 0.5% of Full Range
Bourdon Tube: 316 Stainless Steel
Scale: Dual Scale — PSI and Bar
Connection: Lower Mount —1/4" NPT
Safety Feature: Solid Front — Blow Out Back
Gauge Guard: PVC Type — 1/2" NPT Process connection
1/4" NPT Instrument connection

4. Outlet Low Flow Switch:

Type: Paddle Actuator


Construction: Ryton body; Viton seats; Hastelloy C wetted parts
Switch Contact: SPDT, 15 A at 240 V A.C.

5. Temperature Gauge (outlet): (NOTE: As required)

Type: Bi-metal Thermometer — Liquid Filled


Case Material: Glass Reinforced Thermoplastic
Window Material: Acrylic
Dial Size: 5"
Accuracy: 1% of Full Span
Scale: deg C
Connection: Every angle — 1/2" NPT

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-04
Standard Title: Centrifugal Pump
Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 General:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Pro-
posals being submitted shall be in full compliance with this docu-
ment unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC,
client specification is provided. In this case, the client specification
has precedence over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC
aware of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on
how to proceed.
2.0 Materials of Construction:
2.1 The cover, casing, gland, base plate, and impellor shall be con-
structed of fiberglass-reinforced Derakane vinyl ester resin, uti-
lizing continuous strand fiberglass mat.
2.2 The shaft and fasteners shall be constructed of 303 SS or equal.
2.3 The mechanical seal shall be constructed with carbon and chem-
ical grade ceramic faces, 316 SS parts and Viton secondary seals,
seal code E75 — V or equal.
2.4 Gaskets are to be constructed of Viton or equal.
2.5 The adapter, bearing frame, and bearing housing shall be con-
structed of cast iron with an epoxy coating (Carboline 198 rec-
ommended).
3.0 Mechanical Construction:
3.1 Pumps shall be end-suction, top discharge type constructed IAW
ANSI B73.1 dimensional standards. They shall have back pull
out construction to facilitate maintenance, mounted on a com-
mon base with the motor, complete with woods type couplings
and OSHA approved coupling guards.
3.2 The casing shall be one-piece construction with integral 150#
ANSI flanges. Casings on 10” (nominal impeller size) and larger
pumps shall be dual volute to reduce radial thrust. The impeller
shall be semi-open with both pump out vanes and balance holes
to achieve axial balance. The impeller shall have a low stress
Hastelloy insert to provide full metal-to-metal contact with the
shaft. The shaft seal shall be integral with the impeller to prevent
damaging leakage past shaft sleeve o-rings.
3.3 Durametallic RAC or equal shaft seals shall be provided with
an internal flush path to eliminate the need for an external source
of flushing fluid.
3.4 The shaft shall be designed to ensure that deflection at the stuff-
ing box is limited to .002” or less when the pump is operating
at shutoff head to maximize seal and bearing life. The bearing
housing shall be arranged to provide externally accessible im-
pellor adjustment.
3.5 The base plate shall be ANSI dimensioned with a sloped center
collection drain under the pump with a tapped drain hole. Base
plates shall have a grout fill hole provided. Wall thickness shall
be suitable to permit drilling for pump and motor mounting
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
bolts. Corrosion vulnerable metal inserts or stiffening plates are
not permitted.
4.0 Motors:
Motors shall be squirrel-cage induction type suitable for operation
in hostile environments. Frame, bearing housing, fan housing, and
conduit box shall be constructed of cast iron and coated with corro-
sion resistant epoxy enamel paint. Motors shall be NEMA B design
with ratings based on class B temperature rise above an ambient of
40°C with class F insulation. Service factor shall be 1.15 and sized to
be non-overloading over the entire pump curve. All motor bearings
shall be anti-friction type and be re-greaseable.
5.0 Documentation:
5.1 The following documents shall be available as a minimum by
the supplier:
1) Dimensioned outline drawing
2) Sectional drawing
3) Bill of materials
4) Mechanical seal outline drawing
5) Performance curves
6) Installation, operating, and maintenance manual
7) Factory standard test reports

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-05
Standard Title: Self-Cleaning
Strainer Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 General:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Pro-
posals being submitted shall be in full compliance with this docu-
ment unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC,
client specification is provided. In this case, the client specification
has precedence over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC
aware of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on
how to proceed.
Strainer shall be automatic self-cleaning type and shall be fabricated
to ANSI B34.1 standards. It shall be designed to operate at preset
timed intervals and also include a high differential pressure switch
which will override the timed sequence.
2.0 Materials of Construction:
The body and cover shall be fabricated from 316 SS or equal and the
straining element shall be constructed of Monel or equal.
3.0 Mechanical Characteristics:
The strainer shall be sized to handle 110% of the required flow rate
with a pressure loss of less than 2 psig (.3 bar) with clean straining
elements. The straining elements shall be of the reverse rolled slotted
wedge wire design with 1/32” (800 micron) openings. The wide or flat
cross section of the wedge wire screen shall face the direction of flow
providing a smooth flat surface to trap debris. The reverse rolled slot-
ted wedge shall be free of pockets, tubes, collector bars, etc. that accu-
mulate and trap debris permanently. The strainer element must be able
to withstand high differential pressure without failure or distortion.
The strainer shall be provided with drive shaft and hollow port
assembly fitted with all necessary bearings and seals. The drive shaft
and hollow port assembly will be free running at a maximum speed
of two (2) revolutions per minute and shall not contact the screen
surface. The port assembly shall be factory and field adjustable for
positive, effective cleaning and shear capability. The drive shall be
supported at the top with roller bearings located in a double reduc-
tion gear reducer. The bottom shall be supported with a water lubri-
cated guide bearing.
The gear reducer shall be driven by a TEFC motor at the specified
three phase voltage.
4.0 Strainer Controls:
A backwash control package shall be provided for continuous or
intermittent operation of the backwash cycle. All controls shall be
located in the main system control panel or a local NEMA 4X panel.
Control package shall contain all necessary components for the full
and proper operation of the strainer. Indication lights shall also be
provided for Power On, High Differential Pressure, and Backwash
Operating as a minimum. Industrial type components shall be used.
A single element differential pressure indicating switch shall be used
to override the timed backwash cycle and an alarm.
Technical Standard
Document No. TS-05A
Standard Title: Manual Strainer
Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Applicability:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Pro-
posals being submitted shall be in full compliance with this docu-
ment unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC,
client specification is provided. In this case, the client specification
has precedence over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC
aware of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on
how to proceed.
This specification applies to simplex basket type strainers installed
on the inlet to the electrolyzer.
2.0. Materials of Construction:
The strainer body shall be constructed of 316 SS or equal and the
basket shall be constructed of 316 SS, monel, or equal.
3.0 Mechanical Characteristics:
The strainer shall be constructed to ANSI B31.4 standards and shall
be fitted with 150# ANSI flanges for installation in the system. It shall
be designed for 150 psig (9.375 bar) at 150oF (65°C). The strainer shall
be fitted with vent and drain connections and a blind flange bolted
cover. The strainer shall be sized to handle 110% of the required flow
rate with a pressure loss of less than 2 psig with a clean basket. The
straining element shall be designed with 1/32” (800 micron) openings
in a wedge wire element design.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-06
Standard Title: Logic Diagram
Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Design:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Draw-
ings being submitted shall be in full compliance with this document
unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC, client
specification is provided. In this case, the client specification has
precedence over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC aware
of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on how
to proceed.
1.1 State:
Logic systems shall be of the energized design type where the
main fault relay is de-energized to shut down the system. This
is accomplished by having the fault switch open when the shut-
down condition is reached, thereby de-energizing a relay and
opening a contact in series with the fault relay. This is charac-
terized by having the fault contacts in series.
2.0 Drawings:
2.1 Symbols:
Drawings shall be made using the standard symbols and abbre-
viations found in ANSI/IEEE STD 91–1984. If there are any
deviations or if the possibility of confusion exists, the supplier
shall provide a legend with the logic diagram.
2.2 System Condition:
The system shall be shown in the normal shutdown condition
with no power applied. All switches, relays, contacts, and other
components shall be in their expected conditions for this oper-
ating condition.
2.3 Labeling:
All lines in the ladder diagram shall have reference numbers
applied to the left margin. Each line, where applicable, shall have
the circuit name applied to the right margin, i.e., Seawater Strain-
er High Differential Pressure along with a line number location
of the contacts controlled by the relay, with the normally closed
contacts underlined.
All switches shall be labeled with a noun name and switch
identification number and the set point should also be included
where applicable. Switch position shall also be included on the
drawing.
All other components shall be labeled with an identification
number and, if practical, a noun name and component rating.
2.4 Submittal:
All logic diagrams shall be submitted on reproducible 22 x 34
Velum (or equal) and shall include a complete bill of materials
and a legend (if applicable).

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-07
Standard Title: Storage Tank
Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 General:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Pro-
posals being submitted shall be in full compliance with this docu-
ment unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC,
client specification is provided. In this case, the client specification
has precedence over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC
aware of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on
how to proceed.
All FRP tanks shall conform to the applicable sections of ASTM D
3299 - 81.
2.0 Materials of Construction:
The primary material of construction for all acid storage or neutral-
ization tanks shall be high density polyethylene. Hypochlorite stor-
age tanks shall be FRP using Dow 411 vinyl ester resin. Tanks for
other purposes shall be considered as hypochlorite storage tanks for
the purpose of this standard.
3.0 Design:
3.1 Flanges:
All connections to tanks shall be made via ANSI 150# flanges.
3.2 Shape:
All tanks shall be cylindrical with flat bottoms, dome tops, and
mounted vertically.
3.3 Design Conditions:
Acid storage and neutralization tanks shall be designed for 0
psig at 140oF. Hypochlorite tanks shall be designed for 0 psig at
150oF. All polyethylene tanks shall be designed to ASTM D-1784
- 75 standards and FRP tanks shall be designed to ASTM D-3299
- 81 standards.
3.4 Fittings:
All tanks over 4’ diameter shall have a side man-way installed.
Smaller tanks shall have a means of cleaning provided, either
through a hand-hole, removable cover, or any other standard
practice. Tanks shall also have lifting means and anchoring pro-
visions suitable to withstand 100 mi/h wind velocities.
4.0 Documentation:
Vendor shall provide sufficient information with each tank for EIC
to produce standard detail drawings for the tank.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-08
Standard Title: Control Panel
Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Applicability:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Proposals
being submitted shall be in full compliance with this document unless
an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC, client specifica-
tion is provided. In this case, the client specification has precedence
over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC aware of all such
conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on how to proceed.
This specification is applicable to freestanding control panels not
built into the transformer/rectifier assembly.
2.0 Materials of Construction:
2.1 Cabinet:
The control cabinet shall be constructed of 12-gauge steel or
thicker.
3.0 Design:
3.1 Style:
The control panel assembly shall be a freestanding frame type
panel.
3.2 Construction:
The panel shall be, as a minimum, NEMA type 4/IEC IP-55
outdoor cabinet with full fillet welded edges on all exterior
surfaces. Where two or more front sections are required, the
interior shall be an open frame construction without separating
partitions. Removable lifting rings shall be installed in the top
gusset plates.
3.3 Panel finish:
Unless otherwise specified, the panel shall be finished in accor-
dance with EIC standard paint specifications.
3.4 Nameplates:
The location of all instruments, pushbuttons, etc., mounted in
the front of the panel shall be identified by laminated plastic
nameplates attached with stainless steel screws. Nameplates
should be, where possible, mounted below the instrument. In-
ternal instruments should have a similar nameplate which may
be attached with two part epoxy.
3.5 Process Piping:
No process piping of any kind is allowed in the panel. The only
type of piping allowed is for instrument air.
4.0 Instrument Air System:
4.1 Instrument Air System Piping:
The pneumatic piping shall be installed such that all instruments
are accessible for adjustment, calibration, and removal. All
threaded connections in the pneumatic system shall be ANSI B
1.20.1 tapered.
4.2 Air Supply:
The air header shall be sized for the capacity of all instruments
and control functions with an extra 20% capacity for possible
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
future installations. The header shall be constructed of 316 SS
with Stainless Steel take off nipples mounted on the top of the
header for connection of the instruments. Each instrument shall
be equipped with 1/4 FPT isolation valves. A header pressure
relief valve with a lifting lever shall be installed to prevent over-
pressure of the instruments.
4.3 Air Filtration:
An air reducing station with air filter, pressure regulator, and
pressure gauge is required.
4.4 Tubing:
Tubing shall be 1/4” 316 SS or equal. Fittings shall be 316 SS
Swagelok or equal. All incoming or outgoing pneumatic signal
lines shall terminate in bulkhead fittings.
5.0 Wiring:
5.1 Wire Installation:
Electrical wiring inside of the panel shall conform to the require-
ments of the National Electrical Code, NFPA 70.
5.2 Wire Size:
General wiring shall be at least 16 AWG THWN/THHN strand-
ed, copper, PVC-insulated, nylon jacketed. It shall be rated for
600 V to ground and 10 A maximum current. Electronic signal
wire shall be at least 18 AWG for single conductor and 22 AWG
for multi-conductor cable. It shall be THWN PVC-insulated,
nylon jacketed.
5.3 Conductor Termination:
All terminal connections are to be screwed type with solderless
crimp type connectors with insulation sleeves. Only one wire
shall be terminated per connector. All cables and interconnecting
wiring shall run via terminal strips. No more than two wires
shall be connected to a single terminal block with the second
wire being a jumper to an adjacent terminal to provide the
additional connection.
6.0 Relays:
6.1 Construction:
All relays shall be industrial grade such as Allen-Bradley 700
Series or equal with DIN rail mounting.
6.2 Contact rating:
10A. continuous minimum at 48 VDC, 125 VDC, or 120 VAC.
6.3 Wiring:
The relay coil and all contact strips shall be wired to a terminal
strip.
7.0 Pushbuttons and lights:
Pushbuttons, pilot lights, and switches shall be of the oil tight,
heavy duty type. Pushbuttons shall have protective guards to
prevent accidental actuation. Long life type de-rated lamps only
shall be used.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
8.0 Circuit Breakers and Fuses:
The main power to each panel section shall be isolated by means of
a thermal magnetic circuit breaker while all other power circuits shall
be fed from molded case circuit breakers, using a separate breaker
for each circuit. Fuses and circuit breakers shall be readily accessible
with proper clearance from tubing, valves, and other obstructions.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-09
Standard Title: Hydrogen Dilution
Blower Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Materials:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Pro-
posals being submitted shall be in full compliance with this docu-
ment unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC,
client specification is provided. In this case, the client specification
has precedence over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC
aware of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on
how to proceed.
1.1 Impeller:
The impeller shall be constructed of solid FRP.
1.2 Case:
The casing shall be constructed of FRP laminate and use stainless
steel fasteners.
1.3 Shaft:
The shaft shall be constructed of steel with an FRP sleeve bonded
to the impeller.
2.0 Mechanical Characteristics:
Dilution blowers shall be of the radial exhauster type and shall meet
the following design characteristics:
2.1 The blower shall contain radial blade wheels of the non-over-
loading design. The wheels shall be statically and dynamically
balanced at the factory with the lowest critical speed at least
15% below the operating speed.
2.2 The blower shall be of the heavy duty, low speed type.
2.3 The blower shall be connected to the motor via a flexible cou-
pling or belt drive.
2.4 The blower shall meet the latest edition of the Air Moving and
Conditioning Association (AMCA) specifications.
2.5 The blower housing shall contain an FRP low point drain.
2.6 The blower shall contain shaft seals with bearings located out-
side of the blower housings.
2.7 The blower shall be mounted on a steel base and connected to
the system duct via ANSI 150# flanges.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-10
Standard Title: Differential
Pressure Indicator and Switch
Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Applicability:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Pro-
posals being submitted shall be in full compliance with this docu-
ment unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC,
client specification is provided. In this case, the client specification
has precedence over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC
aware of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on
how to proceed.
This technical standard applies to strainer differential pressure gauges.
2.0 General Construction:
Differential pressure instruments shall be of the magnetic piston type
such that the indicator is isolated from the pressure media. It shall
contain multiple switches for alarm and operating functions as nec-
essary.
3.0 Materials of Construction:
All wetted parts shall be of bronze, 316 SS, or non-metallic materials.
4.0 Mechanical Characteristics:
All differential pressure indicators shall be rated for 150 psig (9.375
bar) minimum and 150oF (65°C). They shall be capable of withstand-
ing full system pressure from either direction. Connections shall be
1/4” NPT in line type. Gauge diameters shall be 4 1/2” with a dual
scale, 0–10 PSID and 0 - 0.7 kg/cm2.
5.0 Electrical Characteristics:
Enclosure to be NEMA 4 rated with adjustableþ10 amp rated reed
type switch(es).

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-11
Standard Title: Solenoid Valve
Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Application:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Pro-
posals being submitted shall be in full compliance with this docu-
ment unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC,
client specification is provided. In this case, the client specification
has precedence over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC
aware of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on
how to proceed.
This technical specification applies to air system solenoid valves
which control pneumatic butterfly valve operators.
2.0 Materials:
Bronze, stainless steel or equal valve bodies with Buna-N or equal
seals and discs, nylon or equal disc holder.
3.0 Mechanical Characteristics:
Solenoid valve shall be designed for 150 psig (9.375 bar) and 150oF
(65°C). It shall be capable of operating against a 150 psi differential.
The valve shall have 1/4” FPT system connections.
4.0 Electrical Characteristics:
Solenoid enclosure shall be NEMA 4X rated and the coil shall be
continuous duty molded class F or H. The solenoid valve may be
either normally open or normally closed. It shall be CSA certified
and UL approved and must be capable of operating at the available
system voltage and frequency.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-12
Standard Title:
Transformer/Rectifier Specification
for FB & SC Series Systems
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Design:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Units
being provided shall be in full compliance with this document
unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC, client
specification is provided. In this case, the client specification has
precedence over areas that are in conflict. Supplier is to make EIC
aware of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier
on how to proceed.
1.1 Applicable standards:
1.1.1 National Electrical Code
1.1.2 ANSI C34.2
1.1.3 ANSI C57.12.01
1.1.4 ANSI C57.18
1.1.5 NEMA
1.1.6 EIC TS-019
1.1.7 ISA
1.1.8 IEEE
1.2 Units shall be suitable for indoor or outdoor use designed to
NEMA 3 rating and shall be cooled by means of forced air,
bottom intake, and side exhaust unless stated otherwise. These
units are to be used in electrochemical duty, as defined in ANSI
standard C34.2. The equipment defined in this specification will
be installed in a Tropical Environment, and is expected to oper-
ate with minimum supervision and maintenance.
1.3 Ratings:
Input: Per Project
Output: Per Project
1.4 Rectification Circuit Design:
Vendor Standard
1.5 Control:
1.5.1 Constant current from 0 to 100% of rating shall be
achieved by thyristor phase control using a 1 turn pot.
Output shall be within (+/-) 1% over the combined effects
of 50 to 100% DC output voltage at rated ambient temper-
ature to 50οC and (+/-) 5% AC input line voltage variation.
1.5.2 Triggering circuits shall have inherent timing balance and
shall be sensitive to power system distortion. Trigger shall
inhibit output on the loss or reduction of an input phase.
1.5.3 Upon initiation of operation the unit shall employ a 1 – 5
second soft start to full load operation.
1.6 Environment:
Continuous operation is to be expected under maximum ambi-
ent conditions of 50οC (122οF) with 100% relative humidity. The
units will be located indoor or outdoors and may be shutdown
for significant periods with high humidity. The above shall be
considered standard unless stated otherwise.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
2.0 Construction:
2.1 Transformer:
2.1.1 Dry type air cooled, 80οC (176οF) maximum rise.
2.1.2 Insulation class H.
2.1.3 Windings primary and secondary use electrolytic grade
copper.
2.1.4 Core — grain oriented steel, grade M6 or better.
2.1.5 Coils — varnish dipped. Varnish to be Dolphs 352 or
equivalent.
2.1.6 All secondary connections shall be controlled in location,
so that all like transformers are interchangeable, and a
replacement may be installed at a later date with mini-
mum interference.
2.1.7 The transformer shall be permanently tagged with the
transformer/rectifier unit serial number and date of man-
ufacture.
The transformer shall conform to the requirements of
ANSI C57.12.01 and C57.18 for electrochemical duty.
2.2 Cabinet:
2.2.1 A copper grounding lug of sufficient size shall be located
in the main disconnect enclosure. All metallic components
shall be bonded to this location.
2.2.2 Transformer cubicle shall meet NEMA 3R standards, with
sufficient removable access panels to permit service of any
component without prior disassembly of any other com-
ponents. All access panels shall be gasketed.
2.2.3 A properly sized bus bar shall be provided for DC output
connections as required in Section 2.3.1 of this standard.
2.2.4 All ventilation openings shall be fitted with 1/2” or less
mesh screens to prevent the entrance of rodents, large
insects, or debris. The side exhaust opening shall be pro-
vided with a hood to direct airflow toward the floor and
prevent the entrance of rain or debris.
2.2.5 Control enclosure shall meet NEMA 4 standards. When a
Carlon enclosure is used, the enclosure shall be mounted
directly to the transformer cubicle without using the
mounting feet.
2.2.6 The control enclosure and disconnect box shall be of suffi-
cient size as to facilitate service. Provision shall be made for
the purchaser’s cable/conduit entrance from either the top
or bottom. All components shall be attached in a manner in
which they can be removed without removing the backpan.
2.2.7 Wire and cable entries between the control enclosure and
transformer cubicle shall be sealed.
2.2.8 EIC paint specification TS-019 shall apply to the main
rectifier enclosure.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
2.2.9 All fasteners 1/4” and larger shall be 316 stainless steel.
All fasteners smaller than 1/4” shall be 18–8 stainless steel.
A minimum of 1 thread shall penetrate from the nut.
2.3 Rectifier Section:
2.3.1 Conductors shall be electrolytic grade copper of at least
one square inch per 1000 Amps in each path for a forced
air unit.
2.3.2 Power semiconductors shall have blocking voltage ratings
of a minimum of three times applied voltage. Sufficient
cooling shall be provided to keep the maximum case tem-
perature at least 15οC (59οF) below the maximum rating
for the device at rated current and at rated maximum
coolant temperature.
2.3.3 Stud, module, and puck type SCRs shall be acceptable.
Module type SCRs shall be environmentally protected.
2.3.4 Rectifier outputs exceeding 500 Amps DC rating shall
have secondary power semiconductors individually fused
with current limiting fuses of the appropriate rating to
isolate a faulted path without further damage to the unit.
2.4 Cooling System:
2.4.1 Cooling of the power components is by forced air unless
otherwise stated. Power semiconductors shall be mounted
on properly sized aluminum heat sinks. Heat sinks shall
be anodized, irradiated, or thoroughly coated with pro-
tective varnish.
2.5 Wiring:
2.5.1 All control wiring shall be:
• Minimum 18 awg.
• Industrial quality.
• Rated at 90°C (196οF) or better.
• Rated for 600 V.
• Conductors shall be fine stranded copper.
• Insulation shall be PVC.
• Wire shall be UL listed.
• Thyristor gate and cathode leads shall be manufacturer’s
wire gauge or larger.
2.5.2 Terminations shall either be by full fork tongue compres-
sion type terminals which have insulated compression
sleeves to grip the wire, industrial grade clamp type ter-
minal strips, or pressure terminals in which case the
stripped wire may be inserted directly under the pressure
plate. Alternatives may be utilized if approved by an EIC
engineer.
2.5.3 All wiring shall be labeled with Brady tape type wire
number labels with a consistent numbering scheme. Wire
numbers shall be resistant to oil, water, and most solvents.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Wire numbers shall be suitable for use in a 50οC ambient
temperature. All wire numbers shall be shown on the
electrical drawings. Wire numbers for a series sequence of
circuit elements shall increase by one for each element
passed through. Wire numbers shall be readable from the
top down or from left to right.
2.5.4 No more than two wires shall be landed on any termina-
tion point. Only one wire or cable shall be crimped into
any lug or terminal. Butt splices, wire nuts, and other
methods of wire splicing are prohibited except where a
device is provided with wires installed. In this case, every
effort shall be made to connect the wires to a terminal strip
before considering the use of a wire splice. Ground lugs
shall be permitted to contain more than two wire termi-
nations.
2.5.5 Wire ducts shall be used to organize and route control
wiring. Proper routing shall provide separation between
AC control and signal wiring. Wire ducts shall be sized so
that the enclosed wiring consumes no more than 80% of
the total available space. Wire ducts shall maintain the
same height in any plane.
2.5.6 All wiring not routed through wire ducts shall be secured
using epoxy affixed type ty-wrap bases. White adhesive
backed ty-wrap bases are not acceptable.
2.5.7 Power wiring shall be of a size and insulation level ap-
propriate to its application.
2.5.8 External pilot devices shall be identified with engraved
plastic tags (Gravopoly) and attached by stainless steel
rivets or approved adhesive. Tags shall be black with
white lettering and shall correspond with all drawings.
2.6 Terminal Blocks:
2.6.1 All wiring for external field connections shall be terminat-
ed on a minimum number of conveniently located termi-
nal blocks.
2.6.2 Terminal blocks shall be mounted so that sufficient clear-
ance shall be provided for wire insertion, removal, and for
the purchaser’s wiring connection. A three-inch clearance
shall be maintained adjacent to terminal blocks for wire
routing.
2.6.3 Terminal blocks shall be of adequate size and shall be
designed to receive purchaser’s incoming control cables.
2.7 Controls:
2.7.1 General service auxiliary control relays shall be a plug in
sealed design type IDEC or equal. Only one contact of
each form C pair is to be utilized, except for the customer
system alarm and rectifier operation status where both
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
NO and NC contacts are permitted. The vendor may uti-
lize PLC logic if approved by EIC.
2.7.2 Dry circuits (current < 50 mA, voltage < 30 V) must be
switched by relays rated for the application, IDEC type
RY4S-UL120 VAC, or approved equal.
2.7.3 Push buttons, switches, and lights shall be industrial qual-
ity, oil tight construction suitable for NEMA 4X application.
2.7.4 Any edge connecting circuit boards must have a system
for mechanically securing the boards and have a corrosion
resistant plating system for the connecting edge, such as
Ni or Au.
2.7.5 All electronic boards shall be completely tropicalized be-
fore installation. If any board adjustments are made dur-
ing testing these areas should be touched up at the con-
clusion of the test.
2.7.6 Proper protection (i.e., fuses, circuit breakers) shall be pro-
vided for all equipment as dictated by the National Elec-
tric Code.
2.8 Tropicalization:
All electrical equipment, internal bus bars, and their enclosures
shall be tropicalized. Secondary wiring, coils, and other insulation
that are not fungus resistant, shall have a fungus-resistant coating
applied, except where such coatings would interfere with the prop-
er operation. In such cases, the part shall be inherently fungus
resistant. Dolph’s Synthite AC-279–7s Clear Air Drying Anti-fungal
Varnish or EIC approved equal shall be used. Care shall be taken
to prevent excessive overspray, runs, and drips on painted surfaces.
2.9 Motors:
All motors shall be totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC) rated for
the design ambient conditions. Insulation shall be Class F Con-
tinuous Duty.
3.0 Protection and Metering:
3.1 Design:
Vendor shall be responsible for proper unit protection coor-
dination.
3.2 Protection:
3.2.1 Circuit protection shall be supplied as follows:
3.2.1.1 Fuses or an incoming power circuit breaker shall
be a manually operated type. Design shall be sized
to correctly protect the transformer/rectifier.
3.2.1.2 Auxiliary power shall be protected by fuses or cir-
cuit breakers which are manually operated type.
Individual fuses or circuit breakers should be pro-
vided for the 110/120 VAC control power.
3.2.1.3 Circuit breakers shall be of the indicating type pro-
viding ON, OFF, and TRIPPED positions of the op-
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
erating handle. Multiple breakers shall be designed
so that an overload on one pole shall open all poles.
3.3 Alarms and Shutdowns:
3.3.1 Each of the following conditions shall be indicated local-
ly and cause shutdown. These indications shall be latch-
ing indications, which are reset by an acknowledge push-
button. A shutdown condition causes the thyristor trig-
gering to be inhibited, and/or the primary AC circuit
contactor to be opened. A test push-button should also
be provided for periodic testing of all alarm lamp indi-
cators. All alarm and shutdown circuits shall be designed
using Fail Safe logic.
3.3.1.1 Semiconductor fuse failure shutdown. Visual indica-
tion of individual failed devices shall be provided.
3.3.1.2 Semiconductor over-temperature shutdown (one
sensor for each semiconductor assembly) and
transformer over-temperature shutdown. Sealed
thermo-switches shall be utilized.
3.3.1.3 DC Over-voltage shutdown, set at 105% of rated
output.
3.3.1.4 DC Over-current shutdown, set at 105% of rated
output.
3.3.1.5 Motor(s) failure overload trip.
3.3.2 Remote indication shall be provided by means of a Form
C isolated contact for each of the following functions.
3.3.2.1 Rectifier Operational indication.
3.3.2.2 Tripped - Fault relay contacts.
3.4 Metering:
The following meters shall be provided as a minimum on each
unit. Meters shall have an accuracy of +/- 2% of full scale suit-
able for NEMA 4 application. All required instrument trans-
formers shall be supplied.
3.4.1 DC Ammeter
3.4.2 DC Voltmeter
3.4.3 Elapsed running time meter
3.5 Panel Controls:
The following panel controls shall be mounted on the control
cabinet of each individual unit.
3.5.1 Auxiliary control circuit (circuit breaker or fuses)
3.5.2 Current control potentiometer
4.0 Quality Control and Testing:
4.1 Documents:
4.1.1 Project schedule.
Within two weeks of receipt of order, the vendor shall
provide an estimated project schedule showing the antic-
ipated dates of major events in the project.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
4.1.2 Approval drawings.
The following drawings are required for customer approv-
al, before start of construction. For the purpose of sched-
uling, assume 2 weeks from submittal for drawing ap-
proval. Drawings shall be submitted by either e-mail or
magnetic media.
4.1.2.1 Mechanical outline drawings showing detailed
cabinet outlines and dimensions, power and con-
trol entry locations and dimensions, service ac-
cess, control locations, panel layout, and provi-
sions for equipment handling. Mechanical outline
drawings required for both the rectifier and con-
trol enclosures.
4.1.2.2 Electrical schematic drawings showing the close-
up wiring detailing all protective circuits and rec-
tifier control logic.
4.1.3 Final drawings and documents.
One D size drawing with a minimum 1/8” text shall be
submitted as well as a magnetic disk for reproducing ad-
ditional copies for insertion into manuals.
4.1.3.1 Mechanical outline and installation footprint
drawing.
4.1.3.2 Major component layout and service access
drawing.
4.1.3.3 Internal schematic diagram(s) showing the power
circuit, protection circuits, controls, customer in-
terface, and metering circuits. All wire numbers
shall be shown. Drawing formats and symbols
shall comply with ISA Standards and IEEE Stan-
dards for electrical circuits.
4.1.3.4 Field installation wiring diagram, showing all re-
quired field termination, terminal locations, termi-
nal numbers, and wire sizes if not a part of 4.1.3.3.
4.1.3.5 Electronic control schematic and layout drawing if
not part of 4.1.3.3.
4.1.3.6 Instruction manuals. One copy shall be supplied.
4.1.3.7 Bill of materials showing component specifica-
tions of all major components such as power
semiconductors, protective relays, connectors,
fuses, etc.
4.1.3.8 Vendor catalogue cuts shall be accumulated,
bound in a 3-ring notebook, and provided to EIC
as part of the project data. These data should in-
clude manufacturer’s part numbers and full de-
scriptions of each component to allow ease of UL
inspection and approval.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
4.1.4 Installation, Operating, and Maintenance Manual. The
specified number of copies shall be submitted after the
draft copy is approved. Manuals should contain the fol-
lowing as a minimum.
4.1.4.1 Equipment description, layout, and operation.
4.1.4.2 Maintenance instructions.
4.1.4.3 Electronic controls and testing.
4.1.4.4 Complete Bill of Materials showing manufacturers
and ratings. Supplier’s correct part numbers must
be included.
4.1.4.5 Complete detailed test reports, as described else-
where.
Certified As Built B size drawings as described in Section
4.1.3 shall be supplied as part of this manual.
4.2 Inspection:
4.2.1 In-process inspection.
EIC reserves the right to inspect progress on this project at any
time.
4.2.2 Final inspection.
Final inspection shall be witnessed by EIC, or their repre-
sentative, at full load of one unit. The vendor shall have
completed a full load heat run on all units prior to this
witness test. Vendor shall notify EIC at least 2 weeks prior
to that point of the test schedule. This inspection may be
waived by EIC.
4.2.3 Test reports.
Test procedures and report forms shall be submitted in
detail to EIC for approval prior to testing new or revised
designs of transformers and rectifiers. At least 2 weeks
shall be allowed for this approval process.
4.2.4 Final test reports shall be submitted to EIC after inspection
and test.
4.2.5 All test equipment shall be calibrated at established inter-
vals. All instrument serial numbers shall be recorded on
the test reports.
4.3 Transformer tests:
Transformer tests shall be performed in accordance with ANSI
standards as per the following items. Test reports on each trans-
former shall be traceable to the unit in which it is installed. A
copy of the transformer test report shall be included in the
instruction manual for that unit.
4.3.1 Unit tests:
Each transformer shall be given the following tests prior
to installation in the rectifier units. These tests are to be
noted on the test report and shall be traceable to the trans-
former/rectifier serial number.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
4.3.1.1 Dielectric test.
4.3.1.2 Noise level shall not exceed 85 dBA at 1 meter.
4.4 Electronics:
4.4.1 Board traceability must be provided on the unit Bill of
Materials.
4.4.2 Calibration data shall be provided for any calibrated con-
trol on the unit test data sheet.
4.5 Unit Tests:
The following tests shall be conducted in accordance with ANSI
standard C34.2. Copies of all test reports shall be included in
the instruction manual.
4.5.1 Type tests:
These tests shall be conducted on one unit of each design,
prior to the witness test and shall be documented on the
general test report.
4.5.1.1 Unit power losses at 25, 50, 75, and 100% of rated
output current.
4.5.2 Unit tests:
These tests shall be conducted on each unit, and docu-
mented on the unit test report.
4.5.2.1 Dielectric tests on each independent circuit section,
i.e., high voltage, DC output, AC control, protec-
tion circuits, etc.
4.5.2.2 Functional tests on all protective and control cir-
cuits.
4.5.2.3 Full load test. Semiconductor case temperatures
are to be probed and recorded after 1 hour of op-
eration.
4.5.2.4 Full current and full voltage tests per ANSI stan-
dard C34.2.
4.5.2.5 Temperature rise at full load. Temperature record-
ings shall be taken of transformer windings, semi-
conductor cases, magnetic cores, internal ambient,
and external ambient until all temperatures stabi-
lize. Temperatures are to be recorded using a chart
recorder. Stability is reached when no temperature
rise is recorded in a 1-hour period.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-13
Standard Title: Pressure Indicator
Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Applicability:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Pro-
posals being submitted shall be in full compliance with this docu-
ment unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC,
client specification is provided. In this case, the client specification
has precedence over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC
aware of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on
how to proceed.
This technical standard is applicable to all pressure indicators
throughout the SANILEC system.
2.0 General:
Pressure instruments shall be direct reading type with a range of 1.5
times the maximum normal operating pressure. Pressure gauges shall
have dual scales showing PSI and kg/cm2.
3.0 Materials of Construction:
Pressure gauges shall have stainless steel or equal bourdon tubes and
movements. Gauges shall have stainless steel, PVC, or equal cases
and acrylic, laminated safety glass, or equal windows.
4.0 Mechanical Characteristics:
Pressure instruments shall be 4” to 4 1/2” with an MPT service
connection. They shall feature an open front/blow out disc construc-
tion and shall be accurate to within 2% of full scale or better for
temperatures between 0–120oF (–18–38°C).

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-14
Standard Title: Gauge Guard
Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0. Applicability:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Pro-
posals being submitted shall be in full compliance with this docu-
ment unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC,
client specification is provided. In this case, the client specification
has precedence over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC
aware of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on
how to proceed.
This technical standard is applicable to all gauge guards (diaphragm
seals) used in the SANILEC system.
2.0. Materials of Construction:
The housing of the gauge guard shall be constructed of PVC or equal,
the diaphragm shall be constructed of Teflon, Viton, or equal and the
O-ring seals shall be Buna-N, Viton, or equal.
3.0 Mechanical Characteristics:
Gauge guards shall be oil filled with a 1/2” process connection and
a 1/4” or 1/2” instrument connection as specified. It shall be of two
piece construction with stainless steel fasteners.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-15
Standard Title: Flow Orifice
Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0. Applicability:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Pro-
posals being submitted shall be in full compliance with this docu-
ment unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC,
client specification is provided. In this case, the client specification
has precedence over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC
aware of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on
how to proceed.
2.0. General:
Flow control orifices shall be of the multiple flexible insert type to
provide a steady flow of +/- 10% at variable pressures greater than
25 psig.
3.0. Materials of Construction:
Flow control orifices shall be constructed entirely of non-metallic
materials for corrosion resistance. The body shall be constructed of
PVC or equal and the inserts shall be constructed of Buna-N or equal.
4.0. Mechanical Characteristics:
Flow control valve shall be rated for 120 psig (7.5 bar) and 100oF
(38°C). It shall have either plain or flanged connections.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-16
Standard Title: Rotary Sensor Type
Flow Indicator Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Applicability:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Pro-
posals being submitted shall be in full compliance with this docu-
ment unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC,
client specification is provided. In this case, the client specification
has precedence over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC
aware of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on
how to proceed.
This technical standard defines the minimum technical requirements
for cell inlet flow meters.
2.0 General:
Flow indicators shall consist of a rotor type sensor, an installation
tap, and a remote flow indicating unit.
3.0 Materials of Construction:
The sensor shall be constructed of polypropylene or equal, with
titanium or equal shaft. The tap shall be constructed of PVC or equal.
4.0 Mechanical Characteristics:
The sensor and tap assembly shall be capable of withstanding 100
psig (6.25 bar) @ 120oF (50°C). The sensor shall be mounted in a wet
tap which allows removal of the sensor without securing the system.
5.0 Electrical Characteristics:
The flow sensor shall produce a variable frequency output of at least
1 volt and be accurate to 2% of full range. The flow indicating unit
shall have a local alarm and a remote alarm relay with contacts rated
at 3 A at 240 V or better. The indicating unit shall have an accuracy
of 2% of full scale.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-16A
Standard Title: Vane Type Flow
Indicator Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Applicability:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Pro-
posals being submitted shall be in full compliance with this docu-
ment unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC,
client specification is provided. In this case, the client specification
has precedence over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC
aware of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on
how to proceed.
This technical standard defines the minimum technical requirements
for in-line vane type cell inlet flow meters.
2.0 General:
Flow indicators shall consist of an in-line flow indicator equipped with
a transmitter (if applicable) to provide alarm and control functions.
3.0 Materials of Construction:
The housing shall be constructed of PVC or equal, with titanium,
Hastelloy-C or equal internal wetted parts and Viton or equal seals.
4.0 Mechanical Characteristics:
The flow meter shall have a maximum operating pressure of 100 psig
(6.25 bar) at 100oF (38°C). The flow meter shall be equipped with
ANSI 150# flanges for installation into the system. The flow meter
shall create a pressure drop of not more than 2.5 PSI.
5.0 Electrical Characteristics:
The flow meter control box shall be NEMA 4 rated and shall be UL
listed. It shall contain SPDT switches rated at 15A, at 480 VAC which
may be field adjusted. The unit shall be accurate to within 2% for
over the full range of the monitor. If included, the transmitter shall
be a two-wire model with a 4–20 mA output.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-17
Standard Title: Low Flow Switch
Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Applicability:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Pro-
posals being submitted shall be in full compliance with this docu-
ment unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC,
client specification is provided. In this case, the client specification
has precedence over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC
aware of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on
how to proceed.
This specification applies to low flow switches mounted on the elec-
trolyzer cell inlet or outlet.
2.0 Materials of Construction:
Switch body shall be constructed of corrosion-resistant non-metallic
material such as Ryton, Kynar, Teflon, PVC, etc. Seals shall be con-
structed of Viton and all other wetted parts shall be non-metallic
where practicable or Hastelloy-C or titanium where metal is required.
3.0 Type:
Switches shall be of the paddle type and shall operate independently
of system pressure or temperature.
4.0 Mechanical Characteristics:
Flow switches shall be constructed with a 1” MPT connection for
entering the system. The switch shall be rated for a minimum work-
ing pressure of 60 psig (3.75 bar) and minimum working temperature
of 150oF (65°C).
5.0 Electrical Characteristics:
The switch shall be SPDT with a contact rating of 10 Amps at 120
VAC.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-19
Standard Title: Powder Coating
Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Scope:
1.1 This specification covers the painting of cabinets and related
panel structures which are not otherwise specified on engineer-
ing drawings or by individual equipment specifications.
1.2 Painting shall include surface preparation, under coatings, top-
coats, inspection, and touch up.
2.0 Reference Standards:
SSPC Systems and Specifications
SSPC-PA-1 Shop, Field, and Maintenance Painting
SSPC-PA-2 Measurement of Dry Paint Thickness with Magnetic
Gauges
3.0 Contractor’s Responsibility:
3.1 The contractor shall furnish all materials, tools, equipment, la-
bor, and supervision to execute and fulfill the intent of this
specification.
3.2 The contractor shall be responsible for preparation of all surfaces
to be painted in compliance with the surface preparation proce-
dure as described in Paragraph 5.0 of this specification and that
of the paint manufacturer, to the satisfaction of the purchaser’s
representative.
3.3 The contractor shall be responsible for maintaining the paint-
ing area at the proper temperature and humidity with respect
to those recommended by the paint manufacturer and a state
of cleanliness acceptable for performance of top quality work-
manship.
4.0 Materials:
4.1 The paint as specified herein shall be maintained in strict accord
with manufacturer’s specifications.
4.2 No other paint or painting system than that which is specified
shall be acceptable, without prior approval by the purchaser.
5.0 Surface Preparation:
5.1 All welded areas shall be given special attention for removal of
welding flux in crevices. Weld spatter, slivers, sharp edges, lam-
inations, and underlying mill scale not removed during fabrica-
tion shall be removed by best mechanical means and edges
smoothed prior to cleaning.
5.2 All surfaces to be painted shall be thoroughly cleaned using the
paint manufacturer’s recommendations for removal of oil or
grease.
5.3 Wash using inline automatic washer utilizing paint manufactur-
er’s recommended alkaline base cleaner.
5.4 Rinse thoroughly with fresh water.
5.5 Apply iron phosphate solution to the parts for preparation of
the surface.
5.6 Remove applied phosphate with a fresh water rinse.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


5.7 Apply manufacturer’s recommended sealer over the surface to
assure maximum adhesion and protection.
6.0 Coating Application:
6.1 Surfaces to be painted shall be sealed immediately after cleaning.
No paint shall be applied to sealed surfaces which have been
allowed to set overnight or for a maximum 8-hour shift, or which
have been subjected to inclement weather.
6.2 Paint shall be applied by the electrostatic method, of a uniform
thickness and finish as specified herein.
6.3 Successive paint applications, if required, shall specifically fol-
low the recommendations of the paint manufacturer.
7.0 Protective Coating System for Exterior Surfaces:
7.1 The coating system shall consist of an inorganic phosphate coat
and a weather resistant polyester or urethane topcoat. Total dry
film thickness shall be 3–6 mils.
7.2 The coating application shall consist of the following three coat
system:
Sealer Coat: To be wetted over the entire surface to assure full
coverage.
Intermediate Coat: To be 0.5–1 mil d.f.t. organic phosphate.
Top Coat: To be 3–5 mils d.f.t.; polyester, Tiger Drylac #5015 blue,
fine texture.
7.3 Cure to be 350°F–425°F for 20–30 minutes.
8.0 Inspection:
8.1 All work and materials supplied under this specification shall
be subject to timely inspection by the purchaser or his autho-
rized representative. The contractor shall correct such work
or replace such material as is found defective under this
specification.
8.2 In-process inspections will be performed in accordance with the
EIC inspection and test plan (if provided). EIC or their autho-
rized representative shall be notified 5 days in advance of any
inspections or hold points outlined in the inspection and test
plan.
8.3 EIC or their authorized representative shall be notified 2 days
prior to order completion for final inspection of the completed
product.
8.4 Paint dry film thickness of intermediate and finish coats shall
be checked per specification requirements using a magnetic pull-
off type gauge. Alternative paint thickness gauges are to be
approved by the purchaser and checked prior to inspection by
the purchaser’s representative.
8.5 Magnetic pull-off type gauges used for measurement of coating
thickness shall be calibrated with calibration standards traceable
to NIST.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


8.6 A test and inspection report shall be provided for all coating
work performed. This report shall include the following mini-
mum data:
• Date and time coating was applied
• Coating system applied
• Coating color
• Required and measured coating thickness
• Date coating thickness was measured
8.7 A certificate of compliance, signed and dated by the contractor’s
authorized representative, shall be furnished for each shipment
of material or services supplied. This certification shall state that
all items furnished in the shipment are in full compliance with
all purchase order and specification requirements.
9.0 Paint Manufacturers and Products:
9.1 Following are approved paint manufacturers and products for
exterior surfaces:

Manufacturer Productsa
sealer inter. coat topcoat
Tiger RAL 5015
Drylac Fine Texture
a Note: Other paint manufacturers and prod-
ucts may be submitted to EIC for approval.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-21
Standard Title: Electrolyzer
System Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Systems
being provided shall be in full compliance with this document unless
an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC, client specifi-
cation is provided. In this case, the client specification has precedence
over areas which conflict.
1.0 Electrolyzer Module Construction:
1.1 Scope:
This specification covers the electrolytic cells, interconnecting
piping and valves, bus-work, and all other equipment that is
necessary to make the production streams complete, contribut-
ing to smooth reliable plant operation.
1.2 Steel Skid:
1.2.1 The design of this system ensures reliable operation in a
chemical and corrosive environment. The system skid
shall be constructed of A36 structural steel.
1.2.2 All steel shall be coated in accordance with EIC technical
standard TS-025, latest revision.
1.3 Electrolytic Cells:
1.3.1 The electrolytic cell assemblies shall be supplied with soft-
ened water and concentrated brine. This stream shall be
pressurized to a minimum of 45 PSI (three (3) bar g). The
sodium hypochlorite solution produced shall be sent to
the storage tank with the entrained hydrogen gas for hy-
drogen removal at the storage tank.
1.3.2 The flow of dilute brine through the electrolytic cell as-
semblies shall be kept at a constant rate sufficient for
addition to the storage tank without the need for transfer
pumps.
1.3.3 All cell assemblies shall be a monopolar plate type de-
signed and constructed to enable easy removal and re-
placement of cell electrodes with due regard to the need
for inspection and maintenance.
1.3.4 The anodes and cathodes shall be spaced uniformly with
a gap of 0.040 inches to provide for optimum cell efficien-
cy. Internal spacers shall be placed strategically over the
electrode surface to maintain a uniform gap. Spacer ma-
terial shall be Teflon (polytetrafluroethylene) to withstand
the corrosive operating environment.
1.3.5 Cell anodes shall be expanded titanium metal with a
precious metal oxide coating and operated at a current
density of less than 1,600 amps/m2. They shall be di-
mensionally stable type and shall preserve their shape
and voltage characteristics under severe electrolytic
conditions.
1.3.6 Cell assembly cathodes shall be constructed of expanded
Hastelloy C-276 material to offer superior corrosion resis-
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
tance to seawater and sodium hypochlorite while improv-
ing power consumption by 10% comparative to the use of
titanium cathodes.
1.3.7 The cell housing shall be injection molded polypropylene
with ultraviolet stabilizers and integrally molded flanges
to ensure positive sealing.
1.3.8 The maximum applied voltage differential (per cell) shall
not exceed 4.2 V DC during operation. A feed brine tem-
perature of 25°C with a chloride content of 19,000 ppm
should be used for this basis.
1.3.9 All internal cell assembly fasteners shall be commer-
cially pure titanium. All external cell assembly fasteners
shall be 316 stainless steel, copper, brass, or silicone
bronze.
1.3.10 All cell assembly gaskets or seals shall be either Viton or
silicone rubber.
1.4 Bus Bar:
Interconnecting cell assembly bus bar shall be constructed from
99.8% pure electrolytic grade copper.
1.5 Piping:
All piping shall be Schedule 80 PVC with ultraviolet stabilizers,
Type 1, Grade 1. All PVC Schedule 80 pipe shall conform to
ASTM D-1784 and D-1785 standards. Schedule 80 socket fittings
shall meet ASTM D-2467 while threaded fitting shall conform
to ASTM D-2464. Both pipe and fittings shall be the product of
one manufacturer.
1.6 Fasteners:
All fasteners for assembly of structural or piping components
and for mounting of components shall be 316 stainless steel.
1.7 Valves:
Valves shall be provided as follows:
1.7.1 Ball Valves:
Shall be Schedule 80 PVC, True Union type with Viton O-
ring seals and Teflon seats.
1.7.2 Butterfly Valves:
Shall be Schedule 80 PVC with 316 SS shafts and EPDM
seats and shaft seals. Fasteners shall be 316 stainless steel.
1.7.3 Globe Valves:
Globe valves shall be schedule 80 PVC socket or threaded
with EPDM seals and seats.
1.7.4 Actuators:
As applicable, ball or butterfly valves shall be equipped
with pneumatic operated or electric actuators. Design
shall be Fail-Spring to Close. Actuator housings shall be
NEMA 4 construction and shall contain two (2) limit
switches to be used for remote indication.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
1.8 Instruments:
The electrolyzer module shall contain, as a minimum, the fol-
lowing instruments:
1.8.1 Inlet Flow Meter:

Type: Variable area


Accuracy: +/- 5% of full range
Repeatability: +/- 2% of full range
Construction: Bronze and glass
Indication: Bronze float

1.8.2 Pressure Relief Valve:

Schedule 80 PVC; Type 1, Grade 1;


Type: Angle Pattern Design
Seals: Viton
Shaft: Teflon
Fasteners: 316 Stainless Steel
Spring: Stainless Steel

1.8.3 Pressure Gauge (Inlet and Outlet):

Type: Process Gauge — Liquid Filled


Case Material: Glass Reinforced Thermoplastic or S.S.
Window Material: Acrylic
Dial Size: 2”
Accuracy: 1% of Full Range
Bourdon Tube: 316 Stainless Steel
Scale: Dual Scale — “PSI”
Connection: Lower Mount — 1/4” NPT
Safety Feature: Solid Front — Blow Out Back
Gauge Guard: PVC Type — 1/2” NPT Process connection
1/4” NPT Instrument connection

1.8.4 Low Water Flow Switch:

Type: Paddle Actuator


Construction: Brass body, Buna-N, Red Brass, SS,
Phosphor Bronze, & PVC wetted parts
Switch Contact: SPDT, 15 A at 240 V A.C.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.8.5 Inlet Temperature Gauge (Note: As required):

Bi-metal Thermometer — Liquid


Type: Filled
Case Material: Glass Reinforced Thermoplastic
Window Material: Acrylic
Dial Size: 5”
Accuracy: 1% of Full Span
Scale: “deg C”
Connection: Every angle - 1/2” NPT

1.9 Rectifier:
1.9.1 Rectifiers shall be manufactured in accordance with EIC
technical standard TS-012, Transformer/Rectifier Specifi-
cation For FB/SC Series Systems, latest revision.
1.9.2 Rectifier enclosures shall be coated in accordance the EIC
technical standard TS-019, Powder Coating Specification,
latest revision.
2.0 Inspection and Testing:
2.1 Inspection:
2.1.1 In-process inspection shall be performed where required
on the job router.
2.1.2 Final visual and dimensional inspection of each system
shall be performed by the EIC QC inspector.
2.1.3 Inspection report forms shall be completed to properly
document all inspections and tests.
2.2 System Tests:
2.2.1 Hydrostatic testing of the system at 55 PSI for 1 h.
2.2.2 Functional testing of all protective and control circuits.
2.2.3 The system shall be operated at full voltage and full cur-
rent.
2.2.4 All system tests and documentation shall be verified by
the QC inspector.
2.2.5 Test report forms shall be completed to properly docu-
ment all inspections and tests.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-22
Standard Title: Ball Valve
Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Applicability
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Pro-
posals being submitted shall be in full compliance with this docu-
ment unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC,
client specification is provided. In this case, the client specification
has precedence over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC
aware of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on
how to proceed.
This Technical standard applies to all size manual ball valves within
the system.
2.0. Materials
The ball, body, stem, seal carrier and retaining ring shall be PVC,
CPVC or equal. The seats shall be Teflon or equal, and the seals shall
be Viton, EPDM or equal.
3.0. Style
Standard valves shall be True Union Ball Valves.
4.0. Design
Valves shall be designed for 100 PSIG @ maximum system operating
temperature. Valves shall have an external adjustment to compensate
for seat wear and shall have double block design to stop flow in
either direction. The valve shall have a full port to minimize flow
restrictions.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-23
Standard Title: Butterfly Valve
Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Applicability:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Pro-
posals being submitted shall be in full compliance with this docu-
ment unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC,
client specification is provided. In this case, the client specification
has precedence over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC
aware of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on
how to proceed.
This technical specification applies to all sizes of manually operated
butterfly valves.
2.0 Materials of Construction:
Butterfly valve bodies shall be constructed of PVC or equal,
shaft/disc shall be constructed of PVC or equal, shaft/stem shall be
constructed of titanium, 316 SS or equal, and seats and seals shall be
constructed of Viton, EDPM, or equal.
3.0 Mechanical Design Characteristics:
Butterfly valves shall be designed for 100 psig at maximum system
operating temperature.
4.0 Required Features:
1. Valves shall have a dry type shaft seal to prevent liquid from
contacting the shaft.
2. Valve shall contain Teflon or equal bearings to ease operation
and extend service life.
3. Valve shall contain a wafer type disc to minimize flow restric-
tions.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-24
Standard Title: Pressure Relief
Valve Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Applicability:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Pro-
posals being submitted shall be in full compliance with this docu-
ment unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC,
client specification is provided. In this case, the client specification
has precedence over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC
aware of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on
how to proceed.
This technical specification is applicable to pressure relief valves
designed to protect electrolytic cells and surrounding piping from
overpressure.
2.0 General:
Relief valves shall be self-actuated angle type relief valves with a set
point of 40 psig (2.5 bar).
3.0 Materials of Construction:
Relief valve body shall be constructed of PVC or equal, shaft shall
be constructed of Teflon or equal, seats and seals shall be construct-
ed of Viton or equal, and assembly hardware shall be constructed
of 316 SS.
4.0 Mechanical Characteristics:
The relief valve shall have a maximum accumulation of 40% and
blow-down of 25%. Relief valve shall be capable of relieving the entire
system flow rate when fully open. If this requirement is not met,
additional relief valves may be installed in parallel to satisfy this
requirement. Relief valves shall have Female National Pipe Thread
(FNPT) connections or be flanged for ease of installation.
5.0 Required Features:
1. Relief valve shall be equipped with a telltale drain to indicate
seal failure.
2. Relief valves shall be equipped with multiple seals to permit
continued operation until the next scheduled shutdown.
3. Relief valves shall be factory preset with a provision for owner
adjustment should it become necessary.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-26
Standard Title: Induction Motor
Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Applicability:
NOTE: The following specification is provided as a standard. Pro-
posals being submitted shall be in full compliance with this docu-
ment unless an Exceltec International, hereafter referred to as EIC,
client specification is provided. In this case, the client specification
has precedence over areas which conflict. Supplier is to make EIC
aware of all such conflicts and EIC will then instruct the supplier on
how to proceed.
This technical specification defines the minimum technical specifica-
tion for induction motors of 1 HP or greater.
2.0 General:
Motors shall conform to the requirements of NEMA/ANSI MG
1–1987, Rev. 1 subject to the following additions or exceptions with
the applicable paragraph in parenthesis.
1. Motors shall be NEMA frame suitable for chemical and other
severe duty applications commonly referred to as severe duty
motors. Motors shall be of the totally enclosed type.
2. The vendor shall provide a rotatable, diagonally split, gasketed
main terminal housing (not required for explosion-proof mo-
tors). Terminal housings shall be provided with threaded con-
duit hubs. (MG 1–4.02)
3. For explosion-proof motors, the class, division, and group shall
be indicated on the nameplate, together with the agency autho-
rized to certify the equipment. (MG 1–10.38)

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-31.1
Standard Title: Transformer
Specification
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Scope:
This specification describes the requirements for a group of rectifier
transformers, which are to be built into a set of thyristor supplies for
electrochemical duty. These units are to be fed by an industrial quality
power source and will deliver power on an intermittent basis.
2.0 Design Requirements:
2.1 Configuration — Vendor Standard.
2.1.1 Primary to be Delta connected.
2.1.2 Secondaries to be Wye connected.
2.2 Cooling shall be ambient convection — ambient average 40° C.
2.3 Input power — The input power available is 460 Volts +/-5%,
60 Hz. The source has a fault capacity of 40 KVA.
2.4 Output Voltage — to meet 50 Volts DC per attached circuit
design.
2.5 Impedance — Total commutating impedance shall be in the
range of 2%–5% on the rated KVA base. Every effort shall be
made, consistent with good design practice, to minimize the
difference between secondary coil impedance.
2.6 Loss — total loss shall be less than 9 KW at full rating.
3.0 Construction:
3.1 Dry type convection air cooled.
3.2 Insulation — class H per NEMA Spec. MK-35C.
3.3 80° C maximum rise.
3.4 Windings — primary and secondary copper.
3.5 Core — grain oriented steel, grade M6 or better.
3.6 Coils — electrolytic grade copper.
3.7 Varnish—to meet MIL specification M-32102-CE rated to 215° C
or better.
3.8 Transformer — over temperature. One sensor each phase at
150° C for trip.
3.9 All secondary connections shall be controlled in location.
3.10 The transformer shall conform to the requirements of ANSI
standards C57.12.01 and C57.18.
4.0 Transformer Tests:
These tests shall be done in accordance with ANSI C57.12.01 and
C57.18. Test reports shall be supplied for each unit.
4.1 Type tests. The following tests shall be performed on one trans-
former of each rating.
4.1.1 Excitation loss
4.1.2 Copper loss
4.1.3 Temperature rise per ANSI C57.18
4.1.4 Double induced voltage at 400 Hz

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


4.2 Unit tests. Each transformer shall be given the following tests
prior to shipment:
4.2.1 Dielectric test:
Primary to secondary and ground — 2500 VAC for 10
seconds
Secondary to primary and ground — 1000 VAC for 10
seconds
4.2.2 Ratio test
5.0 Data Requirements:
5.1 Price & Delivery — each option.
5.2 Estimated size and weight — each option.
5.3 Sketch of configuration showing location of terminals and
mounting method.
5.4 Estimated no load and loaded losses.
5.5 Test reports for all type and unit tests must be provided with
each shipment.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


Technical Standard
Document No. TS-35
Standard Title: Storage and
Preservation of Skidded
Equipment
Revisions Date Prepared By Approved By Purpose

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC


1.0 Scope:
1.1 This standard is designed to cover the basic steps in preparation
of a skid for extended storage. Different climatic conditions may
require actions other than those listed below. It is the customer’s
responsibility to advise Exceltec if the equipment will experience
unusual storage conditions.
2.0 Requirements:
2.1 Exceltec skidded units are designed to operate in severe marine
service environments, but special care must be taken to ensure
adequate unit protection while in storage prior to installation.
Exceltec recommends the following guidelines to ensure that
units are protected while in storage.
2.1.1 To prevent moisture build-up in the control panels, desic-
cant packs should be added and the panel should be
sealed with a heavy plastic cover. If the unit is stored for
an extended period of time, more than 2 months, the des-
iccant should be changed on a 2-month cycle.
2.2 Rotating Gear:
2.2.1 All rotating gear should be rotated by hand 10 turns every
2 months, more frequently if possible. This will prevent
bearing damage due to storage.
2.2.2 Use a megger periodically to ensure the integrity of all
motor wiring (windings) is maintained. Record all megger
readings and investigate any significant drops in insula-
tion resistance.
2.2.3 The motor bearings are packed with grease from the motor
factory. Do not add grease.
2.3 Store process unit away from excessive heat and corrosives.
2.4 Store process unit in area away from high risk impacts or jolts.
2.5 Process unit should be securely tarped to prevent direct sunlight
exposure and dirt and debris build-up on unit.
2.6 Care should be taken not to damage any of the process unit’s
protective coating, so as to avoid the risk of corrosion.

© 2003 by CRC Press LLC

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