CIRCLES

A line forming a closed loop, every point on which is a fixed distance from a center point

Circle could also be defined as the set of all points equidistant from the center.

To make a circle, you need three points which are not on same line

Radius: Half the diameter, distance of any point on circle from centre: r

Diameter: Distance across circle – a chord passing through centre: 2r

Circumference: Distance around the circle

- 2πr
- A wheel turning a full revolution, the distance covered is 2πr
- A clock hand in an entire hour covers distance = 2πr

Chord: links two points on the circle

- A radius perpendicular to the chord bisects it

- Length can be found using Pythagoras theorem- radius being the hypotenuse, and perpendicular bisector radius being one side

Tangent: a line passing a circle touching it at a single point

- Always perpendicular to radius

Secant: a line that passes a circle at 2 points

Area: πr2

- For a given perimeter, CIRCLE has LARGEST AREA

- For a given area, circle has LEAST PERIMETER.

Arc: Portion of circumference (major, minor)

- Angle subtended: Central Angle
- Length of arc= central angle/360 X 2πr

Sector:
- Area enclosed by an arc and 2 radii: Sector
- Area of a sector = central angle/360 X πr2
- Perimeter of a sector = arc length (central angle/360 X 2πr) + 2r

Semicircle: Half a circle

- Area: πr2 /2
- Perimeter: 2πr / 2 + 2 r = πr + 2r
- Angle inscribed in a semicircle is always 90 degrees: Any diameter always subtends 90 degree at any point on the circle.
- Therefore, a triangle with one side as diameter is always a right angled triangle.
Angles in a circle
- Inscribed angle: Vertex on circle’s circumference
For the same arc, all inscribed angles are equal
- Central angle: Vertex on centre
Always double the inscribed angle

That is why angle subtended by a diameter (semicircle) is 90 degree (half of 180)

Secant/ Tangent

PA*PD = PC* PB= constant (product of distances of 1st and second interaction constant)

Applicable inside circles to chords too

Applicable to tangents and secants, and tangents only too

PC*PB=PA2 PA*PD=PB*PC or PA=PB

Assume π to be 3 to eliminate choices which are too large or small.

POLYGONS

Closed shape formed by line segments

Regular: all sides and interior angle same

Sum of interior angles = 180 (n-2) where n is number of sides

Each interior angle = 180 (n-2)/n

Number of diagonals in a polygon of n sides= n*(n-3)/2

Radius of in-circle for a polygon = length form centre to the midpoint of any side (also called apothem)

Radius of a polygon = length from centre to any vertex (also circum- radius)

Perimeter: Distance around the polygon =sum of all sides; amount of fence required

Parallelogram Rectangle Rhombus Square Trapezium

Sides Opposites equal and || Opposites equal and All equal and opposites All equal and opposites Two opposite sides ||,
||; adjacent || ||; adjacent other non parallel sides
perpendicular perpendicular called legs- if equal-
isosceles trap
Angles Opposite equal, All angles 90 Opposite equal, All angles 90 Adjacent supplementary
consecutive consecutive
supplementary supplementary
Diagonals Not equal, but bisect Equal. Bisect each Not equal, but bisect Equal – length
each other other. Bisect the angles each other. side*root 2 times the
Bisect the angles Divide rectangle into 2 Always bisect each other side
congruent right at 90 degrees Bisect each other
triangles (same area) Bisect the angles Bisect the angles
Hypotenuse of right Are perpendicular
triangle
Area Base X height Width * Length Base* height, or Side2 Average of parallel sides
2 * Area of a triangle by Product of diagonals/2 or X height (distance
diagonals product of diagonals/2 between parallel sides)
Remarks Basic Quadrilateral – A parallelogram with A parallelogram with all A parallelogram with Median is line joining
father of all (formed by angles fixed at 90 sides equal equal sides and angle midpoints of two legs
restrictions) fixed at 90; thus a Parallel to bases
rhombus and rectangle Length = average of
too parallel sides
Is halfway between
bases
Divides trap into 2 traps
with half height

 If the diagonals of a rhombus are equal, then that rhombus must be a square.
 A square can also be defined as a rectangle with all sides equal, or a rhombus with all angles equal, or a parallelogram with equal diagonals that
bisect the angles.
 If a figure is both a rectangle (right angles) and a rhombus (equal edge lengths), then it is a square. (Rectangle (four equal angles) + Rhombus
(four equal sides) = Square)
 A square has a larger area than any other quadrilateral with the same perimeter.
 Is quadrilateral ABCD a rectangle?  
(1) Line segments AC and BD bisect one another.

(2) Angle ABC is a right angle

(1) INSUFFICIENT: The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect one another.  Knowing that the diagonals of quadrilateral ABCD (i.e.
AC and BD) bisect one another establishes that ABCD is a parallelogram, but not necessarily a rectangle.

(2) INSUFFICIENT: Having one right right angle is not enough to establish a quadrilateral as a rectangle.  
 (1) AND (2) SUFFICIENT: According to statement (1), quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram. If a parallelogram has one right
angle, all of its angles are right angles (in a parallelogram opposite angles are equal and adjacent angles add up to 180),
therefore the parallelogram is a rectangle

 Is quadrilateral ABCD a rhombus?

(1)  Line segments AC and BD are perpendicular bisectors of each other.

(2)  AB = BC = CD = AD

(1) SUFFICIENT: The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular bisectors of one another.  This is in fact enough information to
prove that a quadrilateral is a rhombus.

(2) SUFFICIENT:  A quadrilateral with four equal sides is by definition a rhombus

 Is quadrilateral ABCD a square?

(1) ABCD is a rectangle.

(2) AB = BC

1) INSUFFICIENT: Not all rectangles are squares.

(2) INSUFFICIENT: Not every quadrilateral with two adjacent sides that are equal is a square. (For example, you can easily draw
a quadrilateral with two adjacent sides of length 5, but with the third and fourth sides not being of length 5.)

(1) AND (2) SUFFICIENT: ABCD is a rectangle with two adjacent sides that are equal. This implies that all four sides of ABCD are
equal, since opposite sides of a rectangle are always equal. Saying that ABCD is a rectangle with four equal s des is the same as
saying that ABCD is a square.

 For a given diagonal length for a rectangle, there can be infinite combinations of lengths of the sides. But for given diagonal
length of a square there can be only one length of the side.

 Height of a trapezium can be shifted as the two sides sandwiching it are parallel. Doesn’t have to begin from a vertex.

Circles and squares

 If a circle is circumscribed around a square, the area of the circle is π/2 (about 1.57) times the area of the square.
 If a circle is inscribed in the square, the area of the circle is π/4 (about 0.79) times the area of the square.
TRIANGLES

3 sided polygon

Vertex: corner

Base: any of the three sides (usually taken to be unequal side for isosceles triangle).

Be able to see any side as the base not just horizontal side. Altitude/height might lie outside the triangle – extended base.

Altitude: Perpendicular from one vertex to opposite side

- Three altitudes intersect at a single point – orthocenter

Median: Line from vertex to midpoint of opposite side

- Three medians intersect at a single point – Centroid
- Each median divides triangle into 2 triangles with equal areas. Three medians divide it into six small triangles of equal area
- Two-thirds of the length of each median is between the vertex and the Centroid, while one-third is between the Centroid and the midpoint of the opposite side
- Length of median = sqrt{(2b2 + 2c2 – a2)/4} a is the side with midpoint

Area:
- If you know one side and its altitude
½ * base * height
- If you know all the sides:
Sqrt {s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)} where a b c are three sides of triangle, s =semi perimeter = a+b+c/2
- If you know the in-radius and perimeter
(a + b + c)*r/2
If you know the circum-radius and all three sides
abc /4R

• For a given perimeter equilateral triangle has the largest area.

• For a given area equilateral triangle has the smallest perimeter.

An equilateral triangle’s area can be found by knowing only one side, or only height (because you know the relation between base and height)
 If you know the area of a triangle, and 2 sides, you might think that you can find the third side. This is not always true – as the third side can have
more than one value. (If you put in Hero’s formula it will become a x to power 4 equation with multiple possible solutions! see below:
Always keep in mind for D. This will not be sufficient!

Angles:
Interior
- Sum = 180 degrees
- Correspond to opposite sides – largest angle is opposite the longest side; equal angles – opposite sides equal (isosceles)
- Points at which angle bisectors meet = in-centre (centre of in-circle)
- Each point of angle bisector equidistant from sides of triangle

AB/AC= BD/DC

Exterior
- Exterior angle = sum of opposite interior angles
- Sum of three corresponding exterior angles = 360

Sides of a Triangle
- Sum of two sides is always GREATER than third side (straight line is shortest distance between two points!)
- Difference of two sides is always SMALLER than third side
- Thus third side is between sum and difference of two sides
 Mid-segment: Line joining midpoints of two sides of a triangle
Parallel to third side, and equal to half of it

SIMILARITY
With identical angles
Sides are in proportion
Conditions of similarity: AAA, AA
If sides are in ratio x/y, area ratio = x2/y2
Perimeter or height ratio = x/y
Ratio of altitudes = x/y

- If you can see that two triangles are similar and the ratio of one side to other is given – you don’t need to find all sides to find the ratio of
perimeter! The ratio of perimeter will be same as the ratio of sides.
Congruence
Identical corresponding angles and sides too
Conditions: SAS, SSS, AAS, ASA
SSA not sufficient i.e. if equal angle is not included angle (sufficient if triangle is obtuse or right)

Types of Triangle
1. Scalene : None of the sides are equal
2. Isosceles:2 angles (and corresponding sides are equal)
Use Pythagoras to find one among altitude, base and side length
For given length of equal sides, isosceles right triangle has highest area (included angle)
3. Equilateral: All sides equal
All angles are 60 degrees
Area = s2 √3 /4
Perimeter = 3s
Altitude = a* √3/ 2
Radius of circumscribed circle = a* √ 3/ 3
Radius of inscribed circle = a*√3/ 6 (half of circum radius)

For any point P within an equilateral triangle, the sum of the perpendiculars to the three sides is equal to the altitude of the triangle.

- Right Angled Triangle

One interior angle is 90 degree
Hypotenuse2= base2 + Perpendicular2
Midpoint of hypotenuse is equidistant from all 3 vertices
Pythagorean triplet: 3, 4, 5 or any multiple (others are 5,12,13; 7,24,25; 8,15,17)
Any triangle with sides in ratio 3:4:5 is a right triangle (beware: two sides as 3 and 4 doesn’t mean third is 5!)

Special right triangles:

90-45-45 (Isosceles right triangle)
Sides ratio: 1:1:root2
Root 2 is hypotenuse
30-60-90
Half of an equilateral triangle
Sides ratio: 1:√3:2
2 is hypotenuse
Right triangle inscribed in semicircle

Circle inscribed in right triangle

r=ab/a+b+c , where right angle is at c

Or, (a+b-c)/2
 Very important: Right triangle within right triangle

Triangles ABC, CHB and CHA are similar. Perpendicular to the hypotenuse will always divide the triangle
into two triangles with the same properties as the original triangle.

Remember the equal angles for 3 similar triangles and use directly in the questions.

3 D Geometries

Cube Cuboid Cylinder Cone Sphere Hemi Sphere

What? 3D generalization of 3D generalization of 3-D object Rotating a right 3D generalization of Sphere cut in half
a square a rectangle formed by angled triangle a circle
rotating a around one of its
rectangular sides.
sheet along one characterized by
of its sides the radius of its
base, and the height
Volume a3 l. b. h 2
πr h 1/3 πr2 h 4/3 πr3 2/3 πr3
Surface Area 6a2 2(lb + bh + hl) Curved = 2πrh Curved = Πr l Total 4 πr2 Curved = 2πr2
Total = 2 πr h + = Πr l + πr2, Total = 3 πr2
2πr2 where l is
hypotenuse = root
of r2 + h2
Diagonal length a √3 √a2+ b2+ c2
(longest object that (longest object that
can fit) can fit)
Others Radius of a sphere If you know Side of a cube
inscribed within a diagonal and sum of inscribed within a
cube = a/2 sides you can find sphere =2r/√ 3
SA
Cylinder/Cone within (a+ b+ c)2 = a2+b2+c2 Height of Cylinder
a cube: +2(ab+ bc+ ca) of Radius r inside
Radius= a/2 i.e. (Sum of sides)2 = sphere of radius R =
Height = a Diagonal2 +SA 2 √{R2-r2}

Fitting shapes within shapes

When you have to tell how many numbers of a certain object will fit in another bigger object (which becomes the container), you can NOT simply
divide the volumes of the two. This is because shapes are solid, and unlike liquids/gas wont melt and occupy all space. Dimensions of both the
solids play an important role.

1. Cylindrical tennis-ball cans are being packed into cartons. If each can has a radius of 2 inches and a height of 12 inches, and the dimensions of each carton are 14
inches by 16 inches by 20 inches, what is the maximum number of tennis-ball cans that can fit in each carton?
Here you have to fit 4X12 in 14 X16 X 20.
Basically cans can be fitted on a floor area of 14 x16, or 16 x 20, or 20 x 14 ( all three possible because height 12 is less than all)
14 x 16  3 x 4 = 12
16 x 20  4 x 5 = 20
20 x 14  5 x 3 = 15
20 is the maximum.

2. A certain rectangular crate measures 8 feet by 10 feet by 12 feet. A cylindrical gas tank is to be made for shipment in the crate and will stand upright when the
crate is placed on one of its six faces. What should the radius of the tank be if it is to be of the largest possible volume
Now the faces can be 8 x 10, or 10 x 12 or 12 x 8
Radius for these will be 4, 5, 4 9 you have to take half of smaller side. If for 8x10, 5 is taken, it will not fit from the 8 side)
Height can be 12 , 8, 10
Volumes are 192 pi, 200 pi, 160 pi
 Answer : max radius – 5.

Liquids
1. A cylindrical vessel of a certain height and radius can hold 30 liters of water in it when filled to the brim of the vessel. If all the water in the vessel is transferred
to a spherical vessel whose height and radius is the same as that of the cylindrical vessel, what percentage of the capacity of the spherical vessel will remain
empty after the transfer?
Volume of cyl ¿ π r 2h = 30
4 3
Volume of sphere = πr
3
We know h =2r
2 π r 3=30, thus volume of sphere is 20. If you put 30 into it, it will overflow.
If it was other way round, then the cylinder would remain empty by a fraction which can be found out.

2. A right circular cone, twice as tall as it is wide at its greatest width, is pointing straight down. The cone is partially filled with water, which is dripping out of a tiny
hole in the cone's tip at a rate of 2 cubic centimeters per hour. If the water were to continue to drip out at this rate, how much longer would it take for the cone
to empty, assuming that no water is added to the cone and that there is no loss of water from the cone by any other means?

(1) The top surface of the water in the cone is currently square centimeters in area.
(2) The top surface of the water in the cone currently is exactly 4 centimeters below the cone's top, measuring vertically

1 is sufficient – for a cone if you know the midway radius, you can find height, and if you know the midway height you can find radius – because
they will form SIMILAR TRIANGLES.
Hemisphere
In a hemisphere igloo, an eskimo’s head just touches the roof when he stands erect at the centre of floor. His son can play over an area of 9856
without stooping. If eskimo’s height is 65, what is son’s?

Eskimo’s height = 65 = radius of hemisphere.

 .
Son can play over a floor area of 9856, without stooping. Find the radius of the circle he creates, using area given. Then use Pythagoras to find
height.

Spaces in between: Inscribed shapes

1. A sphere is inscribed in a cube with edge 10. The sphere touches the edges of the cube. What is the shortest distance from any vertex of the cube to the surface of
the sphere

Distance from vertex to surface is actually a gap. The diagonal of the cube (length a root3) is the entire length and from it if we subtract diameter
of the sphere, we get the gap twice. Thus we can find the gap by dividing it by 2.

2. A cylinder fits perfectly in a box. 76 cubic inches of oil is poured into the space between the cylinder and the box filling the space halfway. If
the box is 3 ft wide, how tall is the cylinder in inches?
Fits perfectly  base of box is 3X3. And height of box is height of cylinder.
Total oil that will come in the box till halfway = a*a*h/2, which is sum of that in the gap and that within the cylinder = π r 2h/2. You know a =2r =3,
and you can find h

- Of all quadrilaterals with a given perimeter, SQUARE has LARGEST AREA ( if polygons- circles)
- Of all quadrilaterals with a given area, SQAURE has LEAST PERIMETER
- Of all parallelograms / triangle with given side lengths, the area is maximized if the angle between them is made 90 degrees.

Some Trigonometry values

0 30 45 60 90 180 270

SIN 0 ½ 1/√2 √3/2 1 0 -1

 COS 1 √3/2 1/√2 ½ 0 -1 0

TAN 0 1/√3 1 √3 undefined 0 undefined

Some People Have Curly Black Hair Through Proper Brushing

Area within area: tiles of uniform width within square etc. Don’t always go with sides as a and a-2x. Remember that outer area = inner area + tiled area.