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97 views50 pagesPart 10
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© © All Rights Reserved
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P3: Forces and motion
Aforce causes an object with mass to accelerate,
@_Wirite the equation that links the quantities force, mass and acceleration, a
b What are the units of mass, force and acceleration? fe
Which will produce a bigger acceleration: a force of 10.0N acting on amass of 5.0kg,
or a force of 5. ON acting on a mass of 10.0kg? a
What force is needed to give amass of 20kg an acceleration of §.0m/s"? 13]
Atrain of mass 800000 kgs slowing down, What acceleration is produced ifthe braking
forceis 1 400000N? 8
Acar speeds up from 12m/s to 20m/s in 64. Ifits massis 1200kg, what force must its
engine provide? (6
The gravitational field of the Moon is weaker than that of the Earth. It pulls on each kilogram
‘of mass with a force of 1.6N. What wll be the weight of a 50kg mass on the Moon? (3
The diagram shows the forces acting on a lorry as it travels along a flat road.
500 N
5000 N
‘Two of the forces have effects that cancel each other out, Which two? Explain your answer 2
What isthe resultant force acting on the lorry? Give its magnitude and direction. B
What effect will this resultant force have on the speed at which the lorryis traveling? a)
‘An aeroplane is flying horizontally ata steady speed in a straight line, The diagram shows
three of the four forces acting on it
%
2irfiction —
gpa
> 2
weight
1 Inorderto fly horizontally at a steady speed, which two of the forces shown
on the aeroplane must be equal? ay
'norder to fly horizontally in a straight line, there must be a fourth force acting on the plane.
Copy the diagram and draw an arrow to represent this force. a
(continued) Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinate Sciences Turning effects of forces
This chapter covers:
how to describe the turning effect ofa force
the conditions needed for an object to be in equilibrium
how to calculate the moment of aforce
howto apply the principle of moments to determine unknown forces and distances
how the centre of mass of an object affects its stability
P4.0 feat aA EU eC Era
i Image P4.01 This cyclist must balance with great care
because the load he is carrying on his head makes him J
‘even more unstable.
| nwt
2 Figure P4,02 Understanding moments can help i
difficult tasks.
—
Figure P4.01 Opening a door - how can the boy have a
big turning effect?
pivot
‘moment wghtol
Figure P4.03 Two forces are causing this see-saw to tip.
The gr’s weight causes itt tip tothe left, while her father
provides a force to tip itto the right. He can increase the
turning effect of his force by increasing the force, orby
pushing down at a greater distance from the pivot.
Asee-saw is an example of a beam, along, rigid object that
ispivoted at a point. The girs weight is making the beam
tipone way. The father's push is making it tip the other
Way. IFthe beam is to be balanced, the moments of the two
forces must cancel each other out.
Equilibrium
When a beam is balanced, we say that t isin equilibrium.
Han object is in equilibrium:
I the forces on it must be balanced (no resultant force)
* the turning effects of the forces on it must also be
balanced (no resultant turning effect)
MHeresultant force acts on an object, it will start to move
Bilin the direction ofthe resultant force there isa
Filtant turning effect, it will start to rotate.
eo
Three different forces are shown pulling on a
heavy trapdoor. Which force will have the biggest
tuiming effect? Explain your answer.
fall tree can survive a gente breeze butit may
Blown over by ahigh wind. Explain why tall
ismore likely to blow over than a short tree,
Balancing
‘Shils:
403.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely
tise techniques, apparatus and materials
{including following a sequence of instructions
where appropriate)
‘803.3 Make and record observations, measurements
and estimates
03.4 Interpret and evaluate experimental
observations and data
Can you make a beam balance?
Practise balancing the beam on the pivot. Itshould
balance atits midpoint, as shown,
2 Check that the beam will stil balance when you place
single weights on each side at equal distances from
the pivot.
Try different combinations of weights. For example,
place 2N at 20cm from the pivot. Where must you place
LN weight to balance this? Copy the table shown and
record your results init. Can you see a pattern?
Weight on | Distance | Weight on | Distance
left/N from right/N from
pivot /em. pivot/em
Can you balance the beam with a single weight? You
will have to move the pivot from the midpoint. Can you
Work outhow to use this method to measure the mass.
ofthe beam?
areca creed Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sc
uP
| Insclence and in other subjects, you will often hear about
things that are in equilibrium’. This always means that
‘two or more things are balanced.
We have seen that, the greater a force and the further it
| acts from the pivot, the greater is its moment, We can
for calculating the moment of a force,
i
|
| P4.03 Calculating moments
|
i
write an equ
as shown,
\} Now let us consider the unit of moment. Since momentis a
| force N) multiplied by a distance (m) ts units simply the
newton metre Nm), There is no special name fortis unt
in the SI system,
‘the turing effect ofa force about point
ree =| perpendicular distance from —
- pivot to force
igure P4.04 shows an example. The 40N force is 2.0m
from the pivot, so:
moment of force = 40N x 2.0m=80Nm
Figure P4.04 Calculating the moment of aforce.
If distances are given in cm, the unitof moment will be
Nem. Take care not to mix these different units (Nm and
‘Nem) ina single calculation,
Balancing moments
The three children in Figure P4.05 have balanced their
isin equilibrium. The weight of the child
con the leftis tending to turn the see-saw anticlockwise.
So the weight ofthe child on the left has an anticlockwise
moment. The weights of the two children on the right ha
clockwise moments.
From the data in Figure P4.05, we can calculate
hese moments:
anticlockwise moment = 5¢
*2,0= 1000Nm
clockwise moments = (300 x 2.0) + (400 x 1.)
=600Nm +400Nm
=1000Nm.
(The brackets are included as a reminder to perform
the multiplications before the addition.) We can
in this situation:
total clockwise moment = total anticlockwise n
05s balan
Figure P4.05 A balanced see-saw. On her own, the child on
the left would make the see-saw turn anticlockwise; her
weight has an anticlockwise moment. The weight of each
child on the right has a clockwise moment. Since the
see-saw is balanced, the sum of the clockwise moments
must equal the anticlockwise moment.
The principle of moments
The idea that an object is balanced
and anticlockwise moments are equal
principle of moments.
the value of an unknown force or distance
Worked example P4.01.
Wecan use
In equilibrium
In the drawing of the three children on t!
Figure P4.05), three forces are shown ac
There is also the we
saw
ing down
200N
ight of the see-saw CaS cu eae
‘The beam shown in the illustration below is 2.0m
long and has a weight of 20N. Itis pivoted as
shown. A force of 10N acts downwards at one end.
What force F must be applied downwards at the
other end to balance the beam?
Step 2: identify the clockwise and anticlockwise
forces. Two forces act clockwise: 20N at a
distance of 0.5m, and LON at 1.5m. Ons
acts anticlockwise: the force Fat 0.5m,
Step 2: Since the beams in equilibrium, we ean write
total clockwise moment = total anticlockwise moment
Step 3:
Substitute in the values from Step 1, and solve
(20x05 m)+(ONxL5m)=Fx0.5m
IONm+15Nm=Fx05m
25Nm=Fx05m
25Nm
Soa force of SON is needed,
{Youmight have been able to work thisoutin yourhead,
Dylooking at the diagram. The 20N weight requires 20N
Yobalance it and the 10N at 1 Smneeds 30N at 0.5m
Yobalanceit. Sothe total force needed is SON)
sider, which also acts downwards, through its
EPoint. f these were the only forces acting, they would
the see-saw accelerate downwards, Anoth
Batts to prevent this from happening, There is an
Bid contact force where the see-saw sits on the pivot.
P06 shows all five forces,
the see-saw isin equilibrium, we can calculate
eliset force. it must balance the four downward
>is value is (500 + 200+ 400 + 300) N= 1400N,
pis force has no turning effect because it acts
the pivot its distance from the pivotis zero, so its
Bis ero
Dee eee need
408
s00N
200N
oon 200N
Figure P4.06 force diagram for the see-saw shown in
igure P4.05. The upward contact force of the pivot on the
see-saw balances the downward forces of the children’s
‘weights and the weight of the seesaw itself, The contact
force has no moment about the pivot because it acts
through the pivot. The weight of the see-saw is another
force that acts through the pivot, so italso has no moment
about the pivot.
Now we have satisfied the two conditions that must be
‘met ifan object is to be in equilibrium:
+ there must be no resultant force acting on it
+ total clockwise moment = total anticlockwise moment.
You can use these two rules to solve problems concerning
the forces acting on objects in equilibrium
8
m
Sometimes we know thatthe forces and moments acting
onan object are balanced, Then we can say thats in
equilibrium, Sometimes we know the reverse, namely,
that an objectsin equilibrium. Then we can say that there
{sno resultant force onit, and no resultant moment.
ACTIVITY P4.02
‘Aquestion of balance
Skills:
‘AO3.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely
use techniques, apparatus and materials
{including following a sequence of instructions
where appropriate)
‘AO3.3 Make and record observations, measurements
and estimates ferent ea cet Ee ce eo
‘A03.4 Interpret and evaluate experimental
observations and data
Predict the forces on a balanced beam.
Part
1 Setup a0.5m beam ona pivot so that itis balanced at
itsmidpoint.
Place a 5N weight a a distance of 15cm from the pivot.
Now calculate the weight that must be placed 20cm
from the pivot to balance the beam.
4 Place a small container 20m from the pivot. Add
‘weights to the container until the beam is balanced,
(Youcan do this by pouringin sand, or by adding small
pieces of modelling lay)
5 Test your calculation by weighingthe container and its,
contents, Was your calculation correct?
Part2
6 Weigh a 50cm beam.
7. You are going to balance the beam on a pivot using a
single weight, placed at the end of the beam, as shown,
Find a suitable weight (similarin size to the weight of a
the beam) and calculate where the pivot must be to
balance the beam,
8 Balance the beam. Was your calculation correct?
P4.04 Stability and centre of mass
People are tall and thin, like
«il standing on end, a
Unlike a pencil, we do not topple over when touched by
the slightest push. We ar
able to remain upright, and a
nake continual adjustments to
positions of our limbs and body, We need considerab
brain power to control our muscles for this. The advantage
hat, with our eyes about a metre higher than if we were
onall-fours, we can see much more of the world ar
;owalk, because»
The idea of moments can help us to understand
objects are stable while
hers are more likely to topple
over. Atall glassis easily knocked over - itis unstable.
It could be described as top-heavy, because most ofits
mass is concentrated hi
up, abovelits stem. Figure P4.07 for
shows what happens ifthe glass i tilted so their centre of mass
as the centre of mass, The glass is,
cent
fows, one for each bit of the glass, it's s
single arrow a rough tl
n think of the weight of the glass actin
Figure Pa
Cea
4.03 Calculate the unknown forces Xand Yfor the
balanced beam shown,
4,04 The beam shown s balanced at its midpoint
The weight ofthe beam is 40N, Calculate the
unknown force Z, and the length of the beam
When t
of the table acts up T
two forces are inline, and
tilted slightly to the right, the forces ar
no longer in line. Thereis a pivot at ere the
isin contact with line
ightisto the| s pivot, soit has
lock whi the glass
ts upright position,
s tipped further. Its the
the pivot, and has
glass tip right ove
entre of m:
igure P4.07, the weight of the glass i n
arrow starting at a point inside the liquid
1 glass. Why is this? The reason is that t
f ma
is high up. The force of gr
1ass of the glass - each bit of
s gravity
er, rather th
s known as the centre of
shows the position of the cM ei ate ogctd
In this case, the object's a piece of card, described as a
plane lamina, The card is suspended from a pin. Ifitis free
to move, it hangs with its centre of mass below the point
of suspension. (This is because its weight pulls it round
Until the weight and the contact force at the pin are lined
up. Then there is no moment about the pin.) A plumb-line
is used to marka vertical line below the pin, The centre
mass must ie on this lin,
The process is repeated for tiwo more pinholes. Now there
are three lines on the card, and the centre of mass must
lieon all of them, thatis, atthe point where they intersect.
(Two lines might have been enough, but its advisable to
use at least three lines to show up any inaccuracies)
Figure P4.07 A tall glassis easily toppled, Once the line of,
action of its weight is beyond the edge of the base, as inc,
the glass tips right over.
axis of symmetry. (This is because half of their mass is on 3
fone side of the axis, and half on the other) The centre of
massis in the middle of the body, roughly level with the
navel. A ball is much more symmetrical, and its centre of
massis at its centre,
For an object to be stable, it should have a low centre of J
mass and a wide base. The pyramid in Figure P4.08 is an
example ofthis. (The Egyptian pyramids are among the
Wonders of the World. Ithas been suggested that, i they
had been built the other way up, they would have been
} even greater wonders!)
Figure P4.09 Finding the centre of mass of an irregularly
shaped piece of card, The card hangs freely from the pin.
The centre of mass must lie on the line indicated by the
plumb-line hanging from the pin. Three lines are enough
to find the centre of mass.
Finding the centre of mass
Balancingis the clue to finding an object's centre of mass. 8
Armetre rule balances at its midpoint, so that is where its
fentre of mass must lc.
Whatever experiment you are performing, itis important
to think about how the experimentis designed to reduce
Procedure for finding the centre of mass of amore inaccuracies.
Bularly shaped object is shown in Figure P4.09.
Salm
P4.08 The weight ofan object acts through its centre of mass. Symmetry can help to judge where the centre of mass
object's weight can be considered to act through this point. Note that, for the table, its centre of mass isin the air
the table top. Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinate Sciences
nae
Centre of mass of a plane lamina 3
Skils:
‘03.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely
use techniques, apparatus and materials 5
(including following a sequence of instructions
where appropriate)
03.3 Make and record observations, measurements 6
and estimates 7
03.4 Interpret and evaluate experimental observations
and data,
Find the centre of mass ofa sheet of card
1. Cuta shape from the card. Thisis your lamina
2. Use the pin to make three holes around the edge
of the lamina,
4.05,
Use the ideas of stability and centre of mass to
explain the following,
a Double-decker buses have heavy weights
attached to their undersides.
b. Thecrane has a heavy concrete block attached
toone end ofits arm, and others placed around
itsbase.
4.06 The diagram shows the
Look at part a ofthe diagram.
Explain how you can tell that the cyclist shown
in partaisin equilibrium.
ces acting on a cyclist.
You should know:
‘= about the moment of force .
‘= the conditions fora system to be in equilibrium, .
‘what is meant by centre of mass and stability
Ifthe three lines cross exactly ata point, you have done well
Fix the pin horizontally in the clamp.
Using one hole, hang the lamina from the pin. Make sure
thatit can turn freely
Hang the string from the pin so that the weight makes it
hang vertically. Mark two points on the lamina along the
length of the string.
Repeat steps 4 and 5 using the other two holes.
Lay he lamina on the bench and, using a ruler, draw lines
Joining each pair of points, Where the lines crossis the
centre of mass of the lamina,
Now look at part of the dia
b_ Are the forces on the cyclist balanced now
n you tell?
© Would you describe the cycis
nstable? Explain your answer
how to calculate the moments of a force
how to apply the principle of moments. oe ei aed Bote
End-of-chapter questions
1 What quantity is a measure of the turning effect of a force? ay
2 Copy the sentences that follow, filing the gaps with suitable words.
When a body isin equilibrium, the force acting on itis zero. ir
When a body is in equilibrium, the resultant turning effect acting on itis a
Draw diagrams to show two objects: one with a ow centre of mass and a wide base, the other
with a high centre of mass and a narrow base. Mark and label the centre of mass ofeach, a
Label your diagrams stable object and unstable object correctly. a
Aforce F acts on a long, straight beam, at a distance x from a pivot
Draw a diagram to represent this, ir)
Write the equation you would use to calculate the moment of the force. re)
Copy and complete the table to show the units of each of these quantities,
(Give the name and symbol for each unit) 13]
force I
distance
‘moment of force
Write out step-by-step instructions for an experiment to find the postion ofthe centre of mass of
a plane lamina ts)
The diagram shows a 3.0m uniform beam AB, pivoted 1.0m from the end A,
The weight of the beam is 200N,
Copy the diagram and mark the beam's centre of mass. a
‘Add arrows to show the following forces: the weight ofthe beam; the contact force
onthe beam at the pivot. a
A third force F presses down on the beam (at end point A) What value of Fis needed
tobalance the beam? 5)
When this forces applied, what isthe value ofthe contact force thatthe pivot
exerts on the beam? a) ea eee EU ee ac Rue Forces and matter
This chapter covers:
how forces change the shape and size of a body
how to carry out experiments to produce extension-load graphs
how to interpret extension-load graphs
Hooke’s taw and how to apply it
thefactors that affect pressure
how to calculate pressure.
.
.
.
.
P5.01 Forces acting on solids
Foam Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences
P5.02 Stretching springs
7
a
BED cerrinessotetjee. mens
compressed slig itis stiffer than the b
1 effect s less noticeable
igure P5.02 Investigating the stre Mt
8
Figue P5.03 Stretching spring At frst, the spring
deforms elastically. wl return to its orginal length when
theloadisremoved, Eventually, however, the load isso
reat thatthe spring is damaged.
length of stretched spring
= original length + extension
Table P5.01 shows how to use a table with three columns
forecord the results of an experiment to stretch a spring
The third column is used to record the value of the
letension, calculated by subtracting the original length
fiom the value in the second column,
Hose how the extension depends on the load, we draw
Bhextension-Ioad graph (Figure P5,04). You can see that
the graph isin two parts
Atfist, the graph slopes up steadily. This shows
Mhat the extension increases in equal steps as the
load increases,
Then the graph bends. This happens when the load
FSsogreat that the spring has become permanently
#amaged. twill not return to its original length,
(ewe
(Ete
$91 Results from an experiment to find out howa
Mstches as the load on itis increased.
. a 7S
Load /N
Figure P5.04 An extension-load graph for a spring, based
on the data in Table P5.01,
(You can see the same features in Table P5.01. Look at the
third column. At first, the numbers go up in equal steps,
The last two steps are bigger)
Investigating springs
Skills:
‘403.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely
use techniques, apparatus and materials.
{including following a sequence of instructions
‘where appropriate)
‘403.3 Make and record observations, measurements
‘and estimates
‘AO3.4 Interpret and evaluate experimental
‘observations and data
se weights to stretch a spring, and then plot a graph to
show the pattern ofyour results,
1 Selecta spring
2. Fixthe upper end ofthe spring rigidly in a clamp.
3. Position arulernextto the spring so that you cen
measure the complete length of the spring, as shown
in Figure P5.02
4 Measure the unextended length of the spring.
5. Prepare a table or your results, similar to Table P5.01.
Record your results in your table s you go along,
6 Attach a weight hanger tothe lower end ofthe spring
Measure its new length,
7 Carefully add weights to the henger, one at time,
measuring the length ofthe spring each time
8 Onceyouhave a complete set of results, calculate the
values ofthe extension ofthe ring,
9. Plota graph of extension (y-axis) against load (x-axis)
and comment on its shape.
TET Rees Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Si
5.01 A piece of elastic cord is 80cm long. When itis
stretched, eases to 102cm.
itsextension?
P5.02 The table shows the results of an experimer
stretch an elastic cord. Copy and complete the
table, and draw a graph torepresent this data,
P5.03 Hooke’s law
F attern of the stretching spr
a ibe 7 ntist Robert H
He realised that, when the load on the ss doubled
he extension also doubled, Three times the load gave
hree times th sion, and $0 on. This shows up in
graph in Figure P5.05, The graph shows how the extensio
bends on th dl phisa straight lin
leading up from the origin, This shows that the extension
proportioy 20
{La certain point, the graph bends and the line slope
hetimit of
sented by the graph o
vy Hooke’s law
The extension of a springis proportional to the load
applied to it, provided the limit of proportionality is
Jed
not excee
rite Hooke's law as an equatior
i
5
Figure P5.05 a An extension-load graph for a spring
Beyond the limit of proportionality, the graph is no longer
a straight line, and the spring is permanently deformed
b This graph shows what happens when the lo:
removed. The extension does not return to zero, so the
spring is now longer than at the start of the experiment.
Dr tU tia’
A spring has a spring constant k = 20N/cm. What
load is needed to produce an extension of 2.5m?
| Step 1:
Step2: you double the load that is stretching a spring, the
spring willnot become twice as long. Itis the extension
thats doubled,
How rubber behaves
‘Arubber band can be stretched in a similar way to a
spring. As with a spring, the bigger the load, the bigger the
extension, However, if the weights are added with great
«ate, and then removed one by one without releasing the
tension in the rubber, the following can be observed:
+ The graph obtained is not a straight line, Rather,
ithas a slightly S-shaped curve. This shows that the
extension is not exactly proportional to the load,
Rubber does not obey Hooke’s aw,
* Eventually, increasing the load no longer produces any
extension. The rubber feels very stiff. When the load is
ferioved, the graph does not come back exactly to zero,
Pe
Aspring requires a load of 2.5N to increaseits
fength by 4.0cm. The spring obeys Hooke's law.
What load wil give it an extension of 12cm?
‘spring has an unstretched length of 12.0cm.
Its spring constant kis 8.0N/em, What load
Isneeded to stretch the spring toa length
of 10cm?
The results of an experiment to stretch a spring
are shown inthe table. Use the results to plot an
extension-load graph. On your graph, mark the
limit of proportionality and state the value of the
load at that point.
arene
Investigating rubber
Skills:
‘A03.1 Demonstrate knowledge of how to safely
Use techniques, apparatus and materials
{including following a sequence of instructions
where appropriate) |
‘803.3 Make and record observations, measurements
and estimates
A03.4 Interpret and evaluate experimental
observations and data |
Carty out an investigation into the stretching of a rubber
band. Thisis a good test of your experimental sil. You
will need to work carefulyif you are to see the effects |
described above,
1. Hangarubber band from a clamp, Attach a weight
hanger at the lower end so that the band hangs.
straight down,
2 Clampa ruler next to the band so that you can
‘measure the length ofthe rubberband. |
Prepare a table for your results.
4 One by one, add weights tothe hanger. Record the
length of the band each time. Add the weights carefully
sothat you do not alow the band tocontractasyou
add them,
5 Next, remove the weights one by one, Record the
cr
length of the band each time. Remove the weights
Carefully so that you do not stretch the band orallow it
tocontract too much,
6 Calculate the extension corresponding to each weight, |
7 Plotyourresults on a single graph. Can yousee the
effect shown in Figure P5.056?
P5.04 Pressure
|fyou dive into a swimming pool, you will experience the
Pressure of the water on you. It provides the upthrust on
you, which pushes you back to the surface. The deeper
you go, the greater the pressure acting on you. Deep-sea
divers have to take account of this. They weai
suits, which will stop them being crushed by the p
‘Submarines and marine exploring vehicles (Image P5.
must be designed to withstand very great pressures. They
have curved surfaces, which are ly to buckle under fear ea ces ee heme ares Rae}
Image P5.02 This underwater exploring vehicle is used to i
carry tourists to depths of 600 m, where the pressure is,
60 times that at the surface. The design makes use of the
fact that spherical and cylindrical surfaces stand up well
to pressure. The viewing window is made of acrylic plastic
andis 9.5 cm thick.
Stiletto shoes have very narrow heels which can Step 2:
damage floors, and dance halls often have notices
requiring shoes with such heels to be removed.
pascal
Calculate the pressure exerted by awoman dancer
weighing 600N standing on a single heel of area Lem
Ifthe surface of the dance floor is broken by pressures
cover five million pascals (5.0MPa), wil it be damaged?
Step 1 | P5.06 Writedown an equation that defines pressure.
5.07 Whats the SI unit of pressure?
| P5.08 Which exerts a greater pressure, a force of 100N
acting on .0cm*,orthe same force acting on
200m?
P5.09 What pressures exerted by a force of 40000N
acting on 20m?
Aswimming pool has a level, horizontal, bottom of
‘area 10.0m by 4.0m. Ifthe pressure ofthe water on
the bottom is 15000Pa, what total force does the
water exert on the bottom of the pool?
The diagram shows a tank thats filled with oi. The
density of the oils 920kg/m
are CEU Tur tc
‘a Calculate the volume ofthe tank from the
dimensions shown in the diagram.
Calculate the weight of the oll in the tank.
‘The pressure on the bottom of the tanks
caused by the weight ofthe ol, Calculate the
FE
pressure using p=
er a
End-of-chapter questions
1
Copy and complete the following sentences, by writing either increases or decreases in each gap.
a Pressure nnen the force acting increases. ta)
Db Pressure when the force acts on a greater area. fy
Your friend has fallen through the thin ice ona frozen pond. You comet the rescue by laying 2
ladder across the ice and crawling along the ladder to reach your friend. Use the idea of
pressure to explain why itis safer to use the ladder than to walk on the ice, Bl
Astudent measures an unstretched spring, He adds weights to the spring and measures its
new length each time,
3 Copy the correct equation that shows how to calculate the extension of the spring ta)
extension = length of spring load
extension = orginal length ~ length when stretched
extension = length when stretched ~ orginal length
Copy the correct graph to show how the extension of a spring changes as the load on it sincreased. ry Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences
ee heunit a orece uur
10 A group of students carried out an experiment in which they stretched a length of wire by hanging
‘weights on the end. For each value of the load, they measured the length of the wire. The table
shows theirresults
0 1oo [200 [300 [400 [500 | 600 | 700
3200 | 3207 | 3215 | 3222 | 3230 | 3242 | 3265 | 3270
@ Copy the table and add a row showing the extension for each load. (4)
b Use the data in your table to draw an extension-load graph for the wire. (4)
¢ From your graph, determine the extension produced by a load of 25.0N. Q
d__ Determine the value of the load at the limit of proportionality, 2)
11 An unstretched spring of overall length 50.0mm is hung from a support, as shown in the diagram,
aa] c a
so0mm
Different loads are placed on the spring and the extension is measured each time.
a Copy the diagram, and mark clearly onit the extension caused by the load, wy
b The extensions for different loads are given in the table,
(continued) ery
ace cedu ir
CET
Dre sear
W Copy and comp!
nin the limits of deer res
12 a Thediagram shows end views of the walls built by two bricklayer,
HET
‘enforced
foundation foundation
‘Which wallis the least likely to sink into the soil, and why?
b The diagram shows two horizontal squares P and Q.
Le]
The atmosphere is pressing down on both P and Q.
1 Name two quantities that would need to be known in order to calculate the atmospheric
pressure on square P.
The area of Pis four times that of Q.
Copy and complete the following sentences.
1. The atmospheric pressure on Pis the atmospheric pressure on Q.
2. The force of the atmosphere on Pis the force of the atmosphere on Q.
(2
rey
BI
IGCSE Physics 0625 Paper 22 Q4 June 2010) the meaning of er age P6.OL Crocodiles are cold-blooded creatures, so
itisrelatively safe to approach them on a cold day. Ona
pt day, they are much more active. Crocodiles are not
bigeaters, but they make very efficient use of the energy
Supplied by their food,
P6.02 Forms of energy
Etetgy, and energy changes, are involved in all sorts of
Btivities. We wil look at two examples and see how we
idescribe them in terms of energy. We
idea of forms of ener
id to hi
imple 1: running
Bithestart of arace, you are ngfor the
let's pistol. Energy is stored in your toned-up muscles,
Byto be released. As you set off, the energy from y
sles g
ationary, wai
you moving, Ifyou are running a marathon,
Pullneed to make use of the energy in the longer-term
PFeSin the fatty tissues of your body.
setBy changes involved are shown in Figure’
Muscles store chemical energy. Th
cals in your muscles,
energy is stored
ady to be rel
tSnotice, Your muscles start y
kinetic en
sed at a
ou moving, and you
Running makes you hot. This tells us
perme ofthe energy released in your muscles is wast
ol heat) energy, rather than becoming useful kinetic
BéFitness training helps people to reduce this was
Sr ASU We ere
Figure P6.01 aAtthe start of arace, the runner's muscles,
are stores of chemical energy. bAs the runner starts to
move, chemical energy is transformed to kinetic energy
‘and thermal (heat) energy.
Figure P6.02 Switching on the light requires a supply of
electrical energy. In the light bulb, electrical energy is
transformed to light energy and thermal (heat) energy.
Example 2: switching on a light
Itis evening, and the daylight is fading ¥
ight. Your electricity meter
nthe
arts to turn a little faster,
ding the fact that you are drawing more energy from
the distant power station,
u switch
The energy changes involved are shown in Figure P6.02,
Electricity is useful because it brings energy, available
at the fick of a switch. We can think of
je energy it
he light bulb,
ery lig
is energy
bulb also
Naming forms of energy
The examples above highlig
of energy. We now take br
these forms,
some of the various forms
ok at examples of al of
A moving object has kinetic energy (k.e,). The faster an
object m: greater its ke, We kno
is because I Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences
you object up) eit gravitational
| potential energy (g. higher an objectis abo
| the ground, the greater e.lfyoulet th fal
ou can get the energy back again. T ploite
many ions. The wa
s the wat bese
: grandtathe
gradually fal, they c in Figure P6.02 Some stores of chemical energy - pet
Saree eres batteries and bread. Our bodies have long-term stores
; ; energy in the form of fatty tissues
chemical energy. \We know th: fuel stor . et
| ily as heat and ae er internal energy. ture tl
| aw ab n chemicals. ies. a : .
| 52 d Jeveloped f
Batteries are also sto rey. When a batt
plete circuit, the chemicals stat to react with o close '
other and an electric current flows, The current cart thermal heat) energy
the othe ie in tr t
nelectric currents 2 good wa forringe hapter P21
om one place to another. tcarties electrical energy
1en the current flows through pmponent such a: light
leat es up Son ier energy. | te
sse relation of chemi s nuclear energy nother : a
iumis ar sfa nuclear fuel, whichis a store of undings sas sound energy,
clear energy:
pfthe stom. A nuclear power sta D
ni stretch a rubberband t beco f Take care not to confuse the following wo
‘energy: Internal energy'is the energy of
ermal energy also called heat ener
spreading out rom ahot abject. Energy stores
etic en
Table P6.01 Different forms of energy can be classified as
stores or transfers.
fed from one abject to anot
ce to place, (Remember that a
people from place to place) Here are fos
which energy can be tran
+ By lift somethir zh vitation
potential energy - you provide the force it
Altern ou Je the force needed to
energy is transferred from one object to another by
eis doing work
means of a force, we say
Thisis¢
ussed in detail in Chi
Byheating. V
energy
spreads out from
sulati
Bo0d th
(Object to its cooler surroundings
etailin Chapter F
Bywaves. Light w
how e
Som:
and ult
ray is transferred fror
the energy i
electromagnetic waves
Byelectricity. An
Htansferring ene
10 place. The el
Maybe genera er station many kilometres
Blenatively, 2 provides the energy needed
Blhtabuit¢ fers the energy from th
HEHYto the bulb. Th ed in Chapter P19.
Hat name is given tothe energy of a
Moving objec
BpfbeSunis avery hot object. ame two forms of
Perey that arrive at the Earth from the Sun
P6: Energy transformations and energy transfers
6.03 What form of energy is stored by 2
stretched spring?
P6.04
What do the letters g.p.. stand fo? How can an
object be given g.p.e?
P6.05 Name a device that transforms electrical energy
‘0 sound energy. (It may also produce thermal
heat) energy)
6.06 Namethree forms of energy that are given ou
atelevision set
P6.07
Look at thelist of energy stores shown in
Table P6.01. For each, give an example of an
abject or material that stores ener
By c to another, we
nat it has been c have alread
ill look tle abo
rocket in Image P6.02 is lifting n the grount
ast carries a new spacecraft up into space. Its energy
Image P6.02 This giant rocket uses rocket motors to lift
Up into space. Each rocket motor burns about one tonne of
fuel and oxygen every minute to provide the energy needed
to move the rocket upwards. Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences
‘The two most common forms of waste energy are thermal
‘energy and sound energy.
6.08 What energy conversions are going on nt
ing? In each case, write an equation t
represent the conversion.
a Coalisb
supply of hot wate
int to heat a room and to provide a
b_ Astudent uses an electric lamp while she is
doing her homework.
€ Ahairdryer's connected to the mains
electricity supply. It blows hot air at the us
Figure P6.04 This diagram represents the energy
transformations going on as a rocket like thatin Image P6.02
accelerates upwards. Chemical energy in the fuel and oxygen,
is transformed into five other forms of energy.
Energy conversions
Skill:
{03.3 Make and record observations, measurement
and estimates
toanother. Some
fers with the ans supplies 80k (kilojoules) every second, Some thermal
energy escapes from the hot engine and in the exhaust
gases. Some energy is wasted as heat produced by
friction within the workings ofthe car. The rest is used in
‘overcoming air resistance, another form of friction, so that,
the ar is warmer after the car has passed through it
Allof the energy supplied by the car's fuel ends up as
thermal energy. Ifyou add up the different amounts of
thermal energy in Figure P6.05, you will see that they come
10 80kJ. This is an example of a very important idea, the
principle of conservation of energy:
‘any energy conversion, the total amount of
before and after the conversion is constant,
This ells us something very important about energy:
itcannot be created or destroyed. The total amount of
energy is constant. f we measure or calculate the amount
(fenergy before a conversion and again afterwards, we
Wil always get the same result. If we find any difference,
We must look for places where energy may be entering or
escaping unnoticed.
eping an eye on the amounts of energy is rather like a
mM of book-keeping or accounting. Energy is ike money:
‘amounts entering a system must equal the amounts,
ingit, or stored within it.
thermal (heat ene escaping
from engine
thermal hea energy
wasted in overcoming
Internal tition * 108)
thermal et)
egy wasted
imovetcoming or
6.05 An energy diagram for a car, showing the
BY converted by the car each second.
TION
light bulb is supplied with 100.J of energy
ch second
How many joules of energy leave the bulb
each second inthe form of heat and light?
_ 120 of energy leave the lamp each second in
the form of ight, how many joules leave each
id in the form of heat?
6: Energy transformations and energy transfers
Energy efficiency
Energy is expensive, and we do not want to waste it. Using
more energy than necessary increases the damage we
do to the environment, so itis important to avoid waste.
Figure P6.06 shows a diagram that represents energy
flows in the whole of the UK in a typical year (year 2000)
Most of the energy flowing in to the UK comes fram fuels,
particularly coal, oil and gas, Energy is wasted in two
general ways: when its converted (transformed) into
electricity, and when itis used (for example, in light bulbs)
Most wasted energy ends up as thermal (heat) energy,
‘There are two main reasons for this:
+ When fuels are burnt (perhaps to generate electricity, or
to drive car), heat is produced as an intermediate step.
Hot things readily lose energy to their surroundings,
even if they are well insulated. Also, engines and boilers
have to lose heat as part of the way they operate: power
stations produce warm cooling water; and cars produce
hot exhaust gases.
+ Friction is very often a problem when things are
moving. Lubrication can help to reduce friction, and a
streamlined design can reduce air resistance. But itis
impossible to eliminate friction entirely from machines
with moving parts. Friction generates heat.
‘Another common form of wasted energy is sound. Noisy
machinery, loud car engines and so on are all wasting,
energy. However, loud noises do not contain very much
energy, so there is little to be gained (in terms of energy)
by reducing noise. Waste energy in the form of heat and
sound is sometimes referred to as low-grade energy.
lossesin conversion and
stration = 32
tyro sores
eet
energy
Figure P6.06 A diagram showing energy flows in the UK
in atypical year, 2000. (All numbers are *10"J,) Alarge
proportion of the energy supplied by fuels is wasted in
conversion processes and in its final use. Some of this
waste is inevitable, but better insulation and more ef
machines could reduce the waste and environmental
damage, and save money.
ient Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences
a co
amp temp
Image P6.03 Each of these two light bulbs provides the
same amount of light.
The word ‘efficiency’ is often used in everyday lif,
pod use of the ene ‘often it is used tomean ‘quickly; which isnot the sam
his is because energy is the scientific meaning,
Theefficiency ofan energy conversionisthe fraction
ofthe energy thatends up in the desired form.
filament am loc
lamp
Table P6.02 Energy efficiencies. Most devices are less
than 100% efficient because they produce waste heat
An electric heateris 100% efficient because all of the
electrical energy supplied is transformed to heat. Theres
no problem about waste here!
“ne PG.10 a Whatis the most common
waste energy?
8 b_ Name another form in whic
often wasted.
Figure P6.07 Diagram showing energy transformations in 6.11 Wihy/sitimportant not to was
tight bulbs of the types shown in Image P6.03. The energy- che cnrae ears
efficient lamp wastes much less energy as heat. Calculating efficiency
You can see fo
Table P6.02 that efficienc
given as a percentage
isoften
fecan cal
the percentage
icy of an energy change as follows:
useful ener
efficiency =—
utpu
energy input
When the flamer
with 100, of el
light energy.
lamp shown in i
ical energy, itprod
s efficiency is thus:
Be P6.03 is supplied
15
flush
efficiency of filament lamp = 2
% 100% = 159
100
P6.12 Calculate the efficiency of the energy-efficient
lamp from the data shown in Figure P6.07.
P6.13 coal-fired powerstation produces 100M of
electrical energy when itis supplied with 400M)
of energy from its fuel. Calculate its efficiency,
P6.14 Alamos 10% efficient. How much electrical
k energy must be supplied to the lamp each second,
ifit produces 20, of light energy per second?
P6.05 Energy calculations
Energy is not simply
Eancalculate.
idea, itis also a quar
Gravitational potential energy (g
aineering on the Moon shoul
Hie Moon's gravity is much weaker
Because then ghtieth of the
Ertis. This means that the weight of an astronz
He Moon isa fraction of his
Bprinciple, itis possi ble to jump six time
oon. Unfortunately
P
be easy (Image P6.04)
85 is only one-e
, because an astronaut has to carry
By¥Ben supply and wear a cumbersome suit, thisis
BES we saw that an object’s g.p.e. depends on its
above the ground, The higheritis, the gr
Hyou lit an object upwards
erits
,U provide the force
ts g.p.e. The heavier the abject, the
Bide force needed to litt it, and hence the greate
s gravitational potential
Ie) depends on wo factors:
or US nee uae a
be
ah wtb ELE
Image P6.04 Astronauts onthe Moon, The Moon's gravity
is one-snth that ofthe Earth. Experiments onthe Moon
have shown that a golfball canbe hit much farther hon
on Earth Thisis because it travels. a much greater dstonce
horizontally before gravity pul t back the ground
lustrated in Fig From the numbers int
am, you can see that g.p.e. is simply calculated b
multiplying weight by height. (Here, we are assuming that
an object's g.p.. is zero when itis at ground level.) We car
write this as an equation for g.p
gravitational potential energy = weight » height
Anote on height
have to be careful when measuring or cale
change in an object
Figure P6.08 The gravitational potential energy of an
object increases as itis lifted higher. The greaterits weight,
the greaterits pe. Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinate Sciences
This is illustra th
PC ScULeaa kt!
{an athlete of mass 50kg runs up a hill. The foot
‘of the hillis 400m above sea-level. The summit
is 1200m above sea-level. By how much does the byc
athlete's g.p.e. increase? (Acceleration due to of
gravity g=10m/s)
Step 1: Assume that gp. is zer0 atthe foot ofthe hi
ake things mi
row it oF htt. A car uses e
often make use of an object’s kinetic energ
x 10 m/s! 800r this, we must si
; The energy extrac Nn
00K od
| : te L Thi sts thi By of anol
| - on two fact
+ the object's ma ne greater the m
First, we have to consider the verticd g
itske
it moves. A train may travel 1 km u
tical height may only increase by + the object's speed v- the greater the sp«
\ distance from the centre of the Eart These ore combyned In afunntlla
and so its height does not change. Its g,p.c. is constant.
lorked example hows hi
Iculate the ke. of a moving object. N
ergy (like all forms of energy)
the fact that it involves v. Its best to
speed rather than velocity
Ps uta aod
ravelling at 10s. Calculate
its kinetic energy. fits speed increases to 205: ¥
how much doesits kinetic energy increase?
Step 1: Calculate the van’s ke at
Image P6.05 This pole-vaulter adopts a curved posture to
get over the bar. He cannot increase hs g.p.¢. enough to 2
get his whole body above the level of the bar. His centre of
gravity may even pass under the bar, so that at no time is
his body entirely above the bar. - = 100000)
= 100k
Step 2: Calculate the van's ke. at 20m
k
os
7
1
= «2000 keg «(20 m/s)?
3% 2000 ke (20
00000)
=400ki
Step 3: Calculate the change in the van's ke.
change in ke.
change in ke. = 400kJ~ 100k
=300ki
So thevan's ke, increases by 300kJ when it speeds up
from 10 m/s to 20m
Comments on Worked example P6.02
Itis worth looking at Worked example P6.02 in detail, since
itllustrates several important points.
When calculating ke. using 2 mv take care!
Only the speed is squared. Using a calculator, start by
SGUaring the speed. Then multiply by the mass, and finally
vide by 2
lenthe van's speed doubles from 10m/s to 20 ms, its
increases from 100kJ to 400k. In other words, when
Speed increases by afactor ofits ke. increases by a
OF 4. This is because ke. depends on speed squared
the speed trebled (increased by a factor of 3), the ke
Bud increase by a factor of 9 (see Figure P6.09).
ae
knowledge of how to safely
ques, apparatus and materials
P6: Energy transformations and energy transfers
Speed /m/s
Figure P6.03 The faster the van travels the greater
itsknetc energy - see Worked example P6.02
Double the speed means furtmes the kinetic energy,
because ke. depends on speed squared The graph |
shows that ke, increases more and nore apy es the
van's speed increases.
increases bythesame ameuntagain tom lomiste |
me
Although the formula fork.e. includes v, the object's |
velocity ke. is nota vector quantity -itdoes not have a
direction. Think of vas speed, not velocity.
an stycacrnsdomhlne.chareso ke Yuen
ee aE
-Athetop ofthe hil, the carhas gp. (gravitational potential
energy). Asituns downhill, gp.e changes tole. (kneticenergy),
ifyou measure the height h ofthe carat the top ofthe slope,
you can calculateitsgp.e: |
Bp.e.=mgh
Ifyou measure the speed v ofthe car at the foot of the slope,
youcan calculateitske: Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences
Your taskis to test the following idea
Asi runs down the slope, the
converted to ke.
tthe idea.
'scan you vary in the course of th
ment?
yrements and draw a co
Bpe.
\Econstant? 6.18 What does v representin the formula ke. =~
6.19 How much ke. is stored by a L.0kg ball m:
igh at Lomi
6.20. Arunner of mass 80kg is moving at:
¢ Asky-rocketi fired into the sky Calculate her kinetic en
P6.16 girl of weight SOON climbs on top of a 2.0m igh P6.21. Which has more ke. 0
i wall, By how much does her g.p.e. inerea ral
P6.17 _Astone of weight LON falls downwards. ts g.p.
You should know: :
‘= about forms of energy and energy conversions = howto calculate energy efficiency i!
'= the principle of conservation of energy = how to calculate gravitational potential energy and
= what is meant by energy efficiency kinetic energy.
End-of-chapter questions UE SUSU eC aa ed
2. What are the energy conversions in each of the following? Write an equation for each,
@Aglow-worm is an insect that glows in the dark. Chemicals nits body react
together to produce light and heat. 2]
bb Anelectric motor is used to start a computer's disk drive spinning round, a
€ Awind turbine spins and generates electricity 2)
d Friction in acar’s brakes slows it down, 2
3 Alight bulbs supplied with 100, of electrical energy each second. It produces 20.Jof
light energy and 93.0) of thermal (heat) energy. Explain how this shows thet energy s conserved. 8)
4 Thegirlon the skate ramp rller-skates down one side ofthe slope and up the opposite side
She cannot quite reach the top ofthe slope, level with her starting position,
°
a What energy conversion is taking place as the girl moves downwards? 2
b What energy conversion is taking place as the girl moves back upwards? Q)
© Explain why the girl cannot reach the top of the slope. Ql
Suggest how the girl could reach the top of the slope. rc
Energy can be changed from one form to another. It can
Copy and complete the following sentences.
be transferred from one abject to another.
# When energy changes from one form to another, some of the energy may be wasted, often in
the form of, . a
b The tells us the fraction of energy which is wasted, oy
‘The total amount of energy does not change. This is known as the principle of
of energy, a
Power station burns rubbish to generate electricity, It also supplies hot water to
Nearby offices and shops
What two useful energy forms are produced? 22)
What waste energy is produced? a
© this an efficient use of energy? Explain your answer using informetion from the diagram 2
lect
sa | yg
: hot water 5% Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinate Sciences or Dee Cae ene oe
11 Aboy drops 2 ball of mass 0.50kg, The ball alls a distance of 1.1m, as shown inthe diagram,
Ignore ar resistance throughout this question,
—
Lim
Calculate the decrease in gravitational potential energy of the ballast falls through the 1.1m. 2
The ball bounces and only rises to a height of 0.80,
1 Calculate the energy lost during the bounce. ay
fi Suggest one reason why energy is lost during the bounce. ir
On another occasion, the boy throws the ball down from a height of 1.1m, givingit an
initial kinetic energy of 9.0
cownssinonvniee | A Energy resources
This chapter covers:
= the different energy resources we use
= the advantages and disadv;
5 of different energy resources
= howe rely on the Sun for most of our energy resources.
P7.01 The energy we use ar ey
solar panels
Image P7.01. We use energy from the Sun in many different,
Ways for example, for producing electricity
X
PiHePr01 Wiortd energy use, by fuel. This chart shows
entributions made by different fuels to energy
Ssumation by people in 2006, across the world,
ME quarters ofall energy is from fossil fuels.
oss ‘Consumption OF th
Bstbcocie rice :
ene Kat these group Image P702 This array of solar ells provides electricity for
: a water pump in a Kenyan village. Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences
fossil fuels
Image P7.03 These giant turbines are part of a wind farm
at Xinjiang in China. They produce as much electricity as a
medium-sized coal-fired power station, nwrite a
== =
P7.01 Explain why wind and wave power could not
relied ont
ity supply
P72 Asolar cel (photocell produces electricity when
the sun shines, What energy conversion is going,
on here? asin
P7.03 When awave travels across the sea the water ra tup os
moves up and down, What two forms of ene?
does a wave ha
a country's entire
P7.05 Wha
gy conversion ish
biomass fuel. Oi!
enerated by 1 ccharcoal is used as the fuel f
gure P71, biomass fuels acco f fe are usually found tog: aura ner}
The oilfields of the Persian Gulf, North Africa and the
Gulf of Mexico, which cont
reserves, all formed in the C
for example, nuc
power stations generat
three-quarters of the country’s electricity
half of the world's known oil
cess produ
taceous era, 75 to 120 million ing countries, including Spain,
0, IK,
rely cheap, concentrated energy
Nuclear fuels iclear power has proved to be
Nuclear power was developed in oft he initial cost of building the power
20th century. Ibis a very demand which station s
of disposing of the radioactive
requires very strict co
ause of spent fuel and dk
damage that can be c:
by an accident heir
working liv
Thefvel for a nuclear power station (i
uranium, someti
materials. Inside
ed.up so th
Water power
cof
smalles
swat
ople have u
isspe
much more quickly
Uranium isa very concentrat
form of nuclear energy. tyoica
will receive about one truckload a fuel each week i i eet
Goals less concentrated. A similar coal-fired powerstation (1880s
likely to need a whole trainload of ——
And farm capable o
isin the form of hydroelectricity
(05), Water stored behind a dam is release
ich make gen
ofs spin. This is a
ear’ kilometres land that might otherwise have been used for huntin
Bneratingelectricity
abitats de
Geothermal energy
1 interior of the
is hot. This would be a useful
of energy - if we could get at it! People do make
Use of this geothermal energy wi
a shallow depth below the Eart
F208 This nuclear power station generates
¥: Its fuelis uranium. As the fuels used up, highly
HLewaste products are produced, These have to be
Fen Ne carefully to avoid harm tothe surroundings.
ts are being carried out to ensure thatthe level
“te materials near the power station s safe
Image P7.05 The giant Itaipu Dam on the Parané Riverin
South America generates electricity for Brazil and Paraguay. Wave energy, wind energy and so.on are not forms of ae
powe s uranium fuel to produce - shih :
P7.07 Explain whether the following energy s
sre P7.01 showe ost of the ene , uranium fuelled nuclear powe
use are fossil fu oil and gas. Ther b_ wave power.
reserves of these, so that, if we continue to use them,
non-renewables, 011° ust are gone for
5 of as wind, solar and biom P7.02 Energy from the Sun
ied a5 renewables, This is because, wh tof the energy we
ideal c 3p an ‘energy econom
ont s. Th ld not have to worry at * Radiation light and n the S
‘ource of ene phere eventually for Rain falls on high ground, and can then be trapped
behind a dam. Thisis the familiar water cycle. Without
energy from the Sun, there would beno water cycle and
much less hydroelectric power.
However, we make use of a small amount of
energy that does not come from sunlight. Here are
three examples
+ Asmall amount of hydroelectric power does not
depend on the Sun's energy. instead, it is generated
from the tides. The Moon and the Sun both contribute
tothe oceans’ tides (the Moon's effect is greater than
the Sun's). Their gravitational pull causes the level ofthe
ocean's surface to rise and fall every twelve-and-a-bit
hours, At high tide, water can be trapped behtind a dam,
Later, at lower tides, tcan be released to drive turbines
and generators. Because this depends on gravity,
and not the Sun's heat and light, we can rely on
tidal power even at night and when the Sun is hidden
by the clouds.
Nuclear power makes use of nuclear fuels ~
mostly uranium - mined from underground,
Uranium is a slightly radioactive element, which
hhas been in the ground ever since the Earth
formed, together with the rest of the solar system,
45 billion years ago, So uranium did not get its
energy from the Sun,
Geothermal energy also depends on the presence
Ofradioactive substances inside the Earth
These have been there since the Earth formed; they
have been continuously releasing their store of energy
er since
The source of the Sun’s energy
The Sun releases vast amounts of energy, but itis not
burning fuelin the same way as we have een forfossil |
fuels. The Sun consists largely of hydrogen, but there isno |
‘oxygen to burn ths gas. Instead, energy is released in the
Sun by the process of nuclear fusion. in nuclear fusion,
two energetic hydrogen atoms collide and fuse (join up) to
form an atom of helium.
Nuclear fusion requires very high temperatures and pressures,
‘The temperature inside the Sun is close to 15 millon degrees,
The pressure is also very high, so that hydrogen atoms are
forced very close together, allowing them to fuse.
Scientists and engineers would lke to be able to make
fusion happen in a similar way here on Earth. Experimental
reactors have been built, but itis very tricky to create the
Necessary conditions for fusion to happen in a controlled
way, Perhaps, one day, fusion wll prove a safe, clean way
of producing a reliable electricity supply
me
Do not confuse fission’ and usion’ itcan help to
emember that a fissure is where a rock has split in two.
P7.08 Name three energy resources forwhich
the original energy source is net radiation
from the Sun,
cot feat et ACE Cee MC Saud
End-of-chapter questions
1 Copy and compl tences ow, fil
wind Sun electricity resource non-renewable fossil fuels renewable
a Anenerg nyt r
b Most of the en se comes originall
2. Explain how the foll yor tl
a biomass fue d
b elect ; r
3 Inahydroelec 4 mn
>that i r >
b What form
© Write d two energy transforma 7
4 p and fusion a
aa d
bi
5 Electricity supplied b
b Suggest one uation < 5 s00d choi
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[Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 poper 23 03 November 20
Ta “erelsalisof some energy resources that nigh be used to generate lect
oil
hydroelectrcity
nuclear fission
wind
waves
st any ofthese that rely on a fuel being consumed, 2
b Hereis alist of devices that convert energy from one form to another
battery
electric motor
gaslamp
Bestire
generator
loudspeaker
microphone | |
Which of these is designed to convert;
i chemical energy into light energy I}
it electrical energy into mechanical |
AT sound energy into electrical energy? 8 |
{Combridge IGCSE Physics 0625 Paper 22 03 June 2010} —
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= P8: Work and power
Figure P8.02 Three examples of forces doing work. in each case, the force moves asit transfers energy.
Anapple falling from ate
downwards. Gravity.
ke. increases,
Gravity pulls the apple
ss work, and the apple's
Braking to stop a bicycle, The brakes produce a
Backward force of friction, which slows down the
bicycle. The friction does work, and reduces the
bicycle’ ke. Energy is transferred to the brakes,
lich get hot
much work?
kabout lifting a heavy object, as shown in
POL. Aheavy object needs a big force to lift
heavier the object is, and the higher itis lifed, the
its Bp.e. increases. This suggests that the
Bunt of energy transferred by a force depends on
things:
ize of the force - the greater the force, the more
Bikit does
Wistance moved in the direction of the force - the
itmoves, the more workit does.
force moving
rough a big distance does more
@ small force moving through a small distance.
in physics
Eo OW understand that ‘work’ is a word that has a
Meaning in physics, different from its meaning
He When physicists think about the dea of
Ik about forces moving,
If you are sitting thinking about your homework, =
are moving and you are doing no work, tis only when you
start to write that you are doing workin the physics sense
To make the ink flow from your pen, you must push against
the force of friction, and then you really are working.
Similarly, you are doing work {inthe sense of physics) when
you lift up this heavy book.
Ce
8.01 Which requires more work, lifting a 10kg sack of
coal or lting a 15kg bag of feathers?
8.02 Which force does work when a ball rolls down,
aslope?
Pg.02 Calculating work done
How can we calculate the work done by a force? Above,
\we saw that the work done depends on two things;
+ the size of the force F
+ the distance d moved by the force.
We can then write an equation for this, as shown,
Ql
‘work done by aforce = force» distance moved by the force in
‘the direction ofthe force
Were
45 (eens dee er a Cece GU eu)
m=1Nm.Soajouleisanewton-metre.
y, the joule (J) is def
‘i Thier hea
ne Cee
Acrane lifts a crate upwards through a height of '
20m. The lifting force provided by the craneis i a z
5.0KN, as shown in the diagram. How much work is. * t .
done by the force? How much energy is transferred the ¢ ic iC
|
| t -
f
step 1: virted a 2 E
u Figure P8.03 It is important to use the correct distance
crm
oe, | eee cha
aro erator
Pte
[step 2: Wri
cal
the vert Figure P8.04 When you sit still in a chair, there are two
forces acting on you. Neither transfers energy to you.
acting downwards, and the upward contact force C of the
har, which stops you from falling through the bottom of
the chair
Neither of these forces is doing any wor
you.
The reason is that neither of the forces is moving, so they
donot move through any distance d. Hence, from
W= Fx
