CREEP FEEDING LACTATING PIGLETS

Fernando R. Feuchter A.
UNIVERSIDAD AUTÓNOMA CHAPINGO
Centro Regional Universitario del Noroeste
[email protected]
W.WEBINARSAGROPECUARIOS.ORG

Objective: A review of the nutrition and growth of suckling baby pigs by providing
creep-feeding supplements to reduce piglet mortality and minimize post-weaning
syndrome

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES iv

LIST OF FIGURES vii

ABSTRACT viii

Introduction 1
Background Information 2
Rationale and Purpose 6
Piglet Colostrum and Milk Intake 7
Colostrum metabolism and fat accretion 10
Supplementing Baby Pigs 10
Feed Intake and Milk Production in Sows 11
Colostrum and Milk Composition 13
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Nutrient Requirements 22
Requirements for maintenance of energy 28
Cost of energy for protein and fat deposition 29
Amino acid requirements 30
Conclusion 31
Digestive Enzymes 31
Physiology 38
Potential Growth Performance in the Young Pig 40
Practical targets 46
Fostering 49
Feed Processing 52
Supplementation 55
Enzyme Additives 58
Feed Intake 60
Voluntary feed intake 64
Water treatment, organic and inorganic acids and disinfectants 65
Diseases 67
Mortality 70
Feedstuffs 74
Poultry 74
Spray Dried Plasma Protein (SDPP) 75
Milk 76
Proteins 77
Fat 78
Other feedstuffs 78
Mycotoxins and antinutritional factors 79
Classification of antinutritional factors 79
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Fermented, Predigested and Home-made Products 84

Home-made products 86
Sweeteners 88
Liquid Feeding 89
Summary 92
References 95
Recommended Reading and Web Sites 110
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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1. Effect of dietary energy intake on sow’s body weight, milk yield and
piglet growth during lactation 13

Table 1.2. The protein content of sow’s colostrum and mature milk 14

Table 1.3. Average composition (g/kg) of sow colostrum and milk 15

Table 1.4. Porcine colostrums, milk nitrogen, and amino acid composition 16

Table 1.5. Porcine colostrum and milk inorganic element composition (mg/L) 17

Table 1.6. Composition of mammalian milks at mid-lactation 17

Table 1.7. Chemical composition of sow colostrum and milk 19

Table 1.8. Fatty acids (%) in the fat of sow’s colostrum and milk 20

Table 1.9. The main components of sow’s colostrum and milk and their relative 22
contribution to gross energy

Table 1.10. Amino acid requirements for piglets of different age and weight (g/kg) 24

Table 1.11. Total lysine in the diet (grams) for each digestible energy (DEMJ). 24
Ratios (g/MJ) in the diets of growing pigs

Table 1.12. Total basis lysine requirements of different classes of weaned pig 25

Table 1.13. Typical inclusion rates of synthetic amino acids in starter feeds 25

Table 1.14. Summary of the estimated values for maintenance energy requirements 29
(MEm) and for efficiency of metabolizable energy intake for growth (k-g),
protein (k-p) and fat (k-f) deposition

Table 1.15. Estimation of total basis (%) dietary amino acids requirements of
growing pigs (1-20 kgBW) 31

Table 1.16. Development of pancreatic enzymes in fetal, preweaned, and post 32

weaned pigs

Table 1.17. Effect of age and weaning on pancreatic lipase activity 34

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Table 1.18. Postnatal development of digestive enzymes secreted into the lumen of 35
the gastrointestinal tract in pigs

Table 1.19. The effect of age of pig and weaning on enzyme activity 36
(μmol substrate hydrolyzed/minute)

Table 1.20. Relationship among bodyweight, body protein and body fat in the young 41
pig

Table 1.21. Changes in body composition of pigs during growth 41

Table 1.22. Chemical composition (%) of the empty body of pigs at birth, 15 lb, 42
50 lb, and 242 lb

Table 1.23. Mean growth of litters during the first week of lactation from 69 litters 42
adjusted to 11 piglets

Table 1.24. Relationship between birth weight and body weight at weaning at 27 days 47

Table 1.25. The effect of suckling treatment on sow live weight and backfat and on 48
litter growth rates during lactation

Table 1.26. Piglet weight average at 14 days of age in two categories for birth weight: 50
Fostered and non fostered piglets

Table 1.27. Post weaning performance of pigs weaned at 18 days of age in relation to 51
weaning weight

Table 1.28. Effect of different soybean products on immune response; absorption 54

(Xylose) and post-weaning growth rate in young pigs

Table 1.29. The effect of pig birth weight and milk replacer treatment on subsequent 58
pig growth

Table 1.30. Feed enzymes in use today 59

Table 1.31. Contribution of creep food to daily energy intake of the piglet during 61
lactation

Table 1.32. Piglets dry matter intake of cow’s whole milk supplement and growth 62
of piglets compared with the simple dry feed (control) diet while
suckling the sow from 7 to 28 days of age

Table 1.33. Measurements of creep food intake when weaning took place at 3 or 4 63
weeks of age (various studies)
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Table 1.34. Relationship of pig birth weight and survival 72

Table 1.35. Survival of light weight suckling pigs supplemented daily with liquid 72
sow milk replacer

Table 1.36. Preweaning mortality rates from published studies 73

Table 1.37. Piglet mortality levels in herds averaging over 11 pigs born alive per litter 73

Table 1.38. Protein content of raw materials commonly used in starter diets 81

Table 1.39. The difference between USA (Kansas State University) and UK (United 82
Kingdom) commercial weaner feeds (g/kg diet)

Table 1.40. Suggested diet composition characteristics of a three-phase starter 83

program

Table 1.41. The different components of milk fractions 83

Table 1.42. The amino acid composition of porcine and bovine casein 84

Table 1.43. Intakes and growth rates of weaned piglets on a conventional dry or 89
automated wet feeding system

Table 1.44. Target range of pigs weaned/litter 90

Table 1.45. Target range for piglet growth rate; add + 1.3 kg from birth weight 90

Table 1.46. Value of piglet growth rate 91

Table 1.47. A random review in the Journal of Animal Sciences for the years 91
2003-2002 reported weaned weight for the selected piglets in different
trials
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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1. The relative amounts of four pancreatic enzymes in pancreatic tissue 37
in pigs from 0 to 56 days of age: (a) trypsin, (b) chymotrypsin, (c) amylase,
and (d) lipase. The height of each column represents the increment in total
enzyme content of the pancreas per unit bodyweight as a function of that in
unsuckled pigs at birth (taken as 1.0).

Figure 1.2. Quadratic lines representing the enzymatic activity of the neonatal piglet 38
during lactation and weaning time

Figure 1.3. The development of variation in piglet weights. The panels show 43
successive weeks after birth for piglets from 50 litters weaned at 5 weeks.
Within a panel, each pint represents one piglet, with its gain during the week
expressed as a percentage of its bodyweight at the beginning of the week.
For example, most piglets began the first week at a bodyweight of 1-2 kg
and gained 0-150% of this initial weight during the week. By the later weeks,
weight gains became an increasingly uniform percentage of body weight,
so that the gap between large and small piglets continued to increase.

Figure 1.4. Pattern of growth rate of piglets during the suckling and weaning phases. 44
Data of the suckling phase (◻) (265 piglets from 23 litters weighed daily).
Weaning phase data are from different authors, each symbol represent a
single report.
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ABSTRACT

This compiled project on the nutrition and growth of the suckling piglet provides
up-to-date information for the promotion, effects and consequences of using creep-feeding
methods and feedstuff ingredients. Although creep-feeding provides a small additional body
weight gain 2 lb in lactation and a 4 lb weight gain in the nursery, these weight improvements
make an economic difference in posterior growing stages, in the productive efficiency at
market time, and providing a faster cash flow as well as global revenue for the swine
enterprise.
There is no substitute for best stockmanship techniques applied in any pork
production facility. Genetics or nutrition will not resolve problems by themselves to ensure
profitability. The use of creep-feeding is an existing management tool to improve productive
parameters that does not have a recipe to follow. Thus, it can be frustrating and labor
consuming if one has to provide fresh creep feeding 16 times a day, to simulate the needs of
newborn piglets. The early supplementation of sow’s milk is not a substitute of colostrum or
suckling milk intake, however, it will have a better response in warm weather conditions. The
feed ingredients can be a costly experience if they are not justified or used appropriately in
the rearing process to enable pigs to reach market weight. A milk substitute can cost $490.00
per ton, whereas a standard weaning diet may cost $200.00 per ton. There is a linear increase
in feed intake depending on pig’s age that is correlated to a pig’s body weight with
consumption of dry feed from 0.05 lb/pig/day in early lactation up to 0.60 lb/pig/day before
weaning at 28 days of age. Feed consumption digestible energy DE intake kcal/day is
improved 30% if creep-feed is offered in liquid form. If liquid cow’s milk is served to
suckling pigs, supplemental intakes at one day after delivery begins with 0.4
gallons/litter/day to 2.4 gallons/litter/day at 21-28 days old in litters with 10 piglets.
The objectives of a creep-feeding systems are to provide better management practices
for all the pigs in the litter but, in particular, to piglets with a 20% lighter birth-weight (<3.0
lb) that have poor growth rates and high mortality rates. It is recommended to narrow the
weight variation at weaning time 10.0 to 25.0 lb body weight after 21 days of lactation and to
carry this weight advantage all the way to the market >245 lb by reducing feeding time for 5
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to 25 days, thus improving feed efficiency. The neonatal piglets that receive creep-feeding
may improve feed efficiency in the grow-finish stage, achieve early market weight and be
leaner at slaughter time. If these goals are achieved, environmental concerns for mineral (P,
N, S), odors, and gas pollutants should be included as additional contributions in the
creep-feeding system and result in the receipt of a slaughter-house prize for leaner carcasses.
There are intrinsic benefits involved in creep-feeding developed techniques for
suckling piglets as the result of increased dry matter digestible energy (DE) feed
consumption in the transition from suckling ingesta-liquid feeding-slurry-dry feed to weaning
time. The early 2-day-old piglet in a liquid-slurry training process for feed consumption
maintains intestinal health (villous width and crypt depths), preparing it for a weaning diet
while reducing growth check (no feed consumption and lose body weight) after weaning,
improving growth rate during the first week after weaning, and providing a three phase
feeding preparing the pig to early accept simple diets made of cereal and soybean meal.
There are multiple feedstuffs and homemade products that can be included in
creep-feeding systems in the same way as preparing food for a human infant 4 months of age.
This is why feeding a suckling piglet is more of an art than a science—to balance nutrient
requirements. The products from the animal slaughter industry (beef, calf, broiler, layer,
pork), dairy factories, egg hatcheries and liquid processing, fisheries, oilseed extraction,
starch, flour, fermentation, snacks and other industries could be used as components of the
creep-feeding diet or as a single supplement. The main contribution of these supplements is
to provide more nutrients for growth and survivility (energy, protein, vitamins, minerals) or
to complements sow’s milk deficiencies in amino acids (arginine, valine, tryptophan, lysine,
methionine, theronine). However, the selected ingredients should be palatable, digestible,
stimulate feed consumption, and be provided in a nearly sterile material to reduce scours,
minimize digestive disorders, avoid stomach ulcers, control pathologic diseases, or to
stimulate colonization of beneficial digestive bacteria (bacterioides, streptococci,
lactobacillus), reduce population growth in the intestinal epithelium with bacteria
(anaerovibrio, selenomonas, Escherichia coli), clean of toxins and mycotoxins, without
allergens or antigens and antinutritional factors free. These feed characteristics are more
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important than meeting the nutrient requirements of any recommended nutrition table for
suckling piglets for maximum growth.
A piglet’s genetic growth potential during 21 days of lactation can be 1.3 lb per day
but this desired goal is often impaired by many external factors. Creep-feeding helps to
overcome or reduce the negative effect of these growth inhibitors. The sow’s metabolic
capacity enables production of 50.6 lb of milk per day, but environmental stressors, severe
hormonal changes after delivery, reproductive organ reestablishment, lack of appetite or pour
nutrition, could reduce her milk yield potential to 10 lb of milk per day or result in agalactia
(MMA). Any one genetic breed does not accomplish all the productive characteristics for
litter size, survivality, milk production, longevity, birth weight, etc. Variation will be present
in all the herds and normal distribution of the birth weight of the piglets requires special
attention for the underweight group.
The objective of this creative component research was to provide a usable document
to serve pork producers, swine managers and nutritionist in decision-making for rearing
suckling piglets, thus providing the animals with a better transition system to weaning results
in improved profitability. This research reviewed current literature (books and journal
publications) that incorporate the best scientific principles applied in the supplementation of
suckling piglets to enhance weaning weight. Thus, this research was concerned with
disseminating practical methods that can be applied to all kinds and sizes of hog production
systems. The knowledge and tools provided in this document may help the people involved
in the pork production industry to select rearing methods and ingredients to prepare diets for
suckling piglets.
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Introduction
This research project involves a literature review of different topics related to the
nutrition and growth of the suckling piglet. The nutritional analysis of feeds and feeding
methods at this early age is not an innovative idea, however, research reports have not been
compiled in the USA. British and Australian swine nutrition researchers have published a
majority of the research related to trials using supplements containing highly digestible
proteins for suckling pigs, and they have identified metabolic and physiological factors that
contribute to the survival and growth of the nursing piglet from birth to weaning. Most of the
byproducts used for baby pigs are regionalized. For example, USA nutritionists use plasma
proteins. On the other hand, nutritionists in the United Kingdom prefer cooked cereals and
skimmed milk powders, and most countries in Europe use whey proteins and fishmeal. Other
countries worldwide tend to use imported goods or soybean meal and fishmeal. The
important consideration is that pork producers attempt to select the best feedstuffs and apply
them in economical quantities to advance the science of feeding and providing for the
well-being of baby pigs.
This article attempts to incorporate the best scientific principles applying selected
published results for supplementing suckling piglets to enhance weaning weight, and
disseminate practical methods that can be applied to all kinds and sizes of hog production
systems. Experienced nutritionists are the primary researchers who have extrapolated nutrient
requirements from weaning starting diets to the less mature digestive system of the suckling
piglet, thus their recommendations are not over imposed in this paper. An understanding of
this complex phase requires knowledge in multiple fields such as agronomy, swine nutrition,
stockmanship, farm management, veterinary medicine, feed industrial processing, storage,
physiology, biochemistry, and other disciplines related to the pork industry. The information
in this article is geared toward helping pork producers and swine nutritionists resolve some of
the issues related to using sow milk supplements or milk substitutes, such as potential feeds
available in the marketplace as well as home made food for neonatal piglets. Some of these
products may still be under development and test screening. These feedstuffs are introduced
in the following pages. In this global economic era, it is important to recognize other feeding
methods and feed manipulation that may enhance the well being and development of the
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animal during the pre-weaning and post-weaning stages as important and critical periods in
the development of the pig. This paper is an effort to elucidate practical ideas and feed
resources for the hog farm system and specifically address the needs of the neonatal piglet
before weaning. This article may contribute to the adoption of new technology and provide
information for nutritionists for accurate decision making of the best supplements and diets
available in the market or under development for further years to come.
The Journal of Animal Science contains extensive published results that are useful for
pig nursery systems. This Journal contains most of the related publications from U.S.
researchers in monogastric nutrition, yet many articles are from abroad. This compiled
information may assist those involved in swine-related fields by providing nutrient densities
of rations in the post-weaning phase to meet pre-weaning nutrient requirements of the piglet.
There is a paucity of objective data available in a compiled format to help producers
decide whether an expensive feedstuff is a good nutritional source to improve the welfare of
the piglet and sow. There are many external factors involved in the successful use of a
particular feed that are not dependent upon the feed itself, nevertheless it is important to
know such factors as palatability and digestibility to enhance feed consumption. This
research will provide a giant step toward presenting the best alternative choices.
In summary, the scientific knowledge of nutrition using the art of feeds and feeding
experiences may contribute to the physiological development and growth rates of the neonate
pig. It may reduce morbidity and mortality at this early age of the life cycle of the pig,
especially having low birth weights of less than two pounds, yet have good viability to reach
market weight. The overall supplementation to the piglets’ diet may ultimately improve
reproductive performance of the sow, to reach better efficiency and performance goals in the
productive system, and the pig to reach market weight efficiently, which contribute to the
overall revenue of the farm. The ultimate decision for the pork producer is to be competitive
at home and in the global market.

Background Information
Supplementing a suckling pig during the lactation period (before weaning) was a
common husbandry practice during the early 1970s. The lactation period lasted for 42 to 56
days wherein the sow did not have enough milk production and sufficient body reserves to
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sustain the fast growing demand of her piglets. During this time newborn piglets may have
had vitamin deficiencies for choline, folic acid and complex B vitamins, and sows did not
have all full functional milking teats at the end of the lactation period. It was common to
observe dams with broken legs when being relocated from farrowing pens at weaning time
because of calcium and phosphorous depletion from their bone reserves. Some premixes with
vitamins and minerals were not as complete as necessary for the nutritional requirements for
these rotational crossed breeders (e.g., Yorkshire, Landrace, Duroc, Hampshire). Managers of
confinement hog farms noticed at weaning time, exhausted sows and gilts with depletion of
muscle and fat tissues caused by the extended lactation period. During these years, the
practice of providing an extended lactation period generated several research studies and
publications to alleviate this lag in the production system. However, many studies did not
lead to improved practice in the field. The need was identified well by nutritionists and
stockpersons, but the feed industry did not provide enough available feedstuffs with good
quality and digestible byproducts for suckling piglets, thus it was a great restriction for the
implementation and establishment of creep feeding management practices in the first
confinement hog barns during these years.
In the 1980s, the hog industry turned to rapid growth and use of vegetable byproducts
from the oil seed industry, confinement of modern facilities, breed improvement and
selection, and intensive production systems that generated a more skillful, technically and
scientific way of rearing animals. It was a matter of economic efficiency and space turnover
more than the old ways of pork production. The industry changed with the development of
rearing and feeding techniques for Specific Pathogen Free (SPF), Minimum Disease (MD),
Segregated Early Weaning SEW), Medicated Early Weaning (MEW) and other piglet rearing
methods. During this time piglet nutrition research practices focused on feeding methods for
post weaning pigs but not on creep feeding or use of other supplementation practices for
lactating piglet.
Lactation periods lasted for up to 35 days in the 1980s. The search for the best
lactation length was not defined, therefore tests were carried out for 0, 7, 10, 14, 18, 21, 28
and 35 lactating days to determine the best economical profit and practical management. The
irregular availability and quality of sow’s milk substitutes and competitive prices from
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suppliers were important factors for the slow adoption of providing creep feed supplements
for suckling piglets. The general thought on farms was that there was not enough time for
supplementing suckling piglets. The hog unit manager (integrated system) already had in
mind that he had the best selected milking mother and had prepared the ideal environmental
conditions to receive the fastest growing animal. In addition, after some fostering practices, it
was perceived that the piglets could grow faster later on during the nursery facility and obtain
a compensating growth factor. There was no need for an early rush if the animal could catch
up in weight later, in the finishing stage.
With a short lactation lapse, modern facilities were looking for better weaned pig
starting diets, feed particle size, pellet presentation and extrusion, use of growth promoters,
including artificial amino acids to meet nutritional requirements, more liable vitamins and
digestible mineral sources, and testing probiotics. Other external aspects of the nutrition
system were related to the management of the feed, focused on how to reduce transportation
feed segregation and minimizing storage spoilage or mycotoxin growth. Other investment
projects were the modernization of the farm for environmental controlled farrow and nursery
barns, replacement of crates and pen designs, use of computerized software, genetic selection
of new breeders, artificial insemination programs, boar centers, sanitation and health controls
methods, disease eradication, and meat quality control to supply market demands. These
changes transformed and shaped modern pork production farming.
New technological pig farms were changing rapidly but little attention was paid to
methods of supplementation of the suckling piglet and appropriate feedstuffs for this early
age. During this time, improving this obsolete practice was not considered because it
represented an increase in labor demands and a tremendous risk for other diseases and
diarrhea. There were too many other demands inside and outside of the production site, than
considering the care of the youngest pigs. Pork producer had genetic support from their
selected sows to provide enough milk for piglets, a good mothering instinct, resilience to
reduce crushing, and excellent farrowing rates.
During the 1990s, the agro-industry improved the quality of many feedstuffs already
existing in the market and developed new byproducts that had great potential in both human
food and the feed animal industry. At this time the pork industry moved from family
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production farms to large corporate production facilities. This changed the decision making
of many activities in the farm, with large purchasing capacities and computer economic
analysis rather than a direct stockperson involved in daily decision making. There were two
types of farms, those that maintained short lactations periods of 10-19 days with improved
growth rates of weaned pigs and farms with longer lactation periods of 21-28 days that had
better reproductive performances and slow growth rates in piglets.
However, both productive systems involved determining the best economic methods
for profitability in this competitive market. Genetic selection for large litter size and short
lactation periods did not resolved the litter size at weaning and the low numbers entirely
continued to the nursery stages with all the disadvantages of a physiologically immature
early weaned piglet. The profitability of the farm did not improve greatly with the advent of
new breeds and early weaning practices. The number of pigs per sow per year did not
increase considerably and All-In-All-Out systems for early weaning did not work as
predicted. During this time, decision making focused on gross important aspects rather than
details. The final days of this period fixed lactation length between 18-24 days which
represented small lactation weight gains for this growing stage compared with the genetic
potential of the lean pig.
During the early 21st century the pig market depends more on international demand
and world market competition. However, large production systems have been restricted in
many countries due to environmental policies and regulations. The trend toward more natural
pig behavior has been appeased by new regulations for space allowances in the United
Kingdom, antibiotic feed additives restrictions in Sweden, and cage farrowing facilities in the
state of Florida USA. These factors have started to change the outlook of the pig industry
worldwide toward more sustainable methods to produce meat products. Nowadays, to be
competitive and profitable with high quality products, the pork industry must use all the
available factors to reach its goals while avoiding misuse of the technological opportunities
on hand. Several general factors influence the production of pork meat: nutrition, husbandry,
management, housing, personnel training, genetics and marketing. All of the factors
contribute toward reaching one goal: to produce the best quality meat with economic
efficiency, while being politically acceptable and environmentally friendly.
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Rationale and Purpose

Irregardless of the biological or economic importance of any stage in the life cycle of
the pig, the suckling period is the shortest of all the productive stages. However, it may be
the ignition step for the following growing periods and the definition of the muscular cell
numbers that influence growth rate and, later on, the reproductive performance and quality of
the selected gilt. Thus, the importance of applying analysis of the nutritional supplements for
suckling piglets and using the best management practices for feed enable farms to reach their
desired economic goals.
Despite numerous available publications with remarkable scientific efforts explaining
the importance of metabolic nutrients for the pre weaning pig, their applied level may be far
from reality. Research results should not only be for the sake of new knowledge or to
understand the stimulus of the feed to the genes’ actions or how an element affects the
mitochondria of the cell. The technology in this area is advanced but to explain the effect of
50 nutrient components in the feedstuff in 30 thousand different genes in the body of a pig, it
is a very large matrix that does not have an end. This is a process of two routes, one for
scientific basic knowledge and other way for applied pork industry needs. For practical
reasons, it is more important to identify the advantages and disadvantages of viable feedstuffs
converging nutritional requirements for creep feeding (highly palatable and digestible diet
during suckling) as supplements for the lactating piglet during its short neonatal period.
“Science should be as simple as possible but not simpler,” according to Albert Einstein.
The comparative nutritional analysis values of supplements to sow’s milk substitutes
for the survival and growth performance of the suckling pig have their own limitations. Dry
creep feeding and liquid feed have different feed consumption rates, thus underestimation or
overestimation of nutritional requirements established for this early age during lactation is
present in these analyses which have not been appropriately defined. The National Research
Council (NRC 1998) Nutrient Requirements of Swine reported values for 1-5 kg body weight
(BW) piglet (104). A dry feed diet with high levels of protein may increment the severity of
diarrhea but, under low consumption, increased dry matter intake. A high protein diet
enhances immunoglobulin synthesis and reduces the need of a second reinforcement Iron
shot. The amino acid composition of the ideal protein is yet to be determined and may be
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related to only a few essential amino acids. This may reduce the protein content of the diet
and reduce scours problems.
Only a few research articles report the digestibility of raw feed materials for neonatal
pigs. In addition, there are a few Extension bulletins for nutrient requirements of baby pigs,
such as the ISU cycle of the pig (176). This is another reason why the feeding practice of
creep feeding has not been adopted in the general production system. However, there is
technical and scientific evidence that it should be a common management practice in farms
worldwide, irregardless of their size, geographic site, and technological development of the
production systems.
The main purpose of this paper is to provide an overview topic of the suckling piglet
nutrition presenting the most relevant and recent published information on baby pig creep
feeding and supplementation. There is a shortage of practical information, thus the primary
objective of the study is to provide a review of the information currently available for the
swine nutritionist, stockperson, manager, and the pork producer, internationally, on the
methods of feeds and feeding of the suckling piglet. This may contribute to enhance the
decision-making ability in farms. The research will also enable those involved in the pork
industry to evaluate the importance of current practices and apply the available techniques
within current established management programs.

Piglet Colostrum and Milk Intake

Unlike other ungulates, the sow does not lick its newly born piglets or offer them
assistance in finding the udders. Some sows will stand several times and sniff their piglets
during farrowing (26). This behavior increases the chances for overlaid piglets and, by
genetic selection, they may overcome this genetic trait, especially as some breeds have better
maternal characteristics than others. The reduction of feed intake 3 days before farrowing
induces glucogenesis from fat tissue and stimulates feed intake after delivery.
After birth the piglet will try to find the udder and suck on a teat a soon as possible
(<30 minutes), and typically will move along sucking several other different nipples in
succession, from 2-13 teats in the first 8 hours (20). These are general considerations that
prevail during the first hours of lactation. Competition at the udder affects mortality in
smaller piglets of the litter and results in poor growth for many of the survivors. Cross
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fostering is necessary only when the piglets exceed the number of teats. Split-weaning (SW)
is used to achieve a more uniform litter but it does not improve physical conditions for
weaning.
The termination of colostrum synthesis occurs 1 hour after the sow releases the
placenta, with colostrum ejection every 10-20 minutes. Piglets often consume 5-7% of their
body weight in colostrum in the first hour of suckling. The suckling range is 20-92 minutes
throughout the day and night, but there is a daylight behavior pattern for most farrowings. An
estimation of colostrum and milk intake for the first 2 hours after birth is about 113 grams
with consumption of 10-60 g of colostrum per suckling (19). The first day the piglet
consumes 280 g/kg body weight (BW)/day of colostrum, but is physically able to consume
from 290 to 490 grams per day (2).
When the piglet has sucked all the colostrum from the teat an autocrine mechanism
and the withdrawal of progesterone will release synthesis and secretion of milk which
reduces the secretion of colostrum. This ensures that, with an extended farrowing period, the
last-born piglet obtains colostrum of the same composition and protective capacity as the
first-born. The milk ejection reflex of the sow is under tight control, with milk only available
to the piglets during a “let-down”, which lasts for about 15-20 seconds per lactation. This
control, primarily as a result of oxytocin release, ensures that a dominant piglet does not
deprive others of milk. This process maximizes the survival of feral pigs and may be
applicable to domestic pigs but not for cows. However, this strategy limits the amount of
milk that can be removed by the piglets during suckling, and also limits milk consumption
and growth (94).
If 7-day-old piglets ingest 100, 200 or 300 g of milk intake/kg BW/day their whole
body protein synthesis will be 10.7, 16.9 and 20.9 g/d/BW0.75, respectively, and their protein
deposition will be 4.5, 14.6 and 19.7 g/d/BW0.75 (82). The more milk consumed, the better the
growth rate. Litters of 4 piglets that suckled 1 kg of sow’s milk/pig/day, and milk
consumption were 0.7 kg/pig/day in litters of 12 piglets. A litter of 6 pigs may consume 1.3
kg/pig/day, and 0.90 kg/pig/day in litters of 14 (97). There is evidence of piglets consuming
460 g/kg BW in the first 27 hours of life; a sow with a litter of 10 pigs must start producing >
6.4 kg/day of colostum. During the second half of the suckling period, after 7 days of
 9

farrowing, the demand is 800-1100 grams of milk/pig/day and at 21 days after birth (at
weaning time) the sow’s lactation curve should reach > 20 kg milk/day to supply the energy
requirements of 10 pigs per litter (2). A large litter size of >10 pigs will ingest about 10-12
kg of milk per day (97). After the peak of lactation and a plateau period, the milk production
slope will eventually decrease even in sows with the highest feed consumption rates (155).
The suckling pig depends on its mother’s milk production for growth and to express
its genetic growth potential. If the sow does not achieve genetic milk yield potential either
the heaviest piglets in the litter that choose the most productive teats from the dam will reach
potential growth. The stronger piglets will retain more teats at the expense of the smaller
pigs, and there are many physiological, behavioral and external conditions that will affect
complete genetic milk production capacity (167).
Piglets that select the best teats before 3 days of age will remain more dependent on
milk and less interested in solid feed (12). In general, a piglet of this age will partition feed
nutrients into adipose tissue instead of the more desired economical lean protein muscle
accretion; most of the increased protein weight will be on the accelerated growth of the
digestive organs. The ingestion of colostrum after birth for 36 hours greatly stimulates
growth of all gastrointestinal organs and particularly the small intestine. The leaner Pietrain
breeds require more concentrated feed to grow to their genetic potential because their smaller
intestinal size reduces its gut capacity to consume feeds. For leaner breeds in general, this
early intestinal growth follows a genetic pattern for survivability but it is not a genetic trait
that will influence its final lean to fat market ratio.
The gene expression of this early age is not a determinant of the final quality of the
end product for meat or reproductive replacement. Appetite and thirst will be satisfied by the
sow’s milk production but, in many circumstances, the environmental conditions will not
enable them to reach their dam’s milk potential. The desired piglet goal to reach their genetic
growth capacity will not be expressed after birth due to the low energy level concentration of
the milk colostrum and the small milk production at the beginning of the suckling stimulus.
In other instances, the sow may be a great milk producer and, if she had farrowed a small
litter, the piglet will be constrained by the limitations of its gut capacity and suckling ability.
Many internal and external factors are involved in less expression of their genetic potential
 10

for the maximum milk production, maximum milk suckling capacity, and maximum growth
and survivability (169).

Colostrum metabolism and fat accretion

After suckling, the piglet increases glucose and galactose levels in the plasma from
gluconeogenesis of fat-glycerol, lactose, and small contributions of amino acids (62). The
levels of lipase from the pancreas are low, but colostrum fat is very digestible because milk
provides adequate amounts of carnitine, a substrate required for fat transduction. This enables
the liver to oxidize fatty acids. While the new born piglet is very lean and possesses only 10
to 20 g/kg body weight as fat, it increases to 150 to 200 g/kg body fat by 18-21 days of age
(62, 66). The body energy reserves are less than 2% body fat content and total body glycogen
stores (liver and skeletal muscle) are < 38 g/kg BW. Liver glycogenolysis is active and can
utilize 70% of the available glycogen immediately after birth to release blood requirements
for glucose. Glucose utilization in neonate piglets is 10g/kg/day (62). Body fat reserves are
mobilized at a lower rate and both will be depleted in 24h if the piglet does not consume
colostrum. The newborn piglet requires > 14 g/kg BW/d of glucose that must be supplied:
20% from body glycogen, 35% from milk lactose, and 55% from milk fat (16).

Supplementing Baby Pigs

A 20-day-old piglet with 4-5 kg body weight can suck 345 g of milk/day/kg BW in
natural milking and when fed in a bottle can consume 490 g of milk/day/kg BW. Piglets
consume 24% more feed in artificial rearing at days 4 to 28 of age and had growth rates 30%
higher than only sow-milked pigs (41). This may be a combined factor in a sow’s low milk
capacity or lack of a piglet’s strength to suck. Creep feeding may be beneficial for small
piglets or litters with low milk producing sows if the milk replacer is also supplemented after
weaning (82). Supplementing the same creep feed after weaning ensures feed consumption
for palatability, enzymatic adaptation for the substrate already developing, and reduces
post-weaning syndrome and lag stress.
The heaviest pig may consume more than 100 ml of colostrum in the first hour of life
whereas the smallest may not ingest colostrum at all. The oral supplementation of the smaller
piglets with cow’s colostrum or spray dried blood with immunoglobulin 3 days after birth
 11

does not have consistent results; the endocyte closure time of the intestine was not considered
in these studies (61). The intestine pinocytosis action has the capacity to absorb colostrum
antibodies before intestinal closure at 18 to 36 h of life. Enterocyte cell maturation is
completed at 19 days of age, and these mature cells are more capable for digestion (156).
Newborn pigs that have fasted respond to an intra-gastric administration of fat, which
increases their gluconeogenesis levels and synthesis of glucose (62). This can be a measure
to reduce starvation of the neonates.

Feed Intake and Milk Production in Sows

The sow has physical limitations to consume large amounts of feed per day in order
to produce more milk. On the contrary the dam is capable of digesting large amounts of feed
concentrate, increasing the ingestion of dry matter and protein per day. The sow has the
metabolic potential to synthesize 23 kg of milk per day (175). This metabolic potential is
impaired by hormonal changes after parturition, the process of uterus involution and protein
accretion to regenerate reproductive tissue and low piglet stimulation level at suckling the
udder for time expended in fighting, resting or weakness. Transgenic gilts with bovine
α-lactalbumin production may increase milk production but time will reveal further results
(115). The nutrient content in 7 kg of lactation feed can synthesize 10 kg of milk and this
conversion factor produces a shortage of milk supply (41). The lactating sow may need more
concentrated diet than the NRC 1998 specifications. Litters of 12 piglets could increase 50.7
kilos of body weight gain in 20 days if the sows are producing milk of 2.9-3.7% protein
content. After farrowing, the sows should be fed three times a day and gradually increase
feed portions at the rate of feed acceptance and intake. A daily feed rate of controlled
quantities will reduce feed spoilage and the likelihood of constipation. This digestive
disorder requires higher levels of manganese or other laxative salt or fibrous feed to alleviate
this symptom.
Only for high milking sows and large litters (10 piglets), supplementing the sows’
diet with fat, lysine and valine will produce more milk and a positive effect on the weaned
weight per litter (95, 125). Excess of valine in the udder cells will be metabolized for energy
but will not spare other energy source. Under other conditions increments of the valine
content of the lactation feed would not have positive response (155). Sows during 21 days
 12

lactating period who received 5.85 kg diet/day with increased valine levels to 1.20% while
maintaining the other amino acid levels recommended by the NRC, produced litters with 3
more kilos of weaning weight (61.6 vs. 65.0 kg/litter). The valine content was metabolized in
the mammary gland to produce energy in the udder that increased milk urea N (122).
The number of piglets in a litter is determinant for the physiological udder stimulus
for milk production level. For 3-4 pigs/litters the expected milk yield would be 4 kg/day. For
litters with 5, 6, and 7 pigs, the milk production per litter increases to 5 kg/d. Sows lactating
8,9,10 or 11 piglets produce 8.3 kg of milk/day, whereas for litters with 12 and 13 pigs the
sow will produce 9.8 kg of milk per day (126, 134).

Equations for estimating milk production from various authors are as follows:
Milk Yield production = 0.581 Litter Size + 1.81.
MY= 0.796 LS + 2.
MY= 0.689 LS + 5.98. (41, 97).
Another model to predict milk yield production is:
Milk (kg) = (2.50 X ADG) + (80.2 X piglet BW) + 7. Where Y=0.9468x + 0.3888 with a R 2=0.8959 for the
prediction line and a Y=0.9848x with and R 2+0.8944 from the observed data (124).
The determination of milk production to estimate nutrient requirements of lactating sows is
represented by the following equation (25):
DM= 0.60 X ADG + 31.7 Eg – 62
E = 4.09 X ADG + 230 Eg – 485
N = 0.027 X ADG + 1.12 Ng – 2.59 ; Where:
Dry Matter (DM) and Nitrogen (N) are in grams/piglet/day;
Energy (E) in kcal/piglet/day;
Average Daily Gain (ADG) in grams/piglet;
Energy in Piglet Weight Gain (Eg) in kcal/gram; and
Nitrogen in Piglet Weight Gain (Ng) in %.

These prediction equations are over 12 liters of milk/day. This is a high metabolic
response of the sow because during lactation the animal loses more than 23 kilos of live
weight and 8.8 mm back fat over 28 days of lactation, even when consuming more than 5
kilos of feed per day (97). Increasing feed consumption during lactation maintains sow
condition scores and increases milk production and piglet growth rate (Table 1.1) (101).
There are different contradictive published results for the curve of lactation in sows
that are presented to compare these reports. The peak of lactation is at 10-14 days after
farrowing, and it is only sufficient for pigs to attain about 50% of their growth potential (54).
Other authors noted that the peak of a sow’s milk production is at 14 to 21 days post
 13

Table 1.1. Effect of dietary energy intake on sow’s body weight, milk yield and piglet
growth during lactation (101)

Dietary energy intake (MJ DE/d)

38.00 46.90 56.00 62.10 69.10 77.90
Back fat loss (mm) 9.8 7.7 7.1 8.1 5.8 6.5
Live-weight loss (kg) 30.9 24.0 17.5 18.8 12.0 5.0
Piglet growth (g/d) 215 227 237 254 249 267
Milk yield (kg/d) 9.18 8.91 9.80 10.25 9.95 11.45
N metabolism (g/d)
Milk 83.7 81.9 78.3 90.8 86.5 102.9
Balance -25.4 -14.3 4.5 7.8 19.3 21.7

farrowing (99). There are genotypic differences among dams and the speed growth rate of a
litter pig’s demand for more milk (155). The growth rate of suckling baby pigs is reduced
after 8 days on lactation (117). This indicates a shortage in milk production to respond to the
growth rate of a fast growing pig.
Under different circumstances based on breed, nutrition, environment and
management, lactation is at its maximum at 3 to 4 weeks (94). Then milk production sharply
declines at about 30 days after delivery (51). There are differences in the peak length of
maximum milk production, but all agree on a quadratic curve of increase, a plateau phase and
posterior reduction yields of milk production.
Feeding the sow during gestation with extra feed or fat had disappointing results. It
did not increase body energy storage in fetal and newborn pigs. The transportation of fatty
acids across the placenta was negligible (62). In the occurrence of a positive response after
delivery, the milk produced by the sow had more fat content which spared some glycogen in
the blood of the piglet and somehow resulted in a more viable neonate pig (19). However,
feeding gestating sows with 1, 3 butanediol increased glycogen activity in the liver of the
fetus but increased only small amounts of fetal fat reserve (62).

Colostrum and Milk Composition

The release of immunoglobulins (IgG1, IgG2, IgM, IgA) provide antibody protection
for the newborn piglet. Other proteins that function as antibodies, cellular elements such as
polymorphs and low proportion of macrophages and g-globulins in the milk colostrums also
 14

have protective effect. The sow’s milk has higher levels for IgG1 than the other
immunoglobulin factors (Table 1.2). There is experimental evidence that stressed sows
during gestation do not reduce IgG concentration in the milk. The fetal piglet may receive
maternal stress hormones as a flux of corticotrophin (ACTH) causing a reduction in the
permeability of the neonatal gut to antibodies. This impairs humoral and cellular immune
functions in the suckling pig. The neonates develop their own immunoglobulin synthesis of
(IgD and IgE) at an earlier time if colostrum has fewer protective antibodies or if they are
passively transmitted in a low rate (139). The antibodies are gamma shaped protein
molecules produced in β cells as a primary immune defense. During this adjusting period the
piglet is more exposed to diseases while developing synthesis of the immune system. This
physiological process increases the risk of diseases. The suckling pig begins synthesizing
IgG from 7 days of age but this amount is correlated with the amount absorbed from
colostrum (148).

Table 1.2. The protein content of sow’s colostrum and mature milk (22)

Colostrum1 Mature milk2

Total protein (g/100 g milk) 15.14 5.47
Casein (g/100 g milk) 1.48 2.74
Whey (g/100 g milk) 14.75 2.22
Serum albumin (mg/ml milk) 15.79 4.61
IgG 95.60 0.90
IgA 21.20 5.30
IgM 9.10 1.40
Lactoferrin (mg/ml milk) 1,200 <100
1
Taken immediately postpartum.
2
Classified as milk samples collected between 14 and 21 days postpartum.

These groups of ingested immunoglobulin proteins are absorbed intact and not
digested, enhanced by the presence of protease inhibitors already present in colostrum (149).
The levels of these maternally derived antibodies are highest at day 1 post-farrowing and
then decline to very low levels by the time the pig reaches 3 weeks of age but they will be
followed by a transient production of milk immunoglobulin IgA to maintain protection (8).
 15

Sow milk composition changes with the stage of lactation and feed manipulation
(155). Total solids, protein, minerals, fat and lactose content result in considerable change but
the amino acid build up of the protein will be more stable (Table 1.3 and 1.4).
The presence of free amino acid in milk composition results in a more digestible and
efficiently absorbed product (Table 1.5). In whole milk, amino acids found in abundance in
whey proteins are cystine, glycine, and threonine which are less digestible than proteins from
casein as glutamic acid, proline, and methionine (118). Thus the CP factor 6.38 for nitrogen.
Porcine colostrum may contain 151 g/kg of protein and is lower in ash content, which
is the opposite of that found in many other species (Table 1.6). The liquid form of milk limits
protein concentration and its quantity is not a major factor for survival (62). Amino acids
participate more on the metabolic energy requirements of the suckling piglet rather than on
protein accretion, which is a controversial economic situation when supplementing piglets.

Table 1.3. Average composition (g/kg) of sow colostrum and milk (8, 118)

Variable Colostrum Milk

Dry matter 215 187
Crude protein (N X 6.38) 105 54
Fat 54 71
Lactose 38 54
Gross energy (MJ/kg) 5.4 5.0
Ash (21) 7 9
Essential amino acid (g/16 g N)
Lysine 7.32 7.33
Methionine+cystine 3.24 3.30
Tryptophan 1.86 1.24
Threonine 5.46 4.52
Leucine 9.81 -
Isoleucine 3.87 3.98
Valine 5.95 5.25
Histidine 3.17 3.23
Phenylalanine 4.56 4.09
Tyrosine 5.63 4.26
 16

Table 1.4. Porcine colostrums, milk nitrogen, and amino acid composition (37)

Variable Colostrum Colostrum Milk Milk

Protein (g/L) 87-155 29-55
Urea (mmol/L) 6.04 5.18
Ammonia (mmol/L) 2.01 1.25
Amino acids Free* Protein Bound** Free* Protein Bound**
Arginine 25 23-50 63 6-15
Histidine 1,023 14-33 538 4-12
Isoleucine 37 26-42 17 9-15
Leucine 85 65-120 38 20-34
Valine 64 50-81 111 12-20
Lysine 30 45-77 58 19-26
Threonine 40 40-88 364 10-20
Methionine 12-15 21 4-7
Phenylalanine 36 23-43 33 7-13
Proline 50 47-142 115 26-37
Tyrosine 34 25-52 63 8-15
Cystine 24 11-13 218 2-3
Glutamine 108 1,929
Glutamate 150 78-107 905 35-56
Alanine 132 42-83 659 12-22
Aspartate 38 51-108 472 15-30
Asparagine 201
Glycine 159 33-82 1,358 8-24
Serine 30 49-103 376 13-26
Citrulline 46
Ornithine 43 55
Taurine 903 1,488
*Free, μmol/L: **Protein bound, mmol/L. Glutamic acid, Aspartic acid.
 17

Table 1.5. Porcine colostrum and milk inorganic element composition (mg/L) (37)

Variable Colostrum Milk

Calcium 900-1519 1511-2274
Phosphorus 900-1579 1041-1832
Magnesium 80-120 80-133
Potassium 1250-1617 356-1000
Sodium 758-820 340-542
Chloride 1200 1000
Iron 2.29-4.68 1.33-4.60
Zinc 9.2-15.98 4.94-7.35
Copper 2.86-3.21 1.11-2.01
Manganese 0.12-0.45 0.06-0.38
Selenium 0.10-0.15 0.02-0.03
Chromium 0.60 0.46
Aluminum 3.5 1.8-3.7
Nickel 0.42 0.31
Lead 0.17 0.16
Cadmium 0.04 0.04
Boron 0.03 3.45
Sulfur 36.1
Molybdenum 0.04 0.02-0.10

Table 1.6. Composition of mammalian milks at mid-lactation (60)

Species Protein (g/l) Fat (g/l) Carbohydrate (g/l)

Woman 8 41 68
Cow 32 37 46
Sow 56 83 50
 18

The protein concentration of sow’s milk does not have an effect for maximum growth
rate in suckling pigs. Caseins are nutritional proteins made of amino acids. They are carriers
of calcium and may promote non-pathogenic bacteria growth. β-casomorphin and α-casein
from casein protein may provide immunologic activity while the whey proteins are protective
proteins made of blood serum albumin, α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, IgG, IgA, IgM,
lactoferrin, and other minor proteins such lysozyme, transferrin, Vit. B12-binding protein and
the bifidus factor. These whey proteins molecules are absorbed by endocitosis mode of action
during the first 1-2 days as explained above.
During the intestine maturation some immunoglobulin molecules will be digested
because α-lacatalbumin protein is made of high levels of lysine, cysteine and tryptophan with
high digestibility and biological value. The resistance to digestion of IgG is more notorious
in the proximal part of the intestine with only 50.7% of the protein molecule being digested
and when it passed to the medial part of the gut an additional 47.1% digestion occurs for this
IgG protein, upon reaching the terminal part of the intestine the protein molecule had an
undigested percentage of 10.1%. In the caecum it was almost fully digested with a remainder
of 0.9%; and in the colon was 0.1 %, almost completed digested (100). Under other
circumstances, there are some contributions in the amino acid profile of the colostrum
composition as immunoglobulins being glucoproteins, but they are not hydrolyzed so they
are not digested (22). This protein functions as biding agents for the toxins from bacteria.
The fat content in colostrum varies consistently, from 5% at farrowing time to its
highest level of 10% at 72 hours post partum. Afterward, it declines during lactation to an 8%
fat content and even lower and its dependent of the caloric density of the diet and feed intake.
The composition of milk dry matter content of fat is 400 g/kg during late lactation (Table 1.7
and 1.8). This is direct effect of body fat contribution to the synthesis of milk fatty acids.
Through these tables it is evident that colostrum and milk undergo constant changes
during lactation and its composition is highly correlated to metabolic rate, milk synthesis and
feed nutrient intake. However, protein composition and microminerals are less manipulated
by external factors.
 19

Table 1.7. Chemical composition of sow colostrum and milk (22,37)

Colostrum
Variable During Parturition 24 h after parturition Milk at 15 days
Dry matter (%) 23.40 22.00 19.20
C. P. (Nx6.38) (%) 13.10 9.10 5.50
Fat (%) 5.10 6.80 8.10
Lactose (%) 3.80 3.90 4.80
Energy (kJ/g) 5.93 5.89 5.23
Amino acids (g/16g N)
Arginine 5.53 5.80 6.50
Histidine 2.97 2.99 2.78
Isoleucine 3.77 3.98 3.71
Leucine 9.85 9.40 8.36
Lysine 7.34 7.43 7.42
Methionine+cystine 3.40 3.02 3.34
Phenylalanine 4.49 4.29 4.08
Threonine 5.90 5.10 5.03
Valine 6.45 6.04 5.68
Fatty acids (% total FA)
C14:0 1.90 1.80 3.40
C16:0 23.50 22.50 38.70
C16:1 4.70 5.20 10.70
C18:0 5.30 5.80 5.50
C18:1 38.70 42.80 23.20
C18:2 20.20 16.90 13.10
C18:3 1.60 1.30 1.10
C20:0 0.20 0.10 0.20
C20:1 0.50 0.50 0.20
C20:2 0.50 0.50 0.20
C20:3 0.30 0.20 0.10
C20:4 1.10 0.90 0.60
Elements
Ca (%) 0.066 0.103 0.146
P (%) 0.110 0.127 0.117
Mg (%) 0.007 0.009 0.008
K (%) 0.119 0.143 0.083
Na (%) 0.082 0.048 0.043
Cu (μg/g) 3.21 2.46 1.79
Zn (μg/g) 14.00 8.31 5.88
Mn (μg/g) 0.12 0.11 0.06
Fe (μg/g) 4.68 3.52 2.88
 20

Table 1.8. Fatty acids (%) in the fat of sow’s colostrum and milk (22, 37)

Fatty acid Colostrum Mature milk

Butyric Acid (C4:0) 0 0.08
Caproic Acid (C6:0) 0 0.09
Caprylic Acid (C8:0) 0 0.03
Capric Acid (C10:0) 0 0.01
Lauric Acid (C12:0) 0 0.02
Myristic Acid (C14:0) 3.20 3.71
Myristoleic Acid (C14:1) 0.01 0
Pentadecanoic Acid (C15:0) 0.03 0.01
Pentadecenoic Acid (C15:1) 0.01 0
Palmitic Acid (C16:0) 33.30 37.00
Palmitoleic Acid (C16:1) 5.47 9.10
Heptadecanoic Acid (C17:0) 0.08 0.09
Heptadecenoic Acid (C17:1) 0.13 0.14
Stearic Acid (C18:0) 6.31 6.02
Oleic Acid (C18:1) 37.50 33.00
Linoleic Acid ((C18:2) 12.70 8.90
Linolenic Acid (C18:3) 0.74 1.14
Arachidonic Acid (C20:4) 0.42 0.51
Behenic Acid (C22:0) 0.01 0.01
Eicosatric Acid (C20:3)/Erucic Acid (C22:1) 0.11 0.13
Arachidic Acid (C20:0) 0.12 0.15
(C20:1) 0.30 0.16
(C20:2) 0.30 0.16
Erusic Acid (C22:1) 0.05 0.001
Medium chain (%) 0.65
Long chain saturated (%) 29 34
Monounsaturated (%) 45 45
Polyunsaturated (%) 24 20
Cholesterol 0.34
Gross energy (kcal/liter) 1517 1114
Lactose 40-44 50-59
Total lipid 49-50 65-88
1
Relative percentages of the fatty acid methyl esters.
2
Taken immediately postpartum.
3
Classified as milk samples collected between 14 and 21 days postpartum.
 21

There are many other components in the sow’s colostrums composition (23, 24, 94,
118, 146), such as:
1. Nutrients
a. Lipids; triacylglycerol, free fatty acids, phospholipids, glycolipids, sphingolipids,
sterols, hydrocarbons and fat soluble vitamins);
b. Carbohydrates (lactose, oligosaccharides, galactose, glucose and glycoproteins);
c. Proteins (αs1,B, and k-caseins, α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, lactoferrin,
secretory IgA and other immunoglobulins, lysozyme, transferrin, enzymes,
hormones and growth factors);
d. Non-protein nitrogenous compounds (urea, creatine, creatine phosphate
creatinine, uric acid, amino acids including glutamine, nuclei acids, nucleotides
and polyamides); and
e. Water soluble vitamins; f) Macronutrient elements and trace elements (minerals);
Copper, zinc, iron and concentrations of some microelements are very low.
2. Hormones (insulin, cortisol, thyroxine);
3. Growth factors (epidermal growth factor, growth hormone receptors (cytokine),
growth hormone-binding protein (PRL-BP) (140), transforming growth factor in the
small intestine (TGF-B) (73), nerve growth factor, insulin-like growth factors I and
II);
4. Cells (neutrophils, lymphocytes, macrophages, eosinophils, epithelial cells,
leucocytes); and
5. Other substances (opioid peptides (casomorphins, lactorphins, casoxins,
lactoferroxins), bombesin, lactoferrin, neurotensin) present in the colostrum and milk.
Feeding the early gestating sow with extra Fe, Zn, Cu, Se and Cr resulted in better
conception rates and fetal survival and colostrum mineral concentration but not on milk
mineral concentration, especially for Cu and Fe (68). Piglets reared in the open field did not
show iron deficiencies during lactation, because they were licking some soil and the mineral
supplement did not come from the milk composition since this mineral is not variable in milk
composition (161).
 22

Colostrum has more concentrated energy throughout protein components and milk
energy contribution depends on lipid concentration (Table 1.9).

Nutrient Requirements
Many nutritional tables are published worldwide: The National Research Council
NRC 1998 (104) in the USA, the Agricultural Research Council (ARC 1981) and British
Society of Animal Science in the United Kingdom, in France the Institut National de la
Reserche Agronomique (INRA 1984) and Institut Technique du Porc (ITP). The Association
Francoise de Zootechnie. Others sources are the Centraal Veevoeder Bureauu (CVB)
(www.tessenderlo.com, www.hollandmeat.nl/gb/index.htm) from Netherlands, in Denmark
(www.lu,dk), with recent report changes in 2002 for threonine and tryptophan for weaner

Table 1.9. The main components of sow’s colostrum and milk and their relative
contribution to gross energy (68)

Fresh sample
Variable g/kg KJ/kg % of total gross energy
Colostrum (3 h after farrowing)
Total crude protein 175 4148 56.5
Total immunoglobulins 96
Pre-albumin+albumin 47
Casein 32
Total lipids 67 2653 36.1
Lactose 32 544 7.4
Total energy 7345 100.0

Milk (day 7 of lactation)

Total crude protein 56 1327 21.5
Total immunoglobulins 20
Pre-albumin+albumin 13
Casein 23
Total lipids 101 4000 65.0
Lactose 49 833 13.5
Total energy 6160 100.0
 23

pigs in www.danskeslagterier.dk. Lists of tables are provided by the Spanish Foundation for
the Development of Animal of Animal Nutrition (FEDNA). Also AMIpig, AFRC 1991, and
in Australia SCA 1987, AUSPIG and Australian Pork Ltd (PRDC) (48). In addition, Canada
and Germany have their own nutritional tables for pigs (50). Feedstuff magazine and large
feed processing plants as DEGUSSA, Ajinomoto, www.roche.com and www.basf.com have
their own private feed table compositions and requirements. Public organizations and large
corporations have also developed their own feed table compositions (www.fao.org,
www.rossbreeders.com, w.cobb-vantress.com/ukdist/ukdiv.asp) (49). These publications are
reference sources that provide nutritional requirements for swine production; however, each
farm may receive nutritional consultation and advising services from a nutritional consultant.
It is not the purpose of this paper to analyze all these nutritional and feed composition
tables and their varying recommendations. Rather, the purpose is to demonstrate the
difference between institutions (Table 1.10) and to emphasize important research work in
many areas of the pork production system by many researchers to determine lysine
requirements for various types of breed of pigs (Table 1.11) and the different weight and
growing stages (Table 1.12). The NRC 1998 tables recommends 16% higher crude protein
levels than the NRC 1988 swine nutrition tables increasing all the amino acid levels for all
the weight groups and fixed an energy level for ME in the diet kcal/kg of 3,265. Differences
in the tables are not as important as providing digestible, palatable, healthy and in liquid form
the creep feed supplements or sow’s milk substitutes.
It is important to consider the size of the animal, its growth rate, feed consumption
and feed concentration to satisfy nutrient requirements. This is accomplished by using
feeding tables along with background information and proper consultation. The selection of
any table is as good as the actual chemical composition analysis applied to every feed
component of the diet, the seasonal changes in the crops and industrial feed processing as the
current management practices in each farm will change considerably from the feed
composition tables.
 24

Table 1.10. Amino acid requirements for piglets of different age and weight (g/kg) (50)

Pig weight (kg) or age (weeks)

NRC (1988) ARC (1981) 1
Amino acid 1-5 5-10 10-20 20-50 50-110 0-32 3-82 15-50 50-90
Lysine 14.0 11.5 9.5 7.5 6.0 15.8 13.8 11.0 7.8
Arginine 6.0 5.0 4.0 2.5 1.0 - - - -
Histidine 3.6 3.1 2.5 2.2 1.8 5.2 4.5 3.6 2.6
Isoleucine 7.6 6.5 5.3 4.6 3.8 8.6 7.5 6.0 4.3
Leucine 10.0 8.5 7.0 6.0 5.0 15.8 13.8 11.0 7.8
Methionine
+cysteine 6.8 5.8 4.8 4.1 3.4 7.9 6.9 5.5 3.9
Phenylalanine
+tyrosine 11.0 9.4 7.7 6.6 5.5 15.1 13.3 10.4 7.5
Threonine 8.0 6.8 5.6 4.8 4.0 9.4 8.3 6.5 4.7
Tryptophan 2.0 1.7 1.4 1.2 1.0 2.3 2.0 1.6 1.2
Valine 8.0 6.8 5.6 4.8 4.0 11.0 9.7 7.7 5.5
1
Based on the requirements for pigs weighing 15-90 kg on the assumption that the diet contains
13. MJ/kg.
2
Age in weeks: based on the requirements on the assumption that the diet contains 14.1 MJ/kg,
which is similar to the energy density recommended by the NRC (1988) for young pigs.

Table 1.11. Total lysine in the diet (grams) for each digestible energy (DEMJ). Ratios
(g/MJ) in the diets of growing pigs (3, 138)

Protein deposition Weight Lysine/DE ratio

Genotype Rate (g/day) (kg) Castrate Gilt Boar
Unimproved 100 <25 0.78 0.80 0.83
25-55 0.73 0.75 0.78
Average 125 <25 0.85 0.85 0.88
25-55 0.78 0.80 0.83
High 150 <25 0.88 0.90 0.93
25-55 0.83 0.85 0.88
Hybrid 175 <25 1.20 1.20 1.20
25-55 1.10 1.10 1.10
 25

Table 1.12. Total basis lysine requirements of different classes of weaned pig (3, 138)

Diet type Weight band (kg) Total lysine (g/kg)

Pre-starter <5 17-18
3-5 15
<5 16.5-17.5
Starter 5-7 15-16
5-10 13.5
5-10 14
5-10 16.0-16.5
Link 7.0-11.5 13.5-14.5
7-12 15-16
Early grower 11.5-23.0 12.5-13.5
10-20 11.5
10-25 11
10-25 15
Grower 15-25 10.5
12-25 14-15
Different sources from United Kindom, USA and France.

The inclusion of artificial amino acids (lysine, threonine and methionine) in the
supplements for baby pigs has been proved to respond in growth rate (160). They do not
substitute milk protein but contribute in the balance for the “ideal protein”. In addition, the
use of protein sources with high levels of valine and arginine improve growth rate response.
The use of these products are determined largely by cost and individual amino acid
contribution in the diet. The artificial aminoacid products will no longer be expensive with
the construction of the new fermentation plant in the state of Illinois USA in 2004 (Table
1.13).

Table 1.13. Typical inclusion rates of synthetic amino acids in starter feeds (3)

Rates Lysine Methionine Threonine Tryptophan

Kg/Ton 2-5 0.5-2 0.5-1.5 0-1

Metric units.
 26

The neonatal pig is more efficient during the first week of age with a milk
metabolizable energy (ME) conversion rate of 17 kJ milk ME/g body weight gain. During
this stage the suckling pig is able to consume more that 5 times its ME maintenance.
Normally this consumption is 3.3 to 3.8 times MEm and to 2.5 times MEm thereafter,
reducing the conversion to 19 kJ milk ME/g BW growth. This rapid change in digestion and
efficiency accounts for sudden changes in nutrient requirements and frequent changes in diets
producing alternative values in different tests. This means that piglets are able to consume
large quantities of digestible milk supplements after birth, and will also continue to suckle
their dam at the same rate (167).
It has not been determined if there are consequences due to the reduction of colostrum
intake or reduced immunoglobulin protection that may increase piglet morbidity and even
mortality with the inclusion of a milk substitute. In addition, there are no studies of
supplementing piglets during early lactation to determine if sow’s milk reduces allergic
reaction and provides a protective inflammatory factor that reduces allergic reaction from a
feed source such as soybean meal. Acclimating pigs to the consumption of viable quantities
of solid feed > 15 MJ ME/kg before they are weaned is commensurate with normal growth
after weaning (1).
Suckling piglets may have depressed milk ingestion and low creep feed consumption
because protein and mineral level in the sow’s milk and the high % CP in the supplement
may cause an increase of urinary nitrogen and minerals excretions with a consequent body
water loss (162). If the heater lamp raises the temperature in the farrowing creep, it may raise
fresh water requirements for neonates. Many farrowing facilities do not provide water for
suckling pigs and this depresses milk and total feed dry matter consumption. Neonate piglets
can start drinking water after 2 days of age, from 0 to 200 ml/day with an average of 46 ml,
but some studies report lesser amounts (104).
The gradual process of weaning by creep feeding provides a transitional training
eating period to stimulate free choice feed consumption > 7 g of food/day at 14 days of age
and about > 127 g/day at 28 days of age (7). Before weaning at 19-25 days, a lactating sow is
able to produce a piglet growing at 300 g BW/day, providing 4.0 MJDE of milk/pig/day,
supplementing feed with extra 1.5 MJDE/day containing 19.0 MJDE/kg. In order to support
 27

a growth rate of 300 g/day after weaning, the diet should contain > 27.5 MJ DE/kg to sustain
a feed intake of 200 grams/day that will provide requirements of 5.5 MJ DE/day (44).
Normal (uninterrupted) growth patterns during lactation and after weaning are seen only
under the highest standards of husbandry and nutrition practices (168). These
accomplishments could be achieved by providing experiences in feed consumption for the
piglets and particularly in drinking water before weaning (137).
The second half of lactation after 14 days of age and the immediate post-weaning
period are commonly identified as major periods when the deficit in energy intake is the most
pronounced. This may cause a slow daily gain rate or even a weight lost with a reduction in
muscular cell count. However, a low milk intake during the neonatal period also influences
the ability of the piglet to survive and thrive because the low weight piglet is more willing to
try creep feeding (2). The major physiological objective of milk and feed consumption during
the suckling and weaning phases should be to maximize piglet growth and develop insulation
tissue in the endodermis or superficial fat. It is also possible that lipid molecules are carriers
of immune factors and precursors of hormonal changes that protect the piglet from diseases
and may be a physical barrier for other pathogens. Therefore, because protein deposition
increases linearly with energy intake in the suckling pig, maximization of protein deposition
also implies maximization of energy intake.
If the piglet gets heavier during the neonatal period it will be fatter, and there is a
belief that this will increase back fat thickness affecting carcass composition at
slaughter-market time. It is unlikely that the extra fat deposited in the young pig will make a
large contribution to the total stored fat in the market pig. There will be too many metabolic
and physiological changes before the animal reaches market weight, and this early fat will
not be stored in the adipose tissue at the finishing stage. Weaning pigs at 14 days of age have
a potential to be fatter at 23 weeks if they had a challenge with post weaning syndrome
(PWS) (54). Maybe an effect of extra feed consumed at the end of the finishing period and
less protein accretion due to less muscular cells formation in the neonatal piglet increases
back fat thickness. This compensatory growth is not always correlated to PWS.
There is little information in the literature on the estimations of energy cost of
maintenance and growth in the suckling piglet due to the difficulties in determining milk
 28

energy intake precisely. These estimations are also difficult to establish immediately after
weaning because of the usual low intake and the ensuing negative energy balance during 1-5
days (2). This is a good explanation for constant changes in the nutritional requirements of
pigs and differences between authors and institutions.
There is an obvious interest to maximize the efficiency of any diet or to supply the
nutrient requirements for every type of breed and age or weight of any pig. The modern
nutritionist should also look to animal nutrition and feeding methods used and the importance
of considering the effects on the animal welfare, the quality of the product and the impact on
the environment (53, 137). Differences in these factors may change the nutrient requirements
of the animal to match the market or regulation needs in different parts of the world.

Requirements for maintenance of energy

A summary of values for metabolizable energy requirements for maintenance (MEm)
and efficiencies of ME intake for total energy retention (k-g) and for energy retained as
protein (k-p) and fat (k-f) is given in Table 1.14. MEm includes the energy cost of basal
metabolism, physical activity and thermoregulation. In the suckling pig reported MEm values
amounts from 340 kJ ME/kg BW0.75 per day to 470 kJ ME/kg BW0.75 per day. There is small
variation in the suckling pig for energy retained and protein accretion compared with the
weaning pig range for these concepts. The suckling piglet retains fat from feed to body fat in
a 1:1 ratio but not after weaning (19).
In the suckling pig, the energy cost of standing is 0.18 kJ BW0.75 per minute, but in
practice the total energy cost of suckling and standing activity is very variable and difficult to
assess, especially in outdoor rearing conditions. On the basis that 1g sow’s milk supplies 4.75
kJ ME it is not considered a concentrated feed so the animal have to suck high volumes of
milk. The concentrated source of 1g weaning diet supplies >15 kJ ME and the animal needs
small amounts to meet maintenance requirements. Sow milk is very digestible (0.99-1.00)
because of its high biological value, but values for DE or ME varied widely in relation to its
fat content. The fat content in the dry matter of sow milk is about 400 g/kg (44). The true
digestibility of sow’s milk reported is 88% for nitrogen, and the average amino acids
digestibility is 92%, but for amino acids cystine and threonine the digestibility is 88%
 29

Table 1.14. Summary of the estimated values for maintenance energy requirements (MEm)
and for efficiency of metabolizable energy intake for growth (k-g), protein (k-p)
and fat (k-f) deposition (19)

MEm
(kJ ME/kg BW0.75) (k-g) (k-p) (k-f)

Suckling pig 340-470 0.70-0.73 0.56 1.0

Weaned range 420-550 0.60-0.79 0.50-0.66 0.73-0.84

and for methionine, histidine, and glutamic acid is 100%. The average digestibility for all the
amino acids is 92%±4% (118). This is an indication that it is difficult to compare the
digestibility of milk for different herds, because milk composition variability will affect
analysis results thus there are several methods to determine nutrient requirements for
suckling pigs.
Piglets of 3.82 kg body weight digest human milk very well > 90%, but certain amino
acids such threonine, valine and phenylalanine are not absorbed as well (98). This paper did
not explain the cause and origin of the effect due to the quality properties of the human milk
or if it was a deficiency of enzymes in the digestive system of the piglets.

Cost of energy for protein and fat deposition

The efficiency of sow milk ME for growth from the total energy retention (k-g) is
between 0.70 and 0.73 and similar to that reported for cow milk and ewe milk. Other papers
reported digestibility’s for sow milk >95% and also for bovine milk products. Milk dry
matter is converted to piglet live weight gain at a ratio of 0.75-0.80:1 or 3.8 g milk/g body
weight gain (19). In other words, milk: gain ratio averages 3.75 in piglets weaned at 3 weeks
and 4.08 in those weaned at 4 weeks of age (41). The suckling pig fat deposition results
primarily from direct incorporation of absorbed milk fatty acids into the adipose tissue, with
an ensuing energy retention from fat (k-f) of 1.0. The efficiency of ME for protein deposition
(k-p) is 0.56 (19). Formulating for the suckling and weaning pig the choice of dietary
ingredients must primarily fit the digestive capacity of the animal, maintain the gut health
and promote food intake (168): Milk dry matter: weight gain ratio (gram: gram) was
 30

0.67±0.01 in piglets. Energy digestibility, ME: gross energy intake ratio and N digestibility
determined over day 4 to day 8 were 0.985±0.004, 0.969±0.006 and 0.985±0.004 grams of
colostrum or milk/kg BW/day, respectively (88).
The protein deposition rates of the suckling pig are between 15 and 20
g/kgBW0.75/day in 2 kg and 4 kg piglets, respectively. The potential is probably higher for
maximum growth because in artificially reared pigs the protein deposition is between 12.4
and 15.6 g protein MJ of DE, whereas in sow milk the protein: energy ratio is 1:8 or 1to 10,
influenced by the fat content of the milk. The milk may be deficient in lysine concentration
containing 0.67-0.85 g lysine MJ of gross energy and the suckling piglet’s lysine
requirements is about 0.90-0.95 g lysine MJ of GE (44).
Piglets of 2-7 kg live weight require 12.0 g cow’s milk protein per MJ DE when the
apparent digestibility of milk energy is 0.96%. The adjusted requirement is 10.0 g of “ideal”
protein/MJ of DE. The piglet’s tissue requirement for lysine is 0.70 g/MJ of DE, and for
faster growing breeds it is 0.74 g available lysine/MJ of DE (96).
The equation used for piglets older than 13.5 days (103,104) is determined by the
following: Digestible Energy Intake (kcal/day) = -151.7 + (11.2 X day), where day is age of
the pig. The equation for weanling pigs is: DE= -1531 + (455.5 X BW)-(9.46 X BW2). This
equation applies to piglets between 5 to 15 kg live weight. Normal diets of corn and soybean
meal contain 3,200 kcal of DE/kg of feed and the expected feed consumption is about 17 to
23 g/day (104).

Amino acid requirements

The total lysine requirement for a 5 kg piglet is set at 1.40% and 1.50% of the diet in
the NRC 1988 and 1998 tables, respectively (Table 1.15). Variations may occur depending on
the energy concentration of the diet regulating the fat levels to <5% or by artificially
increasing the most limiting amino acid content in the diet such threonine, methionine and
even tryptophan.
 31

Table 1.15. Estimation of total basis (%) dietary amino acids requirements of growing pigs
(1-20 kg BW) (103, 104)

Crude protein (%) Body Lys Tryp Thre Meth+cyst Hist Val Arg
weight kg
NRC98 NRC88
26.0 24.0 <5 1.50 0.27 0.98 0.40 0.48 1.04 0.59
23.7 20.0 5-10 1.35 0.24 0.86 0.35 0.43 0.92 0.54
20.9 18.0 10-15 1.15 0.21 0.74 0.30 0.36 0.79 0.46
18.0 15.0 15-20 0.95 0.17 0.61 0.25 0.30 0.64 0.37
Lys, lysine; Tryp, tryptophan; Thre, threonine; Meth+cyst, methionine + cysteine; Val, valine; Arg, arginine.

Conclusion
Determining the nutrient requirements of the suckling pig is not a precarious aspect of
the production system, and any reference table could be a good source of information.
Because many external factors are involved in determining nutrient requirements, there is
significant variation among publications. The practical means for any table is to provide
guidance to carry out a high quality nutrition program according to the biological values of
available protein and energy sources in the market. It can be assumed that suckling piglets
could grow faster after 11-14 days of age if weaned to the appropriate environment and
nutrition standards. There are many nutritional factors yet to be discovered to improve the
optimum growth of suckling piglets and their productive economic efficiency and the most
appropriate reproductive performance of their dams.

Digestive Enzymes
It is clear that in order to raise piglets to their maximum growth rate, they require a
milk supplement besides suckling colostrum and milk from their dams. There is one major
limitation; the young pig has an immature digestive system and enzymatic activities are low
in quantity and quality to digest substrates besides other than milk lactose and casein. The
brush-border peptidases (aminopeptidase’s A and N, and dipeptidyl peptidase IV) are high at
birth (Table 1.16). The epithelial tissues of the stomach in the new-born are high in
α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (α-KGDH) and oxoglutarate dehydrogenase (OxoGDH)
enzymes (28). There is a low production of amylase, ligual lipase and bicarbonate in the
 32

Table 1.16. Development of pancreatic enzymes in fetal, preweaned, and post weaned pigs
(17,38)

Fetal Suckling Weaned

Class Name (Day) (Day) (Day) (Week) (Week)
65-76 105-114 0-5 1-6 >4-6
Carbohydrase α-amylase (total) ± + + ++ ++
Chitinase
Protease
Endopeptidase Trypsin (anionic) ± + ++ + +
Trypsin (cationic) - - ± ± ++
Chymotrypsin (A) + ++ + + ++
Chymotrypsin (B) + ++ ++ + +-
Chymotrypsin (C ) - - - ± +
Elastase I - - - - +
Elastase II ± + ++ ++ ++
Protease E - - ± ± +
Exopeptidase Carboxypeptidase A + ++ ++ ++ ++
Carboxy β a
Lipase Triacylglycerol x xx
Carboxyl esterase + + + + +
Phospholipase A2 a
Sterol esterase a
Total colipase x xx
Nuclease Pancreatic
Ribunolease b 1.0 1.3-1.7 3.0
KEY: ++, strong; +, medium; ±, weak; -, negative; activities in pancreatic homogenate, respectively.
X, similar preprandial and postprandial outputs in pancreatic juice; xx, postprandial output >
preprandial output.

salivary glands of the neonate pig. The enzymatic proteins collected in the chyme from the
duodenum, jejunum or ileum had activity of amylase is 655 units (U)/g protein after birth and
before suckling and increases to 5,480 U/g at 7 days, and reaches a high level 18,120 U/g at 3
weeks of age. At 7 days of age the levels are for Lipase 175, Trypsin 32, Chymotrypsin 1.17
and Protease 66 U/g protein correspondingly (71). The young pig at this time is unable to
utilize xylose or fructose either (42).
There are various enzymes in the pancreas juice before birth (proteases,
carbohydrases, lipases and nucleases) and after delivery are also present carboxypeptidase’s
A, chymotrypsins A and B, elastase II, carboxyl esterase, amylase and anodal trypsin, all of
 33

them play an important role in the digestion of any feedstuff. The liver and pancreas have
very slow release of lipase, amylase, trypsin and chymotrypsin, and bile juice is secreted via
the bile duct into the small intestinal lumen where chemical activity takes place. The
secretion glands (salivary, liver and pancreas) are not well developed at this time; and the
secretion of stomach hydrochloric acids, proteolytic enzymes, pepsin, mucus, gastric lipase,
somatosantin, serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), histamine, and gastrin are low during early
lactation (17). The stomach does not have enzymes for carbohydrates so digestion of starch
molecules depends more on the concentration of hydrochloric acid. The small intestine
produces carbohydrases (amylase, lactase, sucrase, dextrinase, isomaltase, maltase) for
proteins (peptidases, trypsin), and also receives additional release of other enzymes and the
emulsifying action of pancreatic juice (28).
However, the small intestine does not have enzymes present for oligosaccharides, nor
for non-starch polysaccharides or for some resistant starch molecules (159). These
non-digested substrates may be a source of energy for microbial fermentation in the large
intestine where bacteria may proliferate in the caecum and colon, producing short chain fatty
acids and lactic acid. For neonates, this is a health risk factor that may change the flora of the
small intestine. However, for an older pig, it is a beneficial factor that improves digestibility
of the feed and improves back fat firmness. It seems that high feed consumption of viable
products for this physiological age may enhance the production activity of several enzymes
and gastric juice. These changes are small in the intestinal mucosa structure and pancreatic
enzyme activity in the small intestine before weaning, irrespective of the pigs’ access to
creep feed or not (59). This is because high milk consumption maintains villous height and
structure in the intestine without following structural changes from the additional dry matter
intake. Piglets conserve the villous height when they are suckling milk, but once they reduce
milk intake or feed consumption a morphological change in the intestinal wall reduces
villous height that may induce indigestion or even diarrhea.
There are other enzymes that are not secreted in the digestive system of the baby pig.
These enzymes are components of the sow’s milk substrate containing lipase, α-amylase,
esterase, protease and alkaline phosphatase aiding in the digestive process (21). Substrates in
milk like carnitine and protease inhibitors have some influence in the digestive processes too.
 34

This additional advantage for enzymatic activity as components of the milk solution may
contribute in the digestion of other feed sources without a detrimental effect on the digestive
system; thus the supplement may contribute to improved growth development of the
intestine. This could be a subject for a nutrition research. There is a severe drop (70%) in
enzymatic pancreas activity after weaning but not on pancreas weight affecting the enzymatic
efficiency of this gland (Table 1.17).

Table 1.17. Effect of age and weaning on pancreatic lipase activity (44)

Age Body weight Pancreas weight Lipase activity μmoles of fatty acid produced/min.
(weeks) (kg) (g) (per gram of pancreas) (Total)
Birth 1.29 1.06 965 934
1 1.97 2.74 1,235 2,965
2 3.28 3.70 2,938 12,142
3 4.79 5.54 2,906 15,421
4 6.56 7.36 6,268 48,756
Post weaning
5 6.50 10.47 1,778 15,711
6 7.99 12.28 1,180 15,163

The addition of fat in a pre-weaning diet does not develop a post-weaning effect to
maintain the levels of lipase activity in the pancreas. This may be explained in the form of
the sow to deliver milk fat in an improved physical presentation such as an emulsified
physical state, forming micelle globules that do not interfere in the digestion of lactose and
present a large surface area for digestion (44). This is not the case in cow’s milk, which is the
source of many milk substitutes. The fat globules of the milk substitute may cause
mechanical diarrhea in piglets because they contain bigger fat globules, reducing the
digestibility of the feed supplement. The physical maturation of the intestine is determinant
in the enzyme secretion (Table 1.18). The physical form of the oil, their micelle size
presentation, and fatty acid composition influence the digestible energy values in the pig.
A suggestion is to supplement with an emulsified fat source or short length fatty acid
composition, or some easily digestible carbohydrates as lactose, dextrose, fructose that would
help to maintain enzymatic activity from the pancreas and enhance intestinal lumen activity
at weaning time.
 35

Table 1.18. Postnatal development of digestive enzymes secreted into the lumen of the
gastrointestinal tract in pigs (28)

Period of life
Digestive enzymes Birth Suckling Weaning
Mouth1
α-amylase + + +++ 2 different forms
Stomach
Hydrochloric acid Low ++ +++
Chymosin2 +++ Decline rapidly, but dominate Decline at 60 days.
until 3-4th wk of age.
Pepsin A Trace amount Gradual increase until 3 wk Predominant from 4-5 wk
Pepsin B Trace amount Increases from 1sr wk, max. Plateau at a lower level
at 3-5 wk of age.
Gastricsin Trace amount Trace amounts during 1st wk, Gradual increase
until 3 wk of age gradual
increase
Gastric lipase + 25-50% of dietary lipids No data available
hydrolyzed.
Small Intestine
Lactase3 +++ Decrease during 2nd-5th wk of Decrease up to 8 wk of age
age.
Maltase3 Low Increase at 10-16 days Isomaltase decreases 5 days
rapidly, at 3 wk plateau up to post-weaning, maltase II and
6-8 wk. III increase
Sucrase3 Low Increase at 10-16 days 2-5 fold lower at 5 days
rapidly, at 3 wk plateau up to post-weaning and by 11 days
6-8 wk. partial recovery
Peptidases4 +++ Decrease until 30 days of age No data available
in proximal and medial part.
Trypsin + Constant low, increases after +++
weaning.
Chymotrypsin ++ Increases up to weaning Decreases in week following
weaning
Lipase + Increases during the first 4-6 Declines in the 2 wk after
wk. weaning
Amylase Low Increase over the 6-8 wk. Decreases in the week
following weaning, then
increases again
1
Salivary glands: very small in size at birth and increase up to 4-8 months of age.
2
Milk-clotting enzyme, weak proteolytic activity.
3
Carbohydrases.
4
Entero-, ebdo-, amino-, dipeptidases.
+, ++, +++: More or less level of enzyme present or released.

The pancreatic secretion of enzymes before birth prepares the animal to digest milk
from its mother. The level of chymotrypsin is adequate to digest protein molecules. The
enzyme secretion of trypsin is low in order to enable the ingestion of multiple
immunoglobulin protein molecules and to avoid digestive break down of these protective
 36

molecules. The amylase level is very low in this secretion gland until 14 days of age and then
levels start increasing to prepare the animal to digest starch (Table 1.19 and Figure 1.1).
Table 1.19 depicts the values shown in the bar graphs in Figure 1.1. An increase in micro
molls in time and in lag reaction for weaning stress is noticeable at 35 days of age.

Table 1.19. The effect of age of pig on total pancreatic enzyme activity (μmol substrate
hydrolyzed/minute) (168, 179)

Age (days) Trypsin Chymotripsin Amylase

3 14.6 ± 11.8 0.94 ± 0.84 2,076 ± 1,895
7 22.0 ± 5.9 3.52 ± 0.97 14,666 ± 9,597
14 33.8 ± 22.1 4.91 ± 1.01 21,916 ± 5,376
21 32.1 ± 19.0 6.99 ± 3.52 26,165 ± 19,905
28 55.6 ± 40.3 9.49 ± 4.76 65,051 ± 67,743
35 42.1 ± 34.5 3.90 ± 1.80 24,730 ± 13,855
42 150.0 ± 80.0 7.79 ± 5.30 54,516 ± 38,458
49 349.0 ± 165.0 17.40 ± 8.05 159,516 ± 53,972
56 515.0 ± 96.3 14.30 ± 4.42 182,106 ± 76,133
Pigs weaned at 28 days of age.

The enzyme activity of the suckling piglet according to body weight is represented in
different quadratic functions where lactase is highly available during the first week of
lactation with a considerable slope drop after the third week of lactation as an effect of less
lactose substrate present in the diet. The level of lipase secretion has a considerable activity
after birth to digest the sow’s high fat milk content. The lipase activity has a positive slope
increment over time to prepare the digestion of fat sources in the stage I and II type diets. In
the suckling pig, the amylase and maltase enzyme have low levels during the first days of life
but they increase in activity after the second week to prepare the animal for the ingestion of
starches, monosaccharides and other carbohydrates (Figure 1.2.)
 37

Figure 1.1 The relative amounts of four pancreatic enzymes in pancreatic tissue in pigs of
different ages from 0 to 56 days of age: (a) trypsin, (b) chymotrypsin, (c) amylase, and (d)
lipase. The height of each column represents the increment in total enzyme content of the
pancreas per unit bodyweight as a function of that in unsuckled pigs at birth (taken as 1.0)
(17). Lindeman pigs were weaned at 4 weeks of age.
 38

Figure 1.2. Quadratic lines representing the enzymatic activity of the neonatal piglet
during lactation and weaning time (64)

Physiology
The structural conformation of the small intestine in the fetus undergoes several
physiological changes during gestation but especially from 2 days before birth to 6 days of
age. This is a transitional physiological change from parenteral nutrition through the
umbilical cord to enteral nutrition such as suckling milk. The fetal pig absorbs meconium and
amniotic fluids in the presence of high levels of lactase phlorizin hydrolase and amino
peptidase-N. The absorption of ions and transport of other nutrients reaches its highest level
after birth (7). This prepares the animal to absorb within 3-12 h after first suckling,
macromolecules in the colostrum as immunoglobulin proteins, insulin-like growth factors
binding proteins (IGF-I), trophic factors and other type of biological active growth factors
and also many non-nutrient components and milk proteins (casein, β-lacto globulin and
α-lactalbumin). Porcine colostrum stimulates intestinal brush border enzyme maturation in
 39

neonatal pigs releasing lactase, maltase and alkaline phosphatase activity (58). The suckling
of milk colostrum stimulates crypt cell proliferation and maturation of the enterocytes cells
causing an immediate intestinal closure from 6 to < 48 hours to absorb intact macromolecules
(endocytosis or pinocitosis) as immunoglobulin IgG and albumin. The intestinal closure in
pigs is due to a reduced transfer of the internalized macromolecules into the blood and not
caused by a decrease in the endocytotic capacity of the enterocytes or a higher degradation
rate within the cells (155). The first piglets to suck will get 50% more concentrated colostrum
protein and immunoglobulin content before milk let down is present in the udder cells (15).
The quantity and quality of colostrum antibodies consumed will reach serum titers of the
piglet at the same level of its mother within 24 hours after birth, providing protection against
many systemic pathogens, but not for all the bacteria found in the intestinal mucosal surfaces.
The intestine of the piglet repeatedly undergoes rapid morphological changes and
each physiological stage requires different nutritional management schemes that are highly
dependent of milk byproducts which could be comprised of other sources of animal and egg
albumin, spray dried proteins and cooked cereals. If intestinal closure is prolonged in time
due to low colostrums intake a reduction in surface area will not assure posterior absorption
of protective immunoglobulins and there are chances for increased risk of disease. There will
be some specific IGF-I and other macromolecules absorbed up to 4-8 weeks of age during
the replacement of intestinal fetal cells until all the mature type of cells occurs.
The presence of intestinal brush-border α-glucosidase (sucrase, maltase) at levels <
50% of the mature digestive system in the suckling pig, probes the low capacity to digest
carbohydrates other than lactose (7). At birth the length of the small intestine of the piglet is
2-4 meters, out of which the jejunum comprises 90% and duodenum and ileum 5% each.
These proportions are kept throughout the life of the pig. The first week of life the intestine
will enlarge 1 meter, also providing an increment of 60% in the digestive area. By 4 weeks of
age the intestine is about 10 meters. This intestinal growth is achieved using 25% of the
proteins ingested (27).
The suckling pig has a large intestinal volume of 30-40 ml/kg live weight and the
consumption of feed reduces the pH of the gastrointestinal tract (7). It is not the substrate
itself that causes these responses, but the quantity and quality of the product are more
 40

important to stimulate signals for stomach and intestine enzymatic activity in the neonatal
piglet (4). There is controversial evidence that creep feeding of piglets improves
carbohydrate enzymatic activity after weaning with increments in enzymatic secretion for 4
maltases (isomaltase, sucrase and maltases II and III) and trehalase but many papers agree
that gastric acid secretion will be more developed. With age there is an increase in intestinal
weight and intestinal capacity to improve villous height and digestive capability (17). In
addition to age, creep feeding improves the capacity of the stomach to secrete proteolitic
enzymes.
If creep feeding increases body energy reserves, the piglet will be more suitable to
thrive during the post weaning stage but there is a high risk for unabsorbed sugars and less
digestible nutrients enter the large intestine causing a fermentative action and altering the
micro biota already present (157). Because hydrochloric acid from the stomach does not help
to improve the digestion of starch molecules from cereals and other feedstuff sources, there is
a potential for bacterial growth in the intestine that may cause diarrhea. Most diets are highly
comprised of cereal grains and there is a tendency to increase the protein in the diet with
substituted energy sources. This nutritional change works fine in a low disease environment
but increases the urea metabolic cycle which may enhance bacterial proliferation and the
breakdown of disease and/or dehydration.

Potential Growth Performance in the Young Pig

During the immediate postnatal period there is a very rapid increase in both body
protein and fat accretion (Table 1.20). Changes in protein and fat ratio will be more notorious
in the first week of age and after weaning when diet composition and intestine health will
influence nutrient absorption for body growth with different rated for protein accretion and
fat deposition. Between birth and weaning at 21 days of age, body protein and fat contents
increase linearly at a mean rate of 34 and 30 g/day, respectively (1, 156).

Table 1.20. Relationship among bodyweight, body protein and body fat in the young pig (1)
 41

Age (days) Bodyweight (kg) Body protein (kg) Body fat (kg) Protein/fat
Birth 1.23 0.130 0.020 6.5
1 1.45 0.175 0.030 5.8
7 2.80 0.410 0.190 2.2
14 4.50 0.650 0.510 1.3
21 (weaning) 6.30 0.850 0.640 1.3
28 7.00 0.890 0.540 1.6
35 8.80 1.130 0.730 1.5

Other works over larger periods of time compared body composition to an extended
stage, indicating that at latter stages the pig’s body accrues less protein and more fat (Table
1.21). The piglet after birth is lean with low lipids reserves for energy metabolism and this
ratio rapidly changes with milk consumption developing a rapid fat deposition for insulation
and prepares it for the weaning process and transition. Once the piglets’ initiates lean growth
after 20 kg of body weight it will express its genetic potential for meat production and less
fat deposition. Knowledge of chemical body composition is a pathway to understand the
nutritional needs of the animal and physiological changes in the development of the growing
animal. Body water and fat content are the two major components that are affected by age or
by increments in body weight (Table 1.22). The body composition changes are notorious in
the body fat of the lean finished pig compared with a fatter pig of the same weight.

Table 1.21. Changes in body composition of pigs during growth (42)

Body weight Body protein Body fat Protein to fat ratio

(Kg) (Lb) (Kg) (lb) (Kg) (lb) (Lb)
1.30 2.90 0.15 0.33 0.06 0.13 2.50
5.90 13.00 0.83 1.83 1.28 2.82 0.60
22.00 48.40 3.90 8.60 3.30 7.26 1.20
38.00 83.60 6.20 13.60 7.50 16.50 0.80
65.00 143.00 10.60 23.30 15.40 33.90 0.70
85.00 187.00 13.00 28.60 27.00 59.40 0.50
110.00 242.00 16.60 36.50 45.00 99.00 0.30
 42

Table 1.22. Chemical composition (%) of the empty body of pigs at birth, 15 lb, 50 lb, and
242 lb body weight (42)

Age Weight (kg & lb)

Variable Birth 6.8 kg (15lb) 25 kg (55lb) 110 kg (242 lb) lean pig 110 kg (242 lb) fat pig
Ash 3 3 3 3 3
Lipid 2 15 12 15 35
Protein 18 16 16 18 14
Water 77 66 69 64 48

As many living organisms the piglet production in the farm will have an inverted
shape U population or normal curve distribution, indicating that there will be many
underweight piglets that need special attention and care. Table 1.23 depicts that 50% of the
litters will have average growth rate increments of 2 kg a day and 13% of the litter will not
reach this level. The global average daily gain (ADG) is 210 g/piglet while nursing.
Approximately 38% of litters grow at >200g/pig, 49% between 150 to 200 g/pig, and 13%
has ADG < 150 g/piglet (82). This is an important time to establish more uniform growth,
and creep feeding might help reaching this goal.
During the first week of age some piglets can double their body weight, but most will
have body weight increments from 50-80 % from the birth weight (82). The following figure
(Figure 1.3) also represents the birth weigh and weight gain during the first seven days after
delivery that follows a biological bell-shaped curve where the weight of the pig population is

Table 1.23. Mean growth of litters during the first week of lactation from 69 litters and
adjusted to 11 piglets (82)

% of litters Growth of litter kg/day

4 1.00-1.40
9 1.40-1.65
25 1.65-1.90
25 1.90-2.20
15 2.20-2.50
13 2.50-2.75
9 2.75-3.00
 43

Figure 1.3. The development of variation in piglet weight. The panels show successive weeks
after birth for piglets from 50 litters weaned at 5 weeks. Within a panel, each point represents
one piglet, with its gain during the week expressed as a percentage of its bodyweight at the
beginning of the week. For example, most piglets began the first week at a bodyweight of 1-2
kg and gained 0-150% of this initial weight during the week. By the later weeks, weight
gains became an increasingly uniform percentage of body weight, so that the gap between
large and small piglets continued to increase (20).
 44

normally distributed. However, during the second week of age the weekly percentage weight
gain starts to differentiate among piglets, creating greater variations that may affect meat
quality at market time especially in an All-In-All-Out system.
According to (Figure 1.4) after 10 days of age the growth rate of the suckling piglet reaches a
plateau because its daily body requirements for maintenance are greater than at previous
lower weights, and their physical activity has also increased with age thus requiring more
energy and feed consumption for growth. The physical effect is highly influenced by milk
yield and suckling capacity. The target growth indicates a potential to complement low milk
yields with a milk substitute and to maintain the slope of the growth rate per day. If liquid
milk supplement is provided after 2 days of age a heavier piglet may be weaned and a

Figure 1.4. Pattern of growth rate of piglets during the suckling and weaning phases. Data of
the suckling phase (◻) (265 piglets from 23 litters weighed daily). Weaning phase data are
from different authors, each symbol represents a single report (2).
 45

5 days savings in the growing stage. After 21 days of age the weaning process drastically
interrupts feed consumption which has an effect on growth rate that will not be optimized
until 40 days of age. Providing creep feeding and reducing the effect of post weaning
syndrome (PWS) enables the saving for additional 5 days of growing for a total reduction of
more than 10 days to reach the desired market weight. The least squares fit equation that
describes this process is as follows:
Suckling phase: Y= 273 ( ±3.6) – 289 (±28) e-0.38(±0.05) X1
Weaning phase: Y = 650 ( ±53)-784 (±57) e-0.103(±0.02) X2
where Y= growth rate (g/day); X1= day post-natal and X2= day post-weaning.
The growth rate pattern during the suckling phase was recorded on piglets from
modern genotypes. Pigs were weighed daily (265 piglets from 23 litters with an average
individual weaning weight of 6.6 kg at the age of 20 days).
After birth, many social, environmental, health, and nutritional factors are involved in
the growth rate of the neonatal pig. The growth rate varies widely during the first 3 days of
age with gains ranging from 5 to 227 g/day/pig (61). After 5 days, a mean growth rate
reaches a lower plateau value for 180 g/day for conventional breeds and a moderate growth
rate of 240 g/day in selected lean breeds. This is equivalent to an astonishing increase of 6%
body weight per day (36). The average growth rate of preweaned piglets at 3 to 4 weeks of
age rarely exceeds 230 g/d. In Australia, pig litters of 9-10 grew at about 215 g/d (93). In a
litter of 12 pigs, the average daily gain was 208 g/d from day 10 to day 27 and those fostered
gained 181 g/d, whereas piglets in the litter of 6 grew much faster at 308 g/d (97). Suckling
pigs grow at an average of 180 to 240 g/d between birth and weaning. The fastest growth
rates ever recorded were those of Hodge in 1974 which were fed cows’ whole milk ad
libitum and measured an average daily gain of 576 g from 10 to 30 days of age (96).
In comparison, the results of artificial rearing studies reported possible values for live
weight gain as high as 400-550 g/day during the suckling phase. Artificially reared piglets
grew at the rate of >500g/d during the first week of age (93).
Each farm should have targets for weight and age, and it is suggested that these
should be 6 to 8 kg at 3 to 4 weeks and 30 to 35 kg at 9 to 10 weeks of age equivalent to
growth rates of 570 to 640 g/day (64). This suggests that the biological growth potential of
 46

the suckling pigs through the supply of sufficient nutrients is much greater than that achieved
in practice. A realistic goal to target is 280-300 and 550-580 g/day of growth, in the suckling
and weaning phase, respectively. Corresponding target bodyweight at weaning (20-22 days)
and at the end of the weaning phase (60-63 days) should be >7.2 and >31.5 kg, respectively
(2). These are easy goals for individual pigs but not for the whole litter average.

Practical targets
Best Practice (102):
● Pigs weaned per litter: 9.4 (immediate target-top 20%), if weaning 9.7 pigs
(long-term target-top 10%).
● Piglet growth rate to weaning: 220 g/day (6.0 kg at 21 days, 7.5 kg at 28 days).
● Sow condition score 3 maintained throughout lactation.
● A national USA survey resulted in feed conversion ratios ranged from 2.18 to 5.91 kg
in grow-finish stage, for an average X=3.28 ± 0.52 kg of feed/kg of growth.
The birth weight, weaning weight, and the post-weaning daily growth rate during the
first week without suckling its dam are the best targets for pig farms to accomplish better
results for further development and to finish more efficient pigs. Piglets weaned under <7.5
kg need more attention to avoid post weaning syndrome. It is important to provide for the
animals’ needs to obtain an average daily gain performance > 250 g during the week after
weaning to reduce growing variation as compared to the heavier weaned pigs (80). The
weight of the piglet at any age does not determine the ADG after weaning (81). The birth
weight will be an intrinsic advantage or disadvantage throughout the production cycle of the
pig (Table 1.24), but being underweight could be overcome under appropriate nutrition and
management. Many factors will affect the growth performance of the weaning pig such barn
facilities, temperature, relative humidity and ventilation, space allowance per head, nutrition
diet, feed’s form presentation (liquid, dry, pellet) and feeder design as well as many other
management practices, but attention should be paid to the less suited pigs in order to reduce
weight differentiation with the heavier pigs (167).
 47

Table 1.24. Relationship between birth weight and body weight at weaning at 27 days (42)

Initial birth weight (kg) Number of piglets Weaning weight (kg)

<1.23 234 7.0
1.23-1.51 586 8.0
1.51-1.80 463 8.5
>1.80 308 9.5

Suckling piglets supplemented ad libitum liquid and mixed pelleted skim milk (20%
dry matter DM) grew faster during lactation at the rate of 291 g/d vs. 223 g/d and weighted
more at weaning (20 days) 6.74 vs. 6.13 kg compared to piglets that only sucked their dams
(57). After weaning the creep feed group improved growth rate of 213 vs. 151 g/d after the 2
days post weaning and this advantage was maintained at 41 days with 14.7 vs. 12.2 kg and
pigs were 10% heavier at 120 days with 64.5 vs. 60.6 kg, respectively. This advantage was
maintained throughout growing period to the finishing stage for the liquid feeding but not for
dry feeding (56). A compensatory growth response for the non supplemented pigs was
equivalent to the growth rate of pigs receiving dry feed that had a growth lag after weaning.
This compensatory growth proves that regardless of the beneficial effects of early creep
feeding in improving health of the suckling piglets, reducing mortality, improving feed
efficiency all the way through the finishing process, the early growth advantage can be lost if
daily growth rate is not maintained or improved after the first week of weaning. The average
commercial growth rate for piglets of 1.5 kg live weight gaining 285 grams per day whereas
their genetic potential is 576 g/d (87).
The biological growth potential 400g/d is 74% higher for the supplemented piglet
than the pig only nourished by its dam and growing at the rate of 230 g/day from birth to 21
days of age. This growth difference is highly influenced by an endogenous intestinal
reduction (60-75%) in the synthesis of arginine after 7 days of age and progressively even
more after 14 days of age, indicating that sows milk provides only < 40% of the daily
arginine requirement for suckling piglets. The importance of providing feed supplements
high in arginine is because amino acids like arginine and leucine stimulate the secretion of
insulin and growth hormone that regulate protein accretion. Arginine is the most important
 48

carrier of nitrogen in the body and participates in many metabolic pathways. It is the
immediate precursor of citrulline and ornithine and a reduction in arginine plasma
concentration reduces glutamine, threonine, and alanine levels as well (130).
A research study conducted with different numbers of suckling piglets per treatment
demonstrated that the sow that milked the 6/6 group of litters reared 12 piglets and lost less
weight than sows constantly milking 12 pigs per litter (Table 1.25).
Those small litters may have higher individual growth rates because there is more
milk available for each of the pigs in the litter, whereas larger litters of 12 pigs will have 50
grams less body weight at weaning than litters of 6 piglets. The cross-suckle treatment 6/6
during early lactation produced milk yield of 8,920 g/d and those litter with only 6 piglets
produced 7,819 g of milk/d. The largest daily gain was for litters with 6 piglets but not for the
total litter weight at weaning. The lactating sows had a feed intake of 4.57 kg/d (121).

Table 1.25. The effect of suckling treatment on sow live weight and backfat and on litter
growth rates during lactation (121)

Suckling treatmentsa
Variables 6 12 6/6 SED
Sow live weight, kg
After farrowing 146.0 140.4 143.5 5.4
Loss during lactation 7.3b 22.0c 6.5b 5.2
Sow backfat, mm
At farrowing 19.3 19.5 18.3 1.7
Loss during lactation 1.7b 6.8c 2.8b 1.2
Avg piglet growth g/p/d
0-14 days 222b 212bc 162c 24
14-28 days 283b 197c 164c 20
0-28 days 252b 205c 163d 18
Litter growth g/l/d
0-14 days 1332b 2544c 1944d 217
14-28 days 1698b 2364c 1968bc 209
0-28 days 1512b 2460c 1956d 171
a
Suckling treatments had sows that continually suckled 6 and 12 piglets, respectively, from parturition
to 28 days of lactation. The litter treatment 6/6 comprised two suckling groups of six piglets; each
group was allowed to suckle the sow during alternative 30 minutes from d 6 to 28 days of lactation.
b,c,d
Within a row, means lacking a common superscript difference (P<0.05); in the absence of
superscripts, means are not significantly different.
 49

Fostering
The main goal of cross fostering is to match the number of piglets according to the
capacity of the sow and to equalize piglet weights within litters. This practice is used to
optimize the rearing capacity of the sow and to standardize piglet weight at weaning. A large
database of 300 farms demonstrated that this practice is common in USA and Canada (151).
A sizable British analysis that involved 13,640 piglets from 1,615 sows revealed that
cross-fostering reduced piglet growth 10.5 % from birth to 14 days of age. More than 10% of
the newborn pigs were fostered and should have been limited to the first day after farrowing,
moving only piglets with light to medium birth weights in order to minimize the detrimental
effect on piglet growth within a litter (69). Some studies reported advantages for practicing
cross fostering and many did not recommend this method because several factors were
involved that increased health risks (82).
The practice of fostering implies many unwanted results as 13% lighter piglets at
weaning, more frequent fights in resident and fostered pigs, failed nursing and snaps at
piglets (Table 1.26). Piglets develop teat fidelity within the first days after birth and suckled
at the same teat until weaning. This behavior is an advantage to the young because it reduces
competition and fighting at the udder. The practice of fostering interrupts all the social
equilibrium and results in stressful behavior to the pig and sows (129). It is important to
understand that fostering is a husbandry tool to resolve stressful situations for the milking
mother or to some members of the litter that have severe disadvantage to thrive or survive,
but this practice implies biological justifications and should not be used as a mechanical tool
in the daily routine activities as it is common to see it in large confinement farms.
The practice of fostering is enhanced if allows piglet colostrum intake after delivery
or if it is implemented between sows of the same farrowing date, remove piglets before the
litter establish teat selection and fixation. The fostering activity could be used at the end of
the lactation period on partial weaning practices if an extended lactation period can be
accomplished. Fostering should be limited to sows and piglets in the same farrowing room to
avoid disease dissemination and to accomplish the establishment of the All-In-All-Out
system. It is important to notice that fostering should be avoid during normal lactation period
just to make more uniform litter numbers if mortality rate was increased.
 50

Table 1.26. Piglet weight average at 14 days of age in two categories for birth weight:
fostered and not-fostered piglets. (69)

Birth weight Not fostered Fostered

(kg) Number of pigs Weight at 14 days kg Number of pigs Weight at 14 days
0.7 80 3.150 78 2.650
1.0 206 3.450 75 3.150
1.1 426 3.600 99 3.455
1.2 788 3.700 143 3.600
1.3 1,208 3.950 144 3.700
1.4 1,499 4.250 147 3.750
1.5 1,676 4.300 159 4.100
1.6 1,614 4.550 163 4.150
1.7 1,403 4.700 151 4.500
1.8 1,130 4.800 109 4.600
1.9 777 5.100 93 4.700
2.0 1,339 5.400 109 5.000

Only the difference of 1.8 kg in weaning weight (6.1 vs. 7.9 kg) at 25-29 days of age
increased the difference to 5 kg at 78 days and to 10 kg at 150 days. Piglets weaned at 4.1 to
5.0 kg required 11 to 20 days longer to reach market weight at 105 kg compared with weaned
pigs at 7.3 to 8.6 kg. For any farrowing time the weight at weaning can be large from 4.4 to
11.0 kg and the weight of a 9 weaned pig litter ranged from 58 to 83 kg and there are also
very large weight variations within littermates from 5.6 to 10.12 kg/pig within pigs of the
same litter. Maximum growth rate (248 ± 63 g/d) occurred at 14 to 21 days and would
correspond to the peak of sow’s milk production (99). Previous studies showed that a 2.8 kg
difference in weaning weight (4.7 vs. 7.5) resulted in less than 15 days to reach 105.0 kg at
market weight. The difference of 0.44 kg at weaning time could reduce 4 days at the
finishing stage (114).
Each gained kilo in the suckling piglet during lactation period will represent savings
of approximately 5 days of feeding during the finishing stage. This may be equivalent to 20
kilos extra of finished feed instead of < 1.5 kilo of milk substitute used in the farrowing barn.
The extra labor involved at the beginning of the rearing stage is easily rewarded with
 51

optimized growth in posterior stages. The ad libitum feed intake for a finisher pig >100 kg
BW in a diet with energy concentration of 12.0 MJ DE/kg will consume > 3.92 kg/day (52).
The injection of a single dose of dexamethasone (1-2 mg/kg BW) at birth may result
in increased weight gain during the lactation and post weaning period for barrows but not for
gilts, resulting in an improvement in growth performance and less days to market (114). It
can be suggested that the injection of dexamethasone has a relive effect on the practice of
early castration but this is a question mark because also inhibits the immune system. There is
an important advantage in most of the productive parameters for the heaviest pigs in the litter
but the pig industry has to deal with all the piglets born alive to consider economic profits
(Table 1.27).
Small piglets < 1.1 kg have fewer numbers of muscle fibers in their body and they
have smaller organs (except the brain) than the same pigs in the litter with higher birth
weight and these physiological disadvantages may affect their subsequent growth potential.
The number of fibers is fixed at or shortly after birth and sometimes reduced after weaning
time. The lower number of muscular cells could be compensated at slaughter time when a
finished pig of 105 kg will have fewer but larger muscle fibers (82).

Table 1.27. Post weaning performance of pigs weaned at 18 days of age in relation to
weaning weight (135)

Pig live weight at weaning

Lightest Second lightest Second heaviest Heaviest
Number pigs at start 107 114 115 114
Mean live weight at start (kg) 3.87 4.60 5.19 6.14
Mean live weight at 4 weeks (kg) 8.61 9.87 10.74 12.55
Live weight gain per day (g) 176 196 207 239
Number of deaths 5 5 4 0
Percentage deaths 4.6 4.3 3.4 0
Food intake per pig per day (g) 276 294 300 335
Feed conversion kg feed/kg gain 1.58 1.60 1.53 1.42
 52

Feed Processing
The physical form of feedstuffs such cereals (maize, wheat, barley, rice, triticale, rye,
sorghum) can be modified using several feed processing techniques by means of rolling,
milling, flaking, extrusion, expansion (puffed), expanding jetsploding, pellets, cooking,
autoclaving, baking, thermal treatment and application of steam heat conditioner, steam
flaking, steam pelleting (80°C ) and pressure and infra-red radiation/micronization (34).
Feed can contain thousands of bacteria and fungi in each gram which cause negative
reactions in the upper part of the digestive tract. It is necessary to prevent these organisms
from multiplying and a few products will be discussed in subsequent section of the paper.
The proper use of any other physical or chemical treatments, contribute to the improvement
in digestibility of the starch fraction of the grain and the reduction of salmonella. The process
selected may also react on the denaturation of anti-nutritive components and nondigestible
factors of the grain and may have an effect on the reduction of any other bacteria populations
already present in the feed (5). Gelatinization occurs at 65°C changing the physical structure
and distribution of the granules of starch. The response to the treatment depends on many
external factors (time, temperature, and moisture) and it changes its degree for every type of
cereal. When the transformed feed is fed to the animal, this leads in the digestive system to a
more hydrolytic action by enzymes. The most important issue is to get a more palatable
product to stimulate feed consumption. On the contrary, the over heating of the starch causes
a reduction in the digestibility of the grain and generates bitter flavors (170).
Some cereal species may have anti-nutritional factors as β-Glucans and pentosans and
lesser amounts of flatulence producing oligosaccharides as raffinose, stachyose, verbascose
and ajucose. These products also occur with higher levels in oil seeds species and
oil-extracted meals and are not easily digested because the pig does not have α-galactosidase,
but instead a metabolic pathway using invertase (sucrase) enzymatic reaction occurs
hydrolyzing these carbohydrates improving digestible values and reducing the fermentative
potential of gases in the hind gut (35).
The recommendation is that cereal grains should be ground to >400 to <700 microns
and later on pelletized in a 2.4-3.97 mm diameter to 13 mm length pellet (164). The stomachs
of weaned pigs fed a finely ground wheat-based diet were shown to have severe ulceration
 53

and were colonized by Helicobacter species, while feeding extruded wheat showed no
ulceration and no bacteria (85).
Cereals are cooked in Europe to increase digestibility (gelatinization) of the starch
fraction and the process will increase the overall digestibility of the feeds. Piglets have a
preference for dried ground feed rather than high moisture rolled or high moisture whole
feed. The most easily digested cereals are cooked oat starch and flaked maize (64). This list
includes rice for human consumption that has no resistant starch and if cooked will be an
excellent energy source that will reduce incidence of scours but will not accomplish growth
rates obtained with corn. Basically, there is an effect of a high relation rate in the weight of
the starch content and the seed weight cuticle. These cereals may have lower cellulose
content or tannin levels as compared to other cereals (170). The hydrolyzed corn syrups or
dextrose is another method to feed corn in form of sugars or sweeteners.
The use of soybean meal may cause allergic or transient hypersensitivity reactions in
the immature gut of the young pig thus limiting its use in early rearing formulas (7). It is
possible to detect β-conglycinin in the blood serum of a weaned piglet (9). Different
industrial processes have been used to reduce anti-nutritional factors such trypsin and
chymotrypsin inhibitors, antigenic proteins, unavailable carbohydrates and lectins
(haemaglutinins), developed during prolonged soybeans storage that generated proteins as
glycinin and β-conglycinin. Soybean protein either stimulates nitrogen secretion by the
exocrine glands of the digestive tract or causes excessive loss of gut wall cell by sloughing.
The same effect was found on soybean meal, soy protein isolate and fishmeal (3). The high
digestibility > 80% of the soybean meal, soy protein isolate and fishmeal is comparable to
skimmed milk powder but poorly absorbed < 75% on the apparent ileal digestibility, leaving
protein molecules for bacteria growth in the colon. This is a main reason not to use high
levels of soybean protein in weaner diets because the young pig does not have the required
enzymes to break down proteins and complex carbohydrates from soybean meal (8).
The hydrolytic contribution of the hydrochloride acid in the stomach is low during the
first days of age. The flatulence producing oligosaccharides present in whole soybean and
soybean meal are raffinose, stachyose and verascose and this is the reason to apply thermal
treatment to the soybean grain. It is not that soybean meal use is wrong it is the most studied
 54

vegetable protein and research in this topic dominates the majority of the reports, this is why
there is more information on it and a supportive way to decide its wiser proper use. Table
1.28.
Soybean protein concentrates are produced by the alcohol washing process which
together with subsequent heat treatments deactivates the antigenic substances (glucinin and
B-Glycinin and the lectins) and the anti-trypsin factor and removes the soluble carbohydrates
raffinose and stachyose. This also denatures the protein in the product and renders it
insoluble. This product is proportionately about 95% of the digestibility of skim milk, but its
physical characteristics have a problem of rapid sedimentation in the reconstituted milk. The
soybean isolates are expensive but the product contains more protein (171). They require
extra process by enzymatic digestion to deactivate antigenic or antinutritional factors (63). It
has not been proven whether supplements made of soybean sources may cause reduced
growth effect during lactation, because there is a protective inflammatory factor on fresh sow
milk.
The list of soybean byproducts in the feed industry is large and just to mention a few
as full fat extruded soybean, texturized soybean protein, whole fermented soybean, whole
extruded soybean, high protein soybean, macerated full fat soybean, micronized soybean.

Table 1.28. Effect of different soybean products on immune response; absorption (Xylose)
and post-weaning growth rate in young pigs (44)

Extruded soya
Milk Soybean Soya protein
Soya protein protein
protein meal concentrate I
concentrate
Residual antigens in
- 2.4 0.9 0.5 0.8
Glycinin products
β-Conglycinin - 3.6 1.5 1.2 1.3
Villus height (μm) 364 234 309 280 319
Crypt depth (μm) 198 222 214 190 196
Skinfold thickness (mm) 0.82 3.33 2.65 2.59 2.50
Xylose absorption
0.82 0.42 0.61 0.78 0.67
(mg/100 ml)
Coliforms (% total
2 37 24 23 4
bacteria)
Postweaning growth rate
326 182 208 211 227
(14 d, g/day)
 55

The lower antigenic products as milk substitutes would be soy flour, soy protein concentrate,
isolated soy protein and the protease treatment of soybean meal in hot ethanol.

Supplementation
The methods for supplementing feed and nutrients are orally, stomach tube, anal,
intravenous and intraperitoneal. The following data are the comparison effects on growth rate
(g/d) for not supplemented piglets (NS) and supplemented (YS). The results show that from
10 to 20 days of age the NS gained 220 g/d and YS grew 290 g/d. For those providing creep
feeding from day 14 to day 35 the NS grew at 180 g/d and YS at 220 g/d. The neonates that
received milk substitute from birth to 21 days of age, during the cool season the ADG was
235 g/d for the NS and 255 g/d for the YS. The group fed during the warm season had a
growth rate of NS 170 g/d and YS 235 gram per day (82).
The artificially bottle forced supplementation at this early age may reduce variation in
growth rate within and among litters, reducing the numerous environmental effects that cause
poor milk consumption. This variation shows differences in growth rate from 5 to 227 g/day
during the first 3 days of life. The effects of low milk consumption are remarkably important
for the ability of the piglet to survive and to thrive. It increases neonatal mortality, piglets
achieve poor growth rate, reduces whole body protein metabolism and synthesis, delays
muscle maturation and decreases cross-sectional of secondary fibers in the longissimus dorsi
and rhomboideus muscles, and lowers digestive capacity, mucosal growth, functionality and
gut development.
The evolution of the sow’s milk was intended for the survival of the litter and not for
economic traits as muscle growth. The sow milk promotes subcutaneous fat to provide
insulation and energy reserve for lipogenesis and glycogenesis. The supplementation of
protein for piglets of these ages is not as easy as it sounds, pre-weaning creep feed intake is
only 1.4-5.4% of daily ME intake and growth may be improved 10-31% using liquid
preweaning supplements. This may represent 0.6 and 1.5 kg heavier piglet at weaning at 20
and 28 days of age, respectively. The supplementation starts with 1.5 liters per litter at birth
and they may require 9.1 liters/litter at weaning time. This may supply the milk shortage of
10 kg of milk produced for the >20 kg of milk required for optimal growth per litter. The
handling of a milk liquid supplement requires an appropriate feed design to reduce wastage.
 56

Colostrum and milk do not have medium chain triglycerides (MCT) but these fatty
acids can be supplemented at the rate of 6g MCT/ kgBW0.75 because they do not require
carnitine to be transported into the mitochondria. Supplementation of glucose, lactose, oleic
acid and corn oil have not showed good results, but galactose is more digestible and can be
used as an effective source of energy by enterocytes form suckling piglets. Providing
exogenous energetic nutrients improves physical condition of the pig but increase the risk of
mortality when the sow crushes baby pigs by excessive handling. There is little information
on the digestion of protein and fat. (16).
The rapidly growing baby pig needs supplements of arginine in the diet because milk
does not supply the large requirements for this amino acid. This is an essential amino acid
but the piglet can synthesize it via the urea cycle thus reducing nitrogen excretion. Arginine
is also a substrate for the formation of nitric oxide and citrulline (173). The sources of
glutamate and glutamine would be precursors and have a sparing effect of arginine and
proline (37). There is not commercially synthetic arginine amino acid available in the market
and it has to be supplemented from a high rich feed source that may alter the amino acid
composition of the diet.
The use of high biological value feedstuffs with more than >90% digestibility during
the pre-weaning stage stimulates the growth of non-enterotoxic micro biota populations,
competing for intestinal space against enteropathogenic strains of Escherichia coli. There are
complex interactions among the pig’s physiology, source quality of the feed diet and the
healthy establishment of commensal organisms (8). The mechanism of action may be
disrupted by increments of high protein >21% CP diets, changes on the pH of the feed or in
its fiber content (5). The composition of the milk has a low protein: energy ratio (1:9.2-10.4
g/MJ) of gross energy that it serves an advantage in presence of a disease but not for pigs’
growth. In case of a dehydrating diarrhea caused by mechanical or microbial action, a high
protein diet will produce metabolic urea a diuretic agent that may accelerate dehydration
(19).
Pig litters provided creep feed at 11 days of age until weaning at 28 days of age
showed that many piglets did not eat any feed while suckling their dams. From 16 litters and
149 piglets only the 17% of the pigs consumed feed after 18 days of age and 19% did not
 57

consume creep feed even at weaning time. The remaining 64% did not show clear evidence
of supplement consumption. The overall results reported feed consumption from 445 to 7,840
g per litter, for an average of 377 grams of feed per piglet and the optimization of
postweaning feed intake, growth performance and health (112). This is a dual situation of
variable suckling milk capacity or low feed supplement consumption where both ways
produce low growing rates. If suckling piglets receive a highly digestible creep feed they
may consume an average of 385 grams, but if they consume a corn-soy diet feed
consumption drops to 77 g/pig/day. Voluntary feed intake after weaning is affected by
preweaning experiences, weaning age, and postweaning practices. These results bring the
idea of force-feeding or to assure feed intake and by feed training imitate other pigs to
increase feed intake. The turkey industry utilizes a poult with feed experience to demonstrate
to the smaller chick the behavior of approaching feed. This may give some results in the
swine industry but increases the level of antigen exposure or health risk for the
All-Inn/All-Out systems. This situation also generates two results one that improves feed
consumption in a shorter period and the other that modifies medication and diet formulation.
These variations on individual creep feed consumption exist in any commercial pork
production farm and also produce that other research reports do not recommend the practice
of supplementing suckling pig during lactation time. A compensation growth rate during the
stage of 14 to 25 kg BW reduces any advantage gained in posterior stages by a supplemental
milk replacer and any remained advantage is lost during grow to finishing period. This
suggestion does not agree with many other reports indicating that early growth gain is not
lost in subsequent phases but they will be highly correlated to heavy birth weight, highest
weaned weight and the fastest average daily gains (ADG) during the first week after
weaning. The analysis continues for a birth weight has more impact all the way through the
finisher phase than a supplemental practice during lactation. Heavy birth weighting (1.8 kg
per piglet) consumed more supplement and were heavier at weaning time. The light birth
piglets (<1.3 kg) with milk replacer had the same weaning weight as the heavier birth piglets
without creep feeding (116). This shows that is possible to have more uniform weaned litters
and to overcome slap growth improvement in the less fitted piglets (see letter b for no
statistical significance) and birth weight could be overcome by a milk replacer from weaning
 58

to 14 kg body weight and the extra feed will have an important influence during the growing
period from 25 to 65 Kg (Table 1.29).
The milk replacer effect was statistically significant from weaning to 14 kg body
weight but this advantage was not reflected in the grow-finish stages. The report indicates
high mortality values for the heavier born piglets and for those who received a milk replacer
but the statistical analysis does not indicate significance difference. The heavier pigs at birth
had the best growth rate with milk supplement and the same growth as the supplemented
light weight piglets (116).

Table 1.29. The effect of pig birth weight and milk replacer treatment on subsequent pig
growth (116)

Birth weight Milk replacer P-value

Item Heavy Light Supplement No supplement Birth weight Milk replacer
No. of pens 39 38 40 37
No. of pigs 156 152 160 148
Weight, kg
Heavy 1.8 kg 7.2 (7.1 ± 1.15)a 6.1 (6,0 ± 1.11)b
Light 1.3 kg 6.1 (6.0 ± 1.18)b 5.5 (5.4 ± 1.38)c
Wean to 14 kg 14.5 14.3 14.2 14.7 0.15 0.01
14 to 25 kg 25.6 24.9 25.3 25.1 0.12 0.56
25 to 65 kg 66.9 66.1 65.9 67.1 0.10 0.08
65 to 110 kg 110.3 109.2 109.7 109.9 0.14 0.80
Mortality, % 3.2 2.6 3.8 2.0 0.77 0.37
Morbidity, % 7.1 7.9 8.1 6.8 0.78 0.65
a,b,c
Variable with interaction between birth weight and milk replacer differerence (P<0.05).

Enzyme Additives
Pigs do not secrete endogenous enzymes that break down plant fibers or cell wall
lignocelluloses nor for nonstarch gel forming polysaccharides (β-Glucans, pentosans, pectin
substances and flatulence producing oligosaccharides) (35). Diets that contain wheat
(xylanase targets arabinoxylans), barley (β-glucanase targets β-glucans), rye or triticale
which are considered the group of “viscous’ cereals have a large proportion of soluble and
 59

insoluble arabinoxylan and β-glucan. Oats may require β-glucanase. The soluble fiber can
increase the viscosity of the ingested feed in the small intestine, impeding the digestion of
available nutrients for growth. This is also dependent on the specific variety used for feed
and appropriate variations in the crops’ environmental conditions that affect digestibility of
the cereal.
The main enzymes commercially available for additives to pig diets are: Phytase,
protease, amylase, pentosanase, β-glucanase, cellulase/hemicellulase, blends of amylase,
protease, β-glucanase, α galactosidases, and lipase (35). The benefits of glycanases (amylase,
β-glucanase, cellulase, pectinase, α-galactosidase) increase feed consumption when the
grains have poor quality or less digestible components and only phytase has shown more
constant results (72) (Table 1.30).
Extensive research conducted for several years on the utilization of feed enzymes and
probiotics has not been conclusive. On the other hand, some of these products should not be
discarded from the nutritionist tool box of feed additives but rather they show a promising
future to improve feed efficiency and animal growth and to contribute to the reduction on
environment pollution (6).

Table 1.30. Feed enzymes in use today (106)

Enzyme Action Target

β-Glucanases β-Glucans to oligosaccharides and glucose. Barley, oats and rye.
Amylases Degrade cereal starch to dextrin and sugars. High starch cereal diet.
Cellulases Cellulose to low molecular weight products High fiber diets
and glucose.
Pentosanases Arabinoxylans to low molecular weight Rye, barley and wheat.
(Xylanases) products and sugars.
α-Galactosidase Degrades oligosaccharides and Anti Soybean and other legumes.
Nutritional Factors.
Phytases Increases availability of phosphorus from Many different diets.
phytic acid.
Proteases Protein to peptides and amino acids. Wheat by-products, legume
proteins.
Lipases Fats to fatty acids Animal and vegetable fats.
 60

The supplementation of creep feeding with 47,500 IU of amylase and 5,000 IU of

protease/kg of feed during lactation does not improve enzymatic activity in the gastro
intestinal tract and only increases digestive activity of proteases at 49 days of age (71). The
lack of constant and conclusive results is due to the low retention time during the passage of
digesta that does not give enough time for the endogenous enzymes to react with chyme. This
may suggest the need for a predigested supplement to improve digestibility of the feed and
the efficiency of the enzymes added to the ration.

Feed Intake
The ad-libitum supply of dry creep feed to piglets during lactation and free access to
drinkers or instead the option to supplement liquid feed or slurry feed during lactation will
provide a training period to wean the animals. This stage before weaning provides a physical
and nutritive stimulus for the intestine and will develop a behavioral acceptance to feed
intake. These methods develop a healthy villous height and reduce post-transitional weaning
problems caused by poor feed consumption and digestion. The physiological effect is more
notorious in the smaller pigs because they tend to consume more feed and the bigger pig is
more dependent on the sow’s milk (7). The big issue in creep supplementation is that litter
consumption varies from 0.4 to 22.8 kg per lactating period and individual piglet
consumption ranged from 0 to 250 g/day, indicating a wide variation that will be reflected
after weaning and creating discrepancies in many tests and increasing weaning weight
variability (19).
The suckling pig will consume creep feed during lactation for 1.4-5.4% of daily ME
at 21 days and for the piglets weaned at 28 days their creep feed consumption accounts for
1.2 to 7.3% of their daily ME (41). These concepts were mentioned in previously,
nevertheless, it is important to realize that feed consumption is a determinant factor for
establishing nutrient requirements.
Creep feed consumption is quite variable over weeks 3 and 4 of lactating litters with a
range of 0 to 2,382 g and within litters the range was 0-674 g/piglet. The onset of
consumption was observed at 19-23 days of age and only <50% of the piglets started to
consume feed and this was noticed more on the females than castrated barrows. Castration
may induce androgen secretions that could have influenced maturation of the central nervous
 61

structures involved in exploratory and learning behaviors. They had a learning behavior
during lactation regardless of the supplement consumption and this was a stimulus after
weaning (141).
The length of the lactation period is important in the adaptation for feed consumption
but the quality and physical presentation of the feed is determinant in the acceptance of feed
intake. This does not follow a constant pattern because is highly influenced in sows’ milk
production and piglet suckling udder stimulation (Table 1.31).

Table 1.31. Contribution of creep food to daily energy intake of the piglet during lactation
(96)

Duration of feeding Lactation Creep food Piglet growth Contribution of creep

days length / days (g/piglet/d) g/day to daily energy (%)
11 28 3 167 1
21 35 43 168 16
21 35 36 244 10
18 21 4 190 1
11 21 17 180 5
24 28 18 209 5
18 28 27 218 7
7 28 51 248 12
7 28 77 261 17
15 29 10 251 3

The supplementation of creep feeding did not support better growth rates than non
supplemented pigs because in most situations did not stimulated voluntary feed intake. The
piglets kept suckling their dams at the same ingestion rate and the free access to a milk
replacer contributed with small daily energy values.
There is a positive response to liquid supplementation at an early age and the
advantage will continue even in extended lactation length (Table 1.32). Supplementing
piglets with cow’s milk improved daily dry matter intake and growth rate too. This was more
notorious in large lactation periods than early weaning times. The small improvement of 9%
could be maintained in the finishing stage if there is not a short lag in pig’s growth rate after
weaning.
 62

Table 1.32. Piglets dry matter intake of cow’s whole milk supplement and growth of piglets
compared with the simple dry feed (control) diet while suckling the sow from 7
to 28 days of age (96)

Age (days)
7-14 14-21 21-28 7-28
Dry matter intake (g/d)
Control 2 2 2 2
Cow’s whole milk 18 57 149 74
Daily gain of piglets (g/d)
Control 255 247 210 237
Cow’s milk 277 335 361 324
Improvement (%) 9 36 72 37

Piglets of 10 days of age that were still nursing their dams and received a liquid milk
supplement had a litter consumption of 2.37 kg /day, progressively increasing daily
consumption during 10 days to reach 7.22 kg/d/litter at 20 days of age. Every pig consumed
an average of 388 ± 21 g/day (97 g DM/d) (57). Suckling piglets supplemented ad libitum
liquid milk and after 2 days had a mixed pelleted skim milk (20% DM) progressively
changing the diet until 6 more days providing pelleted feed only. This transition period was
to train the piglet to eat solid foods while maintaining feed intake in slurry form. The training
period during creep feeding prepared them to eat at weaning 257 g DM/day rather that 30 g
DM/d for the piglets that only sucked their dams without supplement (56). The individual
advantage in growth and feed consumption was carried all the way to the finishing stage for
the liquid feeding than those on the dry feeding (167). The piglet supplementation did not
have an effect on the sow’s reproductive performance for live weight change (-31.9 vs. –30.3
kg), back fat thickness (-5.3 vs. –4.2 mm) for the sows nursing litters with and without
supplementation respectively and for the period between farrowing and day 20 of lactation
(57).
The practice of forced feeding (gastric intubation) (practiced in layers, geese and
ducks) and bottle-feeding (in dairy, horses and zoos) may provide a repetitive behavior and
facilitate the daily action of supplementing piglets with a milk replacer. This action could
 63

take place only for 3 days to save life of weaker piglets and to encourage feed consumption
in the rest of the litter. Force feeding guarantees feed consumption but requires more time for
hand labor in a moment of other intensive activities in the farrowing barn as iron shot,
detailing, cutting canines, ear notching or tattooing, castration and other practices as applying
an antibiotic or maybe a vaccine. The installation of specialized liquid feeding systems has
its own benefits and disadvantages and it is not completely reliable without supervision
unless hydrogen peroxide is used to reduce bacteria growth in liquid milk replacers or any
other antiseptic is used to stabilize bacteria growth in the pipelines and feed troughs.
Voluntary feed consumption is affected by age of the pig and the feed source used.
The younger age the less feed consumption and coarse feed reduce digestibility and feed
intake (Table 1.33). As lactation advances the piglet’s digestive system gets more mature and
prepared to digest feed sources and the animal is capable to increase feed intake.
Large creep feed consumption before weaning (>600 g/pig) at 5 weeks of age may
improve feed consumption and growth, and decrease any hypersensitivity reactions post
weaning. But if the ingestion of soybean meal (antigens) before weaning is small the reaction
will damage the gut lining and may have long-term effects (61). This creep feed makes the
animal familiar with the source and method of feeding. There is not a positive response if a

Table 1.33. Measurements of creep feed intake when weaning took place at 3 or 4 weeks of
age (various studies) (44)

Average creep feed intake/pig before

Period creep feed
weaning (g) or range where Type of diet
was offered
individual intakes were measured
7-21 93 Highly digestible skimmed milk/cooked
cereals
10-21 71 Complex; including milk powders/cooked
starches
23 Semi-complex
13 Simple; wheat/soybean
10-28 13-194 Maize/soybean/whey
7-28 600 Highly digestible skimmed milk/cooked
cereals
21-28 450 Maize/soybean/whey
10-28 13-191 Maize/soybean/whey
14-28 150 Complex; skimmed milk powder, 25%
soybean
 64

pig litter is restricted for times of suckling per day in order to stimulate supplement
consumption during lactation. The piglet has free access to the dam udder allowing to suck
every 30 minutes during diurnal time and at larger intervals during night reducing suckling
frequency. The frequency of the suckling behavior without hesitation conditions the digestive
system for small milk intake each time and does not cause a stimulus for the extension of the
digestive system to enlarge. On the contrary a restricted feed supply during days 3-8 post
weaning reduced the amount of diarrhea and the proliferation of hemolytic E. coli in the
intestines without these problems occurring when ad libitum feeding was resumed (59). The
same effect may be obtained if piglets are fed a low nutrient diet, but growth rate is reduced
in both cases. Another way to improve feed efficiency in the 1 to 2 days old pig could be to
feed in small quantities every 90 minutes for > 16 times a day. The slurry presentation of the
feed should be 50% composed of any of the milk byproduct sources such dried skim milk,
skim milk hydrolyzate, sodium caseinate, sweet dried whey. The other 50% could be soybean
meal or isolated soy protein (167). This is in order to resemble the frequency of suckling
behavior and to avoid overfeeding at once in one meal. After 8 days post weaning small
pellets of 2.4 mm in diameter, appear to give the best feed intake and growth performance
relative to larger pellet sizes and crumbs (64). This size is practiced in a few commercial
creep feeds. The nutrient composition of the ingredients in the diet and post harvesting
processing of the feed influences the feed consumption and feed efficiency, generating
differences in digestibility and utilization. The quality of the diet will be affected by the
origin and handling of the ingredient source with nutritive changes between batches for
values for digestibility, antigenicity component, palatability, mycotoxic concentration and for
the concentration of antinutritional factors.

Voluntary feed intake

Estimation of feed intake is important to know projected feed storage and to provide
the proper daily quantity of feed and to reduce wastage and spoilage. Daily checking routine
and frequent feeding are more accurate measurements for feed intake.
Suckling pig DEi= 46.9D-634.7
Weaning pig DEi= 1933BW-40.7BW2-6397.
Where D is age of the pig or the day of lactation for the suckling pig.
 65

DEi is digestible energy intake.

BW is in kg of body weight and BW2 is kg to the square potential (50).

Water treatment, organic and inorganic acids and disinfectants

The growth promotion effect of antibiotics, inorganic acids and organic acid is
synergetic thus they can be supplied in the feed or the animal should get access to them in
water. The medicated early weaning (MEW) was implemented to succeed in the weaning
process. In general, these products improve feed efficiency inhibiting the growth of harmful
bacteria, reducing body immune activity and maintain intestinal wall health and morphology.
These effects enhance protein and carbohydrate accretion because the stomach pH in the
suckling piglet is lowered, less molecules of amino acids and metabolic energy is expended
in synthesis of antibodies and their metabolites and precursors will be in low levels thus more
protein and energy available for body growth. The acidic low pH in the stomach can be
altered with high levels of limestone or calcium bicarbonate in the feeding ration in order to
supply calcium requirements, thus reducing the beneficial effects of the inorganic acids in the
diet or from drinking water. If creep feeding is provided the diet must have low levels of
limestone or bicarbonate.
This thesis review does not pretend to suggest antibiotic products or to analyze its
application as a growth promoter because this topic is more concern of the veterinary mode
of action than the nutritional stand point of view. An antibiotic program should be based on
serum titers for every single farm and the prevalence of regional diseases.
In any hog facility, drinking water could be treated with many inorganic products to
reduce water bacteria and change stomach pH as chloride derivatives such Clorox, chlorine
or gas chlorination, Verox (chlorine dioxide ClO2), sodium chlorate (0.04 g/kg BW) are
strong sanitizing agents that also eliminate coliforms from the stepped feed at concentration
>300 ppm for 24 hours and it does not represent a health and welfare to the young pig (31).
Surveillance of the treatment is important because these products have a lethal dose and
could be toxic. Hydrogen peroxide is recommended at (3000 ppm or 0.3%) because a 1.5%
concentration in mouthwash caused hairy tongue and in mice at 4000 ppm developed gastric
and duodenal lesions in 120 days (180). Virkon S 0.5% at the ratio of (1:200), iodine
(iodophor) for drinking water, copper ion (0.4 ppm in water), vinegar, hydrochloric acid HCl,
 66

water acidifiers and other Modifiers of Intestinal Microbial Populations (MIMP) have an
effect to control bacteria growth in water, reduce stomach Ph (acidification), and regulate
intestinal microflora (174). These MIMP are also household floor disinfectants and can be
used as body cleaners for gestating sows and to cure skin lesions and also provide protection
against dirty spots that were not cleaned during the sanitation of the farrowing or nursery
room. It would be an interesting research to test these products in drinking water for
gestating and lactating sows too.
The addition of 1.2-1.8% of potassium diformate (KDF or Formi LHS) lowers
stomach pH but after 65 minutes acidifies duodenal digesta. This organic acid is a dry,
odorless growth promoter added into weaned diets to improve productive parameters (77).
The undissociated forms of organic acids reduce growth of intraluminal bacteria content in
the digestive system such coliform, streptococci, anaerobic bacteria but also lactic acid
bacteria (32). Other organic acidifiers used in pig diets are citric acid, fumaric acid, formic
acid, propionic acid and lactic acid (104). There have been many other organic acids used in
pig diets but they do not always show consistent results as acetic, butyric, sorbic, malic,
tartaric and other acids. Mixing feed with phosphoric acid improves digestibility of the feed
source, minimizes microbes populations in the feed, reduces pH in the digestive tract, and it
is a good source of available phosphorus. Pulmotil (Tilmilosin phosphate) can be fed to pigs.
Increasing levels in the diet of neonate pigs of zinc oxide > 2000 ppm and >0.05% of cooper
sulfate have and effect of growth promotant, mold inhibitor and controls bacteria population
(163).
Many commercial and laboratory disinfectants do not kill circovirus type II but
products like Virkon S at 1% solution demonstrated its usefulness in an ISU extension trial.
There are many sanitizing products available in the market to improve sanitation standards in
every farm using Bisolve, Tek-Trol (1/2 once/gallon of water), Pathoclean, Iodine, phenol,
Cresol, Aldehydes, Clorox, Hydrogen Peroxide, and Quaternary components help to sanitize
floors and equipment (173).
Many species of insects carry diseases spreading them from room to room and farm
to farm. Insecticides products applied to the barn walls and floors as Permethrin-10 help to
reduce these vectors.
 67

Applying products like Mistral, Stalosan F, zeolites, bentonite, refined lime, calcium
carbonate, cooper sulfate, and other powder drying agents can reduce incidence of potential
bacterial spots in wet areas in the floor or mats. This has an effect to reduce microbial growth
populations and reduces the spreading of initial diarrheas. It is important to point out that
ventilation and proper heat temperature, a closed herd, rigorously applying All-In-All-Out
system and especially an exceptionally good husbandry and management could never be
discarded from the daily practices in any pig farm.

Diseases
The consumption of colostrum IgG provides antibodies protection in the circulatory
system and later on a group of milk immunoglobulin IgA class antibodies that are resistant to
digestion will provide passive protection, preventing adhesion of toxins to epithelial cells and
inhibiting colonization of pathogens (virus and bacteria) in the digestive system (21). The
digestion and absorption of these immunoglobulins was explained previously (see reference
(22). Piglets that do not consume enough amounts of colostrums show low titration
immunoglobulin blood levels. This predispose the animal for diseases and prone to suffer
porcine weaning syndrome at a later stage.
The predominant gram-positive bacteria Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus
fermentum, Lactobacillus salivarius, Streptococcus bovis, Streptococcus faecium,
Streptococcus salivarius, Streptococcus faecalis will colonize the intestinal tract. These
bacteria produce lactic acid that will reduce the gastric content of Escherichia coli in
neonatal pigs (27). Yeast and micrococci intestinal colonization are more dependent of the
feed source and the cleanness of the farrowing unit, nevertheless to say that the list of
microbiota in the gut is very large and in the feces too with preference for digestive culture
and growth population for many beneficial species of bacteria, streptococci and lactobacilli
rather than other harmful species of anaerovibrio, selenomonas and E. coli (18, 166).
The sanitary status of the environment and the health condition of the piglet are
determinant in the length period and feed conversion in the wean-finish system. During
lactation these factors are less critical because the piglet receives protection from the milk
immunoglobulin content. If the immune system is not very active, fewer proteins will be used
 68

to generate cytokine precursors of antibodies and more nutrients will be available for protein
synthesis. One way to achieve this in the piglet is placing the proper vaccine program to the
sows to generate specific formation of immunoglobulin and antibodies that will be released
in the milk fluids. The neonatal pig will be protected with the ingestion of these defensive
factors. The application of a rigorous antibiotic program for the gestating sow and for the
piglets before weaning and the protection provided from sow’s milk will maintain the
activation of the immune system in the lower level thus leaving more molecules for protein
accretion. The productive parameters by minimizing the antigen exposure and lowered active
immune system resulted in higher feed intake for the weaned piglet, weight gain, better feed
conversion and more lean muscle (43). There are some pork meat market requirements that
do not allow the use of antibiotics by injection nor by feed additives then an antiseptic
approach may be useful as described previously, or increasing the feed levels of ZnO and
CuSO4 (163).
In Europe the only authorized growth promoters are Avilamycin and Salinomycin that
control Gram-positive bacteria. The most common feed additives in most hog production
units in the world are Carbadox, Flavophospholipol, Avoparcin, Virginamicin, Spiramicin,
Zinc Bacitracin and Tylosin. The Food and Drug Administration in the USA approves 12
antibiotics and 5 chemotherapeutics in swine diets (163). The use of these additives are
Apramycin, Arsalinic acid, Bambermycin, Chlortetracycline, Sulfadiazine, Sulfathiazole,
Penicillin, Colimix, Lincomycin, Oxytetracycline, Neomycin base, Rabon, Roxarsone, and
Tiamulin (105). The prescription of a Veterinarian widens the list of products as growth
promoters and for disease control. Astonishingly, the precise mechanisms underlying the
beneficial effects of antibiotics remain unclear after 50 years of studies (74). In addition to
the list of antimicrobials are Copper sulfate, zinc oxide, pre-biotics, organic acids, herbal
extracts, spices and immunostimulants (163). Other effective but less constant alternatives as
a feed additive growth promoters are fructo oligosaccharides, acidulants, lactobacillus,
probiotics, cell fragments, and yeast, could compete against pathogenic bacteria populations
or change the pH of the gastrointestinal tract thus reducing incidence of diseases (11).
For treatment, the most used antibiotics are tetracycline, penicillin, sulfonamides,
lincosamides and amino glycosides. The use of digestive enhancers, Olaquindox and other
 69

antibiotics reduce the incidence of Lawsonia intracelularis, Brachyspira (Serpulia) pilosicoli

and Brachyspira (Serpulia) hyodysenteriae. E. coli, C. perfringens type C and A usually
caused neonatal diarrheas (27, 83). Other bacteria will be present in the environment
probably delivered by feed sources or released in the farrowing pen from saliva, skin and
feces of their dam such Streptococcus suis, Actinobacillus suis, Haemophilus parasuis,
Pasteurella multocida, Bordetella bronchiseptica, Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae and
Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae. Typical species present in the farm would be Actinomices,
Bifidobacterium, Clostridium, Staphylococcus and Klebsiella. A minor disease is porcine
colonic spirochaetosis (Serpulina pilosicoli) (55). Current molecular methods show that
approximately 60% of the several hundreds microflora species associated with the pig gut
wall remains uncharacterized or unknown (74). There will be virus present during gestation
as classical swine fever (CSF), porcine cytomegalic virus, porcine reproductive and
respiratory syndrome (PRRS) and circuvirus type 2 (congenital tremor aII virus). However,
diseases will be present all the time from the very large A-list of International office of
epizootic (47), unless eradicated such Aujeszky’s disease, transmissible gastroenteritis
(TGE), swine influenza, atrophic rhinitis, porcine epidemic diarrhea, Salmonella
cholerae-suis, Escherichia coli, Erysipela insidiosa, Erysipela rhusopathiae, Brachyspira
hyodysenteriae, Eperythrozoon suis, Clostridium perfringes, Campylobacter, Helicobacter
(ulcers), rotavirus, porcine adenovirus, coronavirus, blue tongue and the protozoan
Cryptosporidium (10). It is known that diseases will be present in the herd and under
favorable conditions will affect productive performance of the animals. Not even a Specific
Pathogen Free herd will remain free of diseases and bacteria contact.
European countries as Sweden, Denmark and England proclaimed reduction level of
feed additives and banned or removed antibiotic growth promoters in the feed caused an
increase in the market of therapeutic agents that kill specific bacteria in the body. This effect
raises the question of regional environmental and health improvement or did they lose one
step ahead of controlling diseases by cure of diseases instead of preventing them. The use of
vaccines has a limited action in sows during gestation because the antibodies do not cross the
placenta. The available methods for raising piglets to enhance the immune status, improve
gut maturation, control micro biota population, create physical and chemical barriers, and to
 70

create gastro internal defense mechanism are the way of the future to control diseases (74).
Time, research and farm experience will tell us the methods to use and not to believe most of
the advertised products that proclaim wonderful benefits without the proper test of a research
center or the counselor of an honest advisor.

Mortality
In a large Sweden study the mean birth weight was 1.39 (s.d. =0.36) kg, 8.5% were
stillborn and 17.5% of the piglets born alive died before weaning. Male piglets were heavier
than female piglets already at birth; 1.46 kg compared with 1.43 kg (P<0.05). Piglets from
Landrace sows were heavier than piglets from Yorkshire sows at birth (1.54 kg compared
with 1.33 kg, P <0.05) but not at weaning (65).
In research carried out in Australia; where the total piglets born per litter were
(11.5±3.0) piglets, and number born alive (10.8±2.8), and the proportion of stillbirths about
(6.5%), and the number weaned near (9.4±1.2) pigs, and cross fostering to standardize litter
size to 10 piglets resulted in approximately 95% of the farrowings, and pre-weaning
mortality of live born was > 15.5% (75). An evaluation in Germany with lactation lengths of
28 days reported 10.2 piglets born alive and piglet mortality were 16.3% and in an integrated
group housing system piglet mortality was reduced by 5% (15.5%) (107). Preweaning
mortality in France has been remained constant around 18-19% for the last 20 years (120).
An economic national analysis in the United Kingdom included an average mean piglet
mortality of 11.4% and the comparative mean for the top third pork producing systems in the
analysis the mortality rate was 10.7% (109). A study in Kansas had a preweaning mortality
of 8.4% in 82 litters (108). The discussion presented in a thesis from The Netherlands
included research papers from several sources reporting national mortality of 19.3% and 12.2
piglets born per litter, for the USA in 1998 with 11.0 piglets born had a total mortality
(stillbirths and pre-weaning deaths) of 19.4%, in Denmark a research farm had 18% piglet
mortality from an average of 5 years, and for Canada the analysis includes 24% mortality for
the total piglets born in a litter (110).
With all the advanced technology applied in the production of pork meat, there still a
mortality ranges of 5 to 30 % for the suckling pig in the world (111). In the USA the national
average mortality was around 12% for the period 1985-1995 (13). Official reports in this
 71

country showed that preweaning mortality was 35% in 1924 and a great improvement for the
year 2000 with 13-15%. Within the USA, these losses are reported as 48.1% sow’s laying the
piglets, starvation represents 15.3% and 13.3% was for scours (113). This means that
thousands of pigs do not reach 3 weeks of age and farm records show that 50%-80% of the
deaths occurred during the first 3-4 days of life and 90% happens before they are 1 week old
(14). There are many listed reasons such overlaying, crushing, trampling, traumatic injury,
savaged, small, weak, malnourished, starvation, infection, genetic abnormality, room
temperature, draftiness, heat lamp type and many other causes (67, 150). Increasing litter size
from >11 to 16 piglets results in a reduced mean birth weight from 1.59 to 1.29 kg, which
increases the number of low birth weight piglets <1 kg from 7 to 23% of the total born (147).
Approximately 12% of the piglets are born with less that 1 kilo body weight and this group
represented 40% of the reported deaths. A study in Canada that included 10 commercial
farms showed that low birth weight had lower % survival (142). Another important cause of
deaths is starvation 43%, a factor that is a sequence of weakness to suckle or to compete
against littermates. Its cause is easily attributed to overlaying. Most piglets will end up
reported as overlaid but is more a failure of the piglet to establish a normal suckling behavior
and pattern with the sow and littermates (20).
Usually the older the parity of the sow will have larger litters of pigs born alive with
low birth weights (1.4, 1.47 and 1.23 kg for parities p1, p2 and p3 respectively) and may
result in high mortality (1.6 piglets in p1 to 4.6 pigs in p8). The number of piglets born per
litter increased from parity p1 to p9 (10.9 to 13.5 pigs) and decreased thereafter. The growth
rate was 200, 206, 195 g/d for p1, p2 and p3, and p4 or older respectively (76).
An increase in litter size is associated with both a decrease in absolute mean birth
weight amounting to 35 g for every additional pig born and an increased proportion of weak
piglets <1.0 kg BW. Increasing litter size from 7-9 to 13 piglets results in an increase of 0.2
small pig for every extra pig born. For larger litter sizes >13, 0.7 small pigs are born for
every extra pig born (82).
It is important to point out again that improving survivability of the less suited piglets
may increase the profitability of the pork enterprise and a 15% increment on the number of
piglets to reach market weight (Table 1.34). The normal distribution of the pig weight
 72

population is something unavoidable, not even by genetic traits. Every swine producer and
manager have to deal with this fact and face a solution to improve profitability of the farm.
Force feeding 15 cc of fortified milk diet for underweight delivered piglets may save 50% of
the group of low birth weight piglets that die. The survivability increased from 49% to 74%
(42) (Table 1.35). Supplementing the smaller piglets is not a recipe you have to follow, it
must include all the management skills available for the stockperson. High rates of mortality
are present in many parts of the world and there is a high potential to increase the number of
pigs at weaning time (Table 1.36). There are no exceptions for the normal distribution of the
pig population for each farm, if the target goals have high standard levels, then an
improvement on survivability and feed efficiency are always welcome.
Sow litters with low mortality rates (0-4%) can wean a higher number of pigs but
these are the exception of the rule. Most pig farms will have 15% mortality but this is not a
satisfactory goal if there are nutritional and management techniques to improve this
productive parameter (Table 1.37).

Table 1.34. Relationship of pig birth weight and survival (42)

Weight range Number of pigs Weight distribution of population Survival
Kg Lb # % %
<0.9 <2.0 1,035 6 42
0.9-1.1 2.0-2.4 2,367 13 68
1.1-1.3 2.5-2.9 4,197 24 75
1.4-1.5 3.0-3.4 5,012 28 82
1.6-1.8 3.5-3.9 3,268 19 86
>1.8 >4.0 1,734 10 88
Total 17,613 100 Mean 77

Table 1.35. Survival of light weight suckling pigs supplemented daily with liquid sow milk
replacer (42)
Control Supplemented
(Nursing sow) (Nursing sow plus supplement)*
Item
Number of pigs 69 69
Number survived 34 51
Percent survival 49 74
*Pigs weighing less than 2.0 lb at birth within each litter received by stomach tube 15 cc of
reconstituted sow milk replacer once or twice daily from day of birth to 7 days old.
 73

Table 1.36. Preweaning mortality rates from published studies (46)

Country Data set Number weaned per litter Preweaning mortality (%)
Australia 27000 sows 9.2 13.2
Canada 30 farms 8.2 18.6
France 53 farms 9.2 14.0
Netherlands 36000 farms 8.7 14.2
(national survey)
United Kingdom 270 farms 9.6 11.5
360 indoor herds 9.6 12.2
122 outdoor herds 9.2 13.3
USA 1080 litters 8.2 16.8
Venezuela 461 litters 8.0 12.1

Piglets that are separated from their mother and receive oxygen inhalation in a
chamber immediately after birth for 20 minutes and then returned with their dam reduced
mortality during the first day of life by 75% (2 vs. 8%). The mortality at weaning time at 21
days of age for the litters that did receive oxygen treatment was 8% and those pig litters that
not received oxygen inhalation had a 12% mortality post-weaning (120). The supervision of
farrowing, assisting pigs by drying with a towel or applying a drying powder agent, and also
provision of adequate ambient temperature and specially the development of fetal growth that
influences birth weight are the utmost importance factors to reduce mortality (145). Piglet
survival is the outcome of complex interactions between the sow, the piglet and the
environment. A better understanding of neonatal and maternal physiology in relation to
placental transfer of nutrients, regulation of the parturition process, colostrum transfer and

Table 1.37. Piglet mortality levels in herds averaging over 11 pigs born alive per litter (136)

Live birth mortality level (%)

0-4 4.1-8 8.1-12 12.1-16 16.1-20 Over 20 Overall
Herd number 1 8 29 52 15 4 109
Percent 0.9 7.3 26.6 47.7 13.8 3.7 100
Born Dead 0.57 0.66 0.79 0.87 0.96 0.91 0.84
Born alive 11.94 11.54 11.44 11.34 11.56 11.88 11.42
Reared 11.53 10.68 10.23 9.77 9.48 9.25 9.95
Mean mortality of live 3.4 7.4 10.6 13.8 18.0 22.1 12.9
births. (%)
 74

expression of appropriate maternal behavior is required for the development of effective

future solutions (152). Piglet survival is heritable but this may lead to a fatter pig during the
finishing stage a genetic trait that has been selected to produce lean carcasses for many years
(153). Selection for piglet survival may increase maturity at birth with more cortisol levels
during late gestation and they will resemble obese lines of Meishan pigs (154). This may
favor export market where fatter Berkshire carcasses are preferred. If this is the case, then a
maternal line and boar terminal crosses are the option plus the best available management
practices.

Feedstuffs
The dairy, meat (beef, poultry, porcine), egg, cereal and oils seed industries have
many waste products that have been processed to useful feed byproducts and with the
advancement of food technology these byproducts are now transformed in supplements for
human consumption and baby milk substitutes. The high biological value of these food
products attracts the attention of the feed industry for pet foods, early broiler and chick
development, creep feeding dairy calf increasing demand and development of these
industries. The special similarity of the human digestive system with the nutrient
requirements of the pig encourage to search innovative products for human consumption.
This digestive resemblance first introduces the products in research work in pig nutrition
previous the release of the industrialized food products for human trials. The feed efficiency
and economic profitability of each byproduct has to be determined for each farm productive
situation and marketing needs.

Poultry
Diets based on egg proteins do not trigger active immune responses and are less likely
to cause post-weaning diarrhea (9). Specific spray-dried immunoglobulin G (Protimax) is an
alternative to in-feed antibiotics for piglets. This product is derived from hen’s eggs, which
have been vaccinated against bacterial infections (enterotoxigenic E. coli, serotypes K88,
K99 and 987P) and porcine rotavirus (86). This product contains specific immunoglobulins
content but any other dry form of egg albumen will provide high levels of protein and
protection against disease vectors.
 75

The enzymatically digested protein product is an excellent source of protein for baby
pig rations developed from a blend of abattoir by-products swine blood, selected poultry
tissues, and enzymatically hydrolyzed feathers (132). The predigested process with enzymes
enriches the product with free amino acids and short change proteins that will be easily
digested and will reduce the presence of contaminating bacteria.
The rendering facilities of the poultry industry have byproducts of such poultry
byproduct meal, feather meal, spray dried avian blood meal, fats and other products of less
nutritive importance and biological value but they can be used in postweaning rations.

Spray Dried Plasma Protein (SDPP)

The use of spray dried bovine plasma (AP820, Proliant Inc., USA) improves average
daily gain (ADG) 13% and feed consumption increases 18% compared with the control (70).
The use of spray dried animal plasma (SDAP) products, such porcine and bovine, in weaner
diets, increased food intake and growth rate. SDAP is 35% superior to dried skim milk. There
are many industrial presentations for these kind of products and each has its own nutritive
properties that have to be analyzed separately as conventional protein, spray dry, ring dry and
flash dried protein from bovine or porcine slaughter houses and derivatives from blood or
plasma sources. Other sources with excellent results could be irradiated blood meal, water
soluble globulin, SD blood meal, SD blood cells, dry blood meal, freeze dried porcine
plasma, SD plasma protein, SD porcine solubles, hydrolyzed porcine proteins, SD rendered
peptide product (beef muscle with enzymatic hydrolysis), and SD bovine globulin. These
products contain high immunoglobulin levels that may neutralize toxic substances from
bacteria metabolism, reducing its toxic effect on the intestine wall. They do not provide
antibody protection in the blood system against bacteria growth and these immunoglobulin
proteins may not be digested so their consumption will be without nutritious effect.
Water Soluble Globulin is composed of spray-dried animal serum, globulin, SD
animal plasma, and other blended ingredients such lactose, fructo-oligosaccharide,
DL-methionine, and KCl, it is processed to make it soluble in water to stimulate early feed
and water intake and improve ADG in weaned pigs. The product is low in ash content
3.84%, crude protein 67.2%, gross energy 5183 kcal/kg, dry matter 94%, crude fat 0.95%
(123).
 76

Milk
There are many by-products from the dairy industry and it is the intention of this
paper to present just a few of them. Dried whey contains 70% lactose with 11% crude protein
(CP) and whey permeate has 80% lactose with a level of 3.5% CP, crystalline lactose is a
disaccharide with 100% lactose without protein content. They are different form the edible
grade dried whey 35 % lactose. Deproteinated whey is another good source of lactose. The
mixture of lactose with glucose or starch may substitute protein levels from the skimmed
milk fraction of the diet, maybe an effect of the lactoalbumin. Skim milk powder has 50%
lactose and contains most of the proteins found in milk (63). Casein with up to 94% CP that
can be derived through a Rennet or acid process (the casein is not water soluble and
caseinates are more soluble), albumin and globulins (63). Other byproducts of the dairy
industry are whey protein concentrate with 50% lactose and 34% CP, high protein whey
concentrate with crude protein from 25% to 80% CP, enzymatically hydrolyzed casein, dried
milk, dried whole milk with 35% fat, evaporated milk, sweetened condensed milk, dry
buttermilk, lactose anhydrous, milk albumin, whey protein isolate, integral dried milk, milk
supplement, cow milk, high quality edible grade dried whey (lactose), spray dried milk,
roller dry milk, milk protein concentrate from 35% CP up to 90% CP with very low levels of
lactose and may contain a mixture of casein, non fat dry milk, freeze dried bovine
colostrums, deproteinazed whey, and dried skim milk. Whey protein product 73% CP
contains 6.8% lysine, 12.8% fat (usually <10%), 5% lactose and a diversity of nutrients
(131). The immunoglobulin fraction of these products was explained before.
The supplementation of pre weaned and post weaned piglets with whole milk (250
g/kg crude protein, 230 g/kg fat) and powdered milk (250 g/kg CP, 150 g/kg fat) had the
same growth rate and feed consumption during both periods. The weight at 12 days were >
4.70 kg/pig, weaning at 19 days of age the piglets weighted >6.83, after 1 week of weaning
weighted >7.40 kg and at 2 weeks > 9.30 kg. The feed consumption in dry matter was for the
preweaning period approximately 330 grams/pig/day and 1 week after weaned consumed
more than 1000 g DM/pig/d, which is a very high feed consumption (92).
 77

The supplementation of nutrients in liquid form from glucose/electrolyte solutions

and artificial milk replacers reduce thrifty litters. The poorest litters consume more liquid
during the first 3 days of age (61).
The daily administration of spray dried bovine colostrum at the rate of 100g/kg in the
diets of weaned pigs was reported to improve health, absorptive capacity of the gut, and
small intestine morphology. The daily consumption of creep feed for the Immulac diet was
294 g/litter/day while the diet that contained whey proteins concentrate the suckling piglets
consumed 134 g/litter/day (89, 90). The use of spray dried colostrum protein (Immulac, New
Zealand Dairy Group) improves average daily gain (ADG) 19% and feed consumption
increases 25% more than control diet (70).
Piglets less than 7 days old have satisfactory survival and growth rate when the creep
diets contained glucose and lactose. If they are fed fructose and sucrose may develop severe
diarrhea. The baby pigs are limited to digest sucrose and other carbohydrates. It is after 7-10
days when piglets can start digesting diets with fructose and sucrose. Sucrose and molasses
can be used to replace lactose in diets for 14 days old piglets (144). The piglets after 3 weeks
old can develop an enzymatic digestive system to handle cereal starches (104).
Piglets after 1 day old received a balanced complex diet of whey protein concentrate
(AMP 80), lactose, fat, vitamins and minerals. Replacing lactose for corn syrup solids (CSS)
a hydrolyzing product of starch resulted in weaned weight of 9,845±191 grams at 20 days of
age, with daily gains of 382±14 g/d/pig and an increased oligosaccharidase enzyme activity
but not in other carbohydrases (117). Other carbohydrate sources have been tested as
glucose, sucrose, fructose, xylose, maltodextrin, cornstarch, wheat starch (172). After 1 week
of age only glucose and sucrose (cane sugar) can substitute lactose as a source of energy.

Proteins
The application of nucleotides from yeast RNA seemed a good idea to provide
proteins into the serum flow of metabolites into the cell, but this did not probe any growth
improvement. The potato protein 80% CP may have low palatability in the presence of
steroidal glycoalkaloids (172). This has been known to be present in the greenish skin parts
of the tubercle. These two sources are not recommended for suckling pigs. Other cell
cultures from the fermentative industry are good sources of proteins and vitamins as live
 78

yeast from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This may be a wiser option as an ingredient on diets
for suckling piglets and posterior stages.
The fishery industry has many products, while the most important are fish meal
menhaden dried at 82C, mackerel dried at 70C and herring species. Fish meals plus the
addition of synthetic amino acid lysine have the nutritive value and growth rates as the spray
dried porcine plasma protein (171).

Fat
The best fat sources for pig starter diets appear to be coconut fat which contains 450
g lauric acid (C12:0)/kg and soybean oil which contains 550 g linoleic acid (C18:2)/kg.
Lauric acid is a saturated fatty acid easily digested and it is the back bone molecule to
synthesize other fatty acids and it also increases the firmness of the back fat (158). The
linoleic acid is an essential amino acid that can not be synthesized by metabolic reactions
and this lipid is a precursor of other essential fatty acids. Any source of fat needs to be low
in free fatty acids as this can be an adverse effect for digestibility and palatability (64). There
has not been report on detrimental effects in older pigs consuming high levels of free fatty
acids but it is possible to expect digestive disorders in smaller pigs. The additions of 40 g/kg
crude fat in the diet are enough source of energy to stimulate growth and feed conversion.
Canola oil and tallow are good sources for weaner piglets (91). The fat used in milk replacers
is usually a blend of grade I tallow or bone fat, mixed with coconut oil (63).
Sow milk fat composition has high levels of palmitoleic acid (C16: 1). Commercial
basal diets depend on the imitation of fatty acid make up as sow’s milk lipid composition.
Weaned piglet diets supplemented with myristic acid (C14: 0) responded better than diets
with high stearic acid (C18: 0) that had the lowest digestibility (143).

Other feedstuffs
There are not always easy ways to find the perfect feed sometimes it may require
industrial processing to improve its physical and chemical properties. Wheat germ contains
lectins and many varieties of sorghums have polyphenolic compounds, rye and triticale may
have trypsin inhibitors (170). Diets high in nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP) or rich in
 79

insoluble fiber (resistant starch) may carry the parasitic nematode Oesophagostomum
dentatum (83).

Mycotoxins and antinutritional factors

The content of 300 different mycotoxins in feeds alters metabolisms and health. The
trichothecene group is formed by the following mycotoxins: Nivalenol, deoxynivalenol
(vomitoxin), T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, zearalenone, aflatoxin, ochratoxin A, citrinin,
sterigmatocystin, and naphtoquinones. Other mycotoxins are sterigmatocystin, patulin,
phomopsin, neosolaniol, isoneosolaniol and fusarenol (40, 165).
A wide range of antinutritional substances are present in many feedstuffs with greater
of lower content in each source. The chemical analysis to identify these antinutritional
substances will be expensive. The list for these components is: Trypsin and phytate and
protease and amylase inhibitors; antigenic proteins, polyphenol tannins, lectins,
glucosinolates (goitrins); sinapins, phenolic compound, gossypol, cyanogens; alkaloids
(quinolizidine, scopolamine, hyoscyamine); glycosides as vicine/convicine; saponins, and
oligosaccharides or non starch polysaccharides (45). Protease inhibitor are thermostable
molecules and are peptides capable of forming stable, inactive complexes with proteolytic
pancreatic enzymes, most inhibit trypsin but also chymotrypsin and serine proteinases (39).
For young pigs even low glucosinolate meals (<5 μmols/g) caused depression in intake.
There is also important to analyze the feed for toxic components, industrial residues,
pesticide, dioxine, pathogens, heavy metals and other contaminants.

Classification of antinutritional factors

1. Depressive effect on protein digestion and on the utilization of protein (trypsin and
chymotrypsin inhibitors, lectins, phenolic compounds, and saponins).
2. Negative effect on the digestion of carbohydrates (amylase inhibitors, phenolic
compounds, flatulence factors).
3. Negative effect on the utilization of minerals (glucosinolates, phytic acid, oxalic acid,
gossypol).
4. Factors that inactivate vitamins or cause an increase in their requirements.
5. Factors that stimulate the immune system (antigenic proteins).
 80

These comments are not meant to forbid the use of any feedstuff. The quality and
quantity of the feed source will be determinant in the productive parameter for growth
and feed efficiency. Then an economic analysis by a nutritionist will dictate the last
recommendation for the properties of each ingredient in the diet. This requires not only
the chemical analysis composition of the feed but also its physical conformation and
knowledge on the industrial or technological process that generates any byproduct (164).
The feed market has developed high processed raw materials to feed small
piglets and many of them are dependent on the development technology of human baby
milk replacers, supported by research on models for pig nutrition. Most of them relay on
denatured skimmed milk powder; whey powder and derivatives; specially processed
fishmeal; isolated vegetable proteins, cooked cereals, animal proteins, etc. The
recommended use of these products is controversial because it has two directions, the
economic justification and the nutritional welfare issue (44). There is a sector of the pig
industry that does not allow use of animal plasma proteins. Other form to substitute
spray dried animal protein is to provide good quality sources of vegetable proteins such
soybean meal, extruded soybean, canola meal, peanut meal, sunflower, ground peas,
safflower, cotton seed meal without gossypol, crambe, grape seed meal, sea weed, yeast
protein, espirulina, gelatin, and many other sources.
Most of the animal sources of protein may have high counting levels of
pathogenic contamination as salmonella or spongiform bacteria. The positive irradiation
effect of feed sources is not well known because it may reduce salmonella or any other
bacterial concentration or it may react in the deactivation of antinutritional factors
associated with the feed or maybe any other reaction yet to be discovered (133).
The nutritive quality of any feedstuff is not dependent of their crude protein
content. Hydrolyzed feather meal and gelatin will have > 75% crude protein and they
will no be included in creep feeding ration for piglets or in post weaning diets for
neonatal pigs. Other products as cereals are more important for the quantity composition
in the diets than on the quality of their protein content. These products could be
substituted for starch sources of the same cereal or starch powder sources from potato
industry. The selection of any of the products will be more dependent of the availability
 81

and constant supply of the industry to the feed manufacture. The price per unit of feed
and nutrient concentration is less important than the feed efficiency for each ingredient
and the synergetic response to improve growth rate and to reduce mortality and
morbidity. Thus, for every feedstuffs the profitability rate obtained in different feed
stages will be determinant in the price to pay for each ingredient. This could also be a
reflection of the technology used in every pork facility and the hand labor availability
and stockmanship level of training achieved in every place. The amino acid composition
of feed sources is more important to provide individual essential amino acids to the diet
(Table 1.38).

Table 1.38. Protein content of raw materials commonly used in starter diets (3)

Typical rate of inclusion Kg/tone

Group and product Protein (g/kg) Total lysine (g/kg) Pre-starter Starter
Milk Proteins
Skimmed milk 350 29 0-300 0-250
Buttermilk 320 27 0-300 0-250
Whey powder 130 9 0-150 0-100
Delactosed whey 230 15 0-150 0-100
Whey protein Conc. 350 32.5 0-300 0-200
Casein 840 67 0-200 0-100
Vegetable Protein
Hipro soy 475 31.5 0 0-50
Full-fat soybeans 350 23.5 0-150 0-200
Soya protein Conc. 650 62 0-75 0-75
Potato protein 780 62.5 0-75 0-75
Soy flour 415 27 0-75 0-75
Wheat gluten 800 18 0-50 0-25
Animal Protein
Meat and bone 450 21 0 0-50
Fishmeal (herring) 710 56 75-150 75-150
Egg protein 450-800 30-70 75-150 75-150
Blood meal 880 85 75-150 75-150
Plasma protein 770 61 0-60 0-30
Others
Wheat 110 3.2 0-400 0-400
Barley 105 3.5 0-400 0-400
Maize 90 2.5 0-400 0-400
Wheat feed 150 6 0 0-50
Porridge oats 120 4.5 0-300 0-200
 82

The lysine content of casein with 84% crude protein contributes with 67 grams of
lysine per kilogram of product then the suggested inclusion rate in a prestarter diet would be
for 0-200 kg of casein per ton of feed. The wheat gluten could have a concentration of 80%
crude protein but only contributes with 18 g/kg of lysine in the product. This is why it is
restricted in initial diets. Other products will be used as energy sources rather than protein or
amino acid content.
The USA has preference for corn grain and the UK for cooked cereal. The two type
of diets use fish meal and dried whey products with higher contributions for the crude protein
composition of the diet in the UK. The USA compensates for increasing levels of plasma
and blood meal but these animal proteins could not completely substitute milk byproducts for
neonatal piglets and require adequate mixer equipment and proper mixing techniques if used
in smaller amounts less than 5% in the total diet (Table 1.39).
The initial complex for a phase I diet requires more feed ingredient to improve the
quality of the protein and the digestible matter of the diet. A simpler diet in phase III is
mainly composed of grain and soybean (Table 1.40). Milk is not a simple product it is
composed by cells and other complex factors. The important nutritive parts and defensive
properties come in different fraction of the milk composition (Table 1.41).

Table 1.39. The difference between USA (Kansas State University) and UK (United
Kingdom) commercial weaner feeds (g/kg diet)
Pre-starter (17 g lysine/kg) Starter (16 g lysine/kg)
CP UK UK USA USA UK UK USA USA
Feedstuff (g/kg) RM CP RM CP RM CP RM CP
Maize 85 335 28.5 400 34
Cooked cereal 85-120 400 42.8 460 46.2
Fishmeal 710 80 56.8 60 42.6 80 56.8 25 17.8
Hipro soya 456 125 57.0 232.5 106
Full-fat soy 355 150 53.3 175 62.1
Skimmed milk 370 150 55.5 50 18.5
Dried whey 130 125 16.3 250 32.5 200 26 200 26
Plasma 780 67 52.3 25 19.5
Blood meal 878 16.5 14.5 25 22
 83

Crude protein as fed (g/kg CP) and % CP contribution in the diet; Raw material range content in the diet (RM)
Table 1.40. Suggested diet composition characteristics of a three-phase starter program (19)

Phase I Phase II Phase III

High nutrient Whey starter Grain-soybean
Protein (%) 20-22 18-20 18
Total lysine (%) 1.5 1.25 1.10
Fat (%) 4-6 3-5 -
Dried whey, edible grade (%) 15-25 10-20 -
Spray dried plasma protein (%) 6-8 - -
Spray dried blood meal (%) 0-3 2-3 -
Copper (ppm) 190-260 190-260 190-260
Vitamin E (IU/ton) 40,000 40,000 40,000
Selenium (ppm) 0.3 0.3 0.3
Antibacterial/antibiotic + + +
Physical form 3.1 mm 3.1 mm
Pellet or meal Pellet Meal
NOTE: The best results are obtained with the use of lactose, starch and whey.

Table 1.41. The different components of milk fractions (3)

Fraction Components

True protein Casein

Alpha
Beta
Kappa
Whey
Lactoalbumins
Immunoglobulins
Lactoferrin
Lactoperoxidase
Growth factors
Non-protein nitrogen Urea
Nitrates
Free amino acids
 84

Most sow’s milk substitutes come from cow milk byproducts. For that reason, there is
a different amino acid composition between the two sources of milk (Table 1.42).

Fermented, Predigested and Home-made Products

It is important to understand that creep feeding does not have to be a complete
replacement of sow’s milk. The supplement will not spare the ingestion of milk and the
suckling pig will receive additional nutrients to thrive, to survive and to grow. If the creep
feed is a full feed milk substitute will better complement sow’s milk deficiencies and
quantity needs for the highly nutrient requirements demanded by a fast growing lean piglet.
With that in mind there are many home made options to supply in the farm for any pork
producer in the world or to formulate complete complex diets for suckling piglets for better
growth and feed efficiency.
The fermentation product is prepared by adding water (30°C: ratio 2.2:1) to
hammer-milled wheat 24 hours prior to feeding. One hour before feeding, the fermented
mass was added to the supplementary compound feed, to which warm water (ratio 2.2:1) was
also added. In a test for weaned pigs 8 kg initial weight. The product favored daily gain
6.1%, feed conversion ratio >4.6%. The diet favored villous height and ratio of villous
height: crypt depth in the first part of the small intestine (29). Other form to prepare
fermented feed is mixing feed and water at a ratio 1:2.5 and stored in warmer tank at >20°C
for >4 days and feed the mix for pigs to increase intestinal lactic acid bacteria and lactic acid
concentration.

Table 1.42. The amino acid composition of porcine and bovine casein (3)

Composition in casein (g/100 g protein

Amino acid Porcine Bovine
Lysine 8.7 8.1
Methionine 1.3 3.2
Threonine 4.8 4.3
Tryptophan 1.5 1.3
Leucine 10.2 10.0
Isoleucine 5.8 6.6
 85

Valine 8.1 7.5

This reduces stomach pH and increases growth rate. Fermenting the diet with lactic acid
bacteria reduced the spoilage of feed and limits the growth of E. coli, maintaining the
palatability of the diet and preventing enteric diseases (30).
Liquid feeding of piglets around weaning improves piglet performance by increasing
feed consumption particularly after weaning, better growth rate during lactation and post-
weaning for 2 weeks and decreases scours (78). Comparing creep feeding from days 14 to 24
of age for diets without supplementation, dry creep and gruel meal resulted in feed intakes
per pig of (0, 90.7 and 374.4 g DM respectively). Feeding gruel prior to weaning aids gut
adaptation to solid diets (79). Feeding liquid feed that has started to ferment increases the
levels of enterobacteria and raises digestive pH, both factors are undesirable.
Providing liquid feed to piglets has its own risk by generating the proliferation of
enteric pathogens in the feed. The fermenting process with lactic acid bacteria produced a
feed with pH of 3.8 containing 132-244 (μmolls) micro molls of lactic acid. The fermented
product can be used as an inoculum for further batches. Takes 9 hours to eliminate E. coli at
20°C; whereas at 37°C takes 2.5 hours. Fermented liquid feed was prepared by inoculating
1-part feed and 3 parts sterile water with 10 million CFU/ml of Lactobacillus plantarum
(33).
There are other acidifying probiotic organisms Lactobacillus casei and Streptococcus
faecium Saccharomices serviceae (104). Selected species of Lactobacillus spp. and
Bifidobacterium spp. promote gut health and exclude pathogens. Also the inoculation of the
diet with Lactobacillus and Bacillus spp. developed ulcers (83).
The most commonly used probiotic lactic acid bacteria for piglets are Lactobacillus
acidophilus and also extensively studied is Enterococcus faecium and Bifidobacterium spp.
The group of lactobacillus is formed by L. fermentum, murinus, lactis, reuteri, plantarum,
delbrueki, casei, and brevis; B. bifidus, pseudolongum, and thermophilus; E. faecalis; and
Streptococcus salivarius (84).
The acidification of diets and drinking water with organic acids maintains an acidic
environment in the stomach, with a buffer effect from the feed ingredients. This acidification
enhances proteolytic activity hydrolyzing non-milk proteins and inhibiting the growth of
 86

pathogenic coliforms and as a result may reduce incidence of diarrheas and mortality. This is
not a magic formula because requires to establish a gut milieu environment to stimulate
growth for Lactobacillus acidophilus populations and at the same time these bacteria require
lactose for growth. Most of the lactose in the feed will be hydrolyzed or utilized by other
bacteria and is dependent on the level of lactase activity (44). The presence of lactose results
in lactic acid that acidifies the stomach and may reduce the action of the acidifier per se and
a low pH suppresses hydrochloric acid secretion. After weaning it takes time for the
secretion of HCl to develop (64).
The emulsification of oily sources helps to change the micelle fraction of the fat into
small particles and may enhance oil surface for lipase exposure. This is a very important
nutritional factor to consider when supplementing with cow’s milk.

Home-made products
There are many empirical practices that have not been probed to help pork production
and only a few have been tested under controlled conditions but results improvements can be
obtained with wise use of these feedstuffs.
There are regional supplements that can be properly used with very good results and
in order to reduce cost the purchase of these material should be in a bulk way before they get
any other industrial transformation or added price with the tag of the brand name that implies
also high cost of advertisements and marketing strategies that will be reflected in the final
price. These products can be corn flakes, potato chips, cookies, pasta, bread, and other
industrial foods. The farmer should reserve some space for the baby pig “kitchen” and
process the feed sources in there with all the sanitation and cleanness required to raise
healthy piglets.
“Let the food be your medicine and medicine be your food” – Hippocrates
MILK: Buying whole milk in a regional dairy farm is a way to start supplementing
baby pigs. The fluid can be purchased daily in the dairy or it may require a cooler tank to
preserve it for 2-3 days. Fresh milk is almost sterile and proper handling preserves it for long
time. This product should be checked for bacterial contamination because it has a high risk to
get dust from the farm environment. If the milk is not as clean as it could be, then an oxygen
peroxide solution may be used in the dairy farm to kill these bacteria and this allowed time
 87

for transportation and mixing. This is not an exhausted job because only needs the mixing of
the liquids with a paddle 1 hour before feeding. The same procedure may apply to a source of
sows milk supplement with cow’s colostrum.
The fat droplets in cow’s milk are bigger and the fat medium is not as homogenous as
in the sow’s milk, so a little warming and a few minutes of boiling the cow’s milk will reduce
populations of other bacteria and molds, this enhance flavor and make the product more
palatable for the piglet. The bottled milk is homogenized forcing the milk under high
pressure through a valve that breaks up the butterfat globules to such small sizes they will not
coalesce (stick together) but a single kitchen blender will partially do this fat micronization.
A preparation of milk and clean raw egg may be blended in a mixer. The
incorporation of eggs with milk increases the protein level and the quality of the fatty acids.
The eggs may be purchased at the farm level every week and not at the grocery store. The
product will be fresh, clean and a retail price. The egg itself has a proper amount of
immunoglobulins that it may not be specific to the pig farm but they contribute in the defense
against harmful microorganisms.
If possible a preparation of a dessert dish may be suggested because the mixing
ingredients are cooked and enhances aroma and flavor. It can be sweetened with a lactose
product. Flan, cakes, rice and milk, candies and other dishes may be prepared with milk,
eggs, starch, vitamins, and minerals. Other presentation is to make gruel with milk, oat meal
or other starch source from corn, wheat, rice, tapioca, yucca, potato.
The preparation of cottage cheese, home made cheese or a natural fermentation of
milk for 4 days with lactic acid bacteria (jocoque), and many other household products where
the main ingredient is milk could be used for supplementing baby pigs for a few days. An
advanced program should be carried on to have available product every day. The cheese
fraction could be fed to smaller piglets and the serum fraction provided to the weaned pigs.
CORN: Whole corn cleaned, screened, washed and drawn in water for a week will
soften the product and increases digestibility and palatability. This is an oldest method to
fatten pigs. To reduce feed microorganism this water should be chlorinated. If hydrated lime
(calhidra) is added to corn and water, a pealing reaction of the cuticle improves niacin
digestibility and for other non starch polysaccharides. Cooked corn in a dry pan will inflate
 88

the starch fraction and this can be grounded (pinole) to increase consumption. This grinded
part can be mixed with sugar and other ingredients. These procedures can be applied to other
cereals to produce gelatinization of the starch or to improve digestibility of the grain with
less bacteria count in the feed. At the proper age they can be mixed with natural sweeteners
as lactose, dextrose, high fructose corn syrup, starch from partially hydrolyzed syrup solids,
brown sugar, derivatives of molasses and vegetable oils, sources of algal or fungal
triglycerides oils.

Sweeteners
The pig has 15,000 taste buds in its tongue and is more selective than chicken with 24
buds and human with 9,000 buds, but the calf has 25,000 and the catfish 100,000 buds. If for
any feedstuff the calf can eat, it maybe the hog will accept it. The pig has sweet preferences
for sucrose, lactic acid, salt, cereals preserved with propionic acid, glucose, lactose, high
fructose syrup but its perception greatly differs from the sweetness perceived by man.
The reference source for sweet grade is glucose and it is considered 100 as a relative
value. Fructose ranks in the highest with 255 units, followed by sucrose 140, honey 115,
lactose 100, galactose 85, and starch 15 units. These are appreciative values because taste
differs from humans compared to pigs. The decrescendo order of sweetness:
Sucrose>d-fructose>maltose=lactose>d-glucose>d-galactose. The amino acid order of
sweetness is as follows:
D-triptophan>d-phenilalanine>d-aspargine+l-hydroxyproline>d-alanine>glycine=l-serine>d-
serine=d-threonine=l-threonine.
Other sugars can substitute lactose in early feeding programs including in the diet
galactose, grobiotic B-70 (lactose fermentation). After 1 week of age sucrose (cane sugar)
can be used as an energy source a few days later glucose can be added. Sugar like xylose and
fructose are used in advanced weaner diets.
A gustatory response for humans and pigs resulted in sweeteners as Lugduname and
Carrelame which were as potent in humans as for pigs. These chemical components are
guanidinoacetic acid additives (178). These artificial sweeteners may not have nutritive
values but are a feed aid to conceal bad taste from other feed additives. The products will not
 89

enhance feed consumption if the animal is sick or stressed and it will not improve enzymatic
maturation in the digestive tract unless there is an increase of digestible matter intake.

Liquid Feeding
Providing liquid feeds to weaned pigs stimulated feed intake maintaining villous
height in the small intestine (distal jejunum and ileum) and reduced scours with better growth
rates (44) (Table 1.43). The provision of water through a nipple drinker for the piglets whilst
in the farrowing-house will help accustom them to the same design of drinker used in the
weaner facility (64). Weaned piglets that were fed liquid feed during 2 weeks had better
growth rates than dry-fed control pig and this advantage was maintained to market weight
(119).

Table 1.43. Intakes and growth rates of weaned piglets on a conventional dry or automated
wet feeding system (44)

Dry hopper Wet auto feeder

Week Intake (g/day) Growth (g/day) Intake (g/day) Growth (g/day)
1 149 133 176 147
2 327 330 357 355
3 453 380 518 434
Overall 310 281 351 312

There are many research reports indicating that liquid feeding stimulates average
daily feed intake (ADFI) after 30 days in post weaner diets, increasing 12.3±9.4% average
daily gain (ADG) compared with dry feeding. Other results found that using fermented liquid
feeds with Lactococcus lactis subsp. Cremoris 303 in weaner diets had ADG 13.4±7.1%
higher than fresh liquid feeding. Similar results were found in acidified diets pH 4.0-4.5 with
lactic acid. They conclude that increased feed intake help maintain gut integrity and villous
height and reduced E. coli populations in the digestive tract. But this is not a simple solution,
requires practical management to control unpredictable feed contamination of yeast, mold
and other undesirable bacteria, improper feeder design can cause severe feed waste, and
compensation growth may be achieved later on during the growing period that minimizes any
 90

other gained growth advantage (127). The initial weight and the sex of the pig may change
postweaning results due to variability and early feeding behavior (128).
Establishing target goals for every farm is a tool guidance to compare results with
possible potential parameters and to analyze some changes in the management process (Table
1.44).
The purpose of weighting weaning animals is to measure the milking capacity of the
sows and the growth rate of the suckling piglet as to decide correct management practices or
implement changes in the husbandry of the pigs or sows (Table 1.45).
Piglets 1 kg heavier at 28 days will be at least 3 kg heavier at 23 weeks, an a
difference in feed consumed oft up to 8 kg more from weaning to sale (Table 1.46). A
random review is provided for the Journal of Animal Sciences for the years 2003-2002
reported weaned weight for the selected piglets in different trials (Table 1.47).

Table 1.44. Target range for pigs weaned/litter (102)

No. pigs weaned/litter Comments

>9.7 Top 10%- long term target recommended.

9.4 Top 20%-minimum target recommended.
8.9 Average-opportunity to improve 0.5 to 1 pig/litter.
< 8.5 Low-thorough review needed.
<8.0 Worst level.

Table 1.45. Target range for piglet growth rate; add + 1.3 kg from birth weight (102)

Weight
Growth rate Comment
28 days 21 days
Grams/day Kg Kg
>250 8.3 6.6 Excellent
240 8.1 6.2 Best
220 7.5 6.0 Good
200 6.9 5.5 Average
<180 6.3 5.0 Low
 91

160 5.8 4.7 Worst

 92

Table 1.46. Value of piglet growth rate (102)

Example
Extra kg at weaning A 1 kg
Extra weight at 23 weeks B=A X 3 3 kg live weight
Extra carcass weight C=B X dressing % 3 X 77%=2.3 kg DW
Extra value of carcass D=C X sale price 2.3 kg X $2.08/kg+ $ 4.78
Extra feed E=A X 8 8 kg feed
Extra feed cost F=E X feed cost 8 kg X 25c/kg+ $ 2.00
Extra profit/pig G=D-F 4.78-2.00= @2.78
Extra revenues/sow/year H=G X pigs/sow/year $2.78 X 18=$ 50.00

Table 1.47. A random review in the Journal of Animal Sciences for the years 2003-2002
reported weaned weight for the selected piglets in different trials

Days of age Body weight in kg

12+-1 4.1
12+-1 4.2+-0.93
12+-1 4.1+-0.73
15 5.0+-0.01
17 5.5+-0.01
17+-2 7.0
17+-2 6.8-10.1
17+-6 8.7-13.2
17 5.9
17+-3 5.0+-1.2
17 5.3
17+-1 5.5
17+-1 5.1+-0.51
18 4.47
18+-1 5.2
18+-1 5.2+-0.17
19+-1 5.8
21 5.7
21+-3 6.0+-1.3
24+-0.5 6.45
(see list of References in this report)
 93

Summary
There is a systematic process of particular technical procedures that every pork
production unit must follow in order to economically succeed in the global market. This
particular husbandry practices are different in each farm also in the corporate production unit
every manager utilizes different procedures compared to other farms in the same corporation.
With that individual characteristic to efficiently produce pork products (weaner pig,
replacement breeders, finishing hogs) according to the sophistication of the installations and
equipment there will be other variables that may change the productive parameters obtained
in each barn and for each group of pigs during the year. These factors include labor skills,
consulting services, type of breeders, environmental conditions and control of them inside the
barn, availability of the feed ingredients and quality of balanced diets for each stage of the
life cycle of the animal, purpose of the pork market needs, cost of production and market
prices and many other internal and external factors that may be under control and many that
the farmer may not be aware of them.
There are many variables in the pork production system and in this chapter will not
include all the possible classification groups or to categorize type of farms but in order to
focus in the conclusion analysis it is mentioned that the sows´ lactation length in the USA
have three types of establishments and managerial practices. The very early wean group with
lesser lactation length (<14 days) represents 15% of the survey, the early weaning that allow
14-18 days of suckling period is practiced in 30% of the farms, and the more conventional
type of pork unit in the USA applies more than >18 days of lactation length and stands for
55% of the production units. The national average was 18.9 days for the 1999 Pig Champ
survey. These differences also characterize the production of wean piglets and the variable
practices to achieve better results.
One of the most important variables is nutrition management of the entire herd. This
factor can be manipulated and be under management control and is capable of constant
modifications and be modified in order to succeed in the improvement of productive target
goals. The gestation ration will have a small effect on the size of the litter and birth weight of
the piglets. An adequate vaccination program and sows pen group housing will increase the
immunoglobulin concentration of the colostrums. This is a different response when gestating
 94

sows are housed in individual pens with slats. The feed control for the last 15 days of the
gestation period is important for the appetite during the first days of lactation. After delivery,
the sow is capable of high yields of milk but this is jeopardized by hormonal changes and
environment stressors thus unable to express all her genetic potential. As mentioned before
the metabolic potential for the sow is to yield >23 kilos of milk per day. A study using creep
feeding for piglets did not affect milk yield of 15.4 kg/day. The suckling piglets that received
cow milk had a growth rate of 297 grams/day, those with supplemental milk the ADG was
277 grams/day and the pigs without supplement were growing at 239 grams per day. The
gilts grew faster at 304 grams/day and barrows were gaining at an average of 292 grams/day
(177).
In the same way the genetically selected piglet for high growth rates will be inhibited
by other factors such birth weight, size of the litter, suckling capacity and frequency, lactation
length, reducing appetite components levels in the milk, milk nutritional composition as fat
concentration in colostrums and milk, quantity of milk available in the udder, environmental
conditions in the farrowing unit, level of antigen exposure, acquired passive immunity from
colostrums last for 16 days, extraordinary piglet practices as tail docking, clip needle teeth,
castration, iron and antibiotic injections, ear notching or ear tag, fostering practices,
weighing, etc., will affect the economical expression of their genetic traits.
During the lactation period the suckling piglet does not need a complete diet as used
in some of the early weaning systems because the piglet has not been weaned so, the baby
pig still has the sow milk and in order to increase its nutrient intake a high biological feed
supplement will contribute to meet their daily nutrient requirements. The suckling piglet will
grow at high rates with a diet of 15% CP and if weaned at an early age the diet should be of
>22% CP. It was mentioned before that the concentration of the supplement is not as
important as the feed source per se, in particular because feed consumption will vary
depending on the physical form of the feed dry, pellet, liquid acidified, etc. It is the total dry
matter intake the most important factor to prevent gut villous damage and the beneficial
effect is improved with good quality protein sources and high digestible energy feed sources.
For every farm there are many possible options to use artificial sow’s milk
supplements, a complex diet belongs to a more specialized market for the feed processing
 95

plants and less industrialized products are an important feed resource for farms with more
available hand labor.
 96

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Recommended Reading and Web Sites

1. J.R. Pluske, J. Le Dividich and M.W.A. Verstegen. 2003. Weaning the Pig. Concepts
and Consequences. ISBN: 907 6998 175.
<ww.wageningenacademic.com/books/weaning.htm. On press>
2. J. Odle and R.J. Arel. Liquid Diets for Early-Weaned Pigs: A “Solution” for
Postweaning Morbidity. Dept. An. Sc. North Carolina State University.
<ttp://mark.asci.ncsu.edu/jodle/odlewebcv.htm> Power point presentation.
3. www.webinarsagropecuarios.org
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4. Pork Industry Handbook. PIH

5. <www.asas.org/jas or //jas.fass.org>
6. <www.zoetecnocampo.com/documento/cerdo_nut.htm>
7. <www.animalscience.com>
8. <www.ingenta.com>
9. <www.scirus.com>
10. <www.isinet.com>
11. <www.lib.iastate.edu/collections/db/dbmonth.html>
12. <www.blackwell-synergy.com>
13. <www.elsevier.com>
14. <www.ajcn.org>
15. <www.sciencedirect.com>
16. <www.bsas.org.uk>
17. <www.extension.iastate.edu/ipic>
18. <www.animalprotein.org>
19. <www.aznet.ksu.edu/ansi/swine/swine.html>
20. <www.bmj.com>
21. <www.nal.usda.gov or www.usda.gov>
22. <www.afia.org>
23. <www.aafco.org>
24. www.piblish.csiro.au/journals/ajar
25. Resistencia natural a los desafíos causados por PRRS.
https://www.facebook.com/visionporcina/videos/303325328541855/
AMVECAJ y Visión Porcina.
26. https://www.pigprogress.net/webinar-accelerate-your-piglet-vision/
27. W.CFSPH.IASTATE.EDU sobre peste porcina africana
28. W.FIELDEPI.ORG/SDRS
29. ww.fao.org/global-perspectives-studies/food-agriculture-projectiosns-to-
2050/en
30. https://www.pigprogress.net/webinar-accelerate-your-piglet-vision/
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