Dr. Ahmed M.

Hussein

ME 104

Fluid Mechanics (A)

Lec. 1
Introduction
Fluid:

▪ In Physics a fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear
stress.

▪ Also, fluid can be defined as substances that have zero shear modulus or in simpler terms a
fluid is a substance which cannot resist any shear force applied to it.

▪ Although the term fluid includes both the liquid and gas phases.

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 The No-slip Condition
▪ Fluid flow is often confined by solid surfaces.

▪ Consider the flow of a fluid in a stationary pipe or over a solid surface that is nonporous (i.e.,
impermeable to the fluid). All experimental observations indicate that a fluid in motion comes
to a complete stop at the surface and assumes a zero velocity relative to the surface.

▪ That is, a fluid in direct contact with a solid “sticks” to the surface, and there is no slip. This is
known as the no-slip condition. The fluid property responsible for the no-slip condition and the
development of the boundary layer is viscosity.

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 Boundary layer
▪ The flow region adjacent to the wall in which the viscous
effects (and thus the velocity gradients) are significant is
called the boundary layer.

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 Velocity Profile
▪ The layer that sticks to the surface slows the adjacent
fluid layer because of viscous forces between the fluid
layers, which slows the next layer, and so on.

▪ Therefore, the no-slip condition is responsible for the

development of the velocity profile.

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 Classification of Fluid Flows

▪ Fluid Mechanics can be defined as the science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest or
in motion, and the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.

▪ There are many ways to classify fluid flow problems, and here we present some general
categories.

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 1- Viscous Versus Inviscid Regions of Flow

• Viscous Flow:

▪ When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a friction force develops between them and
the slower layer tries to slow down the faster layer. This internal resistance to flow is quantified
by the fluid property viscosity,

▪ Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces between the molecules in liquids and by molecular
collisions in gases.

▪ There is no fluid with zero viscosity,

▪ Flows in which the frictional effects are significant are called viscous
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 • Inviscid Flow Regions

▪ in many flows of practical interest, there are regions

(typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where
viscous forces are negligibly small compared to
inertial or pressure forces. Neglecting the viscous
terms in such inviscid flow regions greatly simplifies
the analysis without much loss in accuracy.

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 2- Internal Versus External Flow

▪ A fluid flow is classified as being internal or

external, depending on whether the fluid flows
in a confined space or over a surface. The flow
of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a
plate, a wire, or a pipe is external flow. The flow
in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is
completely bounded by solid surfaces.

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 3- Compressible versus Incompressible Flow

▪ A flow is classified as being compressible or incompressible, depending on the level of variation

of density during flow.

▪ The densities of liquids are essentially constant, and thus the flow of liquids is typically
incompressible.

▪ The densities of gases are not constant, and thus the flow of gases compressible.

▪ A pressure of 210 atm, for example, causes the density of liquid water at 1 atm to change by
just 1 percent. Gases, on the other hand, are highly compressible. A pressure change of just
0.01 atm, for example, causes a change of 1 percent in the density of atmospheric air.

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 4- Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
▪ The highly ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth layers with high viscosity and low velocity
is called laminar.

▪ The highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high velocities and is characterized by
velocity fluctuations and low viscosity is called turbulent.

▪ A flow that alternates between being laminar and turbulent is called transitional.

▪ The experiments conducted by Osborne Reynolds in the 1880s resulted in the establishment of the
dimensionless Reynolds number, Re, as the key parameter for the determination of the flow regime
in pipes.

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 5- Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow

▪ A fluid flow is said to be natural or forced, depending on how the fluid motion is initiated.

▪ In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by external means such as a
pump or a fan.

▪ In natural flows, fluid motion is due to natural means such as the buoyancy effect, which
manifests itself as the rise of warmer (and thus lighter) fluid and the fall ofcooler (and thus
denser) fluid.

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 6- Steady versus Unsteady Flow
▪ The term steady implies no change of properties, velocity, temperature, etc., at a point with
time. The opposite of steady is unsteady.

▪ The term uniform implies no change with location over a specified region.

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 7- One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
▪ A flow field is best characterized by its velocity distribution, and thus a flow is said to be one-,
two-, or three-dimensional if the flow velocity varies in one, two, or three primary dimensions,
respectively. A typical fluid flow involves a three-dimensional geometry, and the velocity may
vary in all three dimensions, rendering the flow three-dimensional [V→(x, y, z) in rectangular or
V→ (r, θ, z) in cylindrical coordinates].

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 • Viscosity
▪ When two solid bodies in contact move relative to each other, a friction force develops at the contact
surface in the direction opposite to motion.

▪ The situation is similar when a fluid moves relative to a solid or when two fluids move relative to
each other. We move with relative ease in air, but not so in water. Moving in oil would be even more
difficult.

▪ It appears that there is a property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to motion or the
“fluidity,” and that property is the viscosity. The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow
direction is called the drag force, and the magnitude of this force depends, in part, on viscosity

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▪ To obtain a relation for viscosity, consider a fluid layer between two very large parallel plates
separated by a distance “L “. Now a constant parallel force F with a constant speed “V “is
applied to the upper plate while the lower plate is held fixed. The fluid in contact with the upper
plate sticks to the plate surface and moves with it at the same speed, and the shear stress Ʈ
acting on this fluid layer is

▪ where A is the contact area between

the plate and the fluid. Note that the
fluid layer deforms continuously under
the influence of shear stress.

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▪ The fluid in contact with the lower plate assumes the velocity of that plate, which is zero. In
steady laminar flow, the fluid velocity between the plates varies linearly between 0 and V, and
thus the velocity profile and the velocity gradient are

▪ where y is the vertical distance from the lower plate.

▪ During a differential time interval dt, the sides of fluid

particles along a vertical line MN rotate through a
differential angle dβ while the upper plate moves a
differential distance da = V dt.

▪ The angular displacement or deformation(or shear strain)

can be expressed as

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▪ Rearranging, the rate of deformation under the influence of shear stress Ʈ becomes

▪ Thus we conclude that the rate of deformation of a fluid element is equivalent to the velocity
gradient du/dy. Furthermore, it can be verified experimentally that for most fluids the rate of
deformation is directly proportional to the shear stress Ʈ,

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▪ Fluids for which the rate of deformation is
linearly proportional to the shear stress are
called Newtonian fluids. Most common
fluids such as water, air, gasoline, and oils
are Newtonian fluids.

▪ Blood and liquid plastics are examples of

non- Newtonian fluids.

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▪ In one-dimensional shear flow of Newtonian fluids, shear stress can be expressed by the linear
relationship

▪ where the constant of proportionality µ is called the coefficient of viscosity or the dynamic (or
absolute) viscosity of the fluid, whose unit is kg/m.s, or equivalently, N.s/m2 (or Pa.s where Pa is
the pressure unit Pascal).

▪ A common viscosity unit is poise, which is equivalent to 0.1 Pa.s

▪ or centipoise, which is 0.01 of a poise or 0.001Pa.s.

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▪ The shear force acting on a Newtonian fluid layer is

▪ where again A is the contact area between the plate and the fluid. Then the force F required to
move the upper plate in Fig. 10–16 at a constant speed of V while the lower plate remains
stationary is

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▪ For non-Newtonian fluids, the relationship between shear stress and rate of deformation is not linear.

▪ The slope of the curve on the 𝜏 versus du/dy chart is referred to as the apparent viscosity of the fluid.

▪ Fluids for which the apparent viscosity increases with the rate of deformation are referred to as
dilatant or shear thickening fluids.

▪ The fluid becoming less viscous as it is sheared harder, such as some paints, polymer solutions,
and fluids with suspended particles are referred to as pseudoplastic or shear thinning fluids.

▪ Some materials such as toothpaste can resist a finite shear stress and thus behave as a solid, but
deform continuously when the shear stress exceeds the yield stress and behave as a fluid. Such
materials are referred to as Bingham plastics.

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▪ Kinematic viscosity Ʋ and is expressed as Ʋ = µ/ρ. Two common units of kinematic viscosity
are m2/s and stoke (1 stoke = 1 cm2/s = 0.0001 m2/s).

▪ Consider a fluid layer of thickness (l) within a small gap between two concentric cylinders, such

as the thin layer of oil in a journal bearing. The gap between the cylinders can be modeled as
two parallel flat plates separated by the fluid. Noting that torque is (T = FR, force times the
moment arm, which is the radius R of the inner cylinder in this case), the tangential velocity is
(𝑉 = 𝜔R, angular velocity times the radius), and taking the wetted surface area of the inner
cylinder to be (A =2𝜋RL) by disregarding the shear stress acting on the two ends of the inner
cylinder, torque can be expressed as

𝑉 𝜔𝑅 2𝜋 𝑛 4𝜋 2 𝑅 3 𝐿𝑛
𝑇 = 𝐹. 𝑅 = 𝜇. 𝐴. 𝑅 = 𝜇. 2𝜋𝑅2 . 𝐿. = 𝜇 .2𝜋𝑅3 . 𝐿. = 𝜇.
𝑙 𝑙 60 𝑙 60 𝑙

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 4𝜋 2 𝑅𝐿𝑛
𝑇=𝜇.
60 𝑙

▪ where L is the length of the cylinder and 𝑛 is the number of revolutions per minute.

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▪ The viscosity of a fluid is directly related
to the pumping power needed to
transport a fluid in a pipe or to move a
body through a fluid.

▪ Viscosity varies greatly with temperature.

▪ The viscosity of liquids decreases with

temperature, whereas the viscosity of
gases increases with temperature.

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2–5 ■ COMPRESSIBILITY
(Coefficient of Compressibility)
We know from experience that the volume (or density)
of a fluid changes with a change in its temperature or
pressure. Fluids usually expand as they are heated or
depressurized and contract as they are cooled or
pressurized. But the amount of volume change is
different for different fluids, and we need to define
properties that relate volume changes to the changes in
pressure and temperature. Two such properties are:
the bulk modulus of elasticity 
the coefficient of volume expansion β

Fluids, like solids, compress

when the applied pressure is
increased from P1 to P2
.
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 Coefficient of compressibility
(also called the bulk modulus of
compressibility or bulk modulus of
elasticity) for fluids

The coefficient of compressibility represents the change in pressure

corresponding to a fractional change in volume or density of the fluid
while the temperature remains constant.
What is the coefficient of compressibility of a truly incompressible
substance (v = constant)?
A large value of  indicates that a large change in pressure is needed
to cause a small fractional change in volume, and thus a fluid with a
large  is essentially incompressible.
This is typical for liquids, and explains why liquids are usually
considered to be incompressible.

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 The coefficient of compressibility of an ideal gas is equal to its
absolute pressure, and the coefficient of compressibility of the gas
increases with increasing pressure.

The percent increase of density of an ideal gas during isothermal

compression is equal to the percent increase in pressure.

Isothermal compressibility: The inverse of the coefficient of

compressibility.
The isothermal compressibility of a fluid represents the fractional change
in volume or density corresponding to a unit change in pressure.

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 Coefficient of Volume Expansion
The density of a fluid depends more
strongly on temperature than it does on
pressure.
The variation of density with
temperature is responsible for
numerous natural phenomena such as
winds, currents in oceans, rise of
plumes in chimneys, the operation of
hot-air balloons, heat transfer by natural
convection, and even the rise of hot air
and thus the phrase “heat rises”.
To quantify these effects, we need a
property that represents the variation of
the density of a fluid with temperature at Natural convection over a
constant pressure. woman’s hand.

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 The coefficient of volume expansion
(or volume expansivity): The variation of
the density of a fluid with temperature at
constant pressure.

A large value of  for a fluid means a large change in density

with temperature, and the product  T represents the
fraction of volume change of a fluid that corresponds to a
temperature change of T at constant pressure.
The volume expansion coefficient of an ideal gas (P = RT )
at a temperature T is equivalent to the inverse of the
temperature:
The coefficient of volume expansion is a measure
of the change in volume of a substance with

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In the study of natural convection currents, the condition of the main fluid body that surrounds the finite hot or cold
regions is indicated by the subscript “infinity” to serve as a reminder that this is the value at a distance where the
presence of the hot or cold region is not felt. In such cases, the volume expansion coefficient can be expressed
approximately as

The combined effects of pressure and temperature changes on the volume change of a
fluid can be determined by taking the specific volume to be a function of T and P.

The fractional change in volume (or density) due to changes in pressure

and temperature can be expressed approximately as

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 The variation of the coefficient of volume
expansion of water with temperature in the
range of 20°C to 50°C.

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 • Surface Tension
▪ Liquid droplets behave like small balloons filled with the liquid, and the surface of the liquid acts
like a stretched elastic membrane under tension.

▪ The pulling force that causes this tension acts parallel to the surface and is due to the attractive
forces between the molecules of the liquid.

▪ The magnitude of this force per unit length is called surface tension or coefficient of surface
tension 𝝈s and is usually expressed in the unit (N/m).

▪ This effect is also called surface energy (per unit area) and is expressed in the equivalent unit
of (N m/m2 or J/m2). In this case, 𝝈s represents the stretching work that needs to be done to
increase the surface area of the liquid by a unit amount.

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▪ To understand the surface tension effect better, consider a liquid film of a
soap bubble suspended on a U-shaped wire frame with a movable side.

▪ Normally, the liquid film tends to pull the movable wire inward in order to
minimize its surface area.

▪ A force F needs to be applied on the movable wire in the opposite

direction to balance this pulling effect.

▪ Both sides of the thin film are surfaces exposed to air, and thus the
length along which the surface tension acts in this case is 2b.

▪ Then a force balance on the movable wire gives F = 2b𝝈s , and thus the
surface tension can be expressed as

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▪ In the U-shaped wire frame apparatus, the movable
wire is pulled to stretch the film and increase its
surface area. When the movable wire is pulled a
distance ∆x, the surface area increases by ∆ A = 2b
∆x, and the work W done during this stretching
process is

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 ▪ The extra factor of 2 in the force balance for the soap bubble is due to the
existence of a soap film with two surfaces (inner and outer surfaces) and
thus two circumferences in the cross section.

▪ Then the increase in the surface energy of the droplet during this differential
expansion process becomes.

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 ▪ The expansion work done during this differential process is determined by
multiplying the force by distance to obtain

▪ Equating the two expressions above gives

Pdroplet = 2𝜎s /R,

▪ which is the same relation obtained before and given in

Eq. 10–13.

▪ Note that the excess pressure in a droplet or bubble is

inversely proportional to the radius.

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 • Capillary Effect
▪ Capillary effect, which is the rise or fall of a liquid
in a small-diameter tube inserted into the liquid.

▪ The curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary

tube is called the meniscus.

▪ This effect is usually expressed by saying that

water wets the glass (by sticking to it) while
mercury does not.

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▪ The strength of the capillary effect is quantified by
the contact (or wetting) angle ∅, defined as the
angle that the tangent to the liquid surface makes
with the solid surface at the point of contact.
▪ A liquid is said to wet the surface when ∅ < 90° and
not to wet the surface when ∅ > 90°.
▪ The phenomenon of the capillary effect can be
explained microscopically by considering cohesive
forces (the forces between like molecules, such as
water and water) and adhesive forces (the forces
between unlike molecules, such as water and
glass).

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▪ The relative magnitudes of these forces determine
whether a liquid wets a solid surface or not.

▪ The magnitude of the capillary rise in a circular tube

can be determined from a force balance on the
cylindrical liquid column of height h in the tube.

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▪ Weight of the liquid column is approximately

▪ Equating the vertical component of the surface tension force to

the weight gives.

▪ Solving for h gives the capillary rise to be Capillary rise:

▪ This relation is also valid for non wetting liquids (such as mercury
in glass) and gives the capillary drop. In this case ∅ > 90° and
thus cos ∅ < 0, which makes h negative. Therefore, a negative
value of capillary rise corresponds to a capillary drop.

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Thank You