Timber asa Structural Material 3 ‘The annular band of cross-section nearest to the bark is called sapwood. ‘The central core of the wood which is inside the sapwood is heartwood. The sapwood is lighter in colour compared to heartwood and is 25~-170mm wide, depending on the species. It acts as a medium of transportation for sap from the roots to the leaves, while the heartwood functions mainly to give mechanical support or stiffness to the trunk. In general, the moisture content, strength and weights of the two are nearly equal. Sapwood has a lower natural resistance to attacks by fungi and insects and accepts preservatives more easily than heartwood’. In many trees, each annular ring can be subdivided into two layers: an inner layer made up of relatively large cavities called springwood, and an outer layer of thick walls and small cavities called swmmerwood. Since summerwood is relatively heavy, the amount of summerwood in any section is a measure of the density of the wood. 1.3. Defects in timber” Owing to the fact that wood is a material which is naturally occurring, there are many defects which are introduced during the growing period and during the conversion and seasoning process. Any of these defects can cause trouble in timber in use either by reducing its strength or impairing its appearance. Defects may be classified as: natural defects, chemical defects, conversion defects and seasoning defects. 1.3.1 Natural defects These occur during the growing period. Examples of natural defects are illustrated in Fig. 1.2(a). These may include: © Cracks and fissures. They may occur in various parts of the tree and may even indicate the presence of decay or the beginnings of decay. Knots. These are common features of the structure of wood. A knot is a portion of a branch embedded by the natural growth of the tree, normally originating at the centre of the trunk or a branch ‘© Grain defects. Wood grain refers to the general direction of the arrangement of fibres in wood. Grain defects can occur in the form of twisted-grain, cross-grain, flat-grain and spiral-grain, all of which can induce subsequent problems of distortion in use © Fungal decay. This may occur in growing mature timber or even in recently converted timber, and in general itis good practice to reject such timber. \ Annual ring width. This can be critical in respect of strength in that excess width of such rings can reduce the density of the timber.4 Structural Timber Design ZB. S Sse IY Shake Knot Wane EZ ZT Diagonal-grain Cross-grain Flat-grain (a) Natural and conversion defects, Cupping End splitting Honeycombing —_——— Cass _——= ‘Springing Bowing Twisting (b) Seasoning defects Fig. 1.2. Defects in timber. 1.3.2 Chemical defects These may occur in particular instances when timber is used in unsuitable Positions or in association with other materials. Timbers such as oak and western red cedar contain tannic acid and other chemicals which corrodeTimber asa Structural Material 5 metals. Gums and resins can inhibit the working properties of timber and interfere with the ability to take adhesives. 1.3.3 Conversion defects ‘These are due basically to unsound practice in the use of milling techniques or to undue economy in attempting to use every possible piece of timber converted from the trunk. A wane is a good example of a conversion defect. 1.3.4 Seasoning defects Seasoning defects are directly related to the movement that occurs in timber due to changes in moisture content. Excessive or uneven drying, exposure to wind and rain, and poor stacking and spacing during seasoning can all produce defects or distortions in timber. Examples of seasoning defects are illustrated in Fig. 1.2(b). All such defects have an effect on structural strength as well as on fixing, stability, durability and finished appearance. 1.4 Types of timber Trees and commercial timbers are divided into two groups: softwoods and hardwoods. This terminology has no direct bearing on the actual softness or hardness of the wood. 1.4.1 Softwoods Sofiwoods are generally evergreen with needle-like leaves comprising single cells called tracheids, which are like straws in plan, and they fulfil the functions of conduction and support. Rays, present in softwoods, run in a radial direction perpendicular to the growth rings. Their function is to store food and allow the convection of liquids to where they are needed. Softwood characteristics © Quick growth rate; trees can be felled after 30 years, resulting in low density timber with relatively low strength. ‘© Generally poor durability qualities, unless treated with preservatives. © Due to speed of felling, they are readily available and comparatively cheap. 1.4.2, Hardwoods Hardwoods are generally broad-leaved (deciduous) trees that lose their leaves at the end of each growing season. The cell structure of hardwoods is,