Notes On Cargo Work by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo
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Kyaw Mya OoNotes On Cargo Work by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo
Uploaded by
Kyaw Mya OoCompiled by:
Captain Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc. (DSA) MNI
Master Mariner Class I
Notes on Cargo Work
CONTENTS PAGE
1. Cargo Management 01
2. Cleaning and Preparation of the Holds 43
3. Trim &. Stability Brief 50
4. Cargo Gear & its maintenance 61
5. Hatch cover Maintenance 80
6. The Basics of Lashing and Cargo Securing 111
7. Lashing and securing of deck cargo 120
8. Code of Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes 140
9. Safe stowage and securing of containers on deck of GC ships 153
10. Container stowing and securing 166
11. Container Ships 175
12. Different Cargo Handling Equipments Used on Container Ships 179
13. Cargo Ventilation and Precautions 185
14. Various Bulk carrier sizes and employment 199
15. Care during voyage‐Bulk Carrier 212
16. Hazard from bulk cargo 215
17. Fumigation 217
18. Chief mate's role 230
19. Measurement of bulk cargoes‐Draft Survey 233
20. Records which should be maintained 258
21. International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code 264
22. Tanker Matters 276
23. Refrigerated Cargo Ship 293
Annex 1‐ SOLAS Chapter VI & VII
Annex 2 - Bulk Cargo Liquefaction
Notes on Cargo Work Page 1 of 330
Cargo Handling, Stowage & Securing (Management Level)
“The safe and economical carriage of goods continues as an ongoing mission of the shipping industry.”
INTRODUCTION
The transport of cargoes dates back through the centuries to the Egyptians, the Phoenicians, ancient
Greeks and early Chinese, long before the Europeans, ventured beyond the shores of the Atlantic.
Strong evidence exists that the Chinese Treasure Ships traded for spices, and charted the Americas,
Antarctica, Australia and the Pacific and Indian Oceans, before Columbus reportedly discovered
America.
The majority of the world's merchant ships exist to carry cargoes on a commercial basis from one place
to another. The types of ship undertaking these voyages vary enormously, and they may range in size
from the smallest coaster to vast oil tankers with cargo capacity approaching half a million tonnes. In
every case, the loading, distribution, stowage, security and monitoring of the cargo is of prime
importance to the safety of the ship, her personnel and equipment as well as her ability to earn a profit
for her Owners. In addition the cargo may represent a potential source of danger to other parcels of
cargo on board, and some or all the cargo may pose a significant hazard to the environment should
some disaster overtake the ship. Today, an increasing amount of the workload in planning and stowing
the cargo is done ashore, often using computers, but the Master must always be aware that the
responsibility for the safety of the ship remains with him. He must satisfy himself that at all times the
ship is being maintained in a safe condition, and will be able to undertake a proposed voyage with no
danger to her structure or her cargo.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 2 of 330
TRAINING OUTCOMES: STCW Table A‐II/2 Function 2
‐ Demonstrates a knowledge and understanding of and ability to apply relevant international
regulations, codes and standards concerning;
the safe handling,
stowage,
securing and
transport of cargoes.
‐ Knowledge of effect on trim and stability of cargoes and cargo operations
‐ Stowage and securing of cargoes onboard ships, including cargo handling gear and securing and
lashing equipment
‐ Loading and unloading the operations, with special regard to the transport of cargoes identified in the
Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing
‐ General knowledge of tankers and tanker operations
‐ Knowledge of the operational and design limitations of bulk carriers
‐ Ability to use all available shipboard data related to loading, care and unloading of bulk cargoes
‐ Ability to establish procedures for safe cargo handling in accordance with the provisions of the
relevant instruments such as IMDG Code, IMSBC Code, MARPOL 73/78 Annexes III and V and other
relevant information
‐ Ability to explain the basic principles for establishing effective communications and improving
working relationship between ship and terminal personnel
Prescribed Textbooks:
i. Cargo Work by D.J. House
ii. Cargo Work by Kemp & Young
iii. Cargo Notes by D. Swadi
iv. Marine Cargo Operations by Capt. C.L. Sauerbier & Capt. R.J. Meurn
v. Thomas’ Stowage Revised by Capt. K.S. Rankin
vi. Cargo Work for Ship’s Officers by E Fernandas
vii. Ship Stability for Masters and Mates by D.R. Derrett
viii. International Safety Guide for on Tankers and Terminals 4th edn.
ix. Bulk Carrier Practice by Capt. J. Isbester
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 3 of 330
Types of Cargo in General
Dry Bulk Cargo
Liquid Bulk Cargo
Container / Unitized Cargo
Refrigerated Cargo
Gas
Miscellaneous
The Responsibilities
The responsibilities and liabilities of the shipowner with respect to the handling, loading, and stowage of
cargo are defined primarily in the Carriage of Goods by Sea Act of 1936 and the Harter Act of 1893.
Prior to the passage of the Harter Act of 1893, the shipowner was held responsible for cargo damage
unless he could prove that such damage was due to one of the following causes:
1. An act of God.
2. An act of public enemies.
3. Inherent vice.
4. Fire.
In 1893, U.S. Congress passed the Harter Act, which gave some protection to our shipping companies.
With the passage of the Harter Act, shipowners obtained six additional exceptions under which they
would be not liable for cargo loss or damage:
1. Errors in navigation or mismanagement of the ship.
2. Perils of the sea.
3. Insufficiency of the packaging.
4. Seizure under legal process.
5. Act or omission of shipper.
6. Saving or attempting to save life or property at sea.
The shipowner fulfills three definite responsibilities in order to enjoy the 10 immunities:
1. He must properly stow and care for the cargo.
2. He must exercise due diligence to properly equip, man, and provision the ship.
3. He must exercise due diligence to make the vessel seaworthy in all respects.
SEA WORTHINESS
The legal concept of seaworthiness is not always the same as a layman's understanding of the word. A
legally seaworthy ship may, in fact, have serious defects, but they would have to be defects that her
crew could not reasonably have discovered. Legal seaworthiness is not generally an absolute standard
but instead constitutes an adequate defence to liability for the Owners which will result if, amongst
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 4 of 330
other things the Master and crew have exercised "due diligence". What comprises "due diligence" will
depend on the particular ship, cargo and voyage contemplated. However, in general terms it means the
exercise of reasonable care.
Improper stowage of cargo may cause a ship to be legally “unseaworthy” in two ways:
(i) it may make her unfit for the voyage contemplated. For example, if cargo is inadequately
secured and liable to break loose rendering the ship unstable.
(ii) it may make her unfit to receive further cargo. For example, if cargo on board is inadequately
secured and liable to break loose damaging subsequently loaded cargo.
In considering how to avoid a finding of un‐seaworthiness resulting from improper stowage, reasonable
care or due diligence must be employed, particularly in relation to:
(a) Load Distribution
(b) Cargo Securing
(c) Effect of cargo
(d) Machinery and Equipment
(e) Good Seamanship
(a) LOAD DISTRIBUTION
A vessel's ability to return to an upright position when heeled by some external force, such as by action
of waves, is a measure of her stability. The force of gravity acting downwards and the buoyancy force
acting in opposition cause a righting lever which acts to return the ship to the upright when heeled.
The magnitude of this lever is determined by the position of the Centre of Gravity within the ship which
is itself affected by the disposition of cargo, fuel, ballast and fresh water etc. Broadly speaking, the lower
the weights in the ship the lower the Centre of Gravity; the lower the Centre of Gravity, the larger will
be the righting lever at successive angles of heel (that is, the greater the ship's ability to return to the
upright).
To an extent this suggests that heavier goods be stowed in the lower part of the ship with lighter goods
on top. However, it should be borne in mind that very large righting levers (an excess of stability by
virtue of a low Centre of Gravity) may give rise to excessive, violent rolling and consequently potential
damage to both ship and cargo. Some Classification Societies restrict the maximum permissible GM. This
may be known as "super stability" and restrict the deadweight intake of closeweight cargoes. Careful
loading will ensure adequate but not excessive stability ‐ said to be neither "tender" nor "stiff".
When performing stability calculations the centres of gravity of various parcels of cargo can often only
practically be arrived at by approximation. It is better to err on the side of safety, assuming the centre of
gravity to be higher than it probably is. For instance, where ISO containers are concerned, the vertical
centre of gravity almost always lies below the mid height point of the container; if the mid point itself is
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 5 of 330
used, a safety factor for the overall stow will automatically be incorporated because the actual Centre of
Gravity of the ship will lie somewhere below that calculated.
Apart from stability considerations, distribution of cargo (and to a lesser extent bunkers, ballast and
fresh water) can induce unacceptable bending moments, sheer forces and torque ‐ particularly in larger
vessels. Care should be exercised to ensure that any limits established by her designers are not
exceeded. Instances are on record of vessels having broken in two during cargo operations; continually
subjecting larger vessels to excessive loads throughout the ship's life can give rise to structural failure in
a seaway. Loading the vessel with excessive weights at each end also tends to make that vessel hog and
be sluggish in rising to a head sea, and liable to undue strain in heavy weather.
Vertical Distribution of Weight ‐ Vertical distribution affects the stability of the ship. If too much
weight is in the upper decks of the ship, the ship will have a small amount of stability and be in a
condition known as tender. If too much weight is concentrated in the lower holds, the ship will have an
excess of stability and be in a condition known as stiff.
Longitudinal Distribution of Weight ‐ Longitudinal distribution affects the trim of the ship and the
hogging and sagging bending stresses that the ship's hull must withstand. Trimming by the head is
usually avoided, however, because if the ship is deeply loaded and in a heavy seaway, there is more
possibility that damaging green seas will be shipped on the foredeck.
Transverse Distribution of Weight‐ When stowing the cargo, the only necessity is to make sure that
the weight is equal on both sides of the ship's centerline. This is accomplished by starting all loading on
the centerline and stowing outboard, loading equal amounts in the wings, or, in the case of heavy lifts,
putting them on the centerline if possible. If heavy lifts cannot be put on the centerline, then by careful
planning an equal weight must be placed on the side opposite the heavy lift.
POINT LOADING: This term refers to the deck strength and the maximum permitted weight loading of
cargo, expressed in metric tonnes per square metre. Classification society rules will state these limits for
tanktops, 'tween decks, weather decks and hatch tops, and is predicated on evenly loaded cargoes. In
the case of bulk carriers their tank top strengths may vary from 10 mt/m2 to 25 mt/m2 where the holds
have been specially strengthened.
If a bulk carrier loads a homogeneous cargo of, say, iron ore, the amount of cargo permitted to be
loaded in the hold would be determined by multiplying the surface area of the tank top by the
permissible load per m2 The loading given by this .calculation should never be exceeded.
Complications arise where a bulk carrier has to load steel coils. It will be appreciated that there is a very
small area of contact with the tanktop for a steel coil of 15‐25 mt.
Large bulk carriers double bottoms normally have longitudinal intercostals about 800 mm apart. Bearing
this in mind, the judicious use of dunnage to spread the load may be a solution. Charters/ shippers may
be reluctant to provide this facility but a compromise is normally reached.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 6 of 330
(b) CARGO SECURING
Roll on‐Roll off cargoes present a number or problems, such as the unsuitable state or absence of
lashing points on some road vehicles, high centres of gravity on certain loads, inadequate lashing
equipment etc.
Inadequate lashing of cargo on Ro‐Ro's has frequently been the cause of cargo shifting and the vessel
taking on a list. The dangers are exacerbated by water entering onto the loading deck as a large "free
surface" of liquid diminishes the vessel's stability, potentially to a point where a vessel heeled may have
insufficient righting lever to return to an upright position.
Containerised Cargo: It is often not possible for ships' staff to examine or monitor the securing of cargo
within a container, although the Master has the right to open a container for inspection should he
suspect that all may not be well within. Cargo which is visible ‐ such as that on flatracks can be examined
at the ship's rail and any lashing arrangements which are suspect may either be adjusted by ship or
shore staff or alternatively the container should be landed ashore.
Cargo stowed on deck requires particular care in stowage and securing, whilst at the same time
affording adequate access to sounding pipes, lire hydrants etc. and to the ship's side should the need to
jettison arise. Whilst at sea deck cargo should be inspected daily and lashings tightened when required.
In general, it is not desirable to carry steel cargoes on deck. They are susceptible to the moist salt air and
maintaining covering in heavy weather often proves impractical.
Carriage of bulk cargo as noted above may require the use of considerable measures to ensure that any
shift of the cargo caused by motion of the ship will not endanger the safety of the vessel. In the case of
grain cargoes, the stowage of the grain, and the calculation of its likely effect in the event of a shift must
be in compliance with the IMO grain rules which will be implemented by the national legislation of the
flag state of the ship. However, other cargoes carried in bulk may produce similar results in the event of
a shift, and the need to restrain cargo, particularly athwartships, must always be considered.
(c) EFFECT OF CARGO
Under this heading the Master must consider the effect of any given parcel of cargo upon other cargo
carried on board, as well as possible effects of the cargo on the structure of his vessel. Clear guidelines
apply to the stowage and segregation of dangerous cargo and in some cases may require particular
commodities to be carried in completely separate holds. Clearly, the interaction of two cargoes will not
occur if the packaging of that cargo remains intact. However, the Master must always consider the
possible effect should the cargo escape for any reason and should not restrict his consideration to those
cargoes which are listed in the IMDG code. An example might be fruit juice concentrates which although
having no risk to the ship or personnel, can write off an entire cargo susceptible to taint even if the
escape is relatively small. For this reason, when loading the cargo particular attention should be paid to
damaged containers and any which are not satisfactory should be rejected.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 7 of 330
The Master should also bear in mind the effect of the cargo on his ship's structure. An example of this is
the carriage of high sulphur content coal, which under certain circumstances can lead to the formation
of sulphuric acid and very greatly accelerated wastage rates in the ship's steel work. He should also be
mindful of the effect of the cargo on subsequent cargoes planned to be carried in the same space,
particularly where foodstuffs are involved, which may lead to claims in the future based upon ship being
in an unfit condition to load . The planned rotation or loading sequence of heavy bulk cargoes' should be
strictly adhered to. The Master must resist commercial or operational pressure to alter this sequence.
Clear guidelines apply to the stowage and segregation of dangerous cargo and in some cases may
require particular commodities to be carried in completely separate holds. Clearly, the interaction of
two cargoes will not occur if the packaging of that cargo remains intact. An example might be fruit juice
concentrates which although having no risk to the ship or personnel, can write off an entire cargo
susceptible to taint even if the escape is relatively small.
(d) MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
To ensure against the entry of sea water, rain or spray, all weather deck and hull openings (hatches,
doors and ramps etc.) should be tightly secured and always maintained in good order. Manual hatch
covers, if not interchangeable, must be clearly marked to show where they belong. Beams left in should
be pinned.
Battening down with manual cleats can be a long job in larger ships with small crews. It must often be
done at night, in inclement weather, and in similar circumstances in which the crew may not be as
attentive to their duties as they should be; cleats left undone, eccentric wheels not turned up, multiple
panels incorrectly aligned and cross joint wedges not hammered up are amongst the most common
sources of water ingress. Permanent local damage to gaskets with consequent leakage may also occur
during battening down as a result of obstructions such as lashing wires or cargo residues left on hatch
coamings or between panels.
When water penetrates a hatch seal, it is usually collected in a drainage channel and discharged clear of
the hatchway. Water may spill over onto the cargo in the hold below if these channels are allowed to
become blocked or restricted.
Any fork lift truck or other vehicle used on board must operate in an area free of obstructions. Because
of the danger from fumes, units powered by diesel and petrol engines are not usually suitable for use
within the confines of a ship's hold or ‘tween deck unless adequate ventilation is available.
(N.B. Diesel and petrol fumes can also taint some sensitive cargoes). Any bridging used to improve
working areas (e.g. flared holds in bow and stern) must be of adequate strength to accept the wheel
loading of the equipment and its cargo. The same strength requirement of course applies to permanent
equipment such as limber boards.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 8 of 330
(e) SEAMANSHIP
While a vessel may be in good condition on leaving port, this condition must be maintained at sea by
prudent handling and good seamanship. What constitutes "good seamanship" in this context is beyond
the scope of this subject, but examples include the alteration of course and / or speed to minimise
damage to deck cargo and fittings in bad weather; effective load distribution and ballasting to improve
stability and rolling characteristics; checking the condition of all cargo and associated lashings
throughout the voyage where practicable.
Condition must be maintained at sea by prudent handling and good seamanship.
Examples include the alteration of course and or speed to minimise damage to deck cargo and fittings in
bad weather; effective load distribution and ballasting to improve stability and rolling characteristics;
checking the condition of all cargo and associated lashings throughout the voyage where practicable.
Passage Planning
Plans passage to comply with Load Line Convention correctly conforming with:
a. vessel loading instruction/ Charter Party
b. seasonal restrictions
c. zones
d. bunker requirements
e. expected weather patterns
Before accepting a cargo for shipment, the shipowner or ship operator should obtain all necessary
information about the cargo and ensure that:
the different commodities to be carried are compatible with each other or suitably separated;
the cargo is suitable for the ship;
the ship is suitable for the cargo; and
the cargo can be safely stowed and secured on board the ship and transported under all
expected conditions during the intended voyage.
In accordance with SOLAS Chapter VI Reg.2 the following Cargo Information is to be supplied by
Shippers (in writing).
In the case of general cargo, and of cargo carried in cargo units;
a general description of the cargo,
the gross mass of the cargo or of the cargo units,
and any relevant special properties of the cargo.
the cargo information required for Cargo Stowage and Securing
In the case of bulk cargo;
information on the stowage factor of the cargo,
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 9 of 330
the trimming procedures,
likelihood of shifting including angle of repose, if applicable,
and any other relevant special properties.
In the case of a concentrate or other cargo which may liquefy, additional information in the form of a
certificate on the moisture content of the cargo and its transportable moisture limit.
In the case of a bulk cargo not classified in IMDG, but which has chemical properties that may create a
potential hazard, in addition to the information required by the preceding subparagraphs, information
on its chemical properties.
Prior to loading cargo units on board ships, the shipper shall ensure that the gross mass of such units is
in accordance with the gross mass declared on the shipping documents.
Cargo Stowage & Carriage
Charter party descriptions
Load Port(s) and Disport(s)
Delivery & Redelivery/Bunkering
Type of cargo and Quantity
Plimsoll line
Samuel Plimsoll (10 February 1824 – 3 June 1898) was a British politician and social
reformer, now best remembered for having devised the Plimsoll line (a line on a
ship's hull indicating the maximum safe draft, and therefore the minimum
freeboard for the vessel in various operating conditions).
His efforts were directed especially against what were known as "coffin ships":
unseaworthy and overloaded vessels, often heavily insured, in which unscrupulous
owners risked the lives of their crews.
The term “Loadline" generally refers to the line where the hull of a ship meets the water surface. It is
also the name of a special marking, also known as the “Plimsoll Line”, to be positioned amidships, that
indicates the draft of the ship and the legal limit to which a ship may be loaded for specific water types
and temperatures. Temperature affects the level because warm water provides less buoyancy, being
less dense than cold water. The salinity of the water also affects the level, fresh water being less dense
than salty seawater.
World Load line Zones
The Loadline Regulations provide various zones around the world’s ocean/sea areas. These zones reflect
permanent and seasonal areas which are depicted on a chart which accompanies the regulations. There
are three permanent zones, namely a summer zone in each hemisphere of the globe and a tropical zone
across the equatorial belt – while the ship is passing through these zones the appropriate loadline would
be used.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 10 of 330
A ship cannot load deeper than her summer loadline in the summer zone, neither can a vessel load
deeper than her tropical mark when in the tropical zone. There are five (5) ‘Winter Seasonal Areas’,
usually found confined by land masses and include: the Black Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Mediterranean, the
Sea of Japan and the special ‘Winter’ area in the North Atlantic, applicable for ships 100 m or less in
length.
Load lines
The purpose of a load line is to ensure that a ship has sufficient freeboard and thus sufficient reserve
buoyancy. The freeboard of commercial vessels is measured between the lowest point of the uppermost
continuous deck at side and the
waterline and this must not be less
than the freeboard marked on the
Load Line Certificate issued to that
ship. All commercial ships, other than
in exceptional circumstances, have a
load line symbol painted amidships on
each side of the ship. This symbol must
also be permanently marked, so that if
the paint wears off it remains visible.
The load line makes it easy for anyone
to determine if a ship has been
overloaded.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 11 of 330
The exact location of the Load Line is calculated and/or verified by a Classification Society and that
society issues the relevant certificates.
Load lines indicate the maximum depth to which a ship may be loaded in the circumstances described in
Regulation (Appropriate Load Lines and Seasonal Zones, Areas and Periods).
Freeboard and Stability
With an increase in the freeboard:
Righting levers (GZ) are increased.
GM increases.
Range of stability increases.
Deck edge immerses later at greater angle of heel.
Dynamical stability increases.
Displacement decreases.
KB decreases.
Overall, both the stability and the safety of the vessel are
improved.
Ports on Boundary Lines
For the purposes of applying the provisions of the Schedule to a ship at a port which stands on
the boundary line between two zones or areas or between a zone and an area, or which is required by
the Schedule to be considered as being on such a boundary line, the port shall be deemed to be within
the zone or area in to which the ship is about to proceed or from which she has arrived as the case may
be.
Voyage planning for Loadline zones restriction example
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
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Page 12 of 330 Notes on Cargo Work
Notes on Cargo Work Page 13 of 330
Overview of Transportation and Securing of Cargo at Sea
Static forces, dynamic forces, wind forces, etc. are external forces that act upon cargo loaded onto ships.
It is necessary for cargo to be appropriately stowed and lashed in designed positions in order to prevent
any damage to such cargo and any collapse or loss as a result of these external forces.
Originally, cargo was shipped by general cargo ships. However, the
introduction of specialized containers and container ships meant that
there was generally no longer any need to lash each piece of loaded
cargo directly to the ship. In addition, the use of standardized containers
for shipping, also allowed the use of standardized securing devices. Such
standardized devices allowed for steadier and more effective lashings
than those previously used.
An outline of the marine transportation forms and lashing methods used general cargo ships and special
ships are given in Table.
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GENERAL PRINCIPLES
All cargoes should be stowed and secured in such a way that the ship and persons on board are
not put at risk.
The safe stowage and securing of cargoes depend on proper planning, execution and
supervision.
Personnel commissioned to tasks of cargo stowage and securing should be properly qualified
and experienced.
Personnel planning and supervising the stowage and securing of cargo should have a sound
practical knowledge of the application and content of the Cargo Securing Manual, if provided.
In all cases, improper stowage and securing of cargo will be potentially hazardous to the
securing of other cargoes and to the ship itself.
Decisions taken for measures of stowage and securing cargo should be based on the most
severe weather conditions which may be expected by experience for the intended voyage.
Ship‐handling decisions taken by the master, especially in bad weather conditions, should take
into account the type and stowage position of the cargo and the securing arrangements.
Forces
Forces, which have to be absorbed by suitable arrangements for stowage and securing to prevent cargo
shifting, are generally composed of components acting relative to the axes of the ship:
• longitudinal;
• transversal; and
• vertical.
Remark: For the purpose of stowage and securing cargo, longitudinal and transverse forces are
considered predominant.
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Ship Motions in Heavy Seaway
Transverse forces alone, or the resultant of transverse, longitudinal and vertical forces, normally
increase with the height of the stow and the longitudinal distance of the stow from the ship's centre of
motion in a seaway. The most severe forces can be expected in the furthest forward, the furthest aft
and the highest stowage position on each side of the ship.
The transverse forces exerted increase directly with the metacentric height of the ship. An undue
metacentric height may be caused by:
• improper design of the ship;
• unsuitable cargo distribution; and
• unsuitable bunker and ballast distribution.
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Cargo should be so distributed that the ship has a metacentric height in excess of the required minimum
and, whenever practicable, within an acceptable upper limit to minimize the forces acting on the cargo.
In addition to the forces referred to above, cargo carried on deck may be subjected to forces arising
from the effects of wind and green seas.
Improper shiphandling (course or speed) may create adverse forces acting on the ship and the cargo.
The magnitude of the forces may be estimated by using the appropriate calculation methods as
contained in the Cargo Securing Manual, if provided.
Although the operation of anti‐roll devices may improve the behaviour of the ship in a seaway, the
effect of such devices should not be taken into account when planning the stowage and securing of
cargoes.
Behaviour of cargoes
Some cargoes have a tendency to deform or to compact themselves during the voyage, which will result
in a slackening of their securing gear.
Cargoes with low friction coefficients, when stowed without proper friction‐increasing devices such as
dunnage, soft boards, rubber mats, etc., are difficult to secure unless tightly stowed across the ship.
Criteria for estimating the risk of cargo shifting
When estimating the risk of cargo shifting, the following should be considered:
• dimensional and physical properties of the cargo;
• location of the cargo and its stowage on board;
• suitability of the ship for the particular cargo;
• suitability of the securing arrangements for the particular cargo;
• expected seasonal weather and sea conditions;
• expected ship behaviour during the intended voyage;
• stability of the ship;
• geographical area of the voyage; and
• duration of the voyage.
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These criteria should be taken into account when selecting suitable stowage and securing methods and
whenever reviewing the forces to be absorbed by the securing equipment.
Bearing in mind the above criteria, the master should accept the cargo on board his ship only if he is
satisfied that it can be safely transported.
ACTIONS WHICH MAY BE TAKEN ONCE CARGO HAS SHIFTED
The following actions may be considered:
1) alterations of course to reduce accelerations;
2) reductions of speed to reduce accelerations and vibration;
3) monitoring the integrity of the ship;
4) restowing or resecuring the cargo and, where possible, increasing the friction; and
5) diversion of route in order to seek shelter or improved weather and sea conditions.
Tank ballasting or deballasting operations should be considered only if the ship has adequate stability.
CARGO INFORMATION
Before accepting a cargo for shipment, the shipowner or ship operator should obtain all necessary
information about the cargo and ensure that:
• the different commodities to be carried are compatible with each other or suitably separated;
• the cargo is suitable for the ship;
• the ship is suitable for the cargo; and
• the cargo can be safely stowed and secured on board the ship and transported under all
expected conditions during the intended voyage.
The master should be provided with adequate information regarding the cargo to be carried so that its
stowage may be properly planned for handling and transport.
In accordance with SOLAS Chapter VI‐1 Reg.2 the shipper shall provide the master or his representative
with appropriate information on the cargo in due time in advance of loading to enable the necessary
precautions for proper stowage and safe carriage of the cargo to be put into effect. Such information
shall be confirmed in writing and by appropriate shipping documents prior to loading the cargo.
The cargo information shall include:
1. in the case of general cargo, and of cargo carried in cargo units, a general description of the
cargo, the gross mass of the cargo or of the cargo units, and any relevant special properties of
the cargo. For the purpose of this regulation the cargo information required in sub‐chapter 1.9
of the Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing, adopted by the Organization by
resolution A.714 (17), as amended, shall be provided. Any amendment to subchapter 1.9 shall
be adopted, brought into force and take effect in accordance with the provisions of article VIII of
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the present Convention concerning the amendment procedures applicable to the annex other
than chapter I;
2. in the case of bulk cargo, information on the stowage factor of the cargo, the trimming
procedures, likelihood of shifting including angle of repose, if applicable, and any other relevant
special properties. In the case of a concentrate or other cargo which may liquefy, additional
information in the form of a certificate on the moisture content of the cargo and its
transportable moisture limit.
3. in the case of a bulk cargo not classified in accordance with the provisions of the IMDG Code as
defined in regulation VII/1.1, but which has chemical properties that may create a potential
hazard, in addition to the information required by the preceding subparagraphs, information on
its chemical properties.
Prior to loading cargo units on board ships, the shipper shall ensure that the gross mass of such units is
in accordance with the gross mass declared on the shipping documents.
PRINCIPLES OF SAFE STOWAGE AND SECURING OF CARGOES
1. Suitability of cargo for transport
Cargo carried in containers, road vehicles, shipborne barges, railway wagons and other cargo transport
units should be packed and secured within these units so as to prevent, throughout the voyage, damage
or hazard to the ship, to the persons on board and to the marine environment.
2. Cargo distribution
It is of utmost importance that the master takes great care in planning and supervising the stowage and
securing of cargoes in order to prevent cargo sliding, tipping, racking, collapsing, etc.
The cargo should be distributed so as to ensure that the stability of the ship throughout the entire
voyage remains within acceptable limits so that the hazards of excessive accelerations are reduced as far
as practicable. Cargo distribution should be such that the structural strength of the ship is not adversely
affected.
3. Cargo securing arrangements
Particular care should be taken to distribute forces as evenly as practicable between the cargo securing
devices. If this is not feasible, the arrangements should be upgraded accordingly.
If, due to the complex structure of a securing arrangement or other circumstances, the person in charge
is unable to assess the suitability of the arrangement from experience and know/edge of good
seamanship, the arrangement should be verified by using an acceptable calculation method.
4. Residual strength after wear and tear
Cargo securing arrangements and equipment should have sufficient residual strength to allow for
normal wear and tear during their lifetime.
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5. Friction forces
Where friction between the cargo and the ship's deck or structure or between cargo transport units is
insufficient to avoid the risk of sliding, suitable material such as soft boards or dunnage should be used
to increase friction.
6. Shipboard supervision
The principal means of preventing the improper stowage and securing of cargoes is through proper
supervision of the loading operation and inspections of the stow.
As far as practicable, cargo spaces should be regularly inspected throughout the voyage to ensure that
the cargo, vehicles and cargo transport units remain safely secured.
7. Entering enclosed spaces
The atmosphere in any enclosed space may be incapable of supporting human life through lack of
oxygen or it may contain flammable or toxic gases. The master should ensure that it is safe to enter any
enclosed space.
8. General elements to be considered by the master
Having evaluated the risk of cargo‐shifting, taking into account the criteria, the master should ensure,
prior to loading of any cargo, cargo transport unit or vehicle that:
1. the deck area for their stowage is, as far as practicable, clean, dry and free from oil and grease;
2. the cargo, cargo transport unit or vehicle, appears to be in suitable condition for transport, and
can be effectively secured;
3. all necessary cargo securing equipment is on board and in good working condition; and
4. cargo in or on cargo transport units and vehicles is, to the extent practicable, properly stowed
and secured on to the unit or vehicle.
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9. Cargo stowage and securing declaration
Where there is reason to suspect that a container or vehicle into which dangerous goods have been
packed or loaded is not in compliance with the provisions as appropriate, of the General Introduction to
the IMDG Code, or where a container packing certificate/vehicle packing declaration is not available, the
unit should not be accepted for shipment.
Where practicable and feasible, road vehicles should be provided with a cargo stowage and securing
declaration, stating that the cargo on the road vehicle has been properly stowed and secured for the
intended sea voyage, taking into account the IMO/ILO guidelines for packing cargo in freight containers
or vehicles. An example of such a declaration is given hereunder. The vehicle packing declaration,
recommended by the IMDG Code, may be acceptable for this purpose.
CODE OF SAFE PRACTICE FOR CARGO STOWAGE AND SECURING (CSS Code)
The proper stowage and securing of cargoes is of the utmost importance for the safety of life at sea.
Improper stowage and securing of cargoes has resulted in numerous serious ship casualties and caused
injury and loss of life, not only at sea but also during loading and discharge.
In order to deal with the problems and hazards arising from improper stowage and securing of certain
cargoes on ships, the International Maritime Organization has issued guidelines in the form of either
Assembly resolutions or circulars adopted by the Maritime Safety Committee; these are listed
hereunder:*
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Safe stowage and securing of cargo units and other entities in ships other than cellular
containerships, resolution A.489(XII);
Provisions to be included in the Cargo Securing Manual to be carried on board ships,
MSc/Circ.385;
Elements to be taken into account when considering the safe stowage and securing of cargo
units and vehicles in ships, resolution A.533(13);
Guidelines for securing arrangements for the transport of road vehicles on ro‐ro ships,
resolution A.581(14);
IMO/ILO Guidelines for Packing Cargo in Freight Containers or Vehicles;
Hazards associated with the entry into enclosed spaces, MSC/Circ.487.
IMO Resolution A.714(17) ‐ Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing applies to cargoes
carried on board ships (other than solid and liquid bulk cargoes and timber stowed on deck) and, in
particular, to those cargoes whose stowage and securing have proved in practice to create difficulties.
The accelerations acting on a ship in a seaway
The accelerations acting on a ship in a seaway result from a combination of longitudinal, vertical and
predominantly transverse motions. The forces created by these accelerations give rise to the majority of
securing problems.
The hazards arising from these forces should be dealt with by taking measures both to ensure proper
stowage and securing of cargoes on board and to reduce the amplitude and frequency of ship motions.
The purpose of the Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing Code (CSS Code)
To provide an international standard to promote the safe stowage and securing of cargoes by:
drawing the attention of shipowners and ship operators to the need to ensure that the ship is
suitable for its intended purpose;
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providing advice to ensure that the ship is equipped with proper cargo securing means;
providing general advice concerning the proper stowage and securing of cargoes to minimize
the risks to the ship and personnel;
providing specific advice on those cargoes which are known to create difficulties and hazards
with regard to their stowage and securing;
advising on actions which may be taken in heavy sea conditions; and
advising on actions which may be taken to remedy the effects of cargo shifting.
CONTENTS OF THE CSS CODE
Chapter 1 ‐ General
Chapter 2 ‐ Principles of safe stowage and securing of cargoes
Chapter 3 ‐ Standardized stowage and securing systems
Chapter 4 ‐ Semi‐standardized stowage and securing
Chapter 5 ‐ Non‐standardized stowage and securing
Chapter 6 ‐ Actions which may be taken in heavy weather
Chapter 7 ‐ Actions which may be taken once cargo has shifted
Annex 1 ‐ Safe stowage and securing of containers on deck of ships which are not specially designed and
fitted for the purpose of carrying containers
Annex 2 ‐ Safe stowage and securing of portable tanks
Annex 3 ‐ Safe stowage and securing of portable receptacles
Annex 4 ‐ Safe stowage and securing of wheel‐based (rolling) cargoes
Annex 5 ‐ Safe stowage and securing of heavy cargo items such as locomotives, transformers, etc.
Annex 6 ‐ Safe stowage and securing of coiled sheet steel
Annex 7 ‐ Safe stowage and securing of heavy metal products
Annex 8 ‐ Safe stowage and securing of anchor chains
Annex 9 ‐ Safe stowage and securing of metal scrap in bulk
Annex 10 ‐ Safe stowage and securing of flexible intermediate bulk containers
Annex 11 ‐ General guidelines for the under‐deck stowage of logs
Annex 12 ‐ Safe stowage and securing of unit loads
Definitions
Cargo unit means a vehicle, container, flat, pallet, portable tank, packaged unit, or any other entity, etc.,
and loading equipment, or any part thereof, which belongs to the ship but is not fixed to the ship.
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Intermediate bulk container (IBC) means a rigid, semi‐rigid or flexible portable bulk container packaging
of a capacity of not more than 3 m3 (3,000 l), designed for mechanical handling and tested for its
satisfactory resistance to handling and transport stresses.
Portable tank means a tank which is not permanently secured on board a ship, and has a capacity of
more than 450 I and a shell fitted with external stabilizing members and items of service equipment and
structural equipment necessary for the transport of gases, liquids or solids.
Road tank‐vehicle means a vehicle with wheels and fitted with a tank or tanks intended for the
transport of gases, liquids or solids by both road and sea modes of transport, the tank or tanks of which
are rigidly and permanently attached to the vehicle during all normal operations of loading, transport
and discharge and are neither filled nor emptied on board.
Road vehicle means a commercial vehicle, semi‐trailer, road train, articulated road train or a
combination of vehicles.
Roll‐trailer means a low vehicle for the carriage of cargo with one or more wheel axles on the rear and a
support on the front end, which is towed or pushed in the port to and from its stowage on board the
ship by a special tow‐vehicle.
Ro‐Ro ship means a ship which has one or more decks either closed or open, not normally subdivided in
any way and generally running the entire length of the ship, carrying goods which are loaded and
unloaded normally in a horizontal manner.
Unit load means that a number of packages are either:
1. placed or stacked, and secured by strapping, shrink‐wrapping or other suitable means, on to a
load board such as a pallet; or
2. placed in a protective outer packaging such as a pallet box; or
3. permanently secured together in a sling.
Cargo Securing Plan
The proper stowage and securing of cargoes is of the utmost importance for the safety of life at sea.
Improper stowage and securing of cargoes has resulted in numerous serious ship casualties and caused
injury and loss of life, not only at sea but also during loading and discharge.
Forces, which have to be absorbed by suitable arrangements for stowage and securing to prevent cargo
shifting, are generally composed of components acting relative to the axes of the ship:
longitudinal;
transversal; and
vertical.
The 1974 SOLAS Convention, Regulations VI/5 and VII/6, require cargo units and cargo transport units to
be loaded, stowed and secured throughout the voyage in accordance with a Cargo Securing Manual.
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IMO's Maritime Safety Committee (MSC), at its sixty‐sixth session, considered draft guidelines for the
preparation of the Cargo Securing Manual prepared by the Sub‐Committee on Dangerous Goods, Solid
Cargoes and Containers at its first session (February 1996) and approved the Guidelines presented in
this publication, which were originally issued as MSC/Circ.745 (dated 13 June 1996). The Guidelines
supersede those presented in MSC/Circ.385.
SOLAS Chapter VI and VII requires a Cargo Securing Manual (CS Manual) for all types of ships engaged in
the carriage of cargoes other than solid and liquid bulk cargoes. A CS Manual shall be prepared up to a
standard at least equivalent to relevant guidelines developed by the Organization, ref. IMO MSC.1/Circ.
1353 ‐ 30 June 2010 (this circular supersedes MSC/Circ. 745). The requirements were implemented 1
January 1998.
Guidelines for the preparation of the Cargo Securing Manual states that:
The Cargo Securing Manual is required on all types of ships engaged in the carriage of all
cargoes other than solid and liquid bulk cargoes;
It is important that securing devices meet acceptable functional and strength criteria
applicable to the ship and its cargo;
It is also important that the officers on board are aware of the magnitude and direction of the
forces involved and the correct application and limitations of the cargo securing devices; and
The crew and other persons employed for the securing of cargoes should be instructed in the
correct application and use of the cargo‐securing devices on board the ship.
Cargo Securing Equipment
The ship's cargo securing equipment should be:
available in sufficient quantity;
suitable for its intended purpose, taking into account the recommendations of the Cargo
Securing Manual, if provided;
of adequate strength;
easy to use; and
well maintained.
The appropriate documentation should include information as applicable regarding:
Name of manufacturer
Type designation of item with simple sketch for ease of identification
Material(s)
Identification marking
Strength test result or ultimate tensile strength test result
Result of non destructive testing
Maximum Securing Load (MSL);
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Cargo Securing Manual
In accordance with the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 (SOLAS) chapters VI,
VII and the Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing, cargo units, including containers shall
be stowed and secured throughout the voyage in accordance with a Cargo Securing Manual, approved
by the Administration.
The Cargo Securing Manual is required on all types of ships engaged in the carriage of all cargoes other
than solid and liquid bulk cargoes.
It is threfore a legal mandatory requirement for every ship other than those engaged in the carriage of
solid or liquid bulk cargoes. The purpose of the manual is to cover all relevant aspects of cargo stowage
and securing. Securing devices and methods must meet acceptable criteria for strength, applicable to
relevant cargo units, inclusive of containers and Ro‐Ro transports. Each manual is prepared in a manner
to reflect the individual ship’s needs, relevant to the type of cargo parcels it is engaged to ship.
RECOMMENDED CONTENTS OF CARGO SECURING MANUAL
CHAPTER 1 – GENERAL & DEFINITIONS
CHAPTER 2 ‐ SECURING DEVICES AND ARRANGEMENTS
CHAPTER 3 ‐ STOWAGE AND SECURING OF NON‐STANDARDIZED AND SEMISTANDARDIZED CARGO
CHAPTER 4 ‐ STOWAGE AND SECURING OF CONTAINERS AND OTHER STANDARDIZED CARGO
Definitions:
“Cargo Securing Devices” is all fixed and portable devices used to secure and support cargo
units.
“Maximum Securing Load” (MSL) is a term used to define the allowable load capacity for a
device used to secure cargo to a ship. “Safe Working Load” (SWL) may be substituted for MSL for
securing purposes, provided this is equal to or exceeds the strength defined by MSL.
“Standardized Cargo” means cargo for which the ship is provided with an approved securing
system based upon cargo units of specific types.
“Semi‐standardized Cargo” means cargo for which the ship is provided with a securing system
capable of accommodating a limited variety of cargo units, such as vehicles, trailers, etc.
“Non‐standardized Cargo” means cargo which requires individual stowage and securing
arrangements.
“Cargo transport unit” means a road freight vehicle, a railway freight wagon, a freight
container, a road tank vehicle, a railway tank wagon or a portable tank.
“Fixed Securing Devices” means securing points and supports either integral, i.e. welded into
the hull structure, or non‐integral, i.e. welded onto the hull structure..
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“Portable Securing Devices” means portable devices used for lashing, securing or support of
cargo units.
"The guidance given should by no means rule out the principles of good seamanship, neither can it
replace experience in stowage and securing practice".
It is important that securing devices meet acceptable functional and strength criteria applicable to the
ship and its cargo. It is also important that the officers on board are aware of the magnitude and
direction of the forces involved and the correct application and limitations of the cargo securing devices.
The crew and other persons employed for the securing of cargoes should be instructed in the correct
application and use of the cargo securing devices on board the ship.
Cargo Securing Manual specifies arrangements and cargo securing devices provided on board the ship
for the correct application to and the securing of cargo units, containers, vehicles and other entities,
based on transverse, longitudinal and vertical forces which may arise during adverse weather and sea
conditions.
The cargo securing devices mentioned in the manual should be applied so as to be suitable and adapted
to the quantity, type of packaging, and physical properties of the cargo to be carried. When new or
alternative types of cargo securing devices are introduced, the Cargo Securing Manual should be revised
accordingly. Alternative cargo securing devices introduced should not have less strength than the
devices being replaced
The correct application of portable securing devices, taking into account the following factors:
duration of the voyage;
geographical area of the voyage with particular regard to the minimum safe operational
temperature of the portable securing devices;
sea conditions which may be expected;
dimensions, design and characteristics of the ship;
expected static and dynamic forces during the voyage;
type and packaging of cargo units including vehicles;
intended stowage pattern of the cargo units including vehicles; and
mass and dimensions of the cargo units and vehicles.
CARGO DOCUMENTS
The Dock Receipt: When the cargo consignment is delivered to the terminal a dock receipt is issued to
the person delivering it. This 'contains all relevant information about the cargo such as the weight,
volume, number of pieces etc. ‐
If any damage to the cargo is noticed at this delivery stage the dock receipt is so endorsed. This
document is used to calculate the freight and other handling costs for the cargo.
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The Mate's Receipt: This is a receipt signed by the mate of a ship for cargo that is loaded on board. It
contains details of goods to be shipped and should be available to the mate before loading starts. He
can then use them ‐
1. As a pre‐advice of what to expect
2. To plan the stowage of the cargo
3. To note on them any defects in the condition of the cargo, shortages or other pertinent
comments regarding quantities, marks and description of the goods.
When the cargo is transferred to the carrying vessel the terminal issues a Mates Receipt which is then
signed by the vessel. It is important at this stage to carefully note any damage to the cargo and endorse
the Mates Receipt accordingly. A Mates Receipt should only be signed once it has been verified that the
goods are actually loaded on board. On general cargo vessels this is usually done by comparing with the
tally sheets made up by a tally clerk. In the container trade it is usually done by the shore agency of the
carrier, who signs the Mates Receipts on behalf of the vessel's command.
It is necessary that the mate's receipt reflects the condition of the cargo accurately, to prevent claims
against the ship arising at the discharge port as comments on the mate's receipt appear on the relevant
Bill of Lading The mate signs each receipt when the cargo covered by it is loaded It is given to the
shipper as a receipt who then tenders them to the agent or shipowner in exchange for the bill of lading.
REMARKS ON MATES RECEIPT
The Mate's receipts are often the shipowner's first line of defence in defending a cargo claim for damage
or shortage. It is essential that the receipts are issued accurately, and reflect the condition and quantity
received on board.
Where it is practical for the ship's staff to carry out a tally, the total received on board may be in dispute
with charterers' or shippers' tallies. The lower quantity should be stated on the receipt and claused, say,
"23,850 bags received on board. 150 bags in dispute, and to be delivered if found on board at
discharge”.
In the case of quantity on board bulk carriers, it may be impossible for the Master to carry out a draft
survey to compare with the shippers' figures. The ship may be loading at a roadstead, where the
weather and sea conditions would render the survey inaccurate. The only practical remedy would be to
endorse the Mate's receipts showing shippers' figures, "weight, measure, quantity, quality, conditions,
contents and value unknown to the vessel and owners". A partial, practical remedy may be for the ship's
hatches and cargo accesses to be sealed and certified by an independent surveyor appointed by the
owners, P&l Club.
A surveyor should be appointed at discharge port to certify that the seals are intact before breaking
bulk. Receivers/charterers should be invited to attend the verification. Charterers' representative
seldom turns up! The Master should keep a written sequence of events at load port, and make
annotations in the deck log book. His letter of authority to agents to sign bills of lading on his behalf,
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must state that they are issued in strict conformity, with remarks on the Mate's receipts. Charterers'
attempt to word the authority, "Mate's receipts or tallies", should be resisted. They may attempt to use
the tallies issued clean rather than the Mate's receipts issued claused.
Cargo arriving at shipside in damaged condition should be rejected. It is fraud to sign Mate's receipts
that do not reflect the true condition of the cargo. The rejection of bagged cargo or packaged goods for
mould, wet damage or leakage, is relatively straightforward. Though this may not always be practical
with limited ship's staff, as all six hatches being loaded with bagged rice or coffee. Often, it is not
possible to verify the condition of the contents within the packaging. The rice may be infested, and the
coffee may be mouldy. The best the ship's staff can do, is to be vigilant and exercise due diligence.
Where there is a problem, this should be drawn to the attention of the shipper or charterer. The Mate's
receipts should be signed in good faith and endorsed, “... quality, condition, contents and value
unknown ...”
The Bill of lading: The Mates Receipt is used to compile the Bill of Lading (B/L). A B/L is the primary
document that governs commercial transactions at sea. The bill of lading performs three main functions.
1. It is a receipt for the cargo signed by the master or agent on behalf of the shipowner.
2. It is a document of title to the cargo. The holder of the bill of trading is the owner of the cargo
and it is a negotiable document, which means that the cargo can be sold just by signing and
transferring the bill of lading in the name of the new buyer.
3. It is evidence of a contract between the shipowner and shipper, governing the terms and
conditions of carriage.
The B/L is generally endorsed according to the Mates Receipts. In many cases shippers require a clean
B/L because of the requirements of their letters of credit, and may offer a letter of indemnity against a
clean (unendorsed) BIL. The letter of indemnity has been proven to be of little value against a cargo
claim. The best way to ensure a clean B/L is to ship undamaged cargo.
The information in a bill of lading, includes name and address of the shipper and consignee, ports of
loading and destination, marks, description and weight or volume of the cargo, number of originals and
copies, freight paid or payable, date of loading and name of the ship. The reverse side of the bill of
lading contains the terms and conditions of carriage.
A bill of lading is a negotiable document and transfer of ownership and the buying and selling of bills of
lading is common practice in International trade A bill of lading may change several hands before it
reaches the party who will eventually claim and take delivery of the cargo at the discharge port The
buyer expects cargo to be as described in the bill of lading; hence if any deficiencies are not mentioned
therein , they will be ascribed to the shipowner's neglect in the care and carriage of cargo.
Bills of Lading can be of a number of different types. The main types in common use are as follows:
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Negotiable Bill of Lading: A document of title that can be transferred between persons or
companies by endorsing in the proper place, The person that presents a suitably endorsed B/L at
the discharge port gains possession of the cargo,
Straight Bill of Lading: this type of a B/L cannot be transferred and only the named person, or
his representative, can gain possession of the cargo at the discharge port,
Combined Transport Bill of Lading: In the container trade, where one carrier often takes
responsibility for the door‐to‐door transport of the cargo, this is a common type of B/L
Through Bill of lading: This is issued by the sea‐carrier but states that he is responsible for
the goods only during the sea passage part of the total transit.
Seaway bill: this takes the same form as a B/L but is a non‐negotiable, receipt and not a
document of title. This is usual in the container trade and is only a receipt for the goods carried
and evidence of a contract between the shipper and the carrier. It does not need to be
presented for delivery of the cargo.
A B/L has to be stamped and signed by the
Master, In the container trade, due to the
difficulty of presenting the B/L to the
Master in time for the vessel to sail, the
Master issues a letter, or power of
attorney, to the carriers agents
authorising the agent to sign the Bills of
lading on his behalf.
Bills of Lading are internationally
respected documents on which Banks and
other institutions will rely when advancing
large sums of money. If a Master or agent
signs a bill of lading knowing or suspecting
that its description of the cargo is wrong,
or if he deliberately inserts a false date
onto a bill, his conduct will probably
amount to deceit and this will render
worthless any guarantees or letters of
indemnity that may have been tendered
by the shipper, and expose the ship to
liability for any loss that has been
suffered.
The Master should be aware of the condition of any cargo loaded to the extent that he can reasonably
be expected to have inspected it. If it is impossible for him to properly inspect the cargo, the Bill of
Lading should be qualified accordingly. Additionally, the Master will often be under a duty to state the
quantity or weight or number of pieces of cargo shipped, and once he has signed bills of lading to that
effect it will be very difficult to claim that a different quantity was shipped.
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The intrinsic value represented by a bill of lading tends to give rise to many disputes, and accordingly, if
there is any doubt about how a bill should be claused, advice of Owners or P&I agents should be sought.
The Cargo Manifest: The cargo manifest is a list of all cargo on the ship at any time. It is prepared for
customs purposes primarily but
comes in useful for several other
purposes such as tallying of cargo,
checking against overcarriage and
for ticking off the cargoes whose
bills of lading have been sighted.
Besides the names of items of
cargo, it contains the weight,
quantity or number of packages
and the compartment loaded in.
When dangerous cargo is loaded a
separate manifest for the same
has to be prepared.
A Dangerous Goods Declaration; must be provided to the Master by the shipper of any goods that
come under the auspices of the “IMDG code”.
A Dangerous Goods Manifest; is compiled from bookings and provided to the vessel before loading
commences. If necessary it is revised before sailing. This document lists the weight, quantity, packaging,
class and stowage of all hazardous cargo on the vessel. It is compiled by the agent and signed by the
master and agent. Proper shipping names must be used for dangerous cargo; trade names are not
permitted, in addition the commodity must be identified by its U.N. No.
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TALLYING
Where tallymen are employed jointly by shipper and shipowner the tally‐clerk's receipt may take the
place of the Mate's receipt. Spot checks by ship's staff are therefore advisable.
Tally cards should be preserved and forwarded to the shipowner at the end of the voyage. The ship's
tally (both when loading and discharging) is indispensable if claims are to be avoided. A careless tally
may however be worse than useless. They should be
compared and agreed at the termination of each shift.
Disputes should be promptly investigated and if a
recount is possible this should never be left over until
work ceases when it may be too late.
The ship's tally should be taken on board and never on
lighters or the loading area ‐the ship's responsibility
frequently commences and ceases when cargo passes
or leaves the ship's rail. During discharge, valuable
cargo should be tallied at the rail. This should help
relieve the ship of liability for any shortages occurring
after it has passed overside.
A truly efficient tally is impossible when an officer or tally clerk is tending to the intake or output of
more than one hatch; it is unreasonable to expect that an officer can correctly tally and be relied upon
to supervise stowage, etc., at the same time.
Tally books or sheets should be delivered to and retained by the Chief Tally Clerk whenever work ceases.
The Hatch Book: Most shipping companies require that officers responsible for cargo maintain a hatch
notebook, in which can be recorded times of commencing and finishing cargo work, delays due to
inclement weather, number of gangs employed, details of any stoppages and the reasons.
Additionally, the hatch notebook should contain reference to the disposition of cargo in a compartment
in order to facilitate the compiling of the cargo plan. The use of a hatch notebook can be materially
increased by adopting a check list approach and ticking off items as they are covered.
The Mate's Log Book: This is a record of everything pertaining to the working of the ship, whether the
vessel be at sea or in port. In the latter case details of cargo working will be recorded, the substance of
which will follow much of the information provided in the hatch notebook.
CARGO RECEIVING PROCEDURE
Goods of packages which are received in unsound condition clearly cannot be delivered in a sound
condition. It is essential, therefore, that during loading, a careful watch be continually maintained for
any packages which may have been tampered with or which are improperly or inadequately protected,
broken, leaky, damaged, repaired, spilled, torn or stained. Such packages should be rejected unless
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reconditioning is an option. (Care should of course be taken to see that any packages [or which Mate's
receipts ‐see below ‐have been issued but for some reason have to be returned ashore are delivered
back to the ship).
DELIVERING CARGO
Should there be reasonable grounds for anticipating damage to cargo before opening the hatches,
protest should be noted. This protest should be noted as soon as possible and not later than 24 hours
after arrival; the protest can be extended and can be made without waiting to sight the damaged cargo,
continuing the extension of protest as the extent of damage is revealed. A surveyor's attendance on
behalf of ship, whilst discharging is in progress, it is always beneficial. Every reasonable facility should be
extended to the surveyors attending on behalf of consignees, but this does not mean that consignees or
their representatives have a right to full access to the ship or to examination of documents such as log
books.
Where a surveyor is not in constant attendance, a survey should be called at once where damaged cargo
is found. In the case of damage by moisture or water, or leakage from casks etc., dunnage and matting
should not be disturbed until they have been sighted and positioned by the surveyors.
Many owners place on board video and digital cameras. In addition to recording heavy weather and
structural damage, etc., they should be used to record cargo problems or visual physical damage. These
should be transmitted to owners who may in turn release them to their P&I Club.
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The following points may be useful:
(i) When damaged cargo is sighted in the stow, a sound practice is to make a sketch or take
photographic evidence of the position of the cargo in relation to other cargo in the
compartment.
(ii) All packages found broken during discharge should be laid aside and segregated. It may be
possible to securely lock such cargo away for further investigation or reconditioning.
(iii) Care should be taken to replace back into position any cases bearing marks and numbers
that may have become displaced. Where this is not possible every effort should be made to
ascertain the correct marks and numbers which then can be clearly painted on to other
packages to avoid confusion which may arise through lack of identification.
(iv) It is worth gathering up and including with other discharged cargo all torn, slack or empty
bags or packages. Where Bills of Lading state a specific number of bags or packages, it is
best at least to show delivery of that number so far as the instigation of a claim may be
concerned.
(v) Cargo should never be delivered except on production of the original Bill of Lading properly
stamped and endorsed. When the cargo is consigned to order, the Bill of Lading should bear
the shipper's endorsement and also that of the merchant to whom it has been transferred.
Cargo should never be delivered against invoices, letters of guarantee or indemnity or
whatever, and if in doubt, advice of Owners or the P&I correspondents should be sought.
PORT MARKING
Marking of cargo is of course a function
performed ashore and prior to loading
but it is worth remembering that the
marking of cargo with the port of
destination and other relevant
information is a valuable aid to good
stowage and efficient out‐turn.
STOWAGE PLANS
Plans showing the disposition of all cargo loaded should always be prepared. The value of full and
accurate plans cannot be over emphasised. Inaccurate planning may cause delay and costly,
unproductive employment of stevedores. During the passage cargo plans should he carefully checked ‐
any error likely to affect the intended discharge pattern can always be radioed ahead.
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The plan should be large and, whilst not necessarily to scale, should be sufficiently approximate so as to
indicate the comparative volume of a stow in any compartment. This may be the only means of
conveying to agents and others at discharging ports the proportion and quantity of cargo in any hold
destined for that port. All pillars, beams, lockers and positions of doors should be shown and it is good
practice to indicate the number and type of derricks/cranes of each hatch and the length and breadth of
each unless the ship is well known to the agent or stevedore. The position of cargo should be shown
accurately in relation to these features. Suitable details should be advised: whether cargo is on pallets,
whether stowed by forklift trucks, whether or not pre‐slung etc. Where mechanical handling equipment
has been used the exact flow of traffic used to achieve the stow may be useful to facilitate discharge.
Notes on how any particularly awkward cargoes have been loaded can be of considerable assistance
during discharge.
With a highly mixed general cargo it will not of course be possible to show the marks of various
packages on the plan, but in the case of substantial consignments the marks, quantities and position
should be shown. Where practical, identification of individual Bills of Lading in the stow can be
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extremely useful. Fuller details, particularly of tonnages, should be given in relation to overstowed
cargo, always indicating whether such tonnages are weight or measurement.
A copy of the plan should, where possible, reach the discharging ports ahead of the vessel.
Bulk carrier plans must contain the total tonnage loaded into each hatch.
Container plans are drawn up and delivered by the shore organisation. The weight of each container
must be recorded, and where appropriate, if cargo is hazardous, IMDG Code, etc.
Stowage Principles
(a) Safety of Ship and Crew
The overriding consideration is for the safety of ship and crew. This implies that the cargo is placed with
due regard to the stability characteristics of the ship and in such a way as to avoid excessive bending or
shearing stresses in the loaded condition, bearing in mind the intended voyage and likely weather to be
experienced.
Furthermore, the total 'weight loaded' must not exceed that which is permitted to meet the appropriate
load line indications. Pre‐planning calculations will be made with this in mind.
The distribution of cargo must always leave adequate access to crew and navigation spaces, nor must it
prevent the correct closure of hatchways and hatches or accommodation doors through which water
could enter in adverse weather.
In terms of routine in regard to the safety of ship and crew, attention is drawn to the Code of Safe
Working Practices for Merchant Seamen. This code is produced by the Marine Division of the
Department of Transport and is concerned with establishing and maintaining safe working conditions on
board ships at sea and in port. The code is, in fact, authoritative guidance.
Among the subjects dealt with are the general precautions of cargo handling and working procedures;
the operating precautions with winches, cranes and derricks and other forms of mechanical equipment
used in cargo work; the care to be exercised with all forms of dangerous substances and the safety
requirements with hatches, hatchways and hatch covers. The code is detailed over all the usual activities
and functions on board a ship and, as such, provides a good background base for informative study.
With cargo work routine procedures particularly can this be useful, and all officers would be advised to
make reference to the copies of the code on board their ship.
Useful guidance is also to be found in the I.L.O. Code 'Accident prevention on board ship at Sea and in
Port' in which the basic precautions associated with cargo work are described.
The provision of a copy of this Code for reference on board is strongly recommended. The
complementary I.L.O. Code 152 'Safety & Health in Dock Work' is, likewise an essential document.
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(b) Safety of the Cargo Itself
Damage to cargo can arise from a considerable number of causes some less obvious than others and
precautionary measures need to be applied over broad parameters not the least in respect of the
following circumstances‐inadequate stowage; uneven distribution; incorrect slinging; careless
movement by mechanical handling (fork lift trucks, etc.) ; insufficient attention to labelling and marking;
carelessly packed units ; inattention to weight loads and lifting gear; insufficient or incorrect dunnaging;
contamination; incorrect ventilation; lack of proper attention to temperature control with refrigerated
cargoes, particularly so with container refrigerated cargoes. Particular preventative measures are
necessary with crushing possibilities in compartments where fragile consignments are stowed with
heavier loads; with taint from odourous goods, liquids and incorrect mixing of different consignments
giving off moisture affect.
Damaged cargo should be placed on one side, recorded as to the extent of the damage, inspected
independently and, either rejected if the condition warrants it, or stowed in a more appropriate space
after restoring the damage.
Inefficient ventilation procedures are a major cause of damage to cargo and one which can have difficult
repercussions with insurance matters.
(c) The Cargo Stow
The position of cargo in a hold or space must be such as to assist correct and speedy discharge. Cargo for
a port must not be over‐stowed by cargo for a succeeding port. This is achieved by the correct use of
port marks and is materially assisted by proper labelling by the shipper. Additionally, the quantity of
cargo for any port should be divided between a number of hatches so as to minimize working time but
there is, of course, a minimum amount of cargo below which it would not be economic to split, since the
time spent in rigging gear and the cost of stevedoring would most likely exceed the saving due to
reduced time.
Pilferage of cargo parcels must be avoided by stowing them in such a way that they are blocked off by
heavier and less vulnerable packages. With vulnerable cargo .. . known as 'Specie' daylight working is
preferable. If this is not possible plenty of artificial lighting should be used while with the working of
specie cargo in any great amounts makes it advisable to employ a watchman or security guard.
Damage to bulk liquid cargoes is generally from one cause only, that is contamination by mixing. For this
to occur there would have to be a mistake in the operating of the valves or in the order of loading which
could only occur if the check list and precautions were ignored or misread.
The cargo stow with bulk liquids is predetermined and no major adjustments are possible once loading
has commenced.
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(d) During the Voyage
Apart from refrigerated and oil cargoes, which have their own special requirements, little attention is
either necessary or possible once the hatchways have been secured. Some restriction applies with
'general' cargoes, however. Modern ship construction includes points of access to holds and spaces,
with entry provisions by ladder/ steps arrangements. Through these access points officers can penetrate
and view spaces to observe any irregularities in ventilation, dampness/sweat or, indeed, any cargo
disturbance. 'See General Arrangements plans included in cover pocket.' One requirement however, is
present at sea, particularly on long voyages and more so when this passes through different latitudes
with the consequential changes in atmospheric conditions. This is the adequate and constant attention
to ventilation, either by the manual trimming of ventilators or the control of air conditioning systems.
Ventilation is all important to the safe carriage of cargoes. In heavy weather there is need to be assured
that sea water will not enter the cargo holds or spaces through ventilators or other means and normal
appropriate measures must be taken to avoid this.
(e) Check Lists
Routine procedures greatly benefit from check lists drawn up to outline those requirements of
inspection and attention to which procedure should apply in the preparation of holds and spaces for the
reception of cargo. There can be no standard form of check list . . . each will differ according to the type
of ship and facilities available but more so will this differ according to the requirements and standards
set by the Chief or Senior Cargo Officer.
By way of example the following items could form guide lines against which checking could be made:
Hold/Space Inspection M.V. ………… Date.............
Air Pipes. Sounding Pipes & Striker Plates.
Scuppers. Storm Valves & Covers.
D.B. Manhole Covers. Locker Doors.
Spar Ceiling. Hatch Covers.
Hatch Rollers.
Guard Rails & Stanchions.
Hold Lighting. Ladders.
Fire. extinguishing systems and detector arrangements.
Bilges …………. inspected ............... cleared ………limber boards secured.
Daily Routine Cargo Working
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Gear Inspection. Derricks. Cranes.
Runners & Guys. Winches & Power Switches.
Deck Lighting. Gangways.
Hatch Cover Security. Hatch Beams Security.
Fire Appliances. Anti-Rat Precautions.
Moorings. Overside Safety Nets.
Special Items
Lashings Availability. Lashings Inspected.
Heavy Lift Spreaders. Heavy Lift Securing Points.
Some Particular Aspects of Routine
Accepting Cargo. Loads for shipment should be properly packed, i.e. securely and safely, and
adequately marked in order to indicate weight, port marks, slinging points and, where necessary, any
special precautions. Deficiencies in those directions should be questioned.
Where cargo is pre‐slung attention must be given to the system of support which holds the load
together as one unit. In stowage, pre‐slung loads must be effectively blocked off so as to avoid inter‐
cargo damage from ' contact movement or displacement while crushing damage must be avoided by a
sufficiency of dunnage/ plyboard or synthetic packing between the layers or tiers of the pre‐slung units.
Pre‐slinging is becoming increasingly adaptable to many types of loads by reason, among other things, of
its time, and labour saving advantages.
Bulky Lifts. The position of the centre of gravity of a load should, preferably, be indicated on the
outside of the packaging. This allows of correct balancing in slinging, avoids any danger of accident while
the load is in suspension while, with fork lift truck movement, permits of equal weight distribution over
the machine. Attention in these respects is important and should have regard to the known gross weight
of the load being handled and the type of its contents.
Insufficient attention to this procedure can raise difficulties both in lifting and in stowing since it does
not follow that the centre of gravity of the 'content', i.e. for example, a machinery unit, coincides with
the geometrical centre of the overall package.
Pallets. Where cargo is loaded to be stowed on pallets, these should be in good order and condition
and devoid of signs of collapsing under weight stress. Cargo on pallets should be loaded in such a way as
to be evenly distributed, not irregular nor overhanging at the sides. The interlocking of the goods on the
pallet, known as bonding, is much the preferable method. Unitization involves a high measure of
palletized cargo.
Unit Stowage. All forms of unit stowage require even distribution, to which end 'dunnage' of
appropriate form should be sensibly used. Plywood sheets, placed between each layer of a unit stow, is
a better system in achieving a level surface and so preventing an otherwise intrusion of damaging causes
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from other cargo 'pieces'. Indeed, such arrangements are encouraged when loading containers on to the
hatchways of 'tween decks as part of a multi‐stow.
Containers . .. ex quay . The cargo officer's involvement with cargo stowed in containers is where
'stuffing' is the practice. Stuffing is loading the container, ex quay, prior to shipment, from a variety of
relatively small sized consignments.
Stuffing should follow the normally accepted principles of good stowage but, in particular, the following
precautions are necessary.
The total load weight should be evenly distributed over the floor of the container such that the centre of
gravity is low, and as near to the centre of gravity of the container as is possible.
Lighter cargo should be stowed on top of heavier; precautions against contamination taken and choking
off, in order to obtain a tight and solid load is essential.
Particular care should be exercised with goods of a damp or oily texture. This could inhibit a fire risk
from spontaneous combustion. Where doubt arises, such goods should be rejected.
Stuffing calls for careful supervision ... careful in the sense that labour employed may not always be of
the usual high standards of normal stevedores nor is the environment of a single box as conducive to
'job satisfaction' as the normal hold/space cargo working operations. Lack of appropriate attention to
the loading of the box could well lead to difficulties later, when the vessel would be at sea.
DAMAGE TO CARGO
Causes of Damage and Precautions to be Adopted
Handling: Considerable damage to cargo may result if due care is not paid to handling. The possibility
of this source of damage occurs in both loading and discharging and thus devolves on an officer to give
efficient attention on all occasions.
Lack of care at port of loading may result in damage such that, though the effect is not immediately
apparent, the results may begin to show during the voyage as damage not only to the specific
consignment, but also to other cargo with which it is stowed. Bad handling at port of discharge not only
spoils a ship's record for efficient carriage, but often lays the ship open to damage claims which could be
avoided by careful supervision. The following are some of the more obvious instances of damage
through bad handling.
1. Inefficient and Improper Slinging. Case goods should be arranged more or less in like sizes before
slinging. Heavy cases should not be slung with light cases. Canvas slings should be used for bagged goods
in preference to rope slings. For very small packages wire net slings are preferable. With some classes of
goods, easily breakable or readily made up into units, the use of trays affords the better methods.
Cargoes, generally, can be classified as being homogeneous or non‐homogeneous in character. Non‐
homogeneous cargoes comprise wide and varied shapes and sizes of loads while the numbers making up
a load are equally variable. This class of cargo is 'damage prone' from handling and calls for two distinct
and definitive precautions, firstly that the slings to be used should be selected to suit the type and
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character of the load and, secondly, definite and precise supervision over the stevedoring procedures is
essential.
Homogeneous cargoes, by reason of their like
characteristics, lend themselves to mechanized
handling and this has taken over from slinging where
this is possible, hence the use of fork lift trucks in the
holds and spaces of a vessel. Even so, such cargoes do
still remain within the more conventional handling
procedures.
In all cases of slinging due attention should be given to
the weight of the cargo in the sling. Excessive loads
cause undue stress which, apart from deterioration to
lifting gear, may also result in crushing packages at the
bottom and sides of the sling.
In the well established ports of the world cargo handling procedures follow the modernization of ships'
equipment and it is unlikely that facilities and use will be other than up to date but where vessels trade
to lesser developed ports there still will remain the need to utilize older fashioned methods to the best
advantage.
Notably is this the case with the making up of slings. At loading this should be done immediately
beneath the head of the outboard derrick or the crane jib. By so doing swinging contact of a load against
the ship side is avoided. Similarly, on discharging, a load should be made up in or near to the square of
the hatch. Some latitude may be allowed here since experience has shown that no undue damage will
result to bagged or baled cargo by slinging in any part of a compartment, and 'breaking out' provided
care is exercised in guiding the sling towards the square of the hatch. The practice is not advised,
however, with cases, drums or barrels.
2. The Use of Fork Lift Trucks. The use of these mechanical handling devices can constitute a serious
source of cargo damage when working in a ship cargo
space, if prudent precautions are not taken ... albeit,
with these, very satisfactory loading and discharging
handling and tonnage times can be achieved. However,
inattention to 'speed rates' of the F.L.T.s, in relatively
confined spaces can lead to collision with the
interruption of existing stowage. It is not also unknown
for the total load on a F.L.T. to become displaced, or
even jettisoned, due to disregard of the elementary
principles of load stability with a moving unit.
3. Cargo Gear. Much damage to cargo results from slings contacting with hatchcoamings, bulwarks and
obstructions within a compartment. This is due, in no small measure, to careless winch or crane work.
Thoughtless acceleration and retardation cause many unnecessary claims for broken packages.
It is most important to urge the necessity of tight guys to derricks. All officers should make the
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inspection of guys a routine job; by so doing they would not only prevent damage to cargo but would
also minimize the stress upon the gear.
All running gear should be kept well greased and lubricated. Wires, swivels, gin blocks and hooks are
liable to fail under working stress if neglected in this direction.
4. Crushing. Damage to cargo from 'crushing' is mainly due to lack of both thought and care in stowing.
Incorrect use of wooden dunnage, unsuitable space
allocations to cargo, insufficient attention paid to the
type of cargo being loaded and to the order of stowage,
are potential factors contributing to damage from this
source.
Obviously, heavy bulky packages stowed over and with
fragile packages, will produce undue stress upon the
latter and, with the motion of the ship, may cause them
to collapse. Fragile packages, on the other hand, are
considerably less likely to damage from crushing if they
are given 'tween deck stowage, where more efficient
compactness of stow is possible.
Wooden dunnage, badly laid, is often the cause of crushing damage, since it is liable to penetrate fragile
packages. This is often noticeable with cases of tea and rubber. The plywood cases are easily split and
instances are on record of cases having been pierced by the ends of the dunnage battens thus causing
loss of tea and damage to rubber, thereby leading to heavy claims. Packages of such nature should be
stowed fairly, on top of each other, to form a block, and the wooden dunnage so selected and arranged
that the ends will, if possible, coincide with the edges of the cases.
Incompletely filled compartments give rise to damage by crushing if due attention is not given to the
security of the cargo. All consignments should be compactly stowed, lashed if necessary, with packages
of like size stowed together. 'Stepping down' of cargo may prevent movement when the vessel rolls and
pitches, whilst this same motion would aggravate the vibration of cases stowed in end compartments
where they are likely to bear against the structural projections in these spaces. It is therefore preferable
to reserve the middle holds of the vessel for case goods, leaving the end holds for bagged cargo.
Two obvious methods of preventing crushing damage are worthy of mention:
4. Crates of glass should always be stowed on edges, athwartships, packed solidly together, on a
perfectly level floor of dunnage, lashed to prevent movement, and no cargo of any nature
stowed on top.
5. Rolls of paper, likewise, should be stowed on their flats. Stowage on the round would very likely
result in flattening deformation to such an extent as to render the rolls unsuitable for eventual
machine use.
Duty of a Cargo Officer
Of general nature, a Cargo Officer should become familiar with the specialized equipment and
facilities provided by the stevedoring agencies particularly that related to mechanical handling and
mobile carriage; to the types and conditions of pallets which may be used with the loading procedures
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and to spreaders and sling arrangements. Current cargo handling practice involves a wide variety of
unitization with consignments pre‐packed into unit loads, ranging from single pallets, pre‐slung loads or,
to containers. With the former it is good practice to 'sight' the loads arranged in the sheds or
warehouses before they are moved to the quay for loading. By so doing possible pre‐shipment damage
comes to light and the units can be rejected while, also, a general indication of stowage needs is more
easily apparent beforehand.
Where isolated pre‐packed (stuffed) at quayside
containers are carried on conventional vessels it is
essential that attention is given to the manner by
which the contents of the container are solidly
secured inside.
While cargo work is proceeding the cargo officer
should divide his time between the deck and the
hold/cargo spaces. In this way he can ensure that the
cargo is in all respects carefully handled and stowed.
With discharging this practice assists in avoiding over‐
carriage of cargo.
When work is finished for the day the cargo officer
must see that all hatch coverings are in place, secured
and made water tight. Derricks should be swung
inboard in order that no difficulties will arise if it
should be necessary to leave the wharf quickly after
completion of work for the day. Cranes should be
'locked' and secured in place; particularly must all
electric and electro‐hydraulic fittings be safeguarded.
It is usual to keep a record of the amount of cargo worked during the day. An appropriate check on
this amount may be obtained from draft comparison with the displacement scale, or curve, for the
vessel, taken before cargo work commences and after it is finished.
With bulk liquids of any sort the emphasis changes to ensuring that complex safety precautions are
observed and the routines, usually supported by check lists, are strictly followed.
The officer will be conversant with the Chief Officer's loading or discharging orders and will ensure
that experienced hands are available to operate the valves in the correct sequence. He must also be
aware of the potential sources of ignition and the risks attendant on the concentration of flammable gas
on deck.
Instant readiness of all firefighting appliance is required and systems of communication, including
means of summoning shore assistance to deal with emergencies beyond the scope of the ship's
capacity, must be fully understood. The cargo gear, understandably, consists of lines and valves ... the
officer must become familiar with the pipeline layout and the valve operation for any tank or tanks.
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CLEANING AND PREPARATION OF THE HOLDS AND SPACES
Dry Cargoes ... Basic Aspects
Cleaning. The amount of cleaning with a cargo space will depend upon the nature of the cargo
which has been discharged and that which is to be loaded. Generally speaking, a hold which is ready
to receive cargo should be clean and dry, well ventilated and free from any odour of the previous
cargo.
When discharging is finished, a space in the wings abreast of the hatchway should be cleared and all
serviceable dunnage stacked there. Unsuitable dunnage must be sent up on deck to be disposed of.
It is a common practice in two deck vessels to shift a quantity of the lower hold dunnage up to the
'tween deck, to be passed down again as required in the lower hold. This saves unnecessary shifting
of dunnage when stowing the lower hold. The hold is then thoroughly swept down and all rubbish is
sent up on deck.
Where bilge sections are part of the structure, the limber boards are lifted and the bilges thoroughly
cleaned out; particularly, attention must be given to the rose boxes and it is most important to see
that all the holes in the boxes are clear. If necessary, the bilges may be cement or lime washed or
coated with bitumastic; this tends to prevent corrosion and also disinfects them. After the limber
boards are replaced, they should be caulked with oakum and, if the cargo to be loaded requires it, as
for instance, a bulk commodity, they must be covered with tarpaulin nailed down with wooden
battens. Battens are often more suitable than caulking in order to allow drainage to the bilges.
Modern vessels do not have bilge sections, the tank top extends from shell to shell.
To clean a hold from which a coal cargo has just been discharged it is necessary first to sweep it
down and then to wash it down with a hose. The bilge suctions and/or rose boxes must be attended
to so that the water can be pumped away. After washing down with salt water, the drying of the
hold is. accelerated if it is wiped down with fresh water. Supplement the ventilation of the hold by
wind‐sails. Sawdust sprinkled on all ironwork and on the tank top (or ceiling) will help to absorb the
damp and may be swept up after a short interval.
When time does not permit the holds being washed down, very satisfactory results may be obtained
by sprinkling all ironwork with damp sawdust and sweeping down with stiff brooms.
Preparation ... Generalities
With a general cargo the holds should be well swept out and any residue of a previous cargo sent up
on deck and disposed of. The extent and degree of cleaning will depend upon the nature of the
previous cargo. Precautions should be taken to ensure that the space is well ventilated and dry ... to
this end wind sails may be rigged and upper hatch covers removed or opened.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 44 of 330
Liberal supplies of clean, dry, unstained and appropriately adaptable dunnage to the cargoes to be
loaded should be available and handy. Specialized dunnage and packaging of a synthetic nature
should be in good condition. With all cargoes which require dunnage it is essential that the latter is
clean, dry and free from stain or odour.
Bagged cargo requires widely sized boards for dunnaging, for two main reasons. Firstly in order to
provide a reasonable floor between tiers of bags such that sagging will not take place and so that by
laying the boards at about four to six inch intervals between edges, air circulation is maintained
between the tiers.
Laying dunnage is not a haphazard function. Dunnage has the purpose of assisting in the solidarity of
stow and also preventing undue damage to cargo in proximity to itself. It must therefore be laid with
thought and attention to the purpose for which it is being used and its size and adaptability fitted
where this can best serve the total stow.
The main contributory factors towards damage to cargoes whilst in vessels are:
- crushing;
- dampness;
- contact with ironwork of the ship or other cargo; and
- lack of systems of ventilation specifically suited to the cargoes.
In view of this it is essential to give due attention to dunnaging needs. In terms of the materials
which can be used for dunnaging it must be such as will provide protection to and from any or all of
the above four factors and could be seasoned wood of different size and shape ; pieces of cordwood;
bamboos; mats ; rattans and plyboard.
Modern practices use quantities of blocks of expanded polystyrene and also air filled bags.
In refrigerated compartments permanent steel corrugated dunnage is used with a high degree of
success. It allows a sufficiency of air flow and has the strength to carry the load/weight of fork lift
trucks.
Double dunnage, that is one layer on top of another, is preferable at all times but particularly so with
the bottom layers adjacent to the decks. Modern synthetic dunnaging materials, which serve as
packaging as well, tend to lessen the need for an overabundance of other forms of dunnaging, such
as wood.
Laying dunnage in preparation for a cargo depends largely upon the type of consignments in the
load(s). With most bagged cargoes a complete tier of dunnage is first laid over the floor of the space
on to which a complete covering of bags is laid. General cargo, by virtue or its different shapes and
sizes, would break up any previously laid dunnage and it is therefore better in such cases to
'dunnage' as the stow goes along .
Sweepings . .. torn or split bags are a common form of damage with bagged cargoes. The extent of
the damage depends largely on the handling of the bags during loading and the care taken to
prevent their coming in contact with projections in the space or compartment, such as stringers or
angle brackets. The weight of the layers of bags also, in some cases, causes those in the lower tiers
to split and the contents seep down to the bottom of the space where, after discharge, a
considerable quantity of the commodity may be found. It is for this reason that separation cloths, or
tarpaulins should be completely spread over the bottom dunnage in order to retain this residue on
discharge, and to keep it as clean as possible.
Sweepings are part of the consignment, and must be discharged as such.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 45 of 330
Hold Preparation (Container Ship):
Followings are procedure for preparing a container ship and making it ready in all aspects to receive
or discharge cargo at an upcoming port.
• All bilge alarms should be properly checked for their working condition
• All bilges should be emptied before the ship berths
• An efficient ballast plan should be prepared according to the pre‐arrival condition of the
ship. Proper consideration should be given to the fuel consumption while planning ballasting
and de‐ballasting procedures.
• For securing containers, adequate lashing bars, twist locks and turnbuckles must be made
available.
• Everyone involved with cargo loading and unloading procedure should know about different
cargo handling equipment used on container ships.
• Deck crew in‐charge of the cargo operation should make sure that all lasing bars are in
position; so as to avoid damage to them or hatch covers when containers would be loaded.
• Turnbuckles and twist locks must be greased and in proper working condition
• In case any defective lashing equipment is found, it should be immediately replaced.
• Proper lighting is must during cargo operation. Thus, ensure that the ship has adequate
lighting facilities on deck, lashing bridge and catwalks. In case any lights are not working,
they should be replaced before the ship arrives at the port.
• In case of loading of reefer containers, ensure that all reefer plugs are working properly and
extra connections “Pig Tails” are available for maximum loading of refers.
• Adequate spanners and actuator poles must be readily available for the stevedores.
• In case of any “Out of Gauge” cargo, extra lashing must be done.
• Marking of the hatch covers must be clear and properly identifiable.
• All ventilator fans in the cargo holds must be in proper working condition.
• Ensure that fire dampers for the cargo hold are in good working condition
• Timings and heights of low and high tides must be calculated prior to the loading/un‐loading
condition and properly displayed at the ship control centre and the bridge.
Safety of the personnel should be of utmost priority while loading cargo.
Deck crew involved with lashing and cargo activities must be extremely careful while working and
should keep in mind the important points for safe container lashing.
Hold Cleaning (Bulk‐ Grain):
Depend on following factors;
i. last cargo
ii. requirements of next cargo
iii. time available
iv. equipment & man power available
Hold preparation sequence for loading grain in bulk is as follow;
1) Remove all residues of previous cargo. Sweep down & collect residues.
2) Stack & remove left dunnage
3) Wash down with seawater. Follow with F.W. to reduce corrosion & accelerate drying.
4) Pay attention to wash some areas which are difficult to reach
5) Check bilge suctions are operational
6) Bilges & strum boxes are properly cleaned & covered with burlap
7) Hold inspection to be carried out & any defect repaired
8) Fix fire fighting equipments must be tested
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 46 of 330
9) Ventilation equipments & Hold lighting arrangements should be inspected
10) Sounding pipes, temp pipes, *reefer plugs & any other service lines should be inspected
11) Means of access should be check for damage
12) Check hatch covers watertight integrity & if required, renew rubber liners
13) Deck fittings (Air pipes, mushrooms) should be inspected
HOLD PREPARATION CHECKLIST
General
hold bilge pumping and line arrangements understood
standard and extent of hold cleanliness and preparation for the next cargo is known from
charterers, shippers, owners, charterparty, IMSBC Code
instructions from charterers are clearly understood
ensure ship has sufficient water for a freshwater wash‐down; additional freshwater can be
taken in the fore or aft peak tanks.
(A panamax bulk carrier requires about 20/25 tonnes of freshwater per hold for freshwater wash‐
down)
Pre‐washing
holds swept thoroughly after discharge of previous cargo and residues removed. Residues
left on deck are kept covered to reduce dust and pollution risk
holds and internal structures checked for damages
bilge wells/strum boxes are cleared of cargo spillage. Bilge cover plate fitted in good order
hold bilge sounding pipes and temperature pipes are free of debris
do not wash holds where adjacent holds are not free of cargo, or if the bulkhead in the
adjacent hold is not clear of cargo (as there is a potential risk of water damage/ingress)
the bilge line to be blanked off from the engine room for holds with cargo during washing
bilges of holds with cargo to be sounded frequently during washing
before pumping out bilge water, ensure MARPOL and local regulations are not violated
fixed fire extinguishing lines should be flushed out with air to remove dust and residues
Hospital Clean condition‐Bulk Carrier Hold Cleaning using Toby Gun
Post‐washing
the non‐return valves in the bilge well are to be checked and operational
bilge wells should be dry. Strum box and bilge cover plate should be clear and secured
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 47 of 330
bilge cover plate should be covered with burlap and secured
open and inspect the valve/seat of each hold bilge valve in engine room and ensure it is free
of cargo residues and debris
open and inspect main bilge line valve in engine room and ensure it is free of cargo residues
and debris
ensure all valves on the hold bilge line are effectively shut to prevent water ingress into
holds from fire and general service pump, ballast and eductor pump, etc. Valves should be
closed, with measures in place to ensure that they stay closed (visible signs)
ensure that all manhole lids on the hold tank top and ballast line blanks in ballast hold are
watertight and oil‐tight
ensure that ballast well manhole and ballast line blanks are tight
ensure that high‐level bilge alarms are operational
ensure that the stool spaces are drained of water. (Stool spaces may contain water in ballast
hold through cracks in stool bulkhead). Ensure that stool manhole lids are closed tight
ensure that connection pipe and ballast trunking from top‐side tank to double bottom are
not leaking into hold
ensure that the gland packing of extended spindles for double bottom tank valve passing
from top‐side tank through cargo hold into double bottom are free of leaks
Bilges Suction Bilges well covers Toby Gun
Cleanliness/preparation – specific cargo may require additional measures
remove all previous cargo residues, loose rust and scale. Ensure that loose rust on under‐
side of hatch covers is removed
after salt water washing, final rinse should be with freshwater. Wash holds with freshwater
alone if required by the charterparty or for the type of cargo
check for hairline cracks on internals and plating after the holds are washed and cleaned
ensure that holds are ventilated and dried. The hold should be inspected very closely for
infestation, especially when grain and grain products are to be loaded
carry out a hose test of hatch covers and access hatch covers and vents before loading
check ventilation systems and their closing arrangements
on completion, the chief officer should inspect the hold to ensure its condition is satisfactory
in all respects for loading
the master should inspect the holds for confirmation of cleanliness prior to presenting the
holds for survey
hold bilges should be sounded daily at sea, weather permitting – the responsible officer
should monitor this
bilges must be pumped out dry as required
bilge sounding/temperature pipes must be closed watertight
Prior to loading
confirm that everything meets the requirements of charterers and shippers
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 48 of 330
After lo
oading
avoid carryinng ballast in double botttom and top p‐side tank in
n way of holdds with cargo, unless
unavoidablee, for examplle, for stability reasons
ventilate thee cargo hold as necessarry. Compare the dew point of the hold and of the e outside
air to avoid damage from m ventilation
n
fuel in tankss in way of ccargo holds tto be managged. Fuel oil heating in tanks in way of cargo
holds shouldd not exceed d 5°C above tthe required transfer tem mperature
monitor and d record the fuel oil tempperature
MASTE
ER’S DUTIES IN HOLD CLEANING
G
The masster will be ggiven voyagee orders as ppart of the chharterparty aagreement. H He will be addvised to
present his ship at aa port within a laycan thaat may requiire the ship’ss holds to bee cleaned to a certain
standardd. That standdard in the voyage instruuctions or chaarterparty sh hould be cleaar and unam mbiguous.
Those in
nstructions should
s also be
b within th
he capabilitie
es of the shiip and resou
urces onboarrd. If the
instructiions cannot be carried oout because of, for exam mple, voyagee limitationss in time or w weather,
then thee master sho ould inform the owners and charterrers so that aalternative aarrangementts can be
made. TThe master has an obligattion to deliveer the cargo in the same apparent co ondition as lo
oaded.
The masster should not succumbb to taking risks
r to com
mply with thee charterparty instructio
ons if the
safety of the ship or personnel iss put at risk.
Where tthere is a req quirement to o load to a sttringent or h high standard d of cleanliness, masterss of ships
with gen nerally poor to moderatee condition o of holds should be particcularly alert to report th he nature
of the hold
h conditio
on to ownerrs. To upgrade a hold frrom poor co
ondition to o
one clean en
nough to
receive a grain caargo requirees considerrable time and resourrces. The task should not be
underesstimated.
Otherwiise, holds can be failed, cargo contam
mination claaims can arisse and charteerparty term
ms can be
violated.
The masster should:
• uctions if neccessary
clarify instru
• make sure that he is awaare of the exxtent of the rrequired holdd cleaning
• ensure that correct equiipment and m materials aree available onboard
• advise chartterers of the hold cleanin
ng schedule aand progresss
• keep records of hold cleaning progreess (weatherr and work lo ogs)
• consider sen nding photoggraphs of thee cleaned hoolds to the ch
harterers andd owners on
completion or where diffficulties arise, as this can
n be helpful
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 49 of 330
CHECKLIST‐Procedure for planning the loading
Find maximum the ship can early when fully laden
Deadweight cargo or volume cargo?
Decide values of other weights which must be carried. Keep the total weight of bunkers, ballast, bilge
water, stores and miscellaneous weights as low as possible.
Identify any limiting stage in the voyage
List maximum permitted draft for each stage in voyage.
Select point where lightest draft is required (the limiting point).
Calculate back and calculate forward from limiting point to ensure no other limits are met.
Calculate maximum cargo which can be carried at limiting point.
Devise loading distribution
Decide how many holds are to be loaded.
Share the total cargo between the holds.
Place fuel, fresh water and other weights in the positions intended for departure from the loading port.
Calculate the ship's draft and trim on departure and ensure that they are acceptable.
Calculate the ship's stability characteristics on departure and ensure that they are acceptable.
Calculate the shear forces and bending moments on departure and ensure that they are not excessive.
Check that the tonnage allotted to each hold is not greater than the classification Society permits.
Check that the hold tanktop loadings are not excessive.
If the ship is to be block loaded ensure that the loadings for individual holds remain within the special
block loading limits set by the classification society and request limits if none has been provided.
Work through the voyage and the proposed discharge, repeating the checks upon draft, trim, stability and
longitudinal stress for every stage.
If any results are unacceptable move cargo or other weights and recalculate. Check the results for errors.
Prepare loading/deballasting and discharging/ballasting plans
For the plan use a suitable form, such as The Nautical Institute's Cargo Operations Control Form.
Take note of the features of the berth, including least depth of water, least airdraft, number of loaders,
distance loaders can travel.
Plan for two or more pours into each hold.
Commence loading amidships/ aft to maintain a stern trim.
Load alternatively aft, then forward, t.hen aft, etc. Load the end holds midway through the loading.
Discharge ballast from holds, then double bottoms, then topside tanks, and finally peak tanks.
Discharge ballast from part of ship where cargo is being loaded.
For each stage of the loading, match the time required for loading with the time required for deballasting.
Plan to complete deballasting well before completion of loading. Observe any Class rules for
loading/discharging.
Throughout loading keep ship in condition to put to sea in emergency, if required.
Plan suitable trimming pours.
Plan the discharge in the same manner and with the same objectives as the loading.
Ensure that the ship complies with requirements for stability and for longitudinal stress at every stage
throughout the loading and discharge.
Inform owners/charterers as soon as possible if calculations show that the proposed cargo
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 50 of 330
Trim & Stability (in Brief Reminder)
Today, an increasing amount of the workload in planning and stowing the cargo is done ashore, often
using computers, but the Master must always be aware that the responsibility for the safety of the ship
remains with him. He must satisfy himself that at all times the ship is being maintained in a safe
condition, and will be able to undertake a proposed voyage with no danger to her structure or her
cargo.
Stability
Stable Equilibrium
The centre of buoyancy is the centre of gravity of the underwater volume.
A ship is said to be in stable equilibrium if, when inclined, she tends to return to the initial position. For
this to occur the centre of gravity must be below the metacentre, that is, the ship must have positive
initial metacentric height.
RIGHTING LEVER
The magnitude of this lever is determined by the position of the Centre of Gravity within the ship which
is itself affected by the disposition of cargo, fuel, ballast and fresh water etc. Broadly speaking, the lower
the weights in the ship the lower the Centre of Gravity; the lower the Centre of Gravity, the larger will
be the righting lever at successive angles of heel (that is, the greater the ship's ability to return to the
upright).
VIRTUAL LOSS OF GM
If free surface be created in a ship with a small initial metacentric height, the virtual loss of GM due to
the free surface may result in a negative metacentric height. This would cause the ship to take up an
angle of loll which may be dangerous and in any case is undesirable. This should be borne in mind when
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 51 of 330
considering whether or not to run water ballast into tanks to correct an angle of loll, or to increase the
GM. Until the tank is full there will be a virtual loss of GM due to the free surface effect of the liquid.
SHEARING FORCE & BENDING MOMENT
A ship floating in still water has an unevenly distributed weight owing to both cargo distribution and
structural distribution.
The buoyancy distribution is also non‐uniform since the underwater sectional area is not constant along
the length. Total weight and total buoyancy are of course balanced, but at each section there will be a
resultant force or load, either an excess of buoyancy or excess of load. Since the vessel remains intact
there are vertical upward and downward forces tending to distort the vessel which are referred to as
vertical shearing forces, since they tend to shear the vertical material in the hull.
DEFINITIONS
Lightweight: This is the weight of the ship itself when completely empty, with boilers topped up to
working level. It is made up of steel weight, wood and outfit weight, and the machinery weight. This
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 52 of 330
lightweight is evaluated by conducting an inclining experiment normally just prior to delivery of the new
vessel. Over the years, this value will change.
Deadweight: This is the weight that a ship carries. It can be made up of oil fuel, fresh water, stores,
lubricating oil, water ballast, crew and effects, cargo and passengers. This deadweight will vary,
depending on how much the ship is loaded between light ballast and fully‐loaded departure conditions.
Displacement: This is the weight of the volume of water that the ship displaces:
Hence
Displacement = Lightweight + Deadweight
The Trim
Trim may be considered as the longitudinal equivalent of list. Trim is also known as ‘longitudinal
stability’. It is in effect transverse stability turned through 90°. Instead of trim being measured in
degrees it is measured as the difference between the drafts forward and aft. If difference is zero then
the ship is on even keel. If forward draft is greater than aft draft, the vessel is trimming by the bow. If aft
draft is greater than the forward draft, the vessel is trimming by the stern.
The Centre of Flotation
The centre of flotation is the centre of gravity or centroid of the water‐plane area, and is the point about
which a ship heels and trims. It must lie on the longitudinal centre line but may be slightly forward or aft
of amidships (from say 3 per cent L forward of amidships for oil tankers to say 3 per cent L aft of
amidships for container ships).
The longitudinal metacentre (ML) is the point of intersection between the verticals through the
longitudinal positions of the centres of buoyancy.
Trimming moments are taken about the centre of flotation since this is the point about which rotation
takes place.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 53 of 330
The effect of loading and/or discharging weights
When a weight is loaded at the centre of flotation it will produce no trimming moment, but the ship’s
drafts will increase uniformly so that the ship displaces an extra weight of water equal to the weight
loaded. If the weight is now shifted forward or aft away from the centre of flotation, it will cause a
change of trim. From this it can be seen that when a weight is loaded away from the centre of flotation,
it will cause both a bodily sinkage and a change of trim.
FLUCTUATIONS IN A SHIP’S LIGHTWEIGHT OVER A PERIOD OF TIME
Lightweight is made up of the steel weight plus the wood and outfit weight plus the machinery weight.
The lightweight of a ship is the weight of the ship when completely empty. There will be no deadweight
items on board.
Over the years in service, there will be increases in the lightweight due to:
Accretion of paintwork.
Formation of oxidation or rust.
Build up of cargo residue.
Sediment in bottom of oil tanks.
Mud in bottom of ballast tanks.
Dunnage.
Gradual accumulation up of rubbish.
Lashing material.
Retrofits on accommodation fittings and in navigational aids.
Barnacle attachment or animal growth on the shell plating.
Vegetable growth on shell plating.
Additional engineers’ spares and electricians’ spares.
Changing a bulbous bow to a soft‐nosed bow.
Major ship surgery such as an addition to ship’s section at amidships.
Each item in the above list will change the weight of an empty ship. It can also be accumulative. One
example of increase in lightweight over a period of years is the ‘Herald of Free Enterprise,’ which
capsized in 1987. At the time of capsize it was shown that the lightweight had increased by 270 t,
compared to when newly built.
Regular dry‐docking of the ship will decrease the animal and vegetable growth on the shell plating. It has
been known to form as much as 5 cm of extra weight around the hull.
Regular tank‐cleaning programmes will decrease the amount of oil sediment and mud in the bottom of
tanks.
Regular routine inspections should also decrease the accumulation of rubbish.
Over years in service, there will also be decreases in the lightweight due to:
- Oxidation or corrosion of the steel shell plating, and steel decks exposed to the sea and to the
weather.
- Wear and tear on moving parts.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 54 of 330
- Galvanic corrosion at localities having dissimilar metals joined together.
Corrosion and loss of weight is prevalent and vulnerable in the boottopping area of the side‐shell of a
vessel, especially in way of the machinery spaces.
Feedback has shown that the side‐shell thickness can decrease over the years from being 18 mm
thickness to being only 10 mm in thickness. This would result in an appreciable loss of weight.
Wear and tear occurs on structures such as masts and derricks, windlass, winches, hawse pipes and
capstans.
These additions and reductions will all have their own individual centres of gravity and moments of
weight. The result will be an overall change in the lightweight itself, plus a new value for the KG
corresponding to this new lightweight.
Loading guidance information
General
Sufficient information is to be supplied to the Master of every ship to enable him to arrange loading and
ballasting in such a way as to avoid the creation of unacceptable stresses in the ship’s structure.
This information is to be provided by means of a Loading Manual and in addition, where required, by
means of an approved loading instrument.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 55 of 330
Loading Manual
A Loading Manual is to be supplied to all ships where longitudinal strength calculations have been
required. The Manual is to be submitted to Administration/ Classification society for approval in respect
of strength aspects. Where both Loading Manual and loading instrument are supplied, the Loading
Manual must nevertheless be approved from the strength aspect. In this case, the Manual is to be
endorsed to the effect that any departures from these conditions in service are to be arranged on the
basis of the loading instrument and the allowable local loadings shown in the Manual.
The Manual is to be based on the final data of the ship and is to include well‐defined lightweight
distribution and buoyancy data.
Details of the loading conditions are to be included in the Manual as applicable.
The Manual is also to contain the following:
a) Values of actual and permissible still water bending moments and shear forces and, where
applicable, limitations due to torsional loads.
b) The allowable local loadings for the structure such as the hatch covers, decks and double
bottoms. If the ship is not approved to carry load on the deck or hatch covers, this is to be
clearly stated.
c) Details of cargo carriage constraints imposed by the use of an accepted coating in association
with a system of corrosion control.
d) A note saying:
`Scantlings approved for minimum draught forward of ...m with ballast tanks No... filled. In
heavy weather conditions the forward draught should not be less than this value. If, in the
opinion of the Master, sea conditions are likely to cause regular slamming, then other
appropriate measures such as change in speed, heading or an increase in draught forward may
also need to be taken.’
e) The maximum unladen weight, in tonnes, of grab that is considered suitable for the approved
thickness of the hold inner bottom for bulk carriers and ore or oil carriers that are regularly
discharged by grabs. This maximum unladen weight may differ for adjacent holds. This weight
does not preclude the use of heavier grabs, but is intended as an indication to the Builders,
Owners and operators of the increased risk of local damage and the possibility of accelerated
diminution of the plating thickness if grabs heavier than this are used regularly to discharge
cargo.
In addition to the requirements, the Manual is to contain the following information for bulk carriers, ore
carriers and combination carriers of length, L, 150 m or above:
a) The cargo hold(s) or combination of cargo holds that may be empty at maximum draught. If no
cargo hold is permitted to be empty at maximum draught, this is to be clearly stated in the
Manual.
b) Maximum allowable and minimum required mass of cargo and double bottom ballast for each
hold as a function of the draught at mid‐hold position.
c) Maximum allowable and minimum required mass of cargo and double bottom ballast for any
two adjacent holds as a function of the mean draught in way of these holds. The mean draught
may be calculated by averaging the draught at the two mid‐hold positions.
d) Maximum allowable inner bottom loading together with specification of the nature of the cargo,
for cargoes other than bulk cargoes.
e) The maximum rate of ballast exchange, together with advice that a load plan is to be agreed
with the terminal on the basis of achievable rates of exchange.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 56 of 330
For bulk carriers for which it is required to undertake longitudinal strength calculations in the flooded
condition, the Manual is also to contain envelope results and permissible limits of still water bending
moments and shear forces for hold flooded conditions.
Where applicable, the Manual is also to contain the procedure for ballast exchange and sediment
removal at sea.
Where alteration to structure, lightweight, cargo distribution or draught is proposed, revised
information is to be submitted to administration/ Classification society for approval.
Loading instrument
In addition to a Loading Manual, an approved type loading instrument is to be provided for all ships
where L is greater than 65 m and which are approved for non‐uniform distribution of loading. The
following ships are exempt from this requirement:
i. Ships with very limited possibilities for variations in the distribution of cargo and ballast.
ii. Ships with a regular or fixed trading pattern.
iii. Ships exempt by individual Chapters.
The loading instrument is to be capable of calculating shear forces and bending moments, in any load or
ballast condition at specified readout points and is to indicate the permissible values. On container ships
and other ships with large deck openings, cargo torque is also to be calculated.
For bulk carriers, ore carriers and combination carriers of length, L, 150 m or above, the loading
instrument is to be additionally capable of verifying that the following are within permissible limits:
a) the mass of cargo and double bottom ballast in way of each hold as a function of the draught at
the mid‐hold position.
b) the mass of cargo and double bottom ballast for any two adjacent holds as a function of the
mean draught in way of these holds. The mean draught may be calculated by averaging the
draught at the two mid‐hold positions.
For bulk carriers for which it is required to undertake longitudinal strength calculations in the flooded
condition, the loading instrument is also to be capable of verifying that the still water bending moments
and shear forces in hold flooded conditions are within permissible limits.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 57 of 330
If the approved loading manual utilises bulkhead correction factors for shear force distribution, then the
loading instrument must also have the capability to account for the bulkhead correction factors.
The instrument is to be certified in accordance with Classification Society’s document entitled Approval
of Longitudinal Strength and Stability Calculations Programs.
The instrument readout points are usually selected at the position of the transverse bulkheads or other
obvious boundaries. As many readout points as considered necessary by Classification Society’s are to
be included, e.g., between bulkheads.
A notice is to be displayed on the loading instrument stating:
. `Scantlings approved for minimum draught forward of ...m with ballast tanks No... filled. In heavy
weather conditions, the forward draught should not be less than this value. If, in the opinion of the
Master, sea conditions are likely to cause regular slamming, then other appropriate measures such as
change in speed, heading or an increase in draught forward may also need to be taken.’
Where alteration to structure, lightweight or cargo distribution is proposed, the loading instrument is to
be modified accordingly and details submitted for approval.
The operation of the loading instrument is to be verified by the Surveyors upon installation and at
Annual and Periodical Surveys as required. An Operation Manual for the instrument is to be verified as
being available on board.
Where an onboard computer system having a strength computation capability is provided as an Owner’s
option, it is recommended that the system be certified in accordance with Classification Society’s
document entitled Approval of Longitudinal Strength and Stability Calculations Programs. For systems
having a stability computation capability and installed on a new ship. For systems having a stability
computation capability and installed on an existing ship, it is recommended that the system be certified
in accordance with Classification Society’s document entitled Approval of Longitudinal Strength and
Stability Calculation Programs.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 58 of 330
Damagge stabilitty (Stabiliity in the damaged
d condition)
Damagee stability calculations aree much more complicateed than intacct stability. FFinite element analysis iss
often emmployed beccause the areeas and volu umes can quiickly becomee tedious and long to compute usingg
other methods.
The losss of stability from floodinng may be d due in part to
o the free suurface effectt. Water accumulating in n
the hull usually drain nd actually decreasing (Itt should read
ns to the bilgges, loweringg the centre of gravity an d
as increaasing, since water will add as a botttom weight tthere by incrreasing GM) the metaceentric height.
This assumes the sh hip remains sstationary an nd upright. HHowever, once the ship iis inclined to o any degreee
(a wave strikes it forr example), the fluid in th
he bilge movves to the loww side. This rresults in a lisst.
Stabilityy is also lostt in floodingg when, for example, an empty tan nk is filled with
w seawatter. The lostt
buoyanccy of the tank results in tthat section o of the ship lo
owering into o the water sslightly. This creates a listt
unless th he tank is on n the centerline of the veessel.
In stability calculatiions, when a tank is filled, its conttents are asssumed to b be lost and replaced byy
seawateer. If these contents are lighter than n seawater, ((light oil for example) th hen buoyanccy is lost and d
the section lowers slightly in thee water accorrdingly.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 59 of 330
For merchant vessels, and increasingly for passenger vessels, the damage stability calculations are of a
probabilistic nature. That is, instead of assessing the ship for one compartment failure, a situation where
two or even up to three compartments are flooded will be assessed as well. This is a concept in which
the chance that a compartment is damaged is combined with the consequences for the ship, resulting in
a damage stability index number that has to comply with certain regulations.
Stability criteria (SOLAS):
(a) The Area under the curve of Righting Levers (GZ curve) shall not be less than:
(i) 0.055 metre‐radians up to an angle of 30 degrees;
(ii) 0.09 metre‐radians up to an angle of either 40 degrees or the angle at which the lower
edges of any openings in the hull, superstructures or deckhouses, being openings which
cannot be closed weathertight, are immersed if that angle be less;
(iii) 0.03 metre‐radians between the angles of heel of 30 degrees and 40 degrees or such
lesser angle as is referred to in (ii).
(b) The Righting Lever (GZ) shall be at least 0.20 metres at an angle of heel equal to or greater than 30
degrees.
(c) The maximum Righting Lever (GZ) shall occur at an angle of heel not less than 30 degrees.
(d) The initial transverse metacentric height shall not be less than 0.15 metres. In the case of a ship
carrying a timber deck cargo which complies with sub‐paragraph (a) by taking into account the volume
of timber deck cargo the initial transverse metacentric height shall not be less than 0.05 metres.
GZ Curve
The diagram and statements shall be provided separately for each of the following conditions of the
ship:
(a) light condition. If the ship has permanent ballast, such diagram and statements shall
be provided for the ship in light condition both with and without such ballast;
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 60 of 330
(b) ballast condition both on departure and on arrival. It is to be assumed that on
arrival oil fuel, fresh water, consumable stores and the like are reduced to 10 per cent of
their capacity;
(c) condition on departure and on arrival when loaded to the Summer load line
with cargo filling all spaces available for cargo. Cargo shall be taken to be
homogeneous except where this is clearly inappropriate, for example, in cargo spaces
that are intended to be used exclusively for the carriage of vehicles or of containers;
(d) service loaded conditions both on departure and on arrival.
A statement of instructions on appropriate procedures to maintain adequate stability in each case
where special procedures are applied such as partial or complete filling of spaces designated for cargo,
fuel, fresh water or other purposes.
The report on the inclining test and of the calculation derived from it to obtain information of the light
condition of the ship.
The other criteria that should be met are also given in chapter 3 of the Code on Intact Stability and
include minimum areas under the righting lever curve (GZ curve), minimum righting lever (GZ) and that
the maximum righting arm should occur at an angle of heel preferably exceeding 30° but not less than
25°. That figure is, therefore, the minimum initial GM required for any ship proceeding to sea. The only
exception is in the case of a cargo ship carrying a timber deck cargo when the GM should not be less
than 0.10 m in the departure condition (chapter 4, section 4.1.3.3 of the Code on Intact Stability).
Maximum GM
With regard to the maximum GM, guidance is given for ships carrying timber deck cargoes, but no other
specific guidance is given in the regulations for any other situation. For timber ships, paragraph 2.5 of
the Timber Deck Cargoes Code states that the GM should preferably not exceed 3% of the breadth to
prevent excessive accelerations in rolling.
For a ship having a beam of 25 m, for example a typical logger, the GM should not be more than 0.75 m.
The requirements for the securing of a deck cargo of timber are based on a philosophy slightly different
from that for other cargoes (see the section in Chapter 3 on timber cargo). For this reason it is essential
that the GM of a timber ship is not excessive such that, in turn, the accelerations associated with the
rolling of the ship are kept small.
Onboard Stability Computers
Resolution MSC.325(90) contains amendments to SOLAS II‐1/8‐1 which impact new passenger ships
constructed ≥ 1 January 2014 which have a length ≥120 m in length or have 3 or more main vertical
zones. These ships are to have onboard stability computers or access to shore‐based computer support
for the purpose of providing operational information to the Master for facilitating the safe return to port
after a flooding casualty.
The computer’s software is to have the capability to assess the consequences after the flooding of any
single watertight compartment in order to provide the master with information for decision making to
improve the survivability of the ship for safe return‐to‐port.
This requirement builds on the existing provision that requires such passenger ships, constructed ≥ 1
July 2010, to withstand the flooding of any single watertight compartment such that essential safety
systems, as specified in SOLAS II‐2/21.4, remain operational so as to ensure that the ship is capable of
returning to port.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 61 of 330
CARGO GEAR
Loading or discharging a ship can be carried out by two movement cycles:
1. the 'RAISE'; 'TRAVERSE' and 'LOWER METHOD'; or
2. the 'TRAVERSE METHOD'.
The former requires lifting apparatus, either ship or shore based; the latter side doors, access ramps and
link spans, together with motive power.
Considering the former method, this can be performed by either:
A. One derrick, crane or hook which must perform each of the three parts of the cycle or by
B. A pair of derricks worked simultaneously.
Method A, the single ship derrick is the oldest form of cargo handling gear and can be rigged in the
following ways:
(a) Swinging derrick with guys either manually or power operated.
(b) Swinging derrick with one guy manually or power operated the other led through adjacent
derrick headblock to a weight overside, the weight being sufficient to return the derrick
outboard. This is known as the 'dead man rig'.
(c) Swinging derrick with doubling gear and powered guys for moderate weights beyond the union
purchase tonnage facilities.
(d) As a ship crane, using specialized attachments which virtually turn the single boom into a crane.
Examples of this, representative of the modern trend in cargo handling are the VelIe Ship Crane;
the Hallen Derrick and the VelIe Cargospeed Derrick Rig, and other proprietory marketed ship
cranes.
Lifting gear has become a major casualty of modernisation. Derricks have become nearly a memory,
being superseded by the more versatile deck crane, container gantry cranes, and of course the ramps
for unit load systems.
General Cargo vessels tend to have their own gear to load and discharge cargoes
Cargo derricks come in a variety of designs and safe working loads
However, some ships still retain the basic derrick rigs, often incorporated as stores derricks, or oil pipe
handling gear, for tanker vessels.
Many General Cargo vessels have their own cargo gear that helps them to load and discharge in ports
lacking infrastructure. This cargo gear is usually in the form of a derrick or crane serving each hold and is
often a distinguishing feature of General Cargo ships.
Although specialised cranes, with increased Safe Working Load capacities dominate the general cargo
market and are features of the specialized carrier, they are not in isolation of other styles of operation.
Heavy lifts are still transported, and project cargoes have generated the need for the Heavy Lift Barge
and/or the specific Heavy Lift Ships.
Cranes and derrick rigs may often work in tandem to maximise the upper load limits and the modern
ideas are designed for multiple use, e.g., double pendulum stulken derricks, capable of working two
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 62 of 330
hatches as opposed to a single h
hold. Twin cranes, each of 300 tonnees SWL riggeed in tandem
m, to providee
nes SWL, wh
600 tonn hile a single ggantry will lo
oad the lengtth of a container vessel.
Derrick Assembly
A and Nomenclature
Swingging Derrick
The basic form of cargo gear iss the single derrick.
d The function of the derrick is to raise, transfer and
d
lower wweights. In the shipping in ndustry this effectively m means movin ng goods from m the quay tto the vessel
or vice‐vversa. This caan be equipp ped with spaan tackles & cargo purchases. The sp pan blocks arre secured to o
the mast of the derrrick head and d the "toppin ng Wire” is ppermanently fitted on to a winch.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 63 of 330
The operation of this winch raises or lowers the derrick boom. The “Runner wire” runs through the
upper and lower cargo blocks and the “slewing wire" runs through slewing guy blocks on either side of
the derrick. In its most basic form the derrick is plumbed over the hatch square and secured. The cargo
is then lifted with the runner blocks and the slewing guys are operated to swing the derrick and
discharge the cargo over the side. As the cargo purchase, the topping lift and the two guys must operate
independently, 4 independent winches are needed to operate this type of derrick.
The advantages of such a system are quick discharge or loading and, with two derricks at each hatch,
cargo work is permitted on both sides of the vessel.
The disadvantages may be stated as:
(a) possibility of undue stress upon all items of cargo gear particularly guys, unless exceptional
care is taken, and
(b) the possibility of the swinging load striking hatch‐coamings and rails with consequent
damage.
The above observations seem to suggest that careful supervision is essential when using the swinging
derrick.
Union Purchase Derrick
One of the most efficient rigs is the Union Purchase Derrick. Union Purchase means a rig in which a pair
of derricks is used in combination, the derricks being fixed and the cargo runners coupled.
One derrick plumbs the hatch and the other plumbs overside. The falls of the two derricks are fastened
together at the cargo hook. One derrick boom is arranged over the hold and the other is overside. The
booms are then fixed to position.
When the vessel is discharging cargo, the derrick that is plumbing the hold lifts the load. After the load
has been lifted over the hatch coamings it is gradually transferred to the fall from the other derrick,
which is plumbing overside. This is done by heaving on one fall and slacking on the other. To avoid
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 64 of 330
overstressing the rig the angle between the falls should not exceed 90 degrees and never exceed 120
degrees. Due to the coordination required in slacking one fall and heaving the other, only experienced
operators must be employed. Union Purchase can become an extremely fast method of
loading/discharging cargo in units of up to about 1 ½ tonnes each, but it has the disadvantage of placing
heavy stresses on the outboard guys of both derricks, hence additional static preventer (standing) guys.
There is not a great deal of stress on the inboard guys but these must be set taut to prevent the derrick
jerking. As an alternative to inboard guys a schooner guy may be rigged between the derrick boom
heads (as shown above), thus reducing deck clutter.
Precautions:
When using the derricks in the union purchase mode the maximum load must not exceed either one‐
third the SWL of the lowest rated derrick in the pair or an absolute maximum of 2.5 tonnes. Narrow
angles between the outboard guys and the vertical should be avoided as this increases the load on
them. However, the angle should not be too large as this increases the chance of the derrick jackknifing.
Also, as stated above, the angle between the falls should not exceed 90 degrees and should never
exceed 120 degrees to avoid undue stresses on the rig.
DOUBLING‐UP PROCEDURE
The cargo runner of a derrick may be doubled up when it is desired to make a lift which the rig is capable
of handling safely but which exceeds the SWL of the cargo runner when rigged as a single whip.
Some derricks are equipped with a second doubling‐up spider band but this is not the case with every
derrick. Obviously the doubling of the runner, making a double whip, is made very easy when the
second spider band is fitted. The eye of the runner is shackled to the second band, leaving a bight
between the head block and the shackled eye. A floating block is secured in the bight, effectively making
the arrangement into a ‘gun tackle’.
Should the derrick not have the convenient second spider band, then it will be necessary to parcel the
derrick with canvas and take a half hitch with the runner around the derrick, taking the eye of the
runner and securing it to the lug on the spider band that accommodates the topping lift. This effectively
produces a similar bight in the wire for the floating block as previously described.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 65 of 330
When doubling up in this manner it will be appreciated d that a snattch block useed in the bigght would bee
much simpler to rigg, but it wou
uld not be as
a safe as an
n ordinary caargo block. This
T will neccessitate thee
reeving of the block before completing the h half hitch aboout the derriick.
The halff hitch is prevvented from m riding down n the derrickk by the retaining shacklee to the spid der band and d
also by tthe wire bitiing into the parceling th hat affords thhe derrick soome protection. Once th he load is offf
the carggo hook, thee tension in tthe half hitcch is relieved d, but, owingg to the weight of the w wire and thee
floating block, it wouuld be unlikeely for the hittch to slip aggainst the naatural forces of gravity.
THE H
HEAVY DE
ERRICK (C
Conventio
onal Desiggn)
In conve
entional term
ms a 'heavy d
derrick' is meeant to be a specially fittted derrick capable of haandling loadss
outside of the norm
mal 10‐15 ton
n general carrgo loads. In modern ton nnage vessels are fitted w with derrickss
much greateer loads than this. Some o
to take m older vesselss still operatee with 30‐ 50
0 ton 'heavy derricks'.
Where this
t earlier cconstruction n still pertain
ns it is usual to fit two heavy derriccks, of largeer and lesserr
capacityy. The largerr derrick is allocated
a to the largest hold of the vessel, having the forem mast for thee
attachmment of the to opping lift. TThe heel of tthe derrick iss stepped intto a speciallyy built and strengthened d
heel piece or shoe.
The smaaller derrick, similarly attached to a m mast or Samsson post, serrves a smaller hold.
Special multiple sheeave blocks of approprriate safe working load are provideed for the topping t lifts,,
purchases and guys of both derrricks. Wires o of larger size, both in circcumference aand length aare provided..
Additionnal stays aree fitted to th he mast or saamson post and besidess the necesssary guys, wiire pennantss
are fitted to the derrick to serve as preventeer guys.
Precautiions when haandling heavvy lifts:
1. 1 All gear invvolved should be carefullly examined d before use.
2. All wires and d blocks to b be checked fo or any defectts; sheaves tto be examin ned for free rrotation
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 66 of 330
3. All gear selected should be of adequate SWL
4. Allowance should be made for the weight lifted plus the purchase weight.
5. End links, rings or shackles to ride freely from whichever point they hang.
6. Strops, wire slings, eye bolts etc. to be examined that they are of adequate strength.
7. While slinging, wood or other packing to be used to protect the sling from any sharp edges on
the load and to prevent the sling from cutting into the load.
8. Avoid shocks due to load slipping or sudden starts.
9. Winch‐men should be experienced, co‐ordinate well and operate smoothly.
10. Stability: The ship must have an adequate GM because when the load is lifted its centre of
gravity rises to the derrick head. Hence the centre of gravity of the ship rises. A negative
metacentric height (‐GM) must be avoided. In this connection free surface effect may have to be
reduced.
11. The vessel should be initially upright with moorings taut and manned as the vessel will acquire a
list when the load is swung out board Gangway must be clear of the jetty.
12. Barges that are not in immediate use must be cast off.
13. Preventer stays may have to be rigged onto the mast
14. Winches must be put in double gear.
15. Steadying lines must be secured if possible to the corners of the load.
16. Remove guard rails if possible.
VELLE DERRICK
The Velle derrick is a patent derrick that has been popular on general cargo vessels built in the 1970's.
This is a single swinging derrick, the distinguishing feature of which is 'T' bar or 'floating bridle bar' at the
derrick head, to which the cargo hoist head blocks and topping spans blocks are secured. The advantage
of this arrangement is that it allows a greater slewing radius and the “T” bar provides stability when
discharging or loading containers or heavy lifts.
Two winches, each with separate barrels, control topping and slewing. Two lengths of wire are used
leading from the topping winch barrels to the slewing winch barrels. On the topping winch the barrels
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 67 of 330
turn in the same direction and, on operation of either, the boom tops or lowers. On the slewing winch
barrels they are wound in opposite directions and on operation the derrick slews, while maintaining the
derrick head at a constant level. A third winch with twin barrels, both wound in the same direction, is
used as the hoisting winch.
Advantages:
• It is relatively easy to operate by comparison to a swinging derrick
• It is a one man operation
• The 'T ' bar helps to stabilise loads and prevents them from swinging
• There is less clutter in comparison with a traditional derrick
• The SWL is from 25 to 100 tonnes
HALLEN DERRICK
The Hallen is another patent design ill common use. This derrick has a "D" frame mast with outrigger
rods. The 'D ' Frame has the effect of maintaining a satisfactory angle between the twin topping lifts,
allowing control and stability of the derrick when swung out over the ships side, even to an angle of
about 80° to the fore and aft line. The outrigger rods prevent contact between the topping lift pennants
and the "on frame when the derrick is slewed to its maximum outboard angle.
Each topping lift has its own winch but both are usually controlled by one multi‐position control.
Topping is achieved by operating both winches in the same direction. Slewing is achieved by heaving on
the winch at the side to which the derrick is to go and slacking on the other. A third winch controls the
cargo purchase. Alternatively, an arrangement similar to that employed by the Velle derrick can be used.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 68 of 330
Advantages
• It is simple in comparison with a single swinging derrick.
• It uses a One‐man operation of lifting, slewing and hoisting.
• It operates with up to 15° of List.
• It can operate down to 15° above the horizontal.
• Slewing angles are as much as 80 degrees.
• The deck area is clear of clutter.
• It has up to 200 Tonne capacity. with only the cargo hoist to be changed to operate quickly
for lighter loads
THE STUELCKEN DERRICK
The Stuelcken derrick was patented in 1954 by Blohm & Voss in Germany and has since that time has
been fitted to hundreds of ships. The V shaped inclined masts support the derrick and allow a wide arc
of operation. The derrick can be swung between the masts so as to service either of the two adjacent
hatches.
The Heavy Lift, Stuelcken systems are noticeable by the prominent angled support mast structure
positioned either side of the ship’s centre line.
The main boom is usually socket mounted and fitted into a tabernacle on the centre line. This
positioning allows the derrick to work two hatches forward and aft and does not restrict heavy loads to
a single space, as with a conventional derrick.
The Stuelcken Posts, set athwartships, provide not only leads for the topping lifts and guy arrangement
but also support smaller 5‐ and 10‐tonnederricks with their associated rigging. The posts are of such a
wide diameter that they accommodate an internal staircase to provide access to the operator’s cab,
usually set high up on the post to allow overall vision of the operation.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 69 of 330
Various designs haave been developed over the years and d
modifications have beeen added. TThe ‘Double P Pendulum’ m model, which h
serves tw wo hatches, o operates with h a floating h head which iis allowed to o
tilt in thee fore and aft line when
n serving resspective carggo spaces. A
A
‘Rams Ho orn Hook’ w with a channgeable dou uble collar fitting
f beingg
secured aacross the tw wo pendulum m lifting tackles.
The system operates with an eme ergency cut‐‐off which sttops winchess
and applie es electro‐mmagnetic lockking brakes
Four wincches operatee the lifting plant, two fo or the hoist and one forr
each span. The hoissting winch has two geears to enable a fasterr
operation n when lifting relatively lighter lo oads. One person can n
operate the derrick eeither by usiing a remotee control or b by standing o on a speciallyy constructed platform.
Stuelckeen derrick riggs are consttructed with numerous anti‐friction
a bearings wh
hich producee only aboutt
2% friction throughout a liftingg operation. These bearings are exttremely duraable and do not requiree
mainten nance for abo out 4 years, making them m an attractivve option to operators.
Advantaages:
• It is perm manently riggged and so tthere is not mmuch preparration time b before use
• It has seealed bearinggs, which aree low mainteenance and reduce frictio on.
• Addition nal derricks ssuitable for a union purcchase arranggement can be fixed on to the samee
inclined masts.
• It is consstructed of lo ow weight high strength steel
• It is a on ne man operation, using a remote if n necessary
• Safe working loads o of up to 800 tonnes are p
possible
Pedestal Cranes
Shipboard Pedestal Cranes rotaate on a ped destal and aare permaneently mountted on a ship. The mainn
housing consists of the operatoor's cabin, winches,
w and the jib, which projects from the pedestal. Thee
crane is either electtrically or hydraulically operated and d the housingg rotates on the pedestaal. There are e
usually ttwo winchess inside the h housing, onee for the top pping of the jib and the o other for thee hoist. Bothh
are conttrolled, from inside the cabin using a joystick.
Advantaages
• 360 deggree rotation
• Good sp pot loading
• Fast opeeration
• Low maintenance
• The SWLL of two cran nes may be ccombined wh hen used toggether.
• Grabs, ccontainer sprreaders etc. ccan be fitted d to the cargo o hook.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 70 of 330
Safety Features
• Limit switches for topping and hoisting
• Jib angle indicator, indicates the angle of the jib which corresponds to the SWL
• Two block limit switch , prevents the inadvertent contact of the floating runner block and
the jib mounted runner block
• Slack wire cut off
• SWL cut off prevents a weight in excess of the SWL from being lifted
• Topping and hoisting winch cut off, that cuts off the power when less than 3 turns remain
on the winches or if the wires become fouled.
• A flashing light placed at the end of the jib to prevent accidental contact with shore cranes.
Shipboard Gantry Cranes
The basic design of gantry cranes consist of steel girders across the beam of a vessel supported by legs
and travelling on rails mounted on the ship's decks. The gantry houses the operators' cabin as well as
the lifting mechanism and it can travel athwartships on the bridge girders. The whole gantry can travel
fore and aft on wheels mounted at the base of the gantry. Hydraulic buffers at the ends of the rails
prevent the crane from over‐running the rails.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 71 of 330
Shelters that allow the cargo operation to be carried out, even during light rain, can cover this type of
crane. These are usually fitted onto ships loading and discharging weather critical cargo, such as
plywood or paper products. Prior to bringing the crane into operation, hinged outriggers are swung out,
allowing the discharge or loading of products over the ships' side. Usually these outriggers are
hydraulically operated and have a mechanism to lock them in place. Prior to sailing the outriggers are
folded in and locked onto the side of the girders.
The other type of gantry crane in use is the jib type crane. The main difference is the jib that is mounted
on the bridge girders. In some types the jib can travel athwartships along the bridge girders while in
other models the jib is fixed in the centre. In both cases the jib swings from port to starboard and the
operator's cabin is mounted on the jib. This type of gantry crane is used on small feeder container ships
as the container spreader at the end of the jib can be used to load and discharge cargo from a very
.stable base.
Advantages of gantry cranes
• Mobile over the length of the deck
• Unobstructed view for the operator
• Shelters may be fitted to protect cargo during handling operations
• Reduced possibility of load rotation due to box shaped girders
• Fast operation possible with experienced operators
Safety Features
• Klaxon and light when moving along the deck
• Maximum safe trim cut‐out
• Emergency stop switch at deck level
• Hydraulic buffer at the end of deck rails
• Two block limit switch
• Slack wire limit switch
• Maximum SWL limit switch
• Outrigger cut‐outs if not locked in place
• "Cow‐catcher" safety guards on the wheels, which cut out the power if they hit an
obstruction.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 72 of 330
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CRANE
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 73 of 330
Tandem lifting
It is not unusual these days to encounter specialized vessels, fitted with heavy lift, dual capacity speed
cranes. Such ships have the ability to work conventional loads but have the flexibility to load containers
or project heavy‐lift cargoes.
CARGO GEAR & TOOLS
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 74 of 330
FORCE AND THRU
UST ON RIG
G
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CARGO GEAR INSPECTIONS
Cargo Gear Inspections are required by ILO Convention No. 152 Convention on Occupational Health and
Safety in Dock Work.
1. A member of the ship’s crew as the "responsible person" under the convention appointed by
the master, normally the chief officer on board a general cargo ship is responsible for
conducting certain examinations, usually visual, of loose gear and other slings prior to being
used and a record of such examinations is kept in the Cargo Gear Book.
2. The "responsible person" or "authorized person" must be appointed or authorized by the
master or other employer to carry out the duties and responsibilities of the regulations, again
usually the chief officer on board. A person not so authorized may not carry out these duties.
3. The Cargo Gear Book is normally maintained by this authorized person such as a ships officer
keeping a record of all tests and inspections of cargo gear including electrical and mechanical
tests and maintenance on related machinery, guards and safety cut‐outs etc.
4. The four or five year inspection conducted by the "competent authority" is an organization
delegated this authority such as the National Cargo Bureau or any one of the internationally
recognized IACS Class societies who ensure all the required weight tests and marking and
certificates of the rigging, booms, wire, chains, ropes and slings and other lifting devices, etc. A
certificate is issued attesting to the testing.
5. If the regular examinations and tests nor annual inspections are not carried out the condition of
the cargo gear would be in question by the dock workers and they could very legitimately refuse
to work the ship until all requirements are brought current. The local authorities in the port
would also have the authority to require that all cargo gear be examined properly prior to cargo
operations commencing if these requirements are not being followed. This inspection can be
done by the authorized person.
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Cargo Gear Maintenance
The International Labour Office (ILO) is a specialised agency of the United Nations which was created in
1919 by the League of Nations. One of the ILO’s main activities is the development of international
treaties, known as Conventions, for use by governments as the basis for their national laws. The first
convention to protect dock workers against accidents was adopted by the ILO in 1929. This was quickly
revised and replaced by Convention 32 in April 1932. Convention 32 remained the world‐wide standard
for safety in connection with marine cargo‐handling operations for almost 50 years. It was ratified by 38
countries. The Convention included the first international standards for the examination, testing and
certification of ships’ cargo gear. In June of 1979, the ILO replaced Convention 32 by adopting
Convention 152. This newer Convention updated the safety measures contained in Convention 32 and
expanded its scope to include activities on the shore as well as on ships. It also included requirements
relating to roll‐on roll‐off ships and container operations as well as occupational health matters. The
ILO’s Code of Practice on Safety and Health in Dock Work was originally published in 1958. Revised in
1977 and again in 1979, it contains concise requirements on many aspects of marine cargo‐handling and
a number of appendices relating to the examination and testing of lifting appliances and other matters.
Records required to be kept by ILO 152
A register of the lifting appliances and items of loose gear shall be kept in a form prescribed by the
competent authority, account being taken of the model recommended by the International Labour
Office. The register shall comprise certificates granted or recognised as valid by the competent
authority, or certified true copies of the certificates, in a form prescribed by the competent authority,
account being taken of the models recommended by the International Labour Office in respect of the
testing, thorough examination and inspection, as the case may be, of lifting appliances and items of
loose gear.
Meaning of thorough examination
A detailed visual examination by a competent person, supplemented if necessary by other suitable
means or measures, in order to arrive at a reliable conclusion as to the safety of the appliance or item of
loose gear examined.
LIFTING APPLIANCE
All stationary or mobile cargo‐handling appliances, including shore‐based power operated ramps, used
on shore or on board ship for suspending, raising or lowering loads or moving them from one position to
another while suspended or supported.
LOOSE GEAR
Any gear by means of which a load can be attached to a lifting appliance but which does not form an
integral part of the appliance or load.
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The basic duties of the ship’s owner and master are to ensure ‐
• that the ships lifting plant is safe after being installed, it is maintained in a safe condition,
all the necessary examinations and tests are carried out at the correct intervals and
examinations and tests are properly recorded.
• Where ships’ crew use the ships lifting plant, they should do so in a safe manner.
Lifting appliances include:
• Derricks
• Jib cranes
• Derrick cranes
• Transporter or gantry cranes
• Fork lift trucks and mobile cranes carried by the ship
• Cargo lifts
Stern ramps, side ramps, front ramps and internal ships ramps are classed as access equipment and are
not used as lifting appliances but lifting appliances are used to place and restow them. Therefore this
type of access equipment is subject to the same requirements as for lifting appliances.
Ships lifting gear includes:
• Slings: wire rope, chain, fibre (man‐made and natural)
• Lifting chains
• Lifting frames
• Spreaders
• Any other gear which is provided by the ship and used to connect the load to the lifting
appliance
Many ports in the world still rely upon ships lifting plant to load and discharge cargo and port personnel
should check whether the lifting plant is safe to use before operations commence. The use of unsuitable
or unsafe ships lifting plant for cargo handling has resulted in the death or injury of port workers. The
kind of problems found extend from lack of lubrication of the plant to situations where plant is clearly
damaged or otherwise unfit or unsafe to use. This pamphlet is intended to give general advice and
guidance to those who are responsible for providing and those who use shipborne cargo handling lifting
plant for loading/discharge purposes. Controls on ships lifting plant are laid down in Convention 152 of
the International Labour Office (ILO 152).
This Convention deals with health and safety in dockwork and specifies that each item of ships lifting
plant must be –
a. tested when new, or after repair or modification, to ensure that its lifting capacity has not
been affected and then shall be given a thorough examination,
b. given a thorough examination at least once in every 12 months.
In addition, every lifting appliance on board ship must be tested once in every five years.
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The thorough examinations and testing must be carried out by a person competent to do so and this
normally means a person employed by –
• a classification society or
• a competent shore based contractor.
Shipborne personnel may also carry out some of this work if competent but it needs time, equipment
and expertise to do so. A thorough examination includes stripping down blocks, for example, and testing
requires special equipment.
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Contents
1. Hatch Covers and their Function 01
2. Basic Advice 02
3. Common False Beliefs about Hatch Covers 04
4. Leakage Problems 06
5. Leak Detection Tests 09
6. Monitoring and Inspection 11
7. Maintenance and Repair 13
8. Heavy Weather Precautions 18
9. Safety when Working with Hatch Covers 19
Appendix 1 20
Procedures to Open and Close Hatch Covers
Appendix 2 22
Hatch Cover Condition Assessment Forms
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1. Hatch Covers and their Function
The purpose and function of a hatch cover and its coamings is to prevent ingress of
water into a cargo hold after a large opening has been cut in the deck for cargo
access. Hatch covers are a moveable structure designed to a weathertight
standard.
Hatch Cover Construction
Typically hatch covers are lightweight steel grillages. Modern design methods using
finite element technology enable more efficient material distribution which results in
lighter (thinner) structures. Construction from high tensile steel results in even
thinner plate being used. For this reason these lightweight structures must be
'handled with care'. Prevention of corrosion is essential - safety margins are finite.
Hatch Cover Function
Hatch covers provide a primary structural and weathertight barrier to prevent water
ingress into cargo holds. Rigorous inspection, regular maintenance and prompt
repair of damaged covers, securings and supports are essential to maintain fitness
for purpose and, in particular:
to maintain sufficient strength to resist green seas landing on hatches in
extreme weather;
to maintain a barrier against ingress of water during normal seagoing weather
conditions.
Failure to maintain hatch covers correctly can lead to physical loss of a cover in
extreme weather and hold flooding and possible foundering. Minor leakage can
cause cargo damage and, if over a prolonged period, damage to the ship's internal
structure, Long-term structural decline can lead to structural collapse and total loss.
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2. Basic Advice
There are procedures which will help to keep your ship's hatch covers in good
condition.
The following advice can be considered best practice.
Always
carry out regular examination of the hatch covers, hatch beams and coamings to
identify:
- general levels of corrosion (check with your classification society for
corrosion allowances);
- localised corrosion at welded connections (grooving);
- cracks in joints and weld metal;
- permanent distortion of plating and stiffeners;
call a Class Surveyor and carry out repairs as soon as possible when there are:
- indications of excessive corrosion e.g. holes or local buckling of the top
plate;
- cracks in main structural joints;
- areas of significant indentation, other than localised mechanical damage;
be particularly vigilant after heavy weather;
rectify any steel-to-steel fault before renewal of rubber packing. Renewal will not
be effective if steel-to-steel contact points are defective, and expensive rubber
packing will be ruined after only a few months of use;
replace missing or damaged hatch gaskets (rubber packing) immediately. The
minimum length of replaced gasket should be one metre;
keep hatch coaming tops clean and the double drainage channels free of
obstructions. (Open hatch covers to clean coaming tops and the double
drainage channels after loading bulk cargo through grain or cement ports);
keep cleats and wedges in serviceable condition and correctly adjusted;
keep hauling wires and chains adjusted correctly;
attach locking pins and chains to open doors and hatches;
keep wheels, cleats, hinge pins, haul wires, and chain tension equipment well
greased;
test hydraulic oil regularly for contamination and deterioration;
keep hydraulic systems oiltight;
ensure the oil tank of the hydraulic system is kept filled to the operating level and
with the correct oil;
clean up oil spills. If the leak cannot be stopped immediately, construct a save-
all to contain the oil and empty it regularly;
engage tween deck hatch cover cleats when the panels are closed;
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give notice that maintenance is being performed so that no one tries to open/close
the hatch;
remember that continuing and regular maintenance of hatches is more effective and
less expensive than sporadic inspection and major repair.
Never
treat temporary repairs as if these were permanent. The strength of the cover and
ultimately the ship will depend on the quality of repairs carried out;
ignore serious corrosion, cracking or distortion in the covers and supports. These
are signs of weakness and are potentially hazardous;
allow grooves to form in the coaming top, especially where the hatch side or end
panel rests when the hatch is closed;
apply petroleum-based grease or paint to rubber packing;
remove the rubber ball from a non-return drain valve;
use anything other than the recommended hydraulic oil;
leave cleats unfastened when proceeding to sea;
attempt to open or close any hatch that has a load or cargo on it;
open hatch covers at sea unless absolutely essential;
leave open covers unattended when at sea;
tighten down the cleats so that the hatch cover is unable to move on the coaming
top.
Typical arrangement of a multi-panel hatch cover. The double drainage channel and ‘steel-to-steel’ contact are shown.
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3. Common False Beliefs about Hatch Covers
Hatch covers are non-load bearing - they are only there to keep the water
out.
Hatch covers can be subjected to very high pressure loadings during heavy
weather. This in turn induces significant in-plane stresses in the component
plating, girders and stiffeners.
Leakage is an inconvenience resulting in cargo wetting.
Leakage can, where unchecked, cause serious flooding and ultimately endanger
the ship and its personnel.
Internal cracking at joints, corrosion/cracking in way of welds and
distortion of plating do not affect the hatch cover function.
Such problems change the way a structure works and can significantly reduce
the load carrying capacity.
Hatch covers constructed of high tensile steel are more robust than those
made from mild steel.
This is not the case. A cover constructed from high tensile steel will normally
comprise thinner plating than one constructed from mild steel.
It is the rubber seal that keeps the water out of the cargo.
The double drainage system is as important in keeping water away from cargo.
Renewing a worn rubber seal is all that is needed to keep a hatch
weathertight.
Worn rubber is usually the result of worn steel-to-steel contact surfaces or a
deformed structure. Rubber renewal alone is futile unless the steel-to-steel
contact surface is repaired.
The hatch cover side plate when closed should rest on the coaming top.
If the weight of a hatch panel is sufficient to cause distortion of its side plate
(hatch skirt), then landing pads are fifted to the panel to transfer the weight
evenly across the coaming top.
Hatch covers will always leak in heavy weather.
Hatch covers are designed to withstand the rigours of the sea. Provided the
cleats are correctly adjusted, hatch gaskets are in good condition and the
construction material sound, then hatch covers should not leak, regardless of the
weather.
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Screwing cleats down hard will ensure weathertightness.
No amount of tightening of cleats beyond their correct position will improve hatch
cover weathertightness. Hatch cover manufacturers usually test for
weathertightness without engaging cleats. The weight of a hatch is sufficient to
create the required gasket compression.
The use of hatch cover tape will ensure watertightness.
The use of sealant tape gives a false sense of security. Hatch cover tape is a
short-term temporary measure that can be used to stop water from entering
cross or side joints. However, the prolonged use of tape increases corrosion in
the cross-joint and side plate. In bad weather, sealing tape can and does wash
off. Even when sealing tape is used with success a hatch cover will only be
weathertight.
Drain valves are not important;
it does not matter if they are blocked.
Drain valves are an essential feature of the double drainage system as they
allow water that has penetrated the hatch gasket (rubber packing) to drain away.
If the valve is blocked or closed, water will spill from the drainage channel into
the cargo hold.
When carrying a cargo on top of a hatch cover it is not necessary to fasten
cleats.
Cleats prevent excessive movement of the hatch cover as a ship bends and
flexes in a seaway. They allow limited movement to ensure correct contact
between the cover and its coaming, preventing hatch cover damage. Cargo
loaded on the hatch does not secure the hatch cover to its coaming.
Tween deck cleats are not essential because the tween deck covers are
not weathertight.
Cleats on tween deck covers should always be engaged when the covers are
closed. This is because they stop tween deck panels from jumping when a ship
pitches, ensuring maintenance of tween deck strength. When cargo is stowed
on a tween deck panel, the panel must be secured to the ship's structure.
Any rubber gasket can be used provided the gasket fits the channel.
No, use only the gasket type recommended by the hatch cover manufacturer.
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4. Leakage Problems
Most leakage problems occur because of poor maintenance. Although robust, hatch
covers will leak if compression surfaces are not aligned correctly, if gaskets are
damaged or worn, if there are cracks or holes in the plating and if there is
permanent overall distortion of the covers.
Maintenance of the Hatch Cover Structure
Corrosion reduces the strength of a hatch cover. Reduced strength gives rise to
increased deflection and possible loss of the steel-to-steel contact when a cover is
loaded (green seas or cargo). If advanced, corrosion can weaken a hatch cover to
the point when normal loading causes permanent deformation and permanent loss
of the steel-to-steel contact. Good contact is an essential prerequisite for
weathertightness. Accelerated pitting corrosion leads to holes in the top plate.
Maintenance of the Steel-to-Steel Contact Surfaces
Hatch covers are designed to make steel-to-steel contact between a defined part of
the hatch cover and coaming when closed. This steel-to-steel contact determines
the amount of compression between the hatch gasket and compression bar.
Contact might be nothing more than the hatch skirt sifting on the horizontal coaming
plate, although some hatches are fitted with metal landing pads.
When the horizontal coaming plate or hatch landing pad is worn, pressure on the
hatch gasket (rubber packing) increases. If this wear is greater than 4mm,
increased pressure on the gasket will cause damage. Landing pad repair is
essential.
Maintenance of Rubber Packing - Surface Damage
Rubber packing that is physically damaged, cut or chafed should be renewed
immediately. The minimum length of replaced packing should be one metre.
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Maintenance of Rubber Packing - Permanent Set
Rubber packing that is permanently impressed to 75% of its design compression
should be completely replaced. The manufacturer will provide details of the design
compression. A rule of thumb to estimate design compression is to use 30% of the
packing's thickness. Permanently impressed rubber packing indicates worn steel-to-
steel contact surfaces. Never replace permanently impressed gaskets without
checking the steel-to-steel contact points for wear and doing repairs if they are worn.
Maintenance of Rubber Packing - Aged Gaskets
Ozone will age rubber. It becomes hard and loses elasticity. The entire length of
aged gasket should be replaced.
Maintenance of the Double Drainage System
Hatches are designed to drain away water that has penetrated the gasket. Drainage
channels should always be cleaned before hatches are closed, and kept free from
rust scale and cargo debris. Damaged channels should be repaired immediately
and then painted to prevent corrosion. Drainage channels are located along the
cross-joint and on the coaming between the compression bar and the inner
coaming.
Typical non-return drainage valve. The double drainage system
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Maintenance of Non-Return Drain Valves
Hatch coaming non-return drain valves are an essential feature of the hatch double
drainage system. They let water that has come through the hatch cover drain away.
Damaged, missing or defective non-return drain valves should be repaired or renewed.
Maintenance of Rubber Seals on Hold Access Doors, Access Hatches and Ventilators
Water can enter the cargo hold through access doors, hatches and ventilator covers.
Maintain them in the same way as you would hatch covers.
Maintenance of Hatch Cleats
Cleats and wedges hold the hatch in position with adequate gasket compression. (Cleats
are fifted with a rubber washer or 'grommet' to aid compression). Compression of the
washer determines tension in the cleat. Washers are prone to both physical damage and
age hardening (weathering). When damaged or aged the washer loses its elasticity and
should be replaced. Some operators protect the washer and screw threads with a layer of
grease or by application of 'denzo' tape.
Maintenance of Hatch Wedges
Cross-joint wedges require less maintenance than cleats and provided the wedge
sidespring is in place the wedge will work efficiently. Check the springs regularly and
replace them if they are damaged or missing. On a closed hatch, the wedge should make
contact with its strike plate on the opposite hatch panel. If there is a gap, it is likely that the
panel is distorted. The steel-to-steel contact may be worn. Repair and alignment of the
hatch panel is necessary. Never repair the strike plate by building it up with weld metal
above its original design height.
Maintenance of Landing Pads
The size and dimensions of a landing pad are dependent on the size and weight of the
hatch cover. Landing pads are normally located adjacent to cleats. The pads are fifted to
the top of the coaming and to the side of the hatch panel. Landing pads should always be
repaired to their original design height. Correct adjustment of them can only be achieved
during repair when the ship is out of service. Some ships are provided with cassette type
landing pads, which are easily replaceable.
Worn ‘steel-to-stell’ contact points.
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5. Leak Detection Tests
The two most common leak detection tests are the water hose test and the
ultrasonic test. Ultrasonic testing is the preferred method because areas of
inadequate hatch sealing are accurately located. Chalk testing (another hatch test)
gives only an indication of poor compression and potential leaks. Chalk testing is
not a leak detection test. Light testing is also effective but is potentially dangerous
because personnel are in a closed, dark hold looking for light infiltration between
panels. If hatches are found to leak during a test, make the necessary repairs, then
test again.
Water Hose Leak Detection Test
Water hose tests are used to determine weathertightness of hatch covers. If
correctly performed, hose testing will show hatch joints that leak.
The general procedure for hose testing is to apply a powerful jet of water from a 20-
50mm diameter hose fitted with a 12mm diameter nozzle held at a distance of 1-1.5
metres from a hatch joint, moving along the joint at a speed of 1 metre every 2
seconds.
The drawbacks of hose testing are:
the hold needs to be empty;
it cannot be performed in sub-zero conditions;
it requires the deck scupper drains to be open (potentially causing pollution);
the test cannot pinpoint leaks on the cross-joint or side joint accurately;
two people are needed to supervise the test.
Care should be taken to avoid excessive nozzle back-pressure.
Ultrasonic Leak Detection Test
Ultrasonic leak detection is a viable alternative to the hose test for testing hatch
covers, access doors and access hatches for weatherlightness, as it accurately
locates potential points of leakage. This test should only be carried out using class
approved equipment and approved test procedures.
The test involves placing (with hatches closed and secure) an electronic signal
generator inside the cargo hold. A sensor is then passed around the outside of all
compression joints, Readings taken by the sensor indicate points of low
compression or potential points of leakage.
Ultrasonic testing overcomes the majority of limitations associated with hose testing
and can be carried out when holds are loaded.
The drawbacks of ultrasonic leak detection tests are:
the equipment requires an experienced and specialist operator to interpret the
readings;
the equipment requires regular calibration;
the equipment is not normally part of the ship's equipment.
9
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Chalk Testing
When performing a chalk test, the top edge of every compression bar is covered
with chalk. Hatches are then fully closed and reopened. The rubber packing is
examined for a chalk mark, which should run continuously along the packings
centre. Gaps in the chalk mark indicate lack of compression. Chalk testing merely
indicates if hatch panels are aligned and compression achieved. It will not show
whether compression is adequate and therefore it is not a test for weathertightness.
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6. Monitoring and Inspection
Hatch covers and their fittings should be inspected at the end of every cargo voyage
and all findings recorded. The pro forma checklist (Appendix 2) can be used.
Inspections should be planned and held in time for repairs to be completed before
the next cargo voyage. Empty cargo spaces of all cargo and combustible material if
welding torches are used.
Inspect and Check:
condition. Covers and coamings should be well painted and free from significant
corrosion, cracks and distortion. During an inspection look for:
- holes and permanent distortion in the plating
- distortion of beams and/or stiffeners on the underside of the top plate
- corrosion around welded connections of beams or stiffeners
- cracking of connecting joints and welds
hatch movement. This should be smooth. If violent movement is observed,
investigate and remove the cause.
·towing and backhaul wires. These should be free of kinks or broken strands.
Repair or replace damaged or worn wires. Use extreme care when handling
wires to avoid injury.
hydraulic system for leakage.
hinge pins. Look for wear, particularly at cross-joints and hydraulic cylinders.
Worn hinge pins can cause hatches to slew and misalign at the cross-joint(s).
Misaligned hatch panels will leak.
drive chain tensioners. Check their condition and adjustment.
cleats and wedges. Check for physical damage, corrosion and tension when
locked.
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Drive Chains; check their length
Drive chains and associated equipment are fitted in pairs, opposite one another.
The side towing chains, sprockets and hydraulic cylinders on opposite sides should
match. Adjust the tension of chains between panels so that the chains on both
sides are exactly the same length. Do this by removing or adding chain links. If the
entire length of chain needs to be replaced, then replace the chains on both sides at
the same time. Always consult the hatch cover manufacturer for details of chain
length. As a rule, chain sag, measured from the assumed horizontal at mid-point
along the chain, should be a fist wide.
Steel Landing Pads; check for wear
Worn landing pads will damage hatch gaskets and cause hatch leakage. When
newly fitted and closed in the sea position, the top plates of adjacent hatch panels
should be level. Any deviation from level is an indication of landing pad wear or
permanent distortion. If noted, investigate fully and repair immediately.
End Stop Pads; check for damage
End stop pads prevent hatch panels from overrunning when hatches are fully open.
Look for physical damage.
Hatch Wheels; check for alignment
Hatch wheels should align squarely with the hatch trackway. If the wheel axle is
worn the wheel will loll. If it does, repair immediately.
Rubber Seals; check for elasticity,
mechanical damage and permanent deformation
When hatches are opened, rubber seals should regain their original shape. If they
do not, check for ageing. Permanent deformation should not exceed 75% of the
design compression.
Locking Devices and Hydraulic Cut-Outs; check that they operate
Locking devices are often pins or hooks, these should engage when the hatch is
open. Look for physical damage, rusting and seizure. Hydraulic cut-outs should
move freely.
Spares
Rubber packing and adhesive has a limited shelf life, so check the date stamp and
discard if beyond the use-by date. There should be sufficient spare parts (cleats,
wedges and gaskets) to complete planned routine maintenance. Always use
manufacturers' approved spare parts.
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7. Maintenance and Repair
Poor maintenance of hatch covers causes leakage leading to cargo damage and
represents a hazard to the ship and its crew. Although hatch covers are simple and
durable, their sealing gaskets are easily damaged. The quality of sealing is affected
by lack of alignment and poor gasket compression. When hatch covers are opened
at the end of an ocean voyage, look for signs of leakage such as rust staining or drip
marks.
Regular adjustment and repair, by ship's staff, will reduce the overall cost of
maintenance. Painting double drainage channels will help to prevent corrosion.
Always keep a detailed record of maintenance. Take care during extensive hatch
cover repair to avoid cover distortion.
Rubber Gaskets
Keep clean and free from paint. If physically damaged, permanently set-in or aged,
replace with minimum one metre lengths. Always follow the manufacturer's
instructions when renewing gaskets.
Gasket Channels
If gasket channels are badly corroded, causing the hatch packing to hang loose, the
packing should be removed and the channel repaired by welding new metal strips
which should be painted before fitting new rubber. Always follow proper fire
prevention safety procedures. Make sure that cargo spaces are free of cargo and
combustible material. When conducting extensive structural repairs, remove the
hatch covers to shore.
Hatch Cover Structure
Repair or replace any damaged, worn or defective hatch covers or coamings.
Consult with the ship's classification society before commencing repair. Paint new
structure immediately.
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Compression Bars
Effective sealing is only possible with a straight, undamaged and non-corroded
compression bar. Compression bars which are not in this condition should be
repaired or replaced, taking care to align the bars properly.
Remember to carry out a chalk test to check alignment, both during and after repair.
Landing Pads
Hatch sealing is arranged by design to give the correct compression of the gasket
when there is metal-to-metal contact on the hatch landing pad, side plate, or inter-
panel block. If landing pads are reduced in height (check with manufacturers'
drawings) because of wear, repair is essential.
Hatch Wheel Trackways
Trackways can corrode. They are weakened by abrasive wear and tear. When
weakened, trackways can distort and break, affecting hatch movement and
alignment. Deterioration is visible to the naked eye. Repair by replacing the worn or
damaged material with sufficient new material to restore strength. Always keep
hatch wheel trackways clean and painted.
Hatch Coamings
Look for cracks at coaming corners. If any are found, consult the ship's
classification society before commencing repairs in case the coaming needs to be
reinforced.
Examine coaming support brackets for corrosion where they connect with the ship's
deck. Make sure coamings and their support brackets are painted.
Coamings can be damaged by cargo equipment during loading or discharge. Look
out for damage and repair if found.
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Hatch Cleats and Wedges
It is important for compression washers to be adjusted correctly. A locking nut for
adjusting compression is situated at the base of the cleat. The procedure to alter
compression (see illustrations) is as follows:
close hatch and secure for sea;
place the cam of the cleat in the hatch socket as if to lock it, but leave it
unlocked (the cam should move freely and fit snugly in its housing);
adjust the locking nut until the compression washer touches the underside of
the hatch coaming or its steel washer;
turn the locking nut one full turn to achieve the desired tension;
do not over-tighten;
protect the thread on completion.
When closing and securing a hatch for sea passage, check the tension in side
cleats.
Cleats should never be adjusted in isolation, adjust all cleats along the hatch skirt at
the same time.
Hatch Cross-Joints
It is essential for the cross-joint to be in good condition and properly aligned.
Maintenance and repair should focus on:
examination of the cross-joint structure for corrosion.
examination of joint hinges for pin wear, blade cracking or weld failure. (Re-
grease the hinge pin bushes making sure grease reaches the hinge pins).
examination of the steel-to-steel inter-panel blocks and locators for wear.
(Check the top plate of hatch panels, they should be level when closed).
checking the gap between panels when they are closed. Misalignment could
be caused by an incorrectly adjusted cylinder or the wheel tracks could be
worn.
Hatch Wheels
Hatch wheel spindles and bearings (where fitted) need to be greased regularly.
Check the wheel spindle for wear and the wheel housing for physical damage.
Repair if the spindle is worn or if the wheels are out of alignment.
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Procedure to adjust a quick acting cleat
1) Assemble cleat in 2) Screw nut on spindle
snug & crutch until it touches washer
3) Tighten one complete 4) Disengage cleat with
turn of the nut quick release lever
Drain Channels and Non-Return Valves
Clean coaming tops and cross-joint channels by removing any loose scale or cargo
residue by brushing or hosing. Clean coaming drain holes and check that the non-
return valve is functioning.
Greasing
Wheel spindles, cleat spindles, hinge pins, hydraulic cylinder protective sheaths,
cleat wedges, drive chain sprockets, toothed rack and cylinder spherical bearings
need to be kept well greased. Re-grease every month if necessary, and always
apply new grease after the ship has passed through heavy weather.
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Painting
Corrosion occurs mainly at the panel ends along the cross-joint or where access is
difficult, but it can also occur on the underside of a panel, especially along hatch
beams. Regular painting will be necessary.
Inert Gas
Hatch covers with a double skin, in the form of a closed box, are filled with inert gas.
After structural repair, the inner spaces must be re-inerted. This is done by inserting
special tablets (available from the hatch cover manufacturer) into the space and
welding shut. Never allow water to penetrate the box construction.
Hydraulic Systems and Components
The cleanliness and viscosity of hydraulic oil must be checked. Samples of the oil
should be sent to a chemist for testing (use the same company that checks and
tests your fuel and lubricating oil). The hydraulic system is provided with bleed
points from which samples can be taken.
Hydraulic oil should be changed every five years or after there have been significant
repairs, such as piping or cylinder replacement.
Hydraulic oil filters should be changed every twelve months. Do not contemplate
repairing the hydraulic system without the proper components and skilled fitters.
Use of Sealing Tape and Foam Fillers
The use of sealing tape and foam fillers should be limited to:
emergency use. When hatches are known or thought to be leaking and
there is insufficient time to complete permanent repairs;
charterers' requirement. Charterers may require owners to apply sealing
tape when highly water-sensitive cargoes are carried;
fumigation tape is usually applied to hatch covers during fumigation. The
tape is not heavy duty and should be removed when fumigation has finished.
Foam fillers can be used to fill the air space which is formed along the cross-joint of
two closed panels. In heavy weather foam fillers may be washed away, their use
should never be solely relied upon to prevent water ingress.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 99 of 330
8. Heavy Weather Precautions
The following precautions should be taken if rough or heavy weather or when high
swells are expected or when it is likely that water will be shipped on deck.
Prior to rough weather:
check that hatch cleats are properly secured and adjusted. In rough
weather, hulls are subjected to high racking forces, so it is essential that
hatch covers are held in place but allowed to flex.
check that all drain valves are operating correctly and that they are open.
Drain valves are the last defence against water entering the cargo space.
The drainage system will be needed during heavy weather, so it must be
fully operational.
as a precaution, briefly pressurise the hydraulic system to ensure that it is
fully charged and that the piping is filled with oil. This has two benefits, first,
it prevents the possibility of seawater entering loose couplings or seals, and
secondly, it eliminates any creep which may have occurred.
After rough weather:
Inspect all cleats, drain valves, guides and hydraulic components for
damage. If hydraulic components have been damaged, do not attempt to
open the covers. The emergency opening procedure should be followed
until the hydraulic components have been checked and tested.
check hatch covers for buckling or distortion.
when opening the hatch covers check for uneven movement and any
unusual noises that may indicate damage.
check all grease points and re-grease.
18
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9. Safety when Working with Hatch Covers
The avoidance and prevention of injuries is of paramount importance. Before
working on a hatch, a risk assessment should be completed to identify all hazards.
Control and safety procedures should be examined and modified so that hazards
are reduced to minimal levels.
The following points should be borne in mind:
always wear the correct protective clothing, boots and hard hats;
always test the hold atmosphere before entering;
never stand on a moving hatch cover;
never stand on a hatch coaming when the hatch is open;
never work on a hatch cover when the locking pin or hook is not fitted and secure;
never open or close a hatch cover without ensuring the coaming is clear of debris
and checking that all personnel are clear of the moving hatch and its channels or
wires;
when opening or closing a hatch never attempt to clear an obstruction with your
hands;
when hatches are opened at sea always secure them to the coaming top by
lowering the wheels into a guide pocket, or by fixing restraining wires.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 101 of 330
Appendix 1 - Procedures to Open and Close Hatch Covers
Prior to opening or closing a hatch, the watch officer should be informed and the condition
of the hauling wires or chains checked; the hydraulic system should be topped up. Never
open or close more than one set of hatch covers at a time.
Opening Procedures
check that the hatch cover panel stowage area is clear of people, equipment and
dunnage;
disengage ail cleats;
attach towing or hauling wires; switch the power on and ensure the controls are in
neutral;
ensure that all personnel are clear of the hatch and its tracking. Position
crewmembers to observe both sides of the hatch;
raise hatch covers to the roll position by jacks or by raising the lifting system. (The
panels need to clear the hatch guides);
check that towing chains are free and do not foul tracks or the coaming top;
start to open the hatch, slowly at first, then at normal operating speed until the hatch
is almost open and then reduce to slow speed until fully open. Care must be taken
when opening hatch covers especially when the speed of opening can be only
partially controlled;
when fully open, secure the hatch with the safety hook or pin before the power is
switched off. If applicable, remove the towing and hauling wires;
install portable safety rails, if supplied.
Closing Procedures
check that the coaming top is clear of cargo or debris;
check and clear drain channels and entrances to the drain valves;
check that any damaged wheel tracks, compression bars and landing pads have
been repaired;
ensure that the hold is clear of people and that access hatches 3r entrance doors
are open. Check towing chains are free;
attach towing or hauling wires, switch the power on and ensure the controls are in
neutral;
remove portable handrails;
release hatch locking pins or hooks;
avoid injuries by ensuring that all personnel are clear of the hatch. Position
crewmembers to observe both sides of the hatch;
check that towing chains are free and do not foul tracks or the coaming top;
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 102 of 330
start to close the hatches slowly at first with the speed of closure being gradually
increased to the normal operating speed. As the hatch reaches the closed position
the speed should be gradually reduced. Great care must be taken when closing
hatch covers;
lower hatch covers into guide pockets using jacks or lifting cylinders. Some hatches
are lowered automatically;
attach cleats before removing the towing wire or switching power off;
finally, check no one is in the hold before closing hold access hatches or other hold
entry points.
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The Basics of Lashing and Cargo Securing
Cargo is loaded onto a ship when she is floating steadily in the water, upright, or with a
practical trim astern. When the ship sails out to sea, it encounters external forces which
result in to six forms of motions acting on the ship. These motions are a threat for especially
those ships which have cargoes stored and secured on the open deck.
If the storage of cargo is not secure enough then there is no escape from the behavior of the
seas and the wind once they show their rage. This in result takes a toll on the loaded cargo,
causing damage to other cargo in the vicinity or to the vessel’s structures and fittings and
even throwing the cargo overboard. Improper lashing and failure to adhere to the
procedures required for cargo stowage is dangerous to property, life and environment at
sea.
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To avoiid getting into situatio
ons like theese the ressponsible personnel on board sh
hould be
compettent enough h to plan annd uphold saafe carriage e of the carggo at all tim
mes.
Let’s haave a look at omponents that are viital for understanding the importtance of
a a few co
proper cargo stowage.
Basic R
Reasons off Loss or D
Damage to the Cargo
1. Severe andd adverse weather
w coonditions and
a lack off appreciatiion of the various
forces imp
plicated – Various
V connditions of the Beaufo
ort wind sccale not takken into
account ass the vesseel encounteers the wo
orst at any given moment. Resp ponsible
personnel llooking afteer the carriaage of the ccargo somettimes fail too foresee th he ship’s
characterisstics and badd weather b behavior
2. Lack of kn
nowledge of
o relevant rules and guiding reecommendaations – Faailure to
follow the gguidelines o
or the regulations for ccargo securiing may speell catastrop
phe
3. Cost control pressure
es – The ecconomy do
ownfall lead
ds to cost ccutting pro
ocedures
which in turn means leess quality ccargo securring work
4. Inadequatee time and personnel to complette the securring cargo bbefore depaarture –
Due to exceessive papeerwork and short port tturn‐around
d, basics of cargo hand
dling are
sometimes overseen
5. Basic seam
manship tecchniques no ot applied adequatelyy for total immobilityy of the
cargo – Dunnage not u utilized in aan effective manner or for that maatter takingg lashing
materials aaround sharrp edges wh hich causess them to p
part or even n insufficien
nt force,
steadiness and/or nummber of lash hings
6. Improper uusage of the
e cargo seccuring gear – Wire loop ps and eyess made up w wrongly.
Lack of kno
owledge in tthe use of b
bull dog grips, bottleneeck screws,, wire slingss/strops,
etc.
7. Lack of conntinuity in strength between
b thee various securing
s components – Ship’s
overall chaaracteristicss and age of
o constructtion play a major rolee in effectivve cargo
work
8. Incorrect oof unbalancced stowagee and inade
equate weight distribu
ution – Inad
dequate
stability and control m
measures takken
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Points to remember while securing cargo
1. A good tight stowage of cargo may avoid the need to totally secure it, provided the cargo
is adequately packaged and there are no heavy components
2. Bulky and heavy units may still be required to be secured even if the space around them
is filled with other cargo. Particular attention should be paid to the chances of such units
sliding or tripping
3. A number of units can be secured or lashed together into one block
4. Permanent securing points on the cargo should be used, but it must be remembered that
these securing points are intended for inland transport and may not necessarily be suitable
for securing other items onboard ships
5. Independent lashings must only be secured properly to suitable strong points of the ships
fittings and structure, preferably onto the designated lashing points
6. Lashings must be taut and as short as possible for a better hold
7. If possible the multiple lashings to one item of cargo should be kept under equal tension.
The integration of different material components having different strengths and elasticity
should be completely avoided
8. The lashings must be able of being checked and tightened when on a passage
9. Lashings should be enough so as to prevent the loads from moving when the ship rolls
through 30 degrees with 13 second duration
10. Tightening the cargo down will add to a great deal in securing it completely before it
shifts
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Commonly used Cargo Securing Arrangements for Dry Cargo
1. Lashing is a general term that is used to on behalf of all the securing arrangements
onboard: It includes ropes, wires, webbings, bandings, strapping or chains, bottle
screws and other patent tensioning devices. Mostly used on Container ships
2. Tomming: Construction of a support of square section softwood framework, which
chocks off the cargo against ship’s structure or other cargo
3. Filling: Use of air bags, empty pallets, old tyres, etc. to fill the voids and broken
stowage between items of cargo and between cargo and ship’s structures
4. Anti skid: Flat‐boards are used to increase frictional capabilities of the cargoes
5. Binding: Even out a stow with dunnage to make several units into one block. Also
stowing bags or cartons in different directions in each layer forms a self‐locking slab
which is a tight stow for shifting cargoes
6. Structural Modifications: Very heavy and uncomfortably shaped cargo may be
secured by welding the unit directly to the ship’s structure or by fabricating a steel
framework or other support or chock which is permanently attached to the ship’s
structure
Basics of Safe Slinging
1. When loads are lifted on a sling the general idea is to get the load to be as secured in the
air as it was on ground
2. The loads must be satisfactorily secured by the slings
a) Loads are completely contained by the slings (e.g. Bags in nets)
b) Use fixed lifting pendants or lugs if available
c) Ropes or wire slings must be completely wrapped around the loads – no loads
should be left resting in loose bights of the line
d) When using specialized components, they must be properly attached to the
cargo, and the manufacturer’s instructions should be followed
3. The slings must be sufficiently attached to the lifting appliances
4. The loads must be slung so that they will not collapse or change form when they are lifted
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5. The load must not damage the sling, possibly causing the slings to part. Use stuffing or
padding at susceptible points or sharp edges
6. Ensure that the loads are not to be damaged by the sling
7. All lifting parts should have their pivoting points as near to the vertical as possible for a
clean lift by the crane
Important Points for Safe Container Lashing
The estimated value of the world’s sea‐borne trade for container shipping industry is about
52%, which is highest among all other types of trading means. Container or liner trade is one
of the fastest and easiest modes of transporting cargo. With increase in size and technology
in the shipping industry, the container ship is now able to carry more than 15000 containers,
with around 8 or more containers stacks lashed together to form of long series.
However, container lashing, the process of securing containers together on board ship, is
one of the greatest areas of risks in the marine cargo handling sector.
What is Container Lashing?
When a container is loaded over ships, it is secured to the ship’s structure and to the
container placed below it by means of lashing rods, turnbuckles, twist‐locks etc. This
prevents the containers from to move from their places or fall off in to the sea during rough
weather or heavy winds.
Who Does the Container Lashing?
Normally Stevedores are responsible for lashing and de‐lashing jobs in port. However, due
to less port stay and constraint of time, deck crew is also responsible for this operation.
Before arrival of the port, ship’s crew normally de‐lashes the container so that time can be
saved in the port and the containers can be discharged immediately after berthing.
The container Lashing is regularly checked by the ship’s crew so as to avoid any type of
accidents due to improper lashing.
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Important points to be noted for safe lashing and de‐lashing operation
Wear all the required Personal protective equipments (PPE) such as reflective vest, steel toe
shoes, hard helmet, gloves etc.
Stretch and warm up your muscles prior to working as it is a strenuous physical job.
Try using back support belt and always use your knee to lift.
Be cautious while walking around the ship as the ship structure can be a tripping hazard.
Be careful from slip, trip and fall while boarding or leaving ship from gangway with carrying
loads like rod, clits etc.
Do not walk under suspended load i.e. gantry, hanging container etc.
Work platform, railings, steps, and catwalks must be inspected prior to the starting of
operations.
All manhole cover or booby hatches to be closed while lashing.
Be careful while walking over the rods and twist locks while working. Always keep the
lashing equipments in their assigned place or side of the walking path.
Understand the plan and order of lashing and unlashing.
The reefer containers require extra attention and coordination for plugging and unplugging
when loading or unloading is carried out.
Beware of trip hazard due to reefer container power cord.
Do not touch any electrical equipment or power chord until it is instructed that it is safe to
work on.
All the lashing and other materials must be removed and secured from the top of the hatch
cover prior to the removal of the same.
Be careful of fall hazard when lashing outside container on the hatch cover or pedestal.
Fall arrester or safety harness must be used by workers when operating aloft.
Always be at a safe distance from co‐workers during lashing or unlashing containers as the
long rods can be hazardous if not handled properly.
It is a normal practice not to lash or unlash any closer than at least 3 containers widths away
from other co‐worker.
Always work in pair when handling rods and turnbuckles.
Always walk the bars up, slide them down and control the rods at all time.
Do not leave or throw the rod or other equipment until you are sure that it is safe to do so
and no one is around the vicinity.
Do not loose a turnbuckle and leave the rods hanging. When securing a rod, turnbuckle must
be tightened right away.
Always report defective lashing gear, defective ship’s railing, or any other inadequate
structure or system involved in the operation to the concerned person or ship’s staff.
Several container lashing incidents have taken lives of seafarers in the past. Handing cargo
containers is not an easy job and needs adequate safe practices to carry it out safely and
adequately.
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Lashing and securing deck Cargoes
For the purposes of this article, the reader’s attention is drawn to the requirements of the IMO Cargo
Securing Manual Regulations and the IMO Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing.
The IMO cargo securing manual
Regulations VI/5 and VII/6 of the 1974 SOLAS Convention require cargo units and cargo transport
units to be loaded, stowed and secured throughout the voyage in accordance with the cargo securing
manual (CSM) approved by the administration and drawn up to a standard at least equivalent to the
guidelines developed by the International Maritime Organization (IMO).
The guidelines have been expanded to take into account the provisions of the Code of Safe Practice
for Cargo Stowage and Securing (the CSS Code), the amendments to that Code, the Code of Safe
Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes, and the codes and guidelines for ro-ro vessels,
grain cargoes, containers and container vessels, and ships carrying nuclear waste and similar
radioactive products. Such individual publications are subject to amendments which need to be
carried into the appropriate section of the cargo securing manual as they occur.
As from 1 January 1998, it is a mandatory regulation for all vessels, other than exempted vessels
such as dedicated bulk solid, bulk liquid, and gas carrying vessels, to have onboard an approved and
up-to-date cargo securing manual. Some administrations may exempt certain cargo-carrying ships of
less than 500 gross tons and certain very specialised ships, but such exemption should not be
assumed in the absence of a formal exemption certificate.
It is a mandatory requirement for masters and ships’ officers to be conversant with the CSS Code and
the CSM Regulations, to understand their applications for the vessel in which they are serving, and to
be capable of deploying correctly the hardware which goes with it. All securing of cargo units shall be
completed before the ship leaves the berth. The CSM and its associated hardware are subject to port
state control inspection.
Violation of the CSM requirements may give rise to vessel detention and/or prosecution of the master
and owners.
The CSS Code and CSM Regulations and their amendments contain much sound and well-tried
advice, and should not be treated lightly. There are, however, a number of anomalies, and in some
instances the applied text is difficult to reconcile with safe practice and sound seamanship. It is hoped
that these shortcomings may be rectified by future amendments.
In the meantime, the following suggestions may be found useful by ships’ officers, loading
superintendents, supercargoes, surveyors, and the like.
What is a deck cargo
The phrase ‘deck cargoes’ refers to items and/or commodities carried on the weather-deck and/or
hatchcovers of a ship and thereon exposed to sun, wind, rain, snow, ice and sea, so that the
packaging must be fully resistant to, or the commodities themselves not be denatured by such
exposure. Even in ro-ro vessels, many areas above the actual ‘hold’ space can reasonably be
considered as ‘on deck’ even though not fully exposed to the onslaught of wind and sea. The
combined effects of wind, sea and swell can be disastrous. Where damage and loss occur to cargo
shipped on deck at anyone’s risk and expense, the shipowners, the master and his officers, and the
charterers, must be in a position to demonstrate there was no negligence or lack of due diligence on
their part.
Deck cargoes, because of their very location and the means by which they are secured, will be
subjected to velocity and acceleration stresses greater, in most instances, than cargo stowed below
decks. When two or more wave forms add up algebraically a high wave preceded by a deep trough
may occur; this may be referred to as an ‘episodic wave’: a random large wave – noticeably of greater
height than its precursors or successors – which occurs when one or more wave trains fall into phase
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with another so that a wave, or waves, of large amplitude is are produced giving rise to sudden steep
and violent rolling and/or pitching of the ship. These are popularly – and incorrectly – referred to as
‘freak’ waves; they are not ‘freak’, however, because they can, and do, occur anywhere at any time in
the open sea. The risk is widespread and prevalent. The stowage, lashing, and securing of cargoes
therefore require special attention as to method and to detail if unnecessary risks are to be avoided.
Causes of losses
Unfortunately, despite all the loss-prevention literature available, there is a continuing incidence of the
collapse and/or loss overboard of deck cargo items. Losses continue of large vehicles, rail cars, cased
machinery, steel pipes, structural steelwork, packaged timber, freight containers, hazardous
chemicals, boats, launches, etc. When investigated fully, the causes of such losses fall into the
following random categories which are neither exhaustive as to number nor mutually exclusive in
occurrence:
● Severe adverse weather conditions.
● Lack of appreciation of the various forces involved.
● Ignorance of the relevant rules and guiding recommendations.
● Cost limitation pressures to the detriment of known safety requirements.
● Insufficient time and/or personnel to complete the necessary work before the vessel leaves
port.
● Dunnage not utilised in an effective manner.
● Inadequate strength, balance and/or number of lashings.
● Wire attachment eyes and loops made up wrongly, including incorrect methods of using
bulldog grips.
● Lack of strength continuity between the various securing components.
● Taking lashing materials around unprotected sharp edges.
● Incorrect/unbalanced stowage and inadequate weight distribution.
● The perversity of shore-based labour when required to do the job properly.
● Securing arrangements, both supplied and approved, not fully utilised on the voyage under
consideration. This last point is particularly true of ISO freight containers and timber cargoes
carried on the weatherdeck, and of large commercial vehicles carried in ro-ro vessels.
All interests involved in the lashing and securing of deck cargoes should bear in mind that high
expense in the purchase of lashing materials is no substitute for a simple design and a few basic
calculations before lashing operations commence. Other than in ro-ro and purpose-built container
operations where standardisation of gear and rapid loading and turnround times pose different
problems, ship masters should be encouraged – on completion of lashing operations – to make notes
of the materials used, to produce a representative sketch of the lashing system, to insist upon being
provided with the test/proof certificates of all lashing components involved, and to take illustrative
photographs of the entire operation.
These, at least, will be of great assistance to the vessel’s interest in the event of related future
litigation.
General guidelines
The Merchant Shipping (Load Lines) (Deck Cargo) Regulations 1968 (United Kingdom Statutory
Instrument No.1089 of 1968) set out some of the general ideas to be followed when securing deck
cargoes. The list of requirements is not exhaustive but provides a realistic base from which to work,
and reads, inter alia:
“2. Deck cargo shall be so distributed and stowed:
1) as to avoid excessive loading having regard to the strength of the deck and integral
supporting structure of the ship;
2) as to ensure that the ship will retain adequate stability at all stages of the voyage having
regard in particular to:
a) the vertical distribution of the deck cargo;
b) wind moments which may normally be expected on the voyage;
c) losses of weight in the ship, including in particular those due to the consumption of fuel
and stores; and
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d) possible increases of weight of the ship or deck cargo, including in particular those due to
the absorption of water and to icing;
3) as not to impair the weathertight or watertight integrity of any part of the ship or its fittings or
appliances, and as to ensure the proper protection of ventilators and air pipes;
4) that its height above the deck or any other part of the ship on which it stands will not interfere
with the navigation or working of the ship;
5) that it will not interfere with or obstruct access to the ship’s steering arrangements, including
emergency steering arrangements;
6) that it will not interfere with or obstruct safe and efficient access by the crew to or between
their quarters and any machinery space or other part of the ship used in the working of the
ship, and will not in particular obstruct any opening giving access to those positions or impede
its being readily secured weathertight.”
Dunnage
If all deck cargo items could be structurally welded to the weather-deck using components of
acceptable strength this would remove the necessity to consider coefficients of friction between the
base of the cargo and the deck or dunnage on which it rests. Such is the large range of deck cargoes
which do not lend themselves to such securing, however, that an appreciation of the sliding effect
naturally raises the subject of coefficients of friction.
The values given for the coefficient of friction between dry timber and dry steel vary from 0.3 (17 º) to
0.7 (35º), and between steel and steel sliding can occur at angles of inclination as small as 6°; but
until some years ago there appeared to be no published data relating to the coefficient of friction
between timber dunnage and the painted surface of steel decks or steel hatchcovers.
Carefully controlled experiments were carried out in Liverpool under the author’s supervision, using
9in x 3in x 8ft sawn pine deals, some of which had earlier been allowed to float in water; others had
been stored in covered conditions so as to conform to normal atmospheric moisture content. The
experiments were carried out on hinge-opening hydraulic-powered steel MacGregor hatchcovers in
clean painted condition free of any unusual roughness and/or obstruction.
The tests used dry timber on dry covers; wet timber on dry covers; dry timber on wet covers; and,
º
lastly, wet timber on wet covers. The lowest value – 0.51 (27 ) – occurred with wet timbers on wet
covers; the highest value occurred with wet timber on dry covers – 0.645 (33 º).
On the basis of such results the lowest value of 0.51 (27 º) should be accepted as relating to the most
common condition likely to be found on the weatherdeck of a sea-going ship, i.e., wet timber on wet
decks.
Hence, with inclination, only, and without any effects likely to be introduced by velocity and/or
acceleration stresses due to rolling and pitching, timber dunnage alone will start to slide of its own
accord at angles of inclination of 27 º. Thereafter, sliding will continue at progressively smaller angles.
It follows that, when the vessel is rolling and pitching and timber dunnage is unsecured, it will begin to
slide at angles of inclination considerably less than 27 º.
From such results it follows that the normal practice of utilising timber dunnage and of keeping
downward leading lashings as short and as tight as possible should be continued and encouraged. A
near vertical lashing is of great benefit in resisting the cargo item’s tendency to tip; a near horizontal
lashing will greatly resist sliding forces. Do not overload lashing terminals and/or shackles. Think in
terms of the ‘effective strength’ of a lashing – its ‘holding power’. Balance the ‘slip-load’ of an eye in a
wire with the strengths of a shackle, a bottle-screw and a chain. A lashing is no stronger than its
weakest part.
Spread the load
Point-loading and uneven distribution of cargo weight can, and frequently does, cause unnecessary
damage to decks and hatchcovers. Unless the weather-deck has been specially strengthened, it is
unlikely to have a maximum permissible weight-loading of more than 3 tonnes/m2. Similarly, unless
hatchcovers have been specially strengthened, it is unlikely they will have a maximum permissible
weight-loading of more than 1.8 tonnes/m2. The ship’s capacity plan and/or general arrangement plan
should always be consulted. If the information is not there, try the ship’s stability booklet.
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In the event that specific values are not available onboard the ship, allow no more than 2.5 tonnes/m2
for weather-deck areas; and no more than 0.75 tonnes/m2 for hatchcovers in small vessels; 1.30
tonnes/m2 in vessels over 100m in length. (The word tonnef used later in this article means tonnes
force.)
The adverse effects of point-loading are not always fully appreciated. On the one hand, a 6 tonne
machine with a flat-bed area of 3m2 will exert a down-load of 2 tonnes/m2 (Fig 1a).
On the other hand, a lady of 60kg weight in evening shoes with heel areas 50mm2 (0.00005m2) will
exert a point-loading of 1200 tonnes/m2 if, when dancing, she stands on your toe with all her weight on
one heel (Fig 1b). Which is why our ladies are often more dangerous than machines!
When exceptionally heavy weights are to be carried, it may be necessary to shore-up the weather-
deck from below; but, again, care must be taken to spread the load on the tween deck so as not to
overload that plating. In the not so dense range of cargoes, units of 20 to 40 tonnes weight are
common today, and stacking of unit weights is widespread. If a piece of machinery weighing, say, 30
tonnes with a base area of 6m2 is placed direct on the weather-deck the point loading will be 30/6 = 5
tonnes/m2. If, however, the deck plating has a maximum permissible loading of 2.5 tonnes/m2 then the
minimum area over which that 30 tonne load must be spread is 30/2.5 = 12m2.
Good dunnage must be used to spread the load, and it is always good practice to add 5% to the
weight to be loaded before working out the dunnage area. For the 30 tonne weight, for instance, 31.5
tonnes would be used and the dunnage area would go from 12m2 to 12.6m2.
Dunnage timber is often no more than 6"x1" (150 x 25mm) rough planking; but where weighty cargo
items are involved dunnage should not be less than 50mm (2") thickness x 150mm (6") width, and
preferably 75mm (3") x 225mm (9"). It is acceptable, however, to use two dunnage planks nailed
together securely to make up the thickness. A dunnage width greater than 150mm is always
acceptable – 225mm (9") to 305mm (12"), for instance; but where the thickness goes to 75mm (3")
care must be taken to choose straight grained timbers of as great a width as possible, and to ensure
that they are laid with the grain horizontal and parallel with the deck. There have been incidents in the
past where what appeared to have been a soundly dunnaged and well-secured item of deck cargo
broke adrift and was lost overboard due to a sequence of events commencing with the collapse of 3"x
3" dunnage timbers along the curved grain used on its edge, followed by consequential slackness in
otherwise adequate lashing arrangements, followed by increasingly accelerated cargo movement and
finally breakage of the lashings.
Because of the random nature of grain configurations in the thicker dunnage timbers it is acceptable
to achieve thicknesses by nailing planks together. A 2" thick dunnage timber can be made up using 1"
thick planks, and a 3" thick dunnage timber can be made up using 2" and 1" thick timber planks, all
securely nailed together. To a large degree, this will correct the tendency for separation in timber with
a badly-aligned grain.
And remember, it will be as important to install good lower-level foot lashings as it will be to install
downward-leading lashings if load-spreading dunnage is to remain fully effective.
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Rolling periods
It is not the purpose of this article to deal with ship stability aspects, so far as those aspects may be
avoided.
However, it is worth repeating a few established and relevant stability facts. For instance, the roll
period of a ship is the time taken to make one complete transverse oscillation; that is, from the upright
position to starboard inclination, from starboard inclination back to upright and through to port
inclination, thence back to upright.
Hence, if the roll period is 15 seconds and if the roll to starboard is 10 º and the roll to port is 11 º, the
total ‘sweep’ within the 15 second roll period will be 10 º +10 º +11 º +11 º = 42 º .
When a ship rolls the axis about which the rolling takes place cannot generally be accurately
determined, but it is accepted as being near to the longitudinal axis passing through the ship’s centre
of gravity. The time period of the roll is generally independent of the roll angle, provided that the roll
angle is not large. Thus, a vessel with a 15 second roll period will take 15 seconds to make one full
transverse oscillation when the roll angle (to port and to starboard) is anything from say 2 º to 30 º. The
crux, from a cargo lashing viewpoint, lies in realising that a roll angle of 2º and a roll period of 15
seconds involves a ‘sweep’ of no more than 8 º, whereas a roll angle of 20º and a roll period of 15
seconds involves a ‘sweep’ of 80º (ten times the arc) in the same time. The first will be barely
noticeable; the second will be violent and will involve large transverse acceleration stresses
particularly when returning to the upright.
Equally important is consideration of vertical acceleration as the ship pitches and scends. Calculation
of this force is not so simple, but measured values give results varying from 0.5g amidships to 2g at
the far forward end of the ship.
A ‘stiff’ ship is one with a large GM (metacentric height); difficult to incline and returns rapidly to the
upright and beyond, sometimes with whiplash effect. This imposes excessive acceleration stresses on
cargo lashings. A ‘tender’ ship is one with a small GM; easy to incline and returns slowly to the
upright, sometimes even sluggishly. Although acceleration stresses are small the inclined angles may
º
attain 30 , and the simple gravitational effects of such angles and slow returns may impose equally
excessive stresses on cargo lashings. Try to avoid the extremes of either condition.
And it is worthwhile working on the assumption that, if deck cargo is to remain safely in place during
severe adverse weather conditions, the lashing arrangements should be sufficient to sustain 30 º roll
angles associated with 13 second roll periods, and 5° pitch angles associated with not less than 1g
vertical acceleration.
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Rule-of-thumb for lashing strength
The seaman’s basic rule-of-thumb for securing cargoes with a tendency to move during a moderate
weather voyage is simply that the sum of the minimum breaking loads of all the lashings should be
not less than twice the static weight of the item of cargo to be secured. That is, a single item of 10
tonnes weight requires the lashings used to have a total breaking-load of not less than 20 tonnes – on
the positive assumption that the lashings are all positioned in a balanced, efficient, and non-abrasive
manner. This rule may be adequate, or even too much, below decks – though not necessarily so in all
instances – but it will not be adequate on the weather-deck in instances where calm seas and a fair
weather passage cannot be guaranteed.
In circumstances where, for any time during a voyage, winds of Force 6 and upwards together with
associated wave heights are more likely to be encountered, the increased stresses arising there from
°
are those here considered, allowing for 30 roll angles with not less than 13 second roll periods. (And
see Tables 3 and 4, herein, taken from the CSS Code and the CSM Regulations.)
In such cases, the sailor’s rule-of-thumb – the ‘3-times rule’ – tends to be that the sum of the safe
working load of all the lashings shall equal the static weight of the cargo item to be secured; the safe
working load being arrived at by dividing by 3 the minimum breaking-load/ slip-load/holding power of
the lashings. In other words, if the breaking-load/slip-load/holding power of all the lashings is 30
tonnes, then they can safely hold an item whose static weight is 10 tonnes – again on the assumption
that all securing arrangements are deployed in a balanced, efficient, and non-abrasive manner. The
author is not aware of any failures of lashings/securing arrangements or loss of deck cargo where this
‘3-times’ rule-of-thumb has been applied in a sensible manner.
It is not arbitrary, however, because it is derived from the International Load Line Rules within which
framework the United Kingdom Department of Transport, in earlier Instructions to surveyors, gave the
following guidance, inter alia:
“When severe weather conditions (i.e. sea state conditions equal to or worse than those associated
with Beaufort Scale 6) are likely to be experienced in service the following principles should be
observed in the design of the deck cargo securing arrangements:
(iv) Lashings used to secure cargo or vehicles should have a breaking load of at least 3 times the
design load, the design load being the total weight of the cargo or cargo plus vehicle subjected to
acceleration of:
0.7 ‘g’ athwartships,
1.0 ‘g’ vertically and
0.3 ‘g’ longitudinally,
relative to the principal axis of the ship.
When sea state conditions worse than those associated with Beaufort Scale 6 are unlikely to be
experienced in service, a lesser standard of securing such items of cargo might be acceptable to
approval by the Chief Ship Surveyor.
The equipment and fittings used to secure the deck cargoes should be regularly maintained and
inspected.”
To condense those recommendations into a form simple to apply, reference should be made to the
paragraph enclosed within the horizontal lines above.
Put into practical and approximate terms, and using the phrase ‘holding power’ to indicate ‘breaking-
load/ slip-load/holding power’, this means:
● The total holding power, in tonnes, of all lashings holding the cargo item vertically downward to
the deck should be equivalent to three times the ordinary static weight of the cargo item in
tonnes: i.e. a 10 tonne cargo item requires total lashings having a holding-down potential of 30
tonnes.
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● The holding power, in tonnes, of all lashings preventing the cargo item moving to port and to
starboard should be equivalent to seven-tenths of the holding-down potential of item 1, above:
i.e. a 10 tonne item requires lashings with holding power preventing transverse movement of 21
tonnes.
● The holding power, in tonnes, of all lashings preventing the cargo moving forward or aft should
be equivalent to three-tenths of the holding-down potential of item 1, above: i.e. a 10 tonne item
requires lashings with holding power preventing longitudinal movement of 9 tonnes.
The IMO 1994/1995 amendments to the
CSS Code (now carried forward into the
requirements for the preparation of the
CSM) changes the emphases of the
foregoing paragraphs as discussed
hereunder:
The CSM ‘rule-of-thumb’ varies as the
MSL of the different lashing
components, as listed in its (Table 1) –
giving rise to five different answers to the
one problem. For the most part, vertical
acceleration is replaced by a 1g
transverse acceleration, and vertical and
longitudinal accelerations are not
quantified except, that is, in the instance
of containers of radioactive wastes, and
the like, when accelerations shall be
considered to be 1.5g longitudinally,
1.5g transversely, 1.0g vertically up, and
2.0g vertically down. To date, the IMO
have not offered an explanation as to
why a tonne of radioactive waste should
be considered to ‘weigh’ twice as much
as, say, a tonne of tetraethyl lead or
some other equally noxious substance.
The rule-of-thumb method given in
Section 6 of the current CSS Code
amendments indicates that the MSL
values of the securing devices on each
side of a cargo unit (port as well as
starboard) should equal the weight of the
unit, and a proposed amendment to
Table 1 in Section 4 of the Code now provides MSLs as follows:
Say that a cargo unit of 18 tonnes mass is to be secured using only shackles, web lashings, chains
and turnbuckles – all MSLs of 50% breaking strength (BS).
The unit will require 18 tonnef MSL on each side, namely, 36 tonnef total MSL (72 tonnef BS for these
items), representing a total lashing breaking strength to cargo mass ratio of 72/18 =4.
Secure the same cargo unit with steel band, only. Total MSL required will still be 36 tonnef (72 tonnef
BS) but the MSL of steel band is nominated as 70% of its breaking strength – so this gives a total
lashing breaking strength of (36x100)/70 = 51.42 tonnef, representing a a total lashing breaking
strength to cargo mass ratio of 51.42/18 = 2.86.
Do the calculation using wire rope, re-useable, and the answer is (36x100)/30 = 120 tonnef: ratio
120/18 = 6.67. For wire rope, single use, the answer is (36x100)/80 = 45 tonnef: ratio 45/18 = 2.5, and
for fibre rope the ratio is 6. And these ratios (or multipliers) remain constant for equal cargo mass. (If
you do the same calculations using, say, 27 tonnes and 264 tonnes cargo mass, you will finish up
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 127 of 330
with the same 4, 2.86, 6.67, 2.5 and 6 ratios (or multipliers). If a component was assigned a 66.67%
MSL the result would be a ratio of 3 – the three-times rule multiplier.
The CSS Code is here changing the seaman’s commonly-held understanding of the term ‘rule-of
thumb’ – a single multiplier easy to use and general in application – by inserting the MSL percentages
to produce a range of rule-of-thumb multipliers.
Just to labour the point. If the cargo mass to be secured was 18 tonnes, and we use the five results
obtained by using Sections 4 and 6 of the Code, the total lashing breaking strength required in each
instance would be:
72 tonnef, or 51.48 tonnef, or 120.06 tonnef or 45 tonnef or 108 tonnef – and that seems to be an
enigma at odds with commonsense!
One way of partly rationalising this ‘enigma’ is to create an additional column on the right-hand side of
the MSL Table 1, as follows:
By looking at Table 2 – and in respect of any cargo mass – you can use the multipliers without going
through all the calculations required by the Sections 4 and 6 route and, more importantly, you will be
able to see clearly the extent to which the MSL multipliers degrade or upgrade the generally accepted
three-times rule.
In the instance of the 18 tonne cargo unit given above, the lashings total breaking strength would be
54 tonnef when the three-times rule is applied. Simply 18x3=54 tonnef total BS, that is:
Cargo mass x Rule number = Lashings total breaking strength
Correction factors
While the three-times rule rule-of-thumb may be considered adequate for the general conditions
considered above, Section 7 of the CSS Code Amendments provides Tables 3 and 4 where GMs are
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 128 of 330
large and roll periods are less than 13 seconds, and those Tables, reproduced below, provide a
measured way of applying that extra strength.
A word of caution. Ships’ officers may care to ignore in Table 3 any correction factor less than 1, as
shown in bold italic lettering. For all those values less than 1 let the rule-of-thumb calculation stand on
its own and only apply the Table 3 factors when the values are greater than 1. This way the safety of
the three-times rule or any other rule-of-thumb you may care to use will not be compromised.
Section 5 of the current CSS Code Amendments says:
“5 Safety Factor Within the assessment of a securing arrangement by a calculated balance of forces
and moments, the calculated strength (CS) of securing devices shouldbe reduced against MSL, using
a safety factor of 1.5, as follows:
CS = MSL
1.5
The reasons for this reduction are the possibility of uneven distribution of forces among the devices,
strength reduction due to poor assembly and others.
Notwithstanding the introduction of such safety factor, care should be taken to use securing elements
of similar material and length in order to provide a uniform elastic behaviour within the arrangement.”
Many people were puzzled by that expression CS=MSL/1.5 appearing where it did in the text,
because the phrase calculated strength appeared to have no direct relationship to the Sections 1, 2, 3
and 4 preceding it, nor did it sit easily with any attempt to apply it to Section 6 which followed it. It can
now be stated with some authority that Section 5 (other than the third paragraph thereof) and its
CS=MSL/1.5 expression does not relate to, nor should any attempt ever be made to apply it to,
Section 6 or any other ruleof- thumb, other than the admonition in the third paragraph relating to
securing elements of similar material and length.
Section 5 and its CS=MSL/1.5 are wrongly placed in the text. They relate to the Advanced Calculation
Method illustrated in Section 7. To make sense of Section 5 there is currently a proposed amendment
to Annex 13 indicating that the expression should be resited under paragraph 7.2.1. In Section 7
calculated strength is used within a set calculation method, and it is in that sense and in that context
that calculated strength (CS) should be applied. So, unless you are involved with a full advanced
calculation method, just ignore CS=MSL/1.5; and note that the advanced calculation method itself, is
also under review. Readers should be alert to the likely soon promulgation of formal amendments to
these aspects; act accordingly and avoid using the advanced calculation method for the time being.
Breaking strengths
Within the CSS Code and the CSM Regulations the phrase breaking strength is not defined. Within
the context of those two documents, however, the phrase breaking strength could reasonably be
taken to mean the point at which the component, material or element can no longer support or sustain
the load, pending some possible amendments by the IMO.
The CSS Code defines the values of maximum securing loads (MSL) of mild steel components for
securing purposes as 50% of breaking strength (see Table 1). The 1997 amendments to the CSM
requiresuch components inter alia to have ‘identification marking’, ‘strength test result or ultimate
tensile strength result’ and ‘maximum securing load* (MSL)’, all to be supplied by the
manufacturer/supplier with information as to individual uses, and/strengths/MSL values to be given in
kN – kiloNewtons. (To convert kN to tonnes force (tonnef) – multiply by 0.1019761, or for a rough
value, divide by 10).
* The CSS Code 1994/95 amendments say:
“Maximum securing load is to securing devices as safe working load is to lifting tackle.”
and Appendix 1 of the 1997 amendments to the CSM says:
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 129 of 330
“Maximum securing load (MSL) is a term used to define the allowable load capacity for a device used to secure cargo to a ship.
Safe working load (SWL) may be substituted for MSL for securing purposes, provided this is equal to or exceeds the strength
defined by MSL.”
This latter definition is included in the proposed amendment to Annex 13 of the CSS Code.
There are difficulties likely to result from this mix of terms which raise questions about the validity of
the cargo securing manuals issued and/or approved to date by the various national administrations,
and the other approved certifying organisations. If the components are not identifiable by at least their
MSLs, they are not complying with the CSM Regulations. To overcome this problem it has been
suggested in the relevant quarters that all aspects could be safely met by attaching, with suitable wire,
small coloured metal tags stamped with the MSL of the component, much as is currently required for
components approved for the securing of timber deck cargoes. Responses received from the industry
to date would give positive support to this proposal.
The Committee’s advice to ships’ officers and others trying to apply the requirements of the CSM/CSS
Code is this: if the chains, shackles, rings, and the like, available to you are not clearly identified as to
their MSLs (and remember, they should be so identified) use the stamped SWL of a lifting shackle as
required by the CSM/CSS Code, thereby using a component which may have a breaking strength
two-times greater than is needed, but you will have complied with the letter of the Regulations.
Alternatively, it is suggested that the best method may be to multiply the stamped SWL value by 4 to
obtain the breaking strength, and apply the percentages given in Table 1 to obtain the MSL – and
then remove that component from any possibility of use for lifting purposes by tagging it. This should
then have fulfilled the spirit of the Regulation without resorting to the use of massively oversized
lashing components.
Wire rope
It is recommended that for efficient lashing purposes wire ropes should be round-stranded, flexible
and not so great in diameter as to make their use cumbersome.
The most common of such general purpose wires is 16mm diameter (2" circumference) of 6x12
construction galvanised round strand with 7 fibre cores having a certificated minimum breaking load of
7.74 tonnef (tonnes force). This is the cheapest wire for its size, will turn easily around thimbles and
lashing points, can be spliced or bulldog gripped without difficulty and is easily handled.
Other wires of different construction and of varying sizes or strength may be needed for particular
lashing purposes and the certificated minimum breaking load should always be verified before taking
such wires into use.
In some instances wires intended for use as lashings are supplied pre-cut to precise length and with
eyes or attachment devices already formed in one or both ends.
Such purpose-made items are usually sold with certificates stating the test load and minimum break
load applicable. If test certificates are not supplied then they should be requested. More commonly
the wire is supplied in coils and must be cut to length onboard ship with eyes and attachment devices
formed and fitted as required. Where this is the case, eyes formed by bulldog grips must be made up
in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions otherwise the eye terminations will tend to slip
under loads very much smaller than the certificated breaking load of the wire.
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The application of bulldog grips
Experience continues to show that the most common cause of lashing failure is the incorrect
application of bulldog grips. Tests indicate that where an eye is formed around a thimble in the correct
manner the lashing arrangement will hold secure with loads up to or even in excess of 90% of the
nominal break-load (NBL) of the wire before slipping or fracturing, although it is usual and
recommended to allow not more than 80%.
Without a thimble, the eye when made-up correctly, can be expected to slip at loads of about 70% of
the NBL.
Where the correct procedures are not followed slippage is likely to occur at much reduced loads.
Under strictly controlled conditions, more than 100 tests were applied on a licensed test bed on 16mm
and 18mm wire rope lashing configurations. The configurations tested were as illustrated in Fig 5 a, b
and c.
As a result of such tests the following recommendations are made:
It should be stressed that these recommendations relate to cargo lashings only. Lifting gear and other
statutory applications require a minimum of 4, 5 and 6 grips for 16mm diameter wire and upwards,
respectively. It is also most important to ensure that the bulldog grips are of the correct size in order to
correspond with the diameter of the lashing wire.
Recommended minimum number of bulldog grips for each eye – lashing purposes only:
Diameter of wire rope (mm) Wire rope grips
Up to and including 19 3
Over 19, up to and including 32 4
Over 38, up to and including 44 6
Over 44, up to and including 56 7
An allowance of 150mm should be made between the last bulldog grip and the end of the ‘dead’ wire.
It is important to ensure that the lashing wires are not cut short immediately next to the bulldog grips.
The end of the ‘dead’ wire should be tightly taped.
● Bulldog grips have a grooved surface in the bridge piece which is suitable for a standard wire of
right hand lay having six strands. The grips should not be used with ropes of left-hand lay or of
different construction. Crosby grips have a smooth surface in the bridge piece. The first grip
should be applied close to the thimble or at the neck of the eye if a thimble is not used. Other
grips should be placed at intervals of approximately six rope diameters apart (i.e., 96mm with a
16mm diameter wire; 108mm with an 18mm diameter wire).
● The grips must all face in the same direction and must be fitted with the saddle or bridge
applied to the working or hauling part of the rope. The U-bolt must be applied to the tail or dead-
end of the rope as illustrated in Fig 6a. If the grips are not applied as indicated, the
effectiveness of the eye can be seriously affected.
● Ideally, all the nuts on the grips should be tightened using a torque wrench so that they may be
set in accordance with the manufacturers’ instructions. In practice it may be sufficient to use a
ring spanner although thereafter all the nuts should be checked periodically and adjusted as
necessary.
● Should a connection slip under load, it is likely that initially the rate of slip will be accelerated.
The rate may then decrease, but until the load is removed the slip will not be completely
arrested.
● As mentioned earlier, if three grips are applied in the correct manner and with an eye formed
around a thimble (a hard eye) the eye will not fail or slip at loads of less than 80-90% of the
NBL. Without a thimble the eye (a soft eye) made-up correctly can be expected to slip at loads
in excess of about 70% of the NBL. See Fig 6a. This is referred to below as the ‘slip-load’ or
‘holding power’ of the eye.
● The use of half-double grommets is widespread and it is sometimes wrongly assumed that the
holding power will be twice the NBL of the wire. In fact, tests show that the slip-load will be only
1.5 times the NBL. See Fig 6b. The holding power also decreases as the number of grips is
reduced. See Fig 9 and Fig 11b.
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● The use of bulldog grips to join two ends of wire rope is to be avoided: again, it is sometimes
wrongly assumed that this will provide a holding power of twice the NBL. In a single loop with
six grips being used, (see Fig 6c) the slip-load will be about 1.4 times the NBL. The holding
power decreases as the number of grips is reduced. (See Figs 10 and 11).
● In a soft eye, with 2 grips, and with one or both used in the reverse manner (see Fig 7 a, b and
c ) the eye can be expected to slip at loads of about 50% NBL. These configurations are the
least efficient and, as indicated, the holding power is at most half the nominal break load of the
wire.
● With a soft eye using only one grip the slip-load was found to be 0.25 NBL with the grip
positioned correctly (Fig 8a) and 0.18 NBL with grip reversed (Fig 8b).
● A turnbuckle with a thread diameter of 24mm or more can be adjusted to set up a pre-tension of
about 2 tonnes. If such a turnbuckle were attached to an eye made up in 16mm wire as shown
in Fig 8 a and b, full tension in the wire would not be attained and the eye would slip at the grip
under the pull of the turnbuckle, alone.
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A word of caution before deciding to use half-double grommets (at NBL x 1.5) and single loops (at
NBL x 1.4) as opposed to single eyes (at NBL x 0.7). At one terminal end in the instance of a half-
double grommet, and at each terminal end in the instance of a single loop, there is no more material
than at the terminal end of a soft eye.
If a properly made-up single loop breaks adrift, you have immediately lost twice the holding power
allowable for a soft eye; if a properly made-up half-double grommet breaks adrift, you have lost more
than twice the holding power allowable for a soft eye; so it is most important to ensure that the
terminal ends are connected by shackles or some other form of smooth, non-sharp-edged,
component.
For instance: Instead of 25 single eyes, for convenience and time saving, you use 12 half-double
grommets of 16mm 6 x 12 wire to secure a 46-tonne item of deck cargo. If one of the half-double
grommets fractures at a poor terminal connection you lose 8.3% of the total holding power; if a soft
eye had failed you would have lost only 4% of the total holding power. As remarked earlier, lashing
and securing of deck cargoes is not an exact science: it’s frequently a case of a balanced trade-off,
but the trade-off should be based on information and a few quick calculations the basis for which this
article hopefully provides.
Eyes and similar terminal ends in wire lashings should never be formed by the use of round turns and
half hitches. Experience shows that initial slackness is seldom taken up sufficiently and that, even
when it is, the turns and hitches tend to slip and create sharp nips leading to failure of the wire at
loads well below those to be expected for eyes properly formed by the use of bulldog grips.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 135 of 330
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
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When attaching wires to lashing terminals on the ship’s structure or the cargo itself every means
should be taken to avoid hard edges, rough chaffing points, and sharp nips at the eye. Even where
thimbles are not used the attachment of the eyes of the wire to lashing terminals may best be
accomplished by using shackles of the appropriate size and break load.
Plastic coated wires
Plastic (PVC) coated galvanised standard marine wire of 18mm diameter and 6x24 construction is
commonly used for various purposes where there is a need to avoid the risk of cutting or chafing.
Such wire should be used with caution. Tests have revealed that if plastic covered wire is used in
conjunction with grips, slippage is likely to occur at much reduced loads than would be the case for
unprotected wire of the same size and characteristics. The plastic coating should be stripped from the
wire where the bulldog grips are to be applied and from the surface of any wires coming into contact
with each other.
Fire and explosion hazards
If lashing terminals are to be welded while or after loading cargo, great care should be exercised.
Before undertaking any hot-work it is important to obtain a hotwork certificate from the local port
authority. The authority should also be in possession of all relevant information relating to ship and
cargo. The welders themselves should be properly qualified and competent and, if welding is taking
place either on deck or under decks, a proper fire watch should be mounted both at and below the
welding site. Adequate fireproof sheeting should be spread below welding points. On deck, fire hoses
should be rigged with full pressure on the fire line. A watchman should be posted for at least four
hours after the completion of welding and a ship’s officer should examine all spaces before they are
finally battened down. Do not neglect these precautions. If in doubt, do not weld.
Positive action
When you see something being done badly or wrongly, stop the work and have it re-done correctly.
When rigging foremen, stevedore superintendents and charterers’ supercargoes insist on doing things
wrongly and say they have always done it that way successfully, tell them they’ve just been lucky!
Then make them do it correctly. One important aspect remains – ensure that the lashing points on the
ship are sufficient in number and adequate in strength for the lashings they will hold.
Chain
The use of chain alone for the securing of general deck cargoes is not widespread. Where chain
lashings are used they tend to be supplied in precise lengths already fitted with terminal points and
tightening devices.
The advantage of using chain resides in the fact that under the normal load for which the chain is
designed it will not stretch. Thus, if all chain lashings are set tight before the voyage and the cargo
neither settles nor moves, nothing should cause the chain to lose its tautness. Hence it is widely used
in the securing of freight containers, timber cargoes and vehicle trailers.
In general chain for non-specific uses is awkward to handle, tiresome to rig, difficult to cut to length,
and does not render easily. For general purposes it is most effectively used in relatively short lengths
in conjunction with or as a part of lashings otherwise composed of wire or webbing.
Webbing
The use of webbing slings and webbing lashings for cargo securing purposes has steadily increased
over the past years. Operational results differ widely. There are instances where webbing is ideal for
securing deck cargoes and there are other instances where it should be used with caution.
Special large bore pipes made of reinforced plastic or provided with contact sensitive outer coatings
make webbing an ideal securing medium because its relatively broad flat surfaces and reduced
cutting nature allow it to be turned around and tightened against the pipes with short spans, producing
a most acceptable stowage. On the other hand large, heavy, crated items or high standing heavy
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machinery where relatively long spans may be involved require wire or chain lashings, because
sufficient unsupported tension is difficult to apply with webbing alone, although some of the
‘superlash’ systems now available can overcome this problem effectively.
Webbing in general is manufactured from impregnated woven polyester fibre and therefore will stretch
more than wire rope. It is supplied in reels and may be easily cut and fashioned to any required
length. Webbing should not be used without clearly confirming from the manufacturer’s literature its
nature, breaking load and application. Recent independent tests confirm that good quality webbing
will not fracture at loads less than those specified by the manufacturers. Tension on a hand ratchet
can be obtained easily up to 0.54 tonnes and then with increasing difficulty up to a maximum of 0.60
tonnes. A spanner or bar must never be used to tighten a hand tension ratchet since recoil could
seriously injure the user.
Webbing should be kept away from acid and alkalis and care taken to ensure that it is never used to
secure drums or packages of corrosive materials or chemicals which, if leaking, might affect it. All
webbing should be inspected frequently and if re-used care taken to ensure that all lengths are free of
defects.
Protective sleeves should be used between webbing and abrasion points or areas. For securing ISO
freight containers use only those webbing systems designed for such purpose.
Fibre rope
Ropes of up to 24mm in diameter are handy to use but are more likely to be found on cargoes that
are stowed below decks. The use of fibre ropes for weather-deck cargoes should be restricted to light
loads of limited volume in areas that are partly sheltered by the ship’s structure. The reason for this is
that where such ropes are used on deck difficulty is likely to be encountered in maintaining the
tautness of the lashings when they are subjected to load stresses and the effects of wetting and
drying out in exposed situations. The use of turnbuckles should be avoided: they may quite easily
overload the rope lashing and create the very failure conditions, which they are designed to avoid.
The tautening of rope lashings is best achieved by the use of bowsing ropes and frappings. At 24mm
diameter, a sisal rope has a breaking strain of 7.5 tonnes, and a polyester rope 9 tonnes.
Composite rope, frequently referred to as ‘lashing rope’ is made up of wire fibres and sisal or
polypropylene fibres which are interwoven thus adding to the flexibility of sisal and polypropylene
some of the strength of steel.
It is most frequently supplied in coils of 10mm diameter. The breaking strain of composite ropes
should be considered as about 0.8 tonnes for sisal based and 1.8 tonnes for polypropylene based
ropes.
Nylon fibre absorbs between 8% and 9% of water: the overall effect when under load is to reduce its
effective strength by about 15%. Premature failure of nylon rope occurs under limited cyclic loading
up to 70% of its effective strength. Therefore nylon rope is not recommended for deck cargo securing
purposes.
The figures for breaking strain, which are quoted above, refer to new material and not to rope which
has been in use for any length of time.
Shackles
Shackles are supplied in several shapes, sizes and strengths of material. The two shapes most
commonly used for general cargo lashing purposes are the Dshackle and the Bow-shackle each with
an eyed screwpin.
When using shackles it is correct to define their strength in terms of the safe working load although,
as indicated earlier in this article at Table 1, et al, the CSS Code and the CSM Regulations define
their maximum securing load (MSL) as 50% of the breaking strength; so when preparing combined
cargo lashings always ensure that the MSL of the shackles selected is not less than the effective
strength of the eyes or other configurations formed in the wire rope and similar materials.
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Turnbuckles
The same precautions apply to the use of turnbuckles. The word ‘turnbuckle’ is used collectively to
include solid-cased bottle-screws and open-sided rigging screws or straining screws. These are most
commonly used for general cargo lashing and are supplied in a range of sizes and strengths with a
closed eye at each end. Open-sided rigging-screws and straining-screws tend to have noticeably
lower strengths than solid bottle-screws of the same size. The suppliers or manufacturers should be
asked to provide the relevant test data before those responsible for lashing cargoes assume a MSL or
SWL which may be erroneous.
Solid bottle-screws are typically sold by size of screwpin diameter. Those of 24mm diameter have a
proof-load of 4 tonnes and those of 38mm have a proofload of 10 tonnes. Special purpose
turnbuckles are available with much greater strengths than those given above. These may have
particular fittings and modifications such as those used in the container trade.
Again it is important that the manufacturers’
literature should be consulted before such
equipment is brought into use.
Turnbuckles should always be used with the
pulling forces acting in one straight line. They
should never be allowed to become the fulcrum
of angled forces no matter how slight. Care
should always be taken to see that the screws
are at adequate extension when the cargo is
finally secured. In this way scope is provided
for further tightening if this should prove
necessary during the voyage as the cargo and
lashing arrangements settle. Where high torque
upon a main lashing is involved the eyes of the
turnbuckle should be seized or stopped against
its own body in order to prevent the screws
working back under load during the voyage.
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LASHING OF DECK CARGO
TYPES OF LASHING (a) direct (b) compacting and (c) loop
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Code of Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes 2011
To ensure that timber deck cargoes are loaded, stowed and secured to prevent, as far as practicable,
throughout the voyage, damage or hazard to the ship and persons on board as well as loss of cargo
overboard the Code of Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes was first developed by
the IMO in 1972 and subsequently amended in 1978.
The Code was revised by IMO resolution A.715(17) – Code of Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber
Deck Cargoes, 1991, which was adopted on 6 November 1991 and consequently by IMO resolution
A.1048(27) – Code of Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes, 2011, which was
adopted on 30 November 2011 in the light of studies and experience gained over the years and
reflects the capability of today’s ships and on board equipment.
The resolution updates and revokes the current Code (A.715(17)) adopted in 1991.
This Code is based on the previous Code, which has been revised and amended in order to reflect
the capability of today's ships and the equipment available on board and also taking expected future
innovations in mind.
This Code is designed to assist:
1. shipowners, charterers, operating companies and ships' crew;
2. port industries, shippers and pre‐packaging organizations, which are involved in preparation,
loading, and stowing of timber deck cargoes; and
3. Administrations, manufacturers and designers of ships and equipment associated with the
carriage of timber deck cargoes and those developing cargo securing manuals, in the
carriage of timber deck cargoes.
This Code is directed primarily at providing recommendations for the safe carriage of timber deck
cargoes.
The Code provides:
1. practices for safe transportation;
2. methodologies for safe stowage and securing;
3. design principles for securing systems;
4. guidance for developing procedures and instructions to be included in ships' cargo securing
manuals on safe stowage and securing; and
5. sample checklists for safe stowage and securing.
CONTENTS OF THE CODE
CHAPTER 1 – GENERAL
PART A – OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
CHAPTER 2 – GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS ON STOWAGE AND SECURING OF TIMBER DECK
CARGOES
CHAPTER 3 – VISIBILITY
CHAPTER 4 – PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TIMBER CARGOES
PART B – DESIGN OF CARGO SECURING ARRANGEMENTS
CHAPTER 5: DESIGN PRINCIPLES
CHAPTER 6: ALTERNATIVE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
CHAPTER 7: UPRIGHTS
CHAPTER 8: DENOTATIONS USED
ANNEX A – GUIDANCE IN DEVELOPING PROCEDURES AND CHECKLISTS
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ANNEX B – SAMPLES OF STOWAGE AND SECURING ARRANGEMENTS
ANNEX C – INSTRUCTION TO A MASTER ON CALCULATION OF MASS CHANGE OF A TIMBER DECK
CARGO DUE TO WATER ABSORPTION
ANNEX D – REFERENCES
DEFINITIONS
Cargo related expressions
1. Cant means a log which is "slab‐cut", i.e. ripped lengthwise so that the resulting thick pieces
have two opposing, parallel flat sides and, in some cases, a third side which is sawn flat.
2. Non‐rigid cargo means sawn wood or lumber, cants, logs, poles, pulpwood and all other
types of loose timber or timber in packaged forms not fulfilling specified strength
requirement, as defined in section 4.7.
3. Rigid cargo package means sawn wood or lumber, cants, logs, poles, pulpwood and all other
types of timber in packaged forms, fulfilling specified strength requirement, as defined in
section 4.7.
4. Round wood means parts of trees that have not been sawn on more than one long side. The
term includes, among others, logs, poles and pulpwood in loose or packed form.
5. Sawn wood means parts of trees that have been sawn so that they have at least two parallel
flat long sides. The term includes, among others, lumber and cants in loose or packed form.
6. Timber is used as a collective expression used for all types of wooden material covered by
this Code, including both round and sawn wood but excluding wood pulp and similar cargo.
Technically related expressions
7. Blocking device means physical measures to prevent sliding and/or tipping of cargoes and/or
collapse of stow.
8. Lashing plan means a sketch or drawing showing the required number and strength of
securing items for the timber deck cargo to obtain safe stowage and securing of timber deck
cargoes.
9. Timber deck cargo means a cargo of timber carried on an uncovered part of a freeboard or
superstructure deck.
10. Timber load line means a special load line assigned to ships complying with certain
conditions set out in the International Convention on Load Lines.
11. Stowage Factor (SF) means the volume occupied by one tonne of a cargo when stowed and
separated in the accepted manner.
12. Weather deck means the uppermost complete deck exposed to weather and sea.
13. Reeving means the process where a rope, chain or any other type of lashing can freely move
through a sheave or over a fulcrum such as a rounded angle piece, in such a manner so as to
minimize the frictional effect of such movement.
14. Height of cargo means the distance from the base of the deck cargo stow to the highest part
of the cargo.
Voyage planning
Prior to proceeding to sea, the master should ensure that the intended voyage has been planned
using the appropriate nautical charts and nautical publications for the area concerned, taking into
account the guidelines and recommendations developed by the Organization.
In order to reduce excessive accelerations, the master should plan the voyage so as to avoid
potential severe weather and sea conditions. To this effect, weather reports, weather facsimiles or,
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where available, weather routeing may be consulted and the latest available weather information
should always be used.
In cases where severe weather and sea conditions are unavoidable, the Master should be conscious
of the need to reduce speed and/or alter course at an early stage in order to minimize the forces
imposed on the cargo, structure and lashings. The lashings are not designed to provide a means of
securing against imprudent ship handling in severe weather and sea conditions. There can be no
substitute for good seamanship.
The following precautions should be observed:
1. in the case of marked roll resonance with amplitudes above 30° to either side, the cargo
securing arrangements could be overstressed. Effective measures should be taken to avoid
this condition;
2. in the case of heading into the seas at high speed with marked slamming shocks, excessive
longitudinal and vertical acceleration may occur. An appropriate reduction of speed should
be considered; and
3. in the case of running before large stern or quartering seas with a stability which does not
amply exceed the accepted minimum requirements, large roll amplitudes should be
expected with great transverse accelerations as a result. An appropriate change of heading
should be considered.
Foreseeable risks
During voyage planning, all foreseeable risks, which could lead to either excessive accelerations
causing cargo to shift or conditions leading to water absorption and ice aggregation, should be
considered. The following list comprises the most significant situations that should be taken under
consideration to that effect:
1. extreme weather conditions predicted by weather forecasts;
2. severe wave conditions that have been known to appear in certain navigational areas;
3. unfavourable directions of encountered waves; and
4. swell caused by recent weather phenomena in the vicinity of the area of the intended
voyage.
Pre‐loading operation
The Company should establish procedures for the preparation of plans and instructions, including
checklists as appropriate, for key post loading operations.
1. Prior to loading the vessel, relevant cargo information, as defined in chapter 4 of Code of
Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes, should be provided by the shipper,
according to the custom of the trade.
2. The master of the vessel should study the relevant cargo information and take the
precautions necessary for proper stowage, securing and safe carriage of the cargo as defined
in this Code and as prescribed in the vessel's Cargo Securing Manual.
3. Prior to loading, the stevedoring company should be made aware of specific requirements
according to the ship's Cargo Securing Manual regarding stowage and securing of timber
deck cargoes.
4. During loading of deck cargo the master should ensure that all tanks are maintained in such
a condition that free surface effects are minimized. Ballast tanks should as far as practicable
be either full or empty and ballast movement during loading operations should be avoided.
5. Before timber deck cargo is loaded on any area of the weather deck:
.1 hatch covers and other openings to spaces below that area should be securely closed
and battened down;
.2 air pipes and ventilators should be effectively protected and check‐valves or similar
devices should be examined to ascertain their effectiveness against the entry of water;
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.3 objects which might obstruct cargo stowage on deck should be removed and safely
secured in places appropriate for storage;
.4 the condition of friction‐enhancing arrangements, where fitted, should be checked;
.5 accumulations of ice and snow on such area should be removed;
.6 it is normally preferable to have all deck lashings, uprights, etc., readily available before
loading on that specific area. This will be necessary should a preloading examination of
securing equipment be required in the loading port; and
.7 all sounding pipes on the deck should be reviewed and arrangements made that access
to these remain as far as practicable.
6. The hatch cover securing and support arrangements, chocks, etc., as well as coamings
should be designed and reinforced as necessary for carriage of timber deck cargoes.
Potential weight increase of timber deck cargoes due to water absorption, icing, etc., should
be taken under consideration.
7. Care should be taken not to exceed the designed maximum permissible loads on weather
deck and hatch covers during any stage of the voyage.
Stability
The master should ensure that the ship condition complies with its stability booklet at all times.
A ship carrying timber deck cargo should continue to comply with applicable damage stability
requirements (e.g. SOLAS regulation II‐1/4.1 or Load Lines Convention, regulation 27, as appropriate)
and, additionally, the 2008 IS Code, particularly the timber deck cargo requirements. Since excessive
GM values induce large accelerations, GM should preferably not exceed 3% of the breadth of the
vessel, as indicated in paragraph 3.7.5 of the 2008 IS Code.
Ballast water exchange operations should be carried out in accordance with instructions in the
Ballast Water Management Plan, if available. The ballast water exchange operation, if required,
should be considered when planning the amount of cargo to be loaded on deck.
According to the 2008 IS Code, account may be taken of the buoyancy of timber deck cargo when
calculating stability curves, assuming that such cargo has a permeability up to 25%. Permeability is
defined as the percentage of empty space of the volume occupied by the deck cargo. Additional
curves of stability may be required if the Administration considers it necessary to investigate the
influence of different permeabilities and/or assumed effective height of the deck cargo. 25%
permeability corresponds to sawn wood cargo and 40%‐60% permeability corresponds to round
wood cargo with increasing permeability with increasing log diameters.
Load line
Ships assigned and making use of their timber load
line should follow relevant regulations of the
applicable Load Lines Convention for stowage and
securing of timber as prescribed in the ship's Cargo
Securing Manual. Special attention should be paid to
the requirements concerning the breadth of the
stow and voids in the stow (Load Lines Convention,
regulation 44). When timber load lines are utilized,
the timber is to be stowed as close as possible to the
ship's sides with any gaps not to exceed a mean of
4% of the breadth of the ship.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 144 of 330
Visibility
Timber deck cargo should be loaded in such a manner as to ensure that the ship complies with the
visibility requirements contained in SOLAS chapter V. National deviations may exist and should be
taken into consideration as required dependent on the intended voyage.
According to SOLAS chapter V, the view of the sea surface from the conning position should not be
obscured by more than two ship lengths, or 500 m, whichever is the less, forward of the bow to 10°
on either side under all conditions of draught, trim and deck cargo. National deviations may exist
and should be taken into consideration as required dependent on the intended voyage.
No blind sector, caused by cargo, cargo gear or other obstructions outside of the wheelhouse
forward of the beam which obstructs the view of the sea surface as seen from the conning position,
should exceed 10°. The total arc of blind sectors should not exceed 20°.
The clear sectors between blind sectors should be at least 5°. However, in the view described above,
each individual blind sector should not exceed 5°.
The following formula can be used for calculating the bridge visibility:
STOWAGE PRINCIPLES
The stowage and cargo securing arrangements for timber deck cargoes should enable a safe yet
rational securing of the cargo so that it is satisfactorily prevented from shifting by collapsing, sliding
or tipping in any direction, taking into account the acceleration forces the cargo may be subjected to
throughout the voyage in the worst sea and weather conditions which may be expected.
The basic principle for the safe carriage of timber deck cargo is to make the stow as solid, compact
and stable as practicable. The purpose of this is to:
a) prevent movement in the stow which could cause the lashings to slacken;
b) produce a binding effect within the stow; and
c) reduce to a minimum the permeability of the stow.
Openings in the deck exposed to weather over which cargo is stowed should be securely closed and
battened down. The ventilators and air pipes should be effectively protected.
Deck cargo should be stowed so that access is provided to and from designated escape routes and
spaces essential to operation of the vessel, such as machinery spaces and crew's quarters, as well as
to safety equipment, fire‐fighting equipment and sounding pipes. It should not interfere in any way
with the navigation and necessary work of the ship.
When cargo is loaded voids may occur in the stow between packages as well as between bulwarks or
gantry crane rails, etc., and other fixed constructions such as the hatch coaming.
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Care should be taken to avoid the creation of voids or open spaces when loading cargo. Voids, where
created, should be filled with loose timber or blocked by vertical H‐frames with required strength to
avoid cargo shifting. The MSL for double H‐frames of different widths and dimensions are given in
the table below. The values apply to H‐frames made of sound softwood timber without knots.
MSL (maximum secure load) of H‐frames for different dimensions
Timber deck cargo which substantially overhangs (one‐third of the package length) hatch coamings
or other structures in the longitudinal direction, should be supported at the outer end by other
cargo stowed on deck or railing or equivalent structure of sufficient strength to support it.
Stowage factors
Typical values for density and stowage factors are given in the table below for different types of
timber deck cargoes.
Typical values for density and stowage factors
The densities and stowage factors in the table above are presented for information purpose only to
aid preplanning operations. The corresponding values for actual loads may vary significantly from
those presented in the table depending on the timber type and condition. During actual loading
more accurate values of the cargo weight are obtained by repeated checks of the vessel's
displacement. The weights of sawn wooden packages are normally more accurate.
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The weight of uncovered timber cargo may change during a voyage due to loss or absorption of
water (but wrapped bundled cargoes do not). Timber cargo stowed under deck may lose weight
whereas timber stowed on deck may gain weight by absorption of water. Particular attention should
be given to the impact that these and other changing conditions have on stability throughout a
voyage.
Securing
One or more of the following principal methods may be used to secure timber deck cargoes, by
themselves or in combination with each other:
1. different types of lashing arrangements;
2. bottom blocking of the base tier in combination with lashing arrangements;
3. blocking over the full height of the cargo by, e.g. uprights alternatively complemented by
lashing arrangements;
4. frictional securing, taking into account scientific research and appropriate weather and
voyage criteria; and
5. other practical securing enhancement, (taking into account appropriate weather and voyage
criteria), such as:
.1 non slip paints on hatch covers;
.2 liberal use of dunnage in the stow to shore and bridge gaps;
.3 double lashing in exposed areas; and
.4 consideration given to the use of locking tiers.
Lashings
The following three types of lashing equipment with different strength and elongation
characteristics are most frequently used for securing timber deck cargoes. Individual suitability
should be determined by such factors as ship type, size and area of operation, and as described in
this Code and as prescribed in the cargo securing manual:
a. chain lashings;
b. wire lashings; and
c. fabricated web lashings.
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Open hooks, which may loosen if the lashing becomes slack, should not be used in securing
arrangements for timber deck cargoes. Web lashing should not be used in combination with chain or
wire lashing.
The appropriate safety factors for the different types of equipment are described in Annex 13 to the
Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing (CSS Code).
All lashing equipment should be visually examined according to the instruction in the cargo securing
manual before use and only equipment fit for purpose should be used for securing of timber deck
cargoes.
The necessary pre‐tension in the lashings used should be maintained throughout the voyage. It is of
paramount importance that all lashings be carefully examined and tightened at the beginning of the
voyage as the vibration and working of the ship will cause the cargo to settle and compact. They
should be further examined at regular intervals during the voyage and tightened as necessary.
Entries of all examinations and adjustments to lashings should be made in the ship's logbook.
Slip hooks or other appropriate methods may be used for quick and safe adjustment of lashings.
Pelican hooks, when used, should be moused.
Corner protectors should be used to prevent lashings from cutting into the cargo and to protect
lashings from sharp corners. The latter especially applies to fabricated web lashings.
Every lashing should be provided with a tightening device or system so placed that it can safely and
efficiently operate when required.
Lashing arrangements
In order to achieve a more secure stowage of logs when stowed on deck hog wires may be utilized.
Such hog wire should be installed in the following manner:
1. At approximately three quarters of the height of the stow, the hog wire should be rove
through a padeye attached to the uprights at this level so as to run transversely, connecting
the respective port and starboard uprights.
The hog lashing wire should not be too tight when laid so that it becomes taut when
overstowed with other logs.
2. A second hog wire may be applied in a similar manner if the height of the hatch cover is less
than 2 m. Such second hog wire should be installed approximately 1 m above the hatch
covers.
3. The aim of having the hog wires applied in this manner is to assist in obtaining as even a
tension as possible throughout, thus producing an inboard pull on the respective uprights.
Example of hog lashings
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In addittion to uprigghts and ho
og lashings, an arrangem
ment with top‐over
t andd continuou
us wiggle
lashings (wiggle wirees), as shown in the follo owing figures, may be uttilized at eacch hatch meeeting the
specificaations.
Examplle of wiggle lashings Example off an arrange
ement
og, top-over and wiggle lashings
with ho
Exa
ample of an arrangemen
nt with top-o
over lashing pers
gs and stopp
If a wiggle wire is not
n fitted, then extra ch
hain or chaiin/wire combination oveerlashings sh
hould be
fitted instead.
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Uprights
Uprights should be fitted when required by this Code and as prescribed in the ship's cargo securing
manual in accordance with the nature, height or character of the timber deck cargo. They should be
designed in accordance with the criteria in chapter 7 of the Code and fitted in accordance with the
ship's cargo securing manual. If there is an operational limit of the uprights (in terms of wave
heights) this should be indicated in the ship's Cargo Securing Manual.
The uprights should be well fastened to the deck, hatches or coamings of the vessel (where
adequate strength exists) and restrained from falling inwards during loading and discharging
operations.
Cargo Securing Manual
Timber deck cargoes should be loaded, stowed and secured, throughout the voyage, in accordance
with the Cargo Securing Manual as required by SOLAS chapter VI.
The Cargo Securing Manual should be based on the guidelines in this Code and drawn up to a
standard at least equivalent to the guidelines developed by the Organization, and approved by the
Administration.
Each cargo securing arrangement for timber deck cargoes should be documented in the ship's Cargo
Securing Manual in accordance with the instructions in MSC/Circ.745.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 150 of 330
According to the CSS Code and MSC/Circ.745, among others, the following parameters should be
taken into account at the design stage of cargo securing systems:
1. duration of the voyage;
2. geographical area of the voyage;
3. sea conditions which may be expected;
4. dimensions, design and characteristics of the ship;
5. expected static and dynamic forces during the voyage;
6. type and packaging of cargo units;
7. intended stowage pattern of the cargo units; and
8. mass and dimensions of the cargo units.
In the Cargo Securing Manual, each stowage and securing arrangements should additionally be
documented by a Lashing Plan showing at least the following:
1. maximum cargo weight for which the arrangement is designed;
2. maximum stowage height;
3. required number and strength of blocking devices and lashings as applicable;
4. required pretension in lashings;
5. other cargo properties of importance for the securing arrangement such as friction, rigidity
of timber packages, etc.;
6. illustrations of all securing items that might be used; and
7. any restriction regarding maximum accelerations, weather criteria, for non‐winter
conditions only, restricted sea areas, etc.
Work safety and work environment aspects
The Company should establish procedures by which the ship's personnel receive relevant
information on the Safety Management System in a working language or languages understood by
them.
When deck cargo is being lashed and secured, special measures may be needed to ensure safe
access to the top of, and across, the cargo so that the risk of falling is minimized. Safety helmets,
proper footwear and non‐obstructive high visibility garments should be worn during work on deck.
The risk of slipping should especially be considered during winter time when loading timber
packages covered by plastic wrapping or tarpaulins. Plastic wrapping on packages with lumber of
uneven length should be avoided or otherwise clearly identified.
Lighting during loading and discharge operations should be reasonably constant and arranged to
minimize glare and dazzle, the formation of deep shadows and sharp contrasts in the level of
illumination between one area and another.
Any obstruction such as lashings or securing points in the access way of escape routes and spaces
essential to operation of the vessel, such as machinery spaces and crew's quarters, as well as
obstructions to safety equipment, fire‐fighting equipment and sounding pipes, should be clearly
marked. In no case should an obstruction prevent safe access or egress of escape arrangements and
spaces referred to above.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 151 of 330
During the course of the voyage, if there is no convenient passage for the crew on or below the deck
of the ship giving safe means of access from the accommodation to all parts used in the necessary
working of the ship, guard lines or rails, not more than 330 mm apart vertically, should be provided
on each side of the deck cargo to a height of at least 1 m above the cargo. In addition, a lifeline,
preferably wire rope, set up taut with a tightening device should be provided as near as practicable
to the centreline of the ship. The stanchion supports to all guardrails or lifelines should be spaced so
as to prevent undue sagging.
Where the cargo is uneven, a safe walking surface of not less than 600 mm in width should be fitted
over the cargo and effectively secured beneath, or adjacent to, the lifeline.
Fencing or means of closing should be provided for all openings in the stow such as at masthouses,
winches, etc.
Where uprights are not fitted or where alternative to the provisions are permitted, a walkway of
substantial construction should be provided having an even walking surface and consisting of two
fore and aft sets of guardlines or rails about 1 m apart, each having a minimum of three courses of
guardlines or rails to a height of not less than 1 m above the walking surface. Such guardlines or rails
should be supported by rigid stanchions spaced not more than 3 m apart and lines should be set up
taut by tightening devices.
As an alternative, a lifeline, preferably wire rope, may be erected above the timber deck cargo such
that a crew member equipped with a fall protection system can hook on to it and work about the
timber deck cargo. The lifeline should be:
1. erected about 2 m above the timber deck cargo as near as practicable to the centreline of
the ship;
2. stretched sufficiently taut with a tightening device to support a fallen crew member without
collapse or failure.
Properly constructed ladders, steps or ramps fitted with guard lines or handrails should be provided
from the top of the cargo to the deck, and in other cases where the cargo is stepped, in order to
provide reasonable access.
Personnel safety equipment referred to in this chapter should be kept in an easily accessible place.
When lashings need to be checked and/or retightened during voyage, the Master should take
appropriate actions to reduce the motion of the vessel during such operation.
Additional guidance regarding work safety and work environment aspects can be found in the
relevant International Labour Organization (ILO) Conventions.
Noting the particular arrangements of a ship loaded with timber deck cargo, pilot boarding
arrangements should be carefully considered (see also SOLAS regulation V/23).
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 152 of 330
PICTURES
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 153 of 330
Safe stowage and securing of containers on deck of ships which are
not specially designed and fitted for the purpose of carrying
containers
STOWAGE
Containers carried on deck or on hatches of such ships should preferably be stowed in the
fore-and-aft direction.
Containers should not extend over the ship's sides. Adequate supports should be provided
when containers overhang hatches or deck structures.
Containers should be stowed and secured so as to permit safe access for personnel in the
necessary operation of the ship.
Containers should at no time overstress the deck or hatches on which they are stowed.
Bottom-tier containers, when not resting on stacking devices, should be stowed on timber of
sufficient thickness, arranged in such a way as to transfer the stack load evenly on to the
structure of the stowage area.
When stacking containers, use should be made of locking devices, cones, or similar stacking
aids, as appropriate, between them.
When stowing containers on deck or hatches, the position and strength of the securing points
should be taken into consideration.
SECURING
All containers should be effectively secured in such a way as to protect them from sliding and
tipping. Hatch covers carrying containers should be adequately secured to the ship.
Containers should be secured using one of the three methods recommended in figure 1 or
methods equivalent thereto.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 154 of 330
Lashings should preferably consist of wire ropes or chains or material with equivalent strength
and elongation characteristics.
Timber shoring should not exceed 2 m in length.
Wire clips should be adequately greased, and tightened so that the dead end of the wire is
visibly compressed (figure 2).
Lashings should be kept, when possible, under equal tension.
Lashing of containers on deck
In the early years of containerisation, existing general cargo vessels were converted with
the removal of 'tween decks and the addition of cell guides into the cargo holds. On
deck, the hatchcovers were strengthened and fittings added for lashings. However, the
containers on deck were seldom stowed above one high and so were secured to the
vessel by 'traditional' cargo ship methods.
Figure 1: Typical midship section of an early vessel conversion
Often seen still trading today, are a few of the 'first generation' vessels built during the
late sixties and early seventies. These ships were the first to be designed and built as
pure container carriers. The holds and hatchcovers were as wide as possible, and
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 155 of 330
container posts were fitted on deck to facilitate loading of deck-stowed containers out to
the ship's side (see Figure 2).
Figure 2: Typical midship section through an early generation cellular container vessel
For this generation of vessel, two systems of securing the cargo were common. One
relied on the use of twistlocks in conjunction with lashing bars or chains, and the second
relied on the use of stacking cones and bridge pieces in conjunction with lashing bars or
chains. Gradually, due to the increased utilisation of differing height containers, the
second method became redundant and it became common practice to use twistlocks
throughout the stow. This method normally allowed containers to be stacked three high
and, in some cases, four high if the fourth tier was light in weight or empty.
For first generation vessels, computer technology was not available onboard to speedily
calculate dynamic loads acting on container lashings and frames. The shipboard
computer (if any) was only used to calculate stresses and stability for the ship itself.
Therefore, the shipboard staff would ensure the vessel was lashed according to a lashing
plan taken from the lashing equipment manufacturer's manual, which appeared to
assume an ideal stow with respect to the distribution of weight in each stack (the
homogenous stack).
With further development in the industry during the 1970s and 80s, the size of
containerships continued to grow, with 9-high stowage in holds and 4-high stowage on
deck becoming commonplace and the industry began to wake up to the fact that
standards in lashing were required. Ships were, at this stage, still supplied with loading
computers that continued to calculate a ship's stability, shear forces, bending and,
occasionally, torsion moments. Very few had the capability to calculate dynamic loads on
container frames and lashing systems caused by ship motions and wind forces. And so
the lashings were still applied throughout the stow in accordance with the manufacturer's
manual. Cargo was being lost overboard even though a properly designed securing
system was in place and the cargo was correctly stowed. It became apparent that there
was a great deal of ignorance concerning the combined static and dynamic loads acting
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 156 of 330
on a securing system when adverse weather was causing severe ship motions,
particularly rolling.
Today, large container ships are being built - known as the 'post-panamax' class (too
large to transit the Panama Canal) - capable of carrying up to 8,500 TEUs, and small
container ships down to coaster/feeder vessels of a few hundred TEUs. But in general
terms, by a process of evolution, the lashing systems in use on both types of vessels are
very similar. Both have adopted the twistlock and lashing bar/turnbuckle system.
Lashing bridge
On post-panamax vessels - where among other features the vessel's large beam results
in an unavoidable, relatively large GM (metacentric height), and 6-high stowage on deck
is common - the modern practice is for the vessel to be fitted with a lashing bridge; a
substantial steel structure running athwartships between each forty foot container bay.
This allows the second and third tiers of containers to be secured to the bridge using
lashing rods and turnbuckles, whilst the whole stow is secured throughout with
twistlocks (see Figure 3). The lashing bridge allows the anchoring points for each stack
to be moved higher up the stack, which allows the lashings to be more effective in
reducing the tipping moments acting on a stack when a vessel is rolling heavily.
However, the practice of fitting the bridges between forty foot bays means that the
twenty foot containers can only take advantage of the lashing bridges at one end. So, in
effect, the twenty foot stacks have to revert to the limits of a conventional lashing
system. This is the case, because the practice of estimating the forces acting on a stack
divides the container weight equally between each end of the container. So the weight in
each twenty foot container is limited by the capacity of the lashing system at the
container end, which does not have the advantage of being secured by a lashing bridge.
On smaller vessels, the whole stow is also secured throughout with twistlocks, and the
lowest three tiers are secured to the hatchcover or support post using the lashing
bar/turnbuckle combination (see Figure 4).
However, since the mid 1980s, naval architects have produced computer programs to
calculate the dynamic loads acting on container stacks. Such programs have been
designed for use by ships' officers and container planners. On modern vessels, 5-high
and 6-high stowage on deck is common; the use of onboard computers to check the
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 157 of 330
dynamics of the stow in all weather conditions is vitally important for the safe carriage of
the cargo. The use of a computer lashing program, together with the IMO requirement
for every vessel to carry onboard an approved Cargo Securing Manual, should mean a
reduction in collapsed stows and losses overboard, provided the operators maintain the
lashing equipment and comply with the requirements of the Manual. The vigilance of
ships' staff is therefore vital to ensure that lashings are applied correctly.
Figure 3: Typical post-panamax lashing Figure 4: Typical container vessel's
bridge arrangement (shown 4-high) hatchcover lashing arrangement
Typical 'on lid' loading
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 158 of 330
Requirements of lashing systems
In 1985, the advent of IMO SOLAS resolution A.489(XII) required vessels to carry
onboard a Cargo Securing Manual drawn up to a standard contained in MSC/Circular
385, such that on 1st July 1996. This was extended to new container ships and to
existing vessels on 1st January 1998. Such Cargo Securing Manuals need to be approved
by the relevant Classification Society.
The IMO published guidelines on the standard required of the Cargo Securing Manual in
the form of MSC/Circular 745, which superseded the earlier MSC/Circular 385, and has
been published as IMO 298E Guidelines for the preparation of the Cargo Securing
Manual.
The amended SOLAS Chapter VI: Regulation 5, Stowage and Securing states:
"Cargo and cargo units carried on or under deck shall be so loaded, stowed and secured
to prevent as far as is practicable, throughout the voyage, damage or hazard to the ship
and the persons onboard, and loss of cargo overboard."
It goes on to say that:
"Cargo units, including containers, shall be loaded, stowed and secured throughout the
voyage in accordance with the Cargo Securing Manual approved by the
Administration...The Cargo Securing Manual shall be drawn up to a standard at least
equivalent to the guidelines developed by the Organisation" (IMO).
Therefore, following MSC/Circular 745, any Classification Society which approves a Cargo
Securing Manual will need to ensure the following:
• The information in the Manual is consistent with the requirements of the vessel's
trim/stability and hull strength manual, International Load Line (1966)
requirements, and the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG),
where applicable.
• The Manual specifies arrangements and cargo securing devices provided onboard
for the correct application to the containers, based on transverse, longitudinal,
and vertical forces, which may arise during adverse weather and sea conditions.
• Such securing arrangements and devices, mentioned above, shall be suitable and
adapted to the nature of the cargo to be carried.
• There is sufficient quantity of reserve cargo securing devices onboard the ship.
• The Manual contains information on the strength and instructions for the use and
maintenance of each specific type of cargo securing device.
• The Manual should consist of a comprehensive, and understandable, plan
providing an overview of the maximum stack weights and permissible vertical
distribution of weight in stacks.
• The Manual should present the distribution of acceleration
• The Manual should provide information on forces induced by wind and sea on
deck cargo, and contain information on the nominal increase of forces or
accelerations with an increase in GM.
• The Manual should contain recommendations for reducing the risk of cargo losses
from deck stows, by applying restrictions to stack weights or heights where high
stability cannot be avoided.
IMO Circular 745 also states that the cargo securing devices should be maintained in a
satisfactory condition, and that items worn or damaged to such an extent that their
quality is impaired should be replaced. It is commonly accepted that obligatory survey of
portable fittings is not generally pursued by the Classification Society, and so inspection
and replacement should be the responsibility of the operators. When replacement
securing devices are placed onboard, they should be provided with appropriate
certification.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 159 of 330
Portable fittings should be certified by some form of type-approval system, usually
coming from the manufacturer (when approved), a Classification Society, or other
accepted testing body.
Ship managers may request a Classification Society to approve their particular lashing
system and the lashing program software, in addition to the requirement of approving
the Cargo Securing Manual.
Until the Cargo Securing Manual and the computer lashing program are produced and
approved 'hand in glove' in the same way as the ships stability loading computer and
Stability/Loading Manual are already used, there is bound to be confusion with respect to
the safe capabilities of the ondeck container lashing system for each ship.
One note of caution: the different Classification Societies have set their own standards
for the minimum SWLs of lashing gear and maximum allowable forces acting on a
container, and the roll angle which any calculations should include.
Types of lashing failure
In general terms, whenever a vessel is 'working' in a seaway it will incur three main
movements which are described as rolling, pitching, and heaving. These give rise to
accelerations, and therefore forces, which act on the container frames and lashing
system in use. Figure 5 illustrates the ship motions experienced by a container stack.
Figure 5: The accelerations acting on a container in a seaway
Of the forces acting upon an individual container and its lashings as a result of these
movements, the separation force is the tipping force which is acting to 'pull out' or
separate the corner fittings or twistlocks.
When the vessel is rolling heavily, if the separation force is excessive, it may pull the
twistlocks out of the corner castings of the container, break the twistlocks at their
weakest point, or separate the corner castings from the main body of the container.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 160 of 330
Figure 6: Excessive
e tipping mo
oment or sep
paration force on corner fittings
When the
t vessel is rolling heavily,
h and
d containers stowed on higher tiers are heavy,
h a
racking
g force will be set up in the framme of the lowest conttainers. The
e larger the
e roll of
the ves
ssel, the larrger the rac
cking force will be.
A largee GM - partticularly wh
hen coupledd with a sh
hort roll period - incre
eases the dynamic
d
loadings caused by
b rolling, and all of the loads previously
p mentioned, will increease the
compre ession and tension forrces acting at the corrner posts of the containers andd at the
twistloc
cks between them.
ssive, they may result in structu
If exces ural failure of one or more
m of the
e corner posts (see
Figure 8).
8
Appliccation off compute
er softwa
are
Having identified that
t containers were being
b lost overboard
o - despite ap
pparently having
h a
properly designed d and imp plemented securing systems in place and d that carrgo was
correctly stowed - analysis s showed thatt there was much ignoranc ce concernning the
combined static and dynamic c loads that were pres sent in adv verse weath her. In such
h cases,
the bad d weather being enc countered had
h caused d severe ship
s motionns, in partticular a
rolling motion. Thhe result off this analy
ysis is that,, of all the ships mottions, rolling is the
most likkely cause of overload
ding the container fram mes and lashings.
nteresting to
It is in t note tha at the samme difficultie
es were beeing experrienced in the
t mid
1980s. The solutioons, in prin nciple, are also similar. A numbeer of computer progra ams are
available - such as
a Seamastter, Seacos s and Loads star to nam
me but a feew - that calculate
c
not onlyy the vesse
el's stability
y, but the forces
f experienced witthin a conta
ainer stack.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 161 of 330
A note of caution: many ports supply the chief officer
o with a disk con
ntaining a Bayplan
file of the preloa ad plan, which should d include all the releevant conttainer dataa - it is
importaant to check that the correct
c con
ntainer heig
ght has beeen entered, as this affe
ects the
vessel's
s stability and
a any calculation of the forces experience
ed within th
he stack.
Figure
e 7 and photo above: Exc
cessive rackiing force on a container end wall, ca
ausing the fra
ame of
t
the lower co
ontainer to deform (rack)
Figure 8 and photto: Excessive
e compressio
on force on container
c corner post, le
eading to faillure of
the post
Includeed here aree excerpts of printoutts from the
e Seamaste er program
m representting the
force analysis of an actual cargo carried by a post-panam
p max containner vessel and
a the
applied lashings, utilising a lashing bridge
b and with a 'cconventiona
al' lashing system
el lashings only in both cases). The vessel experienc
(paralle ced heavy wweather annd, as a
result, containers were eitheer lost ove
erboard or severely daamaged. TThe printouts show
how much a conttainer stack k can be overloaded
o in severe weather taaking into account
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 162 of 330
ships' motions due to wave action and wind. It can be seen that the stack weights and
individual container weights are not excessive, but when subjected to heavy rolling and
wind, the container frames and lashings become overloaded; particularly the transverse
racking forces and the tension/compression forces which are primarily caused by heavy
rolling and wind action on the outside stacks.
The benefits of using a program such as this can be summarised, therefore, as helping to
ensure a safer carriage of deck-stowed containers, a saving on lashing requirements
both in terms of usage and employment of lashing gangs, and the possibility of loading
more cargo (depending on the voyage). Because so much high value cargo is
containerised and carried on deck, it is essential that each vessel has onboard a
computer program capable of assessing the forces acting on container stacks during a
voyage, allowing for adverse weather. It goes without saying, of course, that lashing
equipment also has to be in good condition, and certified as suitable. However, use of
these programs could lead the user into a false sense of security.
Twistlock failure Unlocked twistlock
Forces calculated assume that all containers are in good condition - no damage to corner
posts and castings, that all lashings are correctly applied, with equal tension on lashing
bars, etc.
These programs also calculate to a theoretical angle of roll that the ship shouldn't
exceed, but in many cases, does.
Forces within a stack are affected by all ship motions, but the angle of roll is normally
the most critical. Classification Society regulations assume values, which are the default
values in these programs. They calculate the forces acting on each non-cellular stack,
using the environmental and lashing data already set. The lashing data is set up on a
row-by-row basis, allowing for lashing bridges, etc. The natural period of roll can be
determined using the rule-of-thumb formula:
The case illustrated, with a GM of 0.9m, leads to a natural roll period of 16 seconds. This
would lead to quite a long roll, with the loadings increasing to the maximum, and then
reducing until the vessel becomes upright, and then rolls back the other way.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 163 of 330
A detaiiled breakd down of the forces in n each stac ck is obtained, displaaying the relevant
r
forces acting
a on each
e contaiiner. The programs
p asssume, as a default, that all conntainers
are stowed with their door ends
e aft, bu
ut this can be altered by the use er. As an ex
xample,
an exce erpt of a printout
p from the Seamaster pro ogram is shhown below w. The botttom line
for each row of co ontainers in
ndicates thhe maximum m allowable e forces (M
MAF) for thee forces
ed in the column directly above,, highlighte
identifie ed in blue. If a force e
exceeds thee MAF it
is highlighted in re
ed.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 164 of 330
Racking force: The first two columns are the transverse forces tending to distort the
container ends, primarily due to a rolling action. This should not exceed a MAF of 15t. If
a lashing is applied, the force varies between the forward and aft ends of the container
because of the different 'stiffness' of the door and closed ends.
Corner shear: This is closely related to racking, but is the force tending to shear off the
twistlocks. It should not exceed a SWL of 15t for a standard twistlock.
Compressive force: This is the force acting on the container corner posts and fittings,
and is the result of tilting the stack and the vertical acceleration. It should not exceed
45t for a standard 20' container corner post, or 67.5t for a 40' container's corner post.
Larger compression forces are allowed for corner castings at the base of a stack (83.8t).
Separation force: This is the tipping force which is acting to 'pull out', or separate the
corner fittings and should not exceed 15t for the top fitting, and 20t for the bottom. It is
shown as a negative value in the force table. This force does not refer to the tensile
loadings on the twistlocks.
Lashing tension: This is the tension in the applied lashings. Lashing rods should only
ever be applied hand tight, not over-tightened with large spanners, as this induces
unnecessary tension in the lashing rod, reducing the angle of roll at which the SWL
would be exceeded.
The Germanischer Lloyd (GL) limit for lashing rods is 23t SWL; turnbuckles are rated at
18t. Seamaster uses the LRS 1999 rules for reporting (see excerpt from a printout on
the previous page).
The examples of the Seamaster printout are from an actual incident involving container
loss in heavy weather. They illustrate the advantages of using a lashing bridge
arrangement for securing containers. Both the number of instances of forces in excess of
the Class limits (figures in red), and the degree of those excesses, is reduced with a
lashing bridge. However, compressive forces are transferred higher up the stack as the
lashing bars are attached at the base of the tier 86 containers.
Just because a container, or item of lashing equipment, has exceeded its safe working
load / maximum allowable force, does not automatically lead to the conclusion that that
item will fail.
SWLs are mostly set at 50% of the breaking load. The use of a SWL is to give a safety
margin, allowing for occasional over-stressing. A container that has been highlighted as
having exceeded the Class limits will not automatically be lost when the vessel rolls to
24.9ø. Indeed, many container stacks remain onboard after having suffered greater
loadings than some of those lost.
The calculations cannot allow for the domino effect of an inboard stack collapsing, falling
against its neighbour thereby inducing far greater forces upon it, which in turn collapses,
etc.
The correct application of the lashing equipment is also important; one example of
incorrect application of semi-automatic base twistlocks occurs when there is an element
of fore and aft movement of the container immediately prior to landing it onboard; the
base locks tend to be placed in the deck fitting rather than the base of the container
prior to loading. Any fore and aft movement of the container, as it is aligned over the
base lock, risks the actuating wire being caught under the container, rendering the
twistlock inoperable unless the container is lifted and landed correctly. This highlights
the necessity of continual vigilance on behalf of ship's staff during the loading process.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 165 of 330
Heavy weather seamanship for container vessels
The actions required to be taken by the master, upon encountering heavy weather, vary
according to the size of the container vessel, but some actions have a common thread:
• Intelligence: It is vital the master uses all available means to forecast the
possibility of experiencing heavy weather, so that early preparations can be
completed and any options for avoidance examined. This would be in the form of
a passage plan, weather bulletins, weather faxes, routeing chart and pilot book
information, weather routeing, and past experience.
• Familiarity: The master should also be familiar with his own vessel, its handling
characteristics and allowable engine settings in heavy weather. This can only be
gained by experience.
• Preparation: Once it is known that heavy weather conditions will be experienced,
it is imperative that proper preparation is carried out. This would entail the
completion of numerous tasks in all departments and an aide-memoire checklist
is commonly used. Fundamentally, the vessel should be put to its best sea-
keeping condition possible in terms of stress, stability, watertight integrity,
security of cargo, security of equipment, and reliability of machinery.
• Handling: When heavy weather is expected it is important that the outside
conditions are monitored and recorded in greater detail and with best accuracy.
This will provide data to ensure the master reduces speed in good time. (Too
often the first reduction in speed occurs after the first damage has happened).
For example, on modern, large containerships the sea and wind conditions should
be observed from main deck level. With modern engine-monitoring equipment,
the main engine load value, the exhaust gas temperatures, and the turbo charger
revolutions should be carefully monitored, as these values can be used as a
precursor to indicate when speed should be reduced.
• Handling: The standard tactic of 'heaving to', by keeping the main conditions two
points on the bow with the vessel at reduced speed, is often still the best action
to take. Keep the vessel in hand, steering at all times, and endeavour to maintain
the best lookout, both visually and by radar. If the vessel is rolling excessively
(assuming she has already been put into the best stability condition) alteration of
course towards a 'hove to' type of heading followed by a reduction of speed,
should be carried out as soon as possible. Care should be taken when carrying
out this course adjustment, ensuring the turn is not violent or coinciding with the
roll period.
• Record keeping: At all times regular weather and sea-state information, positions,
courses steered, engine settings, should be recorded, and all received weather
information should be retained onboard.
As well as the points already mentioned, the master will be faced with a number of
considerations pertinent to his own vessel, such as:
• If fitted, at what speed do the vessel's stabilisers cease to have an effect?
• When running before heavy weather, what is the potential for damage aft caused
by a boarding sea - reefer sockets, steering gear vents, etc.?
These recommendations are not intended to be definitive - each incident being judged
on its own merits. However, through years of experience, these factors have been found
to come in to play in most heavy weather incidents.
There is no doubt that defensive navigation may increase the time on passage, but when
navigating in, or near, heavy weather, being cautious may prevent an accident, saving
both time and money.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 166 of 330
Container Stowing and Securing
Introduction
When damage or loss to containers is caused by a problem relating to their stowage and securing, it
is essential that the shipowner is able to demonstrate that it exercised due diligence to make the
ship seaworthy and took all reasonable steps to properly care for the cargo.
The key document providing instructions on how to stow and secure cargo properly is the ship’s
individual Cargo Securing Manual. In the event of a cargo claim it is therefore essential to be able to
show that an approved Cargo Securing Manual was in operation and that its requirements were
complied with.
Cargo Securing Manual
Correct stowage and securing is made more straightforward by having information provided in the
form of an approved Cargo Securing Manual, prepared individually for each ship. This provides
details of the container securing arrangements and devices on the vessel as well as information on
container stowage.
A Cargo Securing Manual is a statutory requirement under the SOLAS Convention (Chapter VI
Regulation 5) and must be approved by the administration of the contracting government (the ship’s
Flag State), and should be suitably endorsed to that effect.
However, Cargo Securing Manuals are often calculated and designed for a ship by a classification
society, and sometimes the Flag State may delegate a recognized organisation such as a classification
society to approve Cargo Securing Manuals on their behalf. This often leads to confusion about who
actually issues and approves a Cargo Securing Manual.
The title is misleading as the Cargo Securing Manual gives just as much guidance about stowage as
about securing. The relevant parts should be easy to understand and use in practice. It should
comply with SOLAS Convention requirements and IMO guidelines.
Shipowner's Obligations
Under the contract of carriage between the cargo owner and the carrier, the carrier should exercise
due diligence to make the vessel seaworthy before and at the beginning of the voyage (Hague Visby
Rules, Article III, Rule 1).
Examples of this seaworthiness requirement in the context of cargo stowage and securing include:
The provision of an approved Cargo Securing Manual
Ensuring that the vessel’s fittings are adequate for the carriage of cargo
Ensuring that the vessel’s fittings and equipment are properly maintained
Ensuring that containers are stowed and secured so they cannot shift and cause damage to
the vessel’s structure, or affect the vessel’s stability, and thus endanger the seaworthiness of
the vessel, or cause damage to other cargo on board.
The carrier also has an obligation under the contract of carriage to properly care for the cargo
(Hague Visby Rules, Article III, Rule 2), which in the context of stowage and securing includes:
Ensuring that containers are properly stowed
Ensuring that containers are properly secured, checked and tended when appropriate
throughout the voyage.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 167 of 330
If cargo is lost or damaged, a claim is likely to be made against the carrier under the contract of
carriage. It is therefore important that the carrier can demonstrate that the loss or damage was not
caused by a failure to exercise due diligence. When the cargo damage or loss claim results from a
problem with stowage or securing of containers, there are two crucial questions that should be
answered:
Did the ship have a Cargo Securing Manual approved by its Flag State?
Were the containers involved stowed and secured according to the approved Cargo Securing
Manual?
Container Loss or Damage
The common theme in container loss and damage incidents is a failure of lashing systems and
container structure as a result of the forces acting on them, often, but not always, associated with
heavy weather. Such failure may result in the collapse of a deck stow or loss overboard of part or all
of the stow.
When containers are stowed on deck they must be stowed in accordance with the stack and tier
weight limits set out in the Cargo Securing Manual. The forces imparted into the containers
themselves and the securing equipments by the ship’s rolling and pitching are greatest outboard and
higher up in the stow. For this reason there are restrictions on the gross weight of containers
outboard and higher up in each stack. The restrictions placed on individual container cells should be
followed and not be ignored, even if all other units in the block are well below the limits, because
the forces on a particular container in a particular slot are the same, irrespective of the weight of
adjacent units. If the weights of any containers in a tier or stack exceed the limit given in the Cargo
Securing Manual, there is a risk that the securing devices will become overloaded when the ship rolls
and pitches heavily in the seaway, and the equipment will fail or there will be compression or
racking damage to units lower down in stowage, or the stack might tip over, or a combination of
these ‐ many container losses have resulted from heavy units being stowed too high in stacks.
Although there may be a question about the age and condition of individual containers in some
incidents, the general evidence suggests that poor container or lashing condition is not a common
fault.
Therefore, even in heavy weather, it could be wrong to assume that container structural failure or
lashing failure caused the damage or loss. The underlying cause is more likely to be incorrect
stowage or securing.
For lashings and / or container structure to fail, the forces imposed on them must be greater than
those intended by the designers of the stowage and securing system, and the container
manufacturers. This can be caused by stowing the container incorrectly according to weight, size, or
position:
Weight
The total weight and the weight distribution within a container stow are critical factors. The total
weight of a stack (vertical pile) of containers (stack weight) is limited according to the strength of the
ships structure, including the hatch covers, and the capabilities of the lashing system. Exceeding the
allowed stack weight will result in excessive loads on the ships structure and increased forces acting
on the lashings and container structure.
The design of the lashing system will also impose a limitation on the weights of containers at
different heights within a stack. What is referred to as an upwards movement of weight
concentration. Exceeding the weight limit at any tier or loading heavier containers over lighter ones,
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 168 of 330
will cause an increase in the forces acting on the lashings and individual container structures.
Loading an unauthorised extra tier of containers will have a similar effect.
Size
Stowage and lashing systems are usually designed for a container height not exceeding 8’6” for both
20’ and 40’ containers. However, many manufacturers make 9'6” high containers, sometimes
referred to as high cube containers. When these are stowed on deck the centre of gravity of the
stack is moved higher, wind forces on the stacks are increased and the angles at which the lashings
act are changed from their design specifications. These factors can cause an increase in the forces
acting on the lashings and individual container structures.
Position
The allowed positions for containers in the Cargo Securing Manual for an individual ship ensure that
the calculated forces on the stacks are not exceeded and that there is sufficient visibility for safe
navigation. Exceeding the design heights of a container stack will cause an increase in the wind
forces acting on the stow and the centre of gravity of the stack to be moved higher. Both factors can
cause an increase in the forces acting on the lashings and container structure.
Loss or damage may result when one or more of the above contributory causes results from
incorrect stowage. Consistently poor stowage that results in increased forces acting on the ships
structure and lashing systems will also have a weakening effect that may result in a failure at later
date.
Correct stowage and securing should take all the above factors into account. The approved Cargo
Securing Manual should be prepared individually for each ship to take account of the arrangement
and structural strength of the ship, visibility requirements and container lashing system. The manual
should give the stowage and lashing requirements, with specific reference to size, weight, and
position of containers as mentioned earlier.
Metacentric Height (GM)
The ship’s stability, primarily the initial GM, will depend upon the weight of the containers stowed
on and under deck, and the forces acting on the containers stowed on deck will be partly dependent
upon the ship’s GM.
There will always be a compromise between the weights of containers loaded on deck, any ballast
and the initial GM, but the correct balance should be achieved to ensure that the ship’s stability is
within safe limits to ensure that the motions of the ship are not excessive.
A container ship’s stowage and securing system is usually designed under the condition of a
maximum GM, which will be noted in the ship’s Cargo Securing Manual. If the vessel is operated at
GM values exceeding those specified, the expected forces acting on the containers and lashings
increase, the standard stowage and securing plans may not be used, and an appropriate reduction of
stack weights, stack heights, or weight concentration to the lower tiers should be planned.
A UK Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB) report ‐ on a collapse of cargo containers on
Annabella on 26 February 2007 ‐ identified operation under an excessive GM as one of the factors
leading to the incident. In its recommendations (Section 5) the MAIB report recommended that the
shipping industry develops a best practice safety code to ensure that:
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 169 of 330
The resultant increase in acceleration forces and consequent reduction in allowable stack weights
when a vessel’s GM is increased above the value quoted in the cargo securing manual is clearly
understood by vessels’ officers. The consequential effect on container stack weight, height and
lashing arrangement for changes in the vessel's GM should be readily available and clearly displayed
to ships' staff.
Non‐ISO containers
According to ISO standard ISO 1496‐1, fully loaded containers must be capable of nine high stacking.
This is a stacking weight of 192,000kg on the bottom container, equivalent to eight containers – each
of 24,000 kg and an acceleration force of 1.8G ‐ stacked on top of the container. However, there
appears to be no requirement for container manufacturers to comply with the ISO standard.
The UK Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB) report on Annabella identified the carriage of
non‐ISO containers as one of the factors leading to the incident. In its recommendations (Section 5)
the MAIB report recommended that the shipping industry develops a best practice safety code to
ensure that:
Those involved in container operations are aware that containers with allowable stack weights
below the ISO standard are in regular use and must be clearly identified at both the planning and
loading stages to avoid the possibility of such containers being crushed.
Practical Considerations
In practice it will be up to the planners at the loading terminal and the ship’s officers to ensure that
both the stowage and securing requirements of the Cargo Securing Manual are complied with. The
Cargo Securing Manual should provide planners and ships’ staff with the information needed to
ensure that both stowage and securing are carried out according to ensure that the forces acting on
the ships structure, the container lashing system and the structure of an individual container do not
exceed design limits.
The ship’s master and officers have an obligation to exercise due diligence to make the ship
seaworthy, which includes ensuring that containers are stowed and secured so as to prevent
damage to the ship or to other containers, even if stowage and securing is the responsibility of the
charterer under the charterparty.
Ships officers should not allow loading to commence until a stowage plan or equivalent information
for the relevant under‐deck or on‐deck area (bay) has been provided, even if a final stowage plan is
not available. This will allow time for an inspection as to whether the stowage is correct and stack
and tier weights are within the allowable limits. As loading continues, any changes made by the
planners to the initial stowage plan should be notified to the ships officers, who should also note any
changes to the actual stowage.
If any problems with the stowage plan are noticed, especially when stack or tier weights would be
exceeded, the ship’s officers should bring these to the attention of the stevedores and terminal
planners so that the stowage can be rectified.
Container weight and height
Specifically, requirements for weight limitation at different tier heights within a vertical stack of deck
containers, and the distribution of containers by weight vertically within the stack, must be complied
with. Compliance with this factor alone would probably result in a large decrease in the number of
instances of damage and loss.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 170 of 330
In summary, ship planners and ship’s officers should ensure that:
The total weight of each stack of containers does not exceed the permissible stack weight
for the position and arrangement of units, this having been determined for the tank‐top,
deck or hatch cover.
Tier weight distributions given in the Cargo Securing Manual are not exceeded.
Container height parameters given in the Cargo Securing Manual are complied with.
Metacentric height (GM) parameters given in the Cargo Securing Manual are complied with.
It is unusual for containers to collapse or lashings to break if the stowage and securing have been
carried out correctly according to an approved Cargo Securing Manual, unless the weather
conditions are exceptionally bad – bearing in mind that the stowage and securing systems are
designed to cope with very heavy weather, and allow a margin of safety.
Changes to a standard plan
If the ship has only a Cargo Securing Manual – when there is no loading software that includes a
lashing forces module ‐ then the specified maximum GM, maximum stack weights, and individual
maximum tier weights must not be exceeded.
Any plan to alter the weight concentration in the stack downwards will depend on the ship being in a
position to re‐calculate the dynamic forces using the parameters container type (height), ship’s
actual GM, individual tier weights, and various combinations of lashings. There should be a page in
the Cargo Securing Manual giving details of the data needed to re‐calculate stowage patterns other
than those shown in the Cargo Securing Manual.
In order to stow the ship if the maximum GM specified in the Cargo Securing Manual is exceeded
and to give the ship’s crew the possibility to calculate other special loading cases, it is generally
recommended that ships and shore planning have an approved ‘lashing module’ software in addition
to approved container planning and stowing computers and software. In such special loading cases
there are generally six parameters to consider:
1 A reduction of stack weight.
2 A reduction of stack height (say from 5 high to 3 high).
3 Weight concentration to the lower tiers.
4 Increased or various combinations of lashings.
5 Treat each stack as an individual outer stack with corresponding lashings and weight
reductions.
6 A combination of some or all the above.
The only practical way of doing these calculations is to use approved computer software including
lashing module software.
Evidence
To defend a claim properly, the shipowner with the assistance of their P&I club, should first
determine that proper procedures were in place for stowing and securing the cargo, and then show
that these requirements were followed in practice. The following should provide useful evidence.
Pages copied from ship’s Cargo Securing Manual
Relevant page showing the approval stamp / endorsement of the Flag State – usually the
front page.
Relevant pages showing the approved stowage plans for the deck position (“bay”) where the
loss or damage occurred. These should include the allowed stowage weights
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 171 of 330
Relevant pages showing the approved lashing plans for the deck position (“bay”) where the
loss or damage occurred
Relevant pages giving details of parameters on which the stowage and securing calculations
throughout the Manual are based, especially the container heights (usually 8’6”) and
stability (maximum GM).
Copies of actual stowage plans
Cargo loading plans (“bay plans”) for the area where the damage or loss occurred, giving
container numbers, heights and weights.
Copies of ships records
Ships stability – GM at time of damage or loss
Maintenance records – statutory requirement for maintenance records to be kept under
Cargo Securing Manual and ISM Code Section 10
Record of lashings actually applied for the area where the damage or loss occurred
Record of inspection and /or tightening of lashings before and during voyage.
Record of checks
To establish that proper steps have been taken to stow and secure the cargo properly:
Check the Cargo Securing Manual to ensure that it is approved.
Check that GM was within range allowed by Cargo Securing Manual.
Compare the relevant pages of the Cargo Securing Manual with the actual bay plans to
ensure that the stowage was satisfactory.
Compare the relevant pages of the Cargo Securing Manual with the actual lashing plan to
ensure that the securing was satisfactory.
Check securing records to ensure lashings were inspected and tightened (weather
permitting).
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 172 of 330
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 173 of 330
The sea journey – risks associated with non‐conforming containers
Stack collapses are the biggest risk from mis‐declared containers for large ships. For smaller vessels
their stability can be compromised and in stormy conditions, ultimately a capsize is a real possibility.
Other consequences may include:
■ container stacks collapsing in ports while awaiting loading or collection
■ risk of serious injury to stevedores during handling
■ risk of serious injury to sea-going staff during the voyage
■ risk of pollution damage due to certain contents of containers spilling into the sea
■ cost of recovery if boxes lost in coastal waters
■ cost of repairs to vessel, ship downtime etc
■ higher insurance premiums to cover cargo and environmental claims
BASIC ADVICE
There are certain actions which should always be taken to prevent containers from being damaged
or lost overboard. The following is considered best practice:
• Check stack weights before stowage. It is important not to exceed allowable stack weights
otherwise failure of the corner posts of the containers stowed at the bottom of the stack is
possible. If the stow is too heavy, the lashings may have insufficient strength to hold the
containers in place if bad weather is encountered.
• Never deviate from the approved lashing plan except to add additional lashings. Calculate
forces using the approved loading computer.
• Consult the lashing manual before applying lashings.
• If stack weights are high and bad weather is expected then fit additional lashings.
• Try to avoid isolated stacks of containers when stowed on deck, especially if at the ship’s side.
Where possible, load containers so they are evenly distributed.
• Avoid loading heavy containers above light containers and at the top of a stack.
• Keep your system of lashing simple using the highest rated components.
• Examine containers for physical defects – check the corner posts carefully. The corner posts
have to resist high compression forces as a result of static weights from containers stowed on
top and from dynamic forces that occur when the ship rolls, heaves and pitches. Containers
with damaged corner posts placed in the bottom of a stow are likely to collapse. Reject
damaged containers.
• Check that all cell guides are clear of obstacles, are straight and not buckled.
• Check that turnbuckles are fully tightened. Loose lashings will be ineffective.
• Check lashing equipment for defects and discard worn or damaged equipment. Avoid using
left‐hand and right‐hand twistlocks on the same ship.
• Regularly examine lashing components, including ship fittings, for wear. Replace any worn or
damaged fitting, repair any worn or damaged ship fitting. Check all equipment not just
equipment in regular use.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 174 of 330
• It is difficult to know when lashing components should be replaced. Few organisations are
confident to issue ‘criteria for replacement’ which means that the company or individual
master will need to exercise judgement. If in doubt, replace the equipment. Give special
attention to dovetail or sliding socket foundations.
• To assist the shore lashing gang, give them precise instructions as to how containers should be
secured.
• Remember that during ship rolling, forces on container corner posts can be up to three times
greater than the upright compression force. Weather route in an attempt to avoid the worst of
the meteorological systems or areas where high seas in winter are common.
• Try to avoid loading ‘high cube’ containers on deck in the first or second tier. Lashing rods are
more difficult to fit and special rods with extension pieces are often needed. Identify where
‘high cube’ containers are to be stowed before loading. It may be necessary to reposition
them.
Safe Working with Containers
The decks, hatch covers and holds of a container ship can be extremely dangerous places to work. To
avoid accidental injury, exercise care and follow these rules:
• When working on deck, always wear high visibility clothing, safety shoes and a hard hat.
• Never allow fittings to be thrown onto the ship’s deck from a height.
• Check that sliding sockets and stacking cones are removed from hatch covers before opening.
• When working in the vicinity of moving containers, never work with your back towards a
container or stand where a swinging container could strike you.
• Never stand under a raised container.
• When working on the top or side of a container, use safe access equipment and never climb
containers.
• If working from a ladder, secure the ladder properly and wear a safety harness. Attach the line
from the harness to a secure point.
• Take care climbing onto a lashing bridge. There could be loose items of equipment that can fall
or the safety bar could be across the opening.
• Tidy loose equipment that is lying on decks, hatch covers and coamings. These are trip hazards.
• Never climb up the side of a stack of containers. Use an access cradle.
• Take care when fixing penguin hooks or lashing rods as these can slip and strike someone.
• Close access gratings after passing through. They are there to protect you.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 175 of 330
Overview of Container Ships
Types of Container Ships
In general, a container ship is specifically built for transporting containers and has cargo holds and
exposed decks that are designed for the effective stowage of such containers. Container ships can be
categorized by ship size, container stowage methods, loading and unloading facilities, etc.
The typical categories of container ships are as follows:
(1) Categorization by Ship Size
(a) Panamax Type Container Ships
Container ships that are of the maximum dimensions capable of passing through the
Panama Canal are called Panamax type container ships. Panamax ships can normally stow
containers between 2,000TEU to 3,500TEU. Up to 13 rows of containers can be stowed
transversely, up to 5 tiers can be stowed vertically on exposed decks, and up to 11 rows and
8 tiers can be stowed in cargo holds.
(b) Over‐Panamax Type Container Ships
Since this type of container ship has a breath that is wider than Panamax type container
ships and a transverse metacentric height that is higher, over‐Panamax ships are not as
limited as Panamax ships regarding the stability effects of container stowage. Accordingly,
containers can be stowed in higher positions and over‐Panamax ships can normally stow
containers that are more than 4,000TEU. Currently, an over‐Panamax ship with a breath of
around 40m is capable of stowing up to 18 rows of containers on exposed decks and up to
16 rows in cargo holds. In addition, in recent years, many major ports started using large
cranes capable of stowing 22 rows of containers on ships.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 176 of 330
(2) Categorization by Loading and Unloading Facilities
(a) Container Ships with Cargo Gear
The majority of this type of container ship can stow containers less than 3,000TEU.
These container ships have cranes such as jib cranes for cargo handling, so containers can be
shipped to ports that have no cargo handling capability. However, in container dedicated
terminals, such onboard cranes may cause some instability or get in the way of the cargo
handling equipment used in such terminals.
(b) Gearless Container Ships
This type of container ship is not installed with onboard cargo handling cranes.
Containers are handled by the cargo handling equipment located on the quays of container
terminals. Gearless container ships are not able to conduct cargo handling in quays that are
not equipped with cargo handling equipment. However, since these ships are designed to
maximize cargo handling efficiency in container terminals, most container ships built these
days are gearless container ships.
(c) Hatch Coverless Container Ships (Open‐top Container Ships）
This type of container ship is not equipped with any hatch covers except at the ship bow.
In this type of ship, containers stowed on exposed decks are fixed by cell guides projecting
through the deck. Cell guides are devices that support the 4 corner posts of containers and
are aimed at increasing the number of container stowage tiers. Since containers stowed on
exposed decks are supported by cell guides, the work required for lashing and the opening
and closing of hatch covers can be reduced. In addition, cargo handling efficiency and
shipping efficiency increases because of the easing of the constraints on the mixed stowage
of high‐cube containers. However, there is a need for special countermeasures that take into
account the possible ingress of sea water into cargo holds since this type of container ship
does not have hatch covers except at the ship bow.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 177 of 330
Overview of Freight Containers
Types of Freight Containers
Containers used for marine transportation are defined according to the terms and definitions
provided by the ISO (International Organization for Standardization), the JIS (Japanese Industrial
Standards), and so on. The principle terms and definitions specified by the ISO regarding containers
used for marine transportation are showed in Table 1.2.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 178 of 330
TYPES OF CONTAINER
Flat track Half height Car Carrier
Double Door Insulated or Thermal Bulk shift
Reefer Open Top Side Stowage
Tank Swept Body Tunnel
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 179 of 330
Diffe
erent Cargo Handling Equip
pmentss Used on
Conttainer S
Ships
Containeers are the m
most transpoorted method d of cargo fo orm in the woorld as they are transporrted by
all the th
hree transpo
ortation systeems available i.e. land, air and waterr. The aspectt of cargo han
ndling of
hips become very critical as they are subjected to
the conttainers on sh o harsh weather and strong wind
in the m
mid sea.
A resea
arch states that everyy year morre than 10,0
000 contain
ners fall ovverboard and
a spill
their ca
argo into th
he ocean; 50 0 % of this hhappens due to negligeence in the ccargo hand dling.
nt types of caargo handling equipmentts are used tto secure containers to tthe ship and to other
Differen
containeers stacked on top of other.
o The details of the
ese equipmeents are giveen in cargo securing
manual (CSM) preseent onboard.
Some o
of the important contaainer cargo handling eq
quipments are:
Base T
Twistlock: As the namee suggests, itt is used on deck and is m n the socket provided
mounted on
on the d
deck. The shiipping contaainer is loadeed over the b
base twist lo
ock and it is tto be installe
ed as per
the proccedure in CSM
M. After loadding ensure tthat the wire
e handle is in
n lock positio
on.
Locked position..
To remove pull thee wire all th
he way, tilt the twist lo
ock backwarrds and lift the twist lo
ock from
the socket.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 180 of 330
Semi Automatic Twistlock: This twistlock are used in between the containers i.e, when a
container is loaded on top of other container to form a stack. A semi automatic twist lock is inserted
in between them. They are not used for the position of midlocks.
Midlocks: They are used on deck between the 20 ft containers.
Semi Automatic Base Twistlock: They are also used on deck on the lowermost tier except for
the position of midlocks.
Hanging staker: A hanging staker is equipment which holds for 20 ft containers on all the four
sides.
Lashing Rods: Lashing rods are rods of different lengths to hold the containers from one end and
are tied up to the deck surface from the other end.
Turnbuckle & Bottle screw: They are used in combination for tensioning the lashing of the
container so that they won’t get loose.
Spammer: A spanner or a tightening tool must be available for tightening the bottle screws and
turnbuckles.
Emergency tool: It is a tool which is used when a twist lock cannot be unlocked by pulling the
wire handle. It is used in such a way that the emergency tool is in a position that will keep the twist
lock open and the container can be then lifted along with the tool.
Grease: It is an anti seize compound that should be applied to all the lashing equipment as
required so that they are well maintained and in operational condition.
It should be noted that the lashing should not be over tightened as they are pre tensioned.
Excessive tightening may lead to excessive loading on the containers and may damage them during
rolling.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 181 of 330
Hence lashing should be tightened with only the spanner with slight force. Also the lock nuts on the
turnbuckle should be locked in position.
A brief list of equipments used for container handling on ports:
Port equipment includes straddle carriers for container transportation on berth
Tractors and trailers/semi‐trailers for back up transportation and movement within a
terminal area,
Stacker cranes and side loaders to assist in cargo handling.
The cargo handling equipment used for ship during cargo operations are gantry cranes on
the pier.
Gantry cranes are especially used for container handling. These cranes are fitted with
spreaders that can be adjusted for twenty foot, forty foot and forty‐five foot containers.
Some of them can also be adjusted for twin lift.
Some ships are fitted with cranes, which can also be used for container handling. These
cranes are operated by trained and experienced personnel.
CONTAINER LASHING EQUIPMENTS
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 182 of 330
Fixed Container Lashing
Container Lashing (Loose)
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 183 of 330
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 184 of 330
Cell Guides in Hold Lashing Bridge
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 185 of 330
Cargo Ventilation and Precautions to Minimise Sweat
"Moisture damage" is the source of a significant number of cargo claims, often involving bagged or
bulk agricultural products. Claimants typically allege that failure by the ship to ventilate correctly
resulted in the development of condensation (commonly known as "sweat"), causing the cargo to
deteriorate. However, it is important to recognise that some commodities may have inherent
moisture levels which exceed acceptable limits at the time of loading, making them biologically
unstable. Such details may not be known to the ship, and prudent ventilation measures may be
insufficient to prevent the cargo from deteriorating on passage. Nevertheless, claimants may still
maintain that the ship was at fault.
To defend cargo deterioration claims it is necessary for the vessel to produce records showing that
customary ventilation routines were followed. Should the necessary evidence be missing or
incomplete, it is often difficult for the P & I Clubs to refute such assertions.
General
Dry cargo vessels are fitted with either natural or mechanical ventilation systems. In addition to
minimising the onset and degree of sweat, ventilation may also serve to remove taint and disperse
any gases which some cargoes may emit.
The process requires close monitoring throughout the voyage as the moisture content of the cargo
coupled with variations in air temperature, cargo temperature and sea temperature can dramatically
influence the amounts of water vapour retained by and released into the air inside a hold.
Penetration of ventilating air into a bulk stow on a ship is minimal, and so it is only ever possible at
best to provide through‐surface ventilation. However, ship stability requirements usually dictate that
at least the majority of the holds of any bulk carrier carrying bulk cargoes such as grain are loaded
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fully into the hatch coamings. For a hold so loaded it is unlikely that any significant through‐surface
air flow will be obtained. Whilst bagged cargo stows inevitably have some gaps in them, penetration
of ventilating air beneath the uppermost layers of bags in the stow is minimal. Bagged cargoes
should always be stowed in such a way that ventilating air can pass freely over the surface of the
stow.
Cargoes at risk
Hygroscopic products‐ Hygroscopic products have a natural moisture content and are mainly of plant
origin. They may retain, absorb or release water vapour, and excessive amounts of inherent
moisture may lead to significant self‐heating and "moisture migration" within the cargo resulting in
caking, mildew or rot. Examples of hygroscopic products include grain, rice, flour, sugar, cotton,
tobacco, cocoa, coffee and tea.
Non‐hygroscopic products‐ Non‐hygroscopic products have no water content. However, certain
commodities (e.g. steel) may be damaged if stowed in a moist environment, and others may be
harmed if packaged using a hygroscopic material (e.g. wood, paper). By way of illustration a vessel
loaded a parcel of glass packed with layers of paper between each sheet. At the discharge port it was
found that the paper had absorbed moisture from the air during the voyage, making it impossible for
the glass sheets to be separated. The cargo was rejected by the receiver.
Types of Sweat
Cargo sweat‐ Cargo sweat refers to condensation which may form on exposed surfaces of the stow
as a consequence of large amounts of warm, moist air being persistently introduced into a hold
containing substantially colder cargo.
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Ship sweat‐ Ship sweat refers to condensation which forms directly on a vessel’s structure when
the air within a hold, made warm and moist by the cargo, comes into contact with cold surfaces as
the vessel moves into cooler climates. Cargo may be damaged by overhead drips, by contact with
sweat which has formed on the ship’s sides or by condensed water which may accumulate at the
bottom of the hold.
Influencing factors
Saturation‐ The amount of water vapour that air may contain is highly dependent on its
temperature. A given volume of air is said to be saturated when no more water can be absorbed. If
the air temperature then falls, condensation will occur. As air rises in temperature so does its
saturation moisture content; its capacity to retain water climbs by ever‐increasing amounts. Thus
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when air is cooled, its potential for releasing water in the form of condensation is far greater when it
is cooling from higher temperatures than when cooling from lower temperatures. Apart from
periods of fog or rain, ambient air is rarely saturated. Moreover, it will never be totally dry. Within
these two extremes the amount of water retained by the air will vary according to the prevailing
conditions.
Relative humidity‐ Relative humidity is the actual amount of water vapour in the air compared
with the saturation amount of water vapour in the air at the same temperature and pressure. The
figure is usually expressed as a percentage, with saturated air having a relative humidity of 100%. At
main deck level, ambient sea air over the open oceans will normally have a relative humidity in
excess of 80%.
Dewpoint temperature‐ When an isolated volume of air cools, relative humidity increases as the
temperature falls. Once the temperature has descended to the level at which saturation occurs,
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water begins to condense. This temperature is known as the "dewpoint". Dewpoint temperature
may be measured by a variety of methods. Ships generally use a traditional wet and dry bulb
arrangement consisting of two identical mercury thermometers, one of which has a damp muslin
wick covering the bulb. These are normally housed in a protective marine screen on each bridge
wing. The dewpoint temperature may then be determined by a "Dewpoint Table" to compare the
wet and dry bulb temperatures. This figure is important when considering cargo ventilation
requirements.
Wet and dry bulb thermometers‐ When using traditional wet and dry bulb thermometers, the
accuracy of the dew point temperature will depend on the condition of the equipment. The muslin
covering the wet bulb should be clean, the water in the reservoir should be distilled and the bulb
itself should be wet.
In order to ensure that the readings are correct, the device should always be positioned away from
any exhaust vents, other draughts and all sources of heat. The readings should always be taken on
the windward side of the vessel.
Dewpoint measurement
Theoretically, all decisions regarding cargo ventilation should be based on dewpoint temperatures,
comparing the dewpoint of the ambient air with the dewpoint of the air inside the hold. Given that
most ships are customarily equipped with wet and dry bulb thermometers located close to the
bridge, determining the dewpoint temperature of the ambient air is usually straightforward.
However, ascertaining the dewpoint temperature inside a cargo space is more problematic. One of
the simplest methods is to use a "whirling psychrometer", a handheld device containing wet and dry
bulb thermometers and a water reservoir, swinging the instrument inside the hold until the wet bulb
temperature has stopped falling and remains steady. The dewpoint temperature is again calculated
using the Dewpoint Table.
All readings should be taken well away from any air inlets, ensuring that only hold air is tested.
Enclosed space entry procedures should always be observed. If access to the holds is impossible or
undesirable, and provided there is no significant air flow, wet and dry bulb thermometers may be
placed in the trunking of an exhaust ventilator or similar pipework leading from the compartment,
allowing the device to be drawn out and read from above deck.
Ventilation
Once the above information has been obtained, the rules are simple;
Dewpoint Rule
VENTILATE if the dewpoint of the air inside the hold is higher than the dewpoint of the air outside
the hold.
DO NOT VENTILATE if the dewpoint of the air inside the hold is lower than the dewpoint of the air
outside the hold.
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Three Degree Rule
In many instances it is impracticable to measure hold dewpoint temperatures accurately, or at all. In
such cases ventilation requirements may be estimated by comparing the average cargo temperature
at the time of loading with the outside air temperature several times a day. Ventilation may then be
carried out on the following basis;
VENTILATE if the dry bulb temperature of the outside air is at least 3°C cooler than the average cargo
temperature at the time of loading.
DO NOT VENTILATE if the dry bulb temperature of the outside air is less than 3°C cooler than the
average cargo temperature at the time of loading, or warmer. In order to apply the Three Degree
Rule, it will be necessary for the ship’s staff to take a number of cargo temperature readings during
loading. Hand‐held infrared thermometers are ideal for this task and are relatively inexpensive.
Further observations
During periods of heavy weather, steps should be taken to prevent rain and spray from entering the
cargo spaces. This may mean suspending ventilation until conditions improve. If so, the
circumstances should be logged. It is important to appreciate that ventilation should also be carried
out during the night if the readings indicate that ventilation is appropriate. Ambient temperatures
are usually lower therefore the risk of ship sweat developing is more likely during the hours of
darkness.
In addition to ventilating the holds according to the above regimes, it is important that regular
inspections of each compartment are carried out where possible. This need not involve entry into
the cargo space itself – for example, ship sweat may be seen forming on the underside of hold
access covers. In such instances, and especially at night, the cargo should be ventilated irrespective
of the Dewpoint Rule or the Three Degree Rule, weather permitting.
What to expect
In broad terms it is often possible to estimate ventilation requirements in advance by considering
the climatic changes likely to be encountered during the voyage. The following examples indicate
what may be expected on passage, but do not obviate the need for detailed monitoring and
recording;
Hygroscopic cargo ‐ cold to warm climate‐ If a stable cold cargo is carried to a warm climate,
ventilation will always be unnecessary. Indeed, in some circumstances ventilation may lead to cargo
damage.
Hygroscopic cargo ‐ warm to cold climate Vigorous surface ventilation of the cargo spaces will almost
certainly be required due to the likelihood of ship sweat developing.
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Non‐hygroscopic cargo ‐ cold to warm climate‐ Ventilation is never required. Cargo sweat is liable to
occur if warm moist air comes into contact with cold cargo. Therefore holds should usually remain
sealed to allow the cargo and internal air to warm gradually during the voyage.
Non‐hygroscopic cargo ‐ warm to cold climate‐ Ventilation is largely irrelevant. The development of
significant ship sweat is very unlikely.
Combined cargoes‐ Problems may arise if hygroscopic and non‐hygroscopic cargoes with different
inherent temperatures are loaded into the same compartment. Their ventilation requirements may
differ, resulting in damage to one or other of the products in spite of normal routines being
followed. As far as possible, hygroscopic and non‐hygroscopic cargoes should not be stowed
together.
Stowage
Given the sensitive nature of many hygroscopic products and the possibility of sweat, efforts should
be made to ensure that such cargoes do not come into contact with hold steelwork. This is
particularly important in the case of bagged agricultural produce intended for human consumption
such as rice, sugar, beans and flour. For bagged cargo, rows of dunnage or bamboo poles should be
laid in the direction of the bilges to aid drainage, not more than 20 centimetres apart. A second layer
should be placed on top at right angles to the first before covering the whole area with matting. If
the cargo space is not fully fitted with cargo battens, bamboo poles or dunnage should be positioned
crosswise against the frames to keep the bags away from the sides of the ship. Ideally, they should
also be lashed together at the intersections to prevent them from becoming disturbed during
loading. As an extra but not essential precaution, mats may be placed against this arrangement and
the top surface of the stow may be covered with thick paper. Expert opinion today is that biologically
stable bagged hygroscopic cargoes do not require ventilation channels, unless specifically demanded
by the IMDG Code (e.g. some types of seed cake and fishmeal). Nevertheless, for certain
commodities many charterers still require ventilation channels to be built into the stow. If so, the
charterers should be asked for written instructions regarding the number and position of such
channels, and these should be followed accordingly.
For hygroscopic cargoes a checklist detailing the steps and measures to be taken prior to and during
loading, and whilst on passage, may be used.
Bunker tanks
Hygroscopic products may be damaged by localised sources of heat. Incidents have occurred where
parts of parcels of grain have been scorched or have become discoloured when lying against hot
bunker tanks. As far as possible, the bunkers used during the voyage should be drawn from tanks
situated well away from holds containing hygroscopic products. If impracticable, bunker tanks
adjoining cargo spaces should be heated only when required, ensuring that the temperature does
not rise above normal operational levels.
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Records
Ventilation records are crucial. In the event of moisture damage, evidence showing that the vessel
ventilated correctly may be instrumental in defending any ensuing claims. If the Dewpoint Rule has
been followed, wet and dry bulb temperatures and dewpoints should be logged once per watch,
bearing in mind that these may change considerably over a short period. For the same reason, the
sea temperature should also be noted. This information should be recorded for each hold together
with the times of commencing, ceasing or resuming ventilation, and the reasons for doing so.
If the Three Degree Rule has been followed, a record should be kept of the ambient air temperature
and the sea temperature once per watch together with the average temperature of the cargo at the
time of loading. Again, ventilation details should be documented for each hold.
Surface Ventilation
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Cargo Ventilation‐ Bulk Carrier
Speaking generally, bulk cargoes are ventilated to prevent the formation of cargo sweat or ship’s
sweat which could damage the cargo, to reduce the harmful heating of a cargo, and/or to remove
hazardous gases from the cargo spaces. Ventilation in the wrong circumstances can do considerable
harm and before a decision is made to ventilate a space it is necessary to consider the requirements
of the cargo, the temperature and humidity within the holds and outside and the presence or
absence of sea spray. The types and positions of ventilators with which the ship is provided must
also be taken into account.
Hold Vent
Hold ventilators: Most bulk carriers built since 2000 are provided with two hold ventilators set
into the forward end of the hatch covers and a similar pair of ventilators set into the after end of the
hatch covers. These are easy to open or close, easy to clean, cheap to fit and maintain but are more
exposed to sea water and spray on deck than are mushroom ventilators, and therefore require more
attention. Ventilators of this type do not contain fans. The arrangements within the hatch cover
depend upon whether the hatch panels are single or double skinned.
Older bulk carrier and any bulk carriers fitted with mechanical ventilation are more likely to be
provided with two or four ventilation trunks per hold, with one or two situated at the fore end of the
hold, and one or two at the after end.
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Ventilator opening in deckhead
To avoid passing through the topside tanks these ventilator trunks are situated close to the ship’s
centreline. Within the hold each such trunk often terminates in a simple square, round or
rectangular opening in the deckhead. Alternatively trunking may continue down the bulkhead, with
slots at intervals to admit air to the hold at various levels. Portable plates can be put in place to close
the lower slots, when ventilation at lower levels in the cargo is not wanted.
Above deck the ventilation trunks may stand alone, each fitted with a mushroom cowl which gives
some protection from spray and from the direct force of any wind, or they may be built into the
structures of the masthouses with openings situated in the masthouse sides, the masthouse top, or
at the masthead.
Every ventilator must be provided with a means of closing so that all ventilation can be stopped in
the event of fire. The means of closing may be in the form of a ventilator flap (or ‘damper’) set
within the vent trunk and operated by an external lever, or a watertight door, or may consist of a
cowl which can be screwed down into a closed position by the operation of a valve wheel.
Some bulk carriers are provided with ventilator fans set in the trunks of ventilators. When fans are
provided they are normally fitted in the ventilator or ventilators at one end of the hold. Ventilator
fans can usually be run in both directions so that they can be used either to deliver air to the hold or
to draw air from the hold.
It may be possible to vary the speed of the fans, selecting full speed or half speed or a larger range of
options. Ventilation assisted by fans is known as mechanical or forced draught ventilation, whilst
ventilation which occurs as a result of natural movement of air is called natural ventilation. Natural
ventilation can occur as a result of a wind blowing, the ship’s motion, or the circulation of air
resulting from temperature differences.
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Mushroom Ventilator
These ventilators pass vertically through the masthouses with the forward ventilator in each hold
being on the starboard side and the after ventilator on the port side. The ventilators terminate on
top of the masthouses with grilles which face aft and are provided with watertight doors. No fans
are provided, so any ventilation is natural.
Some older vessels are provided with ventilators of the hinged‐door type set into the hatch covers,
or with portable ventilator cowls, in addition to the mushroom or cowl ventilators at the extremities
of the hold. Such additional ventilators are required to provide surface ventilation within the hatch
square when a ship is carrying a cargo which fills the hold to coaming level, thereby sealing off the
hatch square from the rest of the compartment. The portable ventilator cowls have to be bolted in
position on the hatch covers when blank plates have been removed.
Reasons for ventilating bulk cargoes: A number of difficult cargoes have special ventilation
requirements to prevent overheating or to remove dangerous gases.
In such cases Masters and officers should be guided by any instructions provided by owners,
charterers, shippers and/or the IMSBC Code.
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Coal is ventilated to remove hazardous gases. With steel a major object is to avoid the formation of
sweat, which would damage the cargo. Iron ore has no particular need for ventilation although it is
desirable to maintain a dry and healthy atmosphere in the holds for access and to reduce corrosion.
When there is no special need to remove gases, the reason for ventilating is to remove moist air and
replace it with drier air to discourage the formation of sweat.
Sweat: Sweat is the name given by seamen to condensation which occurs in a ship’s cargo spaces.
There are two types of sweat, ship’s sweat and cargo sweat. For sweat to occur there must be
moisture in the hold atmosphere and a difference of temperature between their in the hold and the
cargo or the ship’s steelwork.
The temperature difference usually occurs as the ship moves from one climatic region to another or
from a cold to a warm current or vice versa, and the larger the change in temperature the more
likely is the formation of sweat.
Sources of moisture in cargo spaces: The most important source of moisture in a hold is the
cargo. Most commodities, particularly materials of vegetable origin, possess some natural moisture
and create an atmosphere, known as the storage atmosphere, in any compartment in which they are
stored. Moisture in a hold can also be the result of rainfall during loading and the air in a hold will be
moist if conditions were moist when the hold was closed on completion of loading.
The amount of moisture in the air is measured by its dewpoint, which is the lowest temperature to
which a mass of air can be reduced without condensation occurring. As condensation is a ‘bad thing’
it is helpful to remember that air with a high dewpoint is a ‘bad thing’. Dewpoint is obtained from a
table, entered with readings taken from the wet and dry bulb hygrometer.
Cargo sweat: Cargo sweat consists of condensation which forms on the surface of cold cargo when
warm moist air comes in contact with it. Cargo sweat will form when the dewpoint of the air in the
hold is higher than the temperature of the cargo. This is most likely to occur when the ship has
loaded a cargo in a cold region and air is admitted to the hold as the ship is travelling towards a
warmer region.
To prevent cargo sweat when passing from a cold region to a warm region all ventilation should be
stopped and the hold should be kept closed, with the air unchanged, as far as possible. The
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temperature of the cargo will only rise very slowly to equal the external atmosphere, and so long as
the hold remains closed the air within it will gradually become warmer and able to hold more
moisture.
With an inert cargo the dewpoint of the air in the non‐ventilated hold remains constant as it warms
up. If the cargo contains moisture it will give off moisture as it warms up. However, as the heat will
flow from the shell of the ship into the hold atmosphere and from the hold atmosphere to the cargo,
the temperature of the hold air stays a step ahead of the cargo temperature. Any moisture given off
by the cargo can be held in the air.
It will be safe and desirable to ventilate only after the surface temperature of the cargo has risen to
equal that of the air outside the hold or when the external air is exceptionally dry, so that its
dewpoint is lower than the temperature of the cargo.
Ship’s sweat: Ship’s sweat is the condensation which occurs when warm moist air in the hold
comes into contact with the cold steelwork which forms the deck and shell plating of the ship. Ship’s
sweat will form when the dewpoint of the air in the hold is higher than the temperature of the ship’s
steelwork, conditions most likely to be met when the ship has loaded in a warm region and is
steaming towards colder climates. Ship’s sweat caused by a low external air temperature is most
likely to be deposited first in the vicinity of the hatch coaming and the fore and after ends of the
hold amidships, as the topside tanks or double hull, even when empty, provide an insulating layer
which delays the penetration of cold from the external air to the plating forming the tank/hold
separation.
When a cold current is met, causing a low sea temperature, the side shell plating between the
topside and lower hopper tanks will be cooled, providing conditions favourable for the formation of
ship’s sweat in those areas.
When passing from a warm region to a cold region full ventilation should be continued whenever
possible in order to withdraw moist air from the hold and replace it by drier external air. If the cargo
contains moisture, the air in the hold will continue to be moist and will condense upon the ship’s
cold steelwork unless it is continually extracted, and replaced by drier air.
General guidelines for ventilation: Ventilation should be stopped, by stopping fans when in use
and closing the ventilators, when the vessel is shipping spray in the vicinity of ventilator intakes.
Times of interruption of ventilation should be logged.
On short voyages in small ships such as minibulkers employed in the European middle trades it is
normal to carry out no ventilation and to keep ventilators tightly sealed. With a low freeboard and
regular rough weather the danger of shipping spray into open ventilators is usually found to be far
greater than the potential benefits from ventilation.
On longer voyages if the cargo requires ventilation cargo holds should be ventilated when the
dewpoint of the external air is lower than the dewpoint of the air in the hold. This will put drier air
into the hold, forcing out wetter air and reducing the possibility of sweat forming. Dewpoint
readings should be logged. However, dewpoint in the hold may be difficult to measure. The hold
may be full or unsafe to enter and when it is safe to enter any airflow will be the result of ventilation,
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meaning that the true temperature within the hold is not being measured. Another way of deciding
when ventilation is needed for hygroscopic cargoes (agricultural cargoes such as grain, timber,
animal feedstuffs and woodpulp that have a moisture content that can interact with air) is to use
the three‐degree rule.
The three‐degree rule: says that a hygroscopic cargo should be ventilated when the temperature
of the outside air is at least 3°C below that of the cargo temperature taken at loading. This rule
avoids the need to take readings in the holds after the voyage has commenced and relies on the fact
that the temperature of hygroscopic cargoes, except at their boundaries, changes very slowly during
a voyage. However it should be noted that one authority advises that the ventilation of grain cargoes
is likely to do more harm than good.
Ventilation practice: When natural ventilation is being used with open ventilators at both forward
and after ends, the air in the hold tends to travel from aft to forward. When forced ventilation is
used it is normal to take advantage of this tendency and to drive the air from aft to forward.
Air forced into a hold by a fan will seek the shortest and easiest route through the hold. If the only
route by which the air can leave the hold is through a ventilator at the far end of the hold, the air will
tend to flow directly to that ventilator across the surface of the cargo. If an access hatch or other
opening close to the inlet vent is left open, the air will leave the hold by the access hatch without
travelling the length of the hold. This is known as ‘short cycling’ and is an inefficient form of
ventilation. Short cycling should be prevented by ensuring that only ventilators are left open when
the hold is closed.
When a hold is loaded with a bulk cargo the ventilation provided is usually surface ventilation, with
air flowing over the surface of the cargo from ventilators at the after end of the hold to ventilators at
the fore end of the hold or, in newer ships, from ventilators in the after end of the hatch covers to
similar ventilators in the fore end of the hatch covers.
Ventilators situated at the hold ends can provide surface ventilation only for the nearby hold ends
when the cargo is a low‐density one topped up in the hatch square and preventing a flow of air from
one end of the hold to the other. When the hold is filled the hatch square requires separate
ventilation.
Through ventilation of a bulk cargo, when air is forced into the body of the cargo, is not normally
required and is difficult to achieve. Some through ventilation can be provided aboard ships in which
ventilator trunks extend to the bottom of the hold bulkheads. Through ventilation of coal is likely to
cause heating and must be avoided.
The capacity of a ship’s hold ventilation fans is normally expressed in the number of air changes that
can be achieved in an empty hold per hour. When a cargo is carried the number of air changes per
hour will be increased, because the quantity of air which the hold contains is reduced.
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Purpose and general use of Seagoing bulk carriers
Operation of sea going bulk carriers involved numerous hazards. Careful planning and exercising due
caution for all critical shipboard matters are important. This site is a quick reference to international
shipping community with guidance and information on the loading and discharging of various bulk
cargo types and is to remain within the limitations as specified by the classification society.
It is vital to reduce the likelihood of over‐stressing the ship's structure and also complying with all
essential safety measures for a safe passage at sea. Our detail pages contain various bulk carrier
related topics that might be useful for people working on board and those who working ashore in
the terminal.
General features of seagoing bulk carriers
Bulk carriers are single‐deck vessels, designed with top‐side tanks and hopper side tanks in cargo
spaces and are intended primarily to carry single‐commodity solid bulk cargo.
Solid bulk cargo means any material, other than liquid or gas, consisting of a combination of
particles, granules or any larger piece of material, generally uniform in composition, which is loaded
directly into the cargo spaces of a ship without any immediate form of containment. Example of such
dry cargo are grain, sugar and ores in bulk.
Fig : A Bulk carrier on sea passage
In its broadest sense, the term bulk carrier embraces all ships designed primarily for the carriage of
solid or liquid cargo in bulk form, and so would include tankers. In ordinary usage, however, the
term is normally used for those vessels designed for the transport of solid bulk cargos, typically grain
and similar agricultural products, and mineral products like coal, ore, stone, etc., on one or more
voyage legs.
General features of bulk carriers are:
1. Carrying capacity varying from 3,000 tonnes to 300,000 tonnes
2. average speed of 12 ~ 15 knots
3. single deck ships, i.e. no tweendecks
4. small to medium sized bulk carriers (carrying capacity up to 40,000 tonnes) generally have
cargo handling gear fitted, while larger vessels use shore based facilities for loading and
unloading
5. the cargo holds are usually large, without any obstructions, with larger hatch sizes to allow
easy loading/unloading of cargoes
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6. most bulk carriers have one cargo hold dedicated as a ballast hold. This can be used on
ballast voyages for improved stability. One or two further holds may be permitted for
partially ballasting but only in port
7. they have hydraulic, single pull or stacking (piggy‐ back) type steel hatch covers
8. these ships usually have four types of ballast tanks :
sloping topside wing tanks
sloping bottom side wing tanks
double bottom tanks
fore peak and after peak ballast water tank.
Various Bulk carrier sizes and employment guide
The size of bulk carriers may often be referred by one of the following classes:
Mini Bulk Carrier (100 ‐ 130m length , less than 10m draft & 3000 ~ 23,999 DWT) Employed in
coastal trade, serving as feeder vessels to large ships. Their main trade consists of short sea voyages,
carrying limited quantities of bulk cargoes generally to smaller ports without restriction on size of
vessels.
'Handysize' are the medium bulk carriers of between 24000 ~ 35000 DWT ( 130 ‐ 150 m length &
10m draft ). They can carry cargoes to a large number of ports, may carry considerable variety and
quantity of bulk cargoes.
Fig : Handymax bulk carrier at sea
'Handymax' bulk carriers of between 35,000 and 50,000 tonnes deadweight.( 150 ‐ 200 m length &
11 ~ 12 m draft ).These bulkers are well suited for small ports with length and draught restrictions,
or ports lacking transshipment infrastructure. Primarily used for carrying dry cargo such as iron ore,
coal, cement, finished steel, fertilizer, and grains etc.
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Fig : Supramax bulk carrier at sea passage
One very important size is the "Supramax " ‐ a type which became more and more popular since
2001. These vessels are ranging between 50,000dwat and 61,000dwat (designers working on even
larger vessels up to 63,000dwat ), have usually five cargo holds and deck cranes with a lifting
capacity between 25mt and 40mt with most vessels being fitted with own grabs. A fairly big number
are constructed as double hull vessels.
Most of the bulk carriers being delivered recently are of a double hull constructions and many of the
sizes up to Supramax are so called "open hatch" or "semi open hatch" types which means they have
a wide hatch opening with very narrow deck between hatch coaming and ship's side.
Supramax vessels are very popular among dry cargo shippers due to their larger cargo carrying
capacities and on‐board cargo handling flexibility. Their favorable size allows them to trade in a
much wider range of world ports and terminals.
The term 'Panamax' ( length 200‐230 m , draft 13 ~ 15 m ) refers to design size limitations imposed
by the Panama Canal locks and adopted by the international shipping community: beam must not
exceed 106 feet (32.2 m), fully loaded vessels must not exceed 80,000 tons deadweight. Generally
carry grain, coal and iron ore from US ports.
Fig : Cape Hawk at sea passage
'Capesize' bulk carriers ( length 230 ~ 270 m , draft 17 m ) of 80,000 to 199,000 tonnes deadweight
which are too large for the Panama Canal and trade from the Atlantic around the Cape of Good
Hope. Only a few ports in the world can accommodate them in fully loaded condition.
Suezmax means the largest vessel that can pass through the Suez canal. The maximum allowed
draught of the Suez canal is currently 18.90 m (62 feet). However, the authorities intend to increase
this draught to 21.95 m by the end of 2017.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 202 of 330
Very Large Bulk Carrier (VLBC) ( 270m and more 20m draft or more & 180,000 DWT and more )
: Very specialised, mainly purpose‐built for specific trades.
Seawaymax ( 226 m max. 7.92 m draft 28,502 DWT max. ) : Largest vessel that can pass through the
canal locks of the St Lawrence Seaway.
Malaccamax ( 330 m approx. 20 m draft 300,000 DWT ) : Largest vessel that can pass through the
Straits of Malacca.
Setouchmax ( 299.9 m. (max) 16.1m draft 205,000 DWT ) : Maximum size allowed for ports in the
Setouch Sea in Japan only.
Dunkirkmax ( 289 m. max. 175,000 DWT (approx) : Maximum allowable beam = 45 m for eastern
harbour lock in Dunkirk, France.
Kamsarmax ( 229 m. (max) 82,000 DWT (approx) ) Maximum size allowed for port Kamsar in
Equatorial Guinea.
Newcastlemax ( Usually Capesize ) 185,000 DWT (approx) Maximum allowable beam = 47 m for port
of Newcastle in Australia.
Bulk carrier types: Ore carriers, OBO ships, Self unloader, Forest
product carriers & more
Ore Carriers
Ore carriers are specially designed and may only be employed for a specific trade, eg carriage of iron
ore in bulk from major Australian or Brazilian ports to specific ports in China or Japan.
Ships that are designated as ore carriers have to be strengthened by class standards. In a seaway
these ships tend to be stiffer due to the high density of ore cargoes.
Typical dimensions of a large ore carrier are:
• LOA ‐ 340 m
• Breadth ‐ 60 m
• Draught ‐ 21 m
• Deadweight tonnage ‐ 323,000 metric tonnes.
Oil/Bulk/Ore ‐ OBO Ships
These ships were designed to alternate between dry bulk and oil cargoes, avoiding a non‐earning
ballast passage by carrying both cargoes in the same cargo spaces at different times.
They were designed with large hatches to facilitate loading and discharging. However, the hatch
covers were designed to be `oiltight' so the same ship could be loaded with oil cargoes with
strengthened holds for ore cargoes. For this dual purpose operation, OBOs were fitted with
pipelines, pumps and other oil tanker equipment. Major problems on these ships included gas
freeing to load dry cargo after an oil cargo and the high maintenance costs caused by heavy wear
and tear. Owing to the number of losses, notably the Berg Istra (1976), Berg Vanga (1979) and the
Derbyshire (1980), combined with the high maintenance costs, there has been a reduction in the
number of these ships, with few new OBOs built. Most remaining OBOs are limited to one cargo
type.
OBO construction is similar to that of a bulk carrier except that they have larger wing tanks and their
DB tanks are deeper to improve stability when carrying ore cargoes. Many OBOs have void spaces
formed by fitting transverse bulkheads between two cargo holds. Other features of OBOs are:
1. Oiltight hatch covers to allow the carriage of liquid cargoes
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 203 of 330
2. dedicated slop tanks
3. pumproom for load/discharge of liquid cargoes
4. inert gas system
5. tank/hold cleaning system similar to the crude oil washing system on oil tankers • ullaging
equipment
6. pipeline system (ballast, bilge and cargo) fitted through the duct keel
7. bilge lines (for use with dry cargoes).
Self‐Unloader Bulk Carriers
Similar in hull structure to other bulk carriers, these vessels are fitted with one of two systems for
discharging cargo:
i) A gravity fed self‐unloader: the cargo is dropped onto a conveyor belt running in a duct
keel under the cargo holds that carries the cargo towards the bow or stern of the vessel
where another conveyor lifts it for discharge ashore. The discharging arm is connected to a
boom that can be slewed into position for discharge
ii) a hybrid self‐unloader: commonly used, this method does not require any special structural
design of the vessel. The cargo is discharged by grabs into hoppers where it feeds onto a
conveyor belt. The hoppers can be permanently fitted on the ship or may be placed on the
deck of the vessel when discharging.
These ships can discharge cargo in ports without any unloading facilities. The discharging rates
achieved can be the same or higher than those of similar shore based facilities. An added advantage
is that a totally enclosed conveyor system can discharge cargoes such as cement, coal, grain, ores
and fertilisers without causing problems such as dust, cargo wastage, or damage to the ship's
structure by grabs or weather effects.
While the initial cost may be high and the ship's carrying capacity is reduced by fitting an unloader,
this is offset by the quick turn around and reduced port stay.
Open Hatch Bulk Carriers (OHBCs)
These vessels do not have upper and lower wing tanks. Instead, they have straight sides to carry
square shaped bundles of forestry products such as unitised wood pulp, rolled paper or packaged
timber cargoes. They can even carry twenty foot containers. They may have fixed or travelling gantry
cranes for loading/unloading. Due to the nature of their cargoes, these vessels may be fitted with:
i) Dehumidification systems
ii) vacuum equipment for loading/discharging cargoes such as steel slabs/pipes, rolled paper,
unitised wood pulp, newsprint, kraft liner board, kraft paper etc.
Forest Product Carriers
Open Hatch Bulk Carriers (OHBCs) can also be regarded as a forest product carrier, this collective
term generally refers to the following ship types:
• Woodchip Carriers: These vessels are designed to carry woodchips (shredded wood) in bulk.
Woodchip is described as a `neobulk' cargo that requires methods and precautions similar to those
for bulk cargoes. They are usually constructed with 6 watertight (in contrast to weathertight) cargo
holds to prevent water ingress. This is particularly important as contact with water causes
woodchips to expand and could cause severe damage to the structure of the ship. Additional
security measures to prevent water penetration through air pipes and ventilation ducts to cargo
compartments are also incorporated to protect the cargo.
Carriage capacities are usually expressed in cubic feet (or metres), e.g. for a Panamax size woodchip
carrier of length 205 m, breadth 37 m and draught of 10.5 m, the capacity is 3.6 million cubic feet
(CFT).
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 204 of 330
As the cargo holds fill, bulldozers are used to press the cargo. Some ships are fitted with cargo
loading/ unloading equipment including cranes, grab buckets and wings with conveyor belts on deck
(to pour the chips into cargo holds).
When discharging, the ship's cranes are used together with a grab bucket system running at the
bottom of the cargo compartments. The cargo is carried to the forecastle by conveyor, where it is
discharged ashore through a single discharging point. However, many ships use conventional grabs
to discharge the cargo.
• Timber Carriers: These vessels are used for carrying timber or logs in the holds and on deck.
The machinery space and accommodation are located aft to provide clear deck space for the cargo.
Generally, they are fitted with cranes that can handle logs that weight up to 25 tonnes. This means
that the decks, tanktops, hatch covers and other structures are additionally strengthened to
withstand these loads.
These ships usually have fixed or portable uprights to support logs/ timbers lashed on deck. It must
be ensured that there is clear access to the mast houses, sounding pipes, etc, during loaded voyages.
These vessels carry lashings that include turnbuckles, wire ropes, chain, etc, fitted with a quick
release mechanism such as a senhouse slip to release the deck cargo in case of emergency. On some
ships, air powered `speedlashings' automate the lashing and tightening procedure.
The ship's lashing plan should be adhered to as prescribed in the approved cargo loading manual.
The Code of Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes should be complied with for the
carriage of timber on these ships.
• Wood Pulp Carriers: Wood pulp from soft trees such as pine, larch, hemlock, fir and spruce is
the most common material used to make paper. The major hazard of wood pulp cargo is that it
swells if it comes into contact with water, exerting enormous pressure on the structure of the cargo
hold and possibly causing a structural failure. Additionally, this cargo depletes oxygen from the
environment and generates carbon dioxide, making the atmosphere in the hold unsuitable for entry.
Considerable attention is required to avoid contamination of the cargo by dirt or by residues of the
previous cargo. Wood pulp is typically carried in bales that have a protective covering to avoid any
contamination to the cargo. To assist in the protection of a wood pulp cargo, holds are frequently
repainted. Air bags are used to prevent the movement of bales in the hold.
• Hybrid Configuration (HyCon) Bulk Carriers: A recent advancement in bulk carrier design is
the `hybrid configuration' or `HyCon'. In this design, the most forward and most aft holds have a
double skin but the other parts of the ship still have a single skin. In this way, the areas that require
additional protection are strengthened without greatly increasing the lightship weight.
A double skin enhances safety, security, dependability, reliability, and reduces the possibility of
damage from accidental flooding. In addition, structures such as frames and brackets located inside
the double skin structure provides a smooth surface for the cargo, reducing problems with
inspection or maintenance. The potential for damage caused by cargo gear like grabs or bulldozers is
reduced, increasing the speed of cargo discharging in port. The double hull makes inspection much
easier through the use of passageways, ladders and manholes in the double skin. Ballast capacity is
also increased, which is an added advantage in ballast voyages.
Safety of Bulk Carriers
Bulk carriers must be handled with care in port as well as at sea. Stevedores and ships' officers
responsible for cargo operations become key partners for ship safety, because the lives of seafarers
may ultimately depend on careful cargo handling. Ship‐to‐shore planning, information and
communication become vital.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 205 of 330
Port and terminal authorities, together with owners and classification societies, therefore have a
shared responsibility to minimise risk in bulk carrier operations. lACS ‐ whose members class over
95% of the world bulk carrier fleet ‐ has investigated why bulk carriers have become vulnerable to
structural problems ... how their safety margins can be increased ... and how day‐today operations
can become safer for their seafarers.
lACS' research shows that improper handling of heavy, high density cargo during cargo loading and
discharge may cause excessive stress ‐ and physical damage to holds and bulkheads. Over time, this
may reduce or threaten structural safety margins when the ship is at sea in bad weather.
Careful cargo handling helps maintain bulk carrier safety ‐ bad practice lowers safety margins and
increases risk.
The main cargo handling risks are:
Poor ship‐to‐shore communications
Ignoring Loading Plans
Inadequate pre‐planning of cargo operations
Improper load distribution between holds
Overloading by high‐capacity systems
Physical damage during discharging
When heavy cargo is poured into a cargo space at one end of the cargo hold, and piles up,
the lateral cargo pressure acting on the transverse bulkhead will increase loads carried by
the bulkhead structure ‐ and the magnitude of transverse compressive stresses in the cross
deck structure.
The double bottom structure may also be severely overloaded.
If the same loading pattern is applied to an adjacent hold, lateral pressure on the transverse
bulkhead will be largely cancelled out – but vertical forces will be transferred to the
bulkhead.
Cargo should always be stowed symmetrically in the longitudinal direction, and trimmed, as
far as practical.
Stowing cargo asymmetrically, about the ship's centreline in a cargo space induces torsional
loads, causing twisting of the hull girder, and warping of the hull structure.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 206 of 330
HULL STRUCTURAL FAILURE
Accidental stress or damage caused during the loading or discharging of bulk carriers could
ultimately lead to catastrophic structural failure either alongside or at sea. In terms of lives, ships
and cargoes lost, the casualty record of bulk carriers in recent years has been unacceptable.
lACS research into bulk carrier casualties shows that over 70% of total losses had three factors in
common.
- The ships were all at least 18 years old ...
- were carrying heavy, mineral cargoes... and
- experienced water ingress to hold spaces in bad weather.
Principal factors contributing to loss were;
- corrosion and cracking of the structure within the cargo spaces ...
- Factors that could have contributed to hull structural failure were over‐stressing due to
incorrect loading and physical damage to side structures during cargo discharging.
Midship Sections of Single Side Shell and Double Hull
Terminal operating staff need to share with ships' officers an awareness that heavy/high density
cargo operations with bulk carriers involve the following nine main risks of hull or local structure
over‐stressing and consequent weakness.
1. Deviations from the loading Manual: Exceeding permissible limits in the ship's Approved
Loading Manual will lead to over‐stressing of the ship's structure ‐ and may result in catastrophic
failure of the hull structure. It is important to be aware that over‐stressing of the local structural
members can occur even when the hull girder Still Water Shear Force (SWS F)/Still Water Bending
Moment (SWBM) have remained within their permissible limits.
2. Shallow draught loading: To minimise the risks of over‐stressing the local structure, the largest
possible number of non‐successive cargo pours should be used for each hold.
3. High loading rates: High loading rates may cause significant overloading within a very short
space of time. The terminal should be prepared to STOP cargo operations if the ship's officer in
charge of loading is concerned by deviation from the agreed Loading Plan. Sensitivity of the hull
girder to overloading; local structure overloading and synchronisation of ballasting ‐ where ballast
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 207 of 330
pumpingg capacity iss low versuss cargo loadiing rate ‐ arre the three main problems associaated with
high loading rates.
4. Asym
mmetric caargo and baallast distrribution: Caargo and waater ballast distribution have an
important influence on the resultant hull structural stressses.
High densityy cargo shou uld be stoweed uniformlyy over the caargo space and trimmingg applied
to level the cargo as far as practicaable. This wiill minimise the risks of cargo shift in heavy
weather and d of damage to the hull sstructure.
When heavyy cargo is po oured into a cargo space e at one end d of the cargo hold, and piles up,
the lateral cargo
c pressu ure acting onn the transverse bulkheaad will increease loads caarried by
the bulkhead structure ‐ and the maagnitude of transverse ccompressive stresses in tthe cross
deck structu ure.
The double bottom struccture may also be severe ely overloadeed.
If the same loading pattern is applieed to an adjaacent hold, laateral pressu ure on the transverse
bulkhead will
w be largely cancelled d out – but vertical forces will bee transferred d to the
bulkhead.
Cargo should always be stowed sym mmetrically in n the longitu udinal direction, and trim mmed, as
far as practical.
Stowing carggo asymmettrically, abou ut the ship's centreline in n a cargo spaace induces torsional
loads, causin ng twisting o of the hull girrder, and warping of the hull structurre.
Asymmetrical distributio on of water ballast inducces torsional loads ‐ and d torsional lo oading of
the hull girdder is considered to be aan importantt contributory factor in recurring craacking at
the hatch co orners, and tto problemss with hatch cover alignm ment and fitttings. Extrem me cases
may even lead to bucklin ng of the cro oss deck structure between hatch opeenings.
5. Lack
k of effecttive ship/sshore com
mmunication
ns: Will inccrease the risk of inaadvertent
overload
ding of the ship's structure.
It is imp
portant thatt there is an
n agreed prrocedure between the ship's officeers and the terminal
operators to STOP cargo operatiions. The ship‐to‐terminaal communiccations link sshould be maaintained
throughout the carggo operation..
6. Exce
eeding loadd line mark ks: It is a sttatutory requirement thhat the ship is not to bee loaded
beyond the Limits sp
pecified in itss Load Line C Certificate.
The app
propriate loaad line markss on the ship's side musst not be submerged at any time du
uring the
seagoingg voyage.
End‐holdd trimming tto maximize cargo carrying capacity, and bring tthe ship "doown to her m marks", is
to be avvoided ‐ as itt may result in the overloading of end holds beyyond allowable limits, in
ncreasing
d global stresses.
local and
7. Partiially filled ballast tan
nks or hold
ds: Sailing with
w partiallyy filled ballaast holds or tanks is
prohibited unless the Approved Loading Manual permitss such practice. In partially filled ballast holds
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 208 of 330
or tanks, there is the likelihood of sloshing, due to the ship's motion in a seaway. Sloshing will
magnify dynamic internal pressures acting on the hold/tank boundary surfaces ‐ and may ultimately
damage the hold/tank's internal structure.
8. Inadequate cargo weight measurement during loading: Overloading the cargo hold
through inaccurate weighing will increase the stress levels in the ship's structure.
During cargo operations, it is important to determine the cargo weight loaded into each
individual hold and the associated loading rate.
At hjgh loading rate ports without suitably positioned cargo weighing equipment, the ship's
cargo officer should request that the terminal stops loading, to allow draught surveys and
displacement calculations to be carried out to verify compliance with the agreed Loading
Plan .
lACS believes that suitably positioned weighing equipment should be installed at all
terminals ‐ but especially those with high loading rates.
Inaccurate terminal weighing equipment, limited checking time at high loading rate
terminals, and hold overloading to compensate for partial bunkers may all contribute to
structural overloading.
The terminal shall inform the ship of the remaining amount of cargo on the conveyor belt
that must be loaded after a "STOP".
9. Structural damage: Cargo handling equipment can damage the ship's structure, both through
impact loads (grabs, hydraulic hammers) and by damaging coatings protecting cargo holds.
Structural damage and coating breakdown will contribute to local weaknesses and may
ultimately threaten the ship's structural or watertight integrity.
Hold internal structures and coatings are notably vulnerable to damage from grabs during
cargo discharge, and from hydraulic equipment used to free and clear cargo. Cargo hold
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 209 of 330
protective coatings
c are also vulnerable to breaakdown from m the corrossive, temperrature or
abrasive chaaracteristics of cargoes su uch as coal.
On completion of cargo o discharge, the ship's officers
o should inspect cargo holds and
a deck
areas for siggns of mech
hanical, corro osive or coaatings damagge. Damage potentially affecting
the integrityy of the hulll, its machinery systemms or equipmment should be reported to the
classificationn society.
Shear Forces an
nd Bendin
ng Momen
nts:
A ship floating in still water is ssubject to bu
uoyancy upthrust acting on the hull.. Local differrences in
the opposite‐acting vertical forcces of weightt and buoyancy will causse the hull to
o shear and to bend.
Continuous, but varyying wave acction at sea b brings an add
ditional dynaamic compon nent to these e forces.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 210 of 330
All bulk carriers classed with lACS societies are assigned maximum permissible Still Water Shear
Force (SWSF) and Still Water Bending Moment (SWBM) values.
The ship's loading Instrument provides a means to calculate the shear forces and bending moments
in any load or ballast condition, and to assess these against the assigned maximum permissible
values.
The equivalent Seagoing SWSF and SWBM figures dictate the limits of shearing and bending of the
main hull girder when subject to cargo loading and the continually changing wave ‐ induced forces
acting on the hull when the ship is at sea.
Local Strength:
Some bulk carriers are provided with local loading criteria, which define
the maximum cargo weight allowed in each hold ‐ and each pair of
adjacent holds ‐ (block hold loading) for various draught conditions.
Overloading will induce greater stresses in the double bottom, transverse
bulkheads, hatch coamings, hatch corners, main frames and associated
brackets of individual holds.
Capability to withstand normal dynamic loads at sea ‐ typically from
slamming and bow flare impacts ‐ will be reduced if static stress in the
hull structure has been increased by overloading.
CARGO DISTRIBUTION
Cargo distribution along the ship's length has a direct influence on the bending and shearing of the
hull girder ‐ and on the stresses in the local hull structure.
COMMON CARGO DISTRIBUTIONS ARE:
Homogeneous Hold loading: Cargo evenly distributed in all holds. Usually adopted for low
density cargoes ‐ such as coal and grain.
Alternate Hold loading: Large bulk carriers often stow high density cargo ‐ such as mineral ore ‐ in
odd‐numbered holds (1,3,5 etc.), with the remaining holds empty. Cargo weight per laden hold is
approximately double that of homogeneous load distribution, with alternate holds
designed/reinforced accordingly. Requires classification society approval.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 211 of 330
Block Hold loading/Part loaded Conditions: Block hold loading refers to stowage of cargo in a
block of two or more adjoining holds ‐ with holds adjacent to such blocks remaining empty. The
configuration is often adopted when the ship is only part loaded. However, to avoid over‐stressing
the hull structure in the part loaded condition, careful consideration must be given to the amount of
cargo in each laden hold and the anticipated sailing draught.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 212 of 330
Bulk Carrier Practice - Care of ship and
cargo on the loaded voyage
Cargo temperatures and sampling of air in holds
When carrying some cargoes such as coal and grain the temperature of the cargo should be
obtained regularly to detect signs of heating. Temperatures are usually obtained from
thermometers lowered into the sounding pipes on the port and starboard sides at the after end of
each hold. An additional temperature pipe may be sited beside the hold ladder at the fore end of
the hold. The most accurate and reliable readings will be obtained by making sure that the
thermometers are lowered to a level which is well below the surface of the cargo and that they are
left in position for several minutes. Where possible there should be a thermometer for each
position and thermometers should be left in place permanently and withdrawn rapidly when
readings are required.
Mercury thermometers are considered to be less satisfactory for taking cargo temperatures unless
fitted with a maximum temperature indicator and reset before the taking of each reading, and one
authority recommends the use of suitably calibrated pyrometers.
When carrying coal it is necessary to test the air in the holds for hazardous gases. This process, like
the taking of temperatures, is fully described in that part of carriage of coal cargoes.
Fumigation to monitor
If the cargo was fumigated before departure from the loading port and if fumigation is continued in
transit, regular checks should be made for leakage of the fumigant for so long as it remains active. It
is essential that ships make a declaration in their pre‐arrival notice if the cargo has been fumigated
and where possible cargo holds should be ventilated before arrival to ensure that the required safe
level of gas has been reached.
Cargo lashings to check
Bulk carriers are required from time to time to carry cargoes which are secured with lashings. Steel
coils carried below decks and sawn timber and logs on deck are cases in point. When cargoes are
lashed a regular routine of inspecting the lashings daily, or more frequently, is essential. The
frequency of the inspections must be increased early in the voyage before the cargo has settled, in
bad weather and at any time when each inspection finds noticeable looseness in the lashings.
Lashings can become loose for a variety of reasons. If the ship is pitching and rolling heavily lashings
will be stretched as the cargo is accelerated first in one direction and then in another. Wet logs will
shrink significantly as they dry out. The cargo will settle as the ship works. Movement and vibration
can cause fastenings to slacken or disengage if they have not been locked.
Any slackness in the lashing system will allow cargo to move and once it can move it will further
damage the lashings and readily break adrift. It is essential that lashing systems are inspected
frequently and thoroughly and that lashings are efficiently retightened as they become slack. When
it is necessary to inspect and tighten cargo lashings on deck or in the holds in bad weather, the ship
must be hove‐to and the inspection must be carried out with the precautions described below.
Inspections
Inspections in good weather: During a loaded voyage a bulk carrier has a low freeboard and is likely
to ship spray and seas on deck and over the hatches even during moderately adverse weather. This
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 213 of 330
calls for a high level of alertness from the Master and his officers to ensure that ship’s company, ship
and cargo are brought safely to their destination.
In good weather it is prudent for the chief mate to carry out an informal inspection of the decks at
least once a day and to satisfy himself that all is secure on deck before the end of the working day.
Storeroom doors, access hatches and manhole covers if left open during the night can lead to
flooding, damage or even, in extreme cases, the loss of the ship if the weather worsens. If bad
weather is anticipated lifelines should be rigged along the length of the deck, port and starboard, in
good time.
Inspections during rough weather: During rough weather the blows which a ship receives from the
sea when the bow strikes the swell and when waves are shipped over the decks and hatches can
cause damage to her structure and can loosen fastenings and fittings or break them adrift. The
ship’s violent motion can cause cargo, stores and spares to shift or break adrift. Damage of this sort
can be disastrous and every effort should be made to ensure that the ship is all secure. In recent
years ship design and equipment has been developed to reduce the need for dangerous physical
inspections of holds and forecastle spaces during rough weather. Inspections should never be
undertaken recklessly but are a valuable complement to WIDS alarms, gauge readings or information
gained from binoculars or closed circuit TV.
Because conditions on deck are likely to be hazardous during rough weather an inspection will
require organisation and planning. Wherever possible it should be undertaken during daylight
hours. A procedure which can be recommended is for the Master to take the bridge, sending the
chief mate, bosun and several seamen to make the inspection. The inspection party dress in high
visibility heavy weather clothing and equip themselves with VHF radios, and with hammers,
crowbars and such other tools as they anticipate they will need to tighten dogs, cleats, brakes and
lashings.
When ready to commence the inspection they report by VHF radio to the Master on the bridge, who
is also equipped with a VHF radio. The Master then heaves‐to the ship by reducing speed and/or
altering the heading as required to provide a deck which is reasonably steady and shipping no
water. It is worth waiting for five or ten minutes (or longer on a big ship) for the changes in speed
and heading to take effect to ensure that the ship is well hove‐to and the decks are safe for the
inspection party. When satisfied the Master will inform the inspection party which is the lee side
and will instruct them to proceed.
Walking the length of the foredeck on the lee side and also inspecting between the hatches, the
inspection party will check that hatch cover cleating is all tight and access hatches properly battened
down. Loose fittings will be refastened and damaged items inspected and the damage assessed. If
the ship possesses masthouses they will be checked for leakage or for items broken adrift.
Soundings located on the lee side of the foredeck can also be taken.
The forward spaces of a bulk carrier are particularly vulnerable to flooding. They will be inspected
and the forecastle WIDS alarm and high level bilge alarm, if fitted, will be tested. The proper
securing of the anchors will be confirmed, as will the sealing of the spurling pipes to prevent water
from flooding the chain lockers. Forepeak and chain locker soundings will be taken.
When all is secure in and on the forecastle, the chief mate will report this to the Master who will
decide whether it is safe for the inspection party to inspect the remaining side of the foredeck.
Before this can be done safely it may be necessary to put the weather on the other bow and whilst
this is done the inspection party will either remain within the shelter of the forecastle or will have
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 214 of 330
returned aft to the accommodation. The inspection of the second side of the foredeck, when it can
be undertaken with safety, will be similar to the inspection of the side first inspected.
Hold inspections in rough weather: In addition to the inspection of deck and storerooms described
above it will be necessary to inspect the holds if a cargo such as steel products is being carried and
may have broken adrift or if the possibility of flooding is feared. Where possible inspections in bad
weather should be avoided because of the hazards created by a rolling ship and men who are
encumbered with heavy clothing, but when an inspection is necessary the normal safety procedures
for entering an enclosed space must be followed. The inspection is likely to be a slow process,
though time will be saved if the inspection party has a really powerful torch and much of the hold
can be viewed from the access ladder. When an inspection is undertaken during bad weather and it
is necessary to heave‐to, these facts should be recorded in the deck log.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 215 of 330
Hazards from working cargo‐Bulk Carrier
Cargo falling during loading or discharge:
A number of bulk cargoes such as quartz, iron ore, pig iron and steel scrap contain sizeable lumps
which can cause injury or death if they fall from a height and strike a person below. From time to
time – and frequently in some cases – lumps of cargo will fall from the conveyor belt of the
shiploader or from the discharging grab on to the deck of the ship or the quay alongside. Such
spillage should be regularly cleared to maintain a safe access route along the deck. For experienced
seafarers and stevedores it becomes second nature to avoid standing below the conveyor or the
path of the grab, and this is a rule which should be firmly enforced upon any inexperienced people
who have occasion to be in the vicinity of a bulk carrier when bulk cargoes are being loaded or
discharged. It is good practice to forbid entry to the working side of the main deck except to those
who have necessary work to do in that area. Those required to be on deck during the working of
cargo should wear high visibility clothing, hard hats and industrial footwear.
Closed grab leaking cargo
Dust from cargo working:
Many bulk cargoes are dusty and some extremely so. The effects of breathing dust can never be
beneficial and are probably harmful in some cases at least. Where possible it is always best to avoid
exposure to cargo dust and employers and their representatives have a duty to minimise dust. When
exposure to hazardous solids, liquids or gases cannot be avoided respiratory protective equipment
(RPE) and safety goggles must be worn. The selection and use of the appropriate RPE is complex and
extremely important. It should be part of the risk assessment process. Many different types of RPE
are available to give protection against different hazards and the wrong respirator, for example, may
be worse than none at all. The advice of a qualified person who understands the circumstances
where the RPE is to be used should be obtained.
Deck covered with coal split during discharge
Anyone required to be on deck when a dusty cargo is being worked and anyone sweeping cargo with
a brush or with air should wear a suitable respirator. For a respirator to be effective it must be of
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 216 of 330
suitable design, in good condition and worn by a person who has been trained in its use. For general
shipboard use a simple respirator with a disposable filter where the wearer’s lungs are used to draw
air through the filter should be suitable for cargoes which are not stated to be hazardous. The
European (CEN) standard for disposable filtering facepiece (FFP) respirators rates FFP1 as the lowest
acceptable standard, removing about 80 per cent of the dust, whilst a facepiece rated FFP3 removes
about 98 per cent. All types of respirator are less effective when the wearer is bearded, or unshaven.
Filters should be renewed according to manufacturers’ instructions or, in the absence of
instructions, when soiled.
Quantities of grain split on deck during discharge
Respiratory protective equipment (RPE) for use when engaged in spray painting must satisfy
requirements quite different from a cargo dust mask as it must exclude gas and vapours, not dust
particles. When entering a space which is deficient of oxygen no respirator will be of assistance. The
air does not need to be filtered to remove impurities. Air to support life must be provided and in
these circumstances a respirator will not do: a breathing apparatus with an air supply is required
The route to the open deck
Other safety precautions when working cargo:
Smoking should not be allowed on deck when hazardous cargoes are being worked. Grain is a
hazardous cargo in this respect: dust explosions have been known to occur in the vicinity of grain.
Stevedores must be required to observe the same standards of safety as are required of ships’
personnel. Hatch covers, whether open or closed, must always be secured so that they cannot roll in
the event of a change in trim or list. A hold should never be entered when cargo is being worked
except with the authority of the duty officer and the knowledge of the signaller for the cargo
working equipment. Extra care must be taken when slippery cargo residues are on the deck.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 217 of 330
FUMIGATION
General
The presence of insects and rodents on ships is clearly undesirable for various reasons, and in
addition to aesthetic and nuisance aspects, they may damage equipment and spread disease and
infection, contaminate food in galleys and food stores, and cause damage to cargoes that will result
in commercial or other losses.
The same highly toxic chemicals are used in cargo transport units as on board bulk ships. However,
when a cargo transport unit that contains fumigant chemicals leaves the place at which it was
fumigated, no one can practically supervise the hazard unless they are aware of the presence of the
fumigant. Any person who later enters the cargo transport unit can, therefore, be unknowingly
exposed to dangerous levels of highly toxic chemicals.
Insects in cargo transport units
Grubs and larvae of insects and other species can infest cargo, as well as packaging, dunnage, etc.,
associated with the cargo, at any stage during harvesting, manufacture, processing, storage, packing
or transport. These can spoil foodstuffs, textiles, leather goods, furniture, art and antiques, affect
electronic equipment, contaminate sterile goods or deface consumer packaging or labelling, making
the goods unfit for sale and therefore valueless. Insect and mite pests of plant and animal products
may be carried into the cargo transport unit with goods (introduced infestation); they may move
from one kind of product to another (cross‐infestation) and may remain to attack subsequent
cargoes (residual infestation).
Their control may be required to comply with phyto‐sanitary requirements to prevent spread of
pests and for commercial reasons to prevent infestation and contamination of, or damage to,
cargoes of human and animal food.
Rodents
Rodents should be controlled not only because of the damage they may do to cargo or the ship's
equipment, but also, as required by the International Health Regulations, to prevent the spread of
disease. Importers, particularly those that operate food processing plants, make great efforts to
eliminate infestation in order to prevent the invasion of the importer's local storage or processing
plant from infestation carried in incoming cargo. Consequently, they regularly fumigate their
premises and may insist that goods delivered to their premises are certified free of infestation by
means of fumigation.
Training
Persons engaged in the handling of fumigated cargo transport units shall be trained commensurate
with their responsibilities.
Marking and placarding
A fumigated cargo transport unit shall be marked with a warning mark, as specified below, affixed at
each access point in a location where it will be easily seen by persons opening or entering the cargo
transport unit. This mark shall remain on the cargo transport unit until the following provisions are
met:
(a) The fumigated cargo transport unit has been ventilated to remove harmful concentrations of
fumigant gas; and
(b) The fumigated goods or materials have been unloaded.
The fumigation warning mark shall be rectangular and shall not be less than 300 mm wide and 250
mm high. The markings shall be in black print on a white background with lettering not less than 25
mm high.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 218 of 330
If the fumigated cargo transport unit has been
completely ventilated either by opening the doors of
the unit or by mechanical ventilation after fumigation,
the date of ventilation shall be marked on the
fumigation warning mark.
When the fumigated cargo transport unit has been
ventilated and unloaded, the fumigation warning mark
shall be removed.
When fumigated cargo transport units are stowed under deck, equipment for detecting fumigant
gas(es) shall be carried on the ship with instructions for their use.
A fumigated cargo transport unit shall not be allowed on board until a sufficient period has elapsed
to attain a reasonable uniform gas concentration throughout the cargo in it. Because of variations
due to types and amounts of fumigants and commodities and temperature levels, the period
between fumigant application and loading of the fumigated cargo transport unit on board the ship
shall be determined by the competent authority. Twenty‐four hours is normally sufficient for this
purpose. Unless the doors of a fumigated cargo transport unit have been opened to allow the
fumigant gas(es) and residues to be completely ventilated or the cargo transport unit has been
mechanically ventilated, the shipment shall conform to the provisions of this Code concerning UN
3359. Ventilated cargo transport units shall be marked with the date of ventilation on the fumigated
warning mark. When the fumigated goods or materials have been unloaded, the fumigation warning
mark shall be removed.
The master shall be informed prior to the loading of a fumigated cargo transport unit.
HAZARDS TO PERSONNEL
If for any reason, the ship's crew or other personnel have to open a fumigated cargo transport unit
or a fumigated cargo transport unit which has been ventilated they should take proper precautions.
There are no obvious signs when Methyl bromide has been used as a fumigant (e.g., by sight or
smell). The cargo transport unit should be left open as long as possible and then checked with the
equipment available and should be declared gas free before entry is allowed. In the case of an
emergency, entry may be allowed, with full confined space precautions, if there is any gas found to
be present.
If the cargo transport unit is fumigated with Phosphine there are normally visual signs inside the
cargo transport unit of the fumigant in the form of sachets, tablets, pressed plates or powder. The
state of the packaging depends on the time these have been exposed and the atmosphere that they
have been exposed in. It is also possible that the fumigants have moved between cargo items and
may not be immediately visible.
As moisture is required for the reaction to take place, when a cargo transport unit is opened at sea
the level of moisture in the air may restart the reaction.
After the Magnesium or Aluminium Phosphide reacts with moisture to generate Phosphine, a
residue of magnesium or aluminium hydroxide remains. This is a light powdery grey substance like
ash. Hopefully, this has been retained in some kind of packaging so that it can be removed safely. If,
however, there is a residue over the cargo, the crew must avoid breathing in this residue or getting it
into their eyes or mouth. If not, they are still at risk of being poisoned by the residue, which may still
be able to generate some Phosphine.
It should be noted that there are certain commodities (e.g., edible nuts) where a small amount of
fumigant is put in cotton wool and placed inside each bag. These items are then dangerous because
their handling brings the fumigant close to the face.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 219 of 330
Personnel should be made aware that not every fumigated cargo transport unit is declared and,
hence, not marked as such. There are indicators for fumigated cargo transport units like tapes on
vents or the door joints, a possible "fishy garlic" smell of Phosphine and packets or piles of powdery
residue inside the cargo transport unit.
FUMIGATION DETECTION
General
The most effective method of protection is to carry out gas tests before the cargo transport unit is
opened. As a minimum, it is recommended to test for Phosphine and Methyl bromide as the two
most common fumigants used. If gas is found, the cargo transport unit should be put aside for
ventilation.
Stain tube gas test equipment
Glass stain tube equipment is simple in design and use, robust and reliable. A test for Phosphine and
Methyl bromide can be carried out by a person standing outside the cargo transport unit using a
lance inserted into the cargo transport unit doorway. In practice, air is drawn by small hand‐held
bellows through a glass tube containing impregnated crystals which react with the gas for which the
test is being done. If the air is contaminated by the gas in question, the crystals change colour. The
function is not affected by moisture, but care has to be taken to warm the tubes to above 0°C in sub‐
zero temperatures. Also a reasonable degree of light is required to detect the colour change of the
crystals. The tubes should be used in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. In particular,
they shall not be used after their expiry date.
Electronic (photo‐ionisation gas testing equipment)
Gas tests can be carried out that detect the presence of gases and their concentration levels.
Similarly, equipment can confirm that there is a safe level of oxygen within the cargo transport unit.
At the present time, the technology is such that both the quantification and discrimination are poor.
There are frequent false positives due to cross sensitivities and readings are not accurate enough for
determining safe exposure levels. Therefore, these instruments are used for preliminary screening.
Personal monitors
Small electronic personal monitors are available for Phosphine, but not for Methyl bromide.
Phosphine monitors can be placed inside the cargo transport unit while unloaders are working, or
worn by individuals on outer garments. The location of an independent monitor is important both to
ensure that any fumigant is detected and ensure that the reading is not compromised by ventilation
at the door or external contaminants. Monitors issue an audible signal if Phosphine levels reach the
pre‐set level and are useful as warning devices. However, they should not be used for the initial
fumigation detection and measurement process. Also, electronic monitors have the disadvantage
that they can respond to a range of harmless substances giving misleading alarm signals.
Personal monitors are also available to show the level of oxygen within the cargo transport unit. This
would indicate a deoxygenated atmosphere but would not necessarily indicate that the atmosphere
is free from fumigant.
FUMIGANTS USED
There are a number of chemicals that are used as fumigants such as Phosphine and Methyl bromide.
Phosphine
This process requires a long period of time to work completely. This can be applied with little
technical training as it is supplied in sachets, tablets or pressed plates containing Magnesium
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 220 of 330
Phosphide or Aluminium Phosphide. These generate Phosphine gas when exposed to the moisture in
the air. The gas has a slight "fishy garlic" smell and breaks down into a powdery grey residue.
The rate of generation of Phosphine depends on the temperature, the airborne moisture and the
extent to which the generating material is exposed to the air.
Symptoms of poisoning by inhalation of Phosphine include nausea, vomiting, headache, feeling
weak, fainting, pain in chest, cough, chest tightness and difficulty breathing. Pulmonary oedema (the
presence of excess fluid in the lungs usually due to heart failure) can follow, usually within 24 h, but
sometimes this is delayed for some days.
Methyl bromide
Fumigation with Methyl bromide is a relatively rapid process that can normally be completed in less
than 48 h.
Symptoms of poisoning by inhalation of Methyl bromide include headaches, dizziness, and eye
irritation, coughing, nausea, abdominal discomfort, and numbness of feet. Higher exposure will bring
about unconsciousness to central nervous system, convulsions, and loss of vision, balance and
hearing.
Methyl bromide is supplied as a gas. So, during application, expertise is required to carry out the
operation.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 221 of 330
THE FUMIGATION OF CARGO HOLDS
Insect and mite pests of plant and animal products may be carried into the cargo holds with
goods (introduced infestation); they may move from one kind of product to another (cross‐
infestation) and may remain to attack subsequent cargoes (residual infestation). Their
control may be required to comply with phytosanitary requirements to prevent spread of
pests and for commercial reasons to prevent infestation and contamination of, or damage
to, cargoes of human and animal food both raw and processed materials. Although
fumigants may be used to kill rodent pests, the control of rodents on board ships is dealt
with separately. In severe cases of infestation of bulk cargoes such as cereals, excessive
heating may occur.
PREVENTION OF INFESTATION
Maintenance and sanitation
Ship cargo holds, tank top ceilings and other parts of the ship should be kept in a good state
of repair to avoid infestation. Many ports of the world have rules and by‐laws dealing
specifically with the maintenance of ships intended to carry grain cargoes; for example,
boards and ceilings should be completely grain‐tight.
Cleanliness, or good housekeeping, is as important a means of controlling pests on a ship as
it is in a home, warehouse, mill or factory. Since insect pests on ships become established
and multiply in debris, much can be done to prevent their increase by simple, thorough
cleaning.
Box beams and stiffeners, for example, become filled with debris during discharge of cargo
and unless kept clean can become a source of heavy infestation. It is important to remove
thoroughly all cargo residue from deckhead frames and longitudinal deck girders at the time
of discharge, preferably when the cargo level is suitable for convenient cleaning. Where
available, industrial vacuum cleaners are of value for the cleaning of cargo holds and fittings.
The material collected during cleaning should be disposed of, or treated, immediately so
that the insects cannot escape and spread to other parts of the ship or elsewhere. In port it
may be burnt or treated with a pesticide, but in many countries such material may only be
landed under phytosanitary supervision. If any part of the ship is being fumigated the
material may be left exposed to the gas.
Main sites of infestation
Tank top ceiling: If, as often happens, cracks appear between the ceiling boards, food
material may be forced down into the underlying space and serve as a focus of infestation
for an indefinite period. Insects bred in this space can readily move out to attack food
cargoes and establish their progeny in them.
’Tween‐deck centre lines, wooden feeders and bins are often left in place for several voyages
and because of their construction are a frequent source of infestation. After unloading a
grain cargo, burlap and battens covering the narrow spaces between the planks should be
removed and discarded before the holds are cleaned or washed down. These coverings
should be replaced by new material in preparation for the next cargo.
Transverse beams and longitudinal deck girders which support the decks and hatch openings
may have an L‐shaped angle‐bar construction. Such girders provide ledges where grain may
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 222 of 330
lodge when bulk cargoes are unloaded. The ledges are often in inaccessible places
overlooked during cleaning operations.
Insulated bulkheads near engine‐rooms: When the hold side of an engine‐room bulkhead is
insulated with a wooden sheathing, the airspace and the cracks between the boards often
become filled with grain and other material. Sometimes the airspace is filled with insulating
material which may become heavily infested and serves as a place for insect breeding.
Temporary wooden bulkheads also provide an ideal place for insect breeding, especially
under moist conditions, such as when green lumber is used.
Cargo battens: The crevices at the sparring cleats are ideal places for material to lodge and
for insects to hide.
Bilges: Insects in accumulations of food material are often found in these spaces.
Electrical conduit casings: Sometimes the sheet‐metal covering is damaged by general cargo
and when bulk grain is loaded later, the casings may become completely filled. This residual
grain has often been found to be heavily infested. Casings that are damaged should be
repaired immediately or, where possible, they should be replaced with steel strapping,
which can be cleaned more easily.
Other places where material accumulates and where insects breed and hide include:
The area underneath burlap, which is used to cover limber boards and sometimes to
cover tank top ceilings.
Boxing around pipes, especially if it is broken.
Corners, where old cereal material is often found.
Crevices at plate landings, frames and chocks.
Wooden coverings of manholes or wells leading to double‐bottom tanks or other
places.
Cracks in the wooden ceiling protecting the propeller shaft tunnel.
Beneath rusty scale and old paint on the inside of hull plates.
Shifting boards.
Dunnage material, empty bags and used separation cloths.
Inside lockers.
Methods of chemical disinfestations
To avoid insect populations becoming firmly established in cargo holds and other parts of a
ship, it is necessary to use some form of chemical toxicant for control. The materials
available may be divided conveniently into two classes: contact insecticides and fumigants.
The choice of agent and method of application depend on the type of commodity, the
extent and location of the infestation, the importance and habits of the insects found, and
the climatic and other conditions. Recommended treatments are altered or modified from
time to time in accordance with new developments.
Crew members can carry out small‐scale or “spot” treatments if they adhere to the
manufacturer’s instructions and take care to cover the whole area of infestation. However,
extensive or hazardous treatments including fumigation and spraying near human and
animal food should be placed in the hands of professional operators, who should inform the
master of the identity of the active ingredients used, the hazards involved and the
precautions to be taken.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 223 of 330
Fumigants
Fumigants act in a gaseous phase even though they may be applied as solid or liquid
formulations from which the gas arises. Effective and safe use requires that the space being
treated be rendered gastight for the period of exposure, which may vary from a few hours
to several days, depending on the fumigant type and concentration used, the pests, the
commodities treated and the temperature.
Since fumigant gases are poisonous to humans and require special equipment and skills in
application, they should be used by specialists and not by the ship’s crew.
Evacuation of the space under gas treatment is mandatory and in some cases it will be
necessary for the whole ship to be evacuated.
A “fumigator‐in‐charge” should be designated by the fumigation company, government
agency or appropriate authority. He should be able to provide documentation to the master
proving his competence and authorization. The master should be provided with written
instructions by the fumigator‐in‐charge on the type of fumigant used, the hazards to human
health involved and the precautions to be taken, and in view of the highly toxic nature of all
commonly used fumigants these should be followed carefully. Such instructions should be
written in a language readily understood by the master or his representative.
Fumigation with aeration (ventilation) in port
Fumigation and aeration (ventilation) of empty cargo holds should always be carried out in
port (alongside or at anchorage). Ships should not be permitted to leave port until gas‐free
certification has been received from the fumigator‐in‐charge.
Prior to the application of fumigants to cargo holds, the crew should be landed and remain
ashore until the ship is certified “gas‐free”, in writing, by the fumigator‐in‐charge or other
authorized person. During this period a watchman should be posted to prevent
unauthorized boarding or entry, and warning signs should be prominently displayed at
gangways and at entrances to accommodation. The fumigator‐in‐charge should be retained
throughout the fumigation period and until such time as the ship is declared gas‐free.
At the end of the fumigation period the fumigator will take the necessary action to ensure
that the fumigant is dispersed. If crew members are required to assist in such actions, for
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 224 of 330
example in opening hatches, they should be provided with adequate respiratory protection
and adhere strictly to instructions given by the fumigator‐in‐charge.
The fumigator‐in‐charge should notify the master in writing of any spaces determined to be
safe for re‐occupancy by essential crew members prior to the aeration of the ship.
In such circumstances the fumigator‐in‐charge should monitor, throughout the fumigation
and aeration periods, spaces to which personnel have been permitted to return. Should the
concentration in any such area exceed the occupational exposure limit values set by the flag
State regulations, crew members should be evacuated from the area until measurements
show re‐occupancy to be safe.
No unauthorized persons should be allowed on board until all parts of the ship have been
determined gas‐free, warning signs removed and clearance certificates issued by the
fumigator‐in‐charge.
Clearance certificates should only be issued when tests show that all residual fumigant has
been dispersed from empty cargo holds and adjacent working spaces and any residual
fumigant material has been removed.
Entry into a space under fumigation should never take place except in the event of an
extreme emergency. If entry is imperative the fumigator‐in‐charge and at least one other
person should enter, each wearing adequate protective equipment appropriate for the
fumigant used and a safety harness and lifeline. Each lifeline should be tended by a person
outside the space, who should be similarly equipped.
Fumigation continued in transit
Fumigation in transit should only be carried out at the discretion of the master. This should
be clearly understood by owners, charterers, and all other parties involved when
considering the transport of cargoes that may be infested. Due consideration should be
taken of this when assessing the options of fumigation. The master should be aware of the
regulations of the flag State Administration with regard to in‐transit fumigation. The
application of the process should be with the agreement of the port State Administration.
The process may be considered under two headings:
1. fumigation in which treatment is intentionally continued in a sealed space during a
voyage and in which no aeration has taken place before sailing; and
2. in‐port cargo fumigation where some aeration is carried out before sailing, but
where a clearance certificate for the cargo hold(s) cannot be issued because of
residual gas and the cargo hold(s) has been re‐sealed before sailing.
Empty cargo holds are to be inspected and/or tested for leakage with instruments so that
proper sealing can be done before or after loading. The fumigator‐in‐charge, accompanied
by a trained representative of the master or a competent person, should determine
whether the cargo holds to be treated are or can be made sufficiently gastight to prevent
leakage of the fumigant to the accommodation, engine‐rooms and other working spaces in
the ship. Special attention should be paid to potential problem areas such as bilge and cargo
line systems. On completion of such inspection and/or test, the fumigator‐in‐charge should
supply to the master for his retention a signed statement that the inspection and/or test has
been performed, what provisions have been made and that the cargo holds are or can be
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 225 of 330
made satisfactory for fumigation. Whenever a cargo hold is found not to be sufficiently
gastight, the fumigator‐in‐charge should issue a signed statement to the master and the
other parties involved.
Accommodation, engine‐rooms, areas designated for use in navigation of the ship,
frequently visited working areas and stores, such as the forecastle head spaces, adjacent to
cargo holds being subject to fumigation in transit should be treated in accordance with the
provisions. Special attention should be paid to gas concentration safety checks.
FUMIGANTS SUITABLE FOR SHIPBOARD USE
The materials listed should be used strictly in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions and safety precautions given on the label or package itself, especially in respect
of flammability, and with regard to any further limitations applied by the law of the country
of loading, destination or flag of the ship, contracts relating to the cargo, or the shipowner’s
instructions.
1. Fumigants against insects in empty cargo holds
TO BE APPLIED ONLY BY QUALIFIED OPERATORS
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen
Methyl Bromide and carbon dioxide mixture
Methyl Bromide
Hydrogen cyanide
Phosphine
2. Fumigants against insects in loaded or partially loaded cargo holds
CARE IS NEEDED IN SELECTING TYPES AND AMOUNTS OF FUMIGANTS FOR TREATMENT OF PARTICULAR
COMMODITIES
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen
Methyl Bromide and carbon dioxide mixture
Methyl Bromide
Phosphine
Fumigant information
Methyl Bromide
Methyl Bromide is used in situations where a rapid treatment of commodities or space is
required. It should not be used in spaces where ventilation systems are not adequate for the
removal of all gases from the free space. In‐ship in‐transit fumigations with Methyl Bromide
should not be carried out. Fumigation with Methyl Bromide should be permitted only when
the ship is in the confines of a port (either at anchor or alongside) and to disinfest before
discharge, once crew members have disembarked. Prior to discharge, ventilation must be
done, forced if necessary, to reduce the gaseous residues below the occupational exposure
limit values set by the flag State regulations in the free spaces.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 226 of 330
Phosphine
A variety of Phosphine‐generating formulations are used for in‐ship in‐transit or at‐berth
fumigations. Application methods vary widely and include surface‐only treatment, probing,
perforated tubing laid at the bottom of spaces, recirculation systems and gas‐injection
systems or their combinations. Treatment times will vary considerably depending on the
temperature, depth of cargo and on the application method used.
Any discharge of active packages producing Phosphine gas represents a significant risk to
the public who may encounter them at sea. It should therefore be ensured that all waste
and residues are disposed of in an appropriate manner, either by incineration or by disposal
on shore, as recommended by the manufacturer.
Clear written instructions must be given to the master of the ship, to the receiver of the
cargo and to the authorities at the discharging port as to how any powdery residues are to
be disposed of.
Fumigation Hose used for of grain at top right corner Probing aluminium phosphide in retrievable sleeves into a bulk cargo
Safe use of pesticides
In recent years the authorities have become increasingly concerned at the dangers associated with
the use of pesticides aboard ships. There is the possibility that edible cargoes will be contaminated
by the use of pesticides and that crew members will be harmed by contact with them.
Before describing routine procedures a warning must be given. On at least one occasion ships’
personnel and stevedores required treatment when they breathed fumigant laden dust from a grain
cargo while it was being loaded! The ship, in a western Canadian port, had received no warning that
the cargo had been fumigated before loading. The Master should enquire whether the intended
cargo is under fumigation or has been fumigated and should arrange for the supply of suitable
approved protective masks if necessary.
Full recommendations for the use of pesticides aboard ship have been published by the IMO. A copy
of this document should be held aboard ship and studied before pesticides are used. The following
paragraphs indicate the areas covered by the recommendations, but it must be emphasised that
pesticides can kill and should not be used except when the full instructions have been studied.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 227 of 330
A ship may be infested by insects or by rats. Infestation by insects may exist aboard ship or may be
brought aboard with the cargo. The purpose of its removal may be to satisfy the agricultural
authorities in the discharge port or to ensure that the cargo remains acceptable to the receiver.
Infestation can cause cargo to overheat. Infestation by rats must be eliminated in accordance with
International Health Regulations. Infestation is assisted by dirt and cargo residues. Holds,
accommodation, storerooms and machinery spaces should be kept very clean to remove any
opportunity for infestation.
Prevention of infestation: Cargo spaces and other parts of the ship should be kept in a good state of
repair, clean and free of rubbish. Any infested material collected during cleaning should be disposed
of or treated immediately so that infestation cannot spread. Treatment of infestation: An infestation
of a cargo space or an infestation of cargo must be eliminated with the use of a fumigant. Fumigants
are administered as gases or liquid sprays and the compartment fumigated must be made gas tight.
Evacuation of the space being fumigated is mandatory and it may be necessary for the whole ship to
be evacuated. The gas may be delivered in pellets which decompose during the voyage and give a
slow release of gas. Fumigant gases are poisonous to humans and their use requires special
equipment and skills. They should be used by specialists and not by the ship’s crew. There are
detailed recommendations for the use of fumigants. The illustrations (Figs. 21.1 and 21.2) show
hoses which are led through the access hatches and put in place in the empty, hold where they
become submerged in the cargo. When loading is completed and the fumigant has been pumped
into the cargo the hose ends on deck are dropped through the access hatches into the hold. The
accesses are then closed and sealed.
In some ports of the USA the fumigation process requires the ship to circulate the fumigant gas
through the cargo for a set number of days. This is achieved by portable fan units situated inside the
access hatches (Fig. 21.3). During the gas circulation strict precautions must be followed to ensure
that the access hatch is fully sealed and does not allow any of the gas to escape. (The access hatch
remains cracked open about 10mm to allow the electric cable through and the crack is sealed with
heavy duty tape such as Ramnek tape. During heavy weather the circulation is suspended, the power
supply disconnected and the access hatch tightly battened down). Ship’s staff must be prohibited
from entering any area where gas circulation is occurring. A large NO–GO area must be maintained
for safety reasons.
Hose for delivering fumigant to grain cargo Fumigant hose ends in empty hold before loading grain
At the end of the circulation period the fans are switched off and unplugged and remain inside the
hatch access until the discharge port. Full safety precautions, using breathing apparatus, must be
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 228 of 330
taken when the fans are switched off and the power cable disconnected. At the arrival berth the fans
can only be removed from the access hatches when the atmosphere is found safe to do so.
Fumigating fan installed in access hatch
The Master should be provided with full written instructions in a language he can readily understand
about the fumigant used and precautions required. The fumigator‐in‐charge is responsible for
evacuating the crew, posting watchmen and warning notices, injecting the fumigant, issuing
respirators if required, testing the spaces to ensure they are gas free, and issuing a clearance
certificate when all traces of gas and fumigant material have been removed.
Fumigation with aeration (ventilation) should always be carried out alongside or at anchorage. The
detailed precautions to be adopted are listed.
In‐transit fumigation: In‐transit fumigation is fumigation which is commenced in port under
specialist supervision, but which continues at sea with only the ship’s crew aboard to supervise and
control the process. It may be proposed if the ship’s stay in port is not long enough for the planned
fumigation, or if it is found that the fumigant gases have not completely dispersed at the planned
time of completion of fumigation and the spaces have to be resealed. It is also likely to be proposed
when an infested cargo such as grain is loaded and fumigation can only commence on completion of
loading or when it is a term of the contract of sale.
In‐transit fumigation is hazardous because of the lack of experience of the crew and the dangerous
nature of fumigants, and is forbidden by some flag State administrations. Before he agrees to in‐
transit fumigation the Master must ensure that he has the permission of the ship’s flag State
administration, and of the port State administration.
At least one officer and one rating are to receive training to enable them to take responsibility for
ensuring safe conditions throughout the ship. They must be familiar with the characteristics and
properties of the fumigant and the manufacturer’s recommendations regarding methods of
detection, symptoms of poisoning, relevant first aid and special medical treatment, and emergency
procedures.
The crew must be briefed. The cargo spaces to be fumigated must be inspected before loading and
must be certified by the specialist as gastight and satisfactory. The ship must carry gas detection
equipment and instructions, at least four sets of appropriate protective equipment, instructions on
disposal of remaining fumigant material, medicines and medical equipment and a copy of the latest
version of the Medical First Aid Guide for Use in Accidents Involving Dangerous Goods (MFAG).
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 229 of 330
The fumigator‐in‐charge must provide a written notice of all spaces which are unsafe to enter during
fumigation and must check surrounding spaces for safety. He must remain aboard until the fumigant
gas reaches sufficiently high concentrations to ensure that any leak can be detected and until such
leaks have been eliminated, and must then issue a written statement that these requirements have
been met and that the ship’s representative is fully trained in the use of the gas detection
equipment provided.
Whilst satisfying the above requirements the fumigator‐in‐charge may be able to leave the ship
before she sails or may undertake part of the voyage with the ship, but in both cases he leaves
before the ship is free of fumigant gas. Whilst in‐transit fumigation is taking place, warning notices
should be posted, adequate stocks of gas detection and respirators (with consumables) should be
maintained and spaces around the compartment being fumigated should be checked every eight
hours or more often, for gas concentrations and the readings obtained should be logged.
Spaces under fumigation should never be entered unless absolutely essential and then only by two
persons, both wearing adequate protective equipment, safety harnesses and lifelines. The lifelines
should be tended by persons outside the space who should also wear self‐contained breathing
apparatus.
In normal circumstances the ventilators will remain sealed and no ventilation will be attempted for a
cargo under fumigation. This will continue either for a stated number of days after which the spaces
are to be ventilated or, less commonly, for the entire passage to the discharge port. When a space
under fumigation has to be ventilated every effort should be made to prevent gases from entering
accommodation or work areas. In these circumstances ventilation is best undertaken when there is a
strong cross‐wind, blowing exhausted air away from the ship. When ventilation takes place
accommodation and work areas should be checked for gas concentrations and if they ever exceed
the threshold limit value (TLV) for the fumigant the space must be evacuated.
At least 24 hours before arriving at the discharge port the Master must inform the authorities that
fumigation‐in‐transit is being carried out and must provide relevant details. The requirements of the
receiving country regarding the handling of fumigated cargo should be established and observed.
Personnel employed in opening hatches should wear respirators and the area should be checked for
gas concentrations, with readings recorded in the log.
Discharge should be carried out by mechanical means. If anyone is required to enter the hold and at
the completion of discharge, it should be checked for gas concentrations and respirators should be
worn if required. When discharge is completed and the ship is free of fumigants and certified as
such, all warning notices should be removed.
Every step in the fumigation process, including instrument readings obtained when required, should
be recorded in the vessel’s log book.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 230 of 330
Chiefmate'sroleduringloading–BulkCarriers
Draught survey: Before the start of loading the chief mate will normally undertake a draught
survey. If an independent surveyor has been appointed the chief mate will accompany him on his
survey, agree soundings and draught readings with him and then complete a separate set of
calculationsbeforecomparingthefinalresultswiththesurveyor.Ifnosurveyorhasbeenappointed
the chief mate will simply take his own readings and complete his own calculations. Similar
procedureswillbefollowedoncompletionofloading.
Instructing junior officers: It is the chief mate who normally prepares the ship’s
loading/deballasting plan, and who is answerable to the Master for its implementation. The chief
matewillhavesupervisedthecleaningandpreparationoftheholdsandwillnormallytakepersonal
chargeofanyofthemorecriticalstepsintheloadingprogramme.Thesecondandthirdmates,and
engine room staff if necessary, will be provided by the chief mate with copies of the
loading/deballastingplanandwillbeinstructedbythechiefmateastohisrequirements.Ifthereare
any special matters to which he wants to draw particular attention, the chief mate will be well
advisedtoputtheminwriting.WheninwritingtheyareavailabletotheOOWforfurtherreference
andstudyastheloadingprogresses.
Commencement of loading: The chief mate will normally be in attendance at the
commencement of loading to ensure that a swift response can be made to any unexpected
problemswhichoccur.Hewilldoublecheckthattheloadercanplumbtheholdandthatthecargois
thecorrectproductbeingloadedintheintendedposition.
Monitoring of tonnages delivered: Problems can be expected if the tonnages of cargo
delivered by the shore installation are inaccurate. Unfortunately, shore personnel are not always
certain of the accuracy of their measuring equipment or honest in informing the ship of the
reliability of the tonnages loaded. When possible it is prudent to make an accurate check of the
tonnagesloadedatintervalsduringtheloading,andthisissomethingthatthechiefmateshouldtry
todobyundertakinginformaldraughtsurveysfromtimetotime,withoutinterruptingloading.Such
surveysareuselessunlessthepreciseballastconditionisknown,sotheyarebestundertakenatthe
endofastageinthedeballastingwhenafullanduptotheminutesetofsoundingsofanyworking
tankscanbeobtainedatthesametimeasafullsetofdraughtreadingsatatimewhenloadingis
interruptedandtheshiploaderismovingfromonepositiontoanother.Thisinformalsurveyisless
importantthananactualdraughtsurvey,soitisacceptabletouseearliersoundingsforballasttanks
which have not been pumped in the meantime. With the information obtained from the informal
draught surveys, the chief mate can calculate whether the shiploader is loading the planned
tonnages or whether it appears to be loading too much or too little. If the errors are consistent a
percentageerrorcanbecalculated,butitwouldbeunwisetoassumethattheerrorsareconsistent
unless this is found in a succession of calculations. If the figure is consistent and significant (and
errorsofupto10percenthavebeenreportedonoccasion)itcanbeusedtoamendthequantities
requiredforthetonnagesineachpour.
Finalstrippingofballasttanks: Thechiefmatewillnormallytaketheopportunityatatime
whenthemaindeballastingiscompleteandtheshiphasagoodsterntrim,tosatisfyhimselfthatall
theballasttankshavebeenstrippedtothefullestextentpossible.Thisisanopportunityforhimto
usehisexperience topumpoutafurthertonnageofstrippings,therebyenablingtheshiptolifta
correspondingadditionaltonnageofcargo.Thefinalsoundingstowhichthestrippingsintheballast
tanksarereducedshouldbecarefullyrecordedforinspectionbyanyindependentdraughtsurveyor.
Soundingsobtainedwhentheshiphasasubstantialsterntrimandproperlycorrectedforthattrim
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 231 of 330
will provide a measurement of the contents remaining which may be more accurate than later
soundingstakenwhenthevesselistrimmedevenkeelpriortosailing.
Trimming pours: The chief mate will calculate the quantities required for the trimming pours
whenhehasobtainedafullsetofdraughtreadingsandhasverifiedthatallpumpableballasthas
beendischarged.Tospeedtheprocessandtominimisetheinterruptioninloadinghemayrelyupon
officerswithVHFhandsetstoreportsomeofthedraughtreadingstohim.Thetonnagesrequired
forthetrimmingpoursandtheholdsinwhichtheyaretobeloadedwillnormallybepassedtothe
loadingforemaninwriting,toavoidmisunderstanding.
Toppingoffofholds: Whentheshipisloadingalowdensitycargosuchascokeorgrain,where
theholdshavetobecompletelyfilled,thechiefmatewilltrytoviewthecompletionofeachholdto
satisfy himself that it has been entirely filled and that no space has been lost. Where a cargo
requirestrimmingtoprovidealevelstowortoensurethemaximumtonnageloaded,thechiefmate
should satisfy himself that the work has been properly done. Where a hold is partfilled on
completion of loading a lowdensity cargo he may wish to observe the ullage or to measure or
estimatethespaceremaining.Whenthespaceremainingisknownthespaceusedcanbecalculated,
permittinganaccuratecalculationofthefinalstowagefactorforthecargo.
Specialrequirementsforparticularcargoes: Manybulkcargoesrequirespecialattention.
The lashing of steel cargoes and of timber deck cargoes, the separation of small parcels of bulk
cargo, and the protection of chemical fertilisers from condensation require particular supervision,
butnoattempthasbeenmadetodealwithsuchmattershere.Thegeneralpointisthatwhenever
thecargorequiresspecialattentionthechiefmatewillbeactivelyinvolved,eitherbyhispresencein
personorbythedetailedinstructionsthathegivestohisjuniorofficers.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 232 of 330
Stevedore Damage Report
Vessel: Date:
Code: Stevedore Damage Report No.:
Voyage: Port:
Lash ing Equipment
A1. Twistlock - Rail & Working Areas Mts. Cell Guides Pos.
A2. Automatic Twistlock B1. Handrail on deck C1. Cell Guide
A3. - Manual Twistlock B2. Handrail other Damaged corner: Mrk.
A4. Box Turnbuckles B3. Foot rails C2. Starboard forward (e.g)
A5. Lashing Rod (short) B4. Cat Walk C3. Starboard aft (e.g)
A6. Lashing Rod (long) B5. Reefer plug C4. Port aft (e.g)
A7. Horizontal Lashing B6. Safety chains C5.
A8. Actuator Pole (Alu) B7. Gangway C6.
A9. Actuator Pole B8. Rail stanchion C7.
A10. (Fiber) Stacking B9. Hatch entrance C8.
A11. Cone Turnbuckle B10. C9.
A12. Spanner B11. C10.
A13. B12. C11.
A14. B13. C12.
B14.
Crane & Spreader Mrk. Hatch Cover Mrk. Hull & Superstructure Mrk.
D1. Wires* E1. Gasket* F1. In hull*
D2. Line Spreader* E2. Pontoon top* F2. Tank Top*
D3. Vessels Own Spreader E3. Pontoon side* F3. Vessel side*
D4. Derrick* E4. etc F4. Fender*
D5. Boom* E5. F5. Communication Gear*
D6. Cable(s)* E6. F6. Navigation Gear*
D7. Wire sheaves* E7. F7. Navigation Gear*
D8. Crane sheaves* E8. F8. etc
D9. etc E9. F9.
D10. E10. F10.
D11. E11. F11.
D12. E12. F12.
D13. E13. F13.
D14. E14. F14.
* Remarks and Independent Survey required.
Remarks and Descriptions:
Repair completed by Stevedore to Master's satisfaction:
Signature & Stamp Signature & Stamp Signature & Stamp
Maersk Appointed Agent Master/ Vessel Stevedore Representative
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 233 of 330
Measurement of bulk cargoes
Draught surveys – practice
The master of a vessel should be advised in adequate time that a draught survey will be taking place.
If it is an initial light ship survey, he should be requested, subject to the safety of the vessel, to ensure
that individual ballast tanks are either fully pressed up or empty – that the vessel is upright, and with
a trim which is within the limits of the tank calibration tables.
When draught surveys are undertaken by independent surveyors, co‐operation of the ship’s officers is
essential.
Independent surveys should be undertaken together, during the relative survey sections, with the
vessel’s chief officer and chief engineer or their appointed respective deputies.
Before undertaking the survey, it is recommended that the surveyor makes time to inspect a general
arrangement plan in order to confirm the number and position of the various ballast, fresh water and
oil bunker tanks on the vessel.
Equipment which may be used in the survey:
- Strong torch
- Patent draught mark indicator or measuring devices (draught tubes, indicators etc)
- Calibrated Inclinometer or manometer
- Steel tape measure with plumb bob / stainless steel sounding tape with brass plumb bob (preferably
calibrated)
- Sea water sampling bucket or can of sufficient volume
- Calibrated patent draught survey hydrometer
- Calibrated salinity refractometer
- Ballast water‐sampling device
- Computer / calculator.
Reading the draught marks
Manometer showing plastic tubing (30-40 m long), fitted at Manometer, showing scale and water level. When a scale
each end with a valve and scale. The valves are to allow is fitted and used for the reading care must be taken that
the water in the tube to beretained without any air bubbles the scale is fixed at the same height on each side.
in it when the device is not in use.
At the time of reading the draught marks, the vessel should be upright with a minimum of trim. The
trim at survey should never exceed the maximum trim for which corrections may be included in the
vessel’s stability book.
The vessel should ideally be lying in still, calm water. Otherwise errors, without ease of correction,
from reading the draught marks can result. For example:
- Vessels lying at exposed berths or anchorages where wave and swell surface disturbance is
almost inevitable; even to the extent that the vessel may be rolling and pitching. In these
circumstances it is usual to assess the actual mean water level over a number of readings to be at
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 234 of 330
two‐thirds of the distance between the lowest and highest levels of water as seen against the
draught marks. Some experts advocate that, after studying wave patterns, a mean of the average
highest and lowest draught readings should be used.
- Vessels which are lying at a river berth or in tidal conditions when strong currents are running.
Under these conditions the draught marks should ideally be read over periods of slack water
(provided that at a low water slack there is sufficient under‐keel clearance).
- Currents of appreciable strengths are likely to cause the vessel to change trim or pitch slightly
and/or sink bodily into the water from her static draught (‘squat’). This phenomenon becomes
more pronounced in shallow waters (shallow water effect).
- Strong currents will result in raised water levels against the leading edge of a stationary vessel
lying in flowing water. This is especially true when the flow is in the direction of a vessel’s bulbous
bow.
Draught marks must be read on both sides of the vessel: forward port and starboard; amidships port
and starboard, and; aft port and starboard or, alternatively, if additional marks are displayed on large
vessels at all the designated positions. Should draught marks not be in place amidships, distances
from the deck line to the water line on both sides of the vessel must be measured. The amidships
draughts can then be calculated from load line and freeboard data extracted from the vessel’s
stability booklet.
Draught marks should be read with the observer as close to the water line as is safe and reasonably
possible, in order to reduce parallax error.
Although it is common practice to read the offside draught marks from a rope ladder, a launch or
small boat provides a more stable environment and brings the observer to a safer position closer to
the water line.
A vessel’s remote draught gauge should never be used for surveys, due to lack of the necessary
accuracy and the possibility of errors, which may accumulate over the working life of the instrument.
When adverse weather conditions are being experienced, access to the offside draught marks may
prove difficult or impossible. At these times the draughts on the nearside can be read and the offside
draughts calculated using a manometer (Addendum 1). This method should never be used when the
offside draughts can be safely observed and accurately read. If, as a final resort, this method cannot
be undertaken, the use of a fully calibrated inclinometer, graduated to minutes of arc, is strongly
recommended. The type of inclinometer fitted to vessels is not usually of sufficient accuracy to be
used.
Density of the water in which the vessel is floating
It is prudent to obtain samples of water in which the vessel is floating at, or very close to, the time at
which the draught marks are read. This is particularly relevant when the vessel is lying at a estuarial or
river berth when density of the water may be changing, due to the ebb or flow of the tide.
Depending upon the length of the vessel under survey, a number of samples, say between one and
three, should be taken. In order to overcome the problem of layering, the samples should be obtained
using a closed sampling can at a depth of approximately half the existing draught of the vessel.
Alternatively, a slowfilling container can be used to obtain an average sample from keel to waterline.
When reading the hydrometer floating in the sample of water, the eye of the observer should be as
close to the water level as possible, to avoid parallax errors and also to avoid further errors due to the
meniscus (Addendum 2).
Ballast water tanks
Ballast water tanks including peaks, even those said to be empty, must be carefully sounded or
proven to be full by pressing up and overflowing from all air pipes when local regulations permit. If
the ballast hold contains ballast water, this compartment must not be fully pressed up but be
carefully sounded and the weights of the water carefully calculated.
Spaces such as the duct keel and voids – especially those of the lower stools situated at the base of
transverse bulkheads, between cargo holds – must be checked when safe to do so, and proved in
same condition at initial and final surveys. These voids often contain the manhole access covers to the
adjacent double‐bottom tanks. If these covers are not totally watertight, then the voids will flood, or
partially flood, during ballasting or pressing up of the tanks, potentially resulting in huge errors in the
lightship or ballast survey.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 235 of 330
As noted above, the calculation of the weight of ballast water is undoubtedly the most usual source of
errors which may result in very large, and unacceptable, inaccuracies of the cargo quantity as
calculated by draught survey.
Density of the ballast water
It should be established, with the chief officer, where the various ballast tanks were filled. If from a
single source, the sea, a few random samples of the water will confirm its density. If from different
sources, docks or rivers, etc samples must be taken from the tanks containing water from these
various sources and relevant densities of the water in individual tanks established.
Do not overflow the tanks substantially to obtain samples unless local regulations permit; instead use
sampling equipment suitable for tanks that are only partially filled.
When small samples are obtained, use a salinity refractometer to establish density (see below). When
larger samples have been obtained, a draught survey hydrometer may be used. See details above.
Establishing the correct weights of oils on board
This can be established either by sounding or ullaging of the tanks or, in the case of the engine room
daily service and settling tanks, by reading the gauges.
The volumes of oils in each and every tank should be measured and recorded.
The relative densities of the most recently delivered oils on board can be obtained from the bunker
delivery certificates. However bunkers are almost inevitably mixed with oils already on board, the
densities of which are likely to differ. The relative density of the contents may be calculated using the
following formula:
RD of tank contents at survey = (Old oil volume x Old RD) + (New bunker volume x New RD)
Total volume of oil in tank
After completion of the bunker survey the totals of each oil found must be agreed with the chief
engineer and the master.
Calculations & associated corrections of vessel’s displacement from draught
readings
Before extracting hydrostatic data from the vessel’s stability book, care should be taken by surveyors
to familiarise themselves with the format and methods used to display the various particulars,
especially the means of depicting positions of Lcf (longtitudinal centre of flotation) etc, relative to
amidships or alternatively the after perpendicular.
When using a recommended draught survey computer programme or alternatively calculating directly
from data extracted from the hydrostatic particulars contained within the vessel’s stability book it is
essential that the data is carefully and properly interpolated or, in what should prove to be a rare
event, extrapolated.
As mentioned below, one of the areas where significant errors often result is from the incorrect
application of the sign in respect of the position of the Lcf (in the first trim correction).
When undertaking initial and final ‘displacement draught surveys’ to establish weight(s) of cargo
loaded, or alternatively unloaded, the difference between the net displacement weights provides the
‘total cargo’ quantity. Nonetheless it is recommended for a cross check that, at the light ship/ballast
survey, the vessel’s light ship weight is deducted from net displacement found. The resultant then
provides the vessel’s ‘constant’ at that time. These unknown weights might also be termed the
vessel’s ‘stores variable’. Although variable, for a number of reasons as later discussed, it should serve
as a guide to the accuracy of the light ship/ballast survey.
Comparison between ‘stores variable’ quantities, or mean thereof, established at previous surveys should
be treated with caution unless the variable is a direct comparison that can be made. For example, all
surveys include a check and a record of the engine lubricating oil held in storage tank(s), etc. Occasionally,
surveyors report a ‘negative’ stores variable which is theoretically impossible unless, in extremely rare
instances, the vessel had been subject to modification, and large quantities of structural steel removed,
without being subject to a further inclining experiment and commensurate correction of the relevant data
contained in the vessel’s stability book.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 236 of 330
Charterparties often contain reference to an approximate quantity for the vessel’s ‘constant’, which may
well create a discussion between master and surveyor should the constant found by survey to be
substantially larger than that quoted by the owners. The surveyor, after relevant checks, should remain
confident in the figure obtained, but always record on documents issued to the master and clients, any
unusual factors or difficulties experienced during survey. These include any differences between
surveyors, should owners, charterers or shippers each appoint separate survey companies to act on their
behalf.
Documentation
At completion of survey, a ‘survey work sheet’ or computer printout should be placed on board the
vessel recording the data and calculations used to obtain the cargo loaded/ unloaded quantity. This
document is usually produced by individual survey companies, or by shipping companies for use by
their officers.
A formal ‘survey report’ should be submitted to clients at a later date. Specific formal documentation
has been drawn up, amongst others by IMO, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe and
various P&I Clubs.
The formal report document should not only include details of the survey, but also: Dates and times
of surveys.
Vessel particulars.
Ship’s location.
Weather conditions (and whether these were within acceptable limits).
Sea conditions (and whether these were within acceptable limits).
Tidal/current conditions (and whether these were within acceptable limits).
A record of any difficulties or defects in a ship’s documentation or equipment which might cause the
calculated weight by draught displacement survey to be outside acceptable limits of normal draught
survey measurement error.
Expert opinion
Surveys must be carried out to the very best of the surveyors’ ability, with each part of the survey conducted
as accurately as possible in order to minimize procedural and/or measurement errors which could effect the
quantity of cargo recorded by survey as being loaded or discharged. The final report should include details of
any defect or circumstance regarding weather, surface water, tides/ currents or on board conditions which the
surveyor considers might well influence the result adversely.
Cumulative errors
Errors can occur when reading and correcting the draughts. The final fully corrected 3/4 mean
draught should be within +/‐ 10 mm of the true mean draught.
Errors of calculation. The main error to be avoided in this section is that of incorrectly positioning the
LCF relative to LBP/2 the amidship point.
Error of the water density in which the vessel is floating. Always ensure an average sample, or
alternatively the average of a number of water samples are obtained and the correct type of
certificated hydrometer is used to obtain the density.
Sounding of tanks. Leaving aside documented tables which may not be accurate, the way of avoiding
the main errors in this section of the survey is by ensuring, as best possible, that all volumes of liquids,
especially ballast water, on board are both correctly quantified and attributed with correct densities.
These factors, particularly when applied to ballast water, undoubtedly contribute to the largest
number and degree of errors likely to be encountered in draught surveying. Bearing these
reservations in mind, a well conducted draught survey under reasonable prevailing conditions is
capable of achieving an absolute accuracy of +/‐ 0.5%
Draught surveys – theory
Draught surveying is a commercially acceptable form of weighing that is based on Archimedes Principle, which
states that anything that floats will displace an amount of the liquid it is floating in that is equal to its own
weight.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 237 of 330
Briefly, the weight of the ship is determined both before and after loading and allowances made for
differences in ballast water and other changeable items. The difference between these two weights is the
weight of the cargo.
In order to do this the depth that the ship is floating at is assessed from the ‘draught marks’ and the vessels
stability book is consulted to obtain the hydrostatic particulars such as the ‘displacement’ and other necessary
data. Several corrections are required and the quantities of ballast and other consumable items need to be
assessed so as to obtain the net weights as follows.
The weight of an empty ship consists of three elements
1. Empty ship FIXED ITEM
2. Stores CONSIDERED FIXED
3. Ballast oil and fresh water CHANGEABLE
Empty net weight = Empty ship + Stores
The weight of a loaded ship consists of four elements
1. Empty ship FIXED ITEM
2. Stores CONSIDERED FIXED
3. Ballast oil and fresh water CHANGEABLE
4. Cargo FIXED ITEM
Loaded net weight = Empty ship + Stores + Cargo
Therefore the cargo weight is the difference in the net weights.
Density
Density is mass per unit volume at a given temperature. As already stated weight can be considered the same
as mass as far as draught surveying is concerned. Therefore the weight of the block above is its underwater
volume multiplied by the density of the liquid in which it is floating.
Weight in vacuum
The density of a substance can be determined by weighing a unit volume, which in the case of the metric
system is a cubic metre. If a quantity of liquid – for example, fresh water or sea water – is weighed on a
balance or on a weighbridge against the equivalent of brass weights then the atmosphere will exercise an
upward thrust upon the water much greater than the upward thrust exercised on the smaller volume of brass
weights. This ‘air buoyancy’ effect is in fact the same as the buoyancy force for a body immersed in a fluid, as
explained in the Archimedes’ Principle. However, this time the fluid is air, which has a density of 0.00125 t/m3
(the density of dry sea air at sea level is about 1/800th of the density of fresh water, ie 1.25 kg/m3). If the
weight of the unit volume is corrected for this ‘air buoyancy’ effect, the result is weight in vacuum which is
equivalent to mass. For all practical purposes it is accepted that the density of fresh water is 1000 kg/m3 and
that of sea water 1025 kg/m3.
Apparent density
It is commercial practice to make no allowance for air buoyancy so that commercial weights are normally
weights in air. Weight in air per unit volume is known as apparent density and this should be the criteria used
for all draught surveys as, after all, the ship is in air not in a vacuum.
The Zeal Draught Survey Hydrometer reads ‘apparent density in air kg/Lt @150 C’ and is an industry standard
accepted worldwide.
Reading the draughts
Draught marks (the depth at which the ship is floating) are so constructed as to make the reading of them
simple.
Metric marks are 10 cm high and are placed 10 cm apart.
The steel plate they are made from is 2 cm wide. There are still a few ships using the ‘Imperial’ system but they
are now few and far between. However for the sake of reference, the Imperial system has numbers that are six
inches high and located six inches apart with the numbers constructed from one inch wide steel plate.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 238 of 330
Metric marks
The photo shows some draught marks in the metric system. The picture shows depths from 8.49 metres to
9.64 metres. The water level is at 8.49 metres as half the width of the top of the ‘4’ is visible above the water
level (the number is made from 2 cm wide steel plate). Some numbers are easier to assess thanothers. For
example, in the diagram each pair of lines is 2 cm apart and it can be seen that the assessment of the depth is
easy when the water level is across the ‘8’. The ‘6’ and the ‘9M’ in the picture would also have the same easy
to read features.
Some small coasters are often only marked at the midships point with a designated line (again 2cm wide)
called the deck line. The upper edge of this is at a known distance from the keel (’K’) which is the summation
of the vessels official summer freeboard and summer draught. Draughts are then calculated by measuring the
actual freeboard (distance of the upper edge of the deck line from the water level) with a measuring tape and
deducting it from the ‘K’.
The stability book
All ships are provided with a stability book, which includes a section of hydrostatic particulars giving data for
different draughts. Included in these are Displacement, Tpc, Lcf and Mctc. Each of these is required in order to
calculate the survey and they are tabulated for any given draught. Taking each in turn:
Displacement (Δ)
Displacement is the weight of the ship. It is the underwater volume multiplied by a density. In the majority of
cases the standard density used is 1.025 although there are many other in use such as 1.027, 1.000, 1.02522
etc. In order to obtain the volume the displacement is divided by whichever density has been used to compile
the data.
Tpc
Represents ‘tonnes per centimetre’ of immersion. It is the weight that must be loaded or discharged in order
to change the ships mean draught by one centimetre.
Lcf
Represents ‘longitudinal centre of flotation’. It is the position about which the ship will trim when weights are
loaded or discharged. It is the geometric centre of the water‐plane, and will move as the shape of the water‐
plane changes when weights are loaded or discharged.
The water‐plane is the area of the ships hull that would be visible if the ship was cut off at the waterline.
Mctc
This stands for ’moment to change trim 1 centimetre’. It is the moment required to change the trim of the
vessel by one centimetre (a ‘moment’ is weight x distance). Mctc is used in the second trim correction.
Other necessary data provided within the stability book are the following:
Light ship
The weight of the ship complete in all respects when empty, but with full equipment, engine spares, water in
the boiler and lubricating oil in the engine.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 239 of 330
Deadweight
The weight a ship can carry. Deadweight includes any fuel, water, ballast, passengers, crew and stores. It is the
difference between light ship and displacement at any draught. ‘Cargo carrying capacity’, therefore, depends
on the amount of fuel water and ballast remaining on completion of loading, and any additions which will be
required by the ship on passage to its final port of discharge.
LBP
Represents ‘length between perpendiculars’. A ship is built to plans and the plans are drawn around two
perpendicular lines that represent the forward (FP) and aft (AP) extremities of the section of the ship from
which the volume is calculated.
The remaining two sections of the ship, the small part of the bow and stern sections, called the appendages,
are added in afterward.
The forward perpendicular is considered to be where the load water line (summer load line) cuts the line of
the foreside of the bow. The aft perpendicular is where it cuts the aft edge of the rudder post, or in the case of
most modern vessels where no rudder post is fitted, the centre line of the rudder stock.
Calculating a ship’s draught
The mean draught at which the ship is floating cannot be calculated by simple average because ships are not
rectangular, or box like, in shape and because they bend due to the distribution of weight on board. The
draughts themselves also need to be corrected before they can be used.
Perpendicular corrections
As mentioned above, ships volumes are calculated around the section of the vessel that lies between the
forward and aft perpendiculars (FP and AP). When a ship is built the draught marks are located at convenient
positions on the hull and these will not always be at the perpendiculars. For calculation purposes, the draughts
at the perpendiculars are required and this is done with the use of similar triangles.
The actual trim of the vessel, in relation to the length of the vessel between the draught marks, is one of a pair
of similar triangles. The other is the correction in relation to the distance the draught marks are displaced from
the relevant perpendicular. Therefore these two triangles can be used to correct the draught mark readings to
what they would be at the perpendiculars. For example:
Forward Corr’n = Apparent Trim x Fd
LBM
Where: Apparent trim = trim at the draught marks.
Fd = distance of forward draught marks from Perpendicular
LBM = length between draught marks
The calculation of the aft and, sometimes, a midships correction uses the same formula but substitutes the
distances of the midships or aft draught marks from the relevant perpendicular (the midships perpendicular is
located at LBP/2).
Each of these corrections is applied according to the following rule:
If the direction of the displacement of the draught marks from the relevant perpendicular is the same as the
direction of the trim, then the correction applied to the observed draught is negative, otherwise it is positive.
3/4 mean draught
Ships bend (hog or sag) due to the distribution of the weights in the various holds and tanks on board. The ship
is assumed to bend as a parabola and the area below a parabola, in a circumscribing rectangle, is equal to
twice the area above the parabola, or in other words the area under the parabola is two‐thirds the total area.
The mathematics of this fact is not important from the point of view of draught surveying. What is important,
is to understand the effect it has on a ship that is hogged or sagged (hogged is when the vessel is deflected
upwards in its central section, and sagged is the opposite).
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 240 of 330
e.g. If a box‐shaped barge’s draught readings produce an arithmetical mean of the forward and aft draughts
that is more than the middle draught then this indicates that the barge is hogged. Utilising the maths of the
parabola, the lost section of volume (yellow area in the diagram) is 2/3 of the box that encloses it. To calculate
the effect of this the following formula would be used:
Mean adjusted draught = (4 x Middle) + Forward + Aft
6
(4/6 of the middle draught is 2/3 or 66.67%)
The resulting draught calculated is the mean draught adjusted to compensate for the deflection in the barge
structure. This is known as the two‐thirds mean correction, and was derived directly from ‘Simpson’s First
Rule’ for finding an area under a curve. This is fine for a box shape, but ships are very rarely box shaped.
Calculations have shown that the most likely amount of correction required for hog or sag on a conventionally
shaped ship is threequarters or 75 %. The formula for this is called the 3/4 mean draught and is as follows:
3/4 mean draught = (6 x Middle) + Forward + Aft)
8
(6/8 of the middle draught is 3/4 or 75%)
This is the draught used to enter the ships hydrostatic tables and obtain the displacement of the ship.
However, the displacement scale in the ships stability book is calculated for the ship on an even keel and in an
upright condition; that is without any trim or list. Ships rarely appear in that state, although it has been known.
Therefore, two corrections are now required to give the true displacement.
First trim correction, (layer correction)
Sometimes called the ‘A’ correction
A ship trims about the longitudinal centre of flotation (Lcf).
This is the geometric centre of the water plane at any time.
The water plane is the area of the ship shape if it were cut off at the water line. It obviously changes as draught
increases as the shape becomes more rounded aft while remaining more pointed at the bow. A diagram will
explain this better.
The position of Lcf is crucial to the calculation of the draught survey. The ‘true mean draught’ is the draught at
the Lcf and not the draught amidships; unless, of course, Lcf is positioned at amidships.
Consider the following diagrams.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 241 of 330
In the above diagram the ship is on an even keel and the draught at the Lcf is the same as the draught at
amidships.
However, if a weight within the ship is moved further aft, the ship will trim about the Lcf so that she is deeper
aft and not so deep forward; as in the next diagram. The displacement will not have changed, as the trim is
achieved by moving a weight already on board and the draught at the Lcf remains the same.
In the above diagram the change to the forward draught is greater than the change to the aft draught because
the ship is trimming about the Lcf and the draught at the Lcf is greater than the draught amidships, which is
the mean of the forward and aft draughts. In order to obtain the true mean draught (the draught at the Lcf) a
correction needs to be applied to the adjusted mean draught (the 3/4 mean draught). This correction is called
the layer correction and is easily calculated using similar triangles as follows.
The green trim triangle is similar to the red layer triangle as both have two of their sides in the same
proportion and their included angles are equal.
Therefore:
Layer correction = Trim x Distance of Lcf from amidships
LBP
In this case the true mean draught is the draught amidships plus the layer correction. Had the Lcf been forward
of amidships the correction would have been negative.
The above corrections are in metres and can be applied to the 3/4 mean draughts to give the true mean
draught.
However, the normal method used is to calculate the correction in tonnes. The displacement is taken out of
the tables for the 3/4 mean draught and the layer correction applied as a negative or positive correction in
tonnes by using the Tpc at that draught (Tpc is the number of tonnes required to sink the ship one centimetre).
This is the first trim correction, and is calculated using the following formula:
First trim correction = Trim (in centimetres) x Lcf x Tpc
LBP
Where Lcf is measured in metres from amidships,
The correction is applied according to the following rule:
If the Lcf and trim are in the same direction the correction is positive and alternatively when they are in opposite
directions the correction is negative.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 242 of 330
Position of Lcf
The understanding of how Lcf moves is crucial. In the above formula it is measured from amidships and it is
absolutely essential that it is understood which side of amidships it is. There have been more incorrect draught
survey results obtained due to getting this detail wrong than anything else.
The position of Lcf, in the hydrostatic particulars, is indicated by three main methods. These are:
1. Either with a minus (‐) sign or a plus (+) sign, indicating a direction from amidships (see below).
2. Or labelled with the letters ‘a’ or ‘f’ (sometimes ‘aft’ or ‘ford’) indicating aft or forward of amidships.
3. Or as a distance from the aft perpendicular (in which case the distance and direction from amidships
can be easily calculated by use of the LBP/2).
The latter is the clearest method.
The use of (‐) and (+) signs can be very confusing depending on what the compiler of the tables meant by their
use. In Russian and in Korean shipyards (‐) means aft of amidships but they also refer to aft trim as (‐). The
European convention is to use (+) to mean aft of amidships and aft trim. The main reason for errors in applying
the Lcf in the first trim correction are an obsession with the (+) or (‐) signs as being mathematical. They are in
fact only an indicator of which side of amidships Lcf is located and that depends on the shipbuilder’s logic.
Usually the convention used is indicated at the beginning of the tables or somewhere on the pages listing the
data.
Lcf is the centre of the of the vessel’s waterplane area and as such is a function of the shape of the vessel on
the waterline at any given draught and nothing else.
Because the water plane changes shape to get rounder at the aft part, as the ship gets deeper, the Lcf moves
aft as displacement increases and forward as displacement decreases but does not necessarily move through
amidships.
This means that from light to loaded condition Lcf will move either from:
- Forward to less forward.
- Forward to aft.
- Aft to more aft.
In the absence of reliable information as to the convention used in the hydrostatic tables, these facts should
help to determine which side of amidships Lcf lies. Therefore, when displacement is increasing, if the actual
number (indicating the position of Lcf from midships) is decreasing, then it is forward of amidships (it is getting
closer to zero, which is when it is at amidships) and if it is increasing it is aft of amidships (it has already passed
zero at amidships and is moving further aft).
Note:
A recent anomaly to this rule was found with a ship that was completely box shaped except for the bow area.
In this rare case the movement of Lcf was dictated by the shape of the bow alone,and Lcf initially moved aft
and then forward as the vessels draught increased.
Under normal circumstances, when loading a ship the Lcf can be expected to be further aft at the final survey
than at the initial survey. In some cases (Russian river ships in particular) the Lcf is always aft of amidships. The
opposite situation will exist when discharging cargo. Normal circumstances mean that the draught is greater
after loading or, conversely, less after discharge. This may not always be the case, as a ship could load a small
parcel of cargo and at the same time discharge a greater amount of ballast, thus being less deep than before
loading due to the extra ballast discharged.
When Lcf is shown, in the vessels hydrostatics tables, as measured from the aft perpendicular, then a simple
calculation will give its position in relation to amidships (see 3 above).
Lcf from amidships = LBP/2 – distance from aft perpendicular.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 243 of 330
Second trim correction, (Nemoto’s correction)
Sometimes called the ‘B’ correction
The recorded data for Lcf is for an even keel condition, but as the ship trims the waterplane will change shape.
This change of shape involves the waterplane increasing in size aft and decreasing forward, and in this
situation the position of Lcf will change by moving further aft to maintain its geometric position in the centre.
The new position is not tabulated in the normal hydrostatic tables and a second trim correction is required to
compensate for this. It is known as Nemoto’s correction, after the Japanese naval architect. The correction is a
compromise but is reasonably accurate up to trims of about 1% of the vessels length.
Second trim correction = Trim2 x 50 x (dm~dz)
LBP
This correction is always positive
(dm~dz) is the rate of change of Mctc per unit of draught (1 metre). It is the difference in Mctc for 50 cm above
and below the mean draught. The derivation of this formula and the evaluation of the expression dm~dz is not
important.
Mctc, known as the trimming moment, is the moment required to change the vessels trim by one centimetre.
Heel correction
In situations where a substantial heel exists, a correction should be applied. The effect of heel (or list) is to
increase the waterplane area and thus lift the ship out of the water.
Correction (in tonnes) = 6 x (TPC1 ~ TPC2) x (Draught1 ~ Draught2)
Where 1 is port side and 2 is starboard.
This correction is always positive.
Summary
Once both trim corrections, and if required the heel correction, have been applied to the displacement for the
3/4 mean draught, we then have the weight of the ship if it were in salt water of the same density as the ship’s
tables.
Density correction
Once the displacement – obtained from the 3/4mean draught and the ‘A’, ‘B’ and, if required, heel corrections
– has been found it needs to be corrected for the density of the water in which the ship is floating.
The displacement of the vessel, from the ship’s hydrostatic tables, is calculated at the density used to compile
the tables.
When divided by this density, it gives the volume of the ship. This volume is then multiplied by the density of
the water the ship is floating in to obtain the true weight of the ship.
Therefore:
True displacement = Displacement in salt water x Density of the dock water
Density used to compile the ships tables
The reason for saying ‘density of the ships tables’ is that some vessels are built in shipyards where 1.020
mt/m3, 1.027 mt/m3 or some other figure may be used for the hydrostatic particulars. However the norm in
99% of cases is to calculate tables at a density of 1.025 mt/m3.
Alternative hydrostatic information
There are some vessels that do not have a tabulated value for Lcf. Generally these are small coasters.
There are two types of table in use. One requires the calculation of Lcf from trim factors. The other uses a set
of tables, which give a displacement with inclusive trim and density corrections. In this case the calculation of
the actual true displacement involves a simple, if long‐winded, interpolation.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 244 of 330
Trim factors
Trim factors are derived from the position of Lcf. They are a quick way for the vessel’s chief mate to calculate
his final trim when loading the ship.
Because Lcf is not listed in the tables its position has to be calculated from the trim factors, which are
tabulated as ‘ford’ and ‘aft’. A formula to calculate the position of Lcf is:
Lcf from aft perpendicular = aft factor x LBP
ford factor + aft factor
Final net weight
Regardless of the method used to obtain the true displacement of the ship, the weight of the variable items
mentioned at the beginning of this section must be deducted to produce the net weight. This net weight of the
ship is the total weight (true displacement) minus the ballast fuel and fresh water quantities. This should also
include any other items that have been identified and measured such as dirty oil (slops), swimming pool
quantities and shore machinery on board for example payloders, bobcats and bulldozers etc. These latter
items sometimes remain on board whilst the survey is taking place and must be allowed for in the calculation.
The net weight, in the case of an empty ship survey, will be the weight of the ship including the ‘constant’. In
the case of a loaded ship, it will be the weight of the ship, the ‘constant’ and the cargo. Clearly the weight of
the cargo is the difference between these two weights.
Constant
Under the heading ‘stability book’, light ship was stated to be the weight of the empty ship in operational
condition.
This is:
The ship, its full equipment, engine room spares, water in the boilers to working level and lubricating oil in the
engine.
It does not include:
Personnel, cargo, fuel oils, ballast water, fresh water or stores.
The weights of ballast water, fresh water and fuel are calculated and are known collectively as the
‘deductibles’ or ‘total variables’. Once this total weight is subtracted from the true displacement, a net weight
is left that is either the ship and stores, or the ship, stores and cargo depending on whether it is an empty or
loaded ship survey.
This stores quantity – the difference between the light ship weight and the empty ship survey – is often
referred to as the ‘constant’. Constant is a misnomer and it should really be referred to as a ‘stores variable’.
A ship’s constant’ may be affected by a variety of changes, such as under or over stated fuel figures, slops, mud
in ballast tanks, incorrect ballast calibration tables, crew and stores changes, etc. and it should not be
considered a fixed amount. Also a vessels light ship weight can change over the years due to a variety of
additions and removals from the structure. These could be due to a variety of factors such as rebuilding,
repairs, additions and modifications. As a consequence the vessels constant will include these changes unless a
new light ship survey is carried out after each instance. From experience, this usually only happens after a
rebuild or major additions.
The reason for a survey when the vessel is empty is to determine this variable quantity (constant). The vessel’s
previous experience of this constant may be the result of unreliable and badly carried out surveys. Many
surveys include the lube oil in the constant and others do not. The constant can also be affected by
understated fuel figures from the chief engineer, who may be keeping a quantity of oil ‘up his sleeve’ for a
rainy day!
However, within reason this stores variable quantity (constant) can be considered to remain fixed for the
duration of the ships stay in port. This is assuming that the surveyor takes note of any major changes that take
place to the stores between the initial and final surveys. In other words it can be considered as a reliable
measurement of the ships stores etc for that reasonably short period of time.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 245 of 330
Measuring the variable quantities
These are the fuel and lubricating oil, the fresh water for the operation of the vessel and, most important of
all, the ballast water that is contained in the various tanks in the hull.
Fuel and oils are required for the engine and auxiliaries to perform. Fresh water provides drinking, cooking and
sanitary water for the crew, water for the boiler and some engine room uses. Ballast is to provide the ship with
sufficient weight when she is not carrying any cargo. As a general rule of thumb the amount of ballast a ship is
able to load is somewhere around 1/3 of her summer deadweight, although some small low air draught vessels
have been designed with up to 75% of summer deadweight. Large bulk carriers, that can carry 150,000 tonnes
of cargo, will be provided with something like 50,000 to 60,000 tonnes of ballast capacity.
All these materials are contained in tanks that are distributed around the ship. Some diagrams of basic ships
structure will demonstrate this more clearly.
Cross section views of some ship types:
Sounding of ballast and fresh water tanks
With only a few exceptions, all tanks on board ships are fitted with a ‘sounding pipe’ which allows access to
the tank to obtain a measurement of the depth of liquid inside. This pipe is usually about 40 to 50 mm in
diameter and extends from just above the bottom of the tank to deck level or above.
The measurement of the quantity of liquid in the tank is obtained by the use of a sounding rod or a graduated
dipping tape. To assist in this measurement, water finding paste is often used to give a clear mark at the water
level.
One paste, in common use, is yellow and changes to red on contact with water. Other colours of paste can be
found or even the use of chalk will show where the water level is.
Many ships have a cargo hold that is also nominated as a ballast tank when not in use to carry cargo.
Sometimes these ballast holds have a designated sounding point, which can be the bilge‐sounding pipe, a
separate sounding pipe, or sometimes a hole in the hatchcover. Whichever it is, it should be related to a
calibration table giving volumes for the soundings.
Failing this, the volume is calculated by using the grain capacity of the hold and deducting from it the space
remaining in the hatch coaming when the hold is almost full with ballast water. To do this the space remaining
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 246 of 330
in the coaming is measured and deducted from the hold’s grain capacity. The water level in the hold must be
at least up to the level of the deck plates for it to be reliable. Grain capacity is the volume of a hold and can be
found in the stability book.
The ballast quantity is the biggest source of errors in a draught survey. It is vital to understand that the object
is to measure the change in the amount of ballast between surveys.
Fresh water
Fresh water tanks are either sounded as for other tanks, or they are often fitted with water gauges graduated
directly in m3 – which are tonnes, as the density of fresh water can be assumed to be 1.000. These gauges take
the form of transparent plastic tubes fitted to the outside of the tank with the open ends connected to the
water inside. The water finds its own level in the tube.
Care has to be taken with the quantities, as most ships now use fresh water for toilet flushing and therefore a
lot of the water that has apparently been used, during the vessels stay in port, may have been placed in a
sewage holding tank. So a change in the fresh water of say 20 tonnes over a couple of days may only be 5
tonnes that have left the ship. Therefore the change to the fresh water is only 5 tonnes not 20.
Fuel and oil
The quantity of fuel and oil on board can be ascertained by carrying out a bunker survey. However this is not
normally necessary, as the amount of oil consumed by the static generators that the ship operates, and any
boiler that may be in use during the ships stay in port, is small and well documented.
Therefore, unless the total quantity of fuel is to be determined by bunker survey, the procedure is as follows:
The quantity of fuel oil, diesel oil, lubrication oil and slops on arrival should be by agreed with the
chief engineer.
The quantity of oils remaining on departure, is calculated by subtracting the daily consumption figure
and adding the total of any bunkers received between the arrival and departure surveys. Care should
be taken that the final quantity is not arrived at by sounding the storage tanks – only the original
agreed figure, minus consumption and plus any deliveries should be used. In this way, only the
changes between initial and final surveys will be calculated.
Any slops that have been discharged ashore will also need to be allowed for. A check should be made
on the quantity of slops on board and, in particular, if it is the ships intention to discharge any ashore.
Calculating volumes
Once the soundings are obtained for all of the ballast tanks and, if necessary, the fresh water tanks, the
volume of water in each tank is extracted from the vessels tank calibration tables. As with the hydrostatic
tables, these also come in a variety of forms. They can be either numerical or in graphic form and can
sometimes be difficult to interpret. If the ship has no trim or heel, i.e. on an even keel and upright, then the
depth of water at the sounding pipe will be the same throughout the tank. However when any trim or heel is
present, which is the usual case, either the volumes or the soundings will need to be corrected as the water
will be deeper in the
direction of the trim or heel.
The type of table can sometimes affect the accuracy of the value extracted. Some tables have built‐in trim
corrections, which give the volumes for each metre, or half metre, of trim and maybe even for every
centimetre of sounding. Others have a separate table of corrections to be applied to the soundings, while
some ships’ tables have no trim correction at all. Heel corrections, if provided, are usually in a separate table
that give either a correction to the sounding or to the volume.
Sounding tables with volumes for each metre of trim will give reliable quantities, although problems compared
to the trim on completion at the load port in relation to that on arrival at the disport can arise (see small
trimmed ballast volumes below).
Tables with corrections to the soundings will give reliable quantities as long as there is sufficient sounding to
which the correction can be applied (see small trimmed ballast volumes below).
Tables without trim corrections require the vessel, at the time of the survey, to be as close to even keel as
possible, otherwise the volumes will be in error. The resultant error can be partially compensated for by
calculating a correction to the sounding using the following formula:
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 247 of 330
Approximate correction to sounding = trim x tank length
2 x LBP
Some small coasters do not have ballast tables. Therefore when the tanks have been pumped out, but not
totally empty of liquids, and only small soundings are found, the volume of any wedge shaped residues can be
calculated using the following formula.
Volume of wedge = Length of tank x breadth of tank x sounding2
2 x vessels trim
The use of this formula must also be regarded as an approximation as it depends on the tank being of, or close
to, rectangular in shape. The residual quantities must be a wedge and not just deeper at the back of the tank.
Volume is a wedge if the length of the tank is greater than:
Sounding x LBP
Trim
Small trimmed ballast volumes
Consider a ship that has completed loading and with a trim say of one or two metres and soundings of zero
centimetres in each of the various ballast tanks. This is not unusual if the vessel has been ableto strip out her
ballast during loading operations, with a good stern trim promoting continuous suction to the ballast pump,
and thus producing tanks almost devoid of ballast.
However, there will still be some ballast, known as the unpumpable residue, remaining in the tank even
though the amount indicated at the sounding point is zero. This amount will be less the greater the trim, and
on a ship provided with the type of table that gives volumes for each metre of trim, the residual volumes will
be small. Should the vessel then arrive at the disport on an even keel, as is usually the case, the same tables
can give larger volumes of water for the same zero sounding. This is because, when the vessel has no trim, any
unpumpable residue is considered to cover the bottom of the tank completely and the volume is therefore
greater than when the same zero sounding was found with the ship trimmed 2 metres by the stern and the
remaining quantity was wedge shaped. The disparity can affect the result of the survey at discharge and
indicate a reduction in the cargo quantity compared to the loaded weight.
On the other hand, when the tables have separate corrections to be applied to the soundings a different
scenario exists. e.g. if the sounding at the load port was zero centimetres and the tabulated correction to the
sounding for a stern trim of two metres was minus (‐) 9 cm, clearly the corrected sounding is then zero, as it is
not possible to have a negative sounding. On arrival at the disport, now on an even keel, the same situation
exists and the corrected sounding will still be zero as the correction to the sounding is now zero. As both cases
give the same quantity, the ballast on arrival at the disport will be the same as on departure from the load
port. However, the error in the weight of the ballast, on this occasion, will have been at the load port, where a
greater quantity of ballast was found than was actually on board, because it was not possible to correct the
sounding beyond the zero mark.
Recently shipbuilders have recognised this problem and are providing vessels with separate ‘small quantity
residual tables’, which are of the type giving quantities for each metre or half metre of trim. This, of course,
reverts to the problem mentioned above when vessels arrive on an even keel having completed loading with a
stern trim.
Weight of the ballast
The density of the ballast water must be determined in order to calculate its true weight. The chief mate may
know the density of the ballast water, but he is usually a busy man with other things on his mind. It is
sometimes the case that ballast has been taken in a tidal river or harbour, where density changes with the ebb
and flow of the tide; different tanks will then have different densities so each ‘pair’of tanks need to be checked
for density. If possible take samples of the water and measure the density with the Zeal hydrometer.
If the tanks have overflowed then samples are easily obtained.
Alternatively, it is sometimes possible to use a small handoperated siphon device or a hand pump
manufactured for caravan users. Also in modern use is a device called a ‘salinity refractometer’ that measures
density by assessing the refraction of a small sample of water – the greater the refraction the more dense the
water. Only a few drops of water are required, and this can be obtained from the sounding tape bob when the
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 248 of 330
tank is checked. These devices are in common use in the food industry and are proving useful for surveyors
when the overflowing of tanks is not possible (see addendum 4).
Whatever method is chosen, it is important that the density of the ballast water is known. This is especially so
on large Cape size vessels where individual tanks can contain 5000m3 of water. i.e. 5000 tonnes of fresh water
or 5125 tonnes of salt water if the density were to be 1.025 mt/m3.
Sounding problems
Sounding pipes are usually located at the after end of tanks because the normal trim for a ship is by the stern.
There are some small coasters in service that are not fitted with sounding pipes but have remote‐reading dial
gauges in the engine room. Unfortunately, while these are adequate to inform the crew if the tanks are full or
empty, they are not sufficiently accurate for draught surveying purposes. This fact should be highlighted on
any survey report stating that only an estimation of the ballast remains was possible. The report should state
that the survey may not be reliable because of this fact.
Double‐bottom ballast tanks cannot be pumped absolutely dry due to the nature of their construction and the
location of the suction pipe, which must be a physical distance above the bottom of the tank to allow water to
flow into it. This distance is dictated by the capacity of the ballast pump and the cross sectional area of the
suction line and this then relates to the quantity of water remaining in the tank (unpumpable residue).
It is often preferable to overflow full ballast tanks to prove they are completely full, although there is a school
of thought that says soundings are a better option. Overflowing of double bottom tanks is the best method as
long as it is permissible; they are in the bottom of the ship and the air pipe is on the weather deck. Clearly,
when water is overflowing from these tanks, they will be full. Topside tanks, however, are prone to air pockets
when overflowing. This depends on the trim, the height of the air pipes and the length of the tank.
Relationship between tank length, air pipe height and trim
Let height of air pipe = x Then by similar triangles
X = trim
length of tank LBP
Therefore X = trim x length of tank
LBP
If the actual height of the air pipe is less than ‘x’ then the tank may not be full. In the above diagram No 1
topside tank is not completely full while No 2 topside is. This is due to the relationship between tank length
and trim (the double bottom will be full as long as the water in the sounding pipe is more than the distance ‘x’
above the top of the tank).
There are occasions when a ballast tank cannot be sounded. This is usually due to damage or a blockage in a
sounding pipe. In these situations, the options are to leave the tank as it is throughout the survey; either
empty or full. In the latter case it may be possible to overflow it to prove it full at both initial and final surveys.
This is the better option, as there is a definite answer to the quantity of ballast water contained in the tank. It
is usually necessary to do this to a pair of tanks, as one side being full while the other is empty causes an
unacceptable list.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 249 of 330
Taking soundings when the ship is trimmed by the bow can lead to large errors as shown below.
This is an explanation of why a ship, with a trim of 4.5 metres and a tank sounding of 6 cms, which was equal
to 1 m3, then became 16.7 m3 when the trim was ‐0.60 metres by the bow (figures taken from an actual table).
This is why it is very bad practice to take soundings when a ship is trimmed by the bow.
Condition of vessel at time of survey
It has also been found that ships presenting themselves in a suitable condition for draught survey give better
results.
The criterion for this has been found to be as follows:
Ship upright. (No list).
Ship’s trim as small as possible preferably less than 1% of LBP but not by the head.
All ballast tanks to be either completely full or empty (no slack tanks).
Any ballast holds to be empty (if possible).
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 250 of 330
With a small trim, and tanks overflowed, and when the water is coming from both air pipes, the tanks are full
to capacity. Large trims cause problems, with overflowing especially where the tank is long, for instance over
the length of two hatches.
Topside tanks can be difficult to check when the vessel is heavily trimmed or has a list. The shape of a topside
tank is such that the largest amount of water per centimetre of sounding is within the last few centimetres of
the capacity.
Link that with the fact that many topside tanks are higher nearer the centreline than at the outboard side due
to the camber of the deck. Then a list and large trim will make it very difficult to obtain accurate results, from
either sounding or overflowing the tanks, hence the reason for the above criteria.
Ballast tank condition
This does not just refer to the level of water in the tanks, but also to the state of the tank with regard to the
build up of mud and silt. Ships trade to places where the water in the rivers or harbours is heavily
contaminated with silt and mud.
On long ballast passages, the silt and mud will settle out of the ballast water and some will remain in the tank
when the ballast is pumped out. Over a period of time this mud and silt will harden and tend to block the
ability for water to drain back to the sounding/dumping valve/suction points in the tanks. Water residues
should be able to drain via the clearance cut outs or drain holes, sometimes called ‘mouse holes’ situated
within the structure of double bottom, side and topside tanks (see diagram on next page).
The weight of the mud and silt in the tanks, will remain constant at both the initial and final survey, and will
not affect the result. However, the ballast calibration and capacity tables, used to determine how much water
is in the tanks, would now no longer be accurate because the tank capacity will have been reduced due to the
build up of mud. Hence a 100 m3 tank with 5 m3 of mud in it is now only a 95 m3 tank, yet the surveyor is
constrained to use the amounts in the calibration tables. As it is the change to the ballast that is being
measured there will be an error of 5 m3 when 100 m3 is used, say, for full and 1 m3 for empty, showing a
change in the ballast of 99 m3 when actually it was only 94 m3. There is unfortunately little that can be done
about this, as there is no way of measuring the amount of lost capacity due to the aggregation of mud.
What can be done, however, is try to limit the change to the ballast by filling or discharging as few of the tanks
as possible during the loading or discharge operations of a particular parcel. This will not be possible, of
course, with a full cargo but surveyors should bear this in mind when only small parcels are being weighed by
draught survey (e.g. if, say, 5000 tonnes are to be loaded in No. 3 hold, then try to persuade the vessel to
discharge only the ballast at that hold and keep all other tanks the same).
The level of the water in the ballast tanks will, in some ways, determine the level of accuracy of the survey.
Slack tanks that are sounded can sometimes result in poor measurement of the quantity inside them. The
effect of even a slight movement of the ship, due to wind or waves, is to cause the water in the sounding pipe
to move up and down. If the sounding rod is allowed to rest on the bottom of the tank, even briefly, this will
give rise to false soundings if great care is not taken.
What can be done to improve the accuracy of ballast soundings? One method is to overflow all double‐bottom
ballast tanks, when full, take soundings of the topside tanks and not to have any slack tanks or, if it is
necessary say for trim, as few slack tanks as possible.
In order to obtain accurate soundings of any slack tanks, several readings should be taken, not allowing the
sounding rod to rest on the bottom; just touch and remove immediately.
In this way different readings will be found and an average of them will produce a better result.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 251 of 330
Below is a diagram of a double‐botttom structuree, which should help the understanding o
of the problem
ms.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 252 of 330
Now:
Forward draught is 4.63 – 0.0165 m = 4.6135 m
Midships draught is 5.015 – 0.0081 m = 5.0069 m
Aft draught is 5.59 + 0.0408 m = 5.6308 m
True trim is 5.6308 – 4.6135 m = 1.0173 metres = 101.73 cm
¾ mean draught = (6 x 5.0069) + 4.6135 + 5.6308 = 5.0357 m
8
From the original survey the following data was given in the vessels hydrostatic particulars:
Scale density of hydrostatic particulars 1.025 t/m3
Draught Displacement Tpc Lcf Draught Mctc Draught Mctc
5.00 19743 42.32 -4.354 5.50 445.5 4.50 434.9
5.10 20167 42.37 -4.289 5.60 446.6 4.60 435.9
The stability book stated that a negative (-) sign for Lcf indicated forward of midships.
Interpolating the data from the table (it is easier to use centimetres in the interpolation rather than metres)
The difference in the tabulated draughts is 10 cm and the draught we are looking for is 3.57 cm more than 5 metres
Therefore:
Displacement for 5.0357 m draught = 19743 + (20167-19743) x 3.57 = 19894.37
10
Tpc for 5.0357m draught = 42.32 + (42.37-42.32) x 3.57 = 42.338
10
Lcf for 5.0357m draught = - 4.354 + (4.354-4.289) x 3.57 = - 4.331 (for’d of mid)
10
Mctc for 5.0357 +50cms = 445.5 + (446.6-445.5) x 3.57 = 445.89
10
Mctc for 5.0357 – 50cms = 434.9 + (435.9-434.9) x 3.57 = 435.26
10
Therefore (dm~dz) = 10.63
The first trim correction is = 101.73 x –4.331 x 42.338 = - 102.61tonnes
181.8
Second trim correction = 1.01732 x 50 x 10.63 = +3.03 tonnes
181.8
Then vessels displacement at a density of 1.025 t/m3 is calculated as follows
Displacement for 5.0357m = 19894.37 tonnes
First trim correction = -102.61 tonnes
Second trim correction = +3.03 tonnes
Corrected displacement in salt water = 19794.79 tonnes
This is the weight of the ship at the draught if it was in salt water of density 1.025 t/m3, which is the density of
the ship’s hydrostatic scale.
However it is floating in water of apparent density 1.0185 t/m3.
So true displacement = 19794.79 x 1.0185 = 19669.26 tonnes
1.025
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 253 of 330
ADDENDUM 1
Manometer
In some circumstances the wave and swell activity can be such that it may be too rough to use a boat or the
wave damping tube may be difficult or even impossible to position on the hull. This situation can often be
resolved by the use of a manometer to measure the list across the deck at midships, which is then added to, or
subtracted from, the inboard draught reading to obtain the outboard draught.
It is not necessary for the manometer to be fitted with a scale at the ends as the height of the water in the
tube is measured from the deck on each side using a tape measure.
In circumstances where the list is large the end of the manometer on the low side must be positioned higher
than the end on the high side to avoid the water in the tube running out. However when a scale is fitted and
used for the reading care must be taken that the scale is fixed at the same height on each side.
A simple manometer is constructed from a length of plastic tubing about 35 to 40 metres long of 10mm
outside diameter, 6mm inside diameter, filled with water. On each end is a valve connected to a short section
of 19mm tube. The valves are to allow the water in the tube to be retained without any air bubbles in it when
the device is not in use. This is important, as any entrapped air will prevent the manometer working properly.
The short sections of 19mm tube are to provide a damping action to the movement of water in the system
that is caused by ship movement.
From the above diagram the starboard draught is equal to the port draught plus the difference in port and
starboard draughts from the manometer.
In the event that the manometer is not long enough to reach the vessels sides the true difference can be
calculated from the measured difference by the use of similar triangles. In this case the manometer is set to
obtain readings at a known distance apart across the vessel.
In the above example:
Difference in port/stbd draughts = Difference in port/stbd readings
Breadth d
Therefore:
Difference in port/stbd draughts = Breadth x Difference in readings
d
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 254 of 330
ADDENDUM 2
Marine hydrometers
There are two types of hydrometers commonly used in the maritime industry. These are:
Draught survey hydrometers
These instruments are designed to measure the ‘apparent density of water’.
For purposes of draught surveys:
Apparent density (weight in air per unit volume) (t/m3) x Volume (m3) = Weight (t).
Load line hydrometers
These instruments are designed to determine the ‘relative density of water’.
For purposes of load line surveys in determination of a vessel’s displacement:
Relative density (specific gravity) x Volume (m3) = Displacement (m3).
Marine and draught surveyors should be familiar with the correct usage of both types of instrument so that
neither confusion nor errors occur during draught survey or stability calculations.
Draught survey hydrometers
Modern hydrometers of glass manufacture are calibrated at standard temperature, 15° Celsius (60° F), and
measure the apparent density of the water sample in kilograms per litre in air. They are usually marked ‘for
draught (or draft) survey’ and ‘medium ST’ (medium surface tension) and graduated in the range 0.990 / 1.040
kg/l.
These instruments are used to determine the weight in air (apparent weight) of a vessel, from which the
weight of the cargo on board may be calculated.
When manufactured of glass and calibrated at standard temperature, a small error results if the hydrometer is
not being used at the designed standard temperature.
However, it is accepted that no temperature correction is necessary, as it is compensated at survey by the
change in volume of the steel vessel itself. The corrections due to the ‘coefficients of cubical expansion’ of
glass and steel are very approximately the same, thus they cancel out.
The older types of hydrometer used for draught surveys and manufactured with brass, or some other metal,
are still to be found on some vessels. These instruments should be accompanied with a table of corrections
and the relevant temperature correction should always be applied.
It is recommended that the use of a glass hydrometer is always preferable. The fragile glass hydrometer should
be kept clean and protected.
Draught survey hydrometers should not be used for load line survey purposes.
Load line hydrometers.
Load line hydrometers are used to determine the relative density (specific gravity) of a water sample at a
standard temperature (T1) against a sample of distilled water at a standard temperature (T2). The standard
temperatures used are usually 15° Celsius (60° F). Relative density is a ratio, a number. They are usually
marked ‘RD’ or ‘Sp.Gr.’, together with the standard temperatures.
When the temperatures of the water and the distilled water samples have a huge variation, a temperature
correction must be applied to allow for the expansion of the hydrometer.
These instruments are used to determine the displacement of a vessel at any given waterline in order to
comply with the requirements of the ‘International Conference on Load Lines, 1966’.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 255 of 330
The Convention, at Article 12, permits a vessel to load to submerge the appropriate load line by an allowance
made proportional to the difference between 1.025 and the actual density in which the vessel is floating. This
then is relative density i.e. the Convention refers to ‘density in vacuo’ i.e. mass per unit volume.
Differences
The displacement and apparent weight of a vessel have a relationship, as do the relative and apparent
densities of the water in which the vessel is floating. The difference between the relative density (specific
gravity) as determined by the load line hydrometer and the draught survey hydrometer, is known as the ‘air
buoyancy correction’, and can be accepted, at standard temperatures 15°C/15°C or 60°F/ 60°F, as 0.002 for
marine surveys. The density of gases depends upon temperature, pressure and moisture content.
The density of dry air at sea level is about 1/800 th. of the density of fresh water. i.e. 1.25kg/m3 when under
similar conditions of temperature and pressure. It should also be noted that the actual maximum density of
fresh water is 999.972 kg/m3 which occurs at a temperature of +40° C.
The density of fresh water at 1000 C is 958.4 kg/m3. The correction to be deducted from the relative density of
load line hydrometer to compare with an actual density of draught survey hydrometer. Example: for a sample
of seawater checked by a load line hydrometer reading relative density 1.025, a draught survey hydrometer
would read an actual density of 1.023 kg/l in air.
All hydrometers should be calibrated regularly.
Surveyors should only use a hydrometer manufactured for the relevant type of survey being undertaken.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 256 of 330
ADDENDUM 3
Draught survey certificate
VESSEL: B/L (M/T):
PORT DATE:
ARRIVAL
Aft Mid Ford L ship
Port LBP
Starboard
Mean Tpc
Corr’n to perpendicular Lcf -(ford)
Draught Trim
3/4 mean draught Mct+
Disp @ Mtc-
Trim correction A
Trim correction B Oil
Corrected displacement Fresh water
Density of dock water Ballast
Displacement @ density Other
Variables Total
Nett displacement
DEPARTURE
Aft Mid Ford
Port
Starboard
Mean Tpc
Corr’n to perpendicular Lcf -(ford)
Draught Trim
3/4 mean draught Mct+
Disp @ Mtc-
Trim correction A
Trim correction B Oil
Corrected displacement Fresh water
Density of dock water Ballast
Displacement @ density Other
Variables Total
Nett displacement
CARGO
SURVEYOR
Dist of draught marks Arrival Departure
From aft perpendicular Marks forward of perpendicular +ve
From aft perpendicular
Marks forward of perpendicular +ve
From aft perpendicular
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 257 of 330
ADDENDUM 4
Salinity refractometers
Salinity refractometers have been used in the aquaculture and food industries for a number of years to check
the salinity of water samples.
A refractometer uses the fact that light deflects as it passes through different substances. When passing
through water, the degree of deflection (refraction) is directly related to the quantity of mineral salts dissolved
in the water.
The refractive index of a substance is a measure of how far light is bent by that substance.
For example, at 20°C the refractive index of distilled water is 1.333 and the refractive index of sea water
(relative density 1.025, salinity 35 parts per thousand) at the same temperature is 1.339.
When using a refractometer, a sample is placed on an optical prism in the sample window. As light passes
through the sample, the rays are bent according to the salinity of the water casting a shadow on the scale
which is visible through the eyepiece.
Using a basic hand held refractometer.
The refractometer must be calibrated.
Ensure the prism is kept clean using a soft cloth.
Place several drops of distilled water on the prism and close the cover plate.
If the refractometer meter reads zero, then it is properly calibrated. If not, rotate the calibration screw until
the shadow boundary lines up with the zero mark.
Ensure that the sample to be tested will not been adulterated by rinsing equipment and the prism
with part of the sample water.
Then place several drops of the sample water on the prism, ensuring that the refractometer remains
level so that none of the sample run off the prism.
Close the sample cover.
Hold instrument towards a strong light source.
Adjust focus ring until scale is clearly visible.
Read the scale at the shadow boundary.
Rinse and clean the instrument before re‐use.
Hand held digital refractometers are also available but are more expensive.
Typical basic salinity refractometer
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 258 of 330
Records which should be maintained
NO MORE than brief mention is made in this chapter of routine records such as are required for all
ships. The main purpose of the chapter is to draw attention to records and to log entries which may
have particular significance for bulk carriers and their cargoes.
Log books – sea voyage: During the sea voyage, the deck log book (otherwise known as the
bridge log book) should contain routine navigational information including positions at regular
intervals and method of position fixing, courses steered, allowances made for compass error, leeway
and set. These data should be recorded when observations are taken, or at the end of the
navigational watch, as appropriate. The record of course, distance and speed made good, and course
and distance to go should be completed daily and a full set of routine weather observations, with a
report of sea and swell conditions, should be entered at the end of each watch.
Details of severe weather met and the action taken should be recorded. For example, the log book
should record when the vessel has been hove‐to in adverse weather, or when course has been
altered to avoid a tropical storm. In addition, the log book should contain full details of any matters
which might affect the cargo and its condition.
When a cargo which requires ventilation is being carried, ventilation of the holds should be recorded
in detail, stating times of starting and stopping, and give the reason for stopping ventilation. Such a
reason might be Shipping water and/or spray over hatches, or High humidity of ambient air. Where
the ventilation programme is influenced by the air humidity, regular hygrometer readings (wet and
dry bulb) should also appear in the log book once per watch. If a sensitive cargo requires more
frequent readings or if, for example, humidity readings are taken within each hold with a whirling
psychrometer, a full record separate from the log book can be maintained and after signature by
Master and chief mate can be attached to the log book at the end of the voyage.
The nature of the ventilation should also be fully recorded, stating which ventilators are being used
if there are alternatives, and whether the ventilation is mechanical or forced draught (ie, by fan) or
natural draught (natural flow of air through the ventilation cowl). Where fans are used, the log book
entry should show whether they are drawing air into the compartment (suction or inlet mode) or
blowing air out from the compartment (exhaust or outlet mode), and whether they are being run at
full speed, half speed or some other value. Differences between the ventilation given to different
holds should be clearly recorded.
Suitable log book entries might read: 0800 Ventilation of holds Nos 1‐7 commenced with after fans in
all holds at full speed in inlet mode, and forward vents in all holds on natural ventilation. 1800
ventilation of holds Nos 1‐7 stopped and all vent flaps closed in accordance with shippers’ carrying
instructions.
Heavy rainfall and the shipping of water and spray over decks and hatches must also be recorded in
the log book when experienced, as this may be relevant if cargo is subsequently discovered to have
suffered wet damage.
The dates and times of any hold or hatch cover inspections during the voyage should be recorded,
with the name and/or rank of the person making the inspection, the nature of the inspection and
any findings. An appropriate entry for a cargo of steel coils might read: 1000‐1200 Inspection of all
holds and hatches by chief mate and bosun, to see if any cargo had shifted. All well.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 259 of 330
A more serious situation could be reported in the deck log book as follows: 1500. During routine
cargo inspection by chief mate and bosun damage/shifting found in holds Nos. 2 and 5. Resecuring
not possible. Course adjusted to minimise further damage. Such an incident would, of course, also
require immediate reports by the Master to his owners and charterers, and it would be necessary at
the first opportunity to prepare a detailed report of the damage to ship and to cargo, and the
circumstances in which the damage occurred. It would be prudent for owners to promptly inform
their P&I club of such an incident.
Further information which should be recorded in the log book includes the records of cargo
temperatures when observed, the pH readings of bilge water and the volumes or tonnages of bilge
water pumped out, plus readings obtained with methanometers, O2 meters and multi gas meters,
etc
If there is insufficient space on the log book page for the clear entry of all the necessary detail, then
additional sheets of paper must be attached to the log book with the extra detail which is required.
Soundings of all compartments including hold bilges, ballast tanks, fresh‐water and oil‐fuel tanks,
cofferdams, void spaces, chain lockers and other spaces should be taken and recorded in the log
book or separate sounding book at least once daily.
It is not acceptable for an empty tank to be recorded simply as empty (often abbreviated to MT).
The difference between a 10cm and a 20cm sounding in the ballast tank of a large ship can be
considerable in terms of tonnes of ballast water, and any increase in water level needs to be
detected and investigated in view of the possibility of leakage. This consideration is of particular
importance when a ship is cargo laden, since the cargo may be exposed to the risk of water damage
if water is entering some part of the ship undetected. A reader who finds MT recorded in the
sounding book instead of a small sounding such a 5cm or 12cm will suspect that no soundings have
been taken, and that the entry reflects the reported state of the tank and not the actual sounding.
During a ballast passage the testing of any cargo care systems should be recorded in the log book
when carried out. Such entries might include the testing of hold bilge pumping systems, hold
ventilation fans and hold CO2 smothering systems. The testing of hatch cover watertightness by hose
test or by chalk test should also be recorded, as should the result, and any remedial action taken.
A typical series of log book entries would be: 1030‐1130 Hose tested Nos. 1 and 2 hatch covers for
watertightness under supervision of chief mate. Leakage found only at No 2 starboard side. 1530
Following routine renewals and adjustments to fittings of No 2 hatch cover the covers were again
hose tested, and were found to be watertight.
The log book should contain records of such matters affecting the cargo and the operation of the
ship as the inspection and tightening of cargo lashings and details of in‐transit fumigation. Changing
of ship’s ballast to comply with pollution regulations, or for purposes of draught and trim should be
recorded in the ship’s ballast log.
Log books‐in port: A Statement of Facts is normally produced by the ship’s agent to cover the
time spent in a loading or discharge port. The agent will often rely upon the ship’s staff to provide
some of the times and facts which are included in the statement, and the Shipmaster should satisfy
himself before signing the statement that the information it contains is accurate, since it will be used
to calculate the value of any demurrage or despatch payments or to settle any disputes which may
arise regarding the voyage.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 260 of 330
The deck log book will record significant times such as the times of dropping anchor off the port,
reaching the fairway buoy, arriving at the berth and tendering notice of readiness. The log book will
be supported by the more detailed and comprehensive entries contained in the bell book (also
known as the movement book, or bridge note book), which is the working document in which events
are recorded at the time they occur. An automated printout of engine movements may also be
available.
It is essential that weather observations are continued whilst the ship is in port and they should be
recorded at least three times daily – ideally at 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800. When officers continue
watches in port, the weather should be recorded at the end of each watch, throughout night and
day. In addition, any exceptional weather conditions which may interrupt cargo work, damage the
cargo or damage the ship should be recorded whenever they occur. Other incidents, such as ships
passing at high speed, which disrupt or threaten the ship or activities aboard should also be logged.
The log book should record any surveys which are requested and which take place, and their result,
and any protests which are made or received. Fumigation of cargo holds should be recorded, with
details of the treatment given, the purpose of the treatment and who ordered it. The sealing of
holds, if required, should be noted and inspections of the seals should be recorded.
Notebook or cargo log: Once in the berth, it is necessary to record details of starts, stoppages
and completions of cargo work and transfers of cargo handling equipment, along with tonnages and
positions of ballast and fresh water loaded or discharged, soundings observed, and tonnages of
cargo advised or calculated. The records should show the times that work started and stopped at
each hold and the durations of all surveys and inspections. Tonnages of bunkers taken should be
recorded, as should details of all accidents to ship and personnel.
These records are likely to be kept in the first instance in a note book in the possession of the duty
officer, or in a cargo log book, or computer, kept in the ship’s office or cargo control room. The cargo
log book, when used, is similar to the bell book: it is the working document in which full records of
all relevant data should be recorded. The use of a cargo log book providing a complete record of
cargo, ballast and associated operations is to be recommended. Times of working cargo and reasons
for stoppages will normally be copied into the deck log book from the cargo log or officer’s notebook
at the end of each watch, but the details of the working of ballast will not normally be transferred.
All entries in log books and notebooks should be made in ink, not pencil and corrections should be
made by putting a single firm line through the error, writing the correct version alongside and
initialing the entry.
It is most important to ensure that stoppages are accurately timed, and that the reasons for them
are discovered and recorded. This information can be most important for the ship in the event of a
dispute. Draughts should be recorded on arrival and departure and at appropriate times throughout
the port stay. During a discharging operation extending over several days, it is appropriate to take
draught readings each morning and evening. When loading draught readings should be taken and
recorded at the end of each stage in the loading, ie at the end of each pour. The importance of
taking and recording the draughts regularly cannot be overstated. Draught readings provide the best
and simplest warning when the ship is flooding or when the ballasting or cargo operations go wrong.
The cargo log or personal notebook is a document maintained by a duty officer who may be working
in dirty and difficult conditions. The cargo log will best be maintained in a readable condition if
immediate notes are kept in a notebook for transfer to the cargo log on next return to the ship’s
office or cargo control room. The cargo log and personal notebooks should always be retained, as
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 261 of 330
they will be required as evidence in the event of a dispute and will carry more weight than a
document which has been written up after the event.
Cargo documents: Copies of all cargo documents given to the ship, or presented for signature,
should be retained.
Damage records – damage to ship or cargo: It is vital that full records are kept of damage
which occurs to ship or to cargo during loading or discharge. Some owners and charterers provide
well designed ‘stevedore damage’ forms for such records but others are less suitable and a badly
designed form may fail to provide all the necessary information, even when each space contains an
entry. A well‐designed form, when completed will provide a full record of when, where and how the
damage occurred and will contain a detailed description of the damage sustained.
As with all reports, sufficient information should be given to enable a reader with a professional
knowledge of the subject to form a clear and accurate picture of the circumstances of the damage.
Accurate measurements should be recorded, supported by photographs. In the case of more
substantial items of damage, when likely costs are to be measured in thousands of dollars, not tens
of dollars, extensive detailed records will be required. The Nautical Institute’s book The Mariners
Role in Collecting Evidence provides full guidance for this situation.
Trim, stability and stress calculations: The trim, stability and stress calculations which are
undertaken when planning the loading of a bulk cargo are usually done and stored on the ship’s
loading computer. It is prudent to print and retain hard copies of the calculations or to back up the
computer records on disk in case the computerised records are destroyed. Cargo calculations which
have been done by hand or by computers or calculators which are the personal property of ships’
officers should also be retained for later inspection in event of an accident or dispute.
The records of the calculations should include the weights and assumed positions along with the
values obtained from the calculations. Full details of the eventual departure condition on completion
of loading or discharge should also be retained and filed for later inspection. These results may be
useful in the planning of future cargoes or can provide answers to questions which may arise later
concerning the present cargo.
The IMO BLU Code requires completion of a Loading/Unloading Plan and a Ship/Shore Safety
Checklist.
Draught survey calculations: The ship’s calculations of the quantity of cargo by draught survey
should be retained for inspection at a later date, if required. When an independent surveyor is
appointed to make a draught survey, a copy of the results of his survey should be kept aboard along
with the ship’s own calculations, which should be done independently.
Cargo book: It has become standard practice on some ships to include a note of cargo loaded or
discharged on the ship’s ports of call list or voyage memo, but more information can be valuable. On
many bulk carriers it is the chief mate’s practice to keep the details of previous cargoes readily to
hand and this procedure can be strongly recommended. Considerable time can be saved and
efficiency can be increased by studying the record of previous similar cargoes, particularly if carried
between the same loading and discharge ports. One method of keeping such records is for the chief
mate to maintain a cargo book.
Into such a book the chief mate will enter the principal details of each cargo with disposition of cargo
(stowage plan), detailed list of bunkers and other weights aboard, departure and arrival draughts,
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 262 of 330
dock water density, draught limitations, description of loading and discharging procedures, amount
of cargo on conveyor belt, suggested trimming quantities and holds which were used for trimming,
requirements of stevedores, reliability of shore weights, availability and price of fresh water,
arrangements for access, and so on.
If these records are kept on a computer then ship, chief mate and any other interested parties can
keep copies which will offer benefits in future efficiency.
The completion of such a record in the first day or two after the port visit will take no more than an
hour or so. The chief mate’s notes will include any information which could make a repeat voyage
easier, such as which side is put alongside, tugs and moorings used, stevedores’ hours of work,
telephone availability, and arrangements for garbage disposal. If a local port information book has
been obtained that fact also should be recorded.
Once a ship has gone beyond the first few voyages such a book or computer record needs a contents
page, listing voyage number, date, cargo carried, loading port and discharging port: it makes good
sense to maintain a contents page from the start. By reference to this book any similar previous
cargoes can quickly be identified and their details inspected.
Voyage records: Whilst on charter the ship will probably be required to complete voyage
abstracts for the charterers. If the ship is on voyage charter, the owners may require the Master to
complete a proforma layday statement to enable them to check despatch or claim demurrage.
Copies of these documents must be retained aboard ship.
Chain register/cargo gear register: The chain register is the register in which data
concerning a ship’s lifting gear must be recorded. The term ‘lifting gear’ includes derricks and cranes
for the handling of stores, and also lifting gear used in the engineroom, and it is important that all
such items of equipment should be properly tested, certified, marked and maintained.
The greatest practical importance of the chain register for a geared bulk carrier is as a register of
all items of cargo‐handling equipment. Such items, whether derricks or cranes, are used by
stevedores for the loading and discharge of the cargo. Stevedores will expect to find that the
equipment works efficiently and safely, and will, with good reason, complain about any defect in the
equipment they are required to use. If they have any doubts about the condition of the equipment
they will demand to inspect the chain register and it is vital that the register be kept fully and
correctly up‐to‐date. In countries such as Australia and Canada union inspectors are likely to carry
out spot checks aboard a ship to ensure that all the gear is safe, and also to verify that all items of
gear are clearly marked and that test certificates can be readily located. Failure to have the chain
register kept properly up‐to‐date can result in stoppage of work until matters have been put right,
and the vessel will be put off hire in these circumstances.
There are two reasons for maintaining a chain register: it may be a requirement of the country with
which the ship is registered and it may be a requirement of the country in which the ship is loading
or discharging cargo. In theory a chain register issued in the form approved by any national authority
or classification society will be acceptable in all countries which call for a register. In practice this is
generally true, particularly when the ship is well maintained, but there are exceptions.
The chain register of one country is not always accepted at a local level in another country and some
ship operators put aboard their ships chain registers from a number of the countries where
difficulties are experienced in the ports. Thus a Liberian‐registered ship may carry chain registers
from Lloyd’s Register and from the governments of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and India. Each
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 263 of 330
country has its own requirements regarding frequency of inspection and these requirements differ
one from another.
Some national administrations accept the chief officer as a ‘competent person’ whose signature for
annual surveys is acceptable, but other countries such as India and Pakistan will accept a chief
officer’s signature only when he has a certificate issued by the government of the state whose flag
the ship flies, stating that he has the authority to sign. The Panamanian register requires all surveys
to be verified by a classification society surveyor.
Any chain register which the ship carries must be properly kept up to date. Before the register can
be signed the following requirements must be satisfied.
Every item of cargo gear must be of sufficient safe working load (SWL), and suitable design.
Every item of cargo gear must be marked with a unique identifying number.
There must be a certificate, in an approved form, for each item of cargo gear, identified by
its unique number.
A system must exist to produce the certificate for any item of cargo gear promptly.
Every item of cargo gear must be in sound condition, and well maintained.
Thorough inspections of the cargo gear must be carried out at the required intervals
(annually for most authorities, but three‐monthly for Australia).
When the inspections have been carried out the register must be signed in the appropriate places.
Registers are normally divided into four parts to deal with four different categories of equipment.
Careful study of the register will be required to identify where signatures are needed.
Quadrennial or quintennial examinations of lifting gear are carried out by competent persons such
as surveyors from classification societies and foreman from marine engineering works or drydocks,
who will sign the chain register upon completion of their work. If several chain registers are carried,
the surveyor must be asked to sign all of them.
It will be apparent from the foregoing that national and local regulations for chain registers are
varied, and their implementation is somewhat arbitrary. It may never be possible to comply with
every requirement of every authority, but a ship aboard which the equipment is carefully maintained
and renewed, properly marked and documented in accordance with the requirements of the flag
State, and readily identified, will have done all that can reasonably be expected.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 264 of 330
International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG)
The International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code was adopted in 1965 as per the SOLAS
(Safety for Life at Sea) Convention of 1960. The IMDG Code was formed to prevent all types of
pollutions at sea. The code also ensures that the goods transported through marine transport are
packaged in such a way that they can be safely transported. The dangerous goods code is a uniform
code. This means that the code is applicable for all cargo‐carrying ships around the world.
IMDG CODE
The dangerous goods code has been created as per the recommendations of the United Nations’
panel of expert on transport of dangerous goods along with the IMO (International Maritime
Organisation). This recommendation by the UN was presented as a report in the year 1956 after
which the IMDG Code was started to be drafted in the year 1961.
Since marine transportation has undergone a lot of development and changes, it becomes important
that the code also keeps up with the changes. This is why there have been constant amendments to
the code. The amendments are proposed every two years and the adoption of the amendments
takes place after two years of the proposal by the concerned authorities. The amendments are
proposed in this manner:
The countries that are members of the IMO present the required proposal
The UN’s expert panel then views and decides what proposals merit immediate attention in
the upcoming amendment
Shipping Dangerous Cargo
Shipping dangerous goods is very tricky. This is why in order to avoid complications and problems
while categorising the aspect and level of danger, there is a set of classification of the dangerous
goods. There are nine categories in which the dangerous goods are classified. The same can be
explained as follows:
Classification I is for explosives. The same classification has six sub‐divisions like materials
which pose high explosive risk, low explosive risk to name a few
Classification II is for gases. This category has three sub‐categories that talk about gases that
are highly inflammable, that are not inflammable and gases that neither inflammable nor
toxic
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 265 of 330
Classification III is for liquids and has no sub‐divisions
Classification IV is for solids. There are three sub‐categories that deal with highly
combustible solids, self‐reactive solids and solids that when interact with water could emit
toxic gases
Classification V is for substances that have the chances of oxidisation
Classification VI is for all kinds of substances that are toxic and that could prove to be
infective
Classification VII is specifically for materials that are radioactive
Classification VIII is for materials that face the threat of corrosion and erosion
Classification IX is for those substances that cannot be classified under any of the above
heads but still are dangerous goods
IMDG CODE
At present the reach of the IMDG Code extends to about 150 countries around the world with
around 98% ships following the requirements of the code. This figure helps us to understand the
effectiveness of the code with respect to shipping dangerous goods across the oceans and the
marine life‐forms that exist in them.
The two‐volume Code is divided into seven parts:
Volume 1 (parts 1, 2 and 4‐7 of the Code) contains sections on:
• general provisions, definitions, training
• classification
• packing and tank provisions
• consignment procedures
• construction and testing of packaging, IBCs, large packaging, portable tanks and road tank
vehicles
• transport operations
Volume 2 contains:
• The Dangerous Goods List presented in tabular format
• limited quantities exceptions
• the Index
• appendices
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 266 of 330
The Supplement contains the following texts related to the IMDG Code:
• EMS Guide
• Medical First Aid Guide
• Reporting Procedures
• Packing Cargo Transport Units
• Safe Use of Pesticides
• INF Code
Shipping procedure for the loading and transport of hazardous goods
To transport dangerous goods by sea, they must pass through the following procedures:
1. The shipper is responsible for obtaining ‘Export Licences’ for the goods in question.
2. The shipper would also be responsible for marking and labelling the goods to be shipped in
accord with the IMDG Code.
3. Following contact with the shipping company, agents must provide:
- the number of packages together with their weight
- the value of the goods
- special requirements for carriage of the goods.
4. Customs clearance would be required as for any other cargo.
5. The Bill of Lading would be sighted and seen to be free of endorsements.
6. The goods would be entered on the ship’s manifest and marked on the cargo stowage plan.
7. A ship’s Officer would check the UN number, the details of the commodity, the labelling of
the package and the condition of the packaging. Any special stowage arrangements would
be noted and observed at this stage.
8. The Ship’s Master has the right to accept or reject the cargo prior to loading.
Once the goods are stowed on board the vessel the requirements of the IMDG Code would be
followed throughout the period of the voyage.
If appropriate, a ‘Document of Compliance’ for the carriage of certain hazardous goods may be
required by the ship.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 267 of 330
Documentation for shipping dangerous goods
1. Where dangerous goods are to be carried by sea, all documentation relating to the goods
must carry the correct technical name where the goods are named. The use of a trade name
alone must not be used.
2. Any shipping documents prepared by the shipper must include or be accompanied by a
signed certificate or declaration that the shipment offered for carriage is correctly packaged
and marked, labelled, etc. and is in proper condition for shipment.
3. The person responsible for the packing of dangerous goods in a freight container or road
vehicle must provide a signed container packing certificate or a vehicle packing declaration,
which states that the cargo in the unit has been correctly packed and secured and that all
applicable transport requirements have been fulfilled.
4. In the event that a freight container or road vehicle containing dangerous goods is not
compliant with the above, then such vehicle or container shall not be accepted for shipment.
5. Every ship carrying dangerous cargo shall have a special list or manifest of such dangerous
goods on board contained within a detailed stowage plan. Such documents will identify by
class and location all such dangerous goods on board the vessel. Copies of these documents
will be available prior to departure to a person as designated by the Port State Authority.
6. In the case of marine pollutants, the signed shipping documents must also state that the
parcel offered for shipment is a marine pollutant and that as such it is in a proper condition
for carriage by sea.
Note: A copy of the stowage plan must be retained ashore until the harmful substances have been discharged
from the vessel.
Documentation detail – for shipping dangerous goods
One of the prime functions of any documentation that accompanies dangerous goods for shipping is
to provide basic information associated with the hazardous substance. To this end, the shipping
document for each product, material or article offered for shipment must include the following:
2. The proper shipping name.
3. The class and when assigned, and the division of the goods.
4. The UN number.
5. The packaging group for the substance carried under a ‘Not Otherwise Specified’ (NOS)
notation or other generic entry which may include the possibility of the assignment of more
than one packaging group.
6. For ‘Class 7’, radioactive materials only, the Class 7 schedule number.
7. Any empty or any packages containing residual dangerous goods must be marked by the
words empty uncleaned or residue‐last contained, before or after the proper shipping name
of the substance.
8. Where dangerous goods waste (except radioactive waste) are being transported for
disposal, the proper shipping name should be proceeded by the word waste.
9. The number and kind of packages together with the total quantity of dangerous goods
covered by the description.
10. The minimum flash point if 61°C or below (°C closed cup test), or other additional hazard
which is not communicated in the description of the dangerous goods.
11. The identification that the goods are marine pollutants and when declared under an NOS, or
generic entry, the recognized chemical name of the marine pollutant in parentheses.
12. For Class 4.1 self‐reacting substance or a Class 5.2 organic peroxide, the control and
emergency temperatures, if applicable.
Additional information is required where special classes of dangerous goods are carried and this
information is applicable for: all ‘Class 1’ goods, gases, infectious substances, radioactive materials,
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 268 of 330
certain substances in Class 4.1 which may be exempt from display of an explosive subsidiary label,
and certain organic substances that are also exempt from displaying the explosive subsidiary label.
Package requirements for dangerous goods
All dangerous goods intended for carriage by sea must conform to the specifications and
performance tests as recommended by the IMDG Code.
Packaging must be:
1. well made and in good condition,
2. sealed to prevent leakage,
3. of a package material which should not be adversely affected by the substance it is
containing within. If necessary it should be provided by an inner coating capable of
withstanding ordinary risks of handling and carriage by sea. Where the use of absorbent
material or cushioning material is employed, that material shall be:
– capable of minimizing the dangers to which the liquid may give rise,
– so disposed as to prevent movement and ensure that the receptacle remains surrounded,
– where reasonably possible, of sufficient quantity to absorb the liquid in the event that
breakage of the receptacle occurs.
When filling packages/receptacles with liquids, sufficient ullage should be left to make an allowance
for expansion which may be caused by rises in temperature.
Gas cylinders for gases under pressure must be adequately constructed and tested, maintained and
correctly filled. When pressure may develop in a package by the emission of gas from the contents
due to a rise in temperature, such a package may be fitted with a vent, provided that the gas
emitted will not cause danger in any form to the surround.
Marking of dangerous goods (Ref. IMDG Code)
Packages of ‘dangerous goods’ must be transported in accordance with the provisions of the IMDG
Code. Packages containing a harmful substance should be durably marked with the correct technical
name (trade names alone should not be used). They should be marked to indicate that they are a
marine pollutant and identified by additional means like by use of the relevant UN number.
Markings on packages containing harmful substances must be of such a durable nature as to
withstand three (3) months immersion in sea water.
They must be adequate to minimize the hazard to the marine environment having due regard to
their specific contents.
Note: Packages that contain small quantities of harmful substances may be exempt from the marking
requirements. Exemptions are referenced in the IMDG Code.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 269 of 330
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 270 of 330
Empty packages
p wh
hich have prreviously beeen used forr the transp
port of harm
mful substances shall
themselves be treated as harm
mful substan nces, unless adequate precautions
p have been taken to
ensure tthat they con
ntain no residues that are of a harmfful nature to the marine eenvironment.
Purposse of markin
ng and labeelling
The purppose of markking packagees with the ccorrect and p proper shipping name, an nd the UN nuumber of
the sub
bstance, is to
t ensure that
t the maaterial or substance caan be readiily identified
d during
transporrtation of the goods. This identificatiion is particu
ularly importtant in deterrmining the n
nature of
emergen ncy treatmen nt which would be required in the evvent of a spillage or accid dent occurrin
ng.
Carriagge in cargo transport u
units
The ship
pper is respo
onsible for providing
p thee transport documents;
d namely a signed certificcate that
the unit offered for carriage is p properly packkaged, marke ed and labelled or placarrded, as appropriate.
If dangeerous goods have been p packed in such a unit and the packin ng certificatee is not available, the
cargo traansport unit should not b be accepted for carriage.
Segregaation
Dangeroous goods th hat have to bbe segregateed from each h other mustt not be tran
nsported in tthe same
cargo traansport. Further advice o on the segreegation of co
ontainers, ho
ousing dangeerous goods oon board
containeer vessels, is given in the code.
Similar cconditions fo
or Ro‐Ro unitts apply, and
d reference to
o the IMDG Code should
d be made.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 271 of 330
The table gives the segregation requirements as follows:
• Away from
• Separated from
• Separated by a complete compartment or hold from
• Separated longitudinally by an intervening complete compartment or hold from
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 272 of 330
Precautions when loading/discharging hazardous goods
1. All documentation regarding the ‘dangerous goods’ should be in order and include the
Container Packing Certificate, the Shipper’s Declaration and relevant Emergency
Information.
2. All cargo operations should be supervised by a responsible officer who will be in possession
of operational and emergency information.
3. No unauthorized person, or persons, intoxicated or under the influence of drugs should be
allowed near to hazardous cargoes.
4. The compartment or deck area should be dry and clear, suitable for the stowage of the
cargo.
5. Where cargo‐handling equipment is to be used, such equipment should be inspected to be
seen to be in good order before use.
6. Dangerous goods should not be handled under adverse weather conditions.
7. All packaging, labelling and segregation of the goods are carried out as per the IMDG Code.
8. Tanks, where applicable, should not be overfilled.
9. Suitable ‘Emergency Equipment’ should be kept readily available for any and every potential
hazard associated with the goods.
10. Fire wires should be rigged fore and aft of the vessel.
11. Packages should be identified and stowed in an appropriate place to protect against
accident.
12. Safe access to packages must be available in order to protect or move away from immediate
hazards.
13. Emergency stations with suitable protective clothing should be identified in respect to the
location of the cargo.
14. Correct signals, i.e. ‘B’ Flag should be displayed during the periods of loading and
discharging.
15. Stowage positions should be such as to protect the goods from accidental damage due to
heating. Combustible materials being stowed away from all sources of ignition.
16. Cargoes requiring special ventilation should be positioned to benefit from the designated
ventilation system.
17. The Port Authority should be informed of all movements of hazardous goods.
18. Suitable security should be given to special cargoes like explosives.
19. All hazardous parcels should be tallied in and tallied out of the vessel.
20. Some packages may require daylight movement. Some operations may also be effected by
rain or strong sunlight and appropriate loading schedules should reflect related hazards.
Note: Emergency information on cargoes should include:
The correct technical name of the product and its UN number
Classification and any physical and/or chemical properties
Quantity to load and the designated space to load
The stated action in the event of leakage
Fire fighting and spillage procedures, and any specific equipment required.
Shipping dangerous goods in containers
The IMDG Code rules enable the carriage of dangerous goods to be acceptable under managed risk
conditions.
For example, the carriage of flammable liquid is never without a fire hazard, but provided the ship is
fully aware of the hazard, the packaging is adequate and intact, and the stowage and segregation is
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 273 of 330
done according to the IMDG Code rules, the ship should be able to deal with an unexpected incident.
The risk is recognised, measurable, minimised and commercially acceptable.
Packing certificates
When dangerous goods are packed into containers for sea, the IMDG Code requires a signed
certificate from the packer, confirming that the packages were sound and the load was packed,
secured, marked, labelled and placarded all according to the IMDG Code rules.
Causes of dangerous goods incidents
Events and circumstances far from the ship can sow the seeds of incidents arising from:
1. Mis‐declaration or non‐declaration by shippers.
2. Quality and selection of the packaging.
3. Provision and accuracy of documentation.
4. Professionalism of the container packing.
5. The completely unexpected.
6. Human factors – regional and company attitudes.
1. Mis‐declaration or non‐declaration by shippers
There are many ways in which chemicals can be combined to make new substances. Dangerous
goods not listed by name in the IMDG Code Dangerous Goods List must be tested by the shipper to
check for hazardous properties, then shipped under a generic hazard classification.
It is possible for hazards to not be declared under these circumstances, either because of lack of
time to test, lack of test facilities, making false assumptions, lack of product knowledge, lack of
knowledge of the requirement to make an IMDG Code declaration or how to make one, or even
wilful withholding of information to avoid dangerous goods surcharges.
2. Quality and selection of packaging
Like a time bomb, defective or incompatible packaging may fail and release product at any point in a
voyage. Defects are difficult to spot until the package fails.
In the example illustrated below, new UN standard steel drums failed because small pieces of clinker
(mill scale) were rolled into the sheet steel from which the drums were made. During the voyage,
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 274 of 330
the mill scale broke out leaving holes in the drums. The IMDG Code specifies the quality of
packaging, and failure to meet that standard was the cause of this incident. Fortunately the cargo
was declared and stowed according to IMDG rules and the crew were able to deal with the problem
appropriately.
Beware of reconditioned drums
There is a market in low‐cost second hand and reconditioned steel and plastic drums. They are often
used for low value, low profit substances such as tar oils and creosotes. Reconditioned steel drums
have been known to fail because of brittle metal fracture. The process of cleaning and
reconditioning, which may involve fitting new top and bottom heads, puts stress on the materials
that was not anticipated during original drum manufacture. Much depends on quality control.
The IMDG Code does not require shippers to notify the ship of use of reconditioned drums for
dangerous goods. Beware, they are another unknown risk factor.
3. Provision and accuracy of documentation
The IMDG Code requires shippers to provide selfcertified documentation describing the identity of
the dangerous goods, the nature of the hazard, the quantity and the type of packaging. This data
from the dangerous goods manifest is used to stow the ship and is available for dealing with
onboard incidents.
There is a serious lack of knowledge about the content and purpose of dangerous goods
documentation in the transport chain between the shipper and the ship. The knowledge gap may be
expected to grow in proportion to the distance from a port, with shippers being least well informed,
but regional attitudes also have a strong influence.
However, the maritime industry must face the fact that many employees of shipping companies,
forwarding agents and container packers are not as well informed about dangerous goods hazards
and IMDG Code requirements as is consistent with risk reduction. Unfortunately, it is the ship that
bears the additional risk, and once the container is loaded, the ship can do nothing to correct the
mistakes of others.
Many dangerous goods documents of very poor quality pass through the transport chain. How is this
so? Either the parties who should identify the errors are instructed to wilfully ignore any problems,
or they simply don’t know any better.
4. Professionalism of the container packer
Cargo securing inside containers is still as fundamental now to successful maritime transport as it
ever was in general cargo ships. The lack of proper securing of cargo in containers remains a
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 275 of 330
significant cause of damage, and dangerous goods leaking from broken packages is an all too
frequent additional risk factor.
The IMDG Code requires the packer to sign a packing certificate stating that any dangerous goods
have been safely secured for sea. Despite this, out‐turn reports at container cargo spillage incidents
produce a familiar roll call of defects in cargo stowing and securing:
Unsecured packages rolling and tumbling to selfdestruction inside void spaces in the
container.
Cargo crushed and collapsed by being overstowed by heavier cargo.
Point‐loading damage to cargo by pallets caused by lack of horizontal support between tiers.
Collapse of flimsy and badly made pallets causing stow instability.
Penetration of cargo, particularly drums, from protruding nails in floors, pallets, dunnage
and broken pallets.
Direct physical damage to packages caused by fork lift trucks.
Ram‐loaded packages split by forcing them into the container by fork lift.
5. The completely unexpected
From time to time people do unusual things to containers – tip them from road trailers, shunt them
into railway buffers, or drop them from cranes. After such an event, in an ideal world IMDG Code
dangerous goods warning placards would compel conscience to overcome carelessness and check
the cargo before loading on a ship, but this is not always the case.
6. Human factors – regional and company attitudes
IMDG Code rules, like any laws and regulations, only have meaning in proportion to the degree to
which people respect and comply with them. We have looked at the physical failures that create
problems, but it is people who drive policy, manage companies, operate production plants, create
documents and load containers.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 276 of 330
TANKER
A tanker (or tank ship or tankship) is a ship designed to transport liquids in bulk. Major types of
tankship include the oil tanker, the chemical tanker, and Gas carrier.
Tankers can range in size of capacity from several hundred tons, which includes vessels for servicing
small harbours and coastal settlements, to several hundred thousand tons, for long‐range haulage.
Besides ocean‐ or seagoing tankers there are also specialized inland‐waterway tankers which
operate on rivers and canals with an average cargo capacity up to some thousand tons. A wide range
of products are carried by tankers, including:
hydrocarbon products such as oil, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and liquefied natural gas
(LNG)
chemicals, such as ammonia, chlorine, and styrene monomer
fresh water
wine
molasses
Tankers were first used by the oil industry to transfer refined fuel in bulk from refineries to
customers. This would then be stored in large tanks ashore, and subdivided for delivery to individual
locations. The use of tankers caught on because other liquids were also cheaper to transport in bulk,
store in dedicated terminals, then subdivide. Even the Guinness brewery used tankers to transport
the stout across the Irish Sea.
Different products require different handling and transport, with specialised variants such as
"chemical tankers", "oil tankers", and "LNG carriers" developed to handle dangerous chemicals, oil
and oil‐derived products, and liquefied natural gas respectively. Among oil tankers, supertankers are
designed for transporting oil around the Horn of Africa from the Middle East. The supertanker
Seawise Giant, scrapped in 2010, was 458 meters (1,503 ft) in length and 69 meters (226 ft) wide.
Supertankers are one of the three preferred methods for transporting large quantities of oil, along
with pipeline transport and rail.
Commercial crude oil supertanker AbQaiq
Despite being highly regulated, tankers have been involved in environmental disasters resulting from
oil spills.
Petroleum Tankers
Tankers used for liquid fuels are classified according to their capacity.
Class Length Beam Draft Typical Typical
Min DWT Max DWT
Seawaymax 226 m (741 ft) 24 m (79 ft) 7.92 m (26.0 ft) 10,000 DWT 60,000 DWT
Panamax 228.6 m (750 ft) 32.3 m (106 ft) 12.6 m (41 ft) 60,000 DWT 80,000 DWT
Aframax 253.0 m (830.1 ft) 44.2 m (145 ft) 11.6 m (38 ft) 80,000 DWT 120,000 DWT
Suezmax 16 m (52 ft) 120,000 DWT 200,000 DWT
VLCC 470 m (1,540 ft) 60 m (200 ft) 20 m (66 ft) 200,000 DWT 315,000 DWT
(Malaccamax)
ULCC 320,000 DWT 550,000 DWT
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 277 of 330
Architeecture of th
he oil tanker
Oil tankkers generallly have from
m 8 to 12 taanks. Each tank
t is split into two orr three inde
ependent
comparttments by fore‐and‐aft
f bulkheads.. The tanks are numbeered with ttank one being the
forwardmost. Individual compartments aree referred to o by the tank number and the athw wartships
position, such as "onne port", "three starboarrd", or "six ce enter."
A cofferdam is a small space leftt open between two bulkheads, to ggive protectio on from heat, fire, or
collision
n. Tankers geenerally havve cofferdam
ms forward and
a aft of the
t cargo tanks, and so ometimes
between n individual tanks. A pumproom houses all the pumps connnected to a tanker's carrgo lines.
Some laarger tankerss have two pumprooms
p . A pumproo
om generallyy spans the total breadtth of the
ship.
A major componentt of tanker architecture is the design of the hull o or outer struucture. A tannker with
a single outer shell between th
he product and the oceean is said to
t be single‐‐hulled. Mosst newer
tankers are double‐‐hulled, withh an extra space
s betweeen the hulll and the sttorage tankss. Hybrid
designs such as double‐bottom and double‐sided combine aspects o of single and double‐hull designs.
All single‐hulled tankers aroun nd the worrld will be phased outt by 2026, in accordan nce with
amendm ments to Ann nex I of the MARPOL Co onvention. IMMO distinguiishes three ccategories off tankers
that willl be phased oout:
Catego
ory 1 ‐ oil
o tankers of
o 20,000 ton nnes deadweight and ab ng crude oil, fuel oil,
bove carryin
h
heavy diesel oil or lubricaating oil as ccargo, and of 30,000 tonnnes deadwe eight and
a
above carryiing other oils, which do d not com mply with thhe requiremments for
p
protectively located segrregated ballaast tanks (co ommonly kno own as Pre‐MARPOL
tankers)
ory 2 ‐ as category 1,
Catego 1 but comp
plying with protectively
p located seggregated ballast tank
requirementss (MARPOL ttankers), and d
Catego
ory 3 ‐ oiil tankers off 5,000 tonn
nes deadwe
eight and ab
bove but lesss than the tonnage
s
specified for Category 1 aand 2 tankers
Categorry 1 ‐PreMARPOL tan
nker
Categoryy 1 tankers have been p phased out in n 2005. Thesse so‐called preMARPOLL tankers we ere single
hull onlyy with somee segregated nks. Around one third of
d ballast tan o the cargo tanks also acted as
ballast ttanks. Duringg ballast disccharge oil waas released into the envvironment. TThese tankers did not
extent hhigh above th he water linee, allowing H Hydrostatically Balanced Loading (HBBL), so relativvely little
oil was sspilled in case of bottom damage.
Categorry 2 ‐MARP
POL tankerr
Categoryy 2 tankers will have been
b phased 10 at the laatest, depending on the
d out by 201 e year of
delivery. With MARP POL tankers, it is not allo
owed to use b ballast tankss as cargo tan nks. This has reduced
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 278 of 330
operatio
onal spillagee drastically. The downsside is desiggns based on MARPOL spill more oil
o when
damaged than a preeMARPOL tan nkers. This iss due to seveeral factors:
- as ballast tanks could not be useed as cargo tanks anym more, cargo space was lost. To
compensatee for this, taanks were made
m taller, which
w means that moree oil is spilled before
hydrostatic balance is reeached,
- a MARPOL rrule is that 3 30 percent o of the side sh of the tanks of a MARPO
hell in way o OL tanker
should be non‐cargo. Th he cheapest way to reach this, is by making thesse tanks as narrow as
possible. This means that centre tanks became e extremely large, so in case of dam mage, the
amount of spillage increeased,
- in a preMAR RPOL tanker ballast tanks were also filled with in nert gas, as tthese were aalso used
as cargo tan nks, which reeduced corro osion. Ballastt tanks of MAARPOL tankeers are not protective
this way, cau using structuural failure by corrosion o on the Erika,, Castor and Prestige,
- the painted d area tripleed, increasing required d maintenan nce and corrrosion in case
c this
maintenance is done poorly.
Categorry 3
These sm
mall tanker w
will also be p
phase out by 2010.
New ty
ypes
he Exxon Valdez disaster, public outcry became
After th e so strong that authorrities were forced
f to
come with preventivve measuress. Especially tthe double h hull design wwas favoured d and althouggh this is
not the best design iin all cases, b
because of OOPA 90, this iis the only deesign currently in operattion.
Doublee hull
OPA 90 caused the p phasing out o of single hull tankers in tthe United States between 1997 and d 2000 —
om tankers lightering off the coast,, which are allowed to be single hu
apart fro ull until 2015
5. In this
design, ccargo tanks are protecteed by ballastt tanks of at least 2 metres. As long as this barrier is not
breacheed, there will be no spillagge.
In 1998, the Marine Board of the Nationaal Academy of Science conducted aa survey of industry
experts regarding thhe pros and cons of dou uble‐hull dessign. Some o of the advantages of the e double‐
hull desiign that were mentioned d include easse of ballasting in emergeency situatio ons, reduced
d practice
of saltwater ballastinng in cargo tanks decreases corrosion n, increased environmen ntal protectio
on, cargo
dischargge is quicker,, more comp plete and eassier, tank washing is morre efficient, aand better prrotection
in low‐im
mpact collisioons and grouunding.
The sam
me report lissts the follow me drawbackks to the double‐hull design, including more
wing as som
expensivve to build, mmore expenssive canal an nd port expeenses, ballastt tank ventilaation difficullt, ballast
tanks neeed continuaal monitoringg and mainteenance, incre eased transvverse free su urface, more surfaces
to mainttain, explosion risk in do ouble‐hull sp or detection system not fitted, clean
paces if vapo ning mud
from ballast spaces aa bigger prob blem.
In all, doouble‐hull taankers are said to be safer than a single‐hull in a groundingg incident, e
especially
when th he shore is not very rockky. The safetyy benefits arre less clear on larger veessels and in cases of
high speeed impact.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 279 of 330
Other do
ownsides of this design aare:
- as small leakkages from ccargo tanks d do not spill in sea, they ccan go unnotticed for a lo
ong time.
This can cauuse an explo osive mixturee in ballast tanks, as theere is no requirement to connect
these to thee IG system,
- the paintedd area is three times as
a large as on a MARP POL tanker, and almostt tenfold
compared to o a preMARP POL tanker.
Although double‐hu ull design is superior in
n low energy casualties and preven nts spillage in small
casualtiees, in high en
nergy casuallties where b both hulls arre breached, oil can spill through the e double‐
hull and into the seaa and spills from a double‐hull tanker can be sign nificantly higgher than dessigns like
the Mid‐Deck Tankeer, the Coulombi Egg Tanker and even n a pre‐MAR RPOL tanker, as the last o one has a
lower oiil column and d reaches hyydrostatic balance sooner.
Mid‐Deeck Oil Tank
ker
A Mid‐D
Deck Tanker iis a tanker deesign, which includes an additional d
deck intended to limit spiills if the
tanker iss damaged. TThe extra deck is placed at about the
e middle of th
he draft of th
he ship.
Mid‐Deck Taanker, damage u
up 3 m. Light grayy is oil, dark grayy is seawater.
With do
ouble hull taankers, in high energy casualties where
w both hulls are breached, oil can spill
through the doublee‐hull and in nto the sea. In groundiing events of
o this type, a mid‐decck design
overcommes this by eliminating
e t double‐b
the bottom com mpartments that
t are voidd with air. Since
S the
density of seawater is greater th han that of oil, water commes into the tanks instead of oil escaping out,
and rath
her than spillling, oil is ven
nted upward ds into overflow tanks.
If the Exxxon Valdez h
had been a M
Mid‐Deck ship, she would
d have spilled
d very little o
oil.
Coulom
mbi Egg Tan
nker
A variation on the M Mid‐Deck Tan nker is the C
Coulombi Eggg Tanker, whhich was app proved by IM
MO as an
alternative to the do ouble hull co
oncept. The design consists of a series of centre and wing taanks that
are divid
ded by horizontal bulkheeads. The up pper wing tanks form ballast tanks and act as emmergency
receiverr tanks for caargo should tthe lower tan
nks be fractu wer tanks aree connected to these
ured. The low
ballast tanks by non‐return valvees. The Uniteed States Coast Guard do oes not allow
w this design to enter
US wateers, effectively preventingg it from being built.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 280 of 330
Coulombi Egg, damage up 3 m. Light gray is oil, dark gray iss seawater.
When a lower tank is damaged, the incomin ng sea waterr pushes thee oil in the daamaged tankk up into
the ballast tank. Beecause of thhe hydrostattic pressure,, there is an n automatic transfer ou ut of the
damaged tank. The double‐hulll design is aimed
a at thee probabilityy of zero outtflow. In low
w energy
casualtiees where on nly the outsid de hull is peenetrated, th his will be th
he case. How wever, in high energy
casualtiees both hullss are penetrrated. As thee tanks of a double hull tanker are larger than those of
MARPOL‐tankers and preMARPO OL‐tankers and the heigh ht of the carggo above thee water line iis higher,
the resu
ulting spill can be muchh larger than n these single hull desiggns. In the C
Coulombi Eggg design
spillage is greatly red duced, possibly to zero.
Where a
a double hull VLCC has a ballast tan
nk coated arrea of aboutt 225,000 m³, in a Coulo
ombi Egg
tanker this
t area is reduced to 66,000 m³.. This reduces maintenaance and co orrosion riskks, which
otherwisse may resullt in structural failure.
Inert gaas system
An oil taanker's inert gas system is one of thee most impo ortant parts oof its design.. Fuel oil itse
elf is very
difficult to ignite, however
h its hydrocarbonn vapors aree explosive when mixed d with air in
n certain
concentrations. Thee purpose off the system
m is to creatte an atmosphere insidee tanks in which
w the
hydrocarbon oil vapors cannot b burn.
As inertt gas is intro
oduced into
o a mixture of hydrocarrbon vapors and air, it increases thhe lower
flammab ble limit or lowest conccentration att which the vapors can be ignited. At the same
e time it
decreasees the upper flammablee limit or higghest concen ntration at which
w the vaapors can be
e ignited.
When the total con ncentration of oxygen in the tank reaches ab bout 11%, th he upper annd lower
flammab ble limits con nverge and tthe flammable range disaappears.
Inert gas systems deeliver air witth an oxygen n concentrattion of less tthan 5% by volume. As a tank is
pumped d out, it's filled with inerrt gas and keept in this safe state un ntil the next cargo is loaded. The
exceptio
on is in cases when the tank must b be entered. SSafely gas‐frreeing a tankk is accompllished by
purging hydrocarbon vapors with inert gas until the hyydrocarbon concentratio on inside the tank is
under about
a 1%. Thhus, as air replaces
r thee inert gas, the
t concenttration cannot rise to th
he lower
flammab ble limit and is safe.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 281 of 330
Tankers of 20 000 tonnes deadweight and above, engaged in carrying crude oil, must be fitted with
an IG system:
1. Venting systems in cargo tanks must be designed to operate to ensure that neither pressure
nor vacuum inside the tanks will exceed design parameters, for volumes of vapour, air or IG
mixtures.
2. Venting of small volumes of vapour, air or IG mixtures, caused by thermal variations
effecting the cargo tank, must pass through ‘P/V valves’.
Large volumes caused by cargo loading, ballasting or during discharge must not be allowed
to exceed design parameters.
A secondary means of allowing full flow relief of vapour, air or IG mixtures, to avoid excess
pressure build‐up must be incorporated, with a pressure sensing, monitoring arrangement.
This equipment must also provide an alarm facility activated by over‐pressure.
3. Tankers with double‐hull spaces and double‐bottom spaces shall be fitted with connections
for air and suitable connections for the supply of IG. Where hull spaces are fitted to the IG
permanent distribution system, means must be provided to prevent hydrocarbon gases from
cargo tanks, entering doublehull spaces (where spaces are not permanently connected to
the IG system appropriate means must be provided to allow connection to the IG main).
4. Suitable portable instruments and/or gas‐sampling pipes for measuring flammable vapour
concentrations and oxygen must be provided to assess double‐hull spaces.
5. All tankers operating with a COW system must be fitted with an IG system.
6. All tankers fitted with an IG system shall be provided with a closed ullage system.
7. The IG system must be capable of inerting empty cargo tanks by reducing the oxygen
content to a level which will not support combustion. It must also maintain the atmosphere
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 282 of 330
inside the tank with an oxygen content of less than 8% by volume and at a positive pressure
at all times in port or at sea, except when necessary to gas free.
8. The system must be capable of delivering gas to the cargo tanks at a rate of 125% of the
maximum rate of discharge capacity of the ship, expressed as a volume.
9. The system should be capable of delivering IG with an oxygen content of not more than 5%
by volume in the IG supply main to cargo tanks.
10. Flue gas isolating valves must be fitted to the IG mains, between the boiler uptakes and the
flue gas scrubber. Soot blowers will be arranged so as to be denied operation when the
corresponding flue gas valve is open.
11. The ‘scrubber’ and ‘blowers’ must be arranged and located aft of all cargo tanks, cargo pump
rooms and cofferdams separating these spaces from machinery spaces of Category ‘A’.
12. Two fuel pumps or one with sufficient spares shall be fitted to the IG generator.
13. Suitable shut offs must be provided to each suction and discharge connection of the
blowers. If blowers are to be used for gas freeing they must have blanking arrangements.
14. An additional water seal or other effective means of preventing gas leakage shall be fitted
between the flue gas isolating valves and scrubber, or incorporated in the gas entry to the
scrubber, for the purpose of permitting safe maintenance procedures.
15. A gas‐regulating valve must be fitted in the IG supply main, which is automatically controlled
to close at predetermined limits. (This valve must be located at the forward bulkhead of the
foremost gas safe space.)
16. At least two non‐return devices, one of which will be a water seal must be fitted to the IG
supply main. These devices should be located in the cargo area, on deck.
17. The water seal must be protected from freezing, and prevent backflow of hydrocarbon
vapours.
18. The second device must be fitted forward of the deck water seal and be of a non‐return
valve type or equivalent, fitted with positive means of closing.
19. Branch piping of the system to supply IG to respective tanks must be fitted with stop valves
or equivalent means of control, for isolating a tank.
20. Arrangements must be provided to connect the system to an external supply of IG.
21. Meters must be fitted in the navigation bridge of combination carriers which indicate the
pressure in slop tanks when isolated from the IG main supply. Meters must also be situated
in machinery control rooms for the pressure and oxygen content of IG supplied (where a
cargo control room is a feature these meters would be fitted in such rooms).
22. Automatic shutdown of IG blowers and the gas‐regulating valve shall be arranged on
predetermined limits.
23. Alarms shall be fitted to the system and indicated in the machinery space and the cargo
control room. These alarms monitor the following:
– Low water pressure or low water flow rate to the flu gas scrubber.
– High water level in the flu gas scrubber.
– High gas temperature.
– Failure of the IG blowers.
– Oxygen content in excess of 8% by volume.
– Failure of the power supply to the automatic control system, regulating valve and
sensing/monitoring devices.
– Low water level in the deck water seal.
– Gas pressure less than 100‐mm water gauge level.
– High gas pressure.
– Insufficient fuel oil supply to the IG generator.
– Power failure to the IG generator.
– Power failure to the automatic control of the IG generator.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 283 of 330
Hazards with IG systems
The IG system aboard any vessel has two inherent hazards:
1. If the cooling water in the scrubber should fail, then uncooled gas at 300°C would pass
directly to the cargo tank. This is prevented by the fitting of two water sensors in the base of
the scrubber which, if allowed to become uncovered, would generate an alarm signal which
shuts the system down and vents the gas to atmosphere. In the event that both sensors
failed two thermometer probes at the outlet of the scrubber would sense an unacceptable
rise in temperature and initiate the same shutdown procedure.
2. If there was a failure in the P/V valve, at the same time as a rise in the pressure within the
cargo tank, it would result in pressure working backwards towards the boiler with a possible
risk of explosion. This is prevented by the water in the deck seal forming a plug in the IG line
until a sufficient head is generated to blow out the oil seal and the excess pressure vents to
the deck. The pressure of water in the water seal is essential; therefore, the two water
sensors would sense its absence and shut down the plant as previously stated.
IG pressure should be maintained at a positive pressure at all times, to avoid air being forced into
the cargo spaces. Such a positive pressure is also exerted onto the surface of the oil cargo and assists
in pushing the oil along the suction line towards the cargo pump, and in so doing assists the draining
of the tanks. Any excess pressure in the cargo tanks is vented through the P/V valve.
IG – voyage cycle
Phase 1 – Vessel departs dry dock with all tanks vented to atmosphere and partially
ballasted. The IG plant is started, empty tanks and ullage spaces purged to atmosphere until
oxygen levels are acceptable. IG quality should be monitored and maintained throughout
the ballast voyage.
Phase 2 – Prior to arrival at the loading port the IG plant would be started and ballast
reduced to about 25% of the ships deadweight, ballast being replaced by IG. After berthing,
the remainder of the seawater ballast would be discharged and replaced by IG. The IG plant
would then be shut down, the deck isolation valve would be closed and the mast riser
opened, prior to commencing loading. IG would be displaced through mast risers. On
completion of loading, the IG would be topped up to a working pressure which would be
maintained though the loaded voyage (this would be expected to reduce evaporation and
prevent oxygen access).
Phase 3 – On arrival at the port of discharge, the IG plant would be set to maximum output
with discharge pumps at maximum output. The IG pressure should be monitored carefully
and if it approaches a negative, the rate of discharge of the cargo reduces. The mast riser
must never be opened to relieve the vacuum during the discharge period.
Phase 4 – On completion of discharge, the IG system should be shut down. If and when
ballasting takes place the IG and hydrocarbons would be vented to atmosphere.
Phase 5 – On departure from the discharge port all tanks must be drained to the internal
slop tank, then purged with IG to reduce the hydrocarbon levels to below 2%.
Phase 6 – Tank cleaning can now be permitted with IG in fully inerted tanks. This weakens
the hydrocarbon level and the positive pressure prevents pumps draining or drawing
atmosphere into the tanks.
Phase 7 – When all the vessels tanks have been washed and ballast changed it may be
necessary to carry out tank inspections. If this is the case, all tanks would then have to be
purged with IG to remove all traces of hydrocarbon gas before venting by fans. All tanks
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 284 of 330
would then be tested with explosimeter and oxygen analyser (full procedure for enclosed
space entry must be observed before internal inspection).
Advantages and disadvantages of the IG system
Advantages
1. A safe tank atmosphere is achieved which is non‐explosive
2. It allows high‐pressure tank washing and reduces tank‐cleaning time
3. It allows COW
4. Reduces corrosion in tanks – with an efficient scrubber in the system
5. Improves stripping efficiency and reduces discharge time
6. Aids the safe gas freeing of tanks
7. It is economical to operate
8. It forms a readily available extinguishing agent for other spaces
9. Reduces the loss of cargo through evaporation
10. Complies with legislation and reduces insurance premiums.
Disadvantages
1. Additional costs for installation
2. Maintenance costs are incurred
3. Low visibility inside tanks
4. With low oxygen content, tank access is denied
5. Could lead to contamination of high‐grade products
6. Moisture and sulphur content corrodes equipment
7. An established reverse route for cargo to enter the engine room
8. Oxygen content must be monitored and alarm sensed at all times
9. Instrumentation failure could affect fail‐safe devices putting the ship at risk through the IG
system
10. An additional gas generator is required in the system in the absence of waste heat products
from boiler flue gases.
Note: Instrumentation of the system to cover:
- IG temperature pressure read outs and recorders.
- Alarms for: blower failure, high oxygen content alarm, high and low gas pressure alarms,
high gas temperature, low seawater pressure and low level alarm in the scrubber and
- the deck water seal, respectively.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 285 of 330
Tanker pipelines
There are three basic types of pipeline systems:
1. Direct system
2. Ring main system
3. Free flow system.
Each system has their uses and is designed to fulfil a need in a particular type of vessel.
The direct system
This is the simplest type of pipeline system which uses fewer valves than the others. It takes oil
directly from the tank to the pump and so reduces friction. This has an affect of increasing the rate
of discharge, at the same time improving the tank suction. It is cheaper to install and maintain than
the ring main system because there is less pipeline length and with fewer valves less likelihood of
malfunction. However, the layout is not as versatile as a ring main system and problems in the event
of faulty valves or leaking pipelines could prove more difficult to circumvent. Also, the washing is
more difficult since there is no circular system and the washings must be flushed into the tanks.
The advantages are that:
1. it is easy to operate and less training of personnel is required
2. as there are fewer valves it takes less time to set up the valve system before commencing a
cargo operation
3. contamination is unlikely, as it is easy to isolate each section.
The disadvantages are that:
1. it is a very inflexible system which makes it difficult to plan for a multiport discharge
2. block stowage has to be used which makes it difficult to control ‘trim’
3. carrying more than three parcels concurrently can be difficult.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 286 of 330
The ring main system
This is basically a ring from the pump room around the ship, with crossover lines at each set of tanks.
There are various designs usually involving more than one ring. It is extensively employed on
‘product tankers’ where the system allows many grades of cargo to be carried without
contamination.
This is a highly versatile system which permits several different combinations of pump and line for
any particular tank.
The advantages of the system are that:
1. cargoes can be more easily split into smaller units and placed in various parts of the ship
2. line washing is more complete
3. a greater number of different parcels of cargo can be carried
4. trim and stress can be more easily controlled.
The disadvantages are that:
1. because of the more complicated pipeline and valve layout, better training in cargo
separation is required
2. contamination is far more likely if valves are incorrectly set
3. fairly low pumping rates are achieved
4. costs of installation and maintenance are higher because of more pipeline and an increased
number of valves.
The free flow system
The ‘free flow system’ employs sluice valves in the tank bulkheads rather than pipelines. With a
stern trim this system can discharge all the cargo from the aftermost tank via direct lines to the
pump room. The result is that a very high speed of discharge can be achieved and as such is suitable
for large crude carriers with a single grade cargo. Tank drainage is also very efficient since the
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 287 of 330
bulkhead valves allow the oil to flow aft easily. There are fewer tanks with this system and it has
increased numbers of sluice valves the farther aft you go.
The increased number of sluices is a feature to handle the increased volume being allowed to pass
from one tank to another.
The main advantage is that a very high rate of discharge is possible with few pipelines and limited
losses to friction. The main disadvantage is that overflows are possible if the cargo levels in all tanks
are not carefully monitored.
Measurement of liquid cargoes
The volume of oil in a tank is ascertained by measuring the distance from a fixed point on the deck
to the surface of the oil. The distance is known as the ‘ullage’ and is usually measured by means of a
plastic tape. A set of tables is supplied to every ship, which indicate for each cargo compartment, the
volume of liquid corresponding to a range of ullage measurements. The ullage opening is usually set
as near as possible to the centre of the tank so that for a fixed volume of oil, the ullage is not
appreciably affected by conditions of trim and list. If a favourable siting is not possible then the
effects of list and trim should be allowed for. The important measure of oil is weight and this must
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 288 of 330
be calculated from the volume of oil in each tank. Weight in tonnes is quickly found by multiplying
the volume of oil in cubic metres by the relative density (RD) of the oil. This density is a fraction and
may be taken out of petroleum tables when the RD of the oil is known.
Tank measurement and ullaging
Use of the Whessoe Tank Gauge
The function of the gauge is to register the ullage of the tank at any given time, in particular when
the liquid level in the tank is changing during the loading and discharge periods. The gauge is
designed to record the readings not only at the top deck level of the tank but also remotely at a
central cargo control room. A transmitter is fitted on the head of the gauge for just this purpose.
The unit is totally enclosed and various models manufactured are suitable for use aboard not only oil
tankers, but chemical and gas carriers as well.
Inside the gauge housing is a calibrated ullage tape, perforated to pass over a sprocket wheel and
guided to a spring‐loaded tape‐drum. The tape extends into the tank and is secured to a float of
critical weight. As the liquid rises or falls, the tape is drawn into, or extracted out from, the drum at
the gauge head. The tape‐drum, being spring loaded, provides a constant tension on the tape,
regardless of the amount of tape paid out. A counter window for display is fitted into the gauge
head, which allows the ullage to be read on site at the top of the tank.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 289 of 330
Tank measurement – radar system
This is a totally enclosed measuring system which can only be employed if the tank is fully inerted.
Systems are generally fitted with oxygen sensor and temperature sensor switches, so if the
atmosphere in the tank is hot or flammable the radar will not function.
Loading
Loading of tankers takes place at jetties, from FSUs or from SBM. Where booms carrying oil‐bearing
pipes are to be connected, these will be insulated to prevent stray currents flowing, as from
corrosion prevention systems employed on both ships and jetties. The flow of current in itself should
not be a problem, but it may give rise to a spark when making or breaking connections to the
manifold. For this reason, these sections are tested regularly for efficient insulation. Lines are often
bonded to reduce static electricity effects which could also give rise to an unwanted source of
ignition from the fast pumping of liquids.
These points are highlighted to illustrate that a high degree of awareness is required in all tanker
operations whether loading, discharging or gas freeing. Fire precautions are paramount because the
risk of fire aboard the tanker is a real hazard and stringent fire precautions must be adopted
throughout cargo operations of every kind.
Cargo Loading Arm
A marine loading arm is an alternative to direct hose hookups that is particularly useful for larger
vessels and transfers at higher loading rates and pressures. Controlled manually or hydraulically, a
loading arm employs swivel joints and can, to some extent, follow the movement of a moored
vessel. Many loading arm systems feature quick‐connect fittings. Gasket or o‐ring arrangements are
required to make a secure seal to the ship's manifold flange. A loading arm must be drained or
closed off before the connection is broken off. This is usually done in two ways. For fuels such as gas
oil and diesel, the lines can be blown out with high pressure air. In the case of fuels such as kerosene
or petrol, the lines can be stripped with pumps.
Loading arms can handle both liquids and gases, in a wide range of viscosities and temperatures.
Cargoes from liquid sulphur to liquefied natural gas are moved through marine loading arms.
Loading arms service vessels in a wide range of sizes, from small river barges to the largest
supertankers.
Various designs exist, and specific installations can be tailored for a given port based on
considerations such as vessel size, cargo flow rate and cargo temperature. Environmental
constraints, such as the range of tide, wind conditions, and earthquake tolerance can also affect
choice of loading arm. A loading arm installation may include add‐ons such as hydraulic or manual
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 290 of 330
quick connect couplers, position monitoring systems, emergency release systems, and piggyback
vapor return lines.
Compared to cargo hoses, the loading arm's main drawback is its comparative lack of flexibility.
Loading procedural checklist
Company policy on loading procedures vary and Cargo Officers should adhere to the company
procedures and take additional reference from the International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and
Terminals (ISGOTT):
1. Complete and sign the ship/shore checklist
2. Establish an agreed communication network
3. Agree the loading plan by both parties and confirm in writing
4. Loading and topping off rates agreed
5. Emergency stop procedures and signals agreed
6. All effected tanks, lines, hoses inspected prior to commencing operations
7. Overboard valves sealed
8. All tanks and lines fully inerted
9. Inert gas (IG) system shut down
10. Pump room isolated and shut down
11. Ships lines set for loading
12. Off side manifolds shut and blanked off
13. All fire fighting and Ships Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP) equipment in place
14. Notice of readiness accepted
15. First set of tanks and manifold valves open
16. Commence loading at a slow rate
17. Check and monitor the first tanks to ensure cargo is being received
18. Carry out line sample
19. Check all around the vessel and overside for leaks
20. Increase loading rate to full
21. Check ullages at half‐hourly intervals and monitor flow rate to confirm with shoreside figures
22. Check valves operate into next set of tanks prior to change over
23. Reduce loading rate when topping off final tank
24. Order stop in ample time to achieve the planned ullage/line draining
25. When the cargo flow has completely stopped close all valves
26. After settling time, take ullages, temperatures and samples
27. Ensure all log book entries are completed
28. Cause an entry to be made into the Oil Record Book.
Note: The loading plan devised by Chief Officers and Shoreside Authorities would take account of the ship’s
stability and the possibility of stresses being incurred during all stages of the loading procedure.
Tank Cleaning
Tanks must be cleaned from time to time for various reasons. One reason is to change the type of
product carried inside a tank. Another is to allow the tank to be inspected or for maintenance to be
performed within a tank.
Automated tank cleaning machines work in a manner similar to an irrigation sprinkler. Hot water
forced through a jet nozzle rotates the nozzle. The nozzle's rotation moves the machine through a
cleaning pattern. As the water sprays, the liquid is pumped out of the tank. Portable water washing
systems are widely used, but tanks that are cleaned frequently may have a fixed system installed.
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The Butterworth Type K machine is widely used. This model can clean a tank of up to 10,000,000 US
gallons (38,000 m3). It uses water with a pressure up to 250 pounds per square inch (1,700 kPa) and
a temperature of up to 250 °F (121 °C). The water jet reaches up to 115 feet (35 m). Depending on
the pressure used, a cleaning cycle can take from about 10 to 50 minutes and the machine uses
between 15 US gallons (56.8 L; 12.5 imp gal) and 350 US gallons (1,324.9 L; 291.4 imp gal) per
minute.
On most crude‐oil tankers, a special crude oil washing system, or COW system, is part of the cleaning
process. The COW system circulates hot crude oil through the fixed tank‐cleaning system to remove
wax and asphaltic deposits.
Although machines are often used to wash tanks, a final stage of manual cleaning known as mucking,
is usually performed. Mucking requires protocols for entry into confined spaces and the use of
airline respirators, protective clothing and safety observers.
Tank cleaning is dangerous in a number of ways. While tank barges can be cleaned in port, shipboard
tanks are generally cleaned at sea. This is largely due to risks of fire and explosion inside the tanks.
However, with Gamajet tank cleaning machines, confined space entry is greatly reduced eliminating
danger to workers.
Cargo Control Room
The design and layout of an individual cargo control room is determined by the ship's design,
owner's requirements and the capabilities of the shipyard in which the ship is built. Modern cargo
control rooms offer some or all of these components: main cargo pump and stripping pump control,
valve control, tank level monitoring, and auxiliary functions.
Main cargo pumps and stripping pumps are used to discharge cargo from the ship. From the cargo
control room, the person in charge of the discharge can typically turn pumps on and off, set pump
speeds, and monitor pipeline pressures on the suction‐ and discharge‐sides of pumps.
By actuating cargo valves, the person in charge can control where cargo is pumped from, where it is
pumped to, and in systems that use throttle valves, can control the relative flow rates of cargo
through the valves. Modern cargo control rooms allow the person in charge to remotely control
some or all of the valves in the cargo system and monitor the state of all valves. Valve indicators are
typically laid out on a "mimic panel" which displays the cargo system piping, valves and pumps in a
schematic diagram.
Tank level monitoring is another key functionality often provided in modern cargo control rooms.
One aspect of tank level monitoring is overfill alarms, which sound throughout the ship when cargo
levels exceed the ship's design specifications. Many systems allow the person in charge to monitor
tank levels at all tank levels. Tank level monitoring allows the person in charge to take early action to
avoid oil spills, especially when loading the ship. Tank level information is often sent to computers
that calculate hull stresses such as shear forces and bending moments.
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Various other functions are available in some cargo control rooms. Many offer the person in charge
additional monitoring and control systems, the ability to monitor inert gas systems, and tank
pressures. Modern cargo control rooms typically allow the person in charge to control ballast pumps
and valves, and monitor oil content of ballast water by the use of oily water separators. In cases
where ships carry specialty products, specialized monitoring systems are available in the cargo
control room.
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Refrigerated Cargo Ship
A refrigerated (or reefer) ship is a type of ship typically used to transport perishable commodities
which require temperature‐controlled transportation, mostly fruits, meat, fish, vegetables, dairy
products and other foodstuffs.
Reefer Ship Reefer Container
Types of Reefers
Reefer ships may be categorised into three types:
Side‐door vessels have water tight ports on the ship’s hull, which open into a cargo hold.
Elevators or ramps leading from the quay serve as loading and discharging access for the
forklifts or conveyors. Inside these access ports or side doors, pallet lifts or another series of
conveyors bring the cargo to the respective decks. This special design makes the vessels
particularly well suited for inclement weather operations as the tops of the cargo holds are
always closed against rain and sun.
Conventional vessels have a traditional cargo operation with top opening hatches and
cranes/derricks. On such ships, when facing wet weather, the hatches need to be closed to
prevent heavy rain from flooding the holds. Both above ship types are well suited for the
handling of palletized and loose cargo.
Refrigerated container ships are specifically designed to carry containerised unit loads where
each container has its individual refrigerated unit. These containers are nearly always
twenty‐foot equivalent units (often called TEU) that are the "standard" container cargo size
that are loaded and unloaded at container terminals and aboard container ships. These ships
differ from conventional container ships in their design and power generation and electrical
distribution equipment. They need provisions made for powering each container's cooling
system. Because of their ease of loading and unloading cargo many container ships are now
being built or redesigned to carry refrigerated containers.
A major use of refrigerated cargo hold type ships was for the transportation of bananas and frozen
meat but most of these ships have been partly replaced by refrigerated containers that have a
refrigeration systems attached to the rear end of the container. While on a ship these containers are
plugged into an electrical outlet (typically 440 VAC) that ties into the ship's power generation. Since
many merchant vessels now have diesel‐electric propulsion units installed providing power to
individual units is mostly a wiring job. Refrigerated container ships are not limited by the number of
refrigeration containers they can carry unlike other container ships which may be limited in their
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 294 of 330
number of refrigeration outlets or have insufficient generator capacity. Each reefer container unit is
typically designed with a stand‐alone electrical circuit and has its own breaker switch that allows it
to be connected and disconnected as required. In principal each individual unit could be repaired
while the ship was still underway.
Refrigerated cargo is a key part of the income for some shipping companies. On multi‐purpose ships,
Refrigerated containers are mostly carried above deck, as they have to be checked for proper
operation. Also, a major part of the refrigeration system (such as a compressor) may fail, which
would have to be replaced or unplugged quickly in the event of a fire. Modern container vessels
stow the reefer containers in cellguides with adjacent inspection walkways that enable reefer
containers to be carried in the holds as well as on the deck. Modern refrigerated container vessels
are designed to incorporate a water‐cooling system for containers stowed under deck. This does not
replace the refrigeration system but facilitates cooling down of the external machinery. Containers
stowed on the exposed upper deck are air‐cooled, while those under deck are water‐cooled systems.
The water cooling design allows capacity loads of refrigerated containers under deck as it enables
the dissipation of the high amount of heat they generate. This system draws fresh water from the
ship's water supply, which in turn transfers the heat through heat exchangers to the abundantly
available sea water.
Fruit on Pallets Frozen Orange Juice in Drums
There are also refrigeration systems that have two compressors for very precise and low‐
temperature operation, such as transporting a container full of blood to a war zone. Cargoes of
shrimp, asparagus, caviar and blood are considered among the most expensive refrigerated items.
Bananas, fruit and meat have historically been the main cargo of refrigerated ships.
There are about 38,000 registered merchant ships in the world in 2010 with about 920 of them
being designed as refrigerated cargo ships. Because of the proliferation of self contained refrigerated
container systems on container ships, there are many more ships than those designed for only
refrigerated cargo that are also carrying some refrigerated cargo. Because of the way ships are
registered in the world the country with the most registered merchant vessels, Panama, with 6,739
vessels registered is also has the one with most registered refrigerated cargo ships—212 (as of
2010). The next largest country with the second most ships Liberia with 2,512 merchant vessels has
109 refrigerated cargo ships.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 295 of 330
The increase in container and Ro‐Ro trades has, to some extent, brought about the demise of the
conventional ‘reefer’ ship (one that was dedicated partments), the compartments being constructed
with insulation to act as very large giant refrigerators. Some of these vessels still operate,
particularly in the ‘Banana Trade’, but generally the cost of handling cargoes into reefer ships has
become uneconomic.
Refrigerated cargoes mainly fall into the category of foodstuffs by way of meat, dairy products, fruit,
poultry, etc. as a high degree of cleanliness is expected throughout the cargo compartments. Prior to
loading such products, the spaces are often surveyed and in virtually every case pre‐cooling of
dunnage and handling gear has to be carried out. Bilge bays must be cleaned out and sweetened,
and the suctions tested to satisfaction. Brine traps should also be cleaned and refilled, brine traps
serving a dual purpose by preventing cold air reaching the bilge areas and so freezing any residual
water while at the same time preventing odours from the bilges reaching into cargo compartments.
Compartment insulation
All compartments are insulated for the purpose of reducing the load on the refrigeration plant and
reducing heat loss from the compartment. It also provides time for engineers to instigate repairs in
the event that machinery fails.
Qualities of a good insulation material are that it:
1. should not absorb moisture
2. should not harbour vermin
3. should be fire resistant
4. must be odourless
5. should be low cost and available worldwide
6. should be light for draught considerations
7. should not have excessive settling levels as this would require re‐packing
8. should have strength and durability.
Examples in use include: polyurethane, plastics (PVC), aluminium foil, cork granules and glass wool.
Refrigeration plant
Refrigerated cargoes, other than those specifically carried in container or Ro‐Ro units, will be carried
under the operation of the ship’s own refrigeration plant. Cargo Officers are expected to have a
working knowledge of the hardware involved with this cooling plant, and the ramifications in the
event of machinery failure.
The majority of refrigeration plants in the marine environment operate on the ‘vapour compression
system’ (absorption refrigeration systems are generally not used in the marine environment because
they need a horizontal platform).
Figure below shows a direct expansion, grid‐cooling system. A refrigerant like Freon 12 (C CL2 F2) in
its gaseous form is compressed, then liquefied in the condenser. It is then passed through into the
grid pipeline of the compartment via the regulator valve. As it passes through the pipes it expands,
extracting the heat from the compartment and producing the cooling effect. Its operation is based
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 296 of 330
on the principle that the boiling and condensation points of a liquid depend upon the pressure
exerted on it, e.g. the boiling point of carbon dioxide (CO2) at atmospheric pressure is about ‐78°C,
by increasing the pressure the temperature at which liquid CO2 will vaporize is raised accordingly.
Operation of a vapour compression refrigeration system
In the past, many refrigerants have been employed in marine refrigeration plants including CO2,
ammonia and more recently the Freon’s, but due to depletion of the ozone layer, more refined
products are taking over from Freon 12.
Each refrigerant has specific qualities but the popular ones are those having least ODP and less
greenhouse potential. It is non‐poisonous, noncorrosive and requires only a low working pressure to
vaporize and is probably the main one used in any remaining dedicated reefer vessels.
Qualities of a good refrigerant
1. A high thermal dynamic efficiency is required
2. Low cost
3. Low working pressure and low volume
4. Non‐toxic, non‐inflammable and not explosive
5. Easily available worldwide
6. High critical temperature
7. High value of latent heat
8. Non‐corrosive.
Refrigeration plant – monitoring system
In order to protect cargoes, continual monitoring of the refrigeration machinery is considered a
necessity. This can be achieved by the introduction of a ‘Data Logging System’ to the relevant
machinery and to the adjoining compartments.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 297 of 330
With such a system in operation there is less likelihood of damage because an earlier warning
system would be activated giving more time to provide corrective action before valuable cargoes are
effected by loss of the cooling element.
Sensors and transducers monitor the following points:
1. Temperatures of the cargo compartment
2. Temperature of the fan outlet, discharge air
3. Brine temperatures entering and leaving the evaporator
4. Compressor suction and compression discharge
5. Seawater temperature
6. External air temperature.
Feedback of the sensed parameters are transmitted to either the cargo control room, the engine
control station or the navigation bridge (alarm circuits being established to 24 hour manned
stations).
Prior to loading any refrigerated cargoes it is normal practice for a surveyor to inspect the
compartment for cleanliness and to ensure that the compartment pre‐cooling temperatures are
correct. Dunnage and any cargo fitments would be pre‐cooled and machinery would be tested to
satisfaction.
Temperature control panel in ECR
Refrigerated container or reefer
A refrigerated container or reefer is an intermodal container (shipping container) used in intermodal
freight transport that is refrigerated for the transportation of temperature sensitive cargo.
While a reefer will have an integral refrigeration unit, they rely on external power, from electrical
power points at a land based site, a container ship or on quay. When being transported over the
road on a trailer they can be powered from diesel powered generators ("gen sets") which attach to
the container whilst on road journeys.
Some reefers are equipped with a water cooling system, which can be used if the reefer is stored
below deck on a vessel without adequate ventilation to remove the heat generated.
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 298 of 330
Water cooling
c systeems are expeensive, so modern
m vesse
els rely moree on ventilation to remo
ove heat
from carrgo holds, annd the use off water cooling systems iis declining.
The imp mers all over the world to enjoy
pact on socieety of reeferr containers is vast, allowing consum
fresh prroduce at anny time of yeear and expeerience prevviously unavaailable fresh produce fro om many
other paarts of the world.
Re
eefer Containers ISO
Types o
of Refrigeraated Cargoes
Refrigerated Cargoees can be diviided into thrree classes.
1. Frozen Carggo: e.g. meat, butter, po oultry and fish. These carrgoes are carrried in a harrd frozen
state at temmperatures arround ‐8°C to o ‐12°C to prrevent the grrowth of baccteria.
2. Chilled Carrgo: e.g. cheeese, eggs and
a fresh ve egetables. Temperature
T s maintained in the
compartmen nt for these cargoes are around ‐2°C C to 6°C. Beeef may also b be carried in a chilled
state as the tissues get d damaged som metimes by freezing. Maaintaining the right temp peratures
is more critical with chiilled cargoess than with frozen
f oes as condeensation of moisture
cargo
due to variation of temp perature encourages bacterial growth h
3. Air Cooled C Cargo: e.g. fruits. Here teemperaturess of around 2 2°C to 12°C aare maintained by air
circulation
The temmperatures at a which individual cargo oes are carrried may varry beyond th he above‐me entioned
limits deepending on n the naturee of the carrgo, the ambient tempeerature at th he loading port,
p the
duration n of the voyyage and thee state in wh
hich the carggo is to be delivered.
d (w
whether ripe
e, frozen,
ready foor consumptiion, etc.)
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 299 of 330
CARGO OPERATIONS
Following are the main points to be borne in mind during the carriage of refrigerated cargo.
1. Preparation of the Compartment: The compartment must be clean, dry and free from any
odour or taint. If necessary, it must be deodorized using ozone, sodium bicarbonate or patent
deodorisers but strong disinfectants must not be used. Bilges are to be cleaned, deodorised
and suctions checked. The insulation and permanent dunnage is to be checked and repaired as
necessary. Scuppers are to be cleaned and brine traps checked, tested and refilled. Brine traps
prevent warm air from entering the compartment and cold air from escaping; at the same
time allowing drainage of water. Thermometers should be in position and ventilator plugs to
the compartment fitted in place and tightly wedged. All openings are to be sealed against
entry of air. Brine pipes are to be tested to ensure that they are not choked and that no leaks
occur at the Joints.
2. Pre‐cooling of the Compartment: The compartment should be cooled down prior to
loading, to a temperature slightly lower than the transit temperature, to allow for fluctuations
during loading. Dunnage laid in the compartment is also to be cooled before cargo is loaded,
otherwise it will stain the cargo in contact with it When the compartment is ready for loading a
survey is carried out by a cargo surveyor who inspects the compartment for cleanliness, fitness
for the loading of the cargo concerned and for satisfactory working of the refrigeration plant.
A loading certificate, showing the temperature of each compartment is issued before any
cargo is stowed in the space.
3. Reception and Loading of cargo: Local port regulations should be known to ship's officers
with respect to opening and closing of compartments and accepted working temperatures for
stevedores to avoid friction with them and delay to the ship. The stowage should be aimed so
as to allow a free circulation of cold air around the cargo. The cargo should be secured in a
seaway. Clean cargo should not come In contact with dirty cargo. Utmost care should be taken
to inspect the incoming cargoes for inherent damage. This can be done by taking random
samples. Any overripe or damaged cargo must be rejected. When loading a lower hold
through a refrigerated t'ween deck, canvas or tarpaulins must be hung around the opening to
restrict the escape of cold air. Temperature must be maintained during stoppages for meals,
etc. During loading or discharging when the compartment is open frost may form onto the
brine pipes. This must be brushed away onto tarpaulins and removed to prevent It’s failing on
cargo and causing damage by wetting. After loading, all outside accesses should be sealed with
paper to ensure good circulation. The hatch covers are normally self sealing. The shipper must
provide the vessel with loading and carrying temperatures and any other special
requirements.
4. During Transit: Temperature control is most essential and must be strictly maintained. Daily
records showing the temperature in each compartment are to be kept for each watch.
Nowadays automatic temperature recorders keep a continuous record of temperatures.
During transit of chilled meat, a certain amount of CO2 (10% by volume) is introduced to
preserve the meat. Excessive CO2 can discolour the consignment. Hence it is essential to keep
a record and control of CO2 concentration (An instrument called a thermoscope is used to
monitor the concentration of CO2) conversely, In the case of fruits, the ripening of the fruit
causes evolution of CO2 which, if present in concentrations of above 5% spoils the fruit. This
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 300 of 330
excess CO2 can be dissipated by allowing fresh pre‐cooled air occasionally into the hold, taking
care not to cause large variations in temperature.
5. During Discharge: Prior to discharge a cargo surveyor is generally called to check the transit
temperature and CO2 records If the concentration of CO2 is higher than 7% the compartment
must be vented with fresh air prior to man entry for discharge.
Principal refrigerated cargoes and respective carriage temperatures
Product Carriage temperature
Meats: Frozen beef About ‐10°C (15°F).
Frozen lamb/or mutton From about ‐8° to ‐10°C (15° to 18°F).
Frozen pork About ‐10°C (15°F).
Offal and sundries Carried at as low a temperature as possible and
(includes hearts, not more than ‐ 10°C (15°F).
kidneys, livers Usually carried in bags or cases. Any of which
sweetbreads, tails are blood‐stained should be rejected.
and tongues)
Chilled beef Loaded at about 0–2°C, and carried at about ‐ 1.5°C (29–29.5°F),
unless instructed otherwise by the shipper.
Note: Chilling meat only slows the decomposition process down and it remains in prime condition
for about 30 days. This period could be extended by about 15 days if a 10% concentration of CO2 is
introduced into the compartment, assuming the compartment can be sealed and the environment is
safe to permit such action.
Poultry Packed in cases and carried at ‐10°C to ‐12°C (10–15°F).
Dairy products
Butter Liable to taint and should not be stowed alongside other strong
smelling cargoes in the same compartment, e.g. fruit. Generally
packed in cartons. Carriage temperature about ‐10°C (15°F).
Cheese Carriage temperature varies but generally carried at 5–7°C average.
Usually stowed on double dunnage.
Shell eggs Stored in cases and liable to taint. Normally not stowed above 10
cases high with air circulation channels on top of 50‐mm dunnage.
Carriage temperature 1°C (33°F).
Liquid eggs Carried in tins at temperatures not over ‐10°C (15°F).
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 301 of 330
Product Carriage temperature
Bacon Stow on double 50‐mm dunnage, do not overstow. Carrying
temperature ‐10°C (15°F).
Fish Shipped in boxes or crates and should be stowed on 50‐mm
dunnage. Fish has a tendency to rapid deterioration, and should be
carried at a low a temperature as possible, which should not exceed
‐12°C (10°F).
Fruits
Fresh fruits are generally carried in cardboard cartons or wood boxes, with ventilation holes. They
can often be carried in non‐refrigerated spaces on short haul runs Good ventilation must generally
be given to prevent a concentration of CO2 build‐up. CO2 must not be allowed to build up over 3%
concentration as this would cause deterioration of the cargo. Frequent air changes are
recommended to avoid this.
Apples Carriage temperature will vary with the variety of apple but is
usually in the range of ‐1–2°C.
Pears Should not be stowed in the same compartment as apples. Carriage
temperature ‐1°C to 0°C (30–32°F).
Grapes, peaches, plums Carriage temperature ‐1°C to 2°C (31–35°F).
Oranges Oranges must have adequate ventilation as they are very strong
smelling and the compartment must be deodorized after carriage.
Carrying temperature 2–5°C (36–41°F).
Lemons Similar to oranges. Carrying temperature 5–7°C (41–45°F).
Grapefruits Similar stow to oranges. Carriage at about 6°C (44°F).
Bananas The banana trade is specialized and special ships are built for the
purpose. Many of which use containers. The carriage temperature is
critical as too low a temperature can permanently arrest the
ripening process. Daily inspection of a compartment would be
carried out and any fruit found to be ripe is removed. One ripe
banana in a compartment can cause an acceleration of the ripening
process throughout the compartment. Carriage temperature usually
about 12°C (52–54°F).
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 302 of 330
C H A P T E R VI
Carriage of cargoes
Part A - General provisions Page
1 Application 275
2 Cargo information 275
3 Oxygen analysis and gas detection equipment 276
4 T h e use of pesticides in ships 276
5 Stowage and securing 276
5-1 Material safety data sheets
Part B - Special provisions for bulk cargoes other than grain
6 Acceptability for shipment 278
7 Loading, unloading and stowage of bulk cargoes 278
Part C - Carriage of grain
8 Definitions 280
9 Requirements for cargo ships carrying grain 280
273
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 303 of 330
Part A: General provisions
Regulation 2
Part A
General provisions
Regulation 1
Application
1 This chapter applies to the carriage of cargoes (except liquids in bulk, gases in bulk and those aspects
of carriage covered by other chapters) which, owing to their particular hazards to ships or persons on board,
may require special precautions in all ships to which the present regulations apply and in cargo ships of less
than 5 0 0 gross tonnage. However, for cargo ships of less than 5 0 0 gross tonnage, the Administration, if it
considers that the sheltered nature and conditions of voyage are such as to render the application of any
specific requirements of part A or B of this chapter unreasonable or unnecessary, may take other effective
measures to ensure the required safety for these ships.
2 To supplement the provisions of parts A and B of this chapter, each Contracting Government shall
ensure that appropriate information on cargo and its stowage and securing is provided, specifying, in
particular, precautions necessary for the safe carriage of such cargoes.*
Regulation 2
Cargo information
1 T h e shipper shall provide the master or his representative with appropriate information on the cargo
sufficiently in advance of loading to enable the precautions which may be necessary for proper stowage and
1
safe carriage of the cargo to be put into effect. Such information ' shall be confirmed in writing* and by
appropriate shipping documents prior to loading the cargo on the ship.
2 T h e cargo information shall include:
.1 in the case of general cargo, and of cargo carried in cargo units, a general description of the cargo,
the gross mass of the cargo or of the cargo units, and any relevant special properties of the cargo.
For the purpose of this regulation the cargo information required in sub-chapter 1.9 of the Code
of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing, adopted by the Organization by resolution
A . 7 1 4 ( 1 7 ) , as may be amended, shall be provided. Any such amendment to sub-chapter 1.9 shall
be adopted, brought into force and take effect in accordance with the provisions of article VIII of
the present Convention concerning the amendment procedures applicable to the annex other
than chapter I;
.2 in the case of bulk cargo, information on the stowage factor of the cargo, the trimming
procedures, likelihood of shifting including angle of repose, if applicable, and any other relevant
special properties. In the case of a concentrate or other cargo which may liquefy, additional
* Refer to:
.1 the Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing adopted by the Organization by resolution A.714(17), as
amended;
.2 the Code of Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes adopted by the Organization by resolution A.715
(17), as amended; MSC/Circ.525, Guidance note on precautions to be taken by the masters of ships of below 100
metres in length engaged in the carriage of logs; and MSC/Circ.548, Guidance note on precautions to be taken by
masters of ships engaged in the carriage of timber cargoes; and
.3 the International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes (IMSBC) Code, adopted by the Organization by resolution MSC.268
(85), as amended.
1
Refer to MSC/Circ.663, Form for cargo information.
• Reference to documents in this regulation does not preclude the use of electronic data processing (EDP) and electronic data
interchange (EDI) transmission techniques as an aid to paper documentation.
275
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Notes
Chapteron Cargo
VI: Work
Carriage of cargoes Page 304 of 330
Regulation 3
information in the form of a certificate on the moisture content of the cargo and its transportable
moisture limit.
.3 in the case of a bulk cargo not classified in accordance with the provisions of the I M D G Code, as
defined in regulation V I I / 1 . 1 , but which has chemical properties that may create a potential
hazard, in addition to the information required by the preceding subparagraphs, information on
its chemical properties.
3 Prior to loading cargo units on board ships, the shipper shall ensure that the gross mass of such units is
in accordance with the gross mass declared on the shipping documents.
Regulation 3
Oxygen analysis and gas detection equipment
1 W h e n transporting a bulk cargo which is liable to emit a toxic or flammable gas, or cause oxygen
depletion in the cargo space, an appropriate instrument for measuring the concentration of gas or oxygen in
the air shall be provided together with detailed instructions for its use. Such an instrument shall be to the
satisfaction of the Administration.
2 T h e Administration shall take steps to ensure that crews of ships are trained in the use of such
instruments.
Regulation 4
The use of pesticides in ships*
Appropriate precautions shall be taken in the use of pesticides in ships, in particular for the purposes of
fumigation.
Regulation 5
Stowage and securing
1 Cargo, cargo units+ and cargo transport units* carried on or under deck shall be so loaded, stowed and
secured as to prevent as far as is practicable, throughout the voyage, damage or hazard to the ship and the
persons on board, and loss of cargo overboard.
2 Cargo, cargo units and cargo transport units shall be so packed and secured within the unit as to
prevent, throughout the voyage, damage or hazard to the ship and the persons on board.
3 Appropriate precautions shall be taken during loading and transport of heavy cargoes or cargoes with
abnormal physical dimensions to ensure that no structural damage to the ship occurs and to maintain
adequate stability throughout the voyage.
4 Appropriate precautions shall be taken during loading and transport of cargo units and cargo transport
units on board ro—ro ships, especially with regard to the securing arrangements on board such ships and on
the cargo units and cargo transport units and with regard to the strength of the securing points and lashings.
5 Freight containers shall not be loaded to more than the maximum gross weight indicated on the Safety
Approval Plate under the International Convention for Safe Containers ( C S C ) , as amended.
* Refer to:
.1 MSC/Circ.612 on Recommendations on the safe use of pesticides in ships, as amended by MSC/Circ.689 and MSC/
Circ.746;
.2 M S C . 1/Circ.1264 on Recommendations on the safe use of pesticides in ships applicable to the fumigation of cargo holds;
and
.3 M S C . 1/Circ. 1265 on Recommendations on the safe use of pesticides in ships applicable to the fumigation of cargo
transport units.
* Refer to the Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing, adopted by the Organization by resolution A.714(17) as
amended.
1
Refer to the International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code, adopted by the Organization by resolution MSC. 122(75),
as amended.
276
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 305 of 330
Part A: General provisions
Regulation 5-1
6 All cargoes, other than solid and liquid bulk cargoes, cargo units and cargo transport units, shall be
loaded, stowed and secured throughout the voyage in accordance with the Cargo Securing Manual approved
by the Administration. In ships with ro-ro spaces, as defined in regulation I I - 2 / 3 . 4 1 , all securing of such
cargoes, cargo units, and cargo transport units, in accordance with the Cargo Securing Manual, shall be
completed before the ship leaves the berth. T h e Cargo Securing Manual shall be drawn up to a standard at
least equivalent to relevant guidelines developed by the Organization.*
Regulation 5-1
Material safety data sheets
Ships carrying M A R P O L Annex I cargoes, as defined in Appendix I to Annex I of the Protocol of 1 9 7 8
relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1 9 7 3 , and marine fuel
oils shall be provided with a material safety data sheet prior to the loading of such cargoes based on the
+
recommendations developed by the Organization.
' Refer to the Guidelines on the preparation of the Cargo Securing Manual (MSC/Circ.745).
f
Refer to the Recommendations for material safety data sheets (MSDS) for M A R P O L Annex I oil cargo and oil fuel, adopted by
the Organization by resolution MSC.286(86), as may be amended.
277
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 306 of 330
Chapter VI: Carriage of cargoes
Regulation 6
Part B
Special provisions for bulk cargoes other than grain
Regulation 6
Acceptability for shipment
1 Prior to loading a bulk cargo, the master shall be in possession of comprehensive information on the
ship's stability and on the distribution of cargo for the standard loading conditions. T h e method of
providing such information shall be to the satisfaction of the Administration.*
2 Concentrates or other cargoes which may liquefy shall only be accepted for loading when the actual
moisture content of the cargo is less than its transportable moisture limit. However, such concentrates and
other cargoes may be accepted for loading even when their moisture content exceeds the above limit,
provided that safety arrangements to the satisfaction of the Administration are made to ensure adequate
stability in the case of cargo shifting and further provided that the ship has adequate structural integrity.
3 Prior to loading a bulk cargo which is not a cargo classified in accordance with the provisions of the
I M D G Code, as defined in regulation VII/1.1 but which has chemical properties that may create a potential
hazard, special precautions for its safe carriage shall be taken.
Regulation 7
Loading, unloading and stowage of bulk cargoes^
1 For the purpose o f this regulation, terminal representative means a person appointed by the terminal or
other facility, where the ship is loading or unloading, who has responsibility lor operations conducted by
that terminal or facility with regard to the particular ship.
2 To enable the master to prevent excessive stresses in the ship's structure, the ship shall be provided
with a booklet, which shall be written in a language with which the ship's officers responsible for cargo
operations are familiar. If this language is not English, the ship shall be provided with a booklet written also
in the English language. T h e booklet shall, as a minimum, include:
.1 stability data, as required by regulation II—1/5—1;
.2 ballasting and deballasting rates and capacities;
.3 maximum allowable load per unit surface area of the tank top plating;
A maximum allowable load per hold;
.5 general loading and unloading instructions with regard to the strength of the ship's structure
including any limitations on the most adverse operating conditions during loading, unloading,
ballasting operations and the voyage;
.6 any special restrictions such as limitations on the most adverse operating conditions imposed by
the Administration or organization recognized by it, if applicable; and
.7 where strength calculations are required, maximum permissible forces and moments on the
ship's hull during loading, unloading and the voyage.
3 Before a solid bulk cargo is loaded or unloaded, the master and the terminal representative shall agree
on a plan* which shall ensure that the permissible forces and moments on the ship are not exceeded during
loading or unloading, and shall include the sequence, quantity and rate of loading or unloading, taking into
consideration the speed of loading or unloading, the number of pours and the deballasting or ballasting
* Refer to SOLAS regulation II—1/5-1 on Stability information to be supplied to the master.
* Refer to the Code of Practice for the Safe Loading and Unloading of Bulk Carriers (BLU Code) adopted by the Organization by
resolution A.862(20), as amended.
278
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 307 of 330
Part B: Bulk cargoes other than grain
Regulation 7
capability of the ship. T h e plan and any subsequent amendments thereto shall be lodged with the
appropriate authority of the port State.
4 Bulk cargoes shall be loaded and trimmed reasonably level, as necessary, to the boundaries of the cargo
space so as to minimize the risk of shifting and to ensure that adequate stability will be maintained
throughout the voyage.
5 W h e n bulk cargoes are carried in 'tween-decks, the hatchways of such 'tween-decks shall be closed in
those cases where the loading information indicates an unacceptable level of stress of the bottom structure if
the hatchways are left open. T h e cargo shall be trimmed reasonably level and shall either extend from side
to side or be secured by additional longitudinal divisions of sufficient strength. T h e safe load-carrying
capacity of the 'tween-decks shall be observed to ensure that the deck-structure is not overloaded.
6 T h e master and terminal representative shall ensure that loading and unloading operations are
conducted in accordance with the agreed plan.
7 If during loading or unloading any of the limits of the ship referred to in paragraph 2 are exceeded or
are likely to become so if the loading or unloading continues, the master has the right to suspend operation
and the obligation to notify accordingly the appropriate authority of the port State with which the plan has
been lodged. T h e master and the terminal representative shall ensure that corrective action is taken. When
unloading cargo, the master and terminal representative shall ensure that the unloading method does not
damage the ship's structure.
8 T h e master shall ensure that ship's personnel continuously monitor cargo operations. W h e r e possible,
the ship's draught shall be checked regularly during loading or unloading to confirm the tonnage figures
supplied. Each draught and tonnage observation shall be recorded in a cargo log-book. If significant
deviations from the agreed plan are detected, cargo or ballast operations or both shall be adjusted to ensure
that the deviations are corrected.
279
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 308 of 330
Chapter VI: Carnage of cargoes
Regulation 8
Part C
Carriage of grain
Regulation 8
Definitions
For the purposes of this part, unless expressly provided otherwise:
1 International Grain Code means the International C o d e for the Safe Carriage o f Grain in Bulk adopted
by the Maritime Safety Committee of the Organization by resolution M S C . 2 3 ( 5 9 ) as may be amended by
the Organization, provided that such amendments are adopted, brought into force and take effect in
accordance with the provisions of article VIII of the present Convention concerning the amendment
procedures applicable to the annex other than chapter I.
2 T h e term^ram includes wheat, maize (corn), oats, rye, barley, rice, pulses, seeds and processed forms
thereof whose behaviour is similar to that of grain in its natural state.
Regulation 9
Requirements for cargo ships carrying grain
1 In addition to any other applicable requirements of the present regulations, a cargo ship carrying grain
shall comply with the requirements of the International Grain Code, and hold a document of authorization
as required by that Code. For the purpose of this regulation, the requirements of the C o d e shall be treated
as mandatory.
2 A ship without such a document shall not load grain until the master satisfies the Administration, or
the Contracting Government of the port of loading on behalf of the Administration, that the ship will
comply with the requirements of the International Grain C o d e in its proposed loaded condition.
280
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 309 of 330
CHAPTER VII
Carriage of dangerous goods*
Page
Part A - Carriage of dangerous goods in packaged form
1 Definitions 283
2 Application 283
3 Requirements for the carriage of dangerous goods 283
4 Documents 283
5 Cargo Securing Manual 284
6 Reporting of incidents involving dangerous goods 284
Part A - l - Carriage of dangerous goods in solid form in bulk
7 Definitions 285
7-1 Application 285
7-2 Documents 285
7-3 Stowage and segregation requirements 285
7-4 Reporting of incidents involving dangerous goods 286
Part B - Construction and equipment of ships carrying dangerous liquid chemicals in bulk
8 Definitions 287
9 Application to chemical tankers 287
10 Requirements for chemical tankers 287
Part C - Construction and equipment of ships carrying liquefied gases in bulk
11 Definitions 288
12 Application to gas carriers 288
13 Requirements for gas carriers 288
* See also resolution A.851(20), General principles for ship reporting systems and ship reporting requirements, including guidelines
for reporting incidents involving dangerous goods, harmful substances and/or marine pollutants, as amended.
281
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Notes onVII:
Chapter Cargo Carriage
Work of dangerous goods Page 310 of 330
Contents
Part D - Special requirements for the carriage of packaged irradiated nuclear fuel,
plutonium and high-level radioactive wastes on board ships
14 Definitions 289
15 Application to ships carrying I N F cargo 289
16 Requirements for ships carrying I N F cargo 289
282
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 311 of 330
Part A: Carriage of dangerous goods in packaged form
Regulation 4
Part A
Carriage of dangerous goods in packaged form
Regulation 1
Definitions
For the purpose of this chapter, unless expressly provided otherwise:
1 IMDG Code means the International Maritime Dangerous Goods ( I M D G ) Code adopted by the
Maritime Safety Committee of the Organization by resolution M S C . 1 2 2 ( 7 5 ) , as may be amended by the
Organization, provided that such amendments are adopted, brought into force and take effect in
accordance with the provisions of article VIII of the present Convention concerning the amendment
procedures applicable to the annex other than chapter I.
2 Dangerous goods mean the substances, materials and articles covered by the I M D G Code.
3 Packaged form means the form o f containment specified in the I M D G Code.
Regulation 2
Application*
1 Unless expressly provided otherwise, this part applies to the carriage of dangerous goods in packaged
form in all ships to which the present regulations apply and in cargo ships of less than 5 0 0 gross tonnage.
2 T h e provisions of this part do not apply to ships' stores and equipment.
3 T h e carriage of dangerous goods in packaged form is prohibited except in accordance with the
provisions of this chapter.
4 To supplement the provisions of this part, each Contracting Government shall issue, or cause to be
issued, detailed instructions on emergency response and medical first aid relevant to incidents involving
1
dangerous goods in packaged form, taking into account the guidelines developed by the Organization.
Regulation 3
Requirements for the carriage of dangerous goods
The carriage of dangerous goods in packaged form shall be in compliance with the relevant provisions of
the I M D G Code.
Regulation 4
Documents
1 In all documents relating to the carriage of dangerous goods in packaged form by sea, the Proper
Shipping N a m e of the goods shall be used (trade names alone shall not be used) and the correct description
given in accordance with the classification set out in the I M D G Code.
* Refer to:
.1 part D, which contains special requirements for the carriage of INF cargo; and
.2 regulation 11-2/19, which contains special requirements for ships carrying dangerous goods.
* Refer to:
.1 the Emergency Response Procedures for Ships Carrying Dangerous Goods (EmS Guide) (MSC/Circ.1025), as amended; and
.2 the Medical First Aid Guide for Use in Accidents Involving Dangerous Goods (MEAG) (MSC/Circ.857) published by the
Organization.
283
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 312 of 330
Chapter VII: Carriage of dangerous goods
Regulation 5
2 T h e transport documents prepared by the shipper shall include, or be accompanied by, a signed
certificate or a declaration that the consignment, as offered for carriage, is properly packaged, marked,
labelled or placarded, as appropriate, and in proper condition for carriage.
3 T h e person(s) responsible for the packing/loading of dangerous goods in a cargo transport unit* shall
provide a signed container/vehicle packing certificate stating that the cargo in the unit has been properly
packed and secured and that all applicable transport requirements have been met. Such a certificate may be
combined with the document referred to in paragraph 2.
4 W h e r e there is due cause to suspect that a cargo transport unit in which dangerous goods are packed is
not in compliance with the requirements of paragraph 2 or 3, or where a container/vehicle packing
certificate is not available, the cargo transport unit shall not be accepted for carriage.
5 Each ship carrying dangerous goods in packaged form shall have a special list or manifest setting forth,
in accordance with the classification set out in the I M D G Code, the dangerous goods on board and the
location thereof. A detailed stowage plan, which identifies by class and sets out the location of all dangerous
goods on board, may be used in place of such a special list or manifest. A copy of one of these documents
shall be made available before departure to the person or organization designated by the port State
authority.
Regulation 5
Cargo Securing Manual
Cargo, cargo units* and cargo transport units shall be loaded, stowed and secured throughout the voyage in
accordance with the Cargo Securing Manual approved by the Administration. T h e Cargo Securing Manual
shall be drawn up to a standard at least equivalent to the guidelines developed by the Organization.*
Regulation 6
Reporting of incidents involving dangerous goods
1 W h e n an incident takes place involving the loss or likely loss overboard of dangerous goods in
packagedc form into the sea, the master, or other person having charge of the ship, shall report the
particulars of such an incident without delay and to the fullest extent possible to the nearest coastal State.
T h e report shall be drawn up based on general principles and guidelines developed by the Organization^
2 In the event of the ship referred to in paragraph 1 being abandoned, or in the event of a report from
such a ship being incomplete or unobtainable, the company, as defined in regulation I X / 1 . 2 , shall, to the
fullest extent possible, assume the obligations placed upon the master by this regulation.
* Refer to the International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code, adopted by the Organization by resolution MSC.122(75),
as amended.
+
As defined in the Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing, adopted by the Organization by resolution A.714(17), as
amended.
* Refer to the Guidelines for the preparation of the Cargo Securing Manual (MSC/Circ.745).
§
Refer to the General principles for ship reporting systems and ship reporting requirements, including Guidelines for reporting
incidents involving dangerous goods, harmful substances and/or marine pollutants, adopted by the Organization by resolu-
tion A.851(20), as amended.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI 284
Notes on Cargo Work Page 313 of 330
Part A-l: Carriage of dangerous goods in solid form in bulk
Regulation 7-3
Part A-l
Carriage of dangerous goods in solid form in bulk
Regulation 7
Definitions
Dangerous goods in solid form in bulk means any material, other than liquid or gas, consisting o f a
combination of particles, granules or any larger pieces of material, generally uniform in composition, which
is covered by the I M D G Code and is loaded directly into the cargo spaces of a ship without any
intermediate form of containment, and includes such materials loaded in a barge on a barge-carrying ship.
Regulation 7-1
Application*
1 Unless expressly provided otherwise, this part applies to the carriage of dangerous goods in solid form
in bulk in all ships to which the present regulations apply and in cargo ships of less than 5 0 0 gross tonnage.
2 T h e carriage of dangerous goods in solid form in bulk is prohibited except in accordance with the
provisions of this part.
3 To supplement the provisions of this part, each Contracting Government shall issue, or cause to be
1
issued, detailed instructions on the safe carriage of dangerous goods in solid form in bulk which shall
include instructions on emergency response and medical first aid relevant to incidents involving dangerous
goods in solid form in bulk, taking into account the guidelines developed by the Organization.*
Regulation 7-2
Documents
1 In all documents relating to the carriage of dangerous goods in solid form in bulk by sea, the bulk
cargo shipping name of the goods shall be used (trade names alone shall not be used).
2 Each ship carrying dangerous goods in solid form in bulk shall have a special list or manifest setting
forth the dangerous goods on board and the location thereof. A detailed stowage plan, which identifies by
class and sets out the location of all dangerous goods on board, may be used in place of such a special list or
manifest. A copy of one of these documents shall be made available before departure to the person or
organization designated by the port State authority.
Regulation 7-3
Stowage and segregation requirements
1 Dangerous goods in solid form in bulk shall be loaded and stowed safely and appropriately in
accordance with the nature of the goods. Incompatible goods shall be segregated from one another.
2 Dangerous goods in solid form in bulk, which are liable to spontaneous heating or combustion, shall not
be carried unless adequate precautions have been taken to minimize the likelihood of the outbreak of fire.
3 Dangerous goods in solid form in bulk, which give off dangerous vapours, shall be stowed in a well
ventilated cargo space.
* Refer to regulation II-2/19, which contains special requirements for ships carrying dangerous goods.
+
Refer to the International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes (IMSBC) Code, adopted by the Organization by resolution MSC.268(85),
as amended.
* Refer to the Medical First Aid Guide for Use in Accidents involving Dangerous Goods (MFAG) (MSC/Circ.857).
285
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 314 of 330
Chapter VII: Carriage of dangerous goods
Regulation 7 - 4
Regulation 7-4
Reporting of incidents involving dangerous goods
1 W h e n an incident takes place involving the loss or likely loss overboard of dangerous goods in solid
form in bulk into the sea, the master, or other person having charge of the ship, shall report the particulars
of such an incident without delay and to the fullest extent possible to the nearest coastal State. T h e report
shall be drawn up based on general principles and guidelines developed by the Organization.*
2 In the event of the ship referred to in paragraph 1 being abandoned, or in the event of a report from
such a ship being incomplete or unobtainable, the company, as defined in regulation I X / 1 . 2 , shall, to the
fullest extent possible, assume the obligations placed upon the master by this regulation.
Refer to the General principles for ship reporting systems and ship reporting requirements, including Guidelines for reporting
incidents involving dangerous goods, harmful substances and/or marine pollutants, adopted by the Organization by resolu-
tion A.851(20), as amended.
286
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 315 of 330
Part B: Ships carrying dangerous liquid chemicals
Regulation 10
Part B
Construction and equipment of ships carrying
dangerous liquid chemicals in bulk
Regulation 8
Definitions
For the purpose of this part, unless expressly provided otherwise:
1 International Bulk Chemical Code (IBC Code) means the International Code for the Construction and
Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk adopted by the Maritime Safety Committee of
the Organization by resolution M S C . 4 ( 4 8 ) , as may be amended by the Organization, provided that such
amendments are adopted, brought into force and take effect in accordance with the provisions of article VIII of
the present Convention concerning the amendment procedures applicable to the annex other than chapter I.
2 Chemical tanker means a cargo ship constructed or adapted and used for the carriage in bulk o f any
liquid product listed in chapter 17 of the International Bulk Chemical Code.
3 For the purpose o f regulation 9, ship constructed means a ship the keel o f which is laid or which is at a
similar stage of construction.
4 At a similar stage of construction means the stage at which:
.1 construction identifiable with a specific ship begins; and
.2 assembly of that ship has commenced comprising at least 50 tonnes or 1% of the estimated mass
of all structural material, whichever is less.
Regulation 9
Application to chemical tankers
1 Unless expressly provided otherwise, this part applies to chemical tankers constructed on or after
1 July 1 9 8 6 including those of less than 5 0 0 gross tonnage. Such tankers shall comply with the
requirements of this part in addition to any other applicable requirements of the present regulations.
2 Any chemical tanker, irrespective of the date of construction, which undergoes repairs, alterations,
modifications and outfitting related thereto shall continue to comply with at least the requirements
previously applicable to the ship. Such a ship, if constructed before 1 July 1 9 8 6 , shall, as a rule, comply with
the requirements for a ship constructed on or after that date to at least the same extent as before undergoing
such repairs, alterations, modifications or outfitting. Repairs, alterations and modifications of a major
character, and outfitting related thereto, shall meet the requirements for a ship constructed on or after
1 July 1 9 8 6 in so far as the Administration deems reasonable and practicable.
3 A ship, irrespective of the date of construction, which is converted to a chemical tanker shall be
treated as a chemical tanker constructed on the date on which such conversion commenced.
Regulation 10
Requirements for chemical tankers
1 A chemical tanker shall comply with the requirements of the International B u l k Chemical Code and
shall, in addition to the requirements of regulation 1/8,1/9, and 1/10, as applicable, be surveyed and certified
as provided for in that Code.
2 A chemical tanker holding a certificate issued pursuant to the provisions of paragraph 1 shall be subject
to the control established in regulation 1/19. For this purpose such certificate shall be treated as a certificate
issued under regulation 1/12 or 1/13.
287
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 316 of 330
Chapter VII: Carriage of dangerous goods
Regulation 11
Part C
Construction and equipment of ships carrying liquefied gases in bulk
Regulation 11
Definitions
For the purpose of this part, unless expressly provided otherwise:
1 International Gas Carrier Code (IGC Code) means the International Code for the Construction and
Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk as adopted by the Maritime Safety Committee of the
Organization by resolution M S C . 5 ( 4 8 ) , as may be amended by the Organization, provided that such
amendments are adopted, brought into force and take effect in accordance with the provisions of article VIII of
the present Convention concerning the amendment procedures applicable to the annex other than chapter I.
2 Gas carrier means a cargo ship constructed or adapted and used for the carriage in bulk o f any liquefied
gas or other product listed in chapter 19 of the International Gas Carrier Code.
3 For the purpose o f regulation 12, ship constructed means a ship the keel o f which is laid or which is at a
similar stage of construction.
4 At a similar stage of construction means the stage at which:
.1 construction identifiable with a specific ship begins; and
.2 assembly of that ship has commenced comprising at least 50 tonnes or 1% of the estimated mass
of all structural material, whichever is less.
Regulation 12
Application to gas carriers
1 Unless expressly provided otherwise, this part applies to gas carriers constructed on or after
1 July 1 9 8 6 including those of less than 5 0 0 gross tonnage. Such gas carriers shall comply with the
requirements of this part in addition to any other applicable requirements of the present regulations.
2 Any gas carrier, irrespective of the date of construction, which undergoes repairs, alterations,
modifications and outfitting related thereto shall continue to comply with at least the requirements
previously applicable to the ship. Such a ship if constructed before 1 July 1 9 8 6 shall, as a rule, comply with
the requirements for a ship constructed on or after that date to at least the same extent as before undergoing
such repairs, alterations, modifications or outfitting. Repairs, alterations and modifications of a major
character, and outfitting related thereto, shall meet the requirements for a ship constructed on or after
1 July 1 9 8 6 in so far as the Administration deems reasonable and practicable.
3 A ship, irrespective of the date of construction, which is converted to a gas carrier shall be treated as a
gas carrier constructed on the date on which such conversion commenced.
Regulation 13
Requirements for gas carriers
1 A gas carrier shall comply with the requirements of the International Gas Carrier Code and shall, in
addition to the requirements of regulation 1/8, 1/9 and 1/10, as applicable, be surveyed and certified as
provided for in that Code. For the purpose of this regulation, the requirements of the Code shall be treated
as mandatory.
2 A gas carrier holding a certificate issued pursuant to the provisions of paragraph 1 shall be subject to
the control established in regulation 1/19. For this purpose such certificate shall be treated as a certificate
issued under regulation 1/12 or 1/13.
288
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Notes on Cargo Work Page 317 of 330
Part D: Nuclear materials
Regulation 16
Part D
Special requirements for the carriage of packaged irradiated nuclear fuel, plutonium
and high-level radioactive wastes on board ships
Regulation 14
Definitions
For the purpose of this part, unless expressly provided otherwise:
1 INF Code means the International Code for the Safe Carriage o f Packaged Irradiated Nuclear Fuel,
Plutonium and High-Level Radioactive Wastes on Board Ships, adopted by the Maritime Safety
Committee of the Organization by resolution M S C . 8 8 ( 7 1 ) , as may be amended by the Organization,
provided that such amendments are adopted, brought into force and take effect in accordance with the
provisions of article VIII of the present Convention concerning the amendment procedures applicable to
the annex other than chapter I.
2 INF cargo means packaged irradiated nuclear fuel, plutonium and high-level radioactive wastes carried
as cargo in accordance with class 7 of the I M D G Code.
3 Irradiated nuclear fuel means material containing uranium, thorium and/or plutonium isotopes which
has been used to maintain a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.
4 Plutonium means the resultant mixture of isotopes of that material extracted from irradiated nuclear
fuel from reprocessing.
5 High-level radioactive wastes means liquid wastes resulting from the operation o f the first stage
extraction system or the concentrated wastes from subsequent extraction stages, in a facility for reprocessing
irradiated nuclear fuel, or solids into which such liquid wastes have been converted.
Regulation 15
Application to ships carrying INF cargo
1 Except as provided for in paragraph 2, this part shall apply to all ships regardless of the date of construct-
ion and size, including cargo ships of less than 5 0 0 gross tonnage, engaged in the carriage of I N F cargo.
2 This part and the I N F Code do not apply to warships, naval auxiliary or other vessels owned or
operated by a Contracting Government and used, for the time being, only on government non-commercial
service; however, each Administration shall ensure, by the adoption of appropriate measures not impairing
operations or operational capabilities of such ships owned or operated by it, that such ships carrying I N F
cargo act in a manner consistent, so far as reasonable and practicable, with this part and the I N F Code.
3 Nothing in this part or the I N F Code shall prejudice the rights and duties of governments under
international law and any action taken to enforce compliance shall be consistent with international law.
Regulation 16
Requirements for ships carrying INF cargo
1 A ship carrying I N F cargo shall comply with the requirements of the I N F Code in addition to any
other applicable requirements of the present regulations and shall be surveyed and certified as provided for
in that Code.
2 A ship holding a certificate issued pursuant to the provisions of paragraph 1 shall be subject to the
control established in regulations 1/19 and X I / 4 . For this purpose, such certificate shall be treated as a
certificate issued under regulation 1/12 or 1/13.
289
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 318 of 330
BULK CARGO LIQUEFACTION (IRON ORE FINES AND NICKEL ORE)
Recently a number of bulk carrier ships sinking were attributed to cargo liquefaction. The issue of
liquefaction affects bulk carriers of all sizes, but liquefaction can affect all ships carrying bulk ores
including dry general cargo ships that load parcels of bulk cargo. Cargo liquefaction has been of concern
to seafarers for over a century, and it is shocking to find it reappearing to cause loss of seafarers’ lives
once more.
The carriage of bulk mineral ore has become a focal point after the recent loss in 2010 of three bulk
carriers within 40 days, resulting in the deaths of 40 seafarers. The third ship lost, the Hong Wei carrying
40,000 tonnes of nickel ore, sank with the loss of 10 crew. The loss of these ships is believed to have
been associated with liquefaction of the cargo, with excessively high moisture content (referred to as
MC) in excess of its transportable moisture limit (commonly referred to as TML). All three ships loaded
nickel ore in Indonesia. It is known that at least two other ships have had serious incidents, where the
ship developed an angle of loll and had to be escorted to the discharge port or beached. There may well
be other incidents that have not been reported.
There have also been recent losses of ships (two in 2009) after loading iron ore fines in India, again
suffering liquefaction of the cargo. Masters, ship’s officers and chartering managers should understand
the dangers of liquefaction of certain cargos – usually wet mineral ore fines, but also other cargos such
as coal slurry and wet sand.
The International Association of Dry Cargo Shipowners (INTERCARGO) issued a news release calling on
shipowners and cargo interests to review their testing and safety procedures in shipping such cargo (a
copy of the news release can be found at www.intercargo.org). The International Group of P&I Clubs
have also released circulars to their members warning of the dangers associated with the carriage of
iron ore fines and nickel ore, and this can be found on the Standard Club website at www.standard‐
club.com/KnowledgeCentre.
In 2009, two bulk carriers, the “Asian Forest” and the “Black Rose” sank while carrying iron ore fines
during the monsoon season. The Indian Directorate General of Shipping (DGS) investigated the sinkings
and concluded that the cause was liquefaction as a consequence of excessive moisture in the cargo. In
August 2010 the Indian DGS issued its Merchant Shipping Notice No.9 titled Safe loading, stowage,
carriage and discharging of iron ore fines on ships from Indian Ports in fair and foul season (a copy of
this notice can be found at www.dgshipping.com). However the notice focuses primarily on the duties of
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 319 of 330
the master, when in fact the problem rests as much if not more with the shipper (and the authorities)
for not complying with their legal obligation under the International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes
(IMSBC) Code to supply the correct information, such as the moisture content, transportable moisture
limit, and flow moisture point (commonly referred to as FMP).
Masters must clearly understand the whole subject, and should have the support of the company and
charterer when making a decision in the interests of safety. Although the Notice issued in India deals
with the ramifications of oil pollution and wreck removal as a result of ships capsizing, the issue is
primarily one of seafarer safety. Loss of life resulting from cargo carriage is at stake.
The Notice however makes some important points:
shipper to provide the master with appropriate cargo • information as stated within the IMSBC
Code, in advance of loading iron ore fines
port authority to ensure shipper provides current cargo information such as moisture content,
transportable moisture limit, flow moisture point and cargo density
masters to verify moisture content before loading (e.g. appointed ships surveyor taking cargo
samples and analyzing them)
master to use his authority under International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)
to stop loading when necessary
master to report to the competent authority as well as his owner/ manager and local P&I
correspondent if the shipper or port terminal does not provide the proper information and is
not co‐operating, thereby posing a safety threat to the ship
THE BACKGROUND
There are basic problems in Indonesia and the Philippines with the carriage of nickel ore. Newly
discovered nickel ore mines are being operated by owners who have little or no experience of the
mineral’s properties or shipment. The locations of the new mines are proving too remote for the
attendance of surveyors, and there is a lack of reliable laboratories for testing. As new deposits are
found these problems may extend to other geographical areas.
In India, the problems encountered in the carriage of iron ore fines have been attributed to:
• lack of understanding of the issues of liquefaction
• iron ore fines not being declared as a Group A cargo under the IMSBC Code
• no certificates of moisture content and transportable moisture limit issued by the shipper
• cargos being incorrectly described to avoid being subject to the requirements of the IMSBC
Code
• inaccurate or fraudulent moisture content or transportable moisture limit certificates issued by
the shipper
• only one certificate issued for moisture content and transportable moisture limit even though
there may be more than one distinct source of cargo
• masters under commercial pressure not to delay loading and to accept cargos without sufficient
certification
• moisture content certificates more than seven days old
• cargo not stockpiled but delivered straight from the mine
• restrictive charterparty clauses
• physical threats and intimidation forcing masters and surveyors to accept cargo
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 320 of 330
• refusal to provide proper access for surveyors to sample and inspect the cargo before the ship is
asked to start loading
The main concerns lie in failures to provide or declare the true moisture content of cargos and
determine accurately the transportable moisture limit. Masters and cargo surveyors have been
physically threatened and intimidated to load cargos quickly, without being given the time to carry out
independent moisture content tests to verify the shipper’s declared moisture content.
In India, the flow moisture points for iron ore fines are generally tested in independent laboratories but
these may lack the proper equipment or trained personnel to facilitate reliable measurement in
accordance with the IMSBC Code. This has resulted in ships loading iron ore fines at Indian ports without
accurate flow moisture points, creating dangerous situations where the moisture content of the cargo
has been in excess of the transportable moisture limit.
In Indonesia and the Philippines, determination of the flow moisture point for nickel ore has usually
been conducted by the owners of the mines themselves. Certain mine owners who lack the proper
testing equipment have taken to estimating the flow moisture point, a practice which is contrary to
SOLAS and the IMSBC Code. In many cases, after accurate testing of the flow moisture point, the cargo
has been found unsuitable for shipment. Mine owners who do possess the testing equipment tend to
conduct their analysis of the flow moisture point with their own methodology, not taking account of the
laboratory test procedures, or associated apparatus and standards as stipulated in Appendix 2 of the
IMSBC Code.
If the cargo is loaded and shipped with moisture content in excess of its transportable moisture limit,
the cargo may reach its flow moisture point and develop a fluid state. The cargo may then be subject
to liquefaction, resulting in a potential loss of the ship’s positive stability from a reduction in
metacentric height (GM). The effect on a ship can be sudden and dramatic.
Cargo hold with wet iron ore fines. Wet nickel ore cargo
WHAT IS LIQUEFACTION?
Solid bulk cargoes such as iron ore fines or nickel ore normally contain a degree of moisture within the
particles. If the cargo has laid in piles at the mine, having been transported to the terminal in open
barges or trucks and loaded onto the terminal stockpiles during heavy rain, there may be a dramatic
increase in moisture levels. Masters loading mineral ore fines in rainy seasons should be warned that the
certificate issued for the moisture content, transportable moisture limit, and flow moisture point may
not represent the real condition of the cargo.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 321 of 330
When the cargo is subject to recurring cycles or cyclic forces, such as the movement of the ship
(rolling/pitching/slamming), the volume of spaces between the particles reduces, which causes the pore
water pressure to rise, reducing the shear strength of the particles.
Pore water pressure refers to the pressure of water held within a soil or rock, in gaps between particles
(pores). If the pore water pressure increases enough, the cargo can reach its flow moisture point. The
cargo enters a stage of transition whereby it begins to react like a fluid because of the loss of friction
between the particles. This process is called liquefaction.
The cargo tends to undergo a progressive shift in one direction with the ship’s rolling and does not
return to the centre. With further rolling, the ship gradually acquires more weight of cargo to one side
and develops an increasing list. This dangerous situation leads to further loss of ship stability and
potentially capsizing.
SHIPPER’S RESPONSIBILITIES
The shipper has an absolute responsibility under SOLAS Chapter VI and Section 4 of the IMSBC Code to
provide the master or his representative with detailed information about the cargo. The Code of
Practice for the Safe Loading and Unloading of Bulk Carriers (BLU Code), contained as an annex within
the IMSBC Code, also states that terminal representatives must ensure and be satisfied the ship has
been ‘advised as early as possible of the information contained in the cargo declaration as required by
chapter VI of SOLAS 74 as amended’.
Cargo information shall include but not be limited to:
• bulk cargo shipping name (BCSN)
• cargo group (A, B or C)
• group A – cargos which may liquefy
• group B – cargos which possess a chemical hazard
• group C – cargos which are neither liable to liquefy nor possess chemical hazards
• IMO class and UN number
• total quantity of cargo
• stowage factor
• trimming needs and procedure
• moisture content
• transportable moisture limit and flow moisture point
• angle of repose and likelihood of shifting
• formation of wet base
• toxic and flammable gasses which could be generated by the cargo
• toxicity, corrosiveness and propensity to oxygen depletion of the cargo
• emission of flammable gasses in case of contact with water
• radioactive properties if applicable
Information provided by the shipper must be accompanied by a cargo declaration form as stipulated in
regulation 4.2.3 of the IMSBC Code. The cargo declaration form should be modelled in the same format
as the example given in the IMSBC Code.
Cargos that have been identified as those ‘which may liquefy’ must have a signed certificate of
moisture content provided by the shipper to the ship’s master or his representative, including a
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 322 of 330
signed certificate of the transportable moisture limit as required by Section 4, regulation 4.3.2 of the
IMSBC Code.
If the ship is to load a cargo which is not listed in the code, Section 1.3 of the IMSBC Code must be
followed. The master must always ensure the bulk cargo shipping name (BCSN) of any cargo to be
loaded is ascertained. If the cargo schedule cannot be found within the IMSBC Code, the shipper must
consult the competent authority at the port of loading for an assessment of the cargo and acceptability
for shipment.
Water found during loading of nickel ore cargo Loading of dry iron ore fines
In regard to any cargo not listed in the Code and found to be dangerous and present a hazard to the ship
as defined in Groups A or B of the Code (‘may liquefy’ or ‘chemically hazardous cargo’), the competent
authority at the port of loading must consult the authorities from the flag state of the ship and the
authorities at the port of discharge.
Once all these authorities have agreed on preliminary conditions of carriage, the competent authority at
the port of loading will issue a certificate to the master stating the characteristics of the cargo including
required conditions for carriage and handling of the shipment. This is an impractical process if the ship
has arrived at the port to load.
Chartering departments must ascertain the correct bulk cargo shipping name before the voyage is fixed.
Water draining from iron ore fines. Stockpiles of iron ore fines surrounded by water.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 323 of 330
APPOINTMENT OF AN INDEPENDENT SURVEYOR
In view of the fact that in certain ports in India, Indonesia and the Phillipines the moisture content and
transportable moisture limit certificates cannot always be fully trusted, it is recommended that when
loading mineral fines or ore, an impartial and an independent cargo surveyor should confirm the
suitability and safety of the cargo.
It must be stressed that the appointment of a cargo surveyor does not relieve the shipper of his
obligations under the IMSBC Code or any local regulations.
The surveyor’s reponsibilities should include but not be limited to:
• assisting the master in complying with the IMSBC Code
• ensuring stockpiles of cargo for loading are identified and are representative of the shipper’s
samples
• taking an independant sample from the stockpiles for testing in a independent and competent
laboratory
• comparison of shipper’s and independent samples for moisture content and transportable
moisture limit
• assisting with the cargo operations, paying particular attention to rain conditions
• reporting to the master the presence of any wet cargo, particularly cargo from barges
• advising the master during periods of heavy rain and conducting additional mositure content
tests when necessary
CHARTERING DEPARTMENTS
Chartering managers have a responsibility to ensure they conclude fixtures that do not put lives of
seafarers in jeopardy.
Poorly constructed charter party clauses or omissions can put masters under considerable commercial
stress. The charterer should comply with the provisions of the IMSBC Code.
Chartering managers should be aware of:
• bulk cargo shipping name (BCSN)
• the IMSBC Code schedule under which a cargo is listed
• cargos that are prone to liquefaction (Group A cargos under IMSBC Code)
• ports and countries that export cargos that may liquefy
• the effects of cargoes that liquefy
• taking independant cargo samples
• the moisture content, transportable moisture limit, flow moisture point and the availability of
recognised labaratories for testing cargo samples
• clauses agreeing to appoint impartial and recognized surveyors to confirm the moisture content,
transportable moisture limit, flow moisture point and assistance to the master
• compliance with the IMSBC Code
Members should not sign any charterparty document which limits the member’s rights to apply fully the
IMSBC Code or allows the shipper to avoid his duties as defined within the Code.
Express terms should be included in the charterparty or freight contract to safeguard the owner’s
position. This includes ensuring that proper and accurate moisture content/transportable moisture
limit/flow moisture point and cargo descriptions are provided.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 324 of 330
MOISTURE CONTENT
The master must satisfy himself that the moisture content of the cargo is not more than the
transportable moisture limit. As required by the IMSBC Code, a certificate of moisture content must be
provided by the shipper to the master stating the current moisture content with the interval between
testing and loading being not more than seven days.
Notwithstanding these provisions, questions remain whether the master can trust the information
provided by the shipper. For example:
• has the certificate come from a reputable source?
• does the certificate relate to the cargo being loaded?
• have weather conditions changed the characteristics of the cargo since the certificate was
issued?
The shipper must identify:
• the laboratory used to conduct the moisture content analysis
• stockpiles from which the cargo has been sampled, which must be stated clearly on any
certification issued by the shipper
If there is reason to believe there has been a change or variation in the cargo (such as in the mining
process or through stockpiling in heavy rain) efforts should be made to conduct an additional moisture
content analysis before loading. This may be particularly pertinent in instances where the cargo has
been exposed to rain on uncovered stockpiles or in barges. If there has been significant precipitation
between the time of testing and time of loading, the shipper must conduct further check tests of the
moisture content to ensure the cargo is under the transportable moisture limit (4.5.2 The IMSBC Code).
Masters and officers should if possible undertake a visual inspection of the cargo before loading, to
establish any parts of the consignment which may be appreciably different in moisture content. If this is
the case, additional testing should be conducted to determine moisture content. Any parts of cargo
found to be in excess of its transportable moisture limit should be rejected as being unfit for shipment.
In cold conditions, the formation of ice crystals in the cargo is a serious hazard. Voyaging to warmer
climates may result in thawing, an increase in moisture content and the possibility of the cargo
exceeding its transportable moisture limit, leading to sliding failure or liquefaction.
It is important that moisture content analysis of frozen cargo takes place after the free moisture has
been completely thawed.
For cargos that may liquefy like iron ore fines or nickel ore, the moisture content of each type of finely
grained material (grades) for each hold should be identified. The shipper will often declare only an
average moisture content for the entire consignment, which may be accepted under the IMSBC Code
providing the sampling meets internationally or nationally accepted standards.
The master should exercise caution when accepting a reading of an average moisture content when
there is reason to believe that it may not be representative of the entire consignment.
Cargo may be taken from different stockpiles which in turn may have been mined at separate
locations, at different times and under different conditions. All these factors will inevitably create
differences in the moisture content of each consignment and their flow moisture properties.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 325 of 330
The master or his appointed representative should never sign any document seeking his confirmation
that the cargo is safe to carry.
It is quite clear that under the IMSBC Code, the shipper is obliged to declare the cargo is safe for
carriage, not the master. Signing any document stating the cargo is safe for carriage may prejudice a
member’s rights against a shipper in the event of a subsequent casualty. Do not sign such a document.
If there is any doubt about the validity of the signed certificate of average moisture content, or the
cargo is thought to contain excessively high moisture, the master should stop or refuse to load the
cargo until it can be ascertained as safe for carriage.
An independent and impartial surveyor should take samples of the cargo for testing at a competent
laboratory to ascertain the true moisture content.
TRANSPORTABLE MOISTURE LIMIT AND FLOW MOISTURE POINT
Section 4 of the IMSBC Code, regulation 4.3.2, states that the shipper shall provide the ship’s master or
his representative with a signed certificate of the transportable moisture limit. The certificate of
transportable moisture limit must contain or be accompanied by the results of testing and determining
the transportable moisture limit.
A test to determine the transportable moisture limit of a solid bulk cargo should be conducted in the six
months before the date of loading.
The transportable moisture limit is defined as 90% of the flow moisture point.
In determining the transportable moisture limit of a cargo, the flow moisture point must be determined
accurately by an approved laboratory, using the prescribed methods as stated in Appendix 2 of the
IMSBC Code ‘Laboratory test procedures, associated apparatus and standards’.
The flow moisture point of any cargo is deemed to be the percentage of moisture content at which
the cargo behaves like a fluid and develops a flow state.
As previously mentioned in relation to moisture content, consignments originating from different
stockpiles might have been mined separately and under varying conditions. The flow properties of
separate stockpiles may differ greatly and are likely to have a different flow moisture point.
If it is found that different grades or stockpiles are to be loaded, the transportable moisture limit/flow
moisture point should be assessed and certified for each consignment separately.
The shipping company or master should ensure the laboratory used for analysis is one of repute, by
checking through local agents, P & I correspondents or appointed surveyors.
The cargo to be loaded should be identified by its bulk cargo shipping name (BCSN) and the appropriate
cargo schedule of the IMSBC Code consulted. Cargos ‘which may liquefy’ are defined and listed as Group
A cargos in Appendix 4 of the IMSBC Code. The master must exercise caution in accepting cargos which
are not listed as those ‘which may liquefy’ but may indeed be subject to liquefaction. Iron ore fines are
not listed under a specific cargo schedule, but should be regarded as Group A cargo under regulation 1.3
of the IMSBC Code.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 326 of 330
FLOW TABLE TEST
The flow table test (FTT) is primarily used to determine the flow moisture point of relatively
homogenous mineral cargos. The test requires a cargo sample in the form of a truncated cone to be
placed on a flow table, raised and dropped repeatedly, around 50 times, from a measured height. The
IMSBC Code provides detailed information on identifying a flow state:
‘A flow state is considered to have been reached when the moisture content and compaction of the
sample produce a level of saturation such that plastic deformation occurs. At this stage, the moulded
sides of the sample may deform, giving a convex or concave profile.’
Regulation 1.1.4.2 Appendix 2 IMSBC Code.
Flow table test. Cargo sample on flow table.
Signs of plastic deformation:
• moulded sides of sample may deform
• cracks may develop on the surface
• sample begins to show tendency to stick to bottom of mould
• tracks of moisture on the table after testing
This test has, however, been criticised as being unreliable, as it subjectively relies heavily on the ability
and accuracy of the person conducting the test. One of the biggest disadvantages of using the flow table
test is its inadequacy in testing coarser cargos.
For inhomogeneous cargos like certain nickel ores, the cargo may have been mixed with other forms of
material including very fine clay‐like particles or large rock particles, inconsistencies which make it
difficult to determine the flow moisture point and transportable moisture limit. There are also types of
iron ore fines cargo which simply cannot be tested satisfactorily with the flow table test.
The IMSBC Code refers also to the penetration test, and the Proctor Fagerberg test as testing methods
but neither of these are believed to be currently in use in India, Indonesia or the Philippines.
THE CAN TEST
An onboard can test may determine the presence of moisture on the cargo surface and possible
liquefaction. It is recommended the can test should be conducted purely as a spot check by the master
and officers, but should never replace a full laboratory test as confirmation of safe carriage.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 327 of 330
Separate can tests. Can test showing moisture on surface
CAN TEST PROCEDURE
1. Fill half of a small cylindrical can with a sample of the cargo
2. Strike can against a hard surface such as a strong table from a height of approximately 20cm
3. Repeat the action at least 25 times, at one or two second intervals
4. Check surface for moisture and fluid‐like behavior
If moisture is present on the surface or fluid‐like behaviour is noticed, additional testing of the moisture
content should be conducted by a laboratory before loading.
The can test is not to be taken as an acceptance test confirming that the cargo is safe. It should serve to
warn the master or confirm that the cargo is above its flow moisture point and that further laboratory
testing is needed.
Can test conducted by shore side workers.
The advice contained in the Indian M Notice No.9 makes specific reference to the use of a ‘can test’ but
fails to comment on its lack of reliability. A full test in an approved laboratory must be conducted to
ensure the moisture content of the cargo is below the transportable moisture limit.
Indian M Notice No.9 Paragraph 5(I)(i) states ‘ship master shall conduct can test or other test prescribed
in the IMSBC Code to the extent reasonable and practicable prior to the acceptance of shipment of
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 328 of 330
cargo along with the terminal representative in case of any doubt about the information submitted by
the shipper or quality of cargo.’
The P&I clubs and most experts do not agree with this statement.
The can test does not produce conclusive results and should never be solely relied on as a condition of
carriage.
Masters and officers who rely on the can test as a primary method of testing for accepting a cargo may
be putting the crew and ship at risk. When the can test is conducted, it looks only for the flow moisture
point of the cargo and not the transportable moisture limit. The test automatically discards the 10%
safety margin if relied on as a condition of carriage. Therefore using the can test as a primary testing
method for acceptability of a cargo is contrary to the IMSBC Code.
TRIMMING
Cargo shifting caused by liquefaction is possible if the moisture content has exceeded the transportable
moisture limit.
Certain cargos are liable to moisture migration and could develop a wet base. Even though the surface
of the cargo may appear dry, liquefaction occurring below the dry cargo may result in a sudden shift of
cargo. Cargo, such as iron ore fines, possessing high moisture contents are prone to sliding.
To reduce the likelihood of cargo shifting, the master has the right to require the cargo to be trimmed to
a reasonably even level. With reference to Section 5 of the IMSBC Code ‘Trimming Procedures’, the
cargo spaces shall be as full as practicable without forming an excessive load on the bottom structures.
RESPONSIBILITIES
The shipper
• provide all necessary information relating to the cargo as specified within the IMSBC Code
including the proper bulk cargo shipping name (BCSN)
• provide a signed certificate of the average moisture content of each parcel of cargo which shall
be not more than seven days old at the time of loading
• provide a signed certificate of the transportable moisture limit which should not be more than
six months old from the date of loading, and with iron ore fines and nickel ore, it is
recommended the transportable moisture limit testing is done at the same time as the moisture
content testing
• the master and his independent surveyor or nominated representative must be allowed
unrestricted access to shoreside stockpiles for sampling purposes
The shipowner
• know the bulk cargo shipping name (BCSN) and properties of the cargo to be loaded
• consider including in the chaterparty a clause stipulating the use of an independent and
impartial cargo surveyor
• refuse to sign any charterparty agreement which contradicts or restricts any rights as laid set
out in the IMSBC Code, consider including an indemnity on behalf of the charterer in respect of
the consequences of loading a cargo in breach of the IMSBC Code
The master
• must ensure the ship has received all the documentation necessary for the safe loading of the
ship. The master should not begin loading until valid certification has been provided
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo Work Page 329 of 330
• should not load any parcel of cargo which is in excess of its transportable moisture limit
• if there is any doubt as to the validity of the certificates for moisture content and transportable
moisture limit, the master or his appointed representative should carry out tests before loading
• an independent surveyor can assist the master in sampling for moisture content analysis (which
may be a local requirement)
• in tropical countries additional moisture content analysis may be necessary
• the ’can test’ method alone should never be solely relied upon
• a visual inspection of the cargo will indentify the stockpiles before loading to establish parts of
the consignment which may have appreciable differences in moisture content
• ensure the cargo is retested for moisture content and transportable moisture limit if it is
’wetter’ after rain exposure, or if the certificate is not correct
• ensure the cargo is loaded and trimmed as evenly as possible
• IMSBC Code must always be followed
• resist any commerical pressure
• contact local P & I correspondent if master is in doubt of the suitability and safety of the cargo
The master has an overriding authority under SOLAS not to load any cargo and to stop cargo loading if
any concerns arise that the ship may be affected by the condition of the cargo.
Nickel ore stockpile. Wet nickel ore.
Discharging wet nickel ore onto the quayside. Indonesian Nickel Ore Mine
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Notes on Cargo WorkNickel Ore: Stop, Think ,Verify Nickel Page
Ore: Stop, Think
330 of 330,Verify
Intercargo Guide for the Safe Loading of Nickel Ore: What Should I look For?
Shipper’s
No Shipper’s Declaration: It is a legal requirement under the provisions of SOLAS Chapter VI, Regulation 2 and
Declaration the IMSBC Code Section 4.2 for the shipper to provide accurate cargo information to the Master.
provided?
Yes Correct BCSN: All dry bulk cargoes should be shipped under their correct Bulk Cargo Shipping Name (BCSN).
Correct No Nickel Ore does not yet have its own schedule in the IMSBC Code and hence has no BCSN. A cargo not listed
in the IMSBC Code should be shipped under Section 1.3 of the IMSBC Code under a ‘tripartite agreement’.
BCSN used? However, in the absence of such agreements, as a cargo known to be prone to liquefaction such as Nickel Ore
should be transported under Section 7 of the IMSBC Code (Cargoes that may liquefy) as a “Group A“ cargo.
Yes DO
TML No NOT TML: As a cargo prone to liquefaction, it is essential that Nickel Ore is classified as “Group A“ and the accurate
Flow Moisture Point (FMP) must be determined in accordance with the IMSBC Code and the Transportable
Stated?* LOAD Moisture Limit (TML) stated in the cargo declaration.
Yes
Moisture Moisture Content (MC): The actual moisture content of the cargo to be loaded must be provided by the
No shipper in accordance with the IMSBC Code from samples taken no more than seven days prior to loading.
Content (MC) If the moisture content of the cargo is likely to have changed since the samples were taken, e.g. due to
certified?* monsoon rain, further samples should be taken and the moisture content re-certified.
Yes
No MC < TML: The actual moisture content must be below the Transportable Moisture Limit. If not the cargo
MC < TML*
must not be loaded.
Yes
Visual Visual inspection: As far as practicable, the owner’s representative or ship’s crew should visually inspect
No the cargo stockpiles prior to loading. If such inspections or any associated “can tests” †conducted under
inspection Section 8 of the IMSBC Code cast doubt on the accuracy of the cargo declaration, then the cargo must not
OK?* be loaded and further advice sought.
Yes
Load: The cargo should be loaded in accordance with the provisions of SOLAS Chapter VI, the Code of Practice
LOAD for the Safe Loading and Unloading of Bulk Carriers (the BLU Code), and the IMSBC Code including trimming
requirements under Section 5.
Yes
Visual
monitoring
No STOP Visual monitoring: Visual monitoring should be carried out during loading and if indications of high moisture
OK?* LOADING content are observed, such as free water or cargo splatter, loading must stop and further advice sought.
Yes
CONTINUE
LOADING
*Independent Testing: Where doubt exists concerning any cargo declaration †Can Tests may indicate when a cargo has exceeded its FMP – confirming that the cargo should be rejected and
information (e.g certification shows MC within or below TML and yet the cargo
independent re-testing carried out. The Can Test cannot demonstrate the cargo moisture content is less than
appears wet/splatters when loaded), or there is suspicion that the cargo has
been mis-represented, independent cargo testing to determine the FMP, TML the TML, this can only be determined by laboratory tests. A cargo cannot be accepted for loading based on
and actual moisture content of the cargo to be loaded should be carried out. Can Tests alone.
Compiled by Capt. Kyaw Mya Oo B.Sc.(DSA) MNI
Common questions
Powered by AIThe risk of cargo liquefaction can be managed in compliance with the IMSBC Code by ensuring the shipper provides accurate cargo information, including the Bulk Cargo Shipping Name (BCSN), moisture content (MC), Transportable Moisture Limit (TML), and Flow Moisture Point (FMP). Cargoes prone to liquefaction must be classified as Group A, and a signed certificate indicating transportable moisture limit must accompany the cargo . The moisture content must be less than the TML before loading, which requires independent testing if doubts arise or conditions change, such as exposure to rain . Cargo should be visually inspected and further advice sought if excessive moisture is observed . Additionally, an independent surveyor can assist in sampling and verifying these parameters . If cargo cannot be verified as safe, the master holds authority under SOLAS to halt loading . Ensuring compliance with the IMSBC Code requires adherence to these protocols and resisting commercial pressure ."}
A Lashing Plan should include maximum cargo weight, maximum stowage height, required number and strength of blocking devices and lashings, required pretension in lashings, illustrations of all securing items, and restrictions regarding accelerations, weather conditions, and sea areas. This detailed documentation ensures that cargo units are correctly secured according to the vessel's specific requirements during the voyage .
Safety precautions for hatch covers during heavy weather include securing hatch cleats, ensuring drain valves are operational, and momentarily pressurizing the hydraulic system to prevent seawater intrusion and mechanical issues. Inspections should be conducted post-weather to check for damages such as buckling or distortion and to maintain operational safety .
The key criteria that securing devices must meet according to the Cargo Securing Manual guidelines are their adequacy in functional and strength criteria applicable to the ship and its cargo. Devices should be available in sufficient quantity, suitable for their intended purpose, of adequate strength, easy to use, and well maintained. This is important for ensuring that cargo units including containers are stowed and secured throughout the voyage to prevent damage or hazards to the ship and personnel .
Ensuring safety when working with hold ventilation and fire dampers involves regular checks to confirm these systems are operational, ensuring all maintenance is performed routinely, and that any blockages are cleared swiftly. Proper lighting and safety equipment should also be provided to facilitate safe access and operation in these critical areas of the cargo hold .
The relationship between moisture content, transportable moisture limit (TML), and safe shipment of bulk cargoes is critical. The moisture content of the cargo must be below the TML to prevent liquefaction, which could endanger the ship's stability and safety during transit. Certificates verifying the moisture content should be up-to-date, and conditions like heavy rain or changes in mining processes should prompt re-evaluation to ensure the cargo remains safe for shipping under the IMSBC Code .
Correctly applying and maintaining cargo lashings on a ship is crucial for several reasons. It ensures the safety and security of the cargo, preventing it from moving or becoming loose during the voyage, which can result in damage to the cargo itself or to the ship's structure, especially in heavy seas or adverse weather conditions . Proper lashing prevents cargo from settling and compacting due to the ship's motion, thereby avoiding the risk of cargo breaking free and causing further damage . Regular inspections and adjustments are necessary to tighten any loose lashings to counteract the effects of ship vibrations, which can loosen securing arrangements . Additionally, efficient lashing systems are vital in maintaining the vessel's stability by preventing cargo weight shifts that could affect the ship's balance . Moreover, proper use and management of lashing equipment, as outlined in the Cargo Securing Manual, are essential to comply with safety standards and regulations, minimizing the risk of cargo loss and potential environmental hazards ."}
Cargo officers should manage operations by dividing their time between the deck and the hold to ensure careful handling and stowing of cargo, which prevents over-carriage . They should secure hatch coverings and derricks at the end of the day to avoid difficulties if sudden departure from the wharf is necessary . Proper ventilation is crucial to manage moisture and prevent sweating, which can damage cargo. Ventilation should occur when the dewpoint of external air is lower than the air in the hold to replace moist air with drier air and reduce condensation . Ventilation should be logged, and on short voyages or in harsh weather, ventilators should remain sealed . Unused ventilators should remain closed to avoid inefficient "short cycling" of air . Regular monitoring of cargo temperature and fumigation checks is also necessary if applicable, such as with coal or grain, to ensure safety and prevent hazards .
Preparing a container ship's hold for cargo loading involves several key procedures to ensure safe and efficient operations. First, all residues from the previous cargo must be removed, followed by a thorough cleaning with sea and fresh water to minimize corrosion and facilitate drying . Bilge systems should be checked to ensure they are operational and free from debris, and non-return valves must be tested to prevent water ingress during loading . The hold should be inspected closely for corrosion, cracks, or infestations, particularly when preparing for sensitive cargoes like grain . Hatch covers need to be checked for watertight integrity, and any rubber liners should be replaced if necessary . Proper functioning of ventilation systems is crucial to prevent condensation, which can damage certain cargoes . Before finalizing preparations, ensure all firefighting and lighting equipment is operational and that lashing gear is available and in good condition . Additionally, all operational equipment like reefer plugs and ballast systems should be inspected and maintained to prevent issues during loading .
Familiarity with the layout and operation of lines and valves related to bulk liquid cargoes is crucial to prevent contamination and ensure safety. Contamination through improper handling, such as mixing, can occur if there are mistakes in valve operation or cargo loading sequence . Officers must strictly follow checklists and precautions to avoid these issues, facilitating efficient and secure loading and discharging operations . Additionally, understanding the pipeline and valve systems helps manage the concentration of flammable gases and ensures the readiness of firefighting appliances, critical for preventing accidents and managing emergencies .
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