b CENTRAL ASIA:

FROM

THE ARYAN TO THE COSSACK.

JAMES IIUTTON,
AUTHOR 01
'A H ~ R E TABS
D ~ 0 0 , ' Y l S S l O X A B Y L I F E IN T H E SOUTHERN BEAB,'
8TC. BTC.

LORDON:
TINSLEY BROTHEM, 8, CATHERISE STREET, STRAND.
1875.
 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER L

PAOE
The Ado-Caspian &&-General Outlines of Central Ada-The A d 6ea
-The Uet U r e T h e Chink-Historical AllueioneSir Henry Raw-
linson's Theory-Ancient Cohrse of the Oxus-The Amou of the Pre-
sent Day-The Jaxartes, or Syr-The Caspian Sea . . . . .. 1-21

CHAPTER 11.
EABLY HIBTORY.
Early Inhabitants-Scythians-Under Dariue and Xerxes-Mount Imaus
-Margiana-Bactria-Gogdinna-Alexander's Campaigns-Sikun-
der Zulkamain-The Grew-Bactrian Kingdom-Tho Parthinns-The
thytho-Cl~inese Domination-The Swmides-Ardesheer, Hormuz,
Femze, Kobad, Nousheerwan, K h o s m Purvez, Yezdijerd-Arab Con-
queat-Justinian and Dizabulue-Embassy of Zemamhus . . ..22-45

CHAPTER III.
Mawadnahr in the 10th century-Bokha-Samarkand-Khsvarez-
The Ohuz-Ibn ?&ohelhal's Travels-The Gsmnnides-The Ghucnes
vides-The Seljook Dynasty-Alp Aralan-Malek Shah-Sanjar-
Kingdom of Khwaream-Conquest of Mawaralnahr by the Moghuls
-Jelal-ood-deen .. .. .. .. 46-66..
CHAPTER IV.
THE XOOEULB.

Origin of the MoqhuleChinghiz Khan-Conquest OF Northern China-

DIas%~creof Tamr Envoys a t Otnu-Reduction of Otmr-Defeat and
Flight of Mohnmmed Shah-Capture of Bokhara-Captureof tjamar-
kand, Termedh, Balkh, Talikhan, Merv, Nishapoor, Herat, and Ur-
ghunj--Death of Chinghiz-His Yaeak or We-Batou Khan's Imp
tion into Europe-The Moghul Empire-Pawl Miseions to the Great
Khan-Reply of Kuyouk Khan-Mangou Khan's Rebulie-Mission of
William de Bubruquitt-Tatar Cuetoma-The Moghul Court a t Kara-
..
~ O ~ U U ,. ._. .. .. .. 67-95
iv CONTENTS.

C H A P T E R V.
THE TATABS.
P.\4;l:
King Haiton I. of Armenia-Correspondence between Moghul and Chris-
tian PrinceeLetters of Edward IL to the King of the Tatam-Let-
ter from Preater John to Alexius Comaenus-Various Accounts of
Prater John - Nestoriue - Revival of Mohammedanism - Birth of
Timour-His Early Life and AdventuregRaiaed to the Throne-
His ConqueateSheeahs and SooneeeThe Twelve Imams-Defeat
of hyazid-Return of Timour to h a r k a n d .. .. 96-119

CHAPTER VI.

-
Marriaga of Jehangheer Em- -
of Clavljo K a h - Festivitier a t
Gamarkand-Timour's Magnificence-Hard Drinking-Drem of the
Khannm-Badakhshan-Balm Rubies-Lapia Lazi~li-Samarkmd-
Laws and Begulations-Clavijo'r Journey a c m the Deaert--Death
of a m o u r .. .. .. .. .. 120-141

CHAPTER VII.
XOHAXMED BABER : ANTHONY JENgINBrJN
Baber-Ferghana-Baber's Father and Uncle-Capture of Samarkand-
Reverse of Fortune--A Moghul Cuntom-Baber defeated by Sheibani
Beg-The &fire, Eimauke, and Hacarehs-Baber recovere &mar-
kand-Expelled by the Ooebegs-Conquers Hindosbn-The Ooebega
-Iamsel the Rouitavean-The Sheibanides-Anthony Jenkinson-
Urghunj-Attaoked by Robbere--Bokhara-The King-Trade-Re-
turn to Mosoow .. .. .. .. .
, 146-IG7

CHAPTER VIII.
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY : NADIB SHAH.
Bernier and the Tatsr Ambewadors a t the Court of Arungeeb-A Tntar
from Kaahmeer to Kaahgar-Travels of Benedict
Heroine-Boub
Go& and other Blissionariea -Abou'l-Ohaee Khan -Khiva and
Bokharn in the Seventeenth Century-Nadir Shah-English Tra-
vellers-Trade-Decadenoe of Persia .. .. ..168--138

CHAPTER IX.
TEE BIYAL POWEM.
Commenoement of Anglo-Russian Trade-Queen Elimheth's Letter to
Shah Tahmaap-Christoplier Burrough-Expedition of Prince Beok-
ovich-Cherkassky-John Elton-Captain Woodroofe- JonrrsHanway
-Count Voinovioh-Relations of Russia with Khiva-Mouravief's
Miasion-General Perofrki'r Expedition-Russia and England fu
Central Asia-Major Abbott'e Miaaion-His Experiences of Khiva-
Undertakes a diplomatic Miasion to Bt Petereburg-Hie Adventures
In the Desert .. .. .. .. ..189-24.1
 CONTEN'I'S.

CHAPTER X.
KEIV A.
PAOE
K h i w : Histarlml Notice-Natural Productionn-The Seuul-Popnla-
tion-The Capital City-The Khan and his Wiven-Executions-
Perafnn Captives-Caravan Routes-UrghunJ, Old and New-Haznr
Conolly's Journey from Bstrahad to Herat
Asp-Kungrad-Captarin
-Manners and Custom of the Twrkomana-Merv .. ..
226-262

CHAPTER X L
BOKHABA.
Boliharn-Frontiers-Area-Population-The Oosbep and their Pecu-
liarities-The Tnjeeks-Other Races-Russian Slaves-The Kohik,
o r Zarafsban-Valley of Shuhr-i-Suba-Natural Productions- Mnnu-
fucturee-Trade-M. de Negri's MiaaionJourney from Orenburg to
Bokhnra-The Khan-System of Adminiatrotion-Manners and Cua-
toms -Revenues-Military Foroes .. .. ..
263--282

CHAPTER XII.
BOKHABA-RVBSIANIZED.
Bokhara- History - Aspect-The Ark-Public B u i l d i n g g H i n d w s -
JeweClimate-Ruminn Slaves-Samarkand - Hu~ninnOccupation
-I(arshee-ghoja-kleh-Khuhr-Islam-Chu~ui-firaknl-Shuhr-
i-Subz-Hissar-Historical
-
Sketch of Bukhara-Executions of Stod-
dart, Conolly, and Wyburd Nuseer Oollah Khan - Mosuffnr-ood-
deen Khan-Advance of the R u d a n a - Prinm Qortohakof's Circular
-Battle of Yirtljar-Fall of Khojend-Capture of Samarkand-Mis-

sian Frontier Line .. .. .. ..

sinn from Bokhara to 6 t Petersburg-Capture of Kulja-The Run-
.. 485414

CHAPTER XLII.
C H I I E B E TATABY.
Floods of Migrntion from the North-East-Zungaria, o r Semi-Palatinak
-Fort Vern&-The Process of Annexation-Internecine Strife be-
tween the Bogus and Sara.Bogua Tribea-Habita hnd Customr of the
Kirghir-Attack upon a Caravan-Iasyk-kul-Semirechinsk-The
Ili-Almalik-The
Towns-Ush-Buaaian
Tram-Naryn Distriot-Khanat of Khokrm-Chief
Tmrkestan-Otrar .. ..
318-8839

CHAPTER XTV.
EABTXBN TOORKEBTU.
' Little Bucharia '-Rivers-Mountains-The Gobi-The Yek-Popula-
tion-The Kirghis-The Tungnnie-Houses - Costume:- Manners-
Homes-U~hlak-Coinage-Mr Robert Shaw-Lieutenant Hayward
- Sanju-Karghalik-Poegam-Yarkund-Yanghiss- Kmhgar-
Mohammed Y a k w b Beg-Bksu-Ush-Turfan-Khotan-Mr John-
mn .. .. .. .. .. 340-370..
vi CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XV.
THE AMEEB OF KAEElQAB,
PAOE
Historiosl Gketoh of Altyshuhr-Walee Khan Toura-Mohammed Ya-
k w b Beg-Tungani Rekllion-Heroic Suicide of the Amhan-Fall
of hhgar-Yakoob Beg defeats the Tunganis-Receiven titla of
Atalik Ghazee-Treacherous Seirure of Khotan-Reduction of Tash
Kurghan-Official Relations with Ruseia-Mr Forsyth's first Mission
-Baron Yon Kaulhars' Mission-Exports and I m p o r t e P r o y e s s of
Husnian Influence-Aga Mehdie Raphael-Routes to India-Lsdnkh
-bir Porayth's eeoond Miseion-Lord Clareudon's Neutral Zone 371-894

CHAPTER XVL

Bdakhnhan-Historical Sketch-Inhalitante--Hindoo-Koo8b-The Ha-

xareheSxkan-SlnvebAihk-Khulm, or Tashkurghan - Mmar
Iltrlktr-Kunduz-Oocbega- Khana-a-abad-Talikhan -Fyzabad-
Jerm-Manners and Custom -Wakhan - Kwroot-Leh-Kashm-
Kundut- Kirghiz Encampment .. .. ..
395-417

CHAPTER XVII.
PAMEEU

Dnrwaz-RoRhan-Shignan-Vardoj Valley-Kafirs or Siahpoosh- Chit-

ral-Lieutenant Hayward on the Massacree committed in Y w i n by
the D o g n r e H i s Death-Gilgit - Chilas - Baltistan - Pameer-
Hiouen Teang-Maw Polo-Colonel Yule-Ovis Poli-Bam-i-Du-
niall-Lake Victoria-Four Confluonts of the Oxus,. or Amou-The
great Geographical Swindle .. .. .. .. 418-441

CHAPTER XVIII.
THE KHIYAN EXPEDITION.

Colonel Markoaofs Reconnaisssnce in 1872-Diplomatic Correspondence

-Advance of Oeneml Golofs C o r p e A Grand Duke under Felt-
Friendliness of the BokharianeSkirmieh with Toorkomans-Re-
pulse of the Khivans-Passage of the Amou-Occupation of HRCP.~.
mp-Fall of Khi-Oened Vereikin's March-Colonel Lomakin's
Marcli-Colonel Bhkosof s Disaster-- Submiwion of the Khan- -
Peace-Distribution of Honours-Sir Henry Lawrence on a Runsian
Invasion of India-Sir Thomas Munro on our Treatment of the Na-
tives-Conclusion .. .. .. ..
442-472
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OF THIS COMPILATION,
The Life and Actions of Alex~nderthe Great. By the Rev. John Williams. 1829.
The Historie of Qvintoa Curcios, wnte ning the Acta of the greate Alexander, h n e -
lated out of Latine into Englishe.gy John Brenda 1663.
d History of Greece ; from the earlieat eriod to the close of the generation wntem-
porary with Alexander the Grent. By Oeor e Gmb. 1862.
The History of Herodotus. By the Rev. 080. 8awlinso4 M.A. 1858.
Bollin's Ancient Hiatory. Edited by Jas. Bell. 1828.
The Geography of Btrabo. Translated by H. C. Hamilton and W. Falconer. 1864.
A D i e t i 0 7 of Greek and Roman Oengrnphy. Eclited by Wm. Smith, L.L.D. 1852.
The Orienta G e o p p h of Ebn Haukal. an Arabian Traveller of the 10th century.
Trunnla1.d by Sir dilliam Owley, Knt., L.LD 1800.
The Book of Ser Marcn Polo. the Venetian ~ d i t e by .
d Col. H Yule, C.B. 1871.
Le L i m de Marm Polo. Rbdig6 en Pmnpb par Rusticion 80 Piue. Publib par
M. Q. Pauthier. 1865.
The Trarels of M a m Polo. Edited b Hugh Murra , F.R.S.E. 1844.
Catha and t h f l a y Thither. By
The \70 COE c.5.
Hy. Yule, 1866.
ages and Travels of Master Anthony Jenkinmn from Russia to Boghnr, or
~ o k i a r a in
, 1657. Pinkerton'a Collection, rol. ix. 1811.
The Voyap of Master Anthony Jenkinson, made from the citie of Mosco in Russia to
the h e of Bo har in Bnctria, in the year 1658 ; written by hirmelfe to the Mcr-
chants of Loncfron of the Muscouir companie. Hakluyt.
The Journal of Friar Wm. de Rubruquk, a French mtur of the order of the minorite
frierq unto the h t arb of the worlde. An. Dom. 1263. Hakluyt.
Mhmoire m u la Partie &ridionale de l'hie Centrale. Par N. de Khanikof. 1861.
A Journey from Bengal to England. by Oeo. Foater, in 1783-84. Pinkerton.
J o m e to the North of India, overland from England, through Bussin, l'emin, and
Afgianistan. By Lieut. ArthurConollj. 1834.
Voyage d'Orenbonrg B Boukham, fait en 1820 : &dig6 par M. le Baron Q. de
Megendorf, et reru par Id. le Chevalier A. Jaubert. 1826.
An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul and ita dependenaim in Penis, Tartary, and
India. By the Hon. Mounbtnnrt El hinrtone. 1838.
L d a k . Physical, Sbtistical, and ~ i r t o r i dBy Alex. Cunningham, Major, B.E. 1854.
The Ancient Geography of India. By Ma'or-General Alex. Cunningham. 1871.
An Historical Amount of the British ~ n d over e the Caminn Sea. By Joncu Ban-
war, Merchant. 1764.
N m t l r e of the Embansy of Buy Oonzaler de Clavi'o to the Court of Timour a t
Sarmmand. Ln. 1403-6. Translated by Clementa d. Markham, F.R.G.S. 1859.
Hbtoire OCn6alogique dm Taeta, tmduite do Mnnwript Tartare d'Abulgasi-Bay-
adur-Chan. 1726.
T i t s to High Tnrhry, Yarlrnnd, and Kmhgw. By Robert 8h.w. Britiah Com-
mkioner in U k . 187 1.
Travels in the Himalayan Pmrincea of Hindushn and the Pnn'ab; in Ladakh and .
Cuhmera; in Perham, Kabul, Bundus, and Bokhara h, MI Wm. Mour-
viii . CB IEP AUTHORITIES CONSULTED.

crnft ant1 Mr Georgo Trebeck, from 1819 to 1825. Edited by II. 11. IYildnn,
3I.A. 1841.
Sarratire of a Mission to Bokhara in the years 1843-46. By the Rev. Jos. Wolff,
n.n.
- .- . iRaz - - - -.
Caravan Journeys and Wandering in Persin, Afghanistan, Toorkistnn, and Belouch.
B y J. P. Fcrrier. Adjutant-General of the Persian Army. Translated by- Capt. -
Ivrn Jesse. 1866. -
Voynge en Turcomanie et ti Khiva, fnit en 1819 et 1820; par M. N. Mouraviev.
r M. G. Lecomte de 1.nreau. 1823.
No2t:?:E Journey from Herd to Rhira, MOBCOW.
Major Jamea ~ b b o h . 1866.
-
and St lfeteraburrh. By
Hiatnry of Uokhara. By Arminius Vambi?q. 18i3.
A Journey to the Source of the Hirer Oxur. Ry Capt. John Wood, 111dian Navy.
.
W ~ t han h a y by Cnl. El Yule, C.B. 1872.
Chmologiad Retrapact, or Kemdra of the Principal Evenb of Mohammedan His-
torv. By Major D. Price. 1811.
The Ii'istoq of Persia, frmn the most Early Period to the Present Time. By Mapf-
General Sir J. Malcolm, O.C.R. 1829.
Tho Life of Raber, Emperor of Hindwtan. Translated by Dr Leyden and W. Fa-
kii~e. 1844.
Rernier'e Voyage te the Eost Indies. Pinkerton, vol. viii.
M6moiren sur les C o n t r h Omidentales, tradnits dm Sanscrit en Chinois en l'an 648,
par Hiouen T w g , et dn Chinois en Franeaia ar nI. Staniulaa Julien. 1868.
The Russians in Central Asia. TrPovlated from t%e Russian by John sod Robert
Michell. 1866.
Bokhara : its Amh. and itu People. Translated from the numian of M. N. de Khan-
ikof, by the Baron Clement A. de Bode. 1845.
Travels ir~toBokharn, &. By I'ieut. A. B u m s , F.ILS. 1834.
Travels in Central Asia Br A. VanihCq. 1864.
Sketches of Central Ash. By A. Yamhbry. 1888.
Tlie Delta and Mouths of the Amii Daris or OXM. By Admiral A. Bontakof of the
.
Russian Ssvy. Trandnted bv Jno. Michell. Roy. Gen 8oc. Joorn. x ~ x r i i
First Ascent of the Tinn Shan a; Celestial Mountains, and Asit to the Upper Course
of the Jaxartcs or Syr Dulia in 1857. By P, P. Semenof. Transluted by John
MichclL Roy. Gtog. Sot. Jonrn. zxxi.
W. H, Johnson's Report on his Jovrney to Ilchi, capital of Khotan in Chinese Tar-
wry. Roy. Qeog. Soc. Journ. xxxvir.
The Jaxartes or Syr I)aiG; from Russian Sourcea. By Robt. Michell, F.R.0.S.
Roy. Oeq. Soo. Jortrn. xxxriii.
A New General Collertinn of Voyagen and Trnvela Printed for Thos. Astley. 1747.
Journey from Leh to Turknnd and Kash
Yarkand Riyer. By G. \Y ~ a ~ w aRoy
Thnoof s 3femo1ra Translated by Cnpt. C. Stewart.
' .xploration of the Sources of tho
r pGeog. Soc. Journ. XI.
Uld.

An Erp~ditionto tlie Trans-Naryn Country in 1867. Baron P. R. Osten Sacken.

3
Translated hy E Delmar Morgan, F.R.G. 8. Boy. eog. Soc. Journ. d.
Gibhon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
I ~ y a r d ' sh'inevrh.
Ediuburgh and Uunrterly Reviews. Ocean Highways, kc. kc. 80.
 CENTRAL ASIA:
FROM

T I I E ARYAN TO THE COSSACK.

CHAPTER I.
GEXERAL OUTLINE.

T l l E AR.\LO-C.4SPIAX SEA-GEXERAL OUTLISES O F CENTBAL ASIA-THE ARAL

SEA-TIIE UBT LBT-THE CkiIXK-HISTORICAL ALLUSIONS-SIB HENRY
HA\\.LISSOX'B TYEOBY-ANCIGYT COURSE O F THE @SUB-THE AXOU OF
TUE PRESLYT DAY-THE J A S A B X S , OR SSB-THE CASPIAN SEA.
A c c o ~ ~ ~tos cthe late Sir Roderick 31urchisonJ-no mean
authority on questions relating to geognosy,-at a time long
iu~ltecedentto the creation of man, the vast region, familiarly
knomn to the present generation as Central Asia, was covered
by a sea that washed the foot of a mountain range, which, at a
lntcr period, constituted the boundary lines of Afghanistan and
the Chinese Empire. This pre-historic sea was spread over an
area computed at 8000 square marine leagues, and extended
from the IIindoo Koosh to the European shores of the Black
Sea and the Sea of Asof. To this huge depression on the sur-
face of the globe Sir Roderick proposed-in compliment to Hum-
boldt the originator of the theory-to give the name of the
iiralo-Caspian Sen, whose denizens appear to have had a purely
local range, and to have been clearly distinguishable from the
molluscs and other marine animals inhabiting the outer ocean.
1
2 CENTRAL ASIA.

A t some unknown point in the latest tertiary era the barren

plateau between the Caspian and the Aral Seas is believed to
have been thrown up by subterrunean agencies, folloyed, at a
greater or less interval, by the upheaval of the much fabled
range of the Caucasus, the Kaf of Eastern romance and the
abode of that marvellous bird the Simurgh, the foe of the
Deevs and the friend of mun. As no traces, however, have
been discovered of the junction of the Euxine with the Cupinn,
this theory must, to a certain extent, be regarded as rather
speculative than scientific, though good grounds may exist for
ascribing to volcanic phenomena the separation of the Caspian
and the Aral Seas, and the upheaval of the dry lands recently
comprising the Khnnats of Wwarezm or Khiva, and Bokhara.
I t is certain that the fossiliferous limestone forming the basis
of the steppes contains the identical mglluscs,-the cockle, the
mussel, and the spirorbis-which, according to General Abbott,
still exist in the waters of those two inland seas. Nor is it less
indisputable that the surface of the h a 1 is upwards of a hun-
dred feet higher than that of the Caspian, the elevation of the
rugged intervening plateau, known as the Ust Urt, areraging
600 feet above the level of the ocean.
For our prescnt purpose it may suffice to define Central
Asia as the much varied region bounded on the west by the
Caspian ; on the south-west by the Persian Province of Khoras-
Ban ; on the south by Afghanistan, Kashmeer, and Little Tibet ;
on the east by the Chinese Empire; on the north by the river
Irtish ; nnd on the north-west by tho Ural river. The general
aspect of this immense tract is fairly, if roughly, described by a
in Pinkerton's Collection : ' Bctween Great Tartary on the
north, and Tibet, India, and Persia on the south, there runs a
long tract of land, extending from the Great Kobi, or desert on
the north-west part of China, westward as far RE the Caspian Sea.
This country ia situated in a randy desert with which it is
 GENERAL OUTLINE. 3

surrounded ; or, rather, is itself a vast sandy desert, interspersed

with mountains and fruitful plains, well inhabited, and watered
with rivers. Nature seems to have divided this region into
three large parts, by the names of the countries of Karesm,
Great Bucharia, and Little Bucharia.'
Towards the north-west, enclosed between barren rocks and
arid steppes, the basin of the Aral Sea-the Blue Sea of the
Russians--occupies a space 360 miles in length from north to
south, by 240 miles in extreme breadth from east to west:
equivalent to an area of 86,400 square miles. On the east
and north this expanse of brackish water is surrounded by clay
plains ridged by hillocks of loose drifting sand, while on the
west it is divided from the Caspian by the Ust Urt, a rocky,
unculturable waste, 240 miles in length by 160 miles in breadth,
and rising almost precipitously from the sea, but sloping gradu-
ally to the westward. I t is, in fact, a continuation of the great
steppe possessed by the Kirghiz Kuzzaks, and more particularly
belongs to the Lesser IIorde. A t its south-eastern extremity
i t terminates abruptly in a bold escarpment some 500 feet in
height, at the foot of which a level plain spreads out to an
enormous distance. From this point the high land turns
sharply to the west-north-west, and the angle thus formed is
called by the Kirghiz, The Chink.
Tho southern portion of the sea is extremely shallow, anil
snTarmswith small islands, whose inhabitants live chiefly upon
fish, and are described as skilful boatmen venturing upon the
use of sails, while the Kirghiz are content to ply the oar. The
Aibugir Lake, or Gulf, at the south-western extremity of the
Aml, was overgrown with canes when visited by M. Kiihlewein
in 1855, although it received the Laudan, an important branch
of the Amou. This gulf ia stated to be eighty miles long by
twenty miles broad, and appears to have been dried up at the
time of the late Russian expedition, through the diversion of
 4 CENTRAL ASIA.

the Laudan by the Khivese for purpoees of irrigation. It is

only near the mouth of the Amou that the water of the Aral
is drinkable, being elsewhere exceedingly brackish. Carp and
a small sturgeon are caught in considerable quantities.
To the Arab geographers the Aral waa only known as the
Sea of Khwarezm, by which name and that of the Sea of
Urghunj it is still called by the people of the Khanat. Accord-
ing to Generale Mouravief and Romanof, Aral Denghiz, the
Kirghie appellation, signifies the Sea of Islands, while others
maintain that its proper signification is the Sea of Eagles. I t
was first surveyed by Admiral Alexis Boutakof, by whom also
the first steamship that ever churned these waters was launched
and navigated. Noved more by an abstract love of science than
by patriotic considerations, the Royal Geographical Society, in
1867, presented their Founder's Medal to that gallant officer,
whose extension of geographical knowledge has been since
otherrvisc appreciated and utilized by his o r n government.
Although on a level with the Euxine, the Aral, as already
rematkcd, is more than one hundred feet above the surface of
the Caspian, and the Toorkomans maintain that at Kara
Goonibuz the waters from the one sea may be heard flowing to
the other, under-ground. If it be true that such sounds are nt
times audible, they are probably cau.~cdby subterranean drainage
from the Amou, some portion of whose waters may follow under-
ground thcir old course towards the Caspian. The Toorkomans
who drvell on the shores of the Kara Bhugaz Bay account for
the rcniarkable current into that gulf, by the theory that the
overflow of the Caspian thence escapes by a covert channel
communicating with the Aral, the comparative elevation of the
two seas bcing a point quite beyond their comprehension.
As a scientific fact it may be stated that there is no outlet
for the rectundmt waters of either, and that the adjacent lands
are s a ~ c dfrom flooding by evaporation alone. Were it not for
.
 GENERAL OUTLINE. 5

this powerful agent of nature, the depth of the Aral, if General

Abbott's estimate may be credited, would be annually inc~.eased
twenty-six inches by the influx of the Amou and the Syr, and
to at least an q u a l extent through the snow and rain that fall
on its surface or drain into i t from the steppes. Although of
considerable depth in the centre, the Bra1 is not above two or
three feet deep near the southern and eastern shores, so that its
waters become speedily heated under the fierce rays of the sun
of Khiva. There is, besides, good reason to believe that the
volume of the Amou has sensibly diminished within quite
recent times, through the desiccation of many of its nffluents.
These again have gradually dried up through the decrease of
the glaciers in the high mountains, observed by M. Semenof,
and through the neglect of their channels due to the diminution
of the agricultural population by i n c a n t strife and bloodshed.
I t is in this manner that eminent geographer accounts for the
drying up of the branch of the Amou which formerly turned
off to the south-west and fell into the Caspian, for he h o b to
the opinion that even at that time the mtiin channel of the
river proceeded in a northerly direction to the Aral..
The late Colonel Romanof who was on the personal staff of the Grand-Duke
Nicholas Constantinovitch during the recent campaign, made some very per-
tinent remarks on this subject in one of Ilia interesting letters headed ' On
the way to Khiva !'
'The station of Katty Kul,' lie says, ' was founded near a sweet-water lake,
which is now completely dried up, and the supply of water is obtained from a
well eight versts from the station. The transformation of sweet water into
salt, and the desiccation of the latter, are very remarkable and constantly re-
curring phei~omenain all tlie steppes of Central Asia. Within the memory
of many the water in the rivers Irgl~iz,Turgai, Sarysu, and otliera was fresh,
but now it has a bitter salt tnste. The site for tlie recently-constructed fort of
Lower Emba was chosen on Lake Maashe, chiefly because its water was fresh.
When the fortress was built llie lake became salt, so that now the garrison
have to procure their supply ofwater from wells in which the water is brackisl~.
T l ~ ed u a l , but very perceptible, diminution of the lakes and other water-
basins of Central Asia, arising from the excessive drgness of the climate, is
6 CENTRAL ASIA.

The historians of Alexander the Great make no mention of

the Aral, nor does any allusion to it occur in the pagee of any
classical writer until early in the second part of the fourth
century of the Christian era, when Ammianus Marcellinus
speaks of two rivers that ~susheddown headlong from the
mountains, and, descending into the plains, commingled their
waters and formed the Oxia Palus. I n Dr Smith's Dictionary
of Greek and Roman Geography, however, it is suggested that
the Oxia Palus is identical with the Knrakul Lake, which is
now the termination of the Kohik, or river of Samarkand.
Both Herodotus and Strabo appear to have had some knowledge
of a seriea of lagoons watered by the overflowing of the Jaxartes,
which was supposed by most early writers to empty itself into
the Caspian some 80 parasang8 from the mouth of the Oxus.
The Aral, when first recognized as something more than a region
of pools and swamps, was regarded as the extreme eastern
portion of the Caspian, which was thought to communicate, by
a long narrow strait, with the Northern Ocean.
Sir Henry Ramlinson rejects Humboldt's theory-adopted
by Sir R. Murchison--of the Aralo-Caspian Sea that once filled
the entire concavity of Turan, extending to the Black Sea, the
Northern Ocean, and the Balkash Lake. Driefly, Sir Henry
msintains that from B. C. 600 to A. D. 500, that is, for a period
of 1100 years, both the Oxus and the Jaxartos emptied thcm-
selves into the Caspian, and that the Aral did not then exist as
an inland sen. Even eo late as A. D. 570, when Zemarchus, the
Byzantine envoy, was returning to the west from the encamp-
ment of the Khakhan at the foot of the Ak-tagh, or White

an undoubted fact, and can be proved by the division of the large Lake of
hlakul into three smaller basins, the seraration of Lake Chelkar-Tengbiz,
which receives the water of the Irghiz, f.0.n the bay of the Aral Sea, Sarg-
Chegsnak, with which it was at one time united, and many other iiistauccs of
a similar kind which have occurred in the steppe!
 GENERAL OUTLINE. 7
Mountains, to the north of Samarkand, the Aral was only
entitled to the appellation of a reedy marsh, though some thirty
years afterwards the Oxue may have ceaeed to fill its western
branch, and have kept to its direct northern channel. About
that time the Sea of Kardar, or south-western portion of the
Aibugir Lake, which had hitherto been fed by the Urghunj
branch, became dried up, and exposed to view the ruins of a
treasure city submerged in a remote age. According to Persian
traditions these ruins were successfully excavated and d e d for
a period of twelve years, and are placed by General Abbott,
under the name of Berrasin Gelmaz, in a small island, though
Admiral Boutakof fixes the locality of 'Barsa Kilmesh' in a
salt marsh a little to the weat of the Aibugir Lake.
For the next 600 years the Aral is described by the Arab
geographers in terms that might be applied to it at the present
day, though between the ninth and twelfth centuries three suc-
ceasive capital citiee, situated at the apex of the Delta, were
deetroyed by sudden floods. The course of the river, too, was
constantly shifting, according to the greater or smaller quantity
of water diverted from the main channel for purpose of
irrigation. I n A. n. 1221,--Sir Henry continues,-Octai or
Okkadai Khan, the son of Chinghiz Khan, when besieging
Urghunj, broke down the dam that regulated the flow of the
waters, and directed the full force of the stream against the
walls of the town, which, being built of clay, were speedily
undermined and swept away; about three years later the Oxus
again forced its way to the Caqian, and the desiccation of the
Aral commenced at the Bame time.
The elder Poli travelled from the Volga to Bokhara about
1260 A. D., by a route which must have taken them across the
Aral, but that sea ie not once mentioned by Marco Polo.
Again, in 1330, Hamdullah M u s t o d deecriba the Amou ae
flowing from IIazarasp, a town about 40 miles south-east of the
8 CEXTRAL ASIA.

modern town of Khivn, by the Muslim Pass and Kurlawa to

Akricheh on the Caspian, near the mouth of the Attrek,-traces
of which course were seen by General Abbott in 1840. The
same geographer remarks that, owing to the divergence of the
Amou in the previous century, the level of the Caspian wns
sensibly raised, and that the post of Aboskun at the mouth of
the Attrek was consequently overwhelmed. During the whole
of the 14th c e n t i q the entire volume of the Blnou was poured
into the Caspian, while the Jaxartes, or Syr, lost itself in the
sands of the desert, but earlyin the 15th century an anonymous
writer, whom Sir Henry Rswlinson suspects to have been Shah
Rokh'e minister,-and whose manuscript he obtained at IIerat,
-speaks of the Ard as being dried up, through the drainage
into the Caspian of the watere of the Jyhoon and Syhoon, the
names given by Mohammedan geographers and historians to
the Oxus and Jaxartes.
So far back as the middle of the 13th century the Franciscan
Friar, William de Rubruquis, states that the Jasartes, after
creating numerous swamps, was lost in the desert, and about the
year 1340 Pegoletti advises travellers bound for Tatary to
leave Urghunj to their right, and to strike straight across from
Saraichik on the Yaik, or Ural river, to Otrar on the Jaxartes,
a route that would traverse the bed of the Aral : nor does that
sea appear in the Catalan map of 1375. I n short, the existence
of the Aral Sea depends upon its two great tributaries, the
Amou and the Syr. When the former is deflected, the bed of
the sea contracts, and the Syr, being no longer able to force its
way to the receding shores, becomes absorbed in reedy marshes.
There can be no doubt that in ancient times the main
branch of the Oxus disembogued itself into the Caspian, for both
Strabo and Pliny tell us how the merchandise of India was
conveyed across the mountains to a stream that flowed into the
Oxus, how it descended that river to the Hyrcanian or Caspian
 GENERAL OUTLINE. 9

Sea, how it was taken across to the mouth of the Cyrus,-now

the Kur,-which it ascended until it could be carried across to
'
the Phnsis,-the modern Rion,Aown which it dropped till it
reached the Euxine, whence it mas transported to the various
countries of Europe. I n those days the Oxus was known as the
river that divided Bactria from Sogdiana, and it plays a con-
spicuous part in the campaigns of Alexander the Great, whose
troops, in pursuit of Bessus, crossed it on inflated skins stuffed
with straw. The nnme is an obvious Greek corruption of
Wakhsh, a small state lying between the Karategeen range and
the petty principality of Darwaz. By the Mohammedan *
invaders it was called simply 81-Nahr, or The River, and the
country to the eastward Mawarahahr-the Maverulnere of the
'Arabian Nights,'--signifying Transamnia, corresponding to
the modern Traneoxiana. Their writers, however, adopting the
fable that the Garden of Eden was placed at the head of the
Badnkhshan valler, and imagining that the sources of the
Jaxartes were near those of the Oxus, confounded these rivers
with the Mosaic Gihon and Pison, and corrupted those names
reepectively into Jyhoon and Syhoon. To the Oozbegs the
Oxua is known as the Darya-i-Amou, or the River of h o u ,
while the Khivese, acoording to General Mouravief, call it the
Amin Darya, and the Persians, if Mr Bell be a sufficiently good
authority, the Ab-telah, or Water of Gold, in allusion to its
auriferous sands.
Ibn Haukal, who wrote in the 10th century, speaks of the
Jyhoon as flowing into the Sea of Khwarezm-the Aral-which
was in no way affected by the rivers it received into its bnsin,
the redundant waters being carried off to the Sea of Khozr by
a eecret communication. He adds that in the lower, or noxthern,
part of its course it was covered every winter with such thick
Hiooen Tsang gives Potsou as the Chinese equivalent, while in the old
Zoroastrian books it appean aa the Veh-rood, and in Sanscrit aa Vankaou.
10 CENTRAL ASIA.

strong ice that loaded carts were driven acroea from one bank
to the other. At the commencement of the 15th century the
Portuguese ambassador, Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, alludes with
reverence to the Viadrne, aa he calla it, and describes it aa one
of the rivers that deecended from Paradise. I t attains, he says,
a lesgue in width, and traverses a flat country with great and
wonderful force, until, at hat, it reaches its goal in the Sea of
Baku--one of the many names of the Caspian. Its muddy
waters, he continues, are lowest in the winter season, when ite
sources in the mountains are congealed, but in April the melt-
ing snows begin to f U ite broad, deep bed, and for the next
four months it is a noble river.
I n 1558, Anthony Jenkinson, the shrewd and adventuroua
representative of the London 'Muacovy Company,' 'mentions,
that on the 5th October he ' struck ' a gulf of the Caspian-
though it i far more likely to have been the Aibugir Gulf of
the Sea of Aral-where the water was freah and meet. 'Note,'
he continues, ' that in times past there did fa1 into this gulf
the great river Oxus, which hat.h his springe in the mountains
of Paroponisus in India, and now cometh not SO far, but falleth
into anot.her river called Ardock, which runneth toward the
North, and consumeth himself in the grounde, paaeing under-
grounde above 500 mil-, and then iseueth out againe, and
falleth into lake of Kithay.' A little further on he nttributea
the desiccation of the Oxus to the numerous canals of irrigation
it had to supply, and complains that ' the water that serveth all
the countrey is drawen by ditches out of the river Oxus, unto
the great destruction of the mid river, for which cause it falleth
not into the Caspian Sea aa it hath done in times paet, and in
short time all the land is like to be destroied, and to become a
wilderness for want of water when the river of Oxus shall faile.'
Six or seven weeks later, he says, he crossed the great and rapid
river Ardock, a branch of the Oxus, running 1000 milea to the
 GENERAL OUTLINE. If

northward,-for half of that distance passing under-ground,

then issuing from beneath the earth's-surface and terminating
in 'the Lake of Kitay.'
I t is not a little singular that Jenkinson should make no
allusion to the Aral as the recipient of the river he calls the
Ardock, which could be no other than the main channel of
the Oxus, and which some later writers designate as the Khesel
or Kizil, that is, the Red River. I n Pinkerton's Collection the
Khesel is said to take its rise in the mountains to the north-
east of Sogdiana, and to fall into the Aral 50 or 60 miles after
receiving the Amou. The writer has here evidently confounded
the source of the Amou with that of the Syr, but he goes on to
explain how the Khesel, which formerly fell into the Caspian
at St Peter's Bay, was in 1719 diverted from that channel by
the Tatars, in the hope of destroying by t,hirst the expedition
commanded by the gallant but ill-fated Prince Beckovitch.
The Dutch Orientalist Bentinck, in hie notes to the ' Histoire
Gknhalogique des Tatsres '-published in 17204escribea the
Oxus aa bifurcating about 40 leagues from its embouchure ; the
left arm turning off to the Caspian, while the right arm, which
80 years previously.flowed under the walls of Urghunj, then fell
into the Kizil, to the ruin of that once flourishing city, and so
paseed on to the Aral. Jenkinson's confueion ki no doubt
attributable to his own ignorance of Persian and Toorkee, and
consequent dependence on the intelligence and good faith of his
interpreter.
That the Oxue did at one time, perhnps at several times,
empty itself into the Caspian is a fact that cannot be disputed.
The unfortunate Conolly proceeded for some distance up the
deaerted bed, whose width he estimated at 2000 paces, and
General, then Captain Moumvief, met with verdure, reeds, and
pooh, along t.he deep broad channel excavated by the mighty
river, which seems to have finally divided into two branches
12 CEKTRAL ASIA.

inclosing the present peninsula of Dardji. According to the

latter writer the Syr formerly effected a junction with the
Amou, but an earthquake, which is said by the Khivese to have
happened in the 14th century, separated the two rivers and
gave them each the course they now hold. This earthquake is
a very questionable event, though it is mentioned also by Baron
Bfeyendorf as an item of Hhivese faith, but he adds that others
assert that the south-western channel was dammed up in 1670
to check the ravages of the Kuzzaks.
About the middle of the 18th century Captain TVoodroofe,
while engaged in surveying the Caspian, under Captain Elton's
orders, by desire of Nadir Shah, was informed that ' it is now a
hundred years siuce the Oxus emptied itself into the upper end
of this (13alkan) Day,' and he adds that, the river drying up in
many places through the intense summer heat, the Toorkomans
had imagined that by closing the mouth they would retain the
water in the channel. The result, however, proved contrary to
their expectations, for the river, having no longer any current
to clear away the a ~ n dthat was continually being blown into
it, became choked and gradually silted up altogether. This
version is adopted also by M. Xhanikof, who mentions, in
addition, the construction of a second dam to the eastward of
Kunya or Kohne Urghunj, which effectually turned the Amou
to the north.
General Abbott'a theory ia probably as near the truth as
need be desired. The natural course of the OXUR,he suys,
would be to the Aml, but at some remote period it must hare
encountered an obstacle that deflected its waters through the
easier country lying to the westward. A t the same time i t
never ceased battering the barrier which opposed its proper
course. until at length a breach was effected, when it rushed
straight onwards to the Aml. General Abbott is further of
opinion that many centuries ago the Syr and the Amou met a
 GENERAL OUTLINE. 13

little to the north of Urghunj, and that while a small rortion

of the out-pourings of the former river found its way to the
Aral swamp, the main volume rolled on with its sister stream
to the Caspian. B y degrees, however, the Syr worked out
a straight channel for itself to the north-west, while the Amou,
relieved from the shock that sent it off to the south-west, also
excavated a way to the northward, and thus in the end both
rivers separately disembogued themselves into the Arnl, as in
ancient times they had conjointly deposited their waters in the
bed of the Caspian. The old channel of the Amou is still the
natural drain of the Kara-koum desert, so that, ~ E I already
observed, it may not be impossible that the sound of subter-
ranean waters may be heard at Kara Goombuz.
The Oxus, or the h o u , takes its rise in the Pameer Steppe,
the loftiest table-land in the world, and known to the people of
Central Asia as the Bam-i-Dunya, or the flat, or terraced, roof
of the world. The northern branch, issuing from Lake Sir-i-
Kul, has been generally accepted as the father of the stream,
though the southern branch issuing from the Pameer Kul
appears to be somewhat the longer of the two. The nortlienl
branch passes by the specific name of the Panja, and on quitting
the lake is barely ankle deep, though 15 feet wide, and running
at the rate of 3f miles per hour over a smooth bed. I t tends
at first in a south-west direction as far as Hissar, where it effects
a junction with the Dara Sarhad, the southern branch that
flows from the Pameer Kul. From this point it pursues a
westerly course to Ishkashm, where it turns suddenly to the
north, inclosing in the angle thus formed the once celebrated
ruby mines of Badakhshan. Bending north-west-by-north, and
then townrds the south, it forms nearly a semi-circle, receiving
three nffluents-the Shnkh-dara, the 13artang, and the Surk-ab,
or Red River-until it reaches tho point where it is joined by
the Kokcha, nearly due west from the mouth of the Shakh-
14 CENTRAL ASIA.

dara. I t then proceeda to the westward to the ferry of Khoja

Saleh, where it turns to the north-west-by-west to about the
40th degree of latitude, aftar which it flows nearly due north
and falle into the Sea of Aral through many mouths.
The entire length of this historic river may be roughly com-
puted at 1200 miles. From the head of the Delta, which is
about 50 miles from its embouchure, the Amou is navigable to
Kunduz, a distance of 750 miles. According to Sir Alexander
Rurnes, the channel is straight and singularly devoid of rocks,
rapids, and whirlpools, and rarely impeded even by sand-banks.
The depth varies from 6 to 20 feet, with an average current of
33 miles an hour. I t is, however, subject to floob from melting
snows, when the water becomes of a reddish hue and is laden
with silt, that is finally deposited in the Ard. Above the
junction of the Kokcha, and below the town of Khiva, the
Amou is frozen every year, and in severe winters even while
traversing the desert.
The fertilizing influence of this noble stream does not a t
present extend further than a mile from its banks, until it
reaches the Khannt of Hhiva, after which a somewhat broader
belt is brought under cultivation. I n 1832 there were not
above 200 boats throughout the entire course of the river from
Kunduz to the Nea. These boats are described na measuring 50
feet in length with a beam of 18 feet, and capable of a burden
of 20 tons or of conveying 150 troops or passengers. They
are the same at both ends, flat-bottomed, about four feet deep,
and drawing only, twelve inches of water. Their construction
is extremely rude. They are built of squared logs of a dwarf
jungle-tree, fastened t.ogether with iron clamps. Though clumsy,
they are strong and durable, and both Timour and Nadir Shah
succeeded in making with them bridges, over which their vast
hosk passed in safety.
' The Oxus,' observes Sir Alexander Burnes, ' presents many
 GENERAL OUTLINE. 15
-

fair prospects, since i t holds the most direct course, and con-
nects, with the exception of a narrow desert, the nations of
Europe with the remoter regions of Central Asia.' These lines
were written in the pre-railway era, and in any case evince
more enthusiasm than foresight. From Badakhshan to Pitniak,
a border town of Khwarezm,-a distance of 540 miles,-there is
not a single place of any importance within sight of the river.
The settled population shuns the sultry valley, and it is only a t
ferries and the intersections of caravan routes that even villagcs
are to be met with. 'When we also consider,' remarks M.
Veniukof, ' that the shores of the Sea of Aral are so barren as
to have defied all the attempts hitherto made of founding even a
small settlement on them; that the Am1 itself is separated
from Russia by intervening steppes 530 miles broad ; and lastly,
seeing the utter impossibility of modifying the character of the
Nomad marauders, we shall be justified in asserting that even in
the remote future the Oxua can only be a secondary channel for
the advance of industry and civilization.'
I t is not improbable indeed that the Amou will lose much
of its importance now that Central Asia has practically pa~sed
into the hands of Russia. So far as the trade with India is
concerned, a long overland route can never hope to vie with the
direct communication between Bombay and Odesm opened up
through the Suez Canal, while the Afghan market is rather of
political than commercial significance. Russian enterprise is
far more likely to find for itself a profitable field in the com-
mand it has acquired of the old caravan route from the Caspian
Sea to China, and it is only in the event of an actual collision
between the British Government and that of St Petersburg that
the valley of the Oxus may be expected again to be in men's
mouths familiar aa a household word. For some centuries past
it has cessed to be an object of interest to any European public,
but for all that, to quote Mr Matthew Arnold,
16 CENTRAL ASIA.

'. . The majestic river floated on,

Out of the mist and hum of the low land,
Into the frosty starlight, and there moved,
Rejoicing, thmngh the hush'd Chornsmian waste,
Under the solitary moon : he flow'd
Right for the Polar Star, past Orgunj6,
Brimming, and bright, and large: there sands begin
To hem his watery march, and dam his streams,
And split his currents ; that for many a league
The sl~ornand parcell'd Oxus strains along
Thmugh beds of sand and matted rushy isles-
Oxus, forgetting the bright speed he had
I n his high mountain cradle in Pamere,
A foil'd circuitous wanderer : till at last,
The long'd-for dash of waves is heard, and wide
His luminous home of waters opens, bright
And tranquil, from whose tioor the new-bathedstan
Emerge, and shine upon the Aral Sea.'

The 'dash of waters ' must be taken as a poetical licence, for

the Aral at the mouth of the Amou is but a shallow, isle-
bespangled mere. According to Admiral Boutakof, who care-
fully surveyed the Oxus Delta as well as the Sea of Aral, the
river first bifurcates between Kipchak and Khoja-ili, and shortly
afterwards divides into several branches, or rather into a net-
work of lagoons. ' The centre part of this portion of the basin
forms a sort of depression into which the waters of all the
branches, excepting the westernmost, empty themselves in a
wries of lakes, overgrown more or less with reeds ; out bf these
they again flow off in sepurate channels, discharging themselves
into the Sea of Aral.'
The Delta lies between the two main brnnches, the Laudnn
to the westward, and the Kuvan Jarma to the eastward, other-
wise called Kuk or Blue River, and lower down the Pangy-Su,
or New River. The Laudan where it creeps into the Aibugir
Lake is not above 18 inches deep, flowing with a feeble current
thraugh a thick growth of reeds, and with so firm a bottom
'
6
 GENERAL OUTLINE. 17
that a caravan of 1500 camels has walkgd across without difli-
culty. To clleck the inroads of the Yomut or Yamood Toorko-
m3ns, the Rhivcse erected a fort near Bent, and constructed a
d,im across the upper portion of the stream, which has been more
than once destroyed by their implacable tormentors.
The extreme eastern branch, again, fills the lakea Dankara
and Tampynk-~iyageand then, as the Yangy-su, flows into
the Tushd-bas bight of the Aral, opposite Ermolof Island.
The Yangy-su is pronounced by the Kirghiz as Jangy-su, and
is consequently sometimee confounded with the Jan-i-Darya, u
branch of the Syr that loses itself in the sands. I n 1848-49,
this was tllc principal outlet of the Amou, so that the water at
Ermolof Island, more than nine miles distant, was quite fresh,
whereas ten years later the water close in shore hod become un-
drinkably salt owing to the drying up of the Yangy-su.
Of the intermediate streams the most important are the
Ulkun Darya and the Taldyk, but even these are not three feet
dezp in July, and are of course still shallower before the melting
of tho snows at the end of March. .The frequent changes in the
course of these various branches were exemplified by the sub-
merged ficlds and artificial watercourses which Admiral Bouta-
kof observcd over the side of his boat, while traversing several
small lakes. For at least 50 miles from its mouth the Amou is
~\llollyunfit for navigation, but by closing some of the minor
chnnnels the Russians expect to deepen the Ulkun Darya suffi-
ciently to keep open a constant communication with the town
of Kungrad.
Though in every other respect inferior to the Amou, the
Syr Darya-the Syhoon of the Arab geographers-is likely to
t.sercise a more direct influence in civilizing Central Asia after
the Russian standard. I n classical times this river was known
as the Jaxartes, mistaken, in wilfulnew or ignorance, by Aleu-
under% flatterers for the Tanais or Don. Pliny declares that
2
 1.8 CEBTRAL ASIA.

its Gythian name was the Silis, while in Bell's Notes to

Rollin's Ancient History it is asserted that Jaxnrtes is a corrup-
tion of I k Sert, or the Great River, and that the Sarts were the
people who originally dwelt on the banks of the Sert, and were
identical with the Abii-from ab, a river,--who sent envoys to
Alexander the Great on his reaching the Jaxnrtes. These Abii
are, of course, not to be confounded with Homer's Thracian
Abii, who lived upon mares' milk and were famed for tllcir love
of justice. The Chinese equivalent seems to have been Ye,
while the modern appellation signifies the Yellow Rivcr.
The town of Cyreschnta, or Cyropoliu, was constructed by
Cyrus the Great on the left bank of the Jaxartes, which formed
the northern boundary of his empire. Ilnprud&ntly crossing
the river and invading the country of the Blnssagetac, he lost
his army and his life a t the hands of their warlike Queen,
Tomyris. The same great monarch is said to haye built six
other cities along the course of tho Jauartcs, all of mliicll were
destroyed by Alexander, who founded in their place Aleuandrcia
Ultima, probably near the site of the modern Khojcnd. Ancient
writers, as already re~narked,made the Jaxnrtcs fa11 into the
Caspian, which it may possibly have done after uniting its
waters with those of the Oxus. Strabo, howevcr, deflccts one
elnbouchure to a point about 80 parasangs distant from that of
the OXUS,and sends all the other channels to the Korthcm
Ocean.
The Syr Darya properly begins at the confluence of the
Naryn and the Gulishan not far from the town of Namangan.
The former riscs out he southcrn face of the Kirgliiz Ala-tagh,
and, winding t h r o ~ ~ gsix
h degrees of longitude, rushes impetu-
ously through the Ferghana valley, swollen by many tributaries.
The Gulishan, again, issues from the Chatyr Kul, and is inferior
to the Nary11 both in length and in volume. Tlieir united
etreams, under the name of the Syr Darya, flow a little to the
 GENERAL OUTLINE. 10
-- - - - - - -

south of west until reaching Koshteermen below Khojend,

where they turn off suddenly to the northward aa far aa Hazret.
From this point to Yany Kurgan the Syr runs in a north-
westerly direction, and thence holds on to the westward until it
discharges itself into the Aral near the north-eastern extremity
of that sea.
During the latter part of ita course the Syr Darya receivee
no tributnries, and its volume is sensibly diminished in crossing
the desert. Ita total length from the source of the Naryn is
estimated at 1200 milee. Below Baildyr Tungai, which is 538
miles above Fort Perofski, the Syr is a noble river, from 300 to
800 yarda in width and varying in depth from 18 to 80 feet.
I t flows between steep clay banks which are often flooded at
certain seasons of the year, while its current ia computed at
from 3 to 43:milea per hour, according to the period of the day,
-for it runs with the greatat strength between ten and eleven
in the morning, when it decreases in velocity till two in the
afternoon, about which time it recovers ita former force and
rapidity. The steamers'which descend at the rate of six to ten
miles in the hour are content to mount the stream at one-third
of that speed.
At no great distance from ita mouth the Syr spreads out
into a marshy brackish delta, not above four feet deep in mid-
channel and diminishing to a width of 360 feet in the main
stream. On both aides a vast plain of grass, or rushes, stretches
out far and wide. I n 1863 Admiral Boutakof ascended the
river as high aa Baildyr Tungai, and two years later steamers
ascended even to Namangan. That gallant Admiral is said to
have sumeyed and mapped the Syr for one thousand milee from
ita embouchure.
According to Captain Meyer the course of the river is
persistently shifting more and more to the northward, owing to
the slow but continuoua rising of the land to the aouth. -
 20 CEYTRAI, ASIA.
--

Throughout the steppe beds of ancient rivers may be t d ,

while mi-focdized oceanic molluaca occur in masses, showing
that the dral itself haa largely receded from its former limits.
Sometimes it happens that a t n i dams up a channel to injure
an unfriendly neighboar or r i d , and straightway all cultioa-
tion ceases, and fielda and meadows become an arid waste. Xot
many yeam Bince the main channel of the Syr was the Knvan
Daq-a, which now stope ehort in a marshy lake near Khoja
Niaz, a hundred milea from the Aral. The present main stream
is excessively tortuoua between Fort Perofski and Fort 2, and
the water has sunk so low that it is navigable for rather less
than three months in the year, for veeeela drawing three feet
of water.
I t has already been mentioned that the earlier Greek writers
regarded the Caspian Sea ae a Gulf of the Northern Ocean.
Ptolemy, however, observes: 'The Hyrcanian Sea, called also
the Caspian, ia everywhere shut in by the land, so as to be just
the converse of an island encompassed by the ~ a t e r . ' By Ibn
lIaukal it is named the Sea of Khozr, while to the Nusco~ites
it was originally known as the Sea of Kwalis, that being the
name they applied to the tribes dwelling near its ~hores. I n
the 14th and 15th centuries it was called the Sea of Baku,
from the chief port on the western coast, while Abu'l-Ghazee
Khan alludes to it in the 17th century by its Persian appellation
of the Sea of Kulsum. I t was first navigated by Patroclus, the
Admiral of Seleucus and Antiochus. The historical associ-
ations connected with this sea will, however, be described in a
subsequent chapter.
The water appeared to General Abbott as being very mlt,
but not bitter, and as clear as crystal. The sea lies in a basin
of fossilifero~limestone, the eastern shores being low and
swampy, but at the north-eastern extremity precipitous cliffs
rise almost out of the water to the height of 700 feet. There
 GENERAL OUTLINE. 21

are no tides, but, as Jonas Hanway remarks, ' a prodigious

current and confused sea ' often result from a sudden change of
the. wind after it has been blowing for some time from the
northward.
The Caspian Sea is about 640 miles in length from north to
south, and from 100 to 200 miles broad. I n the centre it is
deep, but shallow at the sides, and, although it receives the
waters of eighty-fou streams in addition to the stupendous
discharge of the Volga, it has no outlet, and preserves its level
solely by evaporation. Conjointly with the Aral, it drains an
area 2000 miles in length from the sources of the Volga to
those of the Syr, and 1800 miles in breadth from the head-
streams of the Koanna in North Russia, to those of the Sefid
Rood in Eoordistan.
The smaller rivers, the lakea, the mountains, and the deserts
of Central Asia, will each be described in connection with the
countries or provinces to which they respectively belong. .
22 CENTRAL ASIA.

CHAPTER 11.
EARLY HISTORY.

U8LY ~ABITA%BCYTHIM+UNDEB DABIEB AKD XEBXES-YOUNT

UAU&XAROIUA-BACTBIA-800~1~~-ALE CAMPAIGN&
BIKUNDEH ZULKABNAIN-THE GBW-BACTSIAX KINGDOM-THE PAB-
THIAN&THE BCITHO-CHINESE SASSANIDE9--ABDE-
DOYINATION-THE
fJHEEB, HOBHUZ, FEBOZE, KOBAD, HOUSHEEBWAN, KEOBHOO PUBVEZ,
-
YEZDLTEBD A B A B CONQUEST- JUSTINIAN AND DIZABULUS -EMBASSY
OP ~BCHUB.

INCanon Rawlinson's edition of Herodotus, excellent reasons

are given for regarding Armenia as the cradle of the Aryan mcc.
At somo very remote period three kindred streams of migrntion
are supposed to have issued, perhaps contemporaneously, from
their common aource, and to have flowed, one to the northward
acrose the Caucasus, a second in a westerly direction across Asia
Minor into Europe, while the third turned to the south-east and
stopped only at the Indus. After a time this last-mentioned
branch became straitened for space, and, in the 15th century be-
fore the Christian era, divided into two floods of emigration and
conquest, the one gradually spreading over nindostan, and driv-
ing the Turanian aborigines into the mountains, while the other
crossed the Hindoo Koosh aud sbbjected or expelled the Scythbn
or Turanian races known as Sogdinns, Bactrians, Ariana (of
Herat), Hyrcanians, Arachosians, and people of Ragiana and
Media Atropatene, the Modern Azerbijan : here, too, the ab-
original inhabitants fleeing into the mountains and deserts.
Turanian dialects prevailed from the Caucasus to the Indian
Ocean, from the Mediterranean to the Ganges, and perllnps
 EARLY HISTORY. 23

throughout the whole of Asia. Even now they are spoken ' by
all the various races which wander over the vast steppes of
Northern Asia and Eastern Europe ; by the hill tribes of India,
and by many nations of the Eastern Archipelago.' This Turanian
or Scythic element was still strong in the time of Herodotm.
TO that stock belonged the S a w , the Parthians, the Asiatic
Ethiopians, the Colchians, the Sapeiri, the Tibareni, and the
Moschi. Closely allied, too, were the Armenians, the Cappado-
cians, the Susianians, and the Chaldsans of Babylon. The race,
however, is now extinct. ' I n vain we look for their descendants
a t the present day. * ' The Scyths have disappeared from the
earth. Like the American Aztecs, whom they resembled in some
degree, they have been swept away by the current of immigra-
tion, and, except in the mounds which cover their land, and in the
pages of tho historian or the ethnologist, not a trace remains to
tell of their past existence,'-though some writers have too
hastily confounded the Scythians with the 3longolians, attribut-
i n g a like origin to both.
The empire of Darius Hrstaspes-the Gushtcrsp of Firdousi
--was divided into 20 satrapies, of which the Fifteenth com-
prised the S a m and the Caspians, whose joint tribute amounted
to 250 talents per anhum, while to the Sixteenth belonged the
Padhians, thc Chorasmians, the Sogdians, and the IIerat Arinns,
whose annual tribute was 300 talents. The army of Xerxes-
the Isfundear of Firdousi-was largely recruited from the mar-
like peoples of Central Asia. ' The Bactrian8 went to the war
wenriug a head-dress very like the Median, but armed with
bows of cane, after the custom of their country, and with short
Jpeara. The Sacm, or Scrths, were clad in trousers, and had
jn their heada tall stiff caps rising to a ~ o i n t . They bore the
bow of their country and the dagger ; besides which they carried
rhe battle-axe, or eagaria. They were, in truth, Amyrgian
Scythians (from the confines of India), but the Persians call
24 CENTRAL ASIA.

them S a m since that is the name they give to all the Scythiuns.
The Bactrians acd the Sac= had for leader IIyshspes, the son
of Dariua and of Atossa, the daighter of CYrus. Thc Arians
(of Herat) carried Median bows, but in other respects were
equipped like the Bactrians. The Parthians and Chorasmians,
with the Sogdians, the Gandarians, and the Dadictc, had the
Bactrian equipment in all respech. The Caspians were clad in
cloaks of skin, and carried the cane bow of their country, and
the scymitar.' The Bactrians and the Caspians furnished also
horsemen, armed like the foot-soldiers.
From Canon Rawlinson's foot-notes we learn that the Hyr-
canians, an Arian mce, probably inhabited the lovely and well-
wooded valley of Astrabad, watered by the river now known
as the Cfurgan. The Caspian, as mentioned in the preceding
chapter, was called the Hyrcaninn Sea by the historians of
Alexander, and in the Zendavesta this district appears under
the name of Vehrkana, the Urkanieh of the 13th century. The
Parthiane dwelt between t,he Hyrcanians and the Sarangians,
along the southern flank of the Elburz mountains, now called
Atak, or 'The Skirt.' The country is at present almost a
desert, but covered with extensive ruins, attesting its ancient
cultivation. The Parthians were of Scythian origin, and escaped
destruction by the Aryans no doubt through tho natural diffi-
culties of their position. The Chorasmians, again, were an
Aryan people, inhabiting the oasis of Khwarezm, or Khirn,-
the Khairizaa of the Zendavesta. I n Alexander's time they
seem to have been independent, and to have been governed by
a native ruler, named by the Greeks Pharasnpenes, who dis-
patched a friendly embassy to the ' Yacedonian madman.' The
Sogdiane also came from the Aryan stock. Their country, the
qugdha of the Zendavesta and known to Mohammedan writers
as the Vale of Soghd, extended from the Jaxartee to the Oxus,
and southward to Bactria. Their capital city Naracanda will
 EARLY HISTORY. 25

hereafter be mentioned in connection with Alexander. The

Apcror of Herodotus occupied the rich valley of the IIeri-
Rood, which is designated Hariva in the inscriptions of
Darius.
I n the Greek legends of the Assyrian era, no nation is more
favourably distinguished than that of the Bactrians, whose
apocryphnl king Oxyartes is described aa valiantly holding his
own against Ninus, though finally compelled to yield to the
superior arms and fortune of Semiramis. It is certain that the
Aryans settled in thia province at a very early period, and it
is not impossible that Bactra may have been the capital of
Persia at a time anterior to the reign of Kei Khosroo, or Cyrus
the Great, who experienced considerable difficulty in reducing
the Bactrians beneath his sway. I n the Hindoo legends of
the 3rd and 4th centuries before the Christian era, they appear
aa the Bahlikas, afterwards easily corrupted into Balkh, the
modern representative of Bactra.
A lesa easy task is it to place the S a m of Herodotus, unless
they lined the banks of the old channel of the Oxus. They
have certainly nothing in common with the Sacia of Ptolemg,
which rather corresponds with the provinces of Kaahgar and
Yarkund. Of Turanian origin, they were famoue for their
valour, and in Alexander's time fought aa allies under the
banner of Darius. A century later the Sacm, in conjunction
with kindred tribes of Tntars, overthrew the short-lived Greco-
Bactrian kingdom, and occupied the entire region between the
A d and the Indus. They evep c r o d that river, but sus-
tained a signal repulse about B. c. 56. They were subsequently
conquered by the Parthians, and finally absorbed by the Sas-
sanides. Of the Caspiam it may suffice to say that they were
the ancient inhabitants of the provinces now known as Ghilnn
and Mazanderan ; while the Dadicre, it L suggested, may have
been the ancestors of the Tats or Tajeeke, and may have
20 CENTRAL ASIA.

omigrntcd across the Hindoo Koosh from their early settle-

monte bosido the Gandariana.
The ancionta, it may be briefly added, divided central and
oaatorn Asia into Scythia-extra-Imnum and Scythia-intra-
Imaum, tho latter comprising Khiva, Bokhara, Khokan, Eastern
Toorkostun, and Badakhshan. Their idea of Mount Imaus,
howovcr, was aa imaginntioe as Baron Humboldt's description
of tho Dolor range, which ia supposed to have been identical
with tho fomcr. The name is clearly derived from the Ssnscrit
U i t r ~ n t v r t , - L d i ~ r e ' hiems'-which is atill preserved in the
n i d c r n IIimdaya. The Bolor mountains, ae designed by
I111mboldt nnd Carl Rittcr, would form the meridianal asis of
Cc\ntd .lsia, and from their point of view is correctly enough
d w r i h x l in Dr W m Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman
G~wgmph-, where the Dolor range,--assumed to be the ancient
~ I U R ~ ~ S , - - ~pm~iounced
Y to be ' one link of a long series of ele-
~atckl\cixigcs ruining, as it were, from south to north, which,
with a c s parallel to each other, but alternating in their locali-
tics, cxtt~ndfmm Cape Comorin to the Icy Sea, between the
61th a11d 75th dcgmes of longitude, liceping a mean direction
of S.S.E. and S.S.W.' Since Humboldt's theory was first
pn~lh~ulldcd, it htu been a,ucf)rtsincd &:it his Dolor Dngh is not
r chain of mountsins, but a .emtrcmcly elentcd plateau, fully
Ir;.th'lJ f k t ah>\-e the lerel of the sea, intern-trd by rid,-
run:ii!y fnlm c:~st ta west. with open stony plains between,
hnJi<\nby p w p axid tisums in which both wood and water
am f,\u:!,l. IIouut Imaus was, howrcr, a westerly pmlonption
of ~ h c11i:ldtw KI\whh,or. rather, of the IIima1a.p.
In the ls:t+r half of the 4th wntury hfom the Christian
crr C C : : I ~ ~ as known to tlic Gmkq was divided into the
fkxw ;n\\-inws of Nt(lrgimhBactrim. and S\s~li:ina. Thc f i d
c.~~y\>:-..li r i r h Kh,,x-n and the s ~ ~ i t h ~ w t pwtion
ern of
rhc m..;::nt nf =i\r : the sx~>nd with &d;rbhshan ; and the
 EARLY HISTORY. 27

third with the Khanat of Bokhara eastward of the Amou.

The fertility of Margiana has been the subject of wnrm eulogies,
Strabo affirming that i t was no uncommon thing to meet with
a vine, whose stock could hardly be clasped by two men with
outstretched arms, while clusters of grapes might be gathered
two cubits in length. The chief town, since famous as Merv
or Merou, was called Alexandreia after its great founder, but
falling into decay was rebuilt by Antiochus Sotcr, and named
after its restorer. I t stood upon the banks of the Nargus,-the
Epardus of Arrian, and now the Nurghab,-and was finally
destroyed towards the close of the 1mt century by Shah bioorad
Beg, Khan of Bokhara.*
Bactria, or Bactriana-the Ninth Satmpy under Carius
Rystnspes-was a rich and populous district, bounded on the
south by the Paropamisus range, on the east by the Pameer
Steppe, on the north by the Oxus, dnd on the west by a desert
separating i t from the fertile province of Margiana. The
Paropamisus mountains, called by Ptolemy the Paropanisns,
were unknown to the Greeks previous to the Asiatic conquests
of Alexander the Great, and were then supposed to be a con-
tinuation of the Taurus or the Caucasus. They appear to cor-
reupond with the modem Hazaret branch of the Himalayas
and extend for 400 miles from the site of IIerat to the eastward,
and are inferior in elevation to t.he chain that takes its name
from its highest peak, the Hindoo Roosh, being covered with
snow for no more than four months in the year. They are, in
' The natural beauties of this once ellarming district, the scene of Moore's
'Vriled Prophet of Kliorasnn,' have been fitly celebrated by tl~atpoet :-
'In tllat delightful Province of the Sun,
The first of Persian lands he shines upon,
Where all the lovcliest clllldren of his beam,
Flow'rets and fruits, blush over every stream,
And, fairest of nll streams, the N u r g roves
Among Nerou's bright palaces and groves.'
23 CENTRAL ASIA.

truth, not so much a chain as a confused mass of barren and

rugged mountains 200 &lea across from north to south at the
base line. The Paropamisan Alexandreia stood at the southern
foot of t,he Ramian Pass, and waa intended to secure an un-
molested p w g e into Bactria. I n addition to its northern
boundary, tho Oxus, this district was fertilized by five tribu-
taries of that noble river, and by the Bactrus, now the Dahash,
descending from the Paropamisus and passing under the walls
of Bactra-the Zuriaspa of Strabo and Pliny-but better known
by its modern appellation of Balkh.* The country generally is
so graphically described by Quintus Curtius that no apology
need be offered for transcribing John Brende's quaint trnnsla-
tion of the passage :-
' The nature of the soyle of whiche countrey is divere and
of sundrye kindes. Some place is plentiful1 of woode and vines,
arid aboundaunte of pleasaunte fruite, the grounde futte, well
watered, and full of springes. Those partes which be most
temperate are sowed with corne, and the rest be reserved for
f d g n g of beastes. But the greater part of the countrey is
couered ouer wit.h bnraine sandes and withered up for want of
moisture, nourishing neither man, nor bringinge forth fruite.
But with certaine windes that come from the sea of Ponte (the
Caspian), the sand in the plaines is blowen together in heapes,
which seme a farre of like great hillea, wherby the accustomed
wayea be damned, so that no signe of them can appere. Ther-
fore such as do passe those plaines use to observe the starres in
the night as thei do that sayle the seas, and by the course of
them direct their journey. The night- for the more parte be
brighter than the dayes, wherfore in the dare time the countrey
is wild and unpassible, when they can neither finde any tracte
Bactrin is said to be a corrupf.ion of Baklitiar, an old Persian word signi-
fying 'The East,' just as the meaning of Khorassan is 'The Region of the
Sun.'
 EARLY HISTORY. 29

nor waye to go in, nor marke or signe wherby to passe, the

atarres beying hidden by the miste. I f the same winde chnunce
to come durying the time that men be passging, it overwhelm-
0th them with sande. Where the countrey is temperate, it
bringeth forth great plenty both of men and horse, so that the
Bactrians may make 30,000 horsemen.'
Sir Alexander Burnes bears testimony to the perfect fidelity
of this picture even at the present day, especially as regards
the desert to the north-west and the mode of travelling therein.
I n addition to Bactra or Zariaspa, mention is made of a t o m
called Darapsa, Adraspa, or Drapsaca, the first place taken
by Alexander after crossing the mountains. ' The Bactrians,'
saps Archdeacon Williams, ' held a middle place between the
Persians and Scythians, partaking more of the polished mnn-
ners of the former than of the rudeness of the latter.' They
were, nererthelem, accused of throwing out the bodies of their
dying relatives into the streets to be devoured by dogs, thcnce
called 'entombers,' or ' buriers of the dead '-a practice that
waa abolished by Alexander. Professor Wilson, however, was
disposed to trace this legend to the Zoroastrian custom of ex-
posing dead bodies in the Towers of Silence, to the ordinary
procees of decomposition accelerated by the foul birds of prcy.
I n Grecian dramatic poetry this region was the scene of the
wanderings of Bacchus. The pages of historic romance tell
how Ninus sat down before nactra with an immense army,
nnd only succeeded when reinforced by Semiramis. I n the
reign of Sardanapalus the Bactricns broke out into a formidable
revolt, but in that of Arbaces they largely contributed to the
reduction of Nineveh. Against the great Cyrus they waged
equal war, until his union with the daughter of Astyages, when
they freely tendered their submission. I n the army of Xerxcs,
as we hare seen, they were arrayed beside the S a m and the
Caspii, and are represented as wearing a sort of Median head-
30 CESTRAL ASIA.

dress, and as being armed with bows and arrows, and short
spears. Their cavalry were at all times highly esteemed, and
honourably distinguished themselves in the last days of the
Persian Empire.
The Sogdiani, like the Bactrians, mere accused of handing
over to canine ' entombers ' the mortal remains of their friends
and kinsfolk, and probably under the same circumstances.
Their country extended from the Oxus to the Jaxartea, which
divided them from the hlassagetae, who occupied the vast steppe
extending to the Altai Mountains. Their most valued river
was that called by the Greeks Polytimetus, the ' Very Precious '
or 'Much IIonourcd,' now known as the Zarafshan, or ' gold-
scattering ' river of Samarltand, which flows past Bokhara, and
is finally lost in the Denghiz or Karakul Lake, to the S. S. E.
of the latter city. I n tliose days this productive region ap-
pears to have been overgrown with forests abounding in wild
beasts and in game of all kinds. At Bazaria, for instance--
perhaps the modern Bokhara-we read of a royal park, or
' paradise,' that had not been disturbed for four generations, in
which 4000 animals were slain by Alexander and his officers.
Here, it is said, Alexander overcame a lion in single fight,
extorting from the Spartan envoy, who witnessed the rash
deed, the hearty exclamation : ' Bravo, Alexander ! well hast
thou won the prize of royalty from the king of tho woods.'
The principal city was Maracanda, though the names of several
other towns are preserved, such as Cyropolis, Ghaza, Marginia,
Nautakn, (near Karshi), Alexandreia Ultima (near Khojend),
and Oxiana. In Maracanda, however, stood the palace of the
Sogdian ruler, and it was here that Alexander murdered his
own foster-brother, Clitus. The loca deserts Sog(licmorro,aseem
to have been no leas terrible than those of the Bactriani, judging
from the experiences of the flying column commanded by Alex-
ander in person. John Brende shall again be our interpreter :-
 EARLY HISTORY. 31

' I n the wante of water (that hath bene declared before)

desperation moved them to thirst before they had desire to
drinke. For by the space of 1111C furlonges they founde no
water at all. The vnpoure of the Sunne, beynge in the somner
season, did so burne the s4pde that when it began to waxe hote
i t starrhed all thinges as it had bene with a continuall fire.
And then the lyght somewhat obscured by a mist that rose out
of the arth by the im&oderata heate, caused tho playnes to
haue appearaunce of a maine Sea. Their iourney in the nyght
seamed tollerable, because their bodyes were somewhat refresh-
ed with the dewe and the coolde of the mornynge. But when
the daye came and the heate rose, then the drought driying up
all ye natural humoures, both their mouthes and their boweh
were enflamed for heate. Then their hartes failed and their
bodies fainted, beynge in case that thei could neither stand styl,
nor passe forwardes. A few that were taught by suche as knew
the countrey, had gotten water whiche refreshed them some-
what, but as the heate encreaaed, so their desire grewe againe
to drinke.'
After subduing Seistan and Afghanistan without much
difficulty except such as arose from the severity of the climate,
Alexander appears to have crossed over into Bactria by the
Khawak Paes, at an altitude of 13,200 feet above the sea,
towards the close of the winter 330-329 B. c. The passago
over the mountains occupied the best part of a fortnight, nor
was it until the fifteenth day that his starved and exhausted
army came in sight of Adraspa. nactria was speedily over-
run, but terrible sufferings were endured in traversing the burn-
ing and waterless desert that approaches almost to the very
bank of tho Oxus. As all the boats within a considerable dis-
tance had been destroyed by Bessus, the river was crossed by
means of inflated skins, and shortly afterwar& the murderer of
Darius was overtaken and captured by Ptolemy. Stript naked,
32 CENTRAL ASIA.

loaded with chains, and his neck encircled by an iron collar, the
traitor was placed in a conspicuous position, and exposed to the
scorn and derision of the entire army as i t defiled past him. H e
was then scourged and eeni to Bactria, whence he was sub-
sequently conveyed into Persia and delivered into the hands of
the mother of Darius. By her orders, according to Plutarch,
four trees were bent down by main force, to each of which he
wns attached by a limb. Suddenly the trees were released, and
springing back to their natural positions tore the wretched
man into shnpeless fragments.'
From the Oxus Alexander marched straight on to Mara-
canda, or near the site of the modern Samarkand. No very
serious resistance was offered by the Sogdinns, though the
JIacedonian detachments were much harassed by desultory
attacks. The most difficult operations were the reduction of
Cpropolis on the Jaxartes, and the storming of an almost in-
accessible rock where Alexander himself was severely mounded
by an arrow. Within the space of three weeks the town of
Alexandreia Ultima was built at no great distance from Kho-
jend, to mark the limit of the liacedonian conquests in that
direction. The Jnxartes also was crossed, and an idle victory
gained over tho nomad Scy thians, in which bootless expedition
his soldiers suffered greatly from thirst, and the king himself
was attacked with illness. A biacedonian brigade having in
the mean while been cut to pieces in Sogdiana by Spitamenes,
Alexander overran the fertile valley of the Polytimetus-the
Kohik, or Zarafshan, of later times-and put to the sword all
who came within reach of his vengeance. IFe then re-crossed
the Oxus and wintered at Zariaspa, another name for Bactra or
Balkh.
The submission of the Sogdians, however, pro-ied to be
Bp other writers, howevcr, Bessus is said to have beeu nailed to a cross
and pierced with arrows, at Ecbatana.
 EARLY HISTORY. 33

merely nominal, for no tmoner had he quitted their territory

than they broke out into open revolt. The greater part of the
following year-B. c. 328-was consequently spent in repeating
the work of the preceding one, and it was now that occurred
the slaughter of the wild animals in the Royal Chace of Bazaria.
This year, too, was marked by that horrible debauch at Mara-
canda, at which Alexander slew with his own hand hie foster-
brother Clitus, who had snved his life at the Battle of the
Qranicus by cutting off with one sweep of his sword the up- ,
raised arm of Spithridates. During the early part of the winter .
of 328 B. c. the Macedonian army rested from its labours at
Nautaka. The next feat of arms, in the spring of B. c. 327,
was the reduction of the well-nigh impregnable fort which
Archdeacon Williams places in Bactria, while Bishop Thirlwall
alights upon it in Sogditma, and whose chief peril to the con-
queror lay in the beauty of Roxana, daughter of the Bactrian
chief Oxyartes, 'said to have been, with the exception of the
wife of Dnrius, the loveliest woman seen by the Macedonians
during their Asiatic expedition.'
The spring was spent chiefly a t Bactria, where Alexander
united himself in marriage to Roxana, greatly to the disgust of
his Greek soldiery. The intoxicating influences of love, wine,
and success without a check, here impelled the king to excesses
bordering upon madness. Callisthenes, the nephew of Aristotle,
a somewhat impracticable republican--or 'philosopher,' aa he
would have preferred to be called-having ostentatiously re-
fused to adopt the Persian mode of prostration, inevitably in-
curred the displeasure of Alexander, too little used to opposition
to make allowances for the feelings of others. About the same
time Hermolaus, one of the royal pages, presumed to transfix
with a javelin a wild boar that had turned upon the king, and
for his officious loyalty was deprived of his horse and scourged.
.
Thirsting for revenge, Hermohus conspired with some of his
a
$4 CEXTRAL ASIA.

brother pages, all of them youths of the best familiea of Greece,

to d a y Alexander when he retired to r e d The king, however,
escaped that danger by sitting up all night caronsing, and on
the morrow one of the conspiratore, aa usual in wch casee, be-
trayed hie aocxrmplicea Hermolans and hia friends were put to
the tortare, but nobly refueed to implicate others in their guilt,
and were stoned to death. Be the intimate friend of Hermo-
law, Calliathenea also waa wbjected to torture. and afterwards
hanged, though no p m f had been obtained of his complicity.
I n the summer of 327 B. c. Alexander again crossed the
mountains, taking with him 30,000 recruita from Bactria and
Sogdiann, and marched to the conquest of the Punjab, leaving
Amyntas at Bactra with a reserve of 10,000 foot, and 3,500
horee. I n Sogdiana he had built eight towns, each of which
was a fortified post, but his power over that province was con-
fined to the immediate vicinity of those garrisons. The moral
effects of his conquests, however, were more extensive and
durable, and have been thus succinctly summed up :-' Those
nations had not bcen civilized, hnd they not been vanquished
by Alexander. IIe taught marriage to the Hyrcanians, and
agriculture to the Arachosii; he instructed thc Sogdians to
maintain, and not to kill, their parents ; the Persians to respect,
and not to marry, their mothers; the Scythians to bury, and
not to eat, their dead.'
Tho name of the great Sikunder is still revered in the dis-
tant Eust, and the chiefs of the petty principalities to the north
of tho IIindoo Koosh affcct to claim descent from the Macedo-
nian conqucror, while the people of Kafiristan pridc themselves
on thc csploits of their Grecian ancestors-though, apparently,
with littlo reason. A title commonly bestowed upon Alexander
by Arnb writcrs is that of Sikunder Zulkarnain, or Dhulkarnain,
, two-horned, in allusion to his pretensions as the son
that i ~ the
of Jupiter Amrnon, represented on his coins by the ram's horns
 EARLY HISTORY 36

affixed to his head. Colonel Yule hence derives the origin of

the old English word ' dulcarnon,' synonymous with dilemma,
and which is still used, he says, in that sense in some parta of
England. I n Chaucer's poem of 'Troylus and Cresside,' it
occurs in the following paaeage :

'But whether that ye dwell, or for him go,

I am till God me better minde sende,
At dulcsrnon, right at my wittes end.'

The era of the Seleucidse is also called by the Arab historians

the Taarish-dhulkarnain, but less with reference to Alexander'e
horns than to the strength of Seleucus Nicator, of whom i t was
alleged that he could stop a bull in full career by seizing him
by the horns.
On the death of Alexander, B. C. 321, Parthia and Hyrcania
fell to Phrataphernes, Bactria and Sogdiana to Philip, but by
the year 305 B. c. Seleucus had brought beneath his sway,
Media, Assyria, Persia, Hyrcania, Bactria, and all the country
eastward as far as the Indus. Some sixty years later, or B. c.
256, the Greco-Bactrian kingdom was established, which
flourished for nearly one hundred years, until it was overthrown
by an irruption of the Scythians, who were, in their turn, es-
pelled by the Parthians, and finally settled in a district called
after them, SacnatEnk by the Greeks and Sakasthan by the In-
dians, and which corresponds with the Drangiana of Alexan-
der's time, and the Seistan of our own.
The Parthian kingdom was virtually founded by Arsaces
about the same time that Theodotus achievcd the independence
of Bactriana, though it wm not recognized by Antiochus the
Great until about 208 B. c. The dynasty of Arsaces maintained
their position for nearly 480 years. Mithridates, the sixth
monarch of that race, ruled from the Euphrates to the Indus ;
while Orodes, the eleventh king, dcstroyed Crassus and his
86 CENTRAL ASIA.

legions.* But the thirtieth sovereign, Artabenes IV., became

involved in war with the Roman emperor Macrinus, and was so
'crippled in his resources that, A. D. 226, he was defeated, taken
prisoner, and put to death by a Persian chief named Ardesheer
(Artaxerxes), whose descendants were called Sassanides from his
immediate ancestor Sassan, fabled to be the son of Isfundear
(Xerxes) the son of Qushtasp (Darius Hystaspes). This suc-
cessful adventurer revived the Magian religion, and terminated
the glories of the Parthian name. H e was also the first to
assume the title of Shah-in-Shah, or King of kings, a titular
distinction claimed by his successors on the throne of Persia
down to our own times.
Before proceeding to briefly sketch the chief incidents
belonging to the history of the Sassanides so far as it is con-
nected with that of Central Asia, it may be worth while to say
a few words in explanation of the Scythian irruption which
so abruptly terminated the existence of the Qreco-Bactrian
kingdom. According to Colonel Yule, about the middle of the
2nd century before the Christian era, the Hiongnu Scythians,
dwelling on the northern frontier of China, dispossessed of their
lands the Yuechi, a Tibetan race lying a little to the south-
west. The latter migrated to the Ili, and dislodged the Sze;
but a few years later the Usoon were also driven by the
IIiongnu to the banks of the Ili, and both the Yuechi and
the Sze were hurled, as it. were, upon Sogdiana, whence they
overflowed to the foot of the Afghan mountains, which, in-
deed, thcy finally crossed in their onward progress. From
that date the whole of Central Asia, as that phrase is under-

* "I'l~efrontier,' sags Sir Jolln hfalcolm, ' which the kingdom of Parthia
prcsented to the Roman Empire, extended from the Caspian Sea to the Per-
sian Gulf. It consists of lofty and barren mountains, of rapid and broad
streams, and of wide-spreading deserts. In whatever direction tLe legions of
Rome advauced, the country was laid waste.'
 EARLY HISTORY. 37

stood in common parlance, remained for several centuries under

Scytho-Chinese domination, until Khosroo Nousheerwan over-
ran Traneoxiana to the remote mountainous parts of Ferghana
or Khokan.
Towards the latter part of the 6th century the Tou-Kioue
or Toorb supplanted the Chinese, better known as the Haia-
thalah (Ephthalites, or White Hum), who became broken up
into twenty-seven small States recognizing the supremacy of
the Toorkish Khakan.
To thia group of quasi-independent principalities Hiouen
stsang gave the collective name of Tou-ho-lo, or Tokhara,
which survived in the Mohammedan Tokharistan as late as the
13th century. Under the Hainthalah the religion of Zoromter
had given way to that of Buddha, and the celebrated Buddhist
Pilgrim just named mentions colossal images and convents at
Termedh, Khulm, Balkh, and Bamian..
The Saasanian dynasty commenced A.D. 226 with Arde-
sheer Babigan-that is, the eon of Babec,-whose son and suc-
cessor Shahpoor, the Snpor of Greek historians, took prisoner
the Emperor Valerian, and founded the city of Nishapoor in
Khoraasnn near the famous Turquoise mines. The descendants
of this monarch figure largely in the annals of the Byzantine Em-
pire, though under names slightly corrupted, as Hormisdas for
Honnuz, Varanes for Baharam, Isdigertes for Yezdijerd, Peroses
for Ferozg and Cabades for Kobad. I n the reign of the third
Hormuz the region comprised between the Oxus and the Jax-
artes, between the Caspian Sen and China, changed its old name

The Toorks are said to be descended from the Hionpn, or Huns, whose
aggressiveness towards their leas turbulent neiglibours mused the overthrow
of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. They hare been described as a round-headed,
flat-nosed people, with long, narrow, oblique eyes, prominent clieekbones,
thick lips, huge ears, and very white and sound teeth: in other words, as ex-
hibiting the Nongolinn type of features.
58 CEKTRAE ASIA.

of Turan for that of Toorkestan. The former appellation is de-

rived by Persian romance-writers from Toor the son of Feridoon,
a prince of the mythical Peiehdadian dynasty which com-
menced with Kaiomurs, Noah's grandson, who held his court at
Balkh.
The sixteenth monarch of the Sossanian line, Feroze or
Peroses, twice waged war upon the Toorka by whose assistance
he had dethroned and murdered his elder brother IIormuz. I n
his first campaign he lost his army in the desert into which it
had been led by the patriotic treachery of a Toorkish chief, who
had imitated, no doubt unconsciously, the example of Zopj~us.
Feroze was permitted to return to his own territories on pledg-
ing his royal word to live in peace for the future with his
magnanimous neighbour. He proved false, however, to his
plighted honour, and shortly afterwards re-crossed the Oxus with
a formidable army. On this occasion the Toorka anticipated
the stratagem employed by Bruce at Bannockburn, and in
their rear excavated a broad deep trench, concealed beneath
and shrubs, with a few pathways of solid earth left ae
bridges. Across these the Toorh fled in seeming panic on the
appronch of the Persians, who rushed forward, as they sup-
posed, to an w r e d victory and were precipitated into the
trench, where Feroze and many thowands of his troops were
w i l y slaughtered.
Hie son Kobad became a disciple of the false prophet
Maid&, who preached community of wives and property, and
the most advanced socialistic doctrines. For this he was de-
posed by his nobles and thrown into prison, but, eacaping to
the Toorks, was by them replaced on the throne. Kobad, or
Cabades, subsequently waged successful war against the Em-
peror Anastasius, and built the town of Gunjah in Georgia, now a
Rusian fort. 'What a change,' Sir John Malcolm exclaims,
'hns the lapse of some centuries produced. The Empire of Persia,
 EARLY HISTORY. 39

the great rival of the Romans, now appears unable to resist the
tide of civilization and of conquest which comes on her, not
from the fountain of early knowledge, the East, or the learned
West, but from the frozen regions of the North ; from a land
unknown to her historians, long inhabited by wretched and
aavage tribes of ignorant barbarians, who,-from a combination
'

of powerful causes, the geniue of some of their sovereigns, the

example of Southern Europe, and the influence of a religion
which haa everywhere improved the condition of mankind,-
have overcome all those natural obstacles which opposed their
rise, and started, as by magic, into great and imperial power.'
Kobad's son, the great Noueheorwan, effectually stopped the
epread of socialism by sending its apostle, Madak, to execution,
and by dealing very summarily with his followers. This prince
wae impressed with the value of learning, and afforded generoue
encouragement to men of letters. I n his reign Pilpay's Fables
were f i s t translated into the Persian language, through which
they became known to the nations of Europe. I n his wars with
Juetinian, Nouaheerwan gained considerable succeeses until the
geniue of Belisarius turned the tide of victory. The whole of
Transoxiana was annexed to Persia, and order prevailed to the
extreme frontiers of Bokhara. Few despot have exhibited a
nobler disposition than thie illuetrious monarch, and it is written
that Mohammed pronounced hin;self fortunate in being born in
the reign of so just a prince.
Under his son H o r m u 111. the Toorks endeavoured to re-
cover their independence, and even invaded the Persian terri-
tories, but were signally overthrown, and their Khokhan, being
taken prisoner, was deprived of eight and then strangled by the
bowstring.
The next king of thie line, Khosroo Purveez,-the Chosroes
of the Greeks,-underwent both extremes of fortune. He com-
menced his reign by expelling the usurper Baharam-Choubeen
40 CENTRAL ASIA.

and chasing him across the Oxus. His next exploit was the
capture of Jerusalem, after which he gave himself up to luxury
and ostentation. Mohammed, his grandfather's admirer, ad-
dressed to him a letter bidding him renounce his false religion
and become a convert to Islam. This strange missive 'Khosroo
contemptuously tore up, and flung the fragments into the
Karasu. H e acted with less spirit, however, in his contest
with Heraclius, taking a t last to ignominious flight. His end
was miserable. H e was cast into prison and murdered by the
orders of his own son, Shiroueh, or Siroes, A.D. 628.
After the death of Khosroo the throne of Persia was occu-
pied by a rapid succession of weak rulers, under whom general
misrule prevailed throughout the land. The choice of the
nobles at last fell upon Yezdijerd, who is supposed to have been
a grandson of Khosroo Purveez, but who was simply a puppet
in their hands. H e WELP the last of the Sassanidea. I n his
reign the flood of Arab conquest swept alike over the mountains
of Persia and the deserta and oases of Central Asia. The pro-
vince of Khorassan was promised by Khalif Othman to whom-
soever should bring it under the true faith. I n the mnorous
phraseology of Gibbon, ' the condition was accepted ; the prize
was deserved ; the standard of Mohammed was planted on the
walls of Herat, hlerou, and Balch; and the successful leader
neither halted nor reposed till his foaming cavalry had tasted
the waters of the Oxus.'
The unhappy Yezdijerd fled after the decisive battle of
Cadesia to Ferghnna, where sympathy was expressed for mis-
fortunes that betokened a common danger. ' The king of Sa-
marcand, with the Turkish tribes of Sogdiana and Scythia, were
moved by the lamentations and promises of the fallen monarch ;
and he solicited, by a suppliant embassy, the more solid and
powerful friendship of the Emperor of China. The virtuous
Taitaong, the first of the dynasty of Tang, may be justly com-
 EARLY HISTORY. 41

pared with the Antonines of Rome: his people enjoyed the

blessings of prosperity and peace; and his dominion was ac-
knowledged by forty-four hordes of the barbarians of Tar-
tary. His laet garrisons of Cashgar and Khoten maintained
a frequent intercourse with their neighbours of the Jax-
artes and Oxus; a recent colony of Persians had introduced
into China the astronomy of the Magi ; and Tititsong might be
alarmed by the rapid progress and dangerous vicinity of the
Arabs.'
Yezdijerd, however, was too impatient to await the arrivnl
of his Chinese auxiliaries, and retraced his steps to Merv at the
head of a tumultuous body of Toorks. I t is not an easy task to
unravel the confused accounta that have reached us of the tragic
eventa that followed. I t is only apparent that the last of the
Sassanides was compelled to flee for his life from his own bar..
barous allies, and was put to death, while he slept, by a miller,
for the sake of his armour. His body was flung into the mill
dam, whence it was extracted a few days later by the penitent
citizens of Mew, and sent to Istakhar to be interred in the
royal burying-place, while the covetous miller underwent the
fate he had inflicted upon his unconscioue and confiding victim.
The Magian religion waa now extinguished throughout Persia,
where i t had flourished for twelve centuries, and is now pre-
served only in the wealthy com~nunityof the Parsees, and in a
few scattered districts of the ancient Iran.
Feroze, the son of Yezdijcrd, was content to lead a life of
inglorious security as Captain of the body-guard of the Ernperor
of China ; and his son, a h , after o faint and fruitless attempt
to recover his hereditary dominions, ended his days as a pen-
sioner of that court. Yezdijcrd's two daughters married, the
one Hassan, the son of Ali, Mohammed's son-in-law, and the
other nlohammed, the son of Aboubekr, the father of Ayesha,
while the daughter of Feroze became the wife of tho Khalif
42 CENTRAL ASIA.

Walid, and thus 'the race of the caliph and imams wae en-
nobled by the blood of their royal mothera.'
The Sassanitin dynasty reigned over Persia for 415 years,
but their power extended beyond the Oxua under the ablest
princes of the race, and Sir John Malcolm asserts that 'their
memory is still cherished by a nation whoee ancient glory ie
associated with the names of Ardisheer, Shahpoor, and Nou-
sheerwan.' Be that as it may, although the final victory of the
Arabs was achieved at Nehavund, A.D. 651, or in the year of
the Hijra 28, it was not until A.D. '706 that Transoxiaua, or,
as it then came to be called, Mawaralnahr, was finally sub-
dued by Walid'e lieutenant Kotaiba Ibn Moslem, or Catibah,
'the camel-driver,' who imposed upon the infidels a tribute of
two millions of pieces of gold, broke or burnt their idols, de-
livered a sermon in the mosque of Khwarezm or Khiva, drove
the Toorkish hordes to the desert, and overawed the Chinese. .
'To their (the victorious Arabs) induatry, the prosperity of
the province, the Sogdiana of the ancients, may in a great mea-
eure be ascribed, but the advantages of the soil and climate had
been understood and cultivated since the reign of the Mace-
donian kings. Before the invaeion of the Saracens, Carizmg
Bochara, a n d Samarcand were rich and populous under the
yoke of the shepherds of the North. These cities were sur-
rounded with a double wall ; and the exterior fortification, of s
larger circumference, enclosed the fields and gardens of the
adjacent district. The mutual wants of India and Europe were
supplied by the diligence of the Sogdian merchants, and the
iuestimable mt of transforming linen hito paper has been dif-
fused from the manufacture of Samarcand over the western
world.'
There is, doubtless, some degree of truth in this ornate pic-
ture, but it is strange that so keen a cntic a~ Gibbon did not
see in the necessity of an 'exterior fortification' irresistible
 EARLY HISTORY. 43

evidence of the unsettled state of the country, and of the gener-

al insecurity of life and property. That double line of circum-
vallation haa been noticed by modern travellers, but no one has
ventured to cite the fact as a proof of order and prosperity.
The manufacture of linen paper, it may be added, was not in-
troduced into Samarkand from China until the middle of the
seventh century, or about twenty-five years before Saad, the
Mussulman Governor of Khonrssnn, made his entry into that
city, and it had long before been in use among the Persians.
The ' ehepherds of the north' were not likely to place a high
value upon the posewion of an 'inestimable art,' which had
nothing to do with the rearing of sheep or h o r n . It was cer-
tainly through the Arabs that paper made from linen firat found
ita way into Europe from the far East.
At the same time it safficiently appears from Colonel Yule's
exceedingly intereating book on ' Cathay and the Way Thither,'
that in the sixth century the Toorkish Court had attained to a
high degree of semi-barbarous magnificence. That learned and
mmplished geographer quotes a fragment of Menander Pro-
tector, in which it ie related how the Toorks sent an embassy
to the Emperor Juetinian at Byzantium. The Sogdians had
previouely prevailed upon Dieabulue, the great Khan of the
Toorks, who had won their country from the Ephthalites or
White Hum, to endeavour to obtain permission from Nousheer-
wan, King of Persia, to carry their silken goods into hia ter-
ritoriee, as to a new 111~~ket.That monarch, however, waa
advised by his counsellore that 'it would be highly inexpedient
for the Persians to enter into friendly relations with the Turks,
for the whole race of the Scythiene was not to be trusted.'
Poison was consequently adminiatered to the unfortunate envoys,
and in most instancee with fatal effect, ' whibt the king caused
it to be whispered about among the P e r a h that the Turkish
ambassadors had died of the d o c a t i n g dry heat of the Persian
44 CENTRAL ASIA.

climate; for their own country was subject to frequent fa&

of snow, and they could not exist except in a cold climate.'
The Ehan waa not deceived, but was compelled to dissemble his
indignation, and to content himeelf with despatching to By-
zantium the chief man among the Sogdians, named Maniach,
in company with an envoy from his own court, in order to
'cultivate the friendship of the Romans, and to transfer the
Bale of silk to them, seeing also that they consumed it more
largely than an'y'other people. . . And thus i t was that
the nation of the Turks became friends with the Romans.'
These friendly overtures were well received, and a return
embassy under Zemarchus was despntched by the Emperor
Justinian to the Toorks, 'who were anciently called Sacae.'
On the arrival of the Byzantine ambaesadors in Sogdmna, they
were presented with eome specimens of iron from the So*
mines, which they appenr to have regarded as a piece of brag
on the part of the barbarians. Colonel Yule, however, suggests
that they were simply presented with the bar, or lump, of iron,
annually forged by the Toorks in memory of their original
settlement on the Altai Mountains, where they worked as
smiths and armourers in the service of the Ehan of the Geugen.
Zemarchus, his suite and baggage, were then purified from all
evil intenta by passing between two fires, and at last reached
the camp of Dizabulus pitched in a valley beyond the Jnxartes,
perhaps at Ming Bulak, or, the Thousand Springs ; though Sir
Henry Rawlinson is probably more correct in placing the
Ehakhan's encampment at the foot of the Ak-tagh, or White
Mountains, to the north of Samarkand.
The envoys were at once conducted to the Ehakhan'e tent,
in which they found him ' seated on a golden chair with two
wheels, which could be drawn by one horse when required.'
The audience being over, they were invited to a feast, and
spent the reat of the day convivially, in a tent that ' was
 EARLY HISTORY. 45

furnished with silken hangings of varioue colours artfully

wrought. They were supplied with wine, not pressed from the
grape like ours, for their country does not produce the vine,
nor is it customary among them to use grape wine, but what
they got to drink was some other kind of barbarian liquor. . .
Next day again they assembled in another pavilion, adorned in
like manner with rich hangings of silk, in which figures of
different kinds were wrought. Dizabulus was seated on a couch
that was all of gold, and in the middle of the pavilion were
drinking vessels, and flagons, and great jars, all of gold. So
they engaged in another drinking match, talking and listening
to such purpose as people do in their drink, and then separated.
The following day there was another bout in a pavilion supported
by wooden posts covered with gold, and in which there was a
gilded throne resting on four golden peacocks. I n front of the
place of meeting there was a great array of waggons in which
there was a huge quantity of silver articles, consisting of plates
and dishes, besides numerous figures of animals in silver, in no
respect inferior to our own. To such a pitch has attained the
luxury of the Toorkish sovereign.'
To foreign artisans, however, rather than to his own may be
fairly attributable the beauty of his ' silver articles,' the spoils
of plundered cities. On their homeward journey, Justinian's
envoys are said to have reached ' the Oech,' or Oxua, and then
' the great and wide lagoon,' evidently the Aral. Crossing the
Ust Urt they at last came to the Volga, and finally took ship at
Trapezus, or Trebizond, for Byzantium. Sir Henry Rawlinson, it
may be remarked, maintains that Zemarchus passed over the bed
of the Aral, without being aware that it was a sea, and is of
opinion that the ambassador took nearly a bee line from the
Toorkish encampment to the Volga. But in that case, how
came he to sight the Oech, or Oxua?
 -t:.xfir~x :hY : G m SIZFIDISC~ -%-~32+Le<?y K:mh
qv..r -he wkoie of M ~ ~ 'cr 5 ~e >!~~:IL - L. h y ! dt h
*
. - .
, , ' -nr ' ( - . n q . 31 ' ~ IeY ~ $iec~tte:r' -At. :i=:l -i~un?L-y.-3e d
T:,,n'w - ~ n : d t;.2Czer s T:;ii;~= ur T : & ~ t . a
r r , r l r ' n ~ ~ 5;r ~ r i XLIZP~~LTL ~ ~ to wctf ~ I?c,p.--~ S z SL-=mfu
.
.n -~,l;,an
. .- .
-:lttir bi-k?d ~ ~ J ~ ~ r : iztf t ? :.f rm zt?t E T ~-;I rn

7 ' 8 I * : ~ ; t*i+:)~l>
t TIS p : d w :>e E Z Z 5 v 5 t . PC?rrxcip&-
. .
. I ' , = n -:I@ 7 L : : P ~ +g:t' tLe rryer t%=.
*. .. .
, ~ c ? r n n ~ : ; - , ~ >at'
n 3 f 1 x - v ~u tEe t i l ~ : ?cez- ~ b
R I ~ - , ; P . * ~'17 *:II? -1-xb t r i ~ r I'ZU e ~ Rl&d4 b~
t=-~~51LLted
.<;, '.T,1: i:rm 0,1.q~I~>y* the mt:.st v!,.+--r,~~.>LTIB.The
i t ~ r ~ ? r w n t das ' p e . ~ : e ct' ~ ~ : k i : YPJ
; I , l l c t l l ; t . ~ ~ ,Ire y virtue,
nl-,.r<o%,>.rli.7.;1 ~ n dR j ~ d~ j fFI?.JC~-' Such WLS t>c ~ ~ . x b ~ c ' t i r e -
:3r32q , ~ f

,-,~,rl,. , ~ T - nc
~ , i -:,:it;
l
t 5.7 il,.<,.i,'r.t
e t - e ~e . u enor:;5
- .
cr?m ww LiiJ up to
hnr-ie.tt. in ' :he o:Eer R;,-:c.c~
4 j < - . ~ ~ kj ,: n ~ i of f , i : t acd m e ~ t . ' writes t2e e ~ c h m ~ t i e
Tf ,,,,!,.,.np, lI>r,rln~!~ :F.PTP : .~r.dtke w~:er i.3 rntYr;tJt,Iic~i~ms.The
c.?f l i l t ; t.F,e ~ E V . ? from
nm ny,~.~I:+~nt Tnrke.tan. Crh3znit.n. and
r r l , h;l!;!y
f - ' . , ~ , , , t ~ . , > ~ ~ ~ nyn ertw:md in 31I ~ h c sYarerhahr
i f , I q , 1 , - 1 , 1 . 3 ' ~ , n t . i ' j Lir in ,mat quatities. Its
 MAWARALNAHR. 47

minea yield silver and tin, or lead, abundantly ; and they are
better than the other mines, except those of silver at Penjhir ;
but Maweralnahr affords the best copper and quicksilver, and
other similar productions of mines; and the mines of sal
ammoniac (used in tinning and soldering) in all Khorasan (sic)
are there. Like the pnper made at Samarcnnd, there is not any
to be found ehewhere. €30 abundant are the fruits of Soghd
and Bstersheineh and Ferghanah and Chnje (or Shash) that
they are given to the cattle aa food. Musk is brought from
Tibbet, and sent to all parts. Fox-skins, sctble, and ermine-
skins, are all to be found at the bazaars of Maweralnahr. Such
is the generosity and liberality of the inhabitants, that no one
turne aside from the rites of hospitality ; so that a person con-
templating them in this light would imagine that nll the families
in the land were but one house . . . You cannot see any town,
or stage, or even desert, in Maweralnahr, without a convenient
inn, or stage-house, for the accommodation of travellers, with
everything necessary. I have heard thnt there are above 2000
robats, or inns, in Mawaralnahr, where as many persons as may
arrive ehall find sufficient forage for their beasts and meat for
themselves.'
Ibn Huukal mentions also a palace in the valley of Soghd,
the doors of which were fastened back to the wall with nails, and
had been so for upwards of a hundred years, to nllow strangers
to enter at all hours of the day or night. He had heard, too,
he says, that in Mawaralnahr there were 300,000 Kulabs, each
furnishing one horse and one foot soldier, ' and the absence of
these men when they go forth is not felt, or is not perceptible,
in the country.' And though the people were so well-to-do,
many furmers poseessing from one to five hundred head of
cattle, they were remarkable for their docility and orderly con-
duct. ' At all time the Turk soldiers had the precedence of
every other race, and the Khalife alwnye chose them on account
48 CENTRAL ASIA.

of their excellent services, their obedient disposition, their

bravery, and their fidelity.'
' I n all the regions of the earth,' continues our traveller,
' there is not a more flourishing or a more delightful country
than this, especially the district of Bokhara. If a person stand
on the Kohendiz (or ancient castle) of Bokhara, and cast his
eyes around, he shall not see anything but beautiful green and
luxuriant verdure on every side of the country; so that he
mould imagine the green of the earth and the azure of the
heavens were united: and as there are green fields in every
quarter, so there are villaa interspersed among the green fields.
And in all Khorasan and Maweralnahr there are not any people
more long-li~edthan those of Bokhara. I t is said that in all
the world there is not any place more delightful (or salu-
brious) than these three : one, the Soghd of Samarcand ; another,
the Rud Aileh ; and the third, the Qhouteh of Damascus.'
For his part, Ibn Haukal gives the preference to the first
of the three, which 'for eight days' journey is all delightful
country, affording fine prospects, and full of gardens, and
orchards, and villages, corn-fields, and villas, and running
streams, reservoirs and fountains, both on the right hand and
on the left. You pass from corn-fields into rich meadows
and pasture lands; and the Soghd is far more healthy than
the Rud Aileh, or the Ghouteh:of Dameshk; and the fruits
of Soghd are the finest in the world. Among the hills and
palaces flow running streams, gliding between the trees. I n
Ferghanah and Chaje (or Shash), in the mountains between
Ferghanah and Turkestan, there are all kind^ of fruits and
herbs and flowers, and various species of the violet ; all these
it is lawful for any one who passes by, to pull and gather. I n
Siroushteh there are flowers of an uncommon species.'
Descending to details, Ibn Haukal informs us that ' Bokhara
is ctilled Bounheket : it is situated on a plain ; the houses are of
 MAWARALNABR. 49

wood, nnd it abounds in villaa and gardens and orchards ; and

the villages are as close to one another as the groves and
gardens, extending for near 12 farsang by 12 farsang : all
about this space is a wall, and within it the people dwell winter
and summer ; and there is not to be seen one spot uncultivated,
or in decay. Outside this there is another wall, with a small
town and a castle, in which the Samanian family, who were
governors of Khorasan, resided. This kohendiz, or castle, has
rampart, a mosque, and bazaar. In all Maweralnahr, or Kho-
rasan, there is not any place more populous and flourishing
than Bokhara. The river of Soghd runs through the midst of
it, and passes on to the milla and meadows, and the borders of
I3eikend : and much of it fall8 into a pond, or pool, near
Beikend, at a place called Sam Kous.'
I n the ir~nerwall there were seven gates, in the outer twelve.
I n ell directions flowed canals of irrigation derived from the
main stream, on one of which were situated 'near 2000 villas
and gardens, exclusive of corn-fields and meadows.' ' There is
not any hill or desert ; all is laid out in castles, villas, gardens,
cornfields, and orchards. The wood which they use for fuel is
brought from their gardens, and they burn also reeds nnd
rushes. The grounds of Bokhara and of Soghd are all in the
vicinity of water; whence it happens that their trees do not
arrive at any considerable height; but the fruits of Bokhara
are more excellent than the fruits of any part of Mawaralnahr.'
There was a saying that never had the coffin, or bier, of a prince
been brought out of the kohendiz of Bokhara, and that no one
who waa once confined within those walls was ever seen again.
Scarcely less ecstatic ie Ibn Haukal's description of Samar-
h d , situated on the south side of the Kohik or Zarafshan. I t
boasted of a castle, of spacious suburbs, and of extensive fortifi-
cations, pierced for four gates. The city was surrounded with
n deep ditch, and rivuleta of water flowed through the streets
4
 60 CENTRAL ASIA.

and bazaars. 'There are many villas and orchards, and veq-
few of the palaces are without gardens, so that if a person
ehould go to the kohendiz, and from that look around, he would
find that the villas and palaces were covered, as it were, with
tress; and'even the streets and shops and banks of the streams
.
are all planted with trees. . The houaes of Samarkand are
made of clay and wood : the inhabitants are remarkable for
their beauty : they are gentle and polite in their manner, and
of amiable dispositions.'
According to local tradition, a nephew of the king of Yemen,
named Samar, had besieged for a whole year a castle on the
Jyhoon, but eeemed as far off as ever from succma. I t chanced,
however, that the custodian of one of the gatea waa one day
made prisoner, and brought before the prince. I n reply to the
questions put to him, this man stated that the king wits nearly
always in a state of helpless inebriety, and that the goverriment
was administered by his daughter. Thereupon Samar sent him
back to the princess, the bearer of a golden casket filled with
gems, and of a letter in which he offered her marriage, and in
proof of his sincerity promised to preeent her beforehand with
4000 chests full of gold. The princess accordingly agreed to
open one of the gates, through which defiled one thousand
donkeys, with a heavy chest slung on either side, arid each
driven by a man rudely but sufficiently armed. I n each chest,
however, instead of gold, two armed men were concealed, and
at a given signal, all these descended from their hiding-places
and set upon the un~uspicious garrison, making, besides, a
hideous uproar with the bells with which they had been
sagaciously provided. The place was speedily taken, the king
slain, and the ~rincessreduced to captivity. The castle waa
destroyed, and a city built lipon the bite, called by Samar after
his own name, Samarkand, or Samar's town. I t may be here
parenthetically mentioned that the post-fix ' kend,' ' kund,' or
' kanda ' signifies ' a town,' as Tashkend, or ' Stonetown.'
Ibn IIaukal has also a good word to say for Khiva. ' Khwa-
rezm,' he writes, ' is a town well supplied with provisions, and
abounding in fruits. . . Linen and wool are manufactured
there, and also brocade. The inhabitants are people of high
reputation and polished mannera : the men of Khwarezm are
great travellers ; there is not any town in Khorasan without a
colony of them. The lower parts of the land of Ghuz belong
to Khwarezm; the inhabitants are active and hardy. The
wealth of Khwarezm is derived from ita commerce and mer-
chandise. They have carpets of Siklab and of Khozr, and t.hey
bring to Khwarezm from Khozr the skins of foxes and martins,
sables and ermines.'
Ibn Mohalhal, a contemporary of Ibn Haukal, also makes
mention of the Ghuz, ' whose city is of stone, timber, and reeds.
They have,' he continues, ' a temple, but no images. Their
king is very powerful, and trades with India and China. Their
clothes are of linen and camels' hair. They have no wool. They
have a white stone, which is good for colic, and a red stone
which, by touching a sword, prevents it from cutting. The
route lay securely for one month through this country,' which
Colonel Yule places to the east of t,he Sea of Aral ; arid he adds
that, in the reign of Constantine Ducae, the Ghuz, or Uz,pene-
trated into Macedonia, and received large sums of money from
that emperor to induce them to retire. On their way home they
were cut to pieces by the Pechinegs, called the Bajnak by Ibn
Mohalhal, and described ae ' a people with beards and moue
tachios.' The Pechinegs were much dreaded by Constantine
Porphyrogenitus, in whose reign they were encamped on the
Dnieper and the Dniester, having been driven from their pre-
vious settlementa on the Volga and the Yaek, or Ural, by the
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I/,(*;. , I t r.4 f i.c. v,*,r.:ry war a stone h t shone in the k k, and
TI,. w , ~ , ~ ~ , ~ , mr , rhl yas a lamp. The Khirkix kept three
t ~ . . -rI ,;< , f , t.t,h yis~r; their standards were of a ,pen colour ;
 MAWARALNAHR. 53

and their civilization so far advanced that they were possessed

of a written character. So great was their veneration for
royalty, that no one under forty years of age was permitted to
sit down in the king's presence.
The nearest neighburs of the Khirkiz on the other side
were the Hazlakh, a nation of gamblers, who would stake
mother, wife, and daughter on the chance of a throw. Chastity
was by no means conspicuous among the female portion of the
community, whose attentions to strangers appear to have ex-
ceeded the most extravagant eccentricities of hospitality. I t is
suggested by Colonel Yule that Ibn Mohalhal's IIazlakh were
probably identical with the Kharlikhs, a potent tribe dwelling
to the north of Ferghnnl, or Khokan. Then he crossed the
frontiers of the valiant Khathlakh, who married their own
sisters, and consigned adulterers to the flames. The wife waa
endowed with the entire property of her husband, who had,
besides, to win her by one year's servitude to her father.
Neither the king nor widows could venture upon matrimony.
The usage of blood money prevailed among them, and miti-
gnted feelings of vindictiveness.
The Khatiyan--doubtless the people of Khotan-are next
described, whose refinement was so great that they could eat
none but cooked ment. They had no king and were a law
unto the,msclves. Dyed garments were repulsive to their
taste. They had musk, and bczoar, and a stone that cured
enuke bitcs.
The last tribe before reaching the confines of China were the
I3ahi (the Bai, dwelling between Aksu and Kucha), whose
country is called by Jfarco Polo ' the province of Pein,' a fer-
tilo region abounding with palms and vines. The capital city
was large and populous, and its citizen8 were of many creeds,
Jews, Christians, Mohammedans, Hindoos, and Magians.
Indigo was successfully cultivated, but the rnrest objects werc a
54 CENTRAL ASIA.

green stone that was good for weak eyea, and a red stone that
acted beneficially upon the spleen. A t the preeent day the
sheep farms and felt manufactures of this district are renowned
throughout Eastern Toorkestan.
Quite at the commencement of the 9th century the Khalif
001 Mamoun, happening to be at Merv, was favourably im-
premed with the character and abilities of Ahmed, the son of
Saman, a descendant of the Sassanian usurper Bahrrram-Chou-
been, who unsuccessfully disputed the throne with Khosrm Pur-
veez. Ahmed had four sons, to each of whom was confided a
government. The eldest, named Nasr or Nusser, as Governor of
Mawaralnahr, resided at Samarkand, and set his younger brother
Ismael over Bokhara. Ismael was of a restless and ambitious
character, and enlarged his province by the annexation of
Khwarezm. A serious quarrel, however, broke out between the
two brothera, which ended in a pitched battle, and the defeat of
the eldest. Ismael on this occasion exhibited prniseworthy mag-
nanimity and restored Nusser to his former dignity. After this
a perfect understanding existed between them, and on the death
of Nusaer, Ismael united the whole of Mawaralnahr beneath his
sway, and founded the dynasty of the Samanides. Fixing the
seat of his government at Bokhara, he captured IIerat and sub-
dued Khorasean, and established a reputation for justice as well
aa for military and administrative genius.
Of Ismael's descendants there is little to be ~aid:~revious
to the reign of Abdool Kassim Noah, or Ameer Noah II., who
was driren from his territory by Bogra Khan, the ruler of
Khokan, Knshgar, and Khotan. On the death of his enemy
Noah returned to Bokhara, and was upheld by the prowess of
Sebektegeen, father of Mahmoud of Ghuznee. The latter,
indeed, rendered such essential service to the feeble Chief of
Mawaralnahr that he was appointed Governor of Khorassan.
Noah's son Munsoor wati deprived of his throne and his
 MAWARALNAHR. 55

eyesight by a conspiracy of the nobles, who invested his brother

Abdool-Malek with the insignia of royalty. The usurper,
grown arrogant through success, next sought to dispossess
Mahmoud of his province of Khorassan, but was defeated in
battle by that warlike prince and compelled to return with dis-
grace to Bokhara, which was shortly afterwards captured by
the son of Bogra Khan, of Toorkestan, who carried off Abdool-
Malek into captivity. The last of the Samanides was Ismael,
another son of Noah II., who led a wandering life until he was
slain A. D. 1004 by an officer of Mahmoud, who put the mur-
derer to death, lest his enemies might accuse him of having
connived at the murder of a prince from whose family he
had received such important favours.
The weak Samanian dynasty was succeeded by the Ghuz-
neevidea. The first sovereign of Ghuznee was a Bokharese
noble, indifferently named Abestagee or Aleptekeen, who ob-
tained the government of Khorassan, but was afterwards com-
pelled to seek his fortunes on the other side of the Haznreh
Mountains. Establishing himself at Ghuznee with a band of
six or seven hundred followers, he founded an independent
State, which he bequeathed to his son Isaak, whose debauch-
eries terminated his life at an early date. The choice of the
nobles then fell upon one Sabaktagee or Sebektegeen, who
had distinguished himself aa a soldier of the body guard,
and was thence called Gholam-i-Shah, or the king's slave.
Of Toorkish origin, Sebektegeen soon gave evidence that
he had inherited at least the martial virtues of his race. Not
only did he over-run the Punjab, but it was through his puis-
sant support that Ameer Noah 11. was maintained on the
tottering throne of Mawaralnahr. The grateful Samanee be-
stowed on him, in return, the honourable title of Nusser-d-deen,
or the Victorious of the Faith, and upon hie son Mahmoud the
viceroyalty of Khoraesan. Sebektegeen was succeeded by hie
66 CEKTRAL ASIA.

son Ismail, whose pretensions were soon forced to yield to the

masterful ambition and capacity of his famous brother, the first
Mohammedan invader of Hindostan, and the remainder of whose
life was passed in a comfortable obscurity.
Mahmoud of Ghuznee commenced hie reign with the reduc-
tion of Moolton, but was hastily summoned back to Khorassan
to oppose an invasion of the Toorb under Eylek or Elij Khan,
ruler of Eashgar, reinforced by a contingent of 50,000 horse
from Khotan. The two armies encountered each other near
Balkh, A. u. 1007, and victory mas long doubtful until Mahmoud
charged in person into the thick of the m&lke, his elephant
seizing with his trunk Eylek Khan's standard-bearer and
flinging him aloft. A few yeare later Mahmoud bestowed
the province of Ehwarezm, with its chief city Urghunj, upon
his favourite general Altoon Tash.
On Mahmoud's death, A.D. 1028, his son Massaoud succeeded
to hh title but not to his power. I n this reign the descendants
of Seljook assumed a prominent position in the affairs of Central
Asia, and made themselves masters of Ehorasean, Balkh, and
Merou. Massaoud was deposed by his own soldiery, who raised
to the throne his brother Mohammed, whose eyes he had put
out, and a few years later he was murdered in prison by
Mohammed's son Ahmed, without, however, his father's privity
to the deed.
This foul action was speedily and terribly avenged. Mns-
saoud's son Madood, who was then at Balkh, collected an army,
crossed the mountains, and overthrew Mohammed's forces in
battle, that Prince and all his sons, with the exception of one,
being immediately afterwards put to death. The history of the
Ghuzneevide dynasty from this time to its extinction, A.D. 1184,
is characterized by Sir John Malcolm as an uninteresting and
disgusting record of petty wars, rebellions, and massacres.
I n the 10th and 11th centuries the Toorks-or Tatars, as they
 MAWARALNABR. 57

are commonly though erroneously called by European writers

-were divided into tribes, each paying a nominal obedience to
a n hereditary Chief, whose influence depended upon the degree
of support he received from the Reish Sooffeed, or Greybeards.
A t timea a son or nephew of the Chief, impatient of even the
semblance of control, would separate from the original tribe
and found a new Horde under his own name. The word Horde
seems to be identical with the Persian Oordoo, signifying ' a
camp,' but came to be applied to a congeries of sub-tribes
inhabiting a particular district. The Chief of the Eipchak
Toorkg or Kuzzaks, appears to have taken offence at the arro-
gance of one of his ablest officers, named Seljook, who conse-
quently withdrew to Samarkand and became a convert to the
faith of Islam. Seljook's eldest son, Milsail, was killed by an
arrow while yet in the flower of manhood, but not before he had
been taken into favour by Mahmoud of Ghuznee.
Mikail left two sons, whom the aged Seljook caused to be edu-
cated with great care in all the accomplishments considered be-
coming to a Toorkish Chief. Mahmoud of Ghuznee having ex-
pressed a desire to see these youths, whose fame had gone abroad
throughout Central A&, their uncle Israel proceeded tohis court
to make the preliminary arnmgemente. The highest marks of
distinction were showered upon the envoy, who waa placed in
the seat of honour by Xahmoud's side during the celebration of
public games got up for his entertainment. Anxious to obtain
some definite knowledge of the influence exercised by Seljook's
grandsons, the king asked their uncle how many horsemen they
could send to him if he needed their aid. Taking one of the
two arrows that he chanced to have with him, and laying it at
Mahmoud's feet, Israel replied that if it were despatched to the
head-quarters of hie tribe, a hundred thousand horsemen would
answer to the summons. But suppose further help were
needed? asked the king. Israel produced the second arrow
58 CENTRAL ASIA.

and said : ' This will bring 50,000 more to thy support.' And
should that not be enough P ' Then,' exclaimed the other,
placing his bow beside the arrows, ' send that also into the land
of the Toorks, and 200,000 horsemen will speed to thy help.'
Mahmoud, the tradition d d s , broke up the games in alarm, and
consigned Israel to a fortress for life, aa a hostage for the con-
duct of his kinsman.
Under his son Massaoud, however, the Seljookians crossed
the Oxus and established themselves in Khorassan, and in A. D.
1037 Toghrul Bey Mohammed, the eldest brother, assumed the
ensigns of royal power and fixed his court at Nishapoor. The
younger brother, Chegher Beg Daoud, likewise cut out a princi-
pality for himself, and seized upon Herat and Merv. On
Massaoud's death the two brothers wi:h their united forces
subdued Balkh and Khwarezm, and Toghrul Beg eventually
conquered Irak, captured Baghdad, and took to wife the
daughter of the Khalif-ool-Kaim, by whom he was appointed
Vicegerent and Vicar of tho Prophet, and Lord of all the
Mohammedans upon earth. He was at the same time presented
with seven dresses and seven slaves, to symbolize his supremacy
over the seven regions nominally subject to the Commander of
the Faithful. ' A veil of gold stuff, scented with musk, was
thrown over his head, on which two crowns were placed, one for
Arabia, the other for Persia ; while two swords were girt on his
loins to signify that he was ruler both of the East and of the
West.' The doughty old warrior, however, enjoyed his honours
but for a brief space, for he died at Rey, whither he had pro-
ceeded to consummate his marriage, at the age of seventy, A. D.
1063.
The second monarch of the Seljookian dynasty was the
renowned Alp Arslan Mohammed or the Great Lion, son of
Toghrul's brother Daoud or David. This great prince defeated
and took priaoner Rolllanus Diogenes, the valiant husband of the
 MAWARALNAHR. 59

Empress Eudocia. His death waa the result of an excess of

self-reliance. Having reduced a town on the Oxus, named
Berzem or Nerzem, he ordered the governor to be executed for
insolence of speech and demeanour. The latter drew a knife
from his boot and rushed at the monarch, who, in a loud voice,
bade the attendants to stand aside. Coolly fitting an arrow to
his bow, be discharged i t at the distance of only a few paces.
For once he missed his aim, and the next moment was mortally
wounded. The two thousand armed attendant8 instantly fled
from the scene, and the regicide would have escaped had not a
tent-pitcher outside knocked him down with his mallet.
Alp A.rs1an was buried at Merv, and the following sentence
was engraven upon his tomb : ' All you who have seen the
glory of Alp Arslan exalted to the hcavens, come to Nerv, and
IOU will behold it buried in the dust.' I t is mid that Alp
Aralan wtrs childishly proud of his title, and laboured to
assume a fancied semblance to the royal animal after whom he
was called. From the apex of his tiara to the end of his thick
bushy beard there was a length of four feet, which added to the
singularity of his personal appearance. So widely extended
was his sway that it is asserted that no fewer than twelve hun-
dred kings, princes, and sons of kings and princes, at times
stood before his throne..
His successor Malek Shah was fortunate in his MTuzeer, or
Prime Minister, the celebrated Niznm-001-Iloolkh. Th'is mon-
arch's dominions extended from Antioch to the furthest limita of
Khokan, and even Kashgnr was compelled to pay tribute. I t
is written that the boatmen on the Oxus once complained to
him that their services had been paid in drafts upon the treasury

General Abbott says that on asking for information respecting tbis prince,
wbose name he pronounced according to the English fashion, no one seemed
ever to have heard of him. He afterwards discovered that every one wan
more or lem familiar with the history of Ulp Urslaun.
60 CENTRAL ASIA.

at Antioch, but the Wuzeer explained that this was done merely
to exhibit the prince's glory and power, and the bills upon
Syria were paid in full by the treasury of Bokham. Another
tradition will have it that Malek Shah twelve times traversed
his vast territories from end to end ; but, considering the slow
rate of travelling in those days, it may be permissible to dis-
count this statement. IIis capital city was Ispahan, and
prayers for his health and happilies8 were daily offered up in
Jerusalem, Xeccn, Medina, Baghdad, Ispahnn, Rey, Bokhara,
Samarkand, Urghunj, and Kaahgar.
A seemil~glysiniple act of this powerful sovereign was pro-
ductive of disastrous conscquences in the future. The founda-
tion of the kingdom of Khwarezm, and the subsequent conquest
of Central Asia by Chinghiz Khan, may be traced to the
bestowal of the viceroyalty of that province upon an officer of
his household, nnmed Noshtegeen Qhirjah, whose duty it was
to pour water over the royal hands after each meal. Nosh-
tegeen's son, Kootb-ood-dcen Mohammed, renounced his allegi-
ance to the Scljookian princes, though he actcd on all occasions
as a faithful friend and ally. JIalek Shah left four sons, all of
whom reigncd in their turn, but the youngest, Sanjar, alone
attracts the attention of posterity, and that chiefly through his
misfortunes. IIe began, indced, by recovering I3okhara and
Samarkand, which his feeble brothers had suffered to be wrested
from them, but ho was signally defeatcd by Qour Khan, ruler
of Kam Katay, or Central Tatary, and forced to flee to
Termedh.
A worse disaster awaited him. IIe had allowed 40,000
Toorkomans fro111 Qhuz to settle in Khotl nnd the a(1jacent dis-
tricts, on their engaging to supply him annually with 24,000
eheep. The agent of his purveyor, however, demanding, one
year, more than the king's due, mas instantly put to death by
the barbariuns. The governor of Balkh, vainly attempting to
 MAWARALNAHR. 61

reduce them to obedience, likewise lost his life. Though

personally disposed to overlook t h e ~ eacts of violence, Sanjar
was forced by his nobles to take the field, but his army was
utterly routed and himself made prisoner. The Toorkomans
then pillaged Merv for three days, and tortured the inhabitants
to compel them to discover their hidden trensures. Sanjar re-
mained a captive in their hands for four years, when his rescue
wm effected and he escaped to Termetlh, whence he proceeded
to Merv. During his captivity, however, the country had been
reduced to misery and desolation. The nobles had sacrificed
every other considcration to the gratification of their 0-
pleasures and passions, and the aspect of the land was as though
a hurricane had swept over it. The spectacle of such wide-
spread wretchedness broke the heart of the aged monarch, who
died A. u. 1157, in his 73rd year.
More than once in the coursc of his troubled reign of 40
genrs, Sanjar had been engaged in hostilitics Atseea, son
of Kootb-ood-deen Mohammed, tributary king of Khwarezm.
Driven to rebellion by the arts and insolence of Snnjar's nobles,
Atseez had been dcfcatd in battle and driven from his terri-
tories, while his son was put to death and his government con-
ferred upon Sanjar's brother, Suliman Shnh. Ire soon return-
ed, however, and on his approach Suliman took to flight. Again
did Snnjar invade Khwarezm, and Atseez, besieged in his capital,
was compelled to sue for mercy from his suzerain. Pardoned
and restored to power, he again sought to establish his inde-
pendence. This time Sanjar commenced by the reduction of
IIazarasp, and thence advanced upon the capital. Conscious
of his inability to offer effectual resistance, Atseez sent valuable
presents to the king, and obtained tenns of peace, on condition
that he repaired in person to l:ie conqueror's camp on the banks
of the Jyhoon, and prostrated himself in token of subjection.
Only in part wm this condition fulfilled. Atseez proceeded,
62 CENTRAL ASIA.

indeed, to the royal camp, but refused to dismount from his

horse, and merely bent his head, whereupon Sanjar d e c k e d
himself satisfied and returned to Xerv. Subsequently Atseez
extended his sway eastwards as far as Otrar, and died A. D.
1156, but his career of conquest was pursued by his son, Ayeel
Aralan, to the south-west as well as to the east.
Ayeel Arslan's younger son, Sooltan Shah, usurped tho
throne of Khwarezm on his father's death, but his reign con-
sisted of one long contest with his elder brother, Sooltan M a -
ood-deen Takhesh, who succeeded to power A. D. 1193.
For the space of nearly forty years the Seljookian race had
shown unmistakable signs of exhaustion and decay. The last
of that dynasty wss Toghrul III., who fell in battle at Rhk, or
Rey, in a vain attempt to recover Irak from Takhesh, the ruler
of Khwarezm. I n a state of mad intoxication he rode at the
head of his army, shouting aloud a stanza from Firdousi, and
brandishing his iron mace. Making an idle blow he over-
balanced himself, and, striking his own horse on the fore leg,
came heavily to the ground, where he was speedily despatched
and his head cut off.
Thus terminated the rule of the descendants of Seljook,
after an existence of 158 years, and the subordinate branches
in Kerman and Anatolia also died out shortly afterwards. Takh-
esh Khan, the conqueror of Toghrul III., was himself defeated
not long afterwards on the banks of the Syhoon by the Khan
of Soghnak, and died A. u. 1200, while on the march against
Alamut, the chief seat of the, Ishmaelians, or Assassins, the
notorious sect, once so wildly feared, founded by Hassan Sou-
bah, or Sheikh-001-Gebel, commonly known to Europeans as
the Old Man of the Mountain.
Under Takhesh Khan's son, Kootb-ood-deen Mohnmmed,
the kingdom of Khwarezm experienced both extremes of for-
tune. In the beginning, Mobammed lost and recovered Kho-
 rasssn, and, following up his success, brought under subjection
several provinces of Persia. H e then made himself master of
Bokhara and Samarkand, and, routing the forces of Gourkhan,
Khan of Kara-Katay, or Central Tatary, took posseseion of
Otrar. Soon after his return to Khwarazm he was startled by
the intelligence that the Earakatayans had laid siege to Samar-
kand. Taking the field without loss of time, he forced the
enemy to raise the siege and give battle. While the contest
wae raging a terrible dust storm arose, and both armies falling
into inextricable confusion, broke up and fled.
His next exploit was leas ambiguous, and Ghuznee yielded
to his arms, on the death of Shahab-ood-deen, the Cfhourian.
His good fortune, however, now deserted him. While on
the march to Baghdad he received despatches from the
Governor of Otrar, informing him of the arrival of certain
persons who gave themselves out to be traders, but who we-
evidently spies of the Mongol Chief, Chinghiz Khan. I n reply,
Mohammed ordered the Governor to put the spies to death, but
one of the party escaped and reported the fate of his comrades
to Chinghiz Khan, who, immediately, deepatched an ambaesa-
dor to demand reparation for this atrocious outrage. In defiance
of the most elementary principles of international law, the hap-
less envoy was handed over to the executioner.
The Mongol leader was not of a temperament to allow such
an insult to paas unavenged, and instantly prepared for the in-
vasion of Mawaralnahr. Mohammed hurried back to avert the
overthrow of his kingdom, but on reaching Nishapoor gave
himself up for an entire month to drunkenness and debauchery.
A t last, rousing himself to action, he pushed on to Bokhara,
where he again i n d ~ ~ l ~ine dfatal excesses. Hearing that
Chinghiz Khan was marching upon Samarkaod in peraon,
while his eldest son Joujee was advancing through Toorkestan,
he resolved to encounter the less formidnble of hie enemies, and
6-E CENTRAL ASIA.

hnstened to meet the latter, but notwithstanding the over-

whelming superiority of his forces Mohammed waa unable to
do more than hold his ground. IIe thereupon retreated to
Samarkand, where he is said to have collected an army of
400,000 horsemen--evidently a monstrous exaggeration. In-
stead, however, of hurling this immense body of cavalry upon
the Mongols he broke it up into detachments to garrison his
frontier towns, and withdrew into Khorasssn, after instructing
his mother Toorkan Khatoon to convey his women and children
into Mazandernn. That strong-minded lady acted up to his in-
structions, after flinging the youngest of the children into the
Jyhoon.
From that momcnt the doomed prince seemed incapable of
forming or fulfilling any resolution. Instead of defending the
fords of the Jyhoon, and the paases of the Elburz mountains,
he wandered without fixed purpose hither and thither, closely
pursued by his incxornble foe, and wasting every respite in
hard drinking. His wives and children falling into the hands
of the Jiongols were cruelly ill-treated and murdered, and at
last Mohammed himself died of grief and shame on a small
inland in the Caspian. To such destitution had he been driven
that he was buried in the clothes he wore, because he left not
enough money to purchase a shroud. His eldest son, Rokken-
ood-deen, was captured in Firozekoh, in 1222, by Chinghiz
Khan, and put to death without pity. Another son of Moham-
med, nnmed Giyath-ood-deen, after fleeing from one place to
another, took refuge with Borah Hajet, a Kara-Khahyan officer
in the service of his unhappy father, and who had established
himself in Kerman. Regardless alike of the laws of hospitality
and the claims of gratitude, the cautious barbarian murdered
his defenceless guest.
Jelal-ood-deen, yet another eon of Mohammed, deserved a
better fate than dogged his wandering career. On his father's
 MAWABALNABR. 65

death he returned to Khwarezm, which had not then been

entered by the victorious Moghuls. Finding it impossible to
maintain himeelf in that country he fought his way to Ghuznee,
m d overthrew the enemy in two engagemente. H e was com-
pelled, however, to retreat before the vastly superior forces of
Chinghiz Khan, even to the banks of the Indus. At laet
brought to bay, he fought with desperate resolution until hie
little band was completely overpowered. Then, throwing off hia
amour, he swam his horse across the river, and, on gaining the
opposite side, coolly dismounted and laid his charger's accoutre-
ments together with his own clothes out in the sun to dry.
Chinghiz, who had been watching the young hero for some
time, is said to have uttered an exclamation of admiration, which
has more of the Persian than the Moghul ring :-' Like a lion,
invincible in the conflict of the field of battle ; like an alligator,
unterrified in the foaming stream ; no father could ever boast
of a son like this ! '
For the next two years Jelal-ood-deen plundered the country
lying to the eastward of the Indus, and then directed his steps
to Irak Ajem, taking to wife on the way the daughter of that
Borah Hajet who, a few years later, murdered his brother
Gyath-ood-deen. His next achievement was the defeat of an
army of 20,000 men sent against him by the Khalif 001 Nusser,
as though the Mohammedans did not need to be in perfect
union and harmony among themselves, in face of the terrible
foe who was sweeping their religion from off the face of the
earth.
From this time the fugitive prince of Khwarezm led a rest-
leas, unsettled life, gaining many victories, but unable to secure
a permanent position. Sustaining, in his turn, a severe defeat
at the hands of the Mongols, he retreated to Ispahan, whence
he again i m e d and invaded Georgia. After a while he began
to indulge too freely in wine, and on the barbarians pouring into
6
66 CENTRAL ASIA.

Mazanderan he fled from Eklat, leaving his wives, children, and

dependants to be lvthlessly messacred. As to his own end,
nothing certain is known. According to one account, Jelal-
ood-den was assassinated in Kohistan by a Koord, while he
~ l e p;t but others assert that he disguised himself as a Sooffee,
or dervish, and ao baffled further pursuit. I n either case,
nothing was heard of him after A. D. 1231, eleven yeam having
then elapsed since his father's flight to Khoras~anand the
downfall of the first Mohammedan kingdoms of Central Asia.
 THE MOGHULS. 67

C H A P T E R IV.
THE MOGHULS.

OBIGIN OF THE MOGHELB - CHINQHIZ KHAN -COXQEEST O F NORTHERN

CHmA-MASSACBE OF TATAE ENVOYS AT OTRAB-REDUCTION O F OTBAB-
DEFEAT AND FLIGHT OF MOHAMMED SHAH-CAPTUBE OF BOKHAU-
CAPTURE OF BAMABWD, TEBMEDH, BALKH, TALIKHAN, MEBV, NISHA-
POOR, BERAT, AND URQHUNJ-DEATH O F CHINQBIZ-HI5 YAEAK OR CODE
-BATOW KHAN'S IRRUPTION INTO EUROPE-THE MOOHUL EMPIBE--PAPAL
YIWIOX'S TO THE QBEAT KHAN-REPLY O F KUYOUK KHAN-MANGOU
KIUN'S REBUKE--MI88IONO F WILLIAM DE RUBBUQUIB--TATAB CUSTOMS
-THE MOGHUL COURT AT KAEAKORAM.

MOIIAMMEDAN writers-heedless of the Horatian warning

to future historians of the Trojan war to dash at once into their
subject, avoiding all allusion to ' the twin-egg '-make a point
of tracing the genealogies of heroes and nations back to the
Patriarch Noah. The Tatars and Moghuls are thus made to
derive their descent from Japhet, whose eldest son was named
Toork, and who w m also the father of Rouss, described as a
fierce savage and yet the original deviser of a system of judicial
inquiry. Alenjnh Khan, in the fourth generation fro111 Toork,
had two sons, born at a birth, afterwards known as Tatar and
Noghul, between whom, at his death, he equally divided his
extensive possessions.
Among the rare objects bequeathed to the latter was a stone
inscribed with one of the mysterious names of the Deity, and
called by the Arabs the ' Rainstone,' owing to the virtue it was
supposed to possess of compelling or dispersing the water-
clouds. The Persians, however, refer to it as the ' Aidstone,'
68 CENTRAL ASIA.

or ' Stone of Power,' and endow it with many other attributes.

The original haunts of the Moghula were the inhospitable
steppes lying to the north and north-weat of China, whence
issued the barbaric hordes with whom Attila, the Scourge of
God, ravaged Europe in the fifth century. A fierce untutored
race of wandering shepherda, of hideous aspect, they spread
themselves in the 13th century, like a devastating flood, not
only over Asia from the Sea of China to the Black Sea, but also
over Hungary, and threatened to overwhelm the whole civilized
world. ' From the remote shorea of Eastern his '--e~ysMr
Murray in the Introductory Essay to his edition of Marco Polo
-' westward, as far as the Rhine, extends a vnst plain, which,
during the whole period of ancient history, presented an aspect
of the deepest barbarism. The population had nowhere ad-
vanced beyond the pastoral state, whose occupations they com-
bined with the more favourite ones of war and plunder. Such
enterprism were greatly facilitated by the moveable nature of
their property, which rendered i t easy to assemble in large
bodies, and march to the remotest regions. They were tempted,
moreover, by the view of rich and civilized kingdoms, extending
in a continuous belt along the whole southern border of both
cont,inents. Hence, in the earliest times, arose a mighty and
incessant impulse; so that, from the heart of the north, there
issued in successive swarms, not armies, but whole nations;
with wives, children, herds and flocks, cutting their way with
the sword into fairer and more fruitful lands. The shepherds of
Scythia seated themselves on the greatest thrones of the Eaet.'
Although these migratory multitudes consisted chiefly of
BLoghuls, or Mongols, they are best known to Europeans by the
name of Tatars, partly because the latter formed the vanguard
of the host that overran Hungary in the 13th century, and
partly because of the similarity of their name to the already
familar Tartarus. For the aike of convenience, therefore,-
 TEIB MOQHULS. 69

and notwithstanding the inaccuracy of the term,-the more

common appellation will be frequently adopted in thie narrative,
in speaking of the achievemente of Chinghie Khan, the great
leader of the Moghuls.
The real name of this remarkable man waa Temucheen, or
Temugeen. He was born on the banks of the Onon, in the
beginning of the second half of the 12th century. At the death
of hie father he was only thirteen yeare of age, and had to pro-
vide for four younger brothers. This would have been no
difficult task had not the 30,000 families who had recognized the
chieftainship of his father, refused to pay him the tithes due to
a Khan. His first attempt to coerce his refractory wesals ter-
minated in a drawn battle, and Temugeen found himself under
the necessity of suing for hospitality at the Court of Ouang
Khan, ruler of the Keraitea
This prince ie supposed by certain oriental echolam to have
been the original of Preater John, about whom so much nonsense
wm written by the missionaries and religious scribes of those
b y e . According to John de Plano Carpini, as rendered in
htley's collection, Chinghiz was defeated by Prester John,
King of Greater India, by means of hollow images made
of copper and filled with fire. 'These were set on Horses
and a Man behind each, who with a Pair of Bellows blew
Fire upon the Enemy ; which burnt them, and raised a
great Smoke.' The credulous Franciscan, however, seems to
have been addicted to ' Travellers' Tales,' for he relates on the
authority of certain Russian priesta, that when Chinghiz and hie
victorious army were returning from India ' through the
Desarte, they met with a People whose Men were shaped like
Doge. These Monsters on the Approach of the Mongols ran
into a River, and then rolling themselves on the Ground, the
Dust and Water became frozen together (it being Winter) and
formed a Kind of Amour, P m f against the Sworda and
70 CENTRAL ASIA.

Arrows of their Enemies : whom they fell upon Tooth and

Nail, and thue drove them out of their Countrey.'
It is more certain that the youthful Temugeen obtained
favour in the eyes of the Prince of the Keraites, whose capital
city was Karakoram, and commanded his forces in several suc-
ce~sfulengagements. His good fortune naturally raised him
up some powerful enemies, and he was again forced to seek safety
in flight. I t was not long, however, before he found himself at
the head of a band of trusty followers, whose numbers were con-
tinually recruited through the prospect of plunder. As soon ns
he judged hie means adequate to his purpose, Temugeen invaded
and subdued the country of the Keraites, and the skull of
Ouang Khan, enchased in silver, became one of his drinking
cups. At length he was enabled to overthrow the collected
forces of his enemies, and to inflict a horrible vengeance. Har-
ing prepared seventy cauldrons of boiling water, he flung into
ench a Moghul Chief, and sold as slaves their women, children,
and aged parents. The young men of the conquered tribes he
incorporated into the ranks of his army, and never had reason to
rcgrct the confidence he placed in their martial and predatory
habits.
By the time he had attained his fortieth year Temugeen had
80 completely established his position, that he felt he could
venturo upon convoking a Koroultai or general Diet of the
3foghul tribes. At this meeting a naked devotee, who was be-
lieved to have ascended to heaven on a white horse, saluted the
conqueror by the title of Zingiz or Chinghiz Khan, which, in
the language of the bfoghuls, signified Very Great, or Greatest
Prince. The assembled Khans then accepted him as their
Khakhan or &an, and thus, A.D. 1206, the wandering ad-
venturer Temugeen became the sovereign of JIongolia.
The first, as also the last, enterprise of Chinghiz Khan was
directed against the kingdom of Tangut to the north-west of
 THE MOGHULS. 71

China, which he speedily brought under subjection. The

Uigurs prudently sent in their submission, as did also the
Kirghiz, who further presented their new suzerain with a
' Shungar,' a white bird with red eyes and bill. Having couso-
lidated his authority over the pastoral hordes roaming over the
steppes to the north and north-west of China, Chinghiz resolved
to carry his victorious arms into that ancient empire, of which
the Moghuls were still nominally vassal. A haughty answer
having been returned to his insolent demand for tribute in token
of obedience, Chinghiz let loose his fierce barbarians upon that
rich and effeminate people. After the storm and pillage of
ninety cities, he was rapidly marching upon Ehanbaleg or
Cambalu, the modern Pekin, or northern capital, when his
further advance was checked by overtures for peace too favour-
able to be disregarded. An enormous sum in gold and silver,
500 youths, 500 virgins, 3000 horses, and marriage with a
Princess of China, purchased for a time the withdrawal of the
Moghul hordes.
The weakeet of these inducements to forbearance was doubt-
less the honour of a matrimonial alliance with the Imperial family,
for a harem of 500 wives and concubines must have rendered
Chinghiz comparatively indifferent to considerations of that
kind. Each of his wives could boast of royal blood in her
veins, and five of them are reported to have been especially dear
to their uxorious lord. According to Abou'l Ghazee Khan's
translator and commentator, the Tatars as a people entertained
singularly loosc idcas on the subject of their conjugal relations.
I f they did uot marry their natural mothers it was simply, he
snys, becauw they had a distaste for old women. With regard
to their wives he adds, ' des qu'clles approcheut les quarante ( m ~
ils ne couchent plus nvec elles, et ne les gardent tout au plus que
comme des vieilles mknag&res,aux quellcs on jette un morceau de
pain pour avoir soin do l'ticonomie de la muison, et pour servir
72 CENTRAL ASIA.

les jeunee femmea qui peuvent venir occoper leur plaoe dans le
lit du maistre.'
At a later period Chinghiz commissioned two of his beat
generals to complete the work he had been tempted to abandon.
The 'reduction of Khanbeleg proved a tedious and laborious
operation. Timid in the field, the Chineae fought bravely be-
hind walls, and, when their ammunition was exhausted, dis-
charged ingots of gold and silver from their enginea. Reduced
by famine to the last extremity, they devoured the bodies of the
slain and perhaps of their own children, but still refused to
surrender until the Moghula drove a mine into the h a r t of the
city, which was then sacked and plundered, while the palace is
said to have burned for thirty days. I n the end, the Emperor
poisoned himaelf at Nankin, his southern capital, and the five
northern provinces were annexed to the Moghul Empire. A t
that time, and, indeed, until a much later period, Northern
China was called Kitai, from a people of the Manchu race, who
emigrated from the north-west towards the end of the 10th
century, and over-ran all China to the north of the Yellow
River. The domination of these conquerors lasted for nearly
two centuries, but the country continued to be known by their
name long after the decay of their power.
After the conquest of Ritai, or Cathay-as it came to be
called in the 13th century-Chinghiz W a n applied himself to
the pacification of his vast dominions, and enforced such perfect
security for life and property that Abou'l Ghazee Kan asserts
that ' if any one had wished to carry openly, in his hands, gold
or silver from one end of the empire to the other, he could have
done eo without the slightest risk.' Making due allowance for
the hyperbolical phraseology of an oriental historian, it is pro-
bably no exaggeration to say that order and tranquillity so for
prevailed that foreign traders were encouraged to enter his
territoriee. Certain Khivan merchants, it is related, exhibited
 THE MOGHULS. 73

their warea to the Khakhm, but asked such prepostem~mprices

that he grew enraged, and told them he understood the value
of their goods better than they imagined. Thereupon he
showed them m e articles of equally good quality which he
had purchased on far more reasonable terms, and to punish
their greed he confiscated all their property. The next batch
of traders prudently left it to the Khakhan to adjust the
pricea, and were rewarded for their apparent confidence in his
sense of justice by receiving double the worth of their mer-
chandise. This munificence became blazed abroad, and n brisk
retail commerce began to spring up under the Khakhan's pm-
tection.
A large caravan being about to set out for Khwarezm, Chin-
ghiz eent with them three ambamadors to Mohammed Shah, the
bearem of valuable presenta and complimentary messages. It
M) chanced that when this caravan reached Otmr, the governor

of the place was one Inallzik, whom the Sultan of Khwarezm,

his kinsman, had been pleased to d Gageer Khan. One of
the merchanta who had known this man previous to his acces-
sion to dignity, a d d r d him by his original mme, which so
enraged him that he threw the whole party into prison. The
governor further wrote to the Sultan and informed him that
certain persons had come to Otrar representing themselves to
be Arabs and merchants, but that he had reason to believe that
they were Noghul spies. I n reply Mohammed Shah, then on
hie march against Baghdad, hastily despatched instruction8
to Cfageer Khan to put them to death. These orders were
faithfully executed, except that one of the merchanta escaped
and reported the horrible butchery to Chinghiz.
Failing to obtain redreaa, the Khakhan declared war against
Mohammed Shah, and made extensive preparations for taking
the field. Two of his sons, Ougadai and Zagatai--or Okkadai
and Chagatai-were detailed with n large force against Otrar,
74 CENTRAL ASIA.

which was defended by a garrison of 60,000 men. The place

held out bravely for five months, when one of the Moham-
medan gene& with 10,000 men went over to the Tatars, by
whom they were brutally massacred as traitors. The Tatars,
however, did not hesitate to avail themselvea of the treachery
they professed to abhor, and had no scruple about entering the
town through the gate that had been left open for them.
Gageer Khan then retired into the citadel, whence he made
frequent sorties, and greatly harassed the besiegers. But
numbers at length prevailed, and the citadel was carried by
storm. After performing prodigies of valour the ill-fated com-
mander barricaded himself in his private apartments with two
devoted followers, and, when they were slain and his supply of
arrows exhausted, he still maintained a hopeless resistance by
hurling down upon his foes stones and missiles, handed to him
by his wife. I n the end he was overcome and thrown into
chains, until an order for hia execution arrived from the
Khakhan.
I n the mean while Chinghiz, deputing his eldest son Joujee,
or Zouzee, to make a detour through Toorkeatun, led the main
body of his forces in person against Samarkand. Deeming it
an easicr exploit to crush the son than the father, Mohammed
Shah marched in the first instance against Joujee, who opposed
his superior numbers with such desperate tenacity that the
darkness of night alone put an end to the conflict. Dismayed
by this terrible illustration of the nature of the danger he had
provoked, thc Sultan fell back upon Samarkand, whilc Joujee
with his gallant but shattered army rejoined-his father. The
united Tlrtar host then continued their march upon Samarkand,
without encountering any further opposition in the open
country.
The Sultan meanmhilo dispersed his 400,000 men among
the frontier towns, and withdrew to Khwarezm without striking
 THE MOOHULS. 75

another blow in defence of his kingdom. One of his first acte

on reaching his capital was, in a fit of drunkenness, to order
the execution of a Sheikh venerated by the common people, but
whom he suspected of an illicit intrigue with his mother. On
the following day, under an access of remorse, he sent a bowl
filled with gold and gems to another Sheikh, and prayed that
his crime might be forgiven, but hie offerings were rejected and
pardon refused.
After the capture of two or three smaller towns Chinghiz
Khan appeared under the walls of Bokhara, A. D. 1219, accom-
panied, says Gibbon, by ' a body of Chinese engineers skilled
in the mechanic arts, informed perhaps of the secret of gun-
powder, aud capable, under his discipline, of attacking a foreign
country with more vigour and success than they had defended
their own (sic).' A night sortie of the powerful garrison was
repulsed with such fearful slaughter that some 20,000 soldiers
withdrew from the city and took the road to Khwarezm. They
were overtaken, however, by the Tatar cavalry near tho banks
of the Jyhoon and cut to pieces.
The keys of Bokhara were then surrendered in token of sub-
mission, and Chinghiz rode his charger into the principal, or
Friday, Mosque. Being informed, in reply to his question if
this were the Sultan's palace, that it was the House of God, he
dismounted and ascended the pulpit, while the chief magistrates
and mollahs held his horse. Flinging the Koran on to the
pavement, he called aloud, ' The hay is cut ; give your horses
fodder ;' and straightway, with exultant shouts, the barbarians
spread themselves through the city, insulting and plundering
the terror-stricken citizens. Many of them fell to eating and
drinking in the mosque, wine and food being brought to them
by Sheikhs and mollnhs. Chinghiz himself repaired to the
open space in front of the Ark, or Palace, and explained to the
assembled townspeople that all this misery had been brought
upon them by their Sultan's atrocioue violation of the law of
nations. Learning shortly afterwarde that some of the Sultan's
soldiere were being ehaltered and concealed by the inhabitants,
he gave orden to eet fire to the town, which, being built chiefly
of wood, was soon burnt to the ground with the exception of
the spaoious stone etructure known as the Ark, or Government
House. Thirty thousand human beinge were put to the sword,
and the survivors sold as slavea. So complete was the work of
destruction that one of the few who escaped being asked to
describe what he had w i b d , contented himself with repeat-
ing a Peraian dietich :
Amedend n kendend n ankhtend
u kushtend u bwdend u reftend.
They came, destroyed, burnt,
Murdered, robbed, nnd went.
However, a little before hie death Chinghiz rebuilt the
town, but many yeam paeeed before Bokhara recovered any
portion of ita former wealth and importance. The miserable
fate of Mohammed Shah has been already described, as well as
the heroic conduct and misfortunes of his son Jelal-ood-deen,
and the wretched tale needs not to be repeated. It remains,
however, to be told how the strongly fortified cities of Samar-
kand and Urghunj were brought under the Tatar yoke. Ac-
cording to Abou'l Ghaeee Khan, the garrison of Samarkand
had been reinforced by an army of 100,000 men, commanded
by 30 generals, and rendered more formidable by an array of
elephants, an animal little known to the Tatars and therefore
much dreaded. A broad wet moat was dug round the town,
and every preparation made for a prolonged resistance. The
besieged, however, eeem to have been discouraged by the re-
pulsa of their first sortie, and, though they mcceaafully beat off
an assault that Zasted till nightfall, the generals fell out with
the chief Mufti and Kazi, who t,hereupon opened to the enemy
 THE MOOHULS. 77

the gate reaerved for festival occasions, of which they were

the official but untrustworthy CUB-& The entire garrison
ie said to have been massacred, with the exception of s thousand
men who contrived to eacape.
a Chinghia distributed 30,000 of the inhabitants among his
officers, and sent no small number into h b Chinese provinces
to lay out pleasure-grounde, while upon thoee who were suffered
to remain in their ruined homes wee impoeed an annual tribute
of 300,000 gold dinare. From Samarkand he himself proceeded
in a southerly direction against Termedh, which he wcked and
destroyed. I t is related that not one of the town's-folk waa
left alive with the exception of one old woman, who offered by
way of ransom a pearl of exceeding p a t value. Being pressed
to disclose her treasure, she confeesed that she had swallowed
it ; whereupon she wee ripped up alive and her truthfulness
made manifest. The bodies of the dead were then treated in a
similar manner, but not to the eame advantage.
Balkh, esteemed in the East as the oldest city in the world,
experienced the eame fate at Termedh. Some idea of its extent
and riches may poesibly be formed from the statement that it
contained 1200 large mosques, without including chapels, and
200 public baths for the use of foreign merchants and travellers
-though it hae been suggested that the more correct reading
would be 200 mosques and 1200 baths. Anxious to avert the
horrors of storm and pillage, the citizens at once offered to ca-
pitulate, but Chinghiz, dietrusting the sincerity of their sub-
miesion eo long as Sultan Mohammed Shah was yet alive, pre-
ferred to carry the place by force of a r m m n achievement of
no great difficulty. A horrible butchery ensued, and the ' Ta-
bernacle of Islam '-aa the pious town was called-wee razed to
the ground. I n the wordrr of the Persian poet, quoted by Major
Price, 'The noble city he laid as smooth as the palm of hir,
hand-its spacione and lofty etracturee he levelled in the duet.'
78 CENTRAL ASIA.

The reduction of Talikhan was a more serious operatian.

IIolding a position of great mtural strength, this comparatix-elp
m a l l town checked the advance of the Moghuls for seven
months, before it was taken by storm and its defenders put to
the sword. Anderab, situated near the foot of the Hazareh
Mountains, marked by its smoking ruins the victorious pro,pss
of the barbarians ; but at the siege of 13amian Chinghiz lost his
favourite grandson, the son of Chagatai, and scarce satiated his
fury by the total demolition of the town and the unpitying
daughter of its inhabitants, eo that not one survired. The
deaperata velour of Jelal-ood-deen, indeed, more than once
inflicted severe losses upon the Tatar hosts, but like a swarm of
devouring locusts they still swept on, regardless of the breaches
tom through their dense array.
The flourishing city of Merou or Mew, had at first opened
ita gates to Toulai, the fourth son of the Khakhan, but on his
departure set up the standard of revolt. The respite was brief,
the revenge unsparing. Retracing his steps, the Tatar Chief
again appeared before its walls, and in three weeks overpowered
all oppodtion. The amount of treasure and ~aluableeffects
that became the prize of the conquerors is described as almost
fabulous. The inhabitants being ordered to march out into the
plain were massacred in large bntches, but so vast was the
population thnt it was not until the close of the fourth day that
the last party went forth to their doom. The artisans, how-
ever, were separated from the rest of the multitude, and kept
alive to work for their conquerors. The slain hare been esti-
mated at 100,000, with the rcmnrk that this was the fourth
time that Merv had been desolated, and that on each occasion
upwards of 50,000 persons had been cut to pieces. These num-
bers are obviously exaggerated, though an authority cited by
Major Price declares that the number of those who perished
at the hands of Toulai's barbarians, ;amounted to a thousand
 THE MOGHULS. 79
thousand and three hundred thousand and a fraction.' From
Merv, Toulai turned to the north-west, and made himself master
of the prosperous trading t o m of Nishapoor, which he pillaged
and depopulated. Directing his course once more to the south-
ward, Toulai laid siege to Herat, whose governor made seven
brilliant sorties, but, being killed in the eighth, his troops fell
into disorder and the Tatars entered the town p&le-m&lewith
the fugitives. The garrison alone suffered death, the citizens
being pardoned and spared. The victorious general then hast-
ened to rejoin his father, who had been detained all this
time beneath the walls of Talikhan.
No sooner had Toulai withdrawn than the Heratees broke
out into open revolt, and murdered the garrison left within
their walls. Bitterly rebuking his son for not bearing in mind
the example of Merv, Chinghiz detailed one of his best gener-
als with 80,000 men, and with orders not to leave a soul alive.
The rebellious city was speedily reduced, and so faithfully did
the Tutar general execute the commission he had received, that,
o s the withdrawal of his host, only fifteen miserable beings
crept out of the ruins in which they had concealed themselves.
While Chinghiz and Toulai were thus engaged in the work
of bloodshed and desolation in the provinces of Khorassan,
Badakhshan, and what is now called Afghanistan, the three
eldcr sons of the Khakhan werc sinlilarly occupied in Khwarezm
and Persia. The siege of Urghunj, the capital of Khwurczm,
detuined the Tatars for seven months. Ignorant of their near
approach, the governor had suffered the citizens to leave their
flocks and herds in the open plain. Suddenly, the advanced
guard of the Tatars came in sight, when a force of 10,000 men
was sent out to protect the sheep and cattle. After some brisk
skirmishing the Tutars feigned a retreat and led their pursuers
into an ambuscade, from which scnrce a hundred escaped to tell
the tale of their discomfiture. Vexed with the delay, the
80 CENTBAL ASIA.

brothers, who in tuma commanded for s day, laid the blame of

failure one upon the other, until Chinghiz vested the wpreme
commaud in the hands of hie second eon Octai, or Okkadai.
Urghunj was shortly afterwards carried by storm, and i t is said
that 100,000 of the inhabitante were slaughtered, and aa many
more sold into slavery. I t ia also stated that the Tatars diverted
the waters of the Jyhoon fmm their natural channel, and turned
them against the walh of the town, which, being constructed of
mud and eand, crumbled away and opened a wide breach.
On the subjugation of Khwarezm the Tatar Chiefs carried
their arms beyond the Elburz mountains, and, dividing their
forces, defeated in succeesion the Alans, the Kipchaks, and the
Ooruss. Again effecting a junction amid the mountains of
Circassia, they returned to Bokhara, after making a circuit
round the north and west sides of the Caspian-a feat then
accomplished for the first time. Abou'l Ghazee's translator,
Bentinck, was, however, convinced that had Peter the Great
lived a Little longer, he would have undertaken and executed
an enterprise so full of glory ; and, further, that without some
such military expedition there was little chance of obtaining an
accurate knowledge of the eastern shores of that sea, as it was
impossible for private individuals to visit the different Tatar
hordes without wilfully exposing themselves to great danger.
Chinghiz also returned to Bokhara, then beginning to rise
anew out of its ruins, but was allowed brief space to indulge
in repose. The people of Tangut, his first conquest, took heart
to rebel against his authority and to reassert their independence.
The Khakhan made immediate preparations for their complete
subjugation, but was overtaken by death, A.D. 1227, in the
65th year of his age. -
His eldeat son Joujee having died a short time previously,
Chinghiz appointed Oktai hie successor, but charged his so-
to conceal hie death until they had su~preesedthe Tangut
 THE MOOHULS. 81

rebellion. The campaign was carried out in the spirit of the

deceased hero. Thousands were slain, thousnnds were sold into
captivity, several towns were levelled with the ground, and the
country generally was h i d waste. I t is reported that the dying
monarch summoned the three surviving sons by his chief wife
to his bed-side, nnd handing to them in turn a sheaf of arrows
desired them to break the bundle in twain. Each essayed his
utmost, but all failed. H e then bade them take out the arrows
separately, when no difficulty wae experienced in breaking
them.
Whether or not this ancient apologue was enacted on this
interesting occasion, the three sons lived together in perfect
harmony. Though nominally supreme, Oktai seldom adopted
any important line of action without previous consultation with
the prudent and sagacious Chagatai, whose personal sway
extended over JIawaralnahr, Kashgaria, Badakhshnn, Ghuznein,
and, in fact, as far as the Indus. This prince died in 1243, but
his dynasty retained at least the semblance of royal power for
upwards of a century, the lnst of the line being Kasan Sultan
Khan, who fell in battle against b e e r Kasagan, a descendant
of Oktai. By that time, however, tho title of Khnkhan was
but the shadow of Q name. Every tribal chief mas more or less
independent, and confusion and anarchy prevailed on all sides.
To Toulai, the fourth son, were assigned Persia nnd Khoras-
a n , but he died thrce years after his father, leaving three
illustrious sons-Mungou Khan, who succeeded to the dignity
of Khnkhan, or Khan of Khans, on the death of Oktai's son
Gapuk, or Kujuk Khan; Koublai Khan, who was Afangou's
riucccasor; nnd Houlakoo Khan, who destroyed the Khalifat,
and put down the sect of Ishmael, commonly culled the As-
sassins. Joujee, the eldest son of Chinghiz, had also a son,
Batou Khan, whose name was destined to strike terror not only
into China but into Europe.
6
82 CENTRAL ASIA.

Chinghiz Khan was not merely a barbarian conqueror-he

mas also a legislator. Not content with the work of destruction,
he was ambitious to raise up a durable structure on broad and
solid foundations. His religion was a pure deism, though both
Noghuls and Tatars made to themselves tribal imagea, while
many adopted the religion of their nearest neighbours, whether
Christians, Mussulmans, or Buddhists. Perfect toleration was
the natural fruit of this general indifferentism. Chinghiz
would have no titles of nobility. There should be but one
Khan or Khakhan, whose election rested with his lineal de-
scendants and the heads of tribes. Every Moghul was bound
from his birth to serve the State, and chiefly by military
wrvice, but on no account could a Moghul ever act in a menial
capacity. Capital punishment awaited murderers, adulterers,
perjurers, and horse and cattle stealers. Smaller thefts were
expiated by flogging, or by restitution to the extent of nine
times the value of the stolen article. Plurality of wives was
permitted, as well as concubinage, but the children of a concu-
bine were more lightly esteemed than those of a wife.
To allay the rnncour of family feuds Chinghiz devised, or
confirmed, a pract>ice eminently calculated to appeal to the
imagination and feelings of n rude people. The deceased child
of one house might be contracted in marriage to the deceased
child of another house, and this posthumous union was held to
bind together the living as by a blood alliance. The contract
was burned to ashes, that its spirit might ascend in the smoke
to the homes of the departed.
The army was divided into tens, hundreds, thousands, tena
of thousands, and so forth, each under the command of an
officer \rho was made responsible for the discipline and equip-
ments of his men. The Moghul arms consistd of bows and
arrows, scjmitars, and iron maces, which they wielded with
~ i g o u and
r adroitness. I t .is said that Chinghiz took the field
 THE MOQHULS. 83

with upwards of 600,000 troops on entering into hostilities with

the ruler of Khwarezm.
I n time of peace, the Moghuls were inured by the labours
of the chase for the fatigue and privations of war. A t the
commencement of the c'old season the army would encircle an
immense plain, as large as an English colmty, and, gradually
closing up, would drive all the wild animals to a common
centre, when the, most adventurous youths would seek to dis-
tinguish themselves in single combat with the fiercest denizens
of the swamp and jmgle. The hunt would last through the
whole winter, und served as a splendid training for the hard-
ships of the ensuing campaign.
This Yasak or Code-the word signifying 'prohibition '-
remained in force until the conversion of the Tatars to Islam,
and was regarded by Tilnour with respect and admiration. I t
is true that it was mainly directed to raise up and maintain a
nation of warriors, and that the profession of arms was the
only pursuit deemed worthy of a lloghul, but similar notions
prevailed in Europe at that time, and western princes and
barons were quite as illiterate as the unlettered Khakhan of the
Tatars.
Of Oktai, it may be truly said that he walked in the foot-
steps of his father. His first warlike operations resulted in the
extinction of the Kin dynasty, and the consolidation of the Tatar
supremacy over all China to the north of the Great Kiang.
Flushed by his easy triumphs in the East, Olitai resolved, about
the year 1234, to bring the West likewise under his sway.
Placing his nephew Batou, son of his eldest brother Joujee, at
the head of half a million of savage warriors, he let him loose
upon Europe. IIis choice of a general wus justified by the
event. ' After a festival of forty days,' writes the historian of
the Roman Empire, ' Batou set forward on this great expedition ;
and such was the speed and ardour of his ixlnumerable squad-
84 CENTRAI, ASIA.

rons that in less than six yeare they had measured a line of
ninety degreee of longitude, a fourth part of the circumference
of the globe. The great rivers of Asia and Europe, the Volga
and Kama, the Don and Borysthenes, the Vistula and Danube,
they either swam with their horses, or pas& on the ice, or
traversed in leathern boats, which followed fhe camp, and
transported their waggons and artillery.'
While Batou in person overran Russia, and imposed tribute
on the conquered province-little prescient of the future--one
of his lieutenants entered Poland and burned Cracow to the
ground. Breslau was shortly afterwards reduced to ashes, and
on the 12th April, 1241, the Tatar host routed in battle a t
Lignitz, the united forces of the Poles, Moravians, and Silesians,
under Duke Henry of fiilesia, and filled nine sacks with the
ears of the slain. Following up his success, Batou next invaded
Hungary, defecltcd King Bela IV., sacked and destroyed Pesth,
and ravaged the entire country with fire and sword.
' The Latin world,' continues Gibbon, ' was darkened by
thie cloud of savage hostility : a Russian fugitive carried the
alnrm to Sweden ; nnd the remote nations of the Bnltic and the
ocenn trembled at tlie nppronch of thc Tartars, whom their fear
nnd ignorance were inclined to separate from the human species.
Sinco the invasion of the Arabs in the eighth century, Europe
had never been exposed to a similar calamity ; and if the dis-
ciples of Muhornet would have oppressed her religion and
liberty, it might be apprehended that the shepherds of Scythia
would extinguish her cities, her arts, and all the institutions of
civil society.' *
* In a vcry characteristic foot-note, a curious detail is given. 'In the year
1238, the inl~ubitants of Gothia (Swcden) and Frise were prevented, by their
fear of t l ~ cTartars, from sending, ns usual, their ships to t l ~ eherring fisllery
on the coast of England; and, as there mas no exportation, forty or fifty of
these fish were sold for a shilling. It i whimsical enough that the orders of
 THE MOOHULB. 85

I n the h o p of averting the impending calamity, Pope

Qregory proclaimed a crusade against the savage idolaters,
but as his relations with the Emperor Frederick 11.happened
just then to be the reverse of amicable, no joint action of the
European Powers could be brought about, and all Eastern
Europe lay at the mercy of Batou Khan. Suddenly, however,
the Tatar hordes retraced their steps from the Danube to the
Volga. ' The Great Khan Okkadai,' writes Colonel Yule,
' waa dead in the depths of Asia, and a courier had come to
recall the army from Europe.'
On the death of Oktai, or Okkadai, in 1241, the Supreme
Khan, or Khakhan, of the Moghuls, personally administered
the government of China, Cores, Mongolia, Manchuria, and
Tibet, his usual residence being at Karakoram, until Koublai
W a n removed it, A. D. 1260, to Khanbaleg, or Cambalu. IIis
empire, however, extended far beyond even these wide bounds,
and was divided into three Khanats, or lieutenancies.
The Khan of the House of Chagatai ruled over the middle
portion, comprising Zungaria, part of Eastern Toorkestan,
Trnn.soxiann, and Afghanistan, with his seat of government
sometimes at Almalik, on the Ili-perhaps near Old Kulja-
and sometimes a t Bokhara. To the Khan of tho nouse of
Toulai, or, rather, of Hoolnkoo, were assigned the provinces of
Persia, Georgia, Armenia, part of Asia Minor, Arabian Irak,
and Khorassnn, with Tabriz for their capital city. The north-
ern or Kipchnk empire fell to the Khan of the House of Joujee,
and embraced part of modern Siberia, Khwarezrn, the country
north of the Caucasus, and a large slice of Russia. The court
of this Khanat was held at Sarai on the Volga, ti town created
i n a desert waste by Batou, and not unknown to Eliglishmen in
the days of Chaucer :-
a Mogul Illion, who reigned on the borders of China, should have lowered the
price of herrings in !he E~iglishmarket.'
86 CENTRAL ASIA.

'At S a m , in the Londe of Tartarie,

Ther dwelt a King that werreied Russie,
Through which ther died many a doughty man :
This noble King was cleped Cambuscan.'
Although the unexpected withdrawal of Batou Khan relieved
the princes and peoples of Europe for a time from the mighty
dread that had fallen upon them, the danger seemed rather
deferred than altogether diverted. I t was felt that at any
moment the Tatar swarms might again spread over the western
world, and mark their course with universal desolation. Gre-
gory's euccessor, Pope Innocent IT., accordingly determined to
send envoys, whose soft words should turn away the wrath of
the Great Khan.
H e despatched, in fact, two missions. For the first he
selected three Frnnciscan Friars, of whom the one best known
to fame was named John de Plano Carpini. Starting from
Lyons on the 16th April, 1245, the three friars travelled
through Bohemia and Silesia to Kiew, at that time the capitol
of Russia, where they remained till the 4th February, 1246.
Shortly afterwards they fell in with the Tatar outposts, by
whom they were sent on to Batou through Southern Russia,
then cnlled Comania, or the country of the Comani, or Kipchaks,
of whom no traces are now discoverable in those parts. Pre-
vious to being ushered into the presence of that redoubtable
chief, they were compelled to pass between two fires of purificn-
tion, and then delivered the Pope's letter on bended knees.
Batou appears to have received his strange visitors graciously
enough, and to have forwarded them in safety to Earakoram,
which they reached on the 22nd July, fiftccn m o n t h after their
departure from Lyons.
The Papal letter was duly presented to the Great Khan,
Gayuk or Kuyuk. I t purported to be written by ' Innocent,
Bishop, Servant of the Servants of God, to the King and people
 THE MOGHULS. 87

of the Tatars,' who were therein bidden to withhold their

destroying hands, and to desist from further outrages, and
especially from the persecution of Christians, who, though
tolerated in Asia, had undergone terrible cruelties in Europe ;
not, indeed, bemuse of their religion, but simply as conquered
enemies. On the 13th November, 1216, the envoys took leave
of the Great Khan, and arrived at Kiew on the 8th June, 1247,
bearers of the following letter :-
' The strength of God,Euyuk Khan, the ruler of all men,
to the great Pope. You and all the Christian people who dwell
i n the Weat have sent by your messengers sure and certain
letters for the purpose of making peace with us. This we have
heard from them, and it ie contained in your letter. Therefore,
if you desire to have peace with ns, you pope, emperors, all
kings, all men powerful in cities, by no means delay to come to
us for the purpose of concluding peace, and you will hear our
answer and our will. The series of your letter contained that
we ought to be baptized, and to become Christians ; we briefly
reply that we do not understand why we ought to do so. h
to what is mentioned in your letters, that you wonder at the
slnughter of men, and chiefly of Christians, especially Hun-
garians, Poles, and Moravians, we shortly answer that this too
we do not understand. Nevertheless, lest we should seem to
p w it over in silence, we think proper to reply as follows. I t
iY because they have not obejed the precepts of God and of
Gengis Khan, and, holding bad counsel, have slain our mes-
sengers. (The Russians murdered some Tatar envoys before
the battle of Kalka.) Wherefore God has ordered them to be
destroyed, and has delivered them into our hands. But if God
had not done it, what could man have done to man? But you,
inhabitants of the West, believe that you only are Christians,
and despise othcrs ; but how do you know on whom H e may

-
choose to bcstow IIis favour? W e adore God,and,in IIis strength,
88 CENTRAL A S I A .

will overwhelm the whole earth from the East to the West.
n u t if we were not strengthened by God, what could we do?'
Very much in the snme spirit was the rebuke administered
by Mangou Khan to William de Rubruquis. ' The Mongols,'
observed the Khakhan, 'believe there is but one God, and have
an upright heart towards Him ::That as He hath given to the
hand many fingers, so He hath infused into the minds of men
various opinions. God hath given the Scriptures to you Chris-
tians, but you obaeme them not. You find i t not there that
one of you should revile another, or that for money a man ought
to deviate from justice. . . God hath given you Scriptures
and you keep them not, but H e hath given us Soothsayers,
whose injunctions we observe, and we live in peace (with one
another).'
Carpini, however, was by no m a n s favourably impressed
with the uprightness of heart claimed by the Tatar chief ns the
special attribute of his people. 'They ~peakefayre,' he ~ y s ,
' in the beginning, but in conclusion they sting like scorpions.
For crnftie they are, and full of falsehood, circumventing aIl
mcn whom they are able by their sleights.' Ncither was he
pleiisantly nffccted by their superstitious objection to personal
cleanliness. Their garments were neyer clennserl, and were
worn till they rotted off. When thunder was growling in the
distance it was peculiarly unlucky to wash any article what-
ever, rrs such an act was likely to dispel the rain-clouds-in
other words, water was too precious to be thrown away on
external applications.
Notwithstanding the bootless result of the Franciscan Xis-
ion, Pope Innocent, in 1247, despatched four Dominican
Friars-Ascelin, Simon de S t Quintin, Alexander, and Albert
-into Persia, but with even less success than had crowned his
first venture. At that time a very general belief pervaded
Europe that the Tatars, if not actually orthdox Christians,
 THE MOQHULS. 89
---

had a decided leaning towards that religion. It waa known

that they were not Mohammedans, neither could they be called
idolaters any more than the Christians themselves, who bowed
down and worshipped graven images as though they had never
heard of the Fourth Commandment. De Joinville relates that
while Louis IX. was detained at Nicosia in Cyprus, waiting for
a fair wind, envoys arrived from the Khan of the Tatars
soliciting his co-operation against the Khalif of Baghdad, and
avowing themselves of the same faith as the Franks. I t has
been suggested that the Tatars confounded the Christians with
the Bonzas of Tibet, and that the Franks in their turn took
their notion of Prester John from the Dalai Lama. 13e this as
i t may, the minted monarch lent a credulous ear to his visitors
from the far Eaat, and sent back a return mission consisting of
three Friars and two officers of his household.
A little later, or in the year 1253, Saint Louis despatched
William de ~ u b r u ~ u i s - a Heming, whose real name was
Ruysbroek-' of the order of the minorite friers, unto the East
parts of the worlde,' because a report had reached his ears that
Batou's son, ' the Lord Sartach,' had been converted to Chris-
tianity. The Friar, whose simple and picturesque narrative
may be read in inakluyt, and in Astlcy, started from Constan-
tinople with a little present for the Tatar chief, consisting of
' pleasant fruits, muscatel wine, and delicate bisket bread,' and
encountered many adventures on the road, but which, though
highly amusing, are foreign to the purport of this compilation.
Ho very soon discovered, however, that the idea of Tatnr
Christianity was altogether a delusion, which he largely
ascribed to the proneness of the Nestorian Christians to spin out
a most wonderful story from the merest trifle. When he was
about to return to Iihrope, a Mongol officer begged him not to
say that 'our master is a Christian : he is no Christian but a
Mongol; ' and he adds that these barbarians fancied that the
90 CENTRAL ASIA.

word Christian was simply the name of a tribe, or race. But

the general reader will turn most readily to the Friar's quaint
descriptions of the manners and customs of the Tntors.
' They have,' he says, ' in no place any settled citie to abide
in, neither knowe they of the celestiall citie to come. They
have divided all Scythia among themselves, which stretched
from the river Dnnubius even unto the rising of the sunne.
And every of their captaines, according to the great or small
number of his people, knoweth the bounds of his pastures, and
where he ought to feed his cnttel winter and summer, spring
and autumne. For in the winter they descend unto the warm
regions southward. And in the summer they ascend unto the
colde regions northward. I n winter when snow ljeth upon the
grounds they fecde their cattel upon pastures without water,
because they use snow instead of water.
' Their houses wherein they sleepe, they grounde upon a
round foundation of wickers artificnlly wrought and compacted
together : the roofe whereof consisteth (in like sorte) of wickers
meeting above into one little roundell, out of which roundell
ascendeth upward a necke like unto a chimney, which they
corer with white felte, and oftentimes they lay morter or white
earth upon the sayd felte, with the pow-der of bones, that it may
shine white. And sometimes nlso they cover it with blacke
felte. The sayd felte on the necke of their house they doe
garnish orer with beautiful1 varieties of pictures. Before the
doore, likenrise, they hang a felte curiously painted over. For
they spend all their coloured felte in painting vines, trees, birds
and hastes thereupon. The sayd houses they make so large that
they eoiitcine 30 foote in breadth. For measuri~igonce the
breadth between the wheele-ruts of one of their cartes, I found it
to be 20 feetc over; and when the house was upon the carte, it
strctchod over the mheclcs on each side five fecte at the least.
I told 22 oxen in one teame, drawing an house upon a cart,
 THE MOGHULS. 91

eleven in one order according to the breadth of the cart,, and

eleven more before them ;the axle-tree of the carte was of an huge
bignes like unto the mast of a ship. And a fellow stood in the
doore of the house, upon the fore-stall of the carte, driving forth
the oxen.
' Moreover, they make certaine four-square baskets of small
slender wickers as big as great chestes : and afterward, fiom
one side to another, they fiame an hollow lidde, or cover, of
such like wickers, and make a doore in the foreside thereof.
And then they cover the sayd chest or little house with black
felt rubbed over with tallow or sheep's milke to keep the raine
from soaking through, which they decke likewise with painting
or with feathers. And in such chests they put their whole
houshold stuiTe and treasure. Also the same chesta they do
atrongly binde upon their carta, which are drawen with camels,
to the end they may wade through rivers. Neither do they at
any time take down the sayd cheats from off their carts. When
they take down their dwelling-houses they turne the doores nl-
ways to the south : and next of all they place the carts laden
with their chests, here and there, within half a stone's cast of
the house! insomuch that the house standeth between two
ranke of carts, as it were between two wals. The matrons
make for themselves most beautiful a r t s , which I am not able
to describe unto your majestie but. by pictures onlie.
'Duke Baatu hath sixteen wives, every one of which hath
one great house besides other little houses, which they place be-
hind the great one, being as it were chambers for their maidens
to dwel in. '&%en they tnke their houses from off the cartes,
the principal wife placeth her court on the west frontier, and so
all tho rest in their order : so that the laat wife dwelleth upon
the east frontier: and one of the said ladies' courts is distant
from another about a stone's cast. Whereupon thecourt of one
rich 31oal or Tartar will appeare like unto a great village, vcry
92 CENTRAL ASIA.

few men abiding on the same. One woman will guide 20 or

30 cartesat once, for their countries are very plaine, and they
binde the cartes with camels or oxen one behind another. And
there sittea a wench (vnuliercula) in the foremost carte driving
the oxen, and a1 the residue follow on a like pace. When they
chance to come at any bad passage, they let them loose and
guide them over one by one: for they goe a slowe pace, as fast
as a lambe or an oxe can wake.'
Here follows a picture of a Tatar interior. 'When they
have taken down their houses from their cart8 and turned the
doors southward, they place the bed of the master of the house
at the north part thereof; the women's place is always on the
east, that is, on the left hand of the master of the house, when
sitting upon his bed with his face to the south, but the men's
place ia to the west, that is, to the right hand of the master.
Men, when they enter into the house, never hang their quivers
on the women's side. Over the moster's head there is an image
made of felt, which they call the master's brother, and another
over the head of the mistress, which is called her brother,
fastened to the wall, and a bow between both of them. There
is a little lean idol which is, as it were, the guardian of the
whole house. The mistress of the house places at the feet of her
bed, on the right hand, the skin of a kid stuffed with wool, and
near that a little image, looking towards the apartment of the
women. Next the door on the woman's side there is another
image, with a cow's udder, which i the guardian of the women
that milk the cattle, for this is the constant employment of their
women. On the other side of the door, next the men, is another
image, with the udder of a mare, for the guardian of those who
milk the mares.'
The chief drink of the Tatars was a fermented liquor made
from mares' milk, called by Rubruquie 'Cosmos,' by Jonas
Hanway ' Kumeese,' and by later writers ' Kumiz.' The
 THE MOQHULS. 93

Flemiah Friar found it somewhat pungent, and aays that ' i t

biteth a man's tongue like the wine of raspes when it is drunk.
After a man hath taken a draught thereof, it leaveth behind it
a taste like the taste of almon milke, and goeth downe very
pleasantly, intoxicating weake braines.' Another beverage is
named Caracosmos, or Black Cosmos, which was reserved for
the ' great lords,' and ia described aa 'like unto whay or white
must.' The lees were given to the servants and caused them
to ' sleepe exceedingly.' 'That which is thinne and cleare
their masters drinke ; and in very deed it is marveilous sweete
and holeaome liquor.' The Russian priests more truly than
wisely declared that cosmos was not a drink fit for Christians,
and consequently the Tatars declined to embrace a religion
that forbade indulgence in thcir favourite liquor. The women
i n winter time usually drank a mixture made by pouring hot
water upon curds kept in a bladder, the rbsult being a very
sour beverage.
Such as could afford it, loved to array themselves in silken
stuffs, cotton cloths, and gold brocade brought from Persia,
India, and Cathay, and in rich and costly skins procured from
Russia and the northern regions of Asia. The house inhabited
by Nangou Khan-for Okkadai, or Oktai, had set the example
of abandoning the nomad tent for a settled residence-was hung
with cloth of gold. ' I n tho midst waa a Fire made of Thorns,
IVormwood Roots of a great Size, and Ox-Dung. The Khan
sot on a Bed, and was clad with a Robe of spotted Fur, which
shined like a Seal Skin. H e was of middle Stature, flat-nosed,
and about 45 years old. His Wife, who was a Little pretty
Woman, sat by him.'
When in doubt as to what course to pursue, Mangou Khan
had recourse to divination by means of the shoulder-bones of
rams, and which seems to have been much on a par with our
modern vulgar practice of towing a coin in tho air and crying
94 CENTRAL ASIA.

Heads or Tails. The Khan, we are told, would call for three
bones, and, holding them in his hands, would inwardly formu-
late his dilemma. The bone5 were then taken away and put
into a fire, and when quite black were brought back to him.
I f one were cleft lengthwise, the sign was affirmative; if one
were cleft across, or if round pieces had flown off, the answer
was held to be negative ; but it is not stated how the response
was to be read should both these events occur.
Apparently under the impression that a benediction can do
no harm, if it does no good, Mangou Khan, when drinking,
allowed the Nestorian priests to wave incense towards his cup
and pronounce a blessing on its contents. The rumoured tolera-
tion and munificence of the Tatar chief drew to his court at
Earakoram adventurers from all parts of the world. Rubru-
quis particularly mentions a Norman Bishop, a French lady
from Netz with her Russian husband, several Hungarians,
Greeks, Russians, Georgians, and Armenians, and a goldsmith
from Paris, who had executed for the Khakhan a silver tree
supported by four lions of the same precious metal, and ejecting
four different kinds of liquor. There mas also n colony of
Germans, carried off as captives by Batou Khan, settled on the
Jaxartes, or Syr Darya, nnd employed as miners.
The gradual declirle of the Tatars from their original sim-
plicity, nnd their attainment to u. certain degree of barbaric
splendour, have been described by Gibbon with his usud felicity
of diction. ' On the banks of the Onon and Selinga, the royal
or gok(1ctz Ilortle exhibited the contrast of simplicity and great-
ness; of the roastcd sheep and mares' milk which composed
their banquets ; and of a distribution in one day of five hundred
waggons of gold and silrer. The ambassadors nnd princes of
Europc and Asia mere compciled to undertake this distant and
laborious pilgrimage ; and the life and reign of the great dukes
of Russia, the kings of Georgia and Armenia, the sultans of
 THE MOGHULS. 95

Iconium and the Emirs of Persia, were decided by the frown or

m i l e of the great Khan. The sons and grandsons of Zingis
had been accustomed to the pastoral life; but the village of
Caracorum (about 600 miles to the north-west of Pekin) was
gradually ennobled by their election and residence.
' A change of manners is implied in the removal of Octai
and Mangou from a tent to a house ; and their example was
imitated by the princes of their family and the great officers of
their empire. Instead of the boundless forest (?), the enclosure
of a park afforded the more indolent pleasures of the chnse :
their new habitations were decorated with painting and sculp-
ture; their superfluous treasures were cnst in fountains and
basins, and statues of massy silver; and the artists of China
and Parisvied with each other in the service of the great Khan.
C a m r u m contained two streets, the one of Chinese mechanics,
the other of Mohammedan traders ; and the places of religious
worship, one Nestorinn church, two moschs, and twelve temples
of various idols, may represent in some degree the number and
division of inhabitants. Yet a French missionary declares that
the town of St Denys, near Paris, was more considerable than
the Tatar capitol; and that the whole palace of Mangou was
scnrcely equal to a tenth part of that Benedictine Abbey.'
 96 CENTRAL ALIIA.

CHAPTER V.
THE TATARS.

KING HAITON I. OF ARMENIA-CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN MOQHUL AXD

CHBIBTIAN PRINCEO--LETTERSO F EDWABD 11. TO THE KlNQ O F THE
TATABS-LETTER FUOY PBESTER JOHN TO ALE-XIUS COMNENUS--VARIOUS
ACCOUNTE O F PB&STEB JOHN-NESTOBIUS-BEVIVAL O F MOIIAYYEDAN-
ISM-BKBTIiO F TIUOUB-HIS EARLY LIFE AND ADFENTUBEB-RAISED TO
THE THBONE--HIS CONQUESTB-SHEEAHB AND 800NEE8-THE TWELTE
IMAMS-DEFEAT O F BAYAZID-BETUBN O F TIMOUB TO BhMARKAXD.

Trl~ prevalent belief in Europe as to the Christianity of the

Tutars may hare been partly attributable to the letters addressed
to the King and Queen of Cyprus by the Canstable of Armenia,
who wrote from Saurequant, conjectured by Colonel Yule to be
a misprint for Snmrequant, or Samarkand. I n 1246, or there-
about, netoum or nayton I., King of Little Armenia, deeming
it prudent to place himself under the protection of the Great
Khan, deputed his brother Sempad, or Sinibnld, the constable
of his tiny kingdom, to congratulate Kuyuk Khan on his acces-
sion to the power and dignity of the ' Cham of Tatarie.' The
ambassador appears to have corresponded with their Cyprian
Majesties, and to have furnished thcm with information of a
novel as well as interesting character. Among other curious
matters he states that the Three Kings who made their offerings
to the Saviour in the manger came from Tanchat, or Tangut,
and carried back with them to their distant homes on the
borders of China the chicf articles of the Christian faith.
Some years later King Hayton repaired in person to the
court of Mangou Khan, successor to Kuyuk, -first of all
 b
-.

T E E TATARS.

visiting the 'camp of the Tatar General at Kars. Thence the

royal traveller proceeded through Armenia Proper and, travers-
ing the Derbend P w , at length arrived at Sarai on the Volga.
Here he made the acquaintance of Batou Khan and his son
Sartach, both of whom he declared to be Christians. Resuming
his journey on the 13thMay, 1254, he reached Karakoram in
the early part of September, and was welcomed with profuse
hospitality. On the 1st November the Armenian started on
his homeward journey, travelling in safety by way of Zungaria,
Otrar, Samarkand, Bokhara, Khoraesan, Mazanderan, and
Tabriz.
Towards the close of the 13th and in the beginning of the
14th century, diplomatic communications were more than once
opened between Christian Powers and the Moghul Khans of
Persia. The initiative seems to have been taken by the latter,
who, with the diminution of their martial spirit, had laid aside
their insolence of tone and manner, and were only solicitous to
obtain assistance h m the Franks in their wars with the Sultan
of Egypt. According to Colonel Yule, two of these supplicatory
letters are still preserved among the French archives. The
earlier ie from Argun Khan, and came in 1289. I t is written
in Uigur characters in the Mongol language, on a roll of cotton
paper six feet and a half long by ten inches wide. The seal is
thrice i m p r e d on the face of the letter in red. I t is five
inches and a half square, containing six characters : 'Seal of
the Minister of State, Pacificator of Nations.' The second
letter is from Khodabandah, otherwise called Oljaitu, and
written in 1305. The seal in thie caee contains the words:
'By a supreme decree the Seal of the Descendant of the
Emperor, charged to reduce to obedience the ten thousand
brbaroua nations.'
A duplicate was probably sent to Edward 11. of England,
whose reply, dated from Northampton, 16th October, 1307, will
7
 98 CENTRAL ASIA.

be found in Rymer's Fo3dera. I t is addreaaed ' Ad Regem

Tartarorum,' and begins, 'Excellentiasimo Principi, Domino
Dolgieto, Regi Tartarorum illustri.' After mentioning the
arrival of the Tatar envoys and the receipt of the lettera
intended for his royal father, who bad shortly before departed
t h t life, Edward acknowledges the friendly and affectionate
relations that had always existed between the ancestors of the
Tatar prince and hie own, and reciprocates the wish that they
may continue and grow still closer. H e further expresses his
great gratification on learning that the Khan had succeeded,
' Deo propitio,' in establishing peace 'ab ortu solis usque ad
confinia ultra mare,' and trusts that in a short time, 'mediante
Deo praesidio,' he also will be able to imppress all discord and
controversy, and introduce tranquillity and concord througho~~t
his dominions.
On the 30th November of the same year, Edward wrote a
second letter, ' Ad Imperatorem Tortarorum,' and this time ' de
Haereae Mahometan& extirpandL' Premising that it is the
duty of kings and princes to defend the believers in Christ, to
overthrow mischievous and perfidious pcoplm, and to destroy all
unbelievers and rebels against Christ, he goes on to say that
were it not for the great distance and becauee of the hindernnce
of hie own affairs, he would gladly apply himself 'ad tam
nephandre sects eradicationem'-which is described as the
' prophana wta et sordida Mahometi, circumqntlque pululans et
diffundens sua infecta germina.' The time for such action had
arrived, for the very books of these nefarious heretics pro-
pheeied that within a brief period their sect would cease and
be annihilated. The English monarch therefore urges the
Tatar prince to persevere in the good work he had begun, and
not to rest till he had wholly swept away that '=tam sordi-
dam.' And for hia own part he propoaea to eend some honour-
able, learned, and pious men, who shall convert the Tatara
 THE TATARS. 09

themselves to Christianity, and rouse them to wage war to the

bitter end, ' contra dehtabilem Mahometi sectam.'
The influence of the Chaldsean, or Nestorian, Christians
under the early Arab conquerors, and down to the conquest of
Baghdad by Hoolakoo Khan in the 13th century, is clearly set
forth in Layard's ' Nineveh.' Their missionaries had penetrated
into the very heart of the Moghul Empire, and boasted of mak-
ing converts of several Tatar Chiefs, notably of one whom they
stpled Preeter or Presbyter John. A very singular letter
addressed to Alexius Comnenus has been ascribed to this fabled
prince, but Mr Layard reasonably suspects that it was the
handiwork either of a Chaldsean missionary, or of some imagina-
tive ecclesiastic who had visited the East.
I t commences in this strain : ' Prester John, by the Grace
of God and of our Lord Jesus Christ, the king of kings, to
Alexius Comnenus, the Governor of Constantinople, health and
a happy end.' After inquiring if Alexius were acquainted with
the true faith, the writer extols his o m greatness and excel-
lence. He calls himself a 'devout Christian,' and declares that
he had made a vow to rescue with a great army 'the sepulchre
of our Lord ' from the infidels. ' Our magnificence,' he con-
tinuea, ' ruleth over the Three Indies, and our territories stretch
beyond the furthermost India, in which resteth the body of the
bleased Apostle Thomas.' ' Seventy-two provinces obey us, a
few of which are Christian provinces, and each hath its own
king. And all their kings are our tributaries. I n our terri-
tories are found elephants, dromedaries, and camels, and almost
every kind of beast that k under heaven. Our dominions flow
with milk and honey I n one portion of our teriitories no
poisonrc can harm ; in another grow all kinds of pepper; and
a third is EO .thick with groves that it reeembleth a forest, and
is full of serpent8 in every part. There is also a sandy sea
without water. Three days' journey from this eea, there are
100 CENTRAL ASIA.

mountains from which descend rivers of stones'-evidently,

alluding to glaciers and moraines. Beyond a certain river dwelt
the Ten Tribes, and also Salamanders. 'These worms,' it is
written, ' can only live in fire, and make a skin around them as
the silkworm.' Their cocoons were spun by ladies and woven
into cloth, which could only be cleansed in a bright fire.
3 5 I n war time the army was preceded by thirteen great
crosses of gold, ornamented with gems. On ordinary occasions
Prester John was content with a simple cross, and a vase filled
with gold pieces. Once a year he made a pilgrimage to the
tomb of the prophet Daniel in Babylon. His palace was fire-
proof, was built of ebony and shittim woods, and was full of
marvellous objects. His bed was made of sapphire, and he
possessed 'most beautiful wives,' but, unfortunately, their num-
ber iB not mentioned. Thirty thousand persons, exclusive of
casual guests, were fed daily at his charge, while he himself wns
served by seven kings, sixty-five dukes, and three hundred and
sixty-five counts. On his right hand there sat every day at
dinner twelve archbishops, and on his left twenty bishops, in
addition to the Patriarch of St Thomas, the Protopapas of Snl-
ma, and the Archiprotopapas of Susa. The abbots who
officiated in his private chapel were of the same number as the
days in the year. His butler was a primate and also a king :
his steward, an archbishop and a king; his chamberlain, a
bishop and a king ; his mareschal, an archimandrite and a king ;
and his head cook, an abbot and a king. ' But,' the veracious
writer modestly remarks, 'we assume an inferior rank, and a
more humble name, that we may prove our great humility.'
I n the Edinhtrrgh Ren'eto for January, 1872,it is pointed out
that the Preater John of William de Rubruquie was a different
person from the Prester John of Narco Polo-the one being
Kushlouk, the Naiman, and the other Ouang Khan, the Kerait,
both of them contemporariee of Chinghiz; while the genuine
 THE TATARS. 101

Presbyter was Gour Khan, the Kara Khitayan, who certainly

never professed Christianity, but whose name, softened to Your
Khan, was confounded by the Syrian priests with Juchanan, or
Johannes.
Describing the progress of the Nestorians under the Moghul
Empire, Gibbon remarks that they ' overleaped the limits which
had confined the ambition and curiosity both of the Greeks and
Persians. The missionaries of Balch and Samnrknnd pursued
without fear the footsteps of the roving Tatar, and insinunted
themselves into the camps and villages of Imaus and the banks
of the Selinga. They exposed a metaphysical creed to those
illiterate shepherds ; to thoee sanguinary warriors they recom-
mended humanity and repose. Yet a Khan, whose power they
vainly magnified, is said to hare received at their hands the
rites of baptism, and even of ordination; and the famous
Prester or Presbyter John has long amused the credulity of
Europe. The royal convert vim indulged in the use of a port-
able altar; but he despatched an embassy to the Patriarch to
inquire how, in the season of Lent, he should abstain from
animal food, and how he might celebrate the Eucharist in a
desert that produced neither corn nor wine.'
Colonel Yule explains the myth in his usual clear and
explicit manner. A Syrian Bishop of Gabnla who had bccn
despatched about the middle of the 12th century by the king
of Armcnia to Pope Eugene III., informed that Pontiff that in
the far East a Pu'estorian king and priest named John, who mas
descended from one of the Three Wise Men, had taken Ecbatana
from the king of Persia and was on the march to the deliver-
ance of Jerusalem, when his progress was stopped by the Tigris.
From this source sprang the ridiculous stories about Prester
John and his wide-spread dominions. I n reality this mythical
personage was simply the Headman of a pmtornl tribe of Nes-
torian Christians, whose pastures were a mountain-side. On
102 CENTRAL ASIA.

the overthrow of the Leao dynasty of China, early in the 12th

century, one of those fugitive princes eecaped to the Uigurs,
and with the aid of other western tribes made himself master of
Toorkestan. H e thereupon assumed the title of Gour Khan, or
Univereal Lord, and estabhhed the Buddhist religion in this
new Empire of Kara Khitai. His dynasty waa short-lived, for
his grandson was dethroned by llis son-in-law, the laat Khan of
the Christian Nairnnns who had fled to him for refugo. The
usurper adopted Buddhism, and was slain by Chinghiz Khan
amid the mountains of Badakhshan.
' Nestorius, a native of Germanicia and a monk of Antioch,
was recommended,' says Gibbon 'by the austerity of his life
and the eloquence of his sermons.' H e wielded, however, the
sword of persecution with such ferocity that he disgusted the
moderate and alarmed the timid. Theodosius appointed him
Patriarch of Constantinople. ' I n the Syrian echwl Nestorius
had been taught to abhor the confusion of the two naturea, and
nicely to discriminah the humanity of his masfcr Christ from
the divinity of the Lord Jesus. The Blessed Virgin he revered
as the mother of Christ, but his ears were offended with the
rash and recent title of Mother of God, which had been insen-
aibly adopted since the origin of the Arian controversy . . In
hia calmer moments Nestorius confeaaed that it (the title Broro~os,
Deipara) might be tolerated, or excused, by the union of the
two natures and the communication of their idwm : but he was
exasperated, by contradiction, to disclaim the worship of a new-
born, an infant Deity, to draw his inadequate similes from the
conjugal or civil partnerships of life, and to describe the man-
hood of Christ as the robe, the instrument, the tabernacle of his
Godhead.'
The violent opposition of Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria,
caused the outbreak of serious riots, and produced many scenes
ecandalous to the Church, and in the end Nestorius, condelllned
 THE TATARS. 103

by the First Council of Ephesus, abdicated his see, A. D. 435.

After enduring much subsequent persecution, he died in Egypt,
A. D. 451, but his heresy, though banbhed from the Roman
Empire, found support and encouragement in Persia, where hie
exiled adherents were welcomed as ' victims and enemies of the
t p n t '-Justinian.
' The ecclesiastical institutions of the Nestorian Christians,'
the historian continues, ' mere distinguished by a liberal prin-
ciple of reason, or at least of policy : the austerity of the cloistcr
was relaxed, and gradually forgotten; houses of charity were
endowed for the education of orphans and foundlings ; the law
of celibacy, so forcibly recommended to tho Greeks and Latins,
waa disregarded by the Persian clergy; and the number of
the elect was multiplied by the public and reiterated nuptials of
the priests, the bishops, and even the patriarch himself. To
this standard of natural and religious freedom, myriads of
fugitives resorted from all the provinces of the Eastern Em-
pire; the narrow bigotry of Justinian was punished by the
emigration of hie most industrious subjects ; they transported
into Persia the arts both of peace and war ; and those who de-
served the favour, were promoted in the service of a discerning
monarch ' (Nousheerwan).
Christianity had penetrated into Khorassan and Bactria at
a very early period, and in the sixth century a Metropolitan
see was established at Samarkand. I t was from Samarkand
that the Chaldacan Patriarch obtained his information regard-
ing the progress of the Northern Tatar hordes, and startled
the Khalif and hie courtiers by reading aloud in open divan a
letter addressed to him by the Archbishop of that distant see.
' A people numerous as the locust-cloud had b u n t from the
mountains between Thibet and Khotan, and were pouring down
upon the fertile plains of Ksshgar. They were commanded by
seven kings, each at the head of 70,000 horeemen. The war-
104 ClWt"I' ASIA.
-

riors were as swarthy aa Indiana. They used no water in their

ablutions ; nor did they cut their hair. the^ were most skilful
archen, and were content with simple and frugal fare. Their
borsea were fed upon meat.' This last statement, however, was
too much for the credulity of the audience, until one who had
travelled into foreign parts, averred, fmm his personal obeerva-
tions, that in Arabia both raw meat and fried fish were given
to horses.
'Cnder the Moghul Empire it was not an uncommon thing
for Tatar chiefs to take to themselves Christian wives, who
were permitted to bring up their children in their own faith, and
one of the numerous wive8 of Chinghiz himself is said to have
h e n a Xmtorinn heretic. I n the early part of the 14th cen-
tury, no fewer than twenty-five Archbishops recognized the
Patriarch of Babylon as the Head of the Enstern Church, and
those who were too remote to give a personal account of their
stewardship, sent in a written report every sixth year. As the
Netropolitan sees were placed at such distant points as Merv,
E e n t , Seistan, Balkh, Samarkand, Kesbgar, and Almnlik, and
as the Patriarch himself was at one time at Seleucia, nt another
at Ctesiphrrn, and at yet another at Baghdad, it is evident that
hia ~upcrvi.sionmust hare been mther nominal than real and
practical. For all that, Nosheim attests that ' to the lasting
honour of the Nestorinn sect, they, of all the Christian societies -
establibhed in the East, hare preserved thcmselres most free
from the numberless superstitions which hare found their way
into the Greek and Latin Churches.'
After the downfall of the Khalifat, the Chaldrcans, as they
have since been called, were cruelly persecuted by the Tatars,
greatly at the instigation of the Romnnist missionaries. Their
churches were utterly destroyed by Timour Lung, who put to
the sword, regnrdless of age or sex, all who were unable to
eecapo into the mountains of Koordistan. Sare only in that
 THE TATARS.

wild and barbarous region few traces of the Nestorinn churches

have s u r v i r d since the commencement of the 15th centyy,
-the modern Assyrians, or Chaldaeans, repudiating all connec-
tion with the Nestorian heresy.
According to I I r Layard, they deny the intermediate state
of purgatory, neither do they worship the Virgin Mary. The
Cross, indeed, is set up in their churches, and they sign them-
selves by the figure of faith, but this is to be understood merely
as a token of religious brotherhood. The doctrine of transub-
stantiation they reject altogether, and the practice of auricular
confession has fallen into desuetude. The clergy are divided
into eight grades, of which the five lower are permitted to
marry. One hundred and fifty-two days are set apart in every
year, on which abstinence from animal food is rigidly enjoined,
and the religious day, whether as regards fasts or festivals, is
measured from sunset to sunset. The Patriarch lives solely on
milk and vegetables, and can be chosen only from one family,
and his name is always Shumoun, or Simon.
A t different times, indeed, in the fourteenth century, Ro-
manist Friars succeeded in reaching China, or Cathay, after
traversing the deserts and oases of Central Asia, but it was
with fedr and trembling ; and in 1339, William of Modena, a
merchant, died for the faith that was in him, in company with
certain friars, at Almalik on the Ili. Shortly afterwards
both missionnries and merchants disappeared from the scene.
Friars, and even bishops, were despatched from Avignon, but,
as Colonel Yule expresses it, 'they go forth into the dark-
ness and are heard of no more. . . Islam has recovered
its ground, and extended its grasp over Middle Asia, and
the Nestorian Christianity, which once prevailed there, is
rapidly vanishing, and leaving its traces only in some strange
parodies of church rituul, which are found twined into the
worship of Tibetan Lamas, like the cabin gildings and mir-
106 CENTRAL ASIA.

rora of a wrecked vessel adorning the hut of a Polj-nesian chief.'

The power and glory of the dynasty of Chmghiz passed
awny on the death of his grandson Koublai Khan, brother and
succcrsor to Jiangou Khan, and whose name is fnmiliar to all
readers of the quaint narrative of Marco Polo. Meanwhile a
Toorkoman horde had laid the foundation of the Ottoman Em-
pire, by thc reduction of Pruea and the subjugation cf Bithynia
to tho uhorcs of the Ilellespont. The faith of Islam had re-
vived tliroughout Mawaralnahr, and a legend tells how Togh-
louk Timour Khan, the ruler of Badnkhshan and Knshgar, was
brought to nee tlic errors of a dcisrn obscured by idolatry.
This prince, a lineal de~cendnntof Chagatai, succeeded to
thc Khanat of Rashgar in 1348, when he was only in his eight-
oenth year. One dny, while enjoying the pleasures of the
ellaw, he was much annoyed by the intrusion of a party of
rrtrangcrs, whom he eupposed to be Tajeeks, or members of an
almost aboriginal race, and accordingly ordered them to be
brought bcfore him bound hand and foot. Heaping upon the
prisoners much coarse and violent abuse, he assured thcm that
he valued a Tujcck no more than a dog. Sheikh Samoul-ood-
dccn, the chief man of the offending party, answered thnt he
and his companions were true believers from Kuttack, and by
no means to bo trcatod as unclean animals.
Struck by his bold spirit and bearing, Toghlouk ordered
him to be kcpt in close custody until his return from the hunt,
when he hcld milch earnest conference with the Sheikh, and
became convinced of the truth of the Mohammedan religion.
110 was not, however, sufficiently eecure of his position to avow
his conversion, and was constrained to content himllelf with
setting the strangers at liberty. Aftar a time the Sheikh was
gathered to his fathers, but not until, with his dying breath,
he had enjoined his son Rasheed-ood-deen to complcte the work
he had himself begun.
 THE TATARB. 107

Failing in every attempt to obtain a private audience,

Rasheed one morning ascended a mound immediately beneath
the prince's windows, and intoned his devotional exercises in so
loud a voice that he disturbed the royal slumbere. TIe was
accordingly seized and led before the Khan, to whom he
announced the mission he had received from his father, and
spoke with such earnest eloquence that all who heard him
resolved instantly to become followers of the prophet. One
alone held out and refused to change his religion, unless tho
Sheikh succeeded in throwing to the ground the most famous
wrestler in Kashgar. The Khan at first refused to suffer such
a test to be applied, until he was over-ruled by the Sheikh him-
self, who expressed his readiness to encounter the athlete. As
soon as these strange combatanta were placed face to face, the
Sheikh dealt his antagdnist a tremendous blow on the stomach,
and laid him breathless at his feet. Such an argument was
irresistible. The prostrate wrestler was the first to profess his
faith in Allah, and in Mohammed the prophet of Allah, and his
example was eagerly followed by the Khan and all the courtiers.
Thie Chief subseque~itlylaid claim to the whole of Alawural-
nahr, by virtue of his descent from Chagatai, and experienced
little di5culty in enforcing his pretensions. The governor of
the province, whose chief city was Kesh, fled to Khorasmn,
but hie nephew boldly repaired to the Khan's camp, and 60
thoroughly ingratiated himself in that prince's favour, that he
was appointed successor to his fugitive uncle. The nephew was
Timour Lung, commonly called Timour Bog, or Timour the
Tatar.
Fortunate in most things, Chagatai had the further good
fortune to possess a Prime Minister of remarkable ability ~ n d
great worth of character, on whom he bestowed his daughter in
marriage. Karnchar Nuyan--eo wae he called-belonged to
the tribe of Berlae, which he induced to settle in the immediate
108 CENTRAL ASIA.

neighbowhood of Kesh, a town situated about thirty mile8 to

the wluth of Samarkand. His grandeon Taragai, or Tourghai,
rcrigned the hereditary office of Commander-in-chief of the
forces of IIawaralnahr, and devoted himself to the duties of a
pantoral and patriarchal life. This wise and unambitious man
ir rcprescnted as being distinguished for his learning and
lihcrality, as wcll as for his great wealth in sheep and goats,
cattlo and ~crvants. His chief treasure, however, mas his
bcaufif111and virtuous wife, Tekina Khatoum, who, on the 8th
ii~)ril,1.336, mudo him the happy father of a man-child. This
cxc~cllcntcou~)lc,-whose residence was in a suburban villnge,
almont contiguous to Kcsh, appropriately named Shuhr-i-Subz,
or thc City of Verdure,--carried the infant to the pious Sheikh
Hl!cms-ood-deen, whom they found engnged, as usual, in tbe
study of tho Koran.
I t SO chanced that tho Skeikh was reading tho 67th chapter,
and had just reached the verse wherein it is asked, 'Are you
sure that IIe who dwelleth in nenven will not muse the earth
to swullow you u p ? And behold it ahnll shake (tamurou).'
Turning to his visitors the holy mun said, in prophetic tones,
' IVo hnre named your son Timour ;' but in after life this babe
enjoyed tho titles of Sulton (Lord), Kamran (successful), Ameer
(cornmnndor), Kootb-ood-deem (polestar of the faith), Timour
(it ctl~nllshnke), Kourkhan or Cfourgnn (son-in-law of a princo,
or simply Great Lord), Sahib Kcrnun (master of the grand con-
junctions).
When only seven years of age, the child was sent to school,
and mado such rapid progress that at the age of nine he was
taught tho duily service of the mosque, and llabitually read the
Olst clinpter, called the Sun. Timour asserts of himself that he
was barely twelve when he first became prescient of the great-
ness to which he was predestined, and that from that time he
bogan to assume a dignified and even haughty deportment. He
 TBE TATARS. 109

had scarce attained his eighteenth year when he was puffed up

with vanity and conceit, passing his t,ime on horseback and in
hunting, or in playing at chess-not unfrequently, however,
reading the Koran. Suddenly he was seized with a fit of re-
pentance, which caused him to renounce even the pastime of
chess as too absorbing, and to vow that he would never willingly
do injury to any living being. Indeed, so tender-heart,ed did
he become, that i t grieved him to tread upon an ant. This
violent reformation was naturally of brief duration, for on his
father presenting him in the following year with a separate
establishment, his youthful ambition was rekindled, and the
value of human life faded away.
Shortly afterwards he was sent by his father on a business
mission to Ameer Kourgan, a powerful chief, whose favour he
.
so completely gained, that the Ameer gave him to wife his
grand-daughter Aljax Tourkan Aga. This lady faithfully and
courageously accompanied her warlike lord in his most perilous
and toilsome expeditions, and cheerfully shared the dangers
and privations of the early part of his career. At that time
Mawaralnahr was held in thraldom by Ameer Kazan Sultan,
who had hitherto succeeded in suppressing every attempt to
throw off his heavy yoke. At last, however, he was defeated,
made prisoner, and subsequently put to death by Ameer
Kourgan, who finally overcame the opposit,ion of the other
chiefs, Timour himself intriguing against him-and assumed
absolute dominion over Mawaralnllhr.
I n the year 1358, Timour greatly dietinguished himself in
a brief campaign against the Heratees, and about this time was
presented by Sheikh Zyn Addeen Shady, with a cornelian
engraved with the Persian phraee, Raety va Rowty-Righteous-
neas and Salvation-which he caused to be aet ae a seal-ring, and
adopted as hie motto. The Ameer next resolved upon the con-
quest of Khwarezm, in which he wae for eome time thwarted
110 CENTRAL ASIA.

by the shameless intrigues of hie grandson-in-law. I n the end,

the chief0 of that country submitted themaelves, and Timour's
duplicity was rewarded with the ditltrict of Urghunj. Not
long afterwards the Ameer was murdered, and, availing them-
selves of the general confuaion, Timour and two other chiefs
divided Mawaralnahr between them. Their authority, however,
does not appear to have been generally recognized, and in 1361
no leader came forward to oppose the advance of the Jetes--or
unconverted Toorks, and not to be confounded with the Get=-
under the command of Toghlouk Timour Khan.
At this crisis, Timour's uncle, the nominal governor of
Kesh, sought safety in flight, and the more daring nephew was
deputed to offer presents and terms of accommodation to the
formidable Toghlouk. I n this difficult conjuncture, Timour
displayed ao much courage and sagacity, that he was appointed
governor of the province. But no sooner had the danger passed
away than his authority was disputed, rtnd he found himself
under the ntwessity of applying to Toghlouk for assistance.
The aid solicited was promptly afforded, but, charmed with the
beauty and fertility of the country, the Jetes showed no desire
to rcturn to their own less favoured lands. As this wns by no
means the end Timour had in view, he began to conspire ngainst
Toghlouk, and on the disco~eryof his treachery was forced to
flee towards Khwarezm. I n his flight he was joined by his
brother-in-law Arneer Iiosein, who had just been expelled from
Bndakhshan.
The two fugitives, finding themselves nt the head of seventy
followers whose circumstances were as desperate as their awn,
marched boldly against Urghunj, but were surrounded in the
desert by a body of one thousand Toorkomans. An Homeric
conflict ensued, and we are invited to believe that, after killing
or disabling nine hundred of their assailants, Timour, Hosein,
and seven of their companions were ~ermitted to withdrew
 THE TATARS. 111
- - ~~~~~ -

without further molestation. Worn out with fatigue and thirst,

they at length reached a well, and were regalod by a shepherd
with goat's flesh, over which they enjoyed themselves exceed-
ingly.
Their wanderings laatad for a whole month, at the end of
which they were captured by some roving Toorkomans, who
confined Timour and his wife for sixty-two days in a filthy
cow-house, s w a r m i ~ g with vermin. From this loathsome
duress, Timour's courage and patient endurance ultimately
wrought their deliverance, though his troubles were yet far
from being ended. For many months he roamed to and fro
over the wilderness, at one time gathering together adherents,
and at another reduced to the verge of starvation. His moral
nature, however, gained strength in the school of adversity,
and his long career of triumph was made easicr by his terrible
experiencca in the deserts of Khwarezrn and Ifawartllnahr. I n
touching language, he relates how he mas recognized by three
chiefs at the head of a party of seventy horsemen, who had
gone forth in search of him. ' n7hen their eyes fell upon me,'
he writes, ' they were overwhelmed with joy, and they alighted
from tlleir horses, and they came and bent their knees, and
they kissed my stirrup. I also came down from my horse, and
took each of them in my arms. And I put my turban on the
head of one chief, and my girdle, rich in jewels and wrought
with gold, I bound on the loins of another; and the third I
clothed in my own coat. And they wept, and I wept also : and
the hour of prayer had arrived, and we prayed with tranquil
minds. W e then mounted and came to my encampment, where
we remained for eome time : I assembled my principal people
and gave a feast, and, having killed a quantity of game, we had
abundance of meat, for which we returned thanks to God.'
For seven years Timour contended with varying fortune
-
agninst the Jetes and Toorkomans. I n Seistan he sustained a
112 CENTRAL ASIA.

terrible defeat, and was severely wounded in the arm and foot,
and lamed for life. From this misadventure he acquired the
posthumous epithet of Timour-' lene,' or ' lung '-the lame
Timour-which was first applied to him about the middle of
the 15th century, by his Syrian biographer Ahmed Ben Arab-
shah, who hated and maligned him as much as he was praised
and flattered by Sheref-ood-deen Mi, of Pezd.
By 1362 Timour had collected a body of 3000 horsemen,
with whom he defeated an army of 20,000 Jetes, and in the
following year, with 6000 men, routed 30,000 of the enemy,
commanded by Toghlouk's son Alyas Khwajeh. This incom-
petent prince succeeded hie futher, but could not prevent the
victorious Timour from entering Samarkand. Shortly after-
war& the Jetes again crossed the Syhoon or Syr, and only
escaped annihilation through the jealousy of Timour's brother-
in-law, Ameer Hosein. Between these two kinsmen there en-
sued a long and deadly struggle, which ended in the discom-
fiture and death of the latter.
All obstacles being now removed out of his path, Timour was
placed on the throne in the city of Balkh-A. D. 1369, and i11
the 34th year of his a g e b y four of the most revered Syuds,
and all the people held up their h a n b and prayed for his pro-
sperity. Thence he marched to Samarkmd, which he made
his capital, though for many yeam he affected to govern by the
title of Ameer, and as the vicegerent of Sultan Mohammed
Khan, the lineal descendant of Chagatai, but who was nothing
more than a submissive pageant.
The next few years were devoted by Timour to the con-
solidation of his authority, the establishment of order, the
organimtion of the army, and the extirpation of idolatry and
Christianity. Then returned the old d r e a m of conquest and
empire, veiled under the thin pretence of promoting the welfare
of foreign lande and their peoples. Accordingly, in 1378, he
 THE TATARJ. 113

over-ran Ehwarezm, sacked and destroyed Urghunj, and re-

moved the inhabitants to Eesh. He next subdued Khorassan
and Mazanderan, Azerbijan and Georgia-Candahar and Seis-
tan being soon afterwards added to hie dominions. I n 1387
Ispahan received the conqueror within its walls, but in t,he
night, some of his barbarians being slain i p a riot, a general
massacre ensued He thence proceeded to Shiraz, and sum-
moning to his presence the poet Hafiz, asked him how he dared
to dispose of his two finest cities, Samarkand and Bokhara,
which he had said, in a well-known couplet, he would give for
the mole on the cheek of his mistress. ' Can the gifts of Ha6e
ever impoverish Timour ? ' waa the happy reply, rewarded by
munificent largesses. Many anecdotes, indeed, are related of
Timour's occasional affability and kindliness of nature, which
prove no more than that he was not a ' perfect monster,' but at
times subject to capricious impulses that could be gratified
without pain to his fellow-men.
From Shiraz the path of victory led to the Persian Gulf, to
Ormuz and to Baghdad, and ' the whole course of the Tigris and
Euphrates, from the mouth to the sources of those rivers, was
reduced to his obedience.' Crossing the Syr Darya a t Kho-
jend, he p d the latter part of 1390 at Tashkend, where he was
attacked by a serious illness. H e was again in the field, how-
ever, at the commencement of 1391, and marched for thrm
weeks across the steppes to the north of the Aral. Sometime
in May he reached the weatern bank of the Paik or Ural river,
and was suddenly confronted by the countless horsemen of the
Kipchak hordes. The struggle was fierce and prot,racted, but
in the end the fortune of Timour turned the acale, and the
enemy broke and fled in every direction.
Delighted with the verdure of the soil, and the abundance
of game, Timour lingered on the banks of the Volga till the
month of July, when he once more set hiR face to the eastward,
8
 114 CENTRAL ASIA.

and entered Samarkand at the close of the year, bringing in his

train immense floch and herds of sheep, cattle, horses, and
camels, with troop of prisoners. But, though defeated, the
Kipchaks were by no means subdued. Barely three years
elapsed before Tokatmish, or Toktamisb, rushed down through
the Gates of Derbend in the hope of cutting off Tirnour's army
while entangled in the mountains of Georgia. This time the
Kipchnks were overthrown with still greater slaughter than in
the former campaign, and their prince fled to Siberia. All
31uscovp wm over-run to the banks of the Dnieper, and the in-
habitants of Moscow only deemed themselves safe when the
news arrived that the a s t e r n barbarians had recrossed the Cau-
casus. On a plain in Georgia the victorious army held high
festival, nor was it until 1396 that it again drnnk of the water8
of the Zarafsban.
'Superb mosques and palaces,' says 3fr Clements Markham,
were built at Samarkand and Kesh, gardens were laid out full
of fragrant flowers, marble was tmnsporttd from Azerbijan,
and porcelain to adorn the chambers from tho distant empire of
China.' The two years thus devoted to the a r t of peace were
followed by the subjugation of the Punjab and Hindostan, the
massacre of the inhabitants of Delhi, and the foundation of the
lloghul Empire in India.
On his return to Samarkand in 1399, Timour commenced the
erection of a magnificent mosque, whose vaulted roof was sue-
t i n e d by 480 columns of hewn stone. The doors were of b ~ s ,
while the walls were decorated with inscriptions in relief. A t
each of the four corners rose a lofty minaret, but the daily
spectacle of ninety Indian elephants, employed in transporting
stone from the quarries, may be supposed to have impressed his
subjects with greater awe and admiration than the architectural
wonders they were not yet qualified to appreciate.
Yeither did Timour himself indulge for more than a few
 THE TATARS. 115

months in repose from war and bloodshed. The first year of

the 15th century beheld him in the plains of Syria, and the
p-easion of Aleppo crowned one of the greatest victories he
had yet achieved. Inviting the doctors of the law to a personal
conference, Timour discussed with them various religious pro-
blems of a delicate nature, and insisted upon his own aversion
from war and love of clemency, while-in the words of Gibbon
-'the streets of Aleppo streamed with blood, and re-echoed
with the cries of mothers and children, with the shrieks of
violated virgins. The rich plunder that was abandoned to hie
soldiers might stimulate their avarice, but the cruelty was en-
forced by the peremptory command of producing an adequate
number of heads, which, according to his custom, were curiously
piled in columns and pyramids : the bloguls celebrated the feast
of victory, while the surviving Moslems passed the night in
tears and in chains.'
From Aleppo, Timour marched against Damascus, and nar-
rowly escaped a defeat by an army from Egypt. Damascue
fell into his hands from the foolish confidence placed in his
honour by the inhabitants, who fondly imagined that the
JIoghul would respect the truce demanded by himself. His
perfidy he sought to justify as caused by the duty of avenging
the death of IIosein, the grandson of Mohammed. ' A family
which had given holiourable burial to the head of nosein, and
a colony of artificers whom he sent to labour at Samarkand,
were alone reserved in the general massacre ; and, after a period
of seven centuries, Damascus was reduced to ashes, becauee a
Totar was moved by religious zeal to avenge the blood of an
Arab.' The massacre of the citizens of Damascus makes a pro-
minent figure in Marlow's bombaetic drama entitled ' Tambur-
l i n e the Greate, who, from the state of a Shepheard in Scythia,
by hie rare and wonderful conquests, became a most puissant
and mighty JIonrrrge.'
 Timour's ferocity seems in this instance to have been
aggravated by fanaticism. H e had espoused the traditions of
the Sheeahs, or Schismatics, who repudiate the first three suc-
wmors of JLohammed recognized by the Soonem, or orthodox
Alorilemin. The former are now confined to the Persians and a
considernble minority of the Mussulman population of India,
while the latter comprise the entire Nohammedon community,
with those two exceptions. The schism of the Shcealls arose in
t h i way. On the death of the Prophet, the rightful successor
would have been Abou Taleb's son Ali, the husband of his
daughter Fatima. Aboubekr's daughter, Ayestha, the Pro-
phet's widow, was, however, the deadly enemy of Ali, whose
lofty spirit and independent bearing were, besides, distasteful
to the Koreish, jcalous rivals of the tribe of Hashem to which
he belonged. Nohammed dying without naming a successor,
Aboubekr was chosen to rule in his stead. Two years later,
Aboubekr, on his death-bed, bequeathed hie power to Omar,
who fell by the hand of an assassin, but not before he had ex-
pressed his wish that the choice of a successor should be left to
tho six surviving ' Companions ' of the Prophet. These elected
Othman, Noharnmed'e secretary, and it was not until his death,
or twenty-four years after that of the Prophet, that Al'1 WBB
permitted to ascend the throne. The Sheeahs hold that hie
three predecessors were usurpers, and no true Persian will bear
the name of Aboubekr, Omar, or Othman.
l'he pathetic fate of Ali's sons Hassan and Hosein is familiar
to all renders of Gibbon, and to the present day the anniversary
of f1oseinJs death, on the plain of Kerbela, gives rise to the
most extravagant demonstrations of grief and fury. Ali, his
two sons, and Hosein's lineal descendants to the ninth genera-
tion, constitute the Twelve Imams, of whom two are still
specially revered by the Persians. These were Ali Reza, the
eighth Imam, sometimes called Morteza, or, The Approved,
 TIIE TATARS. 117

who died at Tous, A. D. 818, as some affirm, poisoned by the

orders of Haroun A1 Rasheed. H e was buried at Meshed, and
a magnificent tomb erected over hie remains, which is still
visited hy numerous pilgrims. Even the great Shah Abbas
once proceeded to Meshed on foot from Ispahan, in order to
offer up his devotions at this tomb, an achievement that can
only be appreciated by those who understand the antipathy of
every Oriental to any sort of pedestrian exercise. Even more
famous was the twelfth and last of the Imams, Abou'lknzem
Mohammed Mehdi, who mysteriously disappeared, A. D. 879,
and is believed to have been, like Enoch, translated to Paradise
without passing through the intermediate stage of dissolution.
Though originally separating upon a point of political rather
than doctrinal importance, the Sheeahs and Soonees still detest
each other with intense, implacable hatred. The former have
been driven by their comparative weakness to arrant hypocrisy,
and in the presence of their enemies, when in superior force, will
dissemble their sectarianism, and affect to bc orthodox. This
dissimulation, according to Dr TVolff, is enjoined as a duty, and
goes by the name of Takeeah. They are also less rigid thau
the Soonees in moral observances, and indulge in wine with
little reservation or disguise. I n prayer their arms hang down
by their sides, instead of being crossed on their breast. They
also wear green slippers, and a turban of a particular shape,
and practise various other petty distinctions, cleverly ridiculed
in lIoore's ' Twopenny Post Bag,' Letter TI. Though generally
known as Sheeahs, they prefer to be called Adnleeahs, or Fol-
lowers of Justice, but are regurdd by the Soonees as wors, even
than Christians, while the Toorkomans, in selling them ns slaves,
deny that they transgress the Koran, which prohibib true
Believers from reducing their brethren to servitude. .
Timour's crowning victory was now at hand. On tho 281h
July, 1402, he encountered with a far greater force, the im-
118 CENTRAL ASIA.

mense army of Sultan Bayazid, or Bajnzet, in the plains round

the city of Angora, and gained a complete victory. After dis-
playing, in vain, both military skill and personal valour, Bayazid
beheld the irremediable rout of his 400,000 trained warriors,
and was himeelf taken prisoner while fleeing from the fatal
field. Timour's grandeon, Neerza Mohammed Sooltnn, with a
chosen body of horee, followed up this brilliant succesa. Boursa
was pillaged and burnt to the ground, 'and the Mogul squad-
rons were only stopped by the waves of the Propontis.' Smyrna
was taken by Timour himeelf after a gallant resistance, and
' all that breathed were put to the sword.'
There seems no reaeon to doubt that the captive Sultan was
a t first treated with the conaideration due to his exalted rank
and pitiable reverse of fortune. It is more than probable that
he would even have been restored to power had he borne him-
self with lese arrogance, and abstained from idle attempts to
eacape from confinement. T o destroy all hope of immediate
deliverance, and to facilitate his conveyance to Samarkand,
Timour placed his royal captive on a Moghul cart fenced round
with iron bars, but the senee of humiliation and disnppointment
speedily released the unhappy Sultan from the shame and
misery of his situation. Within nine months after the over-
throw of hie empire at Angora, Bayazid was carried off by an
apoplectic stroke at Akshuhr-White Town-in Anatolia, and
his body was interred with royal honours in the Mausoleum
built by himself at Bourss.
His eldest son Soliman was confirmed in his government of
Roumania, while a patent in red ink bestowed upon Bayazid's
younger son, Mousa, the province of Anatolia. The Byzantine
emperor now avowed allegiance to the victorious Tatar, and
engaged to pay an annual tribute in token of subjection.
Finally, the Sultan of Egypt, trembling for his rich possessions, .
acknowledged the supremacy of the Noghul conqueror, aud
 THE TATARB. 119

sent him a peace-offering of nine ostriches and a giraffe. The

winter of 1403 was passed on the b a n h of the Araxes, but in
the following spring Timour set out on his return to Samarkand,
after an absence of four years and nine months. His sovereign
power now extended, at least in name, from the western bound-
ary of Chinn to the Mediterranean and the Hellespont, nnd
from the northernmost extremity of the Caspian Sea to the
Persian Gulf, Egypt and Hindostan being also his tributaries. ,
120 CENTRAL ASIA.

CHAPTER VI.

TIMOUR-LUNG.

MABBIAQE O F JEFIANQHEEB--EMBASSY O F CLSVIJO-KESH-PE8TIVITIEB dl'

BAMABRAN~TIMOUB'SMAGNIFICENCE-BARD DIUNKINO-DIIEBB O F TAR
KHANUM-BADAKHSlIm-BALAB RUBIES-LAPIB LAZULI-UMARKAN*
LAWS AXD BEOULATIONB-CL~VIJO'B JOUlWEY ACStOf3S TEE DEBYBT-
DEATH O P T I M O U B

ON his return from his work of destruction in Western

Asia, Timour entered Samarkand for the ninth time. Although
on each previous occasion he had come to his capital city laden
with the spoils of the conquered, never had he exhibited such
magnificence, marred, though it might be, by revolting coarse-
nem and brutality. And yet it could have been no easy matter
to surpass the barbaric splendour that had shed lustre on the
espousal of Timour's eldest son, Jehangheer, to the lovely
princess Khan Sadah, daughter of the Khnn of Khwarezm.
' The bride's outfit,' says Dr Wolff, ' consisted of rich crowns,
of golden thrones, of precious armlets and ear-rings, of girdles
of diamonds and pearls, of beds, tents, and palanquins. As a
welcome, the p n d e e s of the empire threw over the head of
the bride gold pieces and pearls, the air was filled with the
odour of ambra, the ground was covered with carpets and gold ;
throughout all the towns which they passed, the Sheikhs and
Cadis, the Imaums and llollahs, came out to meet them, and
all these festivities were doubled on their arrival in Snmarkand.
The tent in which the espousal took place, represented in its
interior the dome of hearen, covered with stars and sown
 TIMOUR-LUNG. 131

with diamonds. Shawls, cloths, and stuffs, were distributed

among the guests, and in the nuptial chamber the astronomers
placed the horoscope of the happy and lucky moment of the
espousal.' They failed, howerer, to foresee, or at least to pre-
dict, the early death of the bridegroom, Timour's most beloved
and favourite son.
Of the savage debauchery that testified to the power and
wealth of the Tatar monarch on the conclusion of his Western
campaigns, a picturesque dcscription is given in N r Narkham's
vigorous translation of the ' Narrative of the Enlbassy of Ruy
Gonzalez de Clavijo to the Court of Timour at Samarkand.'
The battle of Angora had been witnessed by two Spanish
knights, Pelayode Sotomayor and Fernando de Pnlaznelos,
ambassadors from Henry 111. of Castile, to the formidable
Timour. On their return they werc accompanicd by a Tatar
envoy, Mohammed A1 Kazi, charged to present the Spanish ,

monarch with some costly jewels, and-as a more delicate

attention-with several beautiful women, among whom were
two Christian ladies found in thc harem of the cuptive Bayazid,
the one, Angclina, daughter of Count John of EIungary, the
other n Greek lady named Naria.
On the 2211d May, 1103, Nohammcd Al Kazi sailed from
Seville for Constantinople, in company with Ruy Gox~zalczde
Clavijo, a knight of Madrid, Gomcz dc Salazar, alld Fray
Alonzo Paez de S:ruta Naria, a Nustcr of Theology. From
Europe the travellers entered A ~ i aat Trcbizond, whcncc they
proceeded by Tnbriz, Teheran, Damghan, and Niuhapoor, to
Xeshed, where they admired the tomb of the Imam Ali Reza,
which was at that time covered with silver gilt. They also
observed that posting-houses were established from Khorassan
to Samarkand, at some of which as many as two hundred horses
were kept, while couriers were travelling to and fro day and
night. I n the desert, large staging stations wero built and
112 CENTRAL ASIA.

amply stored with provisions. Ambassadors journeying to the

Tatar court were empowered to impress as many horses aa they
required, and could take them from the greatest in the land.
The old league was dirided by Timour into two, at each of
which was placed a emall pillar to mark the road and the
distance.
The melons grown in the well-watered plain between
Meshed and Merv are pronounced by those envoys the finest in
the world, but on this point their evidence is opposed to that of
Ibn Batuta, the famous t.raveller and theologian from Tangiers.
' They have in Khwarezm,' he say4 ' a melon to which none,
except that of Bokhara, can be compared : the nearest, to it is
that of Ispahan. The peel of this melon is green, the interior
red. I t is perfectly sweet, and rather hard. Ita most remark-
able property is that it m y be cut in oblong pieces and dried,
and then put into a case, like a fig, and carried to India or
China. Among dried fruita there is none superior to t h k '
But, however exquisite the flavour of the melons of Khoras-
san, the ambassadors were painfully struck with the large pro-
portion of women and children to men, and were informed that
Timour had deported upwards of a hundred thousand malev to
till the lands of Samorkand, together with sheep, cattle, and
asses beyond computation. The country through which they
paseed seemed generally well cultivated. The town of Anchoy
--evidently, Andkhooee-is described as being surrounded for
two leagues in every direction with gardens, vineyards, rural
houses, and canals of irrigation.
Three days from the Oxus, or Amou-lled by them Viadme
and Biamo-they came to Vaeq-their synonym for Balkh. The
town proper was girt with three walls of earth, the outermost of
which was thirty paces in thickness, but nevertheless breached
in many places. The space between this and the middle wall
was planted with cotton, while that between the middle and
 TIMOUB-LUNG. 123

the innermost wall was partly cultivated, partly built upon.

The next place was Termit, the modern Termedh, a very
large and populous city, unconfined by walls, and surrounded
by gardens and streame of water. The river Oxus, or Jyhoon,
was regarded by the Spaniards as 'one of the rivers which
flow from Paradise,' and that view is supported by the teati-
mony of Ibn Bntuta, and of a l l Muesulman writers of that age.
They might also boast that they were the first and the last Eu-
ropeans who have ever paeaed through the Eohluga, or Iron
Gate, and their description tallies very closely with that given
by Eouen Tsang, who traversed the defile about A. D. 630, on
his way from Samarkand to Balkh.
' The journey,' writes the Buddhist pilgrim, ' was rugged
and stony; the paths up the gorges ran along the verge of
precipices; no village wes met with, nor was there water, or
any green thing. After three days' journey among these
mountains in a south-west direction, the traveller entered the
pnsa called the Iron Gate. Thia is a gorge between two
mountains, which rise parallel to each other, right and left, to a
prodigious height. Nothing divides them but the path, which
is ext,remelynarrow and precipitous. The two mountains form
on either hand mighty walls of stone of an iron hue. The pass
is closed by folding gates clamped with iron, and to the gates
are attached a number of iron bells. From these circumstances,
and from the difficulty and strength of the pass, it has got the
name it bears.'
I n Clavijo's time the iron gates had been removed, and the
place had degenerated into a Cuetom House, at which mer-
chants from India paid duty upon their goode. The road
through this paas has long since been disused, cnravans now .
preferring to turn the flank of the Karategeen mountains and
travel by way of Karshee.
The level plain round Kesh, or Shuhr-i-Subx, contained
124 CENTRAL ASIA.

many villages with well-watered pastures, and was ' a very

beautiful, bright, well-peopled country,' full of corn-fields,
vineyards, cotton plantations, melon grounds, and groves of
fruit-trees. The town was surrounded by a wall of earth, with
a deep moat all round traversed by draw-bridges. I t boasted
of several mosques, and one superior to all the rest was being
erected over the remains of Timour's father, and of his eldest
son Jehangheer, who died in 1372, in the twentieth year of
his age. ' This mosque, with its chapels, was very rich and
beautifully ornamented in blue and gold, and within it there
was a large court with trees and ponds of water. I n this
mosque the lord gives twenty boiled sheep every day, for the
souls of his father and son, which lie buried here.'
There was also a magnificent palace in progress, which had
bcen commenced twenty years previously and was not yet
finished. I t was entered by a long gnllery with a lofty gate-
wny, and on each side were small open recesses, paved and lined
with glazed tiles arranged in pleasing patterns. These were
the rooms in which the attcndants waited. Over tho doorway
of the reception hall wils placed the figure of a lion and the
sun-the arms of Persia-whence C l a ~ j oinfers that this
portion of the building must have been erected previous to the
rcign of Tirnour, whose emblem was three noughts or circles,
two above and one below. Many of the chambers displayed
ornamental work in gold and blue and other colours, executed
with wonderful taste. Especially resplendent was the apart-
mcnt reserved for festal occasions and the society of his wives,
which looked out upon spacious pleasure-grounds shaded by
trees and cooled by fountains.
Immediately after their arrival at Samarkand the ambas-
sadors were conducted to the royal palace situated outside the
walls of the Tatar capital, and at once ushered into the presence
of the ' mighty hunter before the Lord.' 'Timour was seated
 TIMOUR-LUNG. 125

in a portal, in front of the entrance of a beautiful palace ; and

he was sitting on the ground. Before him there was a fountain,
which threw up the water very high, and in it there were some
red apples. The lord was seated crowlegged, on silken em-
broidered carpeh, amongst round pillows. H e was dressed in
a robe of silk, with a high hat on hie head, on.the top of which
there was a spinal ruby, with pearls and precious stones round it.'
AE soon as the ambassadors came within sight of the
monarch, they bent the knee and bowed low, with their arms
crossed on their breast. They then advanced a little, and
repeated this act of obeisance. Coming yet a little nearer, they
knelt down, and remained in that attitude until Timour
graciously bade them arise and approach without fear. His
eyesight was very bad, and 'the eyelids had fallen down
entirely.'
At table they were placed by the master of the ceremonies
below the an~bassadorfrom Cathay, but Timour called them to
a higher seat, and the slighted envoy was informed that 'the
lord had ordered that those who were ambaasadom from the
King of Spain, his son and friend, should sit above him; and
that he who was the ambassador from a thief and a bad man,
hie enemy, should sit below them.'
' Aa soon as these ambaeaadom, and many others who had
come from distant countries, were seated in order, they brought
much meat, boiled, roasted, and dreased in other ways, and
roasted horses ; and they placed these sheep and horses on very
large round pieces of stamped leather. When the lord callod
for meat, the people dragged it to him on these pieces of leather,
so great wss ita weight; and ss soon as it was within twenty
paces of him, the carver0 came, who cut it up, kneeling on the
leather. They cut it in pieces, and put the pieces in basins of
gold and silver, earthenware and glass, and porcelain, which is
very scarce and preciow. The most honourable piece was a
 126 CENTRAL ASIA.

haunch of the horse, with the loin, but without the leg, arid
thep placed p a r b of it in ten cups of gold and silver.
' They also cut up the haunchea of the sheep. They then
put pieces of the tripes of the horaes, about the size of a man's
fist, into the cups, and entire sheep's heads, and in this way
they made many dishes. When they had made sufficient, they
placed them in rows. Then some men came with soup, and
they sprinkled salt over it and put a little into each dish as
sauce; and they took some very thin cakes of corn, doubled
them four times, and plnced one over each cup or basin of
meat. As soon as this was done, the lleerzas and courtiers of
the lord took these basins, one holding each side, and one helping
behind (for a single man could not lift them), and placed them
before the lord and the ambassadors, and the knights, who were
there ; and the lord sent the ambassadors two basins from those
which were placed before him as a mark of favour. When this
food was taken awny, more was brought ; and it is the custom
to take this food which is given to them, to their lodgings, and
if they do not do so, it is taken as an affront; and so much of
this food was brought that it was quite wonderful. . . . . . .
' When the roast and boiled meats were done with, they
brought meats dressed in vurious other nTuys,and balls of forced
meat; and after that there came fruit, melons, grapes, and
nectarines ; and they gave them drink out of silver and golden
jugs, particularly sugar and cream, a pleasant beverage which
thep make in summer time.'
Timour had several palaces and gardens within an easy
distance of Samarkand, and he entertained the 8pnnish ambas-
sadom at one named nilkooeha, or Heart's Delight, and at
another called the Bagh-i-Chenar, or Plane-tree Garden. I n
the latter 'there were many tenta, and awnings of red cloth
and of various coloured silks, some embroidered in various ways,
and othem plain. I n the centre of the garden there wae a very
 TIHOUR-LUNG. 12 7

beautiful h o w , built in the shape of a cross, and very richly

adorned with ornaments. I n the middle of it there were three
chambere for placing be& and carpeta in, and the walls were
covered with glazed tiles.
' Opposite the entrance, in the largest of the chambers,
there waa a silver gilt table as high as a man, and three alms
broad, on the top of which there was a bed of silk cloths, em-
broidered with gold, placed one on the top of the other, and
here the lord was seated. The walls were hung with rose-
coloured silk cloths, ornamented with plates of silver gilt, set
with emeralds, pearls, and other precious stones, tastefully
arranged. Above these ornaments there were pieces of silk, a
palmo broad, whence hung tassels of various colours, and the
wind moved them backwards and forwards, which caused a very
pretty effect. Before the great arch which formed the entrance
to the chamber there were ornaments of the same kind, and silk
cloths raised up by spear poles, and kept together by silken
cords, with large tassels which came down to the ground.
' The other chambers were furnished in the same way, and
on the floors there were carpets and ruah mats. In the centre
of the house, opposite the door, there were two gold tables,
euch standing on four legs, and the table and logs were all in
one. They were each five pnlmm long, and three broad ; and
seven golden phials stood upon them, two of which were set
with large pearls, emeralds, and turquoises, and each one had a
ruby near the mouth. There were a h six round golden cups,
one of which waa set with large, round, clear pearls inside, and
in the centre of it waa a ruby, two fingers broad, and of a
brilliant colour.'
I t must not be supposed, however, that them elegant and
artistic objecte were the handiwork of the Tatare. Such
articlee as were not ~poilsof war, were wrought by the artificers
whom Timour carried into captivity Gom more aettled and
128 CENTRAL ASIA.

givilized States. I t needed not to scratch either Timour or the

least barbnrous of hie tribe to find the Tatar. Their rude and
savage nature lay on the surface, and continually manifested
itself in the ordinary incidents of life. Thus it happened that
the ambassadors on the occasion of their visit to the Bagh-i-
Chennr were SO long delayed by the dilatoriness of their inter-
preter, that they did not arrive until the dinner was over. I n
his fury Timour ordered a hole to lie bored through the inter-
preter's nose, a cord passed through, and the poor wretch led
in this ignominious fashion up and down the ranks of the army.
' H e had scarcely finished speaking when men took the inter-
preter by the nose to bore a hole in it,' and it was only at
Clavijo's earnest intercession that the offender was pardoned.
The Tatars were potent wassailers, notwithstanding Moham-
med's prohibition against the use of fermented liquors. The
ambtusadors, abstemious like all well-bred Spaniards, were
astonished at the hard-drinking of the ladies, who held their
own ngninst their male companions. Timour having invited
them to a wine party-and without his permision no one could
indulge in strong drink, either publicly or in private-they
were enabled to describe the mode and manner of a drinking
bout from actual observation. ' The wine,' says the chronicler
of their doings, ' is given after dinner, and they serve it out in
such quantities, and so often, that it makes the men drunk;
and they do not consider that there is either pleasure or fes-
tivity without being drunk. The attendants serve the wine on
their knees, and, when one cup is finished, they give another ;
and these men have no other duty, except to give another cup
aa soon as the first ia finished. As soon as one attendant is
tired of filling the cups, another takes his place.'
There was an attendant to every two or three guests, who
were continually pressed to take more. A refusal to drink was
regarded as an insult, and no heel-taps were allowed under any
 TIMOUR-LUNG. 120
-
pretence. 'They drink from one cup, once or twice, and ir
they are called upon to drink by their love of the lord, or by
the lord's head, they must drink it all at one pull, without
leaving a drop. They call the man who drinks the most wine
" Bahadoor," which is as much as to say " a valorous man ;"
and he who does not drink is made to do so, although he does
not wish it.' Timour even sent a jug of wine to the arnbas-
sadors before they set out from their own quarters, 'so that
they might arrive in a jovial mood.'
The preliminary meal was substantial, and 'consisted of
many roasted horses, boiled and roasted sheep, and rice cooked
in their mode.' After every one's hunger was satisfied a
Meerza made his appearance with a silver basin full of silver
coins, which he scattered over the company. The ambassadors
mere then clothed in robes of honour, and acknowledged the
royal favour by thrice bending the knee.
At these feasts the crowd was so great that the guards had
to clear a path for the Spaniards, 'and the dust was such that
people's faces and clothes were all one colour.' I n the vast
plain that stretched out in front of this palace, 20,000 persons
were assembled within the space of three or four days, all
dwelling in tents. ' I n this horde there are always butchers,
trnd cooks who sell cooked sheep, and others who sell fruit and
barley, and bakers who sell bread. Every division of the horde
is provided with all that the troops require, and they are
arranged in streets. There are even baths and bath-men in
the horde, who pitch their tents, and make their huts for hot
batha with boilers for heating the water, and all that they
require ; and as each man arrived, he was shown his station.'
The Spaniarcie appear to have been deeply impressed with
the splendour of the spacious awning0 made of white linen
cloth relieved by cloths of many colours, and of great length
nnd height, for the double purpoee of acting ae a ecrwn against
9
 130 CENTRAL ASIA.

the rays of the sun and of admitting a free current of air. A

crimson carpet WBB laid down to walk upon, and the ornamenta-
tion generally exhibited a magnificent taste. At a little dis-
tanoe a wall of silken cloth, as high aa a man on horseback, ran
all round, to secure perfect privacy. On the top of one tent
waa a large silver gilt eagle with outspread wings, and below
that, just over the entrance, three silver gilt falcons with
extended wings and heads turned up towards the eagle. The
most superb tents were intended for Timour's wives, but a
.grand pavilion was reserved as a banqueting hall.
On the marriage of one of his grandsons, Timour com-
manded all the .shopkeepers in Samarknnd to come out into the
plain, and there establish their stalls. Each trade had a separ-
ate street for its tents, and was obliged to devise a gnme or
entertainment for the recreation of the gathered multitude.
Gallows were erected at convenient points,-Timour very un-
necessarily informing his trembling subjects that he knew how
to be severe, BB well as how to be merciful and bounteous.
And he very Boon acted up to this declaration by hanging a
great lord whom he had left in Samarkand as Governor, and
who had negleoted his duties. The delinquent's property was
also confiscated, and a faithful friend who ventured to intercede
for him was likewise ordered off to execution. At the request,
however, of a Meerzn, or royal prince, this sentence was com-
muted to a fine of 400,000 silver bezmts, each worth a silver
rial. But when this penalty was discharged the unhappy man
waa tortured to give more, and when he had parted with all he
possessed, he was hanged by the feet till death terminated his
misery.
Another great man to whom had been confided the care of
3000 horeea, being unable to produce that number, expiated his
careleasness on the gallows, though he offered to make good
the lose by delivering over 6000 horeee. ' I n this and other
 TIMOUR-LUNG. 131

ways the lord administered justice.' He was also impartial,

and exercised the same severity towards the weak as towards
the powerful. Certain provision dealers having asked too
much for their goods were summarily executed, and likewise
certain shoemakers, while fines were imposed upon others.
"The custom is that when a great man is put to death he is
hanged; but the meaner eort are beheaded.' Whence it ap-
peared that the Tatars differed from modem Mohammedans aa
to the peculiar consequences of death by strangulation.
According to Sheref-ood-deen, an amphitheatre covered in
with carpeta waa erected on this occasion, in which masquerad-
ing of a very primitive character was exhibited. ' The women
were dressed like goats, others like sheep, and fairies, and they
ran after each other. The skinners and butchers appeared like
lions and foxes, and all other tradesmen contributed specimens
of their skill.'
One day the ambassadors were invited to a carouse in a
pavilion within an enclosure, of which the following description
ia given :-' One of the walls was of crimson cloth covered with
embroidery of gold lace in many figures and patterns, which
was very beautiful to look upon. This wall was higher than
any of the others, and the entrance was shaped like an arch,
with a vaulted covering above i t ; and the whole was em-
broidered in beautiful designs with gold lace; and the doors
were of carpeting embroidered in the same way. On the top
of the entrance there was a square tower with turrets, all made
of cloth embroidered with gold; and the wall had turrets of
embroidered cloth, all round it, at intervals. There were win-
dows in the walls, with lattices made of silken cords, and these
windows also had cloth shutters. Within the enclosure the
tents were pitched, and they were very rich and beautiful.
Close to this enclosure there was another, the walls of which
were of white satin, with the entrance and windows the same as
132 CENTRAL ASIA.

the former, and these enclosures had doom leading from one to
the other. I n front of these enclosures a great pavilion waa
pitched, made of white silk, and it wae ornnmented, both inside
and out, with many patterns, in various-coloured silks.
'The ground near the pavilion of the lord was covered with
jars of wine, which were placed in a row, a atone's throw in
length. No man was allowed to paas beyond these jam towards
the pavilion, and mounted guards were placed to watch the
line, with bows and arrows, and maces, in their hands. I f any
one passed the line, they shot arrows at him, and gave him
such blows with their maces that some men were taken outside
the gates for dead.'
Near the pavilion a number of small awnings were erected,
and under each awning was placed a jar of wine of portentous
dimensions. I t has already been said that the ladies of the
Court rivalled the male guests in potations deep. They drank,
we are told, from small golden cups placed on flat plates of
gold. Their attendants, in presenting these cups, touched the
ground thrice with their right knee, and had their hands
wrapped in white napkins, and in retiring they walked back-
wards.
A drinking bout usually lnstcd some hours, unbroken by
eating, and the great khanum or wife could not understund
how it was that Clavijo never touched fermented liquors.
' The drinking was such that some of the men fell down drunk
before her ; nnd this was considered very jovial, for they think
that there cnn be no pleasure without drunken metl. . . They
also brought great quantities of roasted sheep and horses, and
other dressed meata; and they eat all this with much noise,
tearing the pieces away from each other, and making game over
their food. They also brought rice cooked in various ways,
and tarts made with flour, sugar, and herbs; and besides the
 TIMOUR-LUNG. 133

meat brought in basins, there were other pieces on skins for

those who wanted them.'
While Clavijo and his companions were at Samarkand,
Jehangheer's son, Peer Mohammed, arrived from India, and
they went to pay their respects to him. ' H e had on a robe of
blue satin, embroidered with golden wheels, some on the back,
and others on the breast and sleeves. His hat was adorned
with large pearls and precious stones, with a ver rilliant ruby
on the top ; and the people who stood round & treated him
with great reverence and ceremony. I n front of him mere two
wrestlers, dressed in leathern doublets without sleeves ; but they
neither of them could throw the other. At laat one of them
threw the other and held him down for a long time ; for they
all said that if he got up the fall would not be counted' Ti-
mour came forth about noon, and many games were played;
jugglers exhibited much cleverness of sleight of hand; and
trained elephants went through various performances. Three
hundred jars of wine were then placed before the King, and.
also large skins full of cream into which had been put whole
loaves of sugar.
When the guests were all duly ranged the chief Khanum
made her appearance. 'She had on a robe of red silk, trimmed
with gold lace, which was long and flowing, but without sleeves
or any opening, except one to admit the head and two arm-
holes. I t had no waist, and fifteen ladies held up the skirts of
i t to enable her to walk. She had so much white lead on her
face that it looked like paper; and this is put on to protect it
from the sun, for when they travel in winter or summer all
great ladies put this on their faces. She had a thin veil over
her face, and a crested head-dress of red cloth, which hung some
way down the back. This crest was very high, and was covered
with large pearls, rubies, emernlds, and other precious stones,
134 CEXTRAL ASIA.

and it was embroidered with gold lace, on the top of which

there wm a circlet of gold set with pearls. On the top of a l l
there was a little castle, on which were three very large and
brilliant rubies, surmounted by a tall plume of white feathers.
One of t h w feathers hung down ae low as the eyes, and they
were secured by golden threads; and aa they moved, they
waved to and fro. Her hair, which was very black, hung down
over her shoulders, and they value black hair much more than
any other colour.
' She wns accompanied by three hundred ladies, and an awn-
ing waa carried over Cano, supported by a lance, which was
borne by a man. It was made of white silk, in the form of the
top of a round tent, and held over her to protect her from the
sun. A number of eunuchs who p a r d the women walked
before her, and in this way she came to the pavilion where the
lord was, and eat down near him with all her ladies, and three
ladies held her head-drcas with their hands, that it might not
fall on one ~ide.' Seven other wives came nnd took their seats
below the Klianum, as likewise did the spouse of Peer JIoham-
mcd. Hard drinking, in which the ladies took their part, went
on both before and after dinner, and lasted all night.
!I'll0 ambassadors were taken one day to see the Khanurn's
private tents. I n the centre stood a cabinet mude of gold,
richly enamelled, as high aa a man's breast. The top was flat,
surrounded by small turrets in green and blue enamel, set with
penrls nnd precious stones. On opening the door of the cabinet
a ~ h c l fwns seen on which were ranged numerous cups, and
abovo these six golden balls covered with gems and pearls. At
the foot of the cabinet was a small gold table, two pultnoa high,
set with precious stones a11 round, and on the top a clear bril-
liant emerald. The length of thia table was four pnlrt~os,and
ita width one and a hulf. I n front of this rose a golden tree,
with a trunk as big round as a man's leg, with many branches
 TIMOUR-LUNG. 135

and oak leaves. I t waa the height of a man, and overshadowed

the table. The fruit consisted of rubies, emeralds, turquoises,
sapphires, and fine pearls. Birde of enamelled gold and of
many colours were perched upon the boughs, and pecked at
the fruit with outstretched wings. Against the wall of the
tent was placed a wooden table inlaid with silver &, i n d
beside it a bed of rich silk, embroidered with golden leaven and
flowers. The floor was covered with rich carpets of silk.
Timour himself had a portable mosque, beautifully painted with
gold and blue, which accompanied him in his most distant
expeditions.
Among Timour'e visitom about this time was the Khan of
Badakhshan, who is called in this narrative 'the lord of
Balaxia, which is a great city where rubies are found ; and he
came with p large troop of knights and followere. Tho ambas-
sadors went to this lord of Balasia, and asked him how he got
the rubies ; and he replied that near the city there was a moun-
tain whence they brought them, and that every day they broke
up a rock in search of them. He said that when they found a vein
they got out the rubies skilfully by breaking the rock all round
with chisels.'
Another tributary arrived from ' Aquivi,' for which 3Ir
Markham suggests Akshee, but it was evidently some place
near the modern Jerm, for the narrator adds that i t is there
' they procure the blue mineral, and in the rock they find sap-
phires.' The distance of both Bnlasia and Aquivi is estimated
at ten days' journey from Samarkand on the route to India
The ' blue mineral,' lajwuod, or lapis lazuli, obtained from
a milie about 1500 feet up the side of a mountain in the Kok-
cha valley, was declared by Marco Polo to be 'the finest in the
world,' and ' got in a vein like silver.' I t is found, according
to Captain Wood, in a black and white limestone, unstratified
but much veined with colourd lines. The mountain is de-
136 CENTRAL ASIA.
-1. :

\ -
scribed aa rugged and barren, and ascended by a steep dan-
gerous path. A sloping shaft, ten feet aquzue, has been sunk
from the surface, and a gallery about eighty paces in length
en& in a hole some .twenty feet deep. The roof of the gallery
occasionally falls in, and the mine is worked in the rudest pos-
sible manner, but of late years it bas been virtually abandoned.
Three varieties of lapis lazuli were extracted in Captain Wood's
time^-1836-37--one of an indigo blue colour, one light blue,
and the other green. The ' Balm ' rubiea of Badakhshan, or
Balakhshan, were long famous in Europe as well ns in h i a . I s
it not written in the ' Court of Love ' P
'For I beheld the tourea high and strong,
And high pinacles, large of hight and long,
With plate of gold bespred on enery side,
And precious stones, the stone wcrke for to hide,
No saphire in lnde, no rube rich of price,
There lacked than, nor emeraud so grene,
Bales Turk&, nc thing to my dcuice,
That may the crutlc maken for to shenc.'

Marco Polo apeaks of Badakhshan as being, in the middle

of the 14th century, a very great kingdom governed by an
hereditary ruler, who claimed descent from Alexander the Great
and a daughter of Darius-probably alluding to Roxana, daugh-
ter of the Sogdian chief. A writer in Pinkerton's collection,
speaks of Badakhshan as ' a very ancient city, and exceeding
strong by its situation'in the mountains. I t is dependent on the
Khan of Proper Bukhnria (the modern Khanat of Bokhara),
and serves him for a kind of state prison, where he shuts up
those from whom he thinks it convenient to secure himself.
This town is not very big, but it is well enough built, and very
populous. . . I t is a great thoroughfare of the Karnwans
designed for Little Bukhnria (now Eastern Toorkestan), or to
China, which take the mime road.'
The pseudo-Alexandrine dynasty terminated in the 15th
 .. _ ..
4.. '

TIMOUR-LUNG. 137 .

century, though, cven at the preaent day, the petty chiefs of

Darwaz, Kulab, Shighnan, Wakhan, Chitral, Cfilgit, Swat, and
Balti, all lay claim to the Mncedonian conqueror as their com-
mon ancestor. The city of Badakhshan hns also passed away,
the chief place in the province being at present Fyzabad.
The ruby mines no longer lie within the boundaries of
Badakhshan, being situated to the north of the Panja, the
recently accepted line of demarcation between the territories of
the Khan of Bokhara and those of the Ameer of ~ f ~ h a n i s t a n .
The mines, situated about 1200 feet above the river, were for-
merly a royal monopoly, but have long since been exhausted.
The late Moorad Bey, of Kunduz, on conquering this country,
was so disgusted with the unproductiveness of the mines, that
he ceased working them, and sold the miners es slaves. I n
1866 a new mine was opened, but the rubies extracted were
comparatively worthless.
Clavijo and his companions had occasion more than once to
recognize the absolute authority exercised by Timour, and the
abject humility with which he was obeyed. Having issued
orders for the erection of a bazaar right through the heart of
the capital, the housea then occupying the site were pulled
down with such rapidity that their owners had barely time to
escape from their ruins, with such of their effects as were most
easily carried. Within twenty-one days the new bazaar was
built, and covered in with a vaulted roof, while, to cool the air
and to supply the bazaar people with water, fountains were
established at convenient intervals. As fest es a shop mas com-
pleted, a tradesman was compelled to take it.
I n like manner, the mosque c~nstructed in memory of
Timour's grandson, Mohammed Sooltan Meerza, who died of tho
wounds he received at the battle of Angora, being judged too
small, was pulled down and replaced by a more suitable edifice
in ten days. The mosque over the remains of the Khanurn's
138 CENTRAL ASIA.

mother was also demolished, to make way for one on a grander

scale. Timour himself, being too ill to mount on horseback,
superintended the workmen from a litter, while the more active
supervision was exercised by some of the Meerzas.
Samarkand was at that time a little larger than Seville, and
possessed far more extensive suburbs. ' The city,' we read, ' is
surrounded on all sides by many gardens and vineyards, which
extend in some directions a league and a half, in others two
leagues, the' city being in the middle. I n these houses and
gardens there is a large population, and there are people selling
bread, meat, and many other things ; so that the suburbs are
much more thickly inhabited than the city within the walls.
Bmongst these gardens, whieh are outside the city, there are
great and noble houses, and here the lord has several palaces.
The nobles of the city have their houses amongst these gardens,
and they are so extensive that whcn a man approaches the city,
he sees nothing but a mass of very high trees. Many streams
of water flow through the city, and through these gardena, and
among these gardens there are many cotton plmtations and
melon grounds, and the melons of this ground are good and
plentiful; and at Christmas time there is a wonderful quantity
of melons and grapes. Every day so many camels come in
laden with melons, that it is a wonder how the people can eat
them all. They preserve them from year to year in the villages
in the same way as figs, taking off their skins, cutting them in
long slices, and then drying them in the sun.'
The land around bore forth abundantly, but the agricultur-
ists wcre captives imported from other countries. 'The sheep,'
continues the narrator, 'are very large, and have long tails,
some weighing 20 lbs., and they are as much as a man can hold
in his hand.' Two of these animals could be had for a ducat,
and, notwithstanding the sudden influx of foreign treasure, and
even when the resident population was so largely increased by
 TIMOUR-LUNG. 139

the presence of Timour's Court, an army in itself, all kinds of

provisione were procurable at prices that appeared low to the
Spaniards.
'The city is so large, and so abundantly supplied, that it is
wonderful. . . The supplies of this city do uot consist of
food alone, but of silks, satins, gauzes, tafetas, ~elvets,and other
things. The lord had so strong a desire to ennoble this city
that he brought captives, to increase its population, from every
land which he had conquered, especially all those who were
skilful in any art. From Damascus he brought weavers of silk,
and men who made bows, glass, and earthenware, so thnt of
these things Samarkand produces the beet in the world. From
Turkey he brought archers, masons, and silversmiths. He also
brought men skilled in making engines of war ; and he sowed
hemp and flax, which had never bcfore been seen in the land.'
These captives werc computed at 130,000, including men and
women, 'Turks, Arabs, Noors, Christians, Armenians, Greek
Catholics and Jacobites, and those who baptize with fire in the
face (Parsees), who are Christians with peculiar opinions.'
Many of these unfortunate beings lived under trees, or in
caves, outside tho walls of city.
From Russia and Tatary were imported linen and furs;
from India, nutmegs, cloves, mace, cinnamon, ginger, and many
other spices, which did not find their way to Alexandria ; and
from China, silks, satins, musk, rubies, diamonds, pearls, and
rhubarb. The Chinese were at that period deemed the most
skilful artizans in the world, and were wont to say of them-
selves that they had two eyes, that the Franks had one, and
thnt the people of all other countries were blind.
I n Samarkand there were several open spaces in which were
eold cooked meats, fowls, and other birds, ' very nicely dressed.'
These stalls were attended night and day. Slaughter-housee,
too, were provided for killing not only sheep and horses, but
140 CENTRAL ASIA.

also fowls, pheasants, and partridges. At one end of the city

rose a strong cnstle, defended by a stream flowing through a
ravine. IrIere the royal treasure was stored, and here, too, a
thousand captive armourers were incessantly employed all the
year round in making head-pieces, bows, and arrows.
When setting out upon an important expedition Timour
had made a vow not to enter this castle for seven years, and the
time expired during Clavijo's visit to Samarkand. The Tatar
monarch proceeded thither with much pomp, and distributed
among his ' knights ' 3000 breast-plates, adorned with red cloth
but not well tempered. H e also gave away a vast number of
tall, round-shaped helmets, having in front a plate to move up
and down and act as a visor.
The distance from Samarkand to Cambnlu, or Pekin, was
estimated at a six months' journey, of which one third lay
across bleak steppes, frequented only by roving shepherds and
their flocks. During the month of June 800 camels arrived
from Cambalu, loaded with precious stuffs. Fifteen days to the
eastward of Samarkand was situated the country of the Ama-
zons, who were in the habit of repairing once a year, with such
of their daughters as had attained the age of puberty, to the
nearest settlement, where they consorted for a while with the
likeliest men. Their femule children they brought up under
their own eyes, but the males were sent to their fathers. These
masculine dames were Christians of the Greek Church, and ' of
the lineage of the dmtizons who were at Troy when it was de-
stroyed by the Greeks.'
The police regulations of Samarkand appear to have been
strict and efficient. No acts of personal violence were per-
mitted, but all quarrels were referred to magistrates, who sat
in tents to administer justice, either in the police or the revenue
department, and the proceedings were reported to Timour.
The judge's decision was written out by a scribe, and entered in
 TIMOUR-LUNG. 141

a public register. The warrant or decree was confirmed by four

separate impreeaions of the judge's seal, and by that of Timour's
seal-in the middle-three cyphers, two above and one below,
with the legend ' Rasty va Rousty.'
The chief source of revenue was the land-tax, which waa
fixed at one-third of the produce from irrigated lands, with an
additional rate for the use of water derived from public reser-
voirs. But whosoever constructed a tank, planted a grove, or
broke up fresh land, was exempted from taxation for two years.
The use of whip or scourge was forbidden, eerais were built for
the accommodation of travellers, and roads and bridges were
kept in good repair.
The army was still divided as in the time of Chinghiz
Khan into Tens, Hundreds, Thousands, and so forth. Each
man was provided with two horses, a bow, a quiver filled with
arrows, a sword, a saw, an awl, a ball of thread, ten needles,
and a leathern knapsack. One tent sufficed for eighteen horse-
men. The o5cers, however, wore a coat of mail, and had each
his own tent, and from five to three hundred horses according
to his rank and duties. There was a standing order that en-
campments should always, if possible, be fixed on high ground,
and near a supply of water. Mercy to the vanquished was
also particularly enjoined, but seemingly with little effect.
Timour'a favourite pastime from boyhood was chess, at
which he became such an adept that he increased the number
of pieces and squares, and complicated the moves. When the
news of his youngest son's birth was brought to him, he had
just castled his king--exclaiming, as was customary, 'Shah
Rokh,' and that became the young prince's name.
The departure of the Spanish ambassadors was hastened by
the alarming illness of Timour. They were dismissed by the
Meerzae without much ceremony, but were abundantly supplied
with whatever they could reasonably want during the painful
142 CENTRAL ASIA.

journey that awaited them. For the firat part of the way they
travelled in the company of the ambassadors of the Sultan of
Babylon, and had a painful experience of the horrors of the
desert.
' On Wednesday the 10th of December (1404), they crossed
the great river of Biamo (Amou or Oxus) in boats. On the
banks there were great plains of sand, and the sand was moved
from one part to another by the wind, and thrown up in
mounds. I n this sandy waste there are great valleys and hills,
and the wind blew the sand away from one hill to another, for
it was very light; and on the ground, when the wind had
blown away the sand, the marks of waves were left, and men
could not keep their eyes on this sand when the sun was
shining. This road cannot be travelled over without a guide
who knows the marks and signs of the desert, and these guides
are called Anchies, and the ambassadors had one of these guides.
On this road there is no water, except a few wells sunk in the
sand, with vaulted roofs, and surrounded by brick walls, for if
they were not covered the sand would fill them up. The water
of these wells is either rain or snow water; and in the last
day's journey they found no water, and they trarelled all uight ;
but at the hour of Mass they came to a well and drank, and
gave water to their beasts, and they all bad much need of it.'
From that illness, indeed, Timour recovered, and on the 8th
of January, 1405, he quitted the luxuries of Samarkand in the
midst of a fall of snow. At the head of an army of veterans,
computed at 200,000 in number, he crossed the river Syhoon,
or Jaxartes, on the ice, and pitched his camp outside the walls
of Otrar. His indignation had been roused to fury by n
demand for tribute made by the Chineae ambassador, whom, as
already related, he publicly insulted ae the representative of ' n
thief and a bad man.' H e had m l v e d , therefore, to repeat
the teachings of Chinghiz, and to bring that insolent people
 TIM OUB-LUNG. 143

under complete subjection. His reparations had been made

with great forethought, and on the most extensive scale. As
the march to Pekin would occupy not less than six months,
Timour took with him many thousand loads of corn to sow
along the line of march, so that an ample provision might be
secured for his victorious soldiers on their return homewards.
Otrar, however-the Farab of Arabian w r i t e r e w a s the
farthest point he reached. Attacked by fever and ague, he
indulged to excess in draughts of iced water, and on the 17th
February, 1405, closed hia career of bloodshed and desolation.
H e was 69 years of age, and had reigned 35 years. H e left
behind him thirty-six mile descendante. His body was em-
balmed with musk and rose water, wrapt in a linen shroud, and
carried back to Samarkand in an ebony coffin. His ruined
palace without the walls, and his jasper tomb within the city,
. are still visited with curiosity and respect by the Russians, who
now lord it in the capital of the mighty Tamerlane.
Timour is described as tall of stature, broad-shouldered, and
possessed of great muscular strength. H e was born, it is said,
with white hair, like Zal, a hero of Persian romance. His head
was large, his forehead open, his coinplexion ruddy, and his
beard ample and flowing. Hie character was a singular mixture
of great qualities, painfully contrasted with the vices of bar-
barism. A dreamer of dreams and oftentimes babbling about
clemency, he was utterly reckless of human life or suffering,
and for the eake of gratifying the lust of conquest was ready to
sacrifice thousands upon thousands of hie fellow-creatures. I t
is true, he did not spare hie own person, and wes always to be
found in the post of danger. H e haa been preferred, with little
reaeon, to Chinghiz Khan, on the ground that the latter waa a
Jehan-Gheer, or World Subduer, while the former was not only
a Jehan-Gheer, but a Jehan-Dar, or World Holder. As a fact,
however, Timour consolidated nothing. He swept over Central
144 CENTRAL ASIA.

and Western Asia like a tornado, and his course was marked
by towns in ashes, countriea depopulated, and pyramids of
human skulls. IIe made a wilderness and called it a conquest.
'Though one of the greatest of warriors,' say8 Sir John
Malcolm, 'he was one of the worst of monarchs. H e was able,
brave, and generous ; but ambitious, cruel, and oppressive.' I t
is related of him that in the mosque of Meshed he chose to
perform his devotions at the tomb of Abou Moslem, whose
power was purchased at the cost of a million lives. ' The bloody
shadow of Abou Moslem,' exclaimed a dervish, 'is hovering
over thy head, 0 thou Man of Blood ! '
On the other hand, Timour was an ardent lover of truth,
and hated falsehood above all things. Of a serious, and even
gloomy, disposition, he was a munificent patron of letters, and
waa himself an author. The ' Mulfurzat Timoury,' or the
Institutes of Timour, are at once an amusing autobiography
and a code of despotic government. His knowledge of the
Koran dated from his childhood, and he was able to converse
fluently in the Toorkee, Persian, and Mongolian tongues. H e
was fond of rich apparel, and wore diamond ear-rings of great
value. H e usually arrayed himself in loose flowing silken
robes with a tall conical hat of beaver skin, surmounted by a
pear-shaped ruby, encircled with pearls and brilliants.
I n this reign lived the great Bokharan mystic Saint, Khoja
Bnha-ood-deen, founder of the Order of Nakishbendi, three
pilgrimages to whose shrine were held equivalent to one to the
Kaaba. Timour's liberality to poets, physicians, and historinne
was only equalled by his munificence to astronomers and santons.
 MOHAMMED BABER. 145

CHAPTER VII.

MOHAMMED RABER : ANTHONY JENKINBON.

BABEB-PEBOHANA-WEB'S FATHER AND UNCLE--CAPTURE OB W A R -

KAND--REVERSE O F FOBTUNE-A M W H U L CUBTOY-BABEB DEFEATED
BY SEEIBANI B E G T H E KAFIBB, EIYAUKB, AND HAZABEHB-BABEB
BWOVEBE 6AUAUKAND-EXPELLED BY THE OOZBEQB--CONQUERB EM-
DOSTAN-THE OOZBEOSIBMAEL THE SOWPAVEAN-THE SHFJBANIDES
-ANTHONY JMKINBON-UROHUNJ-ATTACKED BY BOBBEE8-BO-BA
-THE KIN-TEADGBETURN TO HOWOW.

'To reign, rather than to govern,' remarks Gibbon, 'was

the ambition of (Timour's) children and %randchildren, the
enemies of each other and of the people. A fragment of the
empire was upheld with some glory by Sharokh, his youngest
son ; but after hi8 decease the scene was again involved in
darknees and blood ;and before the end of n century Transoxiana
and Persia were trampled by the Uzbeks from the north, and
the Turkmans of the black and white sheep.' Shah Rokh was,
in fact, Timour's fourth son, and is represented by Eaetarn his-
torians as a brave and successful general, a just, aminble, and
unambitious prince. Ile reigned for 40 yeare over Khorassan
and the immediately adjacent country, and restored many of
the cities that had been destroyed by his father's barbarous
soldiery. The immense empire, however, that had been over-
run, rather than established, by Timour, fell tb pieces at the
death of that ruthlese conqueror, though in India the illustriou
names of Baber, Akbar, Jehan-Gheer, Shah-Jehan, and Au-
rungzeb appear in the roll of hie descendante.
10
140 CENTRAL ASIA.

Mohammed Baber was born in Ferghana in the year 1483.

On the mother's side he was descended from Chagatai and
Chinghiz, and when yet barely twelve was placed on the throne
of that small and mountainous principality. One of his uncles
was ruler of Samarkand and Bokhara ; a second governed tho
h t r i c t of Hissar; a third was lord of Kabool and Ghumee;
while a fourth held his court at Tashkend. His seemingly
powerful relatives, however, were by no means a source even of
moral strcngth to the youthful prince. Indeed, their first
thought on his father's death was to divide the little State
among themselves, but it so happened that one fell sick, another
lost his horses on the march, and their joint enterprise fell to
the ground.
Baber himself says of Ferghana, 'This country is in the fifth
climate (that is, the fifth from the equator), on the extreme
boundary of the habitable world. On the east is K a s h p r ; on
the west Samarkand; on the north there were formerly the
cities of Alrnalig, Almatu, and Otrar, but they have been laid
desolate by the Uzbcks.' The chief district in this petty king-
dom was Andijan, situated on the south bank of the Syr,
abounding in grain and fruit of all kinds, with a supply of
melons exceeding all possible demand, and pheasants of ex-
cellent flavour. The people were Toorks, and remarkable for
their beauty, but too proud to cultivate the soil for the sake of
'the top of a weed,' their irreverent expression for ears of corn.
It was not, however, a healthy province, owing to the pre-
valence of ague in the autumnal months.
To the eastward was situated the town of Ush, with its de-
lightful gardens of tulips, roses, and violets. 'Near the
mosque, which is outside the town, there is a meadow of clover
eo pleasant that travellers love to take rest there, and it is a
eommon sport of the townsfolk to carry all who fall asleep there,
across the three stream. Westward lay Marghinan, celebrated
 MOHAMMED BABER. 147
for its apricots, pomegranates, and white deer, and inhabited
mostly by Sarts, an aboriginal race, 'notorious all through
IIawaralnahr for blustering and love of boxing.' Turning to
the south-west, stood the town of Asfera in the midst of gar-
dens and groves of almond trees, and also pcopled by Sarts.
' I n a rising ground on the south-east is found tho stone mirror,
about 20 feet in length ' (crystal or talc ?). To the west of An-
dijan the ancient city of Kojend commanded the bend of the
river Syr, which here turns in a northerly direction. I n the
surrounding country white deer, hares, and mountain goats
were exceedingly numerous, and almonds so plentiful as to be
an article of export. The c h u t e , however, was insalubriow,
and inflammation of the eye so prevalent that the very sparrows
suffered from it.
Baber's father, Omar Sheikh, regarded Akshee as his capital,
-a town built upon the banks of the Syr, some 36 miles from
Andijan. The castle stood on the edge of a precipice high
above the river. The melons grown in the suburbs were in-
comparable, white deer, ' the fowl of the desert,' and ' very fat '
b r a , were the commonest of live things. The people disputed
with them of Kasan as to the beauty and climate of their
respective districts, but 'the gordem of Kasan being all
sheltered along the side of the river, it was called the mantle
of five lambskins.' The revenue sufficed for the maintenance
of nearly 4000 troops.
Accordixlg to Baber, his father was appointed ruler of Fer-
ghana not so much for his own merits as because he bore the
same name ae a chief upon whom Timour had once conferred
the government. H e was of low stature and wore his tunic
remarkably tight, but wm not particulnr either as to food or
drw. On s h t e occasions he donned a turban, with the end
hanging down, but at ordinary times be preferred the common
Moghul cap. He belonged to the Haneebh sect, and was very
 148 CENTRAL ASIA.

strict, never omitting the five daily prayers. His favourite

reading was the Koran and Firdomi's Shah Nameh, or Book of
Eings. Such was his sense of justice that, a Chinese caravan
having been overwhelmed in a snow-stom, he preserved the
property of the unfortunate victims until their heirs came to
claim it in the following year. H e wae brave, affable, sweet-
tempered, an indifferent amher, but strong in the arm, and a
powerful hitter. When young he was too much addicted to
intoxicating drinks, and even in his latter days had a carouse
once or twice every week, besides continually eating comfits
prepared with bhang. H e was fond of backgammon and not
averse from n turn with the dice.
Notwithstanding, or perhaps because of, his amiability,
Omar Sheikh was thrice engaged in hostilities with his nearest
relatives I n a battle with his father-in-law he was worsted,
and also by his eldest brother Ahmed, the ruler of Samarkand.
Over the Oozbegs, however, he was victorious, but in 1494 hie
brother Ahmed and one of his uncles combined their forces
against him. ' A t this juncture, being in the fort of Akshee,
he was precipitated from the edge of the steep rock with his
pigeons and pigeon-house, and departed to the other world,'-
and his son Baber reigned in his stead. One of Omar Sheikh's
Ameers is described as ' an excellent amher, and distinguished
for his skill at leap-frog.'
Baber's uncle Ahmed Neerza of Samarkand was a very strict
Xtiussulmm in one respect, though lax in others. He never by
any chance omitted one of the daily prayers, ' even when en -
gaged in a drinking party,' and these bouts sometimes lasted
from twenty to thirty days. In the intervals of sobriety he
partook of ' pungent substances.' H e was nnturally of a penu-
rious disposition, but brave, and dexterous with bow and arrow.
One of his wives, whom he married for love, took to drinking,
and became so jealous that she would not suffer him to speak to
 MOHAMMED BABER. 149

any other ladies of his harem. 'At last, however, he put her
to death, and delivered himself from the reproach.' One of h[s
Ameers had 7000 servants and 500 falcons. Baber mentions a
Mollah, who wai a learned man and skilled in falconry, and
who 'knew tho art of bringing down rain and snow by appoint-
ment.'
A tribe of five or six thousand families inhabiting the wilds
of Andijan, and trusting to their mountains for protection, re-
fused to pay their annual tribute to Baber, whereupon he de-
spatched against them a strong body of soldiers, who captured
1500 horses and 20,000 sheep, which were magnanimowly
divided among the captors.
While yet a mere youth Baber become involved in opera-
tione of a fur more serious character than the chastisement of s
refractory tribe of mountaineera IIis firat important expedi-
tion wns directed against Samarkand, called the Protected City
because it had never been taken by storm. Young as he was,
he xnaintained a strict discipline among his rude soldiery, and
inspired them with confidence in his courage and ability. Some
traders, who had come to his camp with goods for sale, hllving
complained to him that they had been robbed, he 'commanded
that everything should be restored to them without reserve,
and before the first watch of the morrow there waa not a bit of
thread nor a broken needle that was not recovered by the
owner.'
Sainarkand surrendered in November, 1407, after sustaining
a seven months' siege, and Baber dwells lovingly upon the
many objects of admiration within its walls. The Great
Mosque with iron gates and 480 pillars, built by Timour after
the conquest of IIindostan and by the hands of Indian stone-
cutters and masons, especially attrncted his attention. ,The
Echoing Jlosque was also deemed remarkable, nor were the
many beautiful palaces and gardens allowed to pass unnoticed.
 CENTRAL ASIA.

To every trade was allotted its own bazaar. IIanufactures also

flourished. The paper of Samarkand was greatly esteemed,
as was likewise the kcr)nczi, or crimson velvet,-the cramoisy
of European writers.
Ilarco Polo, in his description of Turcomania, after abusing
the 31ohammedan inhabitants as ' a rude people with an un-
couth language of their own,' mentions the Armenian and Greek
traders and artisans who dwelt in the towns and ~illages,and
adrls: 'They weave the finest and handsomest carpets in the
world, and also a great quantity of fine and rich silks of
cramoisg and other colours, and plenty of other stufls.'
IVhcnce it appears that Ferghnna, at the close of the 15th
century, was inferior in arts and manufactures to BIamaralnahr
in the latter part of the 13th, for otherwise 13aber would
scarcely have taken any particuliir notice of the excellencies of
Snmnrkand.
IIis success was transient. Itis allics and soldiers having
plundered the citizens of all that was easily turned to accoiint,
broltc out into violent mutiny, and finally returned to their
homes. Some of his o m people, too, rebelled and laid siege to
Andijan, with the intention of raising his brother Jehtlngheer
to the throne of Ferghana. A t that critical moment Baber fell
ill and lost the power of speech. A~idijanwm taken, and
Samarkand renounced its nllcgiunce. Khojend alone remained
faithful, and for a wbile he wandered about almost in despair
at the head of a small band of followers, who lived as well as
they could by pillage. However, in 1409 he recovered An-
dijnn, and two years later made himself master of Snmarkand
with only 240 men, the largest force he was then able to
muster.
I n the jear 1500 Baber married his cousin Aisha Sooltan
Begum, and he states with amusing nayvet8 that, although a t
first his affection for her was not slightJ yet through basllfullless
 MOHANMED BABER. 151
he used to visit her only once in fifteen or twenty days. After
a while love declined while his shyness increased, 'insomuch
that my mother the Khanum used to fall upon me and scold
me with great fury, sending me off like a criminal to visit her
once in a month or forty days.' Shortly after this domestic
event Baber was siglially defeated by Sheibani Mohammed Beg,
an Oozbeg chief, who became the founder of a dynasty. Shut
up in a stronghold and reduced to the verge of starvation, he
contrived to escape under the darkness of night, accompanied
by his mother and two other ladies. His eldest sister was taken
to wife by Sheibani, to whom sho bore a daughter, but was
afterwards bestowed by him in marriage upon a Syud.
A singular BIoghul custom, which may be termed the
Blessing of thc Standards, is thus described by Baber. IrIe wus
at the time a fggitive at the court of his uncle. ' Presently,'
he writes, ' there came tidings that Tambol was moving against
Cratippa. Wherefore the Khan lcd forth liis army from Tash-
kcnd in due order, with right and left wing, arid then, after
the Ilogul custom, formed thc icii)d, or hunting circle. The
horns were blown, and the Khan having alighted, they brought
nine horse-tail standards. One Mogul stood by, holding the
shank-bone of an ox, to which a long cotton cloth was tied.
Another fastened three strips of white. cloth beneath the horse-
tail of the st~indard,and pnsscd them under the staff of the nine
streamers. The Khan took his stand on the corncr of one cloth,
while I stood upon another, and Prince Mohammed upon the
third. Then tlie Mogul, who tied the cloths, taking the shsnk-
bone in his hands made an oration in the Mogul tongue, often
pointing to the standards. Then the Khan and all the men
near hirn took some spirit of mare's milk, and sprinkled it
towards the nine standards. I n that instant all the drums and
trumpets struck up at once, and the soldiers raised the war-cry.
These cercmonics were repeated thrice. After that, they leaped
152 CENTRAL ASIA.

on horseback, then sent up the shout of battle, and put their

horses to full speed. The customs established by Zingis Khan
are observed to the present day. Every man had an appointed
station in the right, left, or centre, and the post is inherited
from generation to generation. Next morning the army formed
the iz-im, and hunted in the vicinity of Sam Seirek.'
The Oozbeg invaders, consisting of an aggregation of
Toorks, Mongols, and vagabond descendants of the soldiers of
Chinghiz and Timour, proved too strong for Baber, who in
1504 reluctantly bade farewell to Ferghana, and with less thrm
300 men passed over into the district of IIissar. H e was then
in the 22nd year of his age, and now for the first time began to
use the razor. Crossing the Amou, he advanced to Termedh,
being joined by thousands of Moghuls until the entire region
between the Iron Gate and the Hindoo Koosh acknowledged
him as master, the former ruler, Khosroo Shah, retiring to Kho-
rasaan, according to the Eastern proverb,
Ten dervislles may sit on one carpet,
But the same climate will not hold two kings.
Baber's next exploit was to cross the mountains by the Kipchak
Pass, and take possession of Kabul. I n his passage over the
mountains he traversed the county of the Kafirs, of whom he
observes, ' They are all wine-bibbers ; every one of them carries
a leathern bottle of wine about his neck. They never pray :
they fear neither God nor man; and are heathenish in their
usages.' They learned, however, to fear Timour. Trusting to
their apparently inaccessible fastnesses, they treated with scorn
and derision his summons to submit themselves to his supremacy.
Turning the ravines in which they dwelt, Timour ascended to a
height that domineered over them, and was thence lowered
down on rafts or platforms from rock to rock-and five times
was the operation repeated-until he stocd on a level with the
awe-stricken idolaters. E e had with him a mero handful of
 MOHAMMED BABER. 153

men, but it was felt impossible to reaist a conqueror capable of

such superhuman daring.
I n this region pines, oaks, and the mastic-tree were met
with in abundance, and a little lower down the mountain-side
was gay as a parterre with a vast variety of tulips, one of which
had a hundred petals, and ia somewhat rashly suppoeed to hare
been rather a double poppy. The mountains were inhabited in
other parts by Eimauks and Hazarehs, who spoke a Persian
dialect, but whose features and habits bespoke a Moghul extrac-
tion. The Eimauks lived in camps called 'ordes,' and the
Hazarehs in villages of thatched houses, each of which had a
watch-tower, in which was posted a sentinel with a kettle-drum
to sound the alarum. I n one respect the Hazarehs were favour-
ably distinguished from their neighbours-they never beat their
wives.
A t IIeri, or Herat, Baber increased his store of useful know-
ledge ; he there acquired the art of carving a goose. He was
at the time a guest of Badia-ez-Zeman, a hospitable and jovial
host, and one day a goose was set before him to his utter be-
wilderment. Badia, however, came to his relief and showed
him how to cut up the aavoury bird in slices. He was also
entertained with concerts of music, the performers consistiug of
a harper and a player on the flute, who accompanied a singer
with a good voice. ' The people of Heri,' he remarks, ' sing in
a low, delicate, and equable style.' They were also very refined
nnd polite in their manners, but overmuch addicted to the
pleasures of the table, and narrowly missed giving Babcr a
taste for wine and dissipation.
Upon the discomfiture and death of Sheibani Khan in 1510
a t the hands of Isxnael the Souffavean, Baber saw that his
opportunity had come, and fiercely attacked the Oozbegs in
IIiasar. Within a very brief space of time he drove them not
only out of that district, but also out of Eunduz and Khotl,
154 CENTRAL A S ~ A .

and at the head of 60,000 horse, made himself master of all

Tokhara. I n the following year he re-entered Samarkand in
triumph, the houses being hung with rich carpets and brocades,
and the inhabitante greeting him with loud accliiim. Coins
were struck in his name, and the khutbeh, or prayer for the
reigning sovereign, was offered up for him in the mosques. So
firmly established did he now consider himself, that he bestowed
the government of Kabul upon his brother Nusscr Meerza, and
disnlisscd with haudso~lle presents the Persian officers and
thcir retainers who had assisted him in retovering the throne
of his great ancestor Timour.
For some time after his restoration 13aber resigned himself
to plcasure and amusement, until rudely awakened to a sense
of the uncertain tenure of power in half-civilized countries.
Timour Sooltan, son of the deceased Sheibani Khan, suddenly
swept over Mawaralnahr with a swarm of Oozbegs, and defent-
ing Bnber in battle, forced him to retire to IIissar. The struggle
for the mastery was long protracted, for his Persian allies again
flocked to his standard, but on the 14th October, 1514, a
dccisivc engagement took place, in which the Oozbegs were
conlplctcly victorious, and so vigorously did they follow up
their advantage that the Jfoghuls were dispersed in all
directions. Biiber himself, bare-footed, and in his night-dress,
escapcd with difficulty into the citadel at IIissar, whence he
\\.as finally driven by famine, and in 1615 crossed the Puropa-
mis:in range for the last time.
The next few years were occupied in consolidating his power
in Kandahar, but in 1519 Baber felt strong enough to indemnify
himself for the loss of his ancestral dominions by attempting
the conquest of Hindostan. Crossing the Indus near Attock-
the point chosen also by Alexander the Great, Timour, and
Nadir Shah-he commenced the series of successes which cul-
minated in the crowning victory of Pnniput, on the 21st April,
 MOHAMMED BABER. 155

1526. Baber's direct connection with the affairs of Central

Asia ceased, however, on his flight from the famished citadel of
IIissar, but i t is recorded that he carried with him into India
the barbarous Moghul practice of building up into pyramids
the heads of his fallen enemies.
His son Hoomayoon retained the gorernment of Badakllsllan
until shortly before his accession to the throne of Delhi in
1530. For rather more than two centuries after 1Toorna~-oon's
retirement that province remained virtually independent, until
it was overrun by the armics of Shah Jchnn, under Bloorad and
Aurungzeb. I n the eud that emperor conferred Badakhshan
upon Nazar Nohammed Khan of Bulkh, and with tlint act
terminated the connection of the Noghul rulers of IIindo-
stan with the countries lying to the north of the IIindoo
Koosh.
The Oozbeg conquerors of Xawnralnahr were descende(1
from the 31oghul horde of 15,000 families settled in Siberia by
Sheibani Khan, brother of the reilomued Batou. Their rlarno
is said to signify ' onc who is his own master,' but this inter-
pretation is evidently an after-thought, suggested by the mastery
they acquired over the people upon whom they were hurled by
the advance of the Russians into their own domains. I t is
. certainly more probable that they derived their apcllation from
Oozbeg, the ninth rulcr of the house of Joujee, the eldest son of
Chinghiz, mlio converted them from idolatry to the profession
of Islom. I n their irruption into the lands south of the
Syhoon, or Jaxartes, they were led by a chief whose name
rccallcd thc memory of their original lender. Sheibani ~loharn-
med Khan was not destined, however, to behold the final succcss
of his people, being slain in a great battle near Jferv in 1510.
IIe is described as a patron of learned men, and a vercifier of con-
siderable merit. He was also the founder of several colleges
and mosques, but after dcath his skull wae converted into n
. - -
r,,-l;r.ns 5~ -% .xm;-rrmr Ism& LXL -3 L& 8 5 -&
.Sl;db7%Cl .;r'
?-72*r_~ P2&
-- - -
Lmuc;ri v-, .J-:rn>i 5 . m >- S : & : C ~ -6.3
rG'& at -td>-c af -G he4y 5;m Y 1r~un-d-
b m , :> ie-?c:i -1 51;; v h ma ru:re m w r d $?r
tit p ~ 3 ; t d -ti?- I?= 5 + ~ e m * k i -:ir. -.229-x
-- 7

W*UL-~
. -
in P+r& G - a fi,m L=-d:; wi) ~ r J i +-.~_i-;l i q n I+.T+F-

f: ;p :te +'J;s~(Jf & T2 7rLc.e eq&Ld -& c_r-zvw2 hjm

6ie;r-.i3a, . a l . . L LA+ eser '13r:rf ' k e ~x
t ~~LcI; p 3 r 2 . 3 5 "i &e
. .
Pertiin tilrr.:.;.e~ 1 - 3 lit' -5 swxes:-i w t r e n:.i &>m
to tteir w , s : + r p ; r ~ i e s21 k : s-q L 5 - a i I--p erne&
from the o'cczri:y :k 6J5i:Lr enre:..;ps -Le hi-:;T of the
FAwt tiirr,qh t t e ++43 he o 5 . d to our o:,azzpxm &.hony
de&n.<,x, r t 9 e I L F K M the G m r Eyl tL-. g>A f t ~ r t m eto
ccmrn3nd the *rr;iei of the two dktk,7?i--Ed bnxhers, Su
B J l ~ x - r t and Sir Anthony Fzir4y. The S>&ve-m d - w t r
c w a d in 1 7 2 with the abdicati-n c i F d Howin in Lrour of
JIahmwd of K a n h r .
Although the star of Sheihni Khan r a n d &fore that
of Shah I.<mael,hi3 W J Timour ~ Srjltan, as we have seen, be-
came quffciently powerful to d L ' i y h~b~e r of both ,hnsrtnnd
and Tokhan. The g r a t m t of hi3 d e s c e n d ~ n thowever, ~, was
Atxloollnh Khan, who 5ub;lued the w'uolz of Jlaxarilnnhr, and
made Eokhara his capital This d-pasty was of brief duration,
expiring in 1597, with AMoohh's savage and rebellious son
AMor)l 3Ioomcen K h . The princes of this line showed
rnnrk~xlfavour to the priestly class, and encouraged theological
rnt~~tlicq of on abstruse character. They were also believers in a
Bfngic Stolle, which waa supposcd to control the elements, cure
di~t.irlct.n,nnd insure victory.
171cOozbegs were not the only race who were compelled to
givo wny Lcforo the Russian advance. Certain of Joujee's
dl-ncoi~tlantohad settled near Ashtnrkhnn, or Astrakan, at the
 ANTHONY JENKINSON. 157
-

north-western extremity of the Caspian Sea. Here they

remained in comparatively peaceful obscurity for some two
hundred years, when the encroaohmente of their northern
neighbours drove them from their homes at the mouth of the
Volga. The emigrants were hospitably received by Abdoollah's
father Iskander Khan, who even gave his daughter in marriage
to their leader Janee Khan. The grandaon of this couple
ultimately ascended the throne, and founded the ninth dynasty
that has ruled over Bokhara, and which was superseded towards
the middle of the 18th centuq by Nadir Shah.
On the 23rd of April, 1558, 'Master ' Anthony Jenkinson
started from Moscow in company with Richard and Robert
Johnson, and a Tatar Tolmach, or interpreter. These adventur-
ous travellers were sent out by the Muscovy Company of
London, to establish a direct trade with Bokhara and Samarkand,
and were furnished with letters from the Czar Ivan Vaailovich,
' directed unto sundry kings and princes.' It was the 10th of
August before they reached the Caspian, on which they were
sorely storm-tossed until the 3rd September, when they were
landed ' over against Manguslave '-Manghishlak-and wero
greatly entertained by the prince and his people,' who did not,
however, improve upon further acquaintance. ' Before our
departure from thence,' the tormented traveller remarks, we
found them to be a very bad and brutish people, for they
censed not daily to molest us, either by fighting, stealing, or
begging, raising the prise of horses and camels and victuals,
double that it was woant there to be, and forced us to buy the
water that we did drinke: which c a d us to hasten away, and
to conclude with them as well for the hire of camels, as for the
prise of such as were bought, with other provision, according to
their owne demand ; so that for every camel's lading, being but
400 waight of ours, we agreed to give three hides of Russia,
and foure woddin diahes, and to the Prince or Gevernour of the
158 CENTRAL ASIA.

sayd people, one ninth and two sevenths; Kamely, ]line

sevcrnll things and twise seven several1 things; for money thcp
use none.'
A t last, on the 14th September, the Englishmen commenced
their long land journey with a caravan of one thousand camels.
They had not proceeded, however, further than five marches,
when they were stopped by a troop of Toorkoman horsemen of
Timour Soolhn, Governor of Manguslave, who laid their hands
upon various articles in the name of their Prince. Jenkinson
at once rode up to the latter, and after a spirited remonstrance
got frnm him a horse in part exchange, together with a letter
of acknowledgment. Had he not acted in this fearless manner,
he would have been not only robbed, but murdered-at least,
so he waa informed by his interpreter.
The Toorkoman chief, whom he calls the ' Soltan,' lived, he
says, ' in the'fields without castle or towne, and sate, at my being
with him, in a little rounde house made of reeds, covered
without with felts, and within with carpets.' There was with
him ' the great Jietropolitan of that wilde countrey, esteemed
of the people as the Bishop of Rome ie in most parts of Europe.'
At this encampment the English travellers were regaled with
horse-flesh and mare's milk, but the absence of bread is par-
ticularly noticed. For twenty days they wandered through a
desert, compelled every now-and-then to kill a camel or a horse
for food, and finding no water except in old deep wells, when
i t was generally brackish, and even salt, and sometimes two or
three days elapsed without a well of any kind being met
with.
On the 5th October, the caravan struck a gulf of the
Caspian (?) where excellent water was obtained, and where the
'King of the Turkomane customers' examined the merchan-
dise, and ' tooke custome, of every twenty-five one (four per
cent.) and seven-ninthee '-that ia, sixty-three eeparate articles.
 ANTHONY JENKINSON. 150

Into this gulf the Oxus, according to Jenki~mn'sinformant,

formerly emptied itself, but there is evidently some confusion
in this statement. The Oxus at one time no doubt discharged
itself into 13alkan Bay, but Jenkinson must have alluded to
Kara Boghaz Bay, if it was really the Caspian Sea at aH, un- .
less, indeed, he referred to the Gulf of Kindelinsk or Kinderli,
which Bruce regarded as the outlet of the ancient Oxus. The
last supposition, however, is irreconcilable with the route laid
down by our traveller, which, though ill defined, still gives the
exact number of eleven days from the Toorkoman ' custom-
house ' to Urghunj, of which seven seem to have been spent in
the Castle of Azeem Khan. Perhaps the true solution of the
difficulty might be found in reading Aral for Caspian, and in
regarding the Aibugir Gulf or Lake, as the point that was
' struck ' after three weeks wandering in the desert. Urghunj is
represented to have been only two days' journey from Sellizure,
and not more than five days from the gulf.
Be that as it may, the caravan is stated to have arrived on
the 7th at a place misnamed Sellizure or Shayzure, where the
castle of Azeem Khan, the governor of the Urghunj district,
stood on a considerable eminence. I t seems to have been built
of mud, and boasted of neither etrength nor beauty. The
people around were poor and knew nothing of commerce. The
low-lying lands to the eouthward were well cultivated, and
produced corn, rice, and fruit in abundance, but the water used
for irrigation was drawn entirely from the Oxus, and the
volume of that river had consequently been diminished to a
serious extent.
Rere the travellers remained, content with their reception,
until the 14th, and on the 16th they entered Urghunj, after
paying a poll-tax upon every man, horse, and camel in their-
company. ThL town was situated in a plain, and surrounded
by mud w&, four miles in circuit. ' The buildings within it
IN p,r-.rr -zw,m-. -&? ~IL-~I
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: i e r +x-T=L- 3.r tze m e -
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k . 4 *S+? ?..17e ~;FA- :,;r :~EV ze:zei- 7- I S I ~ W V Y : :2er k

rl ;&ir~t. from t1.e p'ke of our landkg men? &rj'jarrme~,

, i be in r e 1 5 the r a t e r -hereof is .dish. and ~t
r x ~ r . ~it
dirterrt the (me trrm the other t r o daies joume- and more.
'Dlv ~ * ttr&r k meate upon the ground, sitting 6th their legs
 ANTHONY JENKINSON. 1G1

double under them, and so also when they pray. Art or acience
have they none, but live most idlely, sitting round in great
companies in the fieldes, devising and talking most vainely.'
Jenkinson and his companions were detained at Urghunj
till the 26th November, and on the 7th December halted a t
Koit Castle. The Christians in the caravan were here in great
peril of being despoiled of their goods by ' Soltan Saramet,'
but in the end he deferred to the more moderata counsels of
his brother of Urghunj, and contented himself with taking a
Russian hide for each camel. When again involved in the
desert they were alarmed by rumours of robbers being abroad
under an exiled prince, who maintained themselves by plunder-
ing defenceleas travellers.
I n the caravan it chanced that there were several Hajees,
or pilgrims returning from Mecca, who resorted to divination
to ascertain whether the threatened danger would overwhelm
them, or pass over. For thia purpose 'they tooke certaine
sheepe and killed them, and took the blade bones of the same
and first sodde them and then burnt them, and tooke of the
bloode of the said sheepe, and mingled it with the powder of
the said bones, and wrote certaine characters with the a i d e
blood, using many other ceremonies and wordes, and by the
same divined, and found that wee shoulde meete with enemies
and theeves (to our great trouble), but should overcome them,
to which sorcerie I and my companie gave no credit, but we
found it true.'
The robbers came on boldly enough till Jenkinaon and his
companions, who were armed with musketa, emptied several
saddles. A desultory skirmish then ensued, which lasted till
nightfall, when a truce during the hours of darkness waa con-
cluded with mutual consent. The rogues, however, were too
knowing for the honest men, and cut them off from the water.
I n the course of the night also they hailed the leader of the
11
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d lx:?-:.:zes SO artis-
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cer aht-rcaf ij trx~1,jr.g to reheam.
' 1 3 e r e i?a Ii::!? rirer m n n i c g t1:x~;h t2e m132est of the
naId Ci:ie, b u t the na:er t h e r t ~ fiii mn.--t n n ~ ~ ~ l w x nfor e , it
b r d c - : h sl,me:irnej i n men that d d e t h e m f , and qecially
in them that be not there borne, a worme of an ell long, which
lyeth commonly in the l e g s , betwixt the 0tsh and the skinne,
and in pluckt out about the ancle with grest art and cunning,
 ANTHONY JENKINSON. 163

the surgeons being much practised therein, and if shee breake

in plucking out, the partie dieth, and every day she commeth
out about an inch, which is rolled up, and so morketh till she be
all out. And yet it is there forbidden to drinke any other
thing than water and mare's milke, and whosoever is found to
breake that law is whipped and beaten most cruelly through
the open markets, and there are officers appointed for the same,
who have authoritio to goe into any man's house, to search if
he have either aqua vitm, wine, or brage, and, finding the same,
doe breako the vessels, spoile the drinke, and punish the masters
of the house most cruelly ; yea, and many times if they perceive
but by the breath of a man that he hath drunke, without
further exnmination he shall not escape their hands.'
Truly a mighty reformation since the jovial days of Timour,
or even of Baber. The strict observance of this law was en-
forced by the High Priest, who was more feared even than the
king. Jenkinson adds that the people of Bokhara hated the
Persians, and called them ' Caphars,' or unbelievers, because
they suffered their moustaches to grow, and this seems to be all
he knew as to the difference between Soonees and Sheeahs.
' The king of Boghar,' we are told, ' hath no great power or
riches, his revenues are but small, and he is most maintnined by
the Citie; for he taketh the tenth piece of all things that are
there eolde, as well as by the craftsmen as by the marcha~lts,to
the great impoverishment of the people, whom he kecpeth in
great subjection, and, when he lacketh money, he sendeth his
officers to the shoppes of the sayd Marchants to take their wares
to pay his dcbts, and will have credito of force, as tho like he
did to pay me certaine money that he owed me for nineteen
pieces of Kersey.'
There was no gold coin in the realm. The silver coin was
a piece.equivalent to twelve pence of Xnglish money, and 120 cop-
per coins, called Pooles, were of the same value. Kotwithstrmding
 164 C E S T R I L ASIA.

it4 manif'est inconvenience, the copper current- n-a3 most em-

ployed even in comparativelr hrge tmmwtions, because the
silver was frequently tampered with by the king, who caused i t
to ' rise and fall to his most advantage every other moneth, and
sometimes twise a moneth, not caring to oppresse hie people,
fi,r that he looketh not to r e i p e above two or three yeres
before he be either shine or driven away to the great destmc-
tion of the countrep and marchants'
Per,onally, the representative of the J I u x o q - Company of
Lonilon had no great reason to complain of his reception a t
court. The Khan even showed him much attention, and invited
him to exhibit his skill as a marksman, condescending himself
to cntcr the lists against him. Mow than this, on being in-
formed of thc attack made upon the caravan in the desert, he
dcqpatched a body of soldiers in search of the robbers, of whom
sc\-era1were killed and four taken prisoners, two of whom had
bccn wo~~ndcd by the Engliqh guns. ' And after the king had
t me to come to see them, he mused them all four to be
~ c n for
hanged at his palace gate, because they were gentlemen, to the
example of others. And of such goods as were gotten againe,
I had part restored to me, and this good justice I found at his
hands.'
For oll that, 'be'fore my departure he shewed hirnselfe a
very Tartar; for he went to the wars owing me money, and
Raw me not paged before his departure. And although, indeed,
he gavo order for the same, yet was I verie ill satisfied, and
forced to rebate part and to take wares as payment for the rest,
contrary to my expectation : but of a beggar better paiment I
could not have, and glad I was so to be paid and despatched.'
Bokhura was at that time a great resort for merchants from
India, Peraia, and Russia. I n bygone days there had also been
much intercourse with Cathay, but this had of late been inter-
rupted by constant wars on the borders between the Moham-
 ANTHONY JENKINSON. 1G5

mednn Kossaks and the Tatars of Tashkend and Kashgar.

Caravans were, besides, liable to be plundered by nomad tribes,
and the journey oftentimes occupied nine months. Trade had
consequently dwindled away, though small quantities of musk,
rhubarb, satins, damasks, &c., &c., were occasionally imported
into Bokhara. One of Jenkinson's companions, Richard John-
son, was informed that ' ships may saile from the dominions of
Cathaia unto India. But of other waies, or how the seas lie by
any coast hee knoweth not.' The religion of the Chinese,
according to Tatar report, was ' Christian, or after the manner
of Christians '-it was, of course, Buddhism.
' The Indians,' we learn, ' doe bring fine whites, which the
Tartars do all roll about their heads, and a1 other kinds of
whites, which serve for apparell, made of cotton, wooll, and
crasko ; but gold, silver, precious stones, and spices, they bring
none. I enquired and perceived that all sucl~trade passcth to
the ocean sea, and the vaines where all such things are gotten
are in the subjection of the Portingalls. The Indians carie
from Boghar agaiuc wrought silkes, red hides, slaves, and
horses, with such like, but of kerseis and other cloths they
make little accompt. I offered to barter with marchants of
those countreis which came from the furthest parts of India,
even from the countrey of Bengaln, and the river Ganges, to
give them kerseis for their commodities, but they would not
barter for such commodities as cloth.
'The Pcrsinns do bring thither Craska, woollen cloth,
linnen cloth, dikers ki~idesof wrought pide silks, drgomacks,
with such like, and do carie from thence redde hidcs, with other
Ruase wares, and slaves which are of divers countreis; but
cloth they will by none, for that they bring thither tl~emsclvee
is brought unto them, as I hnve enquired, from Alcppo in
Syria and the parts of Turkie. The Russes doc carie unto
Boghar rcddc hidcs, sheepc skinnes, w o l l c ~cloth
~ of divers
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1, ~ , I I I11~ WI.III W~III~III~II~ IIUW to ~r,nvcrt a art-wheel i n t o
~ I1 I ~ 1 ,1 1~ 0 ~ 1 1 14 CI CICI~~I IIL il,t.O t h I~ ~ n r h u rand prorided them
v I I I I I is, \'JI!I ull WUH ready they sct mil-' 1
,lr,ll III~ IWI, ~ I t ~ ~ t ~ ~Ill~illK ~ t l ~nlunlcr~ ~ ~ rand( Jlnriners oursel!*es,
1 ' 8 , I r r 1,111. IIIIIbo 1111, ~ l l l inix
f,~l,! ~ l An~G;~ssndors and twenty-five
I,III,I I*IIII J I I ~ I ~ IJI~I~IIO ~l,rvc:n a long time in Tartnrie, nor
I II#I(I II~~~;II,II IIIJ I~IIIIIIII~I~~ IiI,crtio or meones to get home,
1 t 1 v l IIII~~III PIIII YII m111-\.t111I,O rowP, when necde wns.' A stom,
JI~~++I,CIO~, BIIIIIIIIIII~ III~IIIIO, t.1111ir r i ~ l ~ lparted,
o and their anchor
~ 1 1 I4l l n f . III t11,111lr l o ontslL1)u 1)i:irlg dlivcn on to a lee shore,
I11r.y I~III~III\IIIII,I~I~ 10 ~ l ~ i1111 t l ofing, but a t l n ~ took
t shelter in
1111 011vy I~I~I~I+I~, ~ I I I ~t11vy I~O I l i v c d in great discomfort for a
t llllll,'
\\'111111 1110 wit111 1111(111111~dtliey mndo for their former
llllltll( 1t*llk'~r I I I ~ lis11tvl 111) tlio lost nncllor, the Tatars m m e l l i n g
I~o\v 1110y k ~ ~ wlima v w to find it beneath the waters ' h'ote,'
orion t h o honest Eiigliahnlnn with pardonable pride, 'that
during the time of our naviption wce set up the nddc cnwx of
 ARTHONY JENKINSON. 167
- -

Saint George in our flagges, for honour of the Christians, which

I suppose was never seene in the Caspian Sea before.'
Astrakhan was reached on the 28th May, after much peril
and distress, and Moscow on the 2nd September, ' and on the
fourth day I came before the Emperour's Naiestie, kissed his
hand, and presented him a white Cowes tuilo of Cathay and a
drumme of Tartarie, which he well accepted. Also I brought
before him all the Ambassadors that were committed to my
charge, with all the Russe slaves ; and that day I dined in his
Maicstie's presence, and at dinner his Grace sent me meate by
a Duke, and asked me divers questions touching the lands and
countrcis whcro I had bene.'
168 CES'FBAL ASIA.

BEVEhTEESTH CESTURT : NADIR SHAII.

BEBKIEB AXD THE TATAB AXBAPSADOBB AT THE COUJIT O F A W C N O 7 X h

A TATAB HKROME-BOCTE FBOY KAEHYEER TO KASHCAB-TEATELS OF
BENEDICT I3Ok AND (YTHEB XISSIOSABIES - ABOU'LCHAZEE KHAN -
IKHXVA AND B O K U M THE SE\%YTPEXTH CEhTWY-BADIB SHAH-
ENGLISH TRAVELLE-TBADE-DECADEXCE OF PEB814.

THEannals of Central Asia in the 17th century are stained

with the useless bloodshed that characterizes the incessant feuds
of petty States submerged in barbarism, and regarding arms
and the chase as the only honourable employment for free men.
A savage fanaticism passed current for religion, and the Capri-
cious will of a narrow-minded and irresponsible despot dispensed
with the usual forms and machinery of government. For the
rest, what has been written touching the social ukqges of the
Tatom and Moghuls during the previous three centuries will
apply, with very slight variation, to the mannexs and customs
of the Oozbegs and Toorkomans down to quite a recent period.
Bernier relates how about the year 1661 the Khans of
Oozbeg Tatary sent ambassadors to Aurungzeb to congratulate
him on having finally triumphed over his brothers. The real
object, however, of this mission was to efface whatever feeling6
of resentment might have been roused by the coalition of
the Oozbeg Chiefs whom he had shut up in Balkh, whence
he effected a di5cult and disastrous retreat. They came not
empty-handed, but brought a~ presents 'some boxes of choice
lapis lazulus, divers camels with long hair, several gallant horscs,
and some camel-loads of fresh fruit, as apples, pears, misine, and
 SEVENTEESTH CESTURY. 163

melons (for it is chiefly Usbec that furnishes these sorta of fruit,

eaten at Dehli all the winter long) ; and many loads of dry
fruit, as prunes of Bokhara, apricots, raisins without any stones
that appeared, and two other sorta of raisins, black and white,
w r y large and very good.'
According to that amusing traveller, there was no 'more
avaricious and uncleanly nation ' than the Tatars, on the sur-
face of the earth. The ambassadors grudged to spend the
money that was allowed by Aurungzeb for their maintenance,
and 'lived a very miserable life,' altogether unworthy of their
position. They were ignorant even of the history of their own
people. On one occasion Bernier dined with them. 'They
are not,' he remarks, 'men of much ceremony; it was a very
extraordinary meal for such a one as I , it being mere horse-
flesh ; yet for all this I got my dinner with them; there was a
certain ragout which I thought pawable, and I was obliged to
express a liking of so exquisite a dish, which they so much lust
after. During dinner there was a strange silence : they were
very busy in carrying in with their whole hands, for they know
not what a spoon is ; but after that this horseflesh had wrought
in their stomachs, they began to talk, and then they would
persuade me that they were the most dextrous at bows and
arrows, and the strongest men in the world. They called for
bows which are much bigger than those of Indostan, and would
lay a wager to pierce an ox or my horse through and througll.'
His entertainers likewise told him a tale of a Tatar maiden
who slew, with arrows and sabre, from twenty to thirty Indiarls
who had plundered her native village in her absence, and cor-
ried off captive her aged mother. The old woman warned them
that they would do well to let her go free, for it would fare
badly with them when her daughter came to know how they
had treated her. They naturally laughed at her threats, but
had not gone far beforo the Tatar I3rindomart was seen ' prick-
170 CENTRAL ABIA.

ing o'er the plain.' m i l e yet at a great distance she began t o

discharge her fatal arrows with unerring aim, and, when her
quiver was exhausted, charged them sword in hand and rescued
the beldame.
Bernier accompanied Aurungzeb to Kashmeer, where he made
the acquaintance of some merchants from Kashpria, who in-
forlned him that the quickest and easiest route to their country
lay through Great Tibet. They themselves, howeyer, proposed
to return home by way of Eskerdon-Iskardein Little Tibet,
and expected to occupy forty-four days in trayelling to Kashgar,
described as ' a small town, once the seat of the king of Kache-
guer, which is now at Jourkend-Yarkund-lying somewhat
more to the north, and ten dajs journey distant from Kache-
guer.' The tradera added that from that town to ' Katay,' on -
the north-west of China, by way of Khoten, was a distance of
two months constant travel, by very difficult roads, and that
there was ' a place where, in what season soever it be, you must
march for about a quarter of a league upon ice '-across a glacier.
I n the course of the 17th century several Jesuit Mission-
aries made their way from India to China, in the hope of con-
verting the heathen. The most notable of these mas Benedict
GOES,who started from Agra in 1602, and travelled by way of
Lahore, Attock, and Peshawur to Kabul, where he was detained
for a considerable time. At length rcsumi~~g his journey, he
crossed the Hindoo Koosh by the Parwan Pass, ascended the
valley of Badakhshan, and traversed the Pumeer Steppe to
Sarikol, being the first European since Marco Polo who had
visited those regions. Thence he proceeded to Yarkund by the
Chichiklik Pass and the Tangitar valley, and so passed on to
the fulfilment of his bootless mission.
Half a century later the two Jesuit Missionaries DorviUe
and Orueber penetrated to China from Bengal, and in 1714
another Jesuit, Desideri, adopted Kashmeer as his starting
 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 171
s

point. There is not much, however, that is either very enter-

taining or instructive in the records of their wanderings, or of
a nature to arrest the attention of the general reader.
Of far greater interest is the ' Genealogical History of the
Tatars ' commenced by dbou'l-Ghazee Khan, aftcr his abdication
of the throne of Khwarezm, and completed by his son and 8UC-
ccssor. Abou'l-Ghazee Khan was born at Urglunj in 1603,
and by his mother's side descended in a direct liile from Chin-
ghiz Khan. IIe became King of Khwarczm in 16 1.5, and aftcr a
glorious rcign of twenty years voluntarily abdicated i a fuvour of
his son Anou Shah Mohammed Bahadoor Khan. I n his leisure
hours after retiring from the management of public affairs, he
applied himself with great diligence to the compilation of his
nistory, and on the visible approach of death earnestly com-
mended its completion to his son, who faithfully acquitted him-
self of the sacred trust. This useful vork was translated and
annotated by Bentinck, a learned Dutch Oricntalist, whoso
notes, published nt Leyden in 172G, convey a lively impression
of the generirl condition of Central Asia at that period.
The description of the kingdom of Khnrarezm applies almost
equally well to that of the Khnnat of Khiva at the present day.
I n length it extended 110 miles from north to eouth, and in
breadth 310 from cast to west. I t consisted for the most part
of wide plains of sand, fringed by u few ranges of hills, and cul-
tivated only in the vicinity of the Jyhoon and its numerous
estuaries and canals. Of pusture land the extent was consider-
able, and in the irrigated districts fruits and cereals yielded
abundant crops. Vines grew well in certain localities, and the
melons were famous throughout all Asia. The capital city,
Urghunj, had fallen so much to decay that it made 'but a piti-
ful figure, being no more than a great scrambling town about a
league in compass.'
The kingdom of Dokhara, or, as it was then called by
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1, 4 ;,,TI : b r t f !.,.ir t,r~:!liren who scttI~din h ~ c + I iand
( + a fotinJtd
t : , ~ , I;ioi,;ro r r f T,~rkr:y in E u m p .
'l r r l Jl,rr14 of t ;,r: J:~rlrl,hoaerer, were the masterful Oozhgs,
.ui,lr, r b l .;I r l ; . , I 1 ..+, had l ~ e nf o d to give wnj- the
~ ( I I , ' t i{,r ~ I , I I , , : , , r4, (li-(,il,lirl~, and intelligence of the encroaching
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 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 173

t5em all their effects of any value. Their houses, indeed, were
chiefly ' a dome of laths, and o'er it felts were spread.' They
were armed with bow and arrows, a lance, a sword, a javelin, oc-
casionally with an arquebuss, and generally with a buckler slung
at their back-the chiefs in war time wearing coats of mail. I n
these respects, indeed, there was little difference between the
Oozbegs* and the partially conquered Toorkomans. Both were
men of blood, and lived by rapine, scorning the arts of peace
and the tillage of the soil, which were left to the Sarts, dwell
ing in towns and villages, and to Persian slaves torn from their
homes in Khorassan. Their favourite dishes were then, as
now, roast horse-flesh and mutt.on pillao, washed down by
' Kumeez ' and arrack, both made from mare's milk.
The Toorks, or Tabrs,-for they belonged to the same stock
-were divided into five Aimaks or tribes; the Uigurs; the
Kankli Tatars, near the I l i ; the Kipchaks, ancestors of the
Cossacks of the Ural ; tho Kall-Atz, in Mawaralnahr ; and the
Karliks, on the mountains whence the Moghuls of Chinghiz
issued forth upon the pluins. The Kankli Tatars are said to
derive their name from the inventor of wheeled carriages for
carrying off plunder, which from the creaking of their wheels
were called Kunnecks, and their ingenious deviser Kankli.
The epithet Kalmuk seems to have been given in derision by the
nlohamrnedan Tatars to those who still adhered to idolatry, just
as the Russians fell into the habit of speaking of the indepen-

In ' lalla Rookh ' the minstrel-prince sings of the

' Chiefs of the Uzbeck race
Waving their heron crests with martial grace ;
Turkomms, countless as their flocks led forth
From tlie aromatic pastures of the North ;
Wild wamors of the turquoise hills--and those
Who dwell beyond the e;erlasting snows
Of Hindoo Kosh in stormy freedom bred,
Their fort the rock, their camp the torrent's bed.
174 CENTRAL ASIA.

dent Kozzaks as Kirghiz, by which name the ,Persians con-

temptuously designated all the nomad tribes, as if dwellers in
Ehourgah, or asses' stables.
The Tatar horses, we are assured, ' mnke but a sorry appear-
ance, having neither breast nor buttocks, the neck long and
straight like a stick, and the legs very high, and no belly.
They are, besides, of a frightful leanness : for all this, they are
exceeding swift and almost indefatigable. They are easily
maintained ; a little grass, though ever so indifferent, and even
a little moss, satisfying them in case of need : so that these are
the best horses in the world for the use the Tatars mnke of
them.'
Pushing poetic license to the verge of reckless audacity, &1r
Matthew Arnold, in his spirited but singularly anachronistic
poem, ' Sohrab and Rusturn,' picturesquely delineates the Tatar
hordes as they existed some centuries subsequent to the histori-
cal romance he has selected for the pastime of a Xuse capable
of far greater flights. It is thus he describes the auxiliaries of
Sohrab :-
'From their black tents, long files of horse, they stream'd:
As when, some grey Nove~nbermorn, the files,
I n marching order spread, of long-necked cranes
Stream over Casbin, and the Southern slopes
Of Xlburz, from tlie Aralian estuaries,
On some froze Caspiau reed-bed, Southward bound
For the warm Persian sea-board ; so they stream'd.
The Tartars of tlie Oxus, the King's guard,
First, with black sheep-skin caps, and with long spears :
Large men, large steeds : who from Bokhara come
And Kliiva, and ferment the milk of mares.
Next the more temperate Toorkmans of the South,
The Tukas, and tlie lances of Salore,
And those from Att,ruck and the Caspian sands ;
Light men, and on light steeds, who only drink
The acrid milk of camels. and their wells.
And then a swarm of wandering horse, who came
From far, and a more doubtful service own'd ;
 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 175
The Tartars of Ferghana, from the banks
Of the J a x ~ r t e smen
, with scanty beards
Bud close-set skull-caps ; and those wilder hordes
Who roam o'er Kipchak, and the Northern waste,
Kalmuks, and unkemp'd Kuzzaks, tribes who stray
Nearest the Pole, and wandering Kirghizzes,
Who came on shaggy ponies from Pamere.'

Bokhara, the capital city, appears to have undergone little

change between the date of Anthony Jenkinson's visit and the
close of the 17th century. According to Abou'l-Ghazee Khan,
the name is derived from a Moghul word ' Buchar,' signifying
' a learned man,' because all such as desired to study grammar
and science were wont to repair to Bokhara. Unfortunately
for this derivation, the town possessed that name ages before
either mosque or medresseh was erected within its walls, or the
hloghul had swept down from his native mountains,
As when a vulture on Imaus bred,
Whose snowy ridge the roving Tartar bounds,
Dislodging from a region scarce of prey,
To gorge the flesh of lambs, or yearling kids,
On hills where flocks are fed, flies towards the springs
Of Ganges o t Hgdaspes, Indian streams.
The town is still pictured as begirt with a wall of earth
faced with turf, and divided into three pnrta, in one of which
stood the Ark, or Royal Palace ; in another, the chief public
o5ces and buildings ; and in the third, the shops and dwellings
of thc industrial population. As usually happens in the East,
each calling had its own peculiar quarter or bazaar, and the site
of the city on the great caravan route between Eastern and
Western Asia waa bearing its legitimate fruita. The humbler
habitations, however, were built of mud, stone being reserved
for more stately edifices, and the water was execrably unwhole-
some. Traders, too, complained that, although the customs
duties did not exceed the two-and-a-half per cent. sanctioned
by the Koran, they were subjected to such vexntion and oppres-
176 CENTRAL ASIA.

sion, that their business was seriously injured. I n like manner

the philo-Russian Bentinck says that nothing is wanting to the
city of Samarkand to enjoy a very considerable commerce, but
to have othsr masters and neighbours than the Mohammedan
Tatars.
Samarkand, however, was a much finer town than Bokhara.
Many private houses were built of stone from the neighbouring
quarries, and some of the Mosques and Uedressehs were really
handsome structures. The palace, indeed, had suffered from
neglect, but the lofty dome over the tomb of Timour, and the
ob~crvatoryerected by Ooloogh Beg, one of Timour's numerous
grandsons, failed not to excite the admiration of strangers.
The beautiful environs and the fertile valley of the Zarafshan
retained all their attractions, 'and all, save the spirit of man,
mas divine.'
Another town of importance was Balkh, at that time the
residence of an Oozbeg Chief who ruled over Badakhshan.
The country around was well cultivated, and produced @ilkof
superior quality. The silken manufactures of Balkh likewise
bore a high reputation, and the people were said to differ from
tho inhabitants of most other cities of Central Asia in that they
were less prone to theft, and more given to honest industry.
The houses were for the most part built with brick or stone,
nnd the lofty ramparts of earth that surrounded the city were
fnced with stone. Situnted on an affluent of the Amou and on
the direct caravan route between India and Persia, Balkh
enjoyed the advantages of a brisk trade, and as a duty of two-
and-a-half per cent. was levied on all goods entering or issuing
from the gates, the public revenue must have been considerable.
The castlo was a spacious and substantial structure,-the
neighbouring quarries of marble furnishing the materials.
The eighteenth century was destined to witness a revival
of the inassucres that characterized the triumphs of Chinghiz
 NADIR SHAH. 177
and Timour. I n the province of Khoraasan and at no great
distance from Kelat, the ancient Artacoana, and in the year
1687 or 1688, a man of the Affshar tribe, named Imam Kouli,
possessed of neither riches nor rank, became the father of one
of the most savage conquerors even Asia has produced. Nadir
Kouli, or Slave of the Wonderful, that is, of God, began life
aa a robber, and early distinguished himself by the murder of
an uncle who had been appointed Governor of Kelat, the
possession of which city with ita fertile table land was the
motive and recompense of the crime. His unscrupulous audacity
having recommended him to the notice of Shah Tamasp, then
King of Persia, he waa taken into the royal service, and
honoured with the title of Khan.
Courtier-like, Nadir now transferred his allegiance from
The Wonderful One to his earthly master, and called himself
with hypocritical humility Tamaep Kouli Khan. His aptitude
for war was speedily made manifest by the expulsion of the
Afghans from Persia, and the grateful or timid monarch, in
recognition of his valour and ability, conferred upon him the
governments of Khorassan, Mazanderan, Seistan, and Kerman,
thus raising him to a position scarcely inferior to his own.
The ingratitude, or patriotism, of Tamasp Kouli Khan, waa
on a par with tho suddenness of his elevation. His benefactor
having concluded a disgraceful peace with Sultan Mahmoud,
waa declared unworthy to rule over Persia, and his son, barely
eight months of age, waa placed on the throne, with Tamasp
Kouli Khan for his guardian and vicegerent. On the death of
the infant, which happened very shortly afterwards, the Regent
usurped the insignia of royalty, and adopted the name by which
he is known in history-that of Nadir Shah.
Hie son Riza Kouli Meerza likewise displayed great military
talent, and gave hopeful promise of being a just, merciful, and
enlightened monarch, should he ever succeed to the throne.
12
 178 CENTBAL ASIA.

His first feat of arms was the complete overthrow of an Oozbeg

army, followed by the capture of Balkh, ,+nd the pasage of the
Oxue. He was checked, however, in mid-career, in 1738, by a
eammons from his father, who was then on the point of setting
out on his murderous expedition into Hindostan. During
Nadir Shah's absence, Rim Kouli Meerza ruled in his EM,
fixing his seat of government at Yeehed. I t was at this time
that Jonas Hanway visited that city, which has passed through
so many riciseitudes of fortune. ' I t ie situated,' he wrote, ' to
the north of a ridge of mountains and is well supplied with
water, which is brought hither in an aqueduct from a great
distance : in time of peace it is a place of great trade ; caravans
are employed daily from Bokhara, Balkh, Biddukhshan, Kan-
dahar, and India; as well aa from all parts of Persia. The
bazaars, or market-placee, are large and well-built, filled with
rich merchandise, and frequented by great numbers of people
of different nations. There were computed about ninety cara-
vameraia in this city, all in good repair. Great numbers of
people were sent hither by Nadir Shah from all parts of Persia,
ae well as from the new-conquered dominions ; and all other
means were used to make it a flourishing city. It is fourteen
days' journey distant from Bokhara by the d i r e c t . r d , twenty
from Balkh, twenty-six from Biddukhshan, and thirty from
Kandahar.'
I t is said to have been the intention of Nadir Shah to re-
move the seat of government permanently from Ispahan to
Meshed, ae better situated for a commercial emporium, and
both he and his son conferred many privileges upon its in-
habitante, in the hope of restoring it to its former state of
prosperity. There was a time, says a writer of that century,
when Meshed was ' famous for ita manufactures of all sorts,
such as gold and silver brocades, tapestry, rich silks, and
woollen stuff, as beautiful and as dear as silks: thew was,
 NADIB SHAH. 179
besides, a manufacture of earthenware, which was looked upon
ae the best in his, on this side China; ao that, an age ago,
this city for moeques, public baths, caravanserais, bazaars, and
other public structures, was not in the least inferior to any city
in Persia; but the Uzbeck Tatara had so totally destroyed it,
that it made but a very indifferent figure when the Shah Nadir
made choice of it for the seat of his empire.'
On hia return from the capture of Delhi, and the massacre
and pillage of its inhabitants, Nadir' crossed the Oxus, and
encamped within twelve milea of the city of Bokhara. The
Khan, though deecended from Chinghiz, wisely preferred
timely submission to useless resistance, and not only laid the
ineignia of royalty at the feet of the conqueror, but also gave
hie daughter in marriage to Nadir's nephew. The Ox- .was
declared to be thenceforth the boundary between the kingdoms
of Bokhara and Persia, and 12,000 Oozbeg horsemen enlisted
under the banners of the Shah. The conqueror then proceeded
to-avenge a cruel i n d t he had rewived at the hands of the
Khan of Khwarena
Nadir had eent a m b d o r s to that barbarous court to
demand the releaee of all Persians detained in slavery, but h i
envoye were savagely put to death, with the exception of one,
who returned to him without ears or nose. The Khan boldly
took the field with 20,000 men, but, learning that Nadir Shah
was approaching in person at the head of 50,000, his courage
failed him, and he hastily retreated towards his capital. He
wae overtaken, however, when only half a day's journey from
ita friendly walk and, after a deeperate struggle, wae defeated
and made prisoner. On being conducted into the presence of
the victor, he aought to obtain hia own pardon by accusing hia
Oozbeg chiefs of having murdered the Persian a m b a d o r e
without hie knowledge. Nadir sternly replied that, if he had
not capacity enough to govern the handful of subjects who
180 CENTRAL ASIA.

acknowledged him as their lord, he was not fit to live; and

that, for the affront he had passed upon himaelf in killing his
mesaengem, he did not deeerve to die like a man-he should.
die, therefore, Like a dog. The Khan and thirty of his prin-
cipal officers were accordingly led forth to execution, and had
their throata cut.
The capital city, however, still refused to open its gatea,
and many of the Persian slaves were butchered, lest they should
betray the place to their fellow-countrymen. On the 8th No-
vember, 1739, Nadir pitched his camp on the east side of
Khiva, and opened fire upon the wale with 18 cannon and
16 mortara. H e also constructed wooden towers to over-top
the walls, and subdue the enemy's musketry fire. The besieged
had only a few field pieces, which they had taken from the un-
fortunate Prince Beckovich, and on a practicable breach being
effected they surrendered at discretion. Two English mer-
chants, named Hogg and Thompson, had been involuntarily
immured in the beleaguered town, and on appearing before
Nadir were graciously received, and promised protection for
themselves and their property. A fortnight afterwards the Per-
sian monarch withdrew from Khwarezm with 20,000 liberated
slaves and 8000 Oozbeg recruits, after bestowing the Ehanat on
Taher Khan, a cousin of the ruler of Bokhara.
W e learn from Jonas Hanway's narrative that Nadir's
army, shortly before his death, was estimated at 200,000 men, a
number far short of the countless hordes assigned to Chinghiz
and to Timour. The hosts of his predecessors, however, were
migratory nations rather than disciplined troops. For every
fighting man there were probably five or six non-combntanta,
including the old men, the women, the children, and the slaves.
I n the case of Nadir Shah i t was different. He went forth to
scourge and to conquer, but without thought of migration or
settlement. I t is true that, like all Eastern conquerors, he was
 NADIR SHAH. 181

encumbered with many useless followers, who may have con-

tributed to the magnificence of his presence, but who were
otherwise a source rather of weakness than of strength. Among
these may be enumerated 50 black eunuchs, 200 running foot-
men, 1000 stirrup-holders, 10,000 koulam or royal slaves, 500
heralda, and 150 carpet-spreaders. The 2000 Beg-zadeh, or
gentlemen's sons, and the 1000 sons of elders, may have served
as pledges for the loyalty of their parents, and the 4000 watch-
p a r & may possibly have deserved their title. But the main
body contained 50,000 Affghans, 20,000 Affshahs, or nomads
of Korassan of Nadir's own tribe, 6000 Oozbegs, 6000 Toorko-
mans, 6000 Balouche, probably 13eloochees, and 12,000 mus-
keteers.
Unchecked success, unlimited power, unthwarted caprice,
worked out their own nemesis, and in his latter days Nadir was
tormented by jealousy and suspicion. I n a moment of un-
reasoning fury he deprived of sight his eldest son Riza Kouli
Meerxa. ' You have put out the eyes of Persia,' was the only
reproach uttered by the submissive sufferer, and the event
proved the justness of the prince's view of the instability of the
empire acquired by his father. m i l e encamped in a wide
plain, a day's journey to the north-west of Meshed, Nadir con-
ceived the mad deaign of massacring all the Persian soldiers in
his army, and of trusting entirely to his Affgham and Toorko-
mans. At least, a rumour to that effect got abroad, and im-
pelled by the motive of self-preservation Stlleh Beg, the com-
mander of tho Affshah body-guard, conspired with some other
officers to assassinate the tyrant, who was accordingly slain in
his own tent while offering a vain resistance.
This tragic event occurred in 1747, and from that year
dntes the rapid decadence of Persia. The reigning dynasty be- -
longs to the Knjar tribe, and is descended from Mohammed
Hosein Khan, whose father wus murdered by Nadir Shah, and
 --

who makea an nnplerrsing *re in Hmway's narrative aa an

llrlec~llpnlonsfiwbooter.
The gracious reception accorded by Nadir to the two Eng-
lish merchant. found among the captive inhabitante of Khiva
wan consistent with the protection and encouragement that
monarch systematically extended to industry and commerce.
One object of his ambition was to command the navigation of
the Caspian Sea, though chiefly with a view to overawe the
Lesghians on the one m s t and the Toorkomans on the other.
For this purpoee he applied to the Emprese Catherine I. to
eend him some ship-carpenters, but her Majesty astutely replied
that the only artificere of that class in her dominions were
foreigners, whom she had no power to employ beyond her own
tenitoriee. I n this difficulty Nadir procured the eervices of a
ship-captain named Elton, in the pay of an English company
trading with Russia and Persia, whose representatives, Mr
George Thompson and Mr Reynold Hogg, were the two Eng-
lishmen shut up in Khiva when taken by the ~ e k i a n s .
These pioneers of commerce had started from Yaik on the
Uml, on the 26 June, 1740, and travelled in a direction to the
east-south-east of Orenberg, a fortress then recently built as an
outpost to repress the incursions of the Karakalpaks and Kir-
ghiz, and also as an emporium for furs, gold dust, and rhubarb.
On the 6th August they reached the shores of the Aral, and
followed its western shore, distressed by the want of drinkable
water and impeded by the ruggedness of the route. The cir-
cuit of the sea, or lake, they estimated at something over a
thousand English miles, while the country they traversed is
represented as abounding in wild horses, asses, and antelopes,
and infested by wolves, and ' a very fierce creature called jol-
bart, not unlike a tyger, which the Tartars say is of such pro-
digious strength as to carry off a horse.'
, A valley covered with brushwood and knee-deep in stagnant
 F~ADIRBBAH. 188

water, deecribed es the aacient channel of the Oxus, was croswd

on the 1st September, and on the 5 t h they halted at 'Jurgsnten
-Urghunj--a heap of ruins, with only one moeqae remaining.
Four daye later the travellers entered Khiva, a town with three
gates, situated on rising ground, defended by a mud wall higher
than the roofs of the h o w , strengthened by towers a t short
intervals, and surrounded by a broad ditch. The h o w , how-
ever, were nothing better than mud huts, with flat roofs covered
with earth. Trade, too, was at a standatill, the inhabitants
looking forward with reasonable apprehension to an early attack
from Nadir Shah. Lodged in a caravanserai, the Englishmen
found it dif%cult to dispose of a eufficient quantity of goods to
maintain themselves and their cattle, although they had been
compelled to pay an octroi duty of five per cent. upon the
whole of their merchandise.
'The dominions of Khiva,' they contemptuously remark,
'are of so small extent that a person may ride round them in
three days: i t haa five walled cities, all within half a day's
journey of each other.' The Khan was possessed of absolute
power, tempered by the ascendancy, in religious matters, of the
'Moollah Bashi,' and hia annual revenue did not exceed one
hundred gold ducats. His people were found to be even more
cunning and treacherous than the Kirghiz. According to the
rate of travelling in those daye, Khiva was seventeen days from
the Caspian, and thirty-three from Orenberg, each day being
equivalent to forty versts, or about twenty-seven English milea.
After the submission of Khiva $0 Nadir Shah, the English-
men sold a portion of their merchandise without much ditEculty
to the Persians, but had great trouble in getting their money.
Hogg therefore remained till the 6th April, 1741, when, to
avoid the Toorkomnns, he directed his course to the enstern
ehores of the Sea of Aral. I n fifteen days he reached the Syr,
but on the other side fell into the hnnde of the Kirghiz, who
184 CENTI~AL ASIA.

took from him everything he had, ao that i t was with much

pain and fatigue he finally made hia way to Orenberg, and
thence to S t Petereburg.
I n the meanwhile Thompson had proceeded to Bokhara, ' a
large and populous city,' situated on a rising ground, and begirt
with a slight mud wall and a dry ditch. The dwelling-houses
were mud hovels with flat roofs, but the mosquea and caravan-
sera& were built of brick, as also the bazaars, though many
'stately buildings' of brick and stone were in a ruinous con-
dition. 'The place,' says Thompson, 'is not esteemed un-
healthy as to air and soil ; but the water is so very bad that
many of the inhabitants are confined several months in the
summer by w o r n in their flesh, which they call Rishtaa:
some of these, when taken out of their bodies, prove to be forty
inches long.' Serpents and scorpions of an exceedingly venom-
ous nature were unpleasantly frequent. 'The most effectual
remedy they find for the immediate cure of this distemper (the
sting of the scorpion) is to bruise the scorpion, and apply it to
the wound.'
The Bokhariota themselves are denounced as a cruel, cow-
ardly, effeminate, and perfidious race, but more polite and
civilized than the Khivans. The Armenian prince Haiton also
spoke ill of the latter, as lawleas, rude, unlettered pagans, while
Ibn Batuta wrote, 'I have never seen better or more liberal
people than the inhabitants of Khwarezm, or those who are
more friendly to strangers. They have,' he adds, ' a very com-
mendable practice with regard to their worship, which is this :
When any one absents himself from his place in the mosque, he
is beaten by the priest in the presence of the congregation ; and,
moreover, fined in five dinars, which go towards the expenses
of the mosque, and for nourishing the poor. I n every mosque,
therefore, a whip is hung up for this purpose.' Ibn Batuta
was further astonished by the crowds of people in the streets,
 NADIR SHAH. 185

who made the ground, aa it were, tremble beneath their feet,

while the incessant movement recalled to mind the agitated
surface of a storm-vexed sea.
No doubt, these different travellers bore each faithful wit-
ness according to his lighta and personal experience. The
Englishman, however, would probably have gladly exchanged
something of the politeness of the Bokhariots for a brisker
market for his wares, but the demand for European goods was
very slight, and cloth was used only for caps. The duty on
imports, whether belonging to natives or to foreigners, was no
more than one per cent., but ten times that rate on exports.
I n the rare intervals of peace, the Cu6toms were estimated to
yield one thousand ducats per annum.
On the 8th August Thompson turned his back upon Bok-
ham, and proceeded to Meshed by a strangely circuitous route.
H e first travelled for four days in an easterly direction, passing
through many Oozbeg villages, and then, turning to the south,
crossed the Amou at Kherki on the ltith, after traversing the
inhospitable desert. Here he was constrained to pay a small
duty upon his merchandise. Bending to the south-east he
next reached 'Anthuy '-Andkooee-after a painful journey
through a desert country, and found that he was only three
days distant in a direct line from his starting-point. The whole
of this b t r i c t was subject to the Persians, who bought large
quantities of cattle from the inhabitants.
After a detention of ten days, waiting for a caravan, Thomp-
son got away again on the 31st, and travelled westwards through
narrow valleys hemmed in by lofty mountains, and on the 6th
&ptembr arrived at a place he calls Mar~iehab--probably a
corruption of Murghab, but which waa actually Merou. It is
stated to be very strong, defended by a ganieon of 500 soldiers,
and surrounded by a double wall on which aeveral guns were
mounted, but very unhealthy in summer in conwquence of
186 CENTRAL AUIA.
- -

pestilentid winds. I t waa not until the 22nd September that

he arrived at Meehed, the chief town of Khorssean, and at that
time the capital of Nadir's wide dominions.
'Few things,' as Sir Rutherford Alcock remarked in his
comprehensive address to the Geographical Section of the
British Association at Bradford, 'Few things in the retrospect
of y t intercourse and knowledge of each other among nations
widely separated, are more remarkable than the continuous
communication across the whole breadth of h i a between the
east and west, which seems always to have been maintained for
purposes of traffic from the earliest historic periods. No
dangers of the way, no physical obstacles of mountain ranges
and great rivers or deserts, no length of time nor ignorance of
the geographical bearings of any portions of this area of so
many thousand milea, seemed to have acted as deterrents.'
The decadence of Persia, it has been said, commenced
immediately upon the death of Nadir Shah. I t might, perhaps,
have been more correct to say that it was greatly accelerated by
that event. I n any case, we have contemporary evidence to
the complete dissolution of the empire acquired by the victorious
arms of that adventurer, and to the appalling disorder which
ensued upon his assaasination. Thus we read of Khorassan, ' I t
was formerly the best peopled, the best planted, and the best
built province in Persia, but of late the incursions of the Uzbeck
Tatars have laid one half of i t waste; ~ n though
d for a few
years they were kept in awe by the Shah Nadir, who drove
them out of this country, for which he had a peculiar affection,
yet it is not to be supposed, while the affairs of the Persian
empire are in confusion, that they can be long restrained.'
Again, ' I f we could with any roba ability suppose that a
well-constituted government could take place, and be thoroughly
established in Persia, i t is very evident that in the space of a
century, not only the aifaira, but the very face of the country
 NADIR SHAH. 187
would be changed ; their great cities would be repeopled, the
trade through Perma to India and Tatary would be revived,
their silk works and manufectures would lk restored, and
multitudes of people would flock into a l l their provinces for the
sake of the plenty which in such a situation of things they
would be sure to enjoy. But aa this supposition is, on the one
hand, improbable, so, on the other, it is very evident that for
this very reason the Persian monarchy must for a long series of
years continue broken and weak; for it is by commerce only
that the people of the country can become formidable; for.
while, on the one side, they want a naval power to maintain the
eovereignty of the Caspian Sea, to which they pretend, and on
the other hand have no fortresses of great strength to secure
the frontiers against the Uzbeck Tatars on the north, and the
Turks on the west, they will always be in danger from both
those neighbours.'
As the surest remedy for this calamitous state of things, the
occupation of the Caspian provinces by the Russians is contem-
plated with a certain degree of hopefulness, especially as tending
to the overthrow of the Mohammedan heresy. ' If the feuds of
Christian princes were once laid asleep, there is no improbability
in the conjecture that the Russians might make themeelves
masters a t least of some of the provinces of this empire which
lie nearest to the Caspian Sea ; and whenever it shall happen
it may prove a beginning to much greater revolutions, since
there are multitudes of Christians in the adjacent countries,
who are either of the Greek religion, or very little removed
from i t ; and if their spirits should once revive, the wealinesa
of the Mahometans, both here and elsewhere, would be quickly
eeen.' As it happened, the feuds, or the indifference, of Chris-
tian princes afforded Russia the desired opportunity of seizing
upon the western shore of the Caspian, a movement that has
undoubtedly proved the prelude to greater revolutions, though
188 CENTRAL ASIA.

without aid from the co-religionieta imagined by our author.

Less foresight, however, was manifested in his over-hasty
congratulations on the gain to British merchants likely to arise
from the opening up of a route through Russia into the heart of
the Persian empire. ' W e must consider ourselves,' he mys,
'extremely happy in having set on foot a trade through Russia
into Persia by the Caspian Sea, by which the moat lucrative
part of the commerce of that empire will full into our hands,
and may be justly esteemed the fruita of our great naval power,
and the effects of sending our squadrons into the Baltic, which
gave the Court of Petersburg such an impression of our power
to assist or distress them, as it is our interest to take care that
time shall never efface.'
Time's effacing fingers, however, have obliterated far deeper
impressions than any that might have been made by the spirited
conduct of a British Minister in the eighteenth century. What-
ever share of the Persian trade is now enjoyed by this country
ie carried on through the Persian Gulf, the Caspian having
become politically, as well as physically, a n2al.e clausum.
To the East India Company is due the merit of having, as it
were, tapped Persia and the extreme eastern territories of the
Turkish empire from the south, and thus in some degree
revived the ancient commercial importance of Assglia and
Mesopotamia. As the Russians bear down from the north, it
becomes a matter of vital interest to Great Britain to establish
a counterpoise in southern and western Asia, as the most
efficient means of rescuing Persia from the state of vassalage
and dependence on the Government of St Petersburg, into which
she is rapidly descending. Strangely enough, it is to British
capital and enterprise that Russia is primarily indebted for the
possession of the Caspian, and for all the advantages resulting
from that position.
 THE RIVAL POWERS. 189

CHAPTER IX.

THE B I V A L POWERS.

C O ~ E N C E X E N T OF ANQLO-BUBBLAN TRADE-QUEEN ELIZABETH'S LETTEB

TO SHAH T ~ 8 I . L C B R I S T O P H E B BUBBOUQH-EXPEDITION O F PRINCE
BECKOVICH CHEBKABBKY-JOHN E L M N d P T A I N WOODBOOBE-JONAS
HANWAY--COUNT VOMOVICH-RELATIONS O P R U W WITH KHIVA-
XOUBAVIEB'S QdIBBION-QENEBAL PEBOBSKI'B EXPEDITION-BUWIA AND
ENGLAND I N CENTRAL ASIA-MAJOB ABBOTT'S
~18810~-HIS EXPERIENCES
OR KHIVA-UNDERTAKE8 A DIPLOMATIC MISSION TO BT PETEBSB-
HIS ADVENTWES lN THE DESERT.

THE first English expedition to Russia was undertaken in

the reign of Edward VI., under the command of Sir Hugh
Willoughby, who, together with the crew of the ill-named
Bona Esperanza, mas frozen to death off the coast of Lapland.
Bichard Chancelor was more successful. As captain of the
good ship Edward Bonaventure, he discovered the Bay of
Archangel, whence he proceeded to Moscow, and was received
with great distinction by Ivan Vasilivich, commonly called
Ivan the Terrible. This prince, in 1555, concluded a treaty
with England, by which important privilegee were conferred
upon the merchants of that county, and in the following year
a Russian a m b a d o r waa sent to London.
I n 1557, Anthony Jenkinson was despatched by 'the
merchants of London, of the Moscovie Companie ' to open up a
direct trade route with Bokhara, in the hope of bartering
Englieh merchandise for 'the gorgeous silks that Samarliand
supplies.' On his return voyage acrose the Caspian Sea, in
1560, the patriotic Englishman, aa we have s e n , hoisted the
 100 CENTRAL ASIA.

red cross of St George at the peak of his frail bark, the chief
result of his hazardous journey being a sort of firman from the
Sultan of Hircan (Hyrcania), or Shirvan, to establish a factory
in his dominions. Thie Abdoollah Khan, whose name is
corrupted into Obdolowcan, is described as 'a prince of a meane
stature and of a fierce countenance,' parelled in gorgeous array,
and fond of good living-140 dishes of meat and 150 dishes of
desert constituting the menu of the banquet at which he
entertained his guest from foreign parta.
I n 1561, Anthony Jenkinson had the honour of bearing a
a letter from Queen Elizabeth to Shah Tzhmas, or Tahmasp,
of Persia, who is styled therein ' the great Sophie, Emperor of
the Persians, Medea, Parthians, Hyrcanes, Carmanarians,
Margians, &c., &c.' After praying for due protection to her
envoy, Elizabeth remarks in the stiff and redundant phraseology
of the day : ' If these holye duties of entertainment and sweets
ofices of natural1 humanitie may be willingly concluded,
sincerely embraced, and firmely observed, betweene us, and our
realmee, and subjects, then wee doe hope that the Almightie
God will bring it to p w e that of these small beginnings greater
moments of things shall hereafter spring, both to our furnituree
and honors, and a h to the great commoditim and uee of our
peoples, ao it will be knowen that neither the earth, the seas,
nor the heavens have so much force to separate ue as the godly
disposition of natural humanitie and mutual benevolence have
to j o p e us strongly together.' Shah Tahmasp, however, cared
little for ' naturall humanitie,' and treated the English a m h -
nador with studied neglect. Before this, however, the western
coast of the Caspian had fallen into the hande of the Turh,
and trade in that quarter was completely suspended.
I n 1679, Christopher Burrough built a veeeel on the V o l e
at Nijni Novprod, and sailed in it to Baku. On his return
voyage the ship wae stranded off Nizabad, and a portion of the
 THE BIVAL POWBBS. 191

cargo thrown overboard and lost. At Derbend, Burrough dis-

posed of his goods to the ~ n & ands purchased another vessel
which he loaded with raw silk, but before he could reach the
Volga the winter had set in, and the ship was ' cut to pieces by
the ice.' The cargo was taken out and put into a boat which,
in a temporary thaw, floated out to eea, where it was again
frozen up. The crew then abandoned the boat, and struck
across over the ice, but lost their way and were early starved
to death, besides being shot at with arrows by the Nogai Tatars.
I n the end the cargo was got to ~ s t r a k h a n ', and thus ended the
British Caspian commerce.'
In. the reign of Queen Elizabeth, England enjoyed the
exclusive privilege of importing foreign commodities into
Russia. At that t,ime, even during the continuance of hostili-
ties, caravans-which Jonas Hanway w r t a should be spelt
' kiervane '-passed unmolested between Turkey and Persia.
After the suppression of Stenka Radzin's rebellion in 1671,
and the recovery of Astrakhan from the Cossacks of the Ukraine,
Russian and Armenian merchants procured English and Dutch
cloths at Archangel, which they passed on into Persia from
Astrakhan by means of wretched unseaworthy boats. A Russian
factory wee a h established at Shirwan, but after the plunder
of that province in 1721 by the Lesghians, the Russians
'almost quitted the field to the Armenians, who were more
enterprising in commerce, as well as more reeolute in defending
their property.'
Peter the Great reduced a portion of Ghilan in 1722, but
the warm moist temperature, together with the abundance
of fruit, 'rendered that province the grave of the Russians,'
and it was evacuated under the Empress Anne. I t wee
not m much the coasting trade of the Caspian that Peter
wae anxious to command, as the route to India, China, and
above all to the gold minee of 'Little Bucharia,' the exist-
102 CENTRAL ASIA.

ence of which had been reported by Prince Gagarin, the

Governor of Siberia. With this view he dapatched in
1716 an expedition of 6090 men in sixty-nine veaaela, under
the leadership of the Circamian Prince Beckovich, to take
possession of the eaatern coast of that aea. Three forts were
consequently erected : St Peter's .on Cape Tup Karaghan, Fort
Alexander in the Gulf of Bektirli Ishan, and a third on the
Krasnovodak promontory at the entrance of the Balkan Bay.
I n the following year, Prince Beckovich was sent with a
force of only 3000 men against the W a n of Khiva. Marching
across the Ust Urt plateau, the Prince defeated tbe Khivans in
a pitched battle, whereupon the latter affected to tender their
submission, and undertook to conduct the victors to the capital.
Leading them through the most desolate tracts, they a t length
persuaded the Prince to break up his little army into detach-
ments as more likely to obtain a sufficient supply of water for
aU. They then fell upon the scattered and exhausted troops
and cut them to pieces. Prince Beckovich, it is said, refusing to
kneel down, had his head hacked off with circumstances of
great cruelty-it being even affirmed that he was flayed from
his knees upwards, and his skin used to cover a drum. I n any
case, h i head was stuffed with hay, and sent as a present to
the ruler of Bokhara. This disaster checked the advance of
Russia for n century, though the interval was usefully employed
in consolidating her possessions and influence to the north of
the Caspian.
So far back as the early part of the 17th century, the Don
Cossacks on the Paik, or Ural, had sworn fealty to Michael
Romanof, and in 1732, the Smaller Kirghiz Horde besought
the Empress Anne to protect them from their violent neigh-
bours, the Zungarians and Kalmuka. I n consequence of that
application, the towns of Orsk and Uralsk mere connected by
a line of fortified stations, and a solid foundation laid for an
 THE RIVAL POWERS. 193

advance towarde the south-east. The sagacity of Peter had

recognized the neceseity of first securing his footing in the
north, before his ulterior designs could be safely commenced.
' Although these Kirghiz,' he is reported to have said, 'are a
roaming and fickle people, their steppe is the key and gate to all
the countries of Central Asia.'
I n 1734, an English sea-captain, named John Elton,
accompanied General Tatiachef to Orenberg, to assist in the
erection of a line of fort- from Samara* on the Volga, right
across the steppe, to Siberia, a distance of 800 English miles.
' I t wsa presumed,' says Jonas Hanway, 'that these forte
would give a check to the inroad^ of the neighbouring Tartars,
particularly the Keergeese, and in time become a means of
civilizing them.' Elton himself was sent to explore the Aral,
or Blue Sea, aa it is termed by the Russians, but failed to
penetrate so far in that direction. For four years, however, he
wee elnployed in surveying the south-eastern frontiers and
rivers, and in the execution of this duty was thrown much
among the roving Tatars, as well aa among the Sarts or
traders from Bokhara, Taahkend, Khojend, and so forth. He
thus conceived the idea that, if a safe road could be struck out, ,

a profitable trade in woollen goode might gradually be developed,

but it appeared to him, after much reflection, that the only
practicable route would be from Astrakan on the north-western,
to Astrabad on the south-eastern, extremity of the Capsin
sea.
I n 1738, Captain Elton threw up the Russian service in
disgust, and finally joined the English Company in St Petere-
burg. On the 14th March, 1739, he started from Moecow,

A 'Prince of Carizme,' it will be remembered by readen of t,l~e'Arabian

Nights,' was taken prisoner by ' the Seman,' a tribe of Cannibals wlio de-
voured his companions, and only spared himself because of the love he had
impired in their Princess.
13
194 CENTRAL ASIA.

in company with Mr Mungo Graeme, and in charge of rt

small cargo of goods specially selected for the markets of
Khiva and Bokhara. After undergoing much risk and fatigue
by land and by rirer, the two adventurers reached Astrakan on
the 14th May, and on the 21st June landed their goods a t
E~izelli,the port of Resht, and eight miles distnnt from that
important city. An ad unlorenr duty of five per cent. was here
levied upon their merchnndise, but the Rsgent, Rim Kouli
Khan, Nadir's eldest son, granted them a satisfactory charter,
armed with which Elton retomed to St Petersburg.
The British merchants in that capital induced him to draw
up a memorial for presentation to the British Minister, urging
the er+ency of establishing factories at both Resht and
Meshed. Tlie last-named place was at that time the chief
emporium of the trade between Bokhara, Tangut, Tibet, Kabul,
and India, and it was thought that woollen stuffs would yield
there a better profit than in Russia, where long credit had to be
given, wherens in the enstern marts not only were prices higher,
but goods were paid for on delivery. 'The British merchants,'
it was stated, 'can never be supplanted in this trade so long as
they secure a pnssage for their goods through the empire of
Russia, and a freedom of navigation on the Caspian, both
which it will be the interest of the sovereign of Russia to
grant to the subjects of Great Britain.'
Elton proposed that tlie Company sho~ildbuild at Kazan
one or two vessels of 180 tons each, with crews half English,
half Russian, for the navigation of the Caspian, and some large
boats for the transport of goods on the Volga. A t thnt time
i t took ninety-five days to convey merchandise from St Peters-
burg to Resht : that is, twenty to Moscow ; thence thirty-five
to Tznritzin ; thence again, ten to Astrakan ; and thirty more
to Resht, including quarantine. From Smyrna to Resht was
a journey of seventy days, by way of Erzeroum, Tabriz, and
 THE RIVAL POWERS. 105

Ardebil ; and from Resht to Aleppo, sixty days. The charges

from London to Resht amounted to about 34 per cent. on
the value set forth in the invoices, and on raw silk from
Resht to London to about 36 per cent. The trade between
Persia and England, however, had almost ceased to exist.
By the Treaty of 1734,- English merchanta were author-
ized to convey all kinds of merchandise through Russia
to Persia, on payment of three per cent. ad razorem in rix-
dollars ' for the duty and transit of such goods ;' and the like
amount was exacted for goods passing from Persia to England.
The Turkey merchants naturally exerted their utmost
interest to impede the new route, while those engaged in the
Russian trade fiercely attacked the privileges enjoyed by the
former, and declared that they were hurtful even to the oom-
merce they were intended to foster. On the other hand, the
Turkey Company complained that they had to pay £8000 a
year towards the maintenance of a British Embassy at Con-
stantinople, and of consuls and other public officers-these
charges amounting in 1740 to four per cent. on their gross
returns. They therefore demanded a bounty on woollen g o o h
for exportation, together with a reduction of duty on imports of
Turkish eilk and grograms.
The Russian Company made no such demands, and it was
open to any one to go into the trade 'on the common terms of
the small fine or contribution of five pounds.' The Charter of
this Company dated from the 1st and 2nd of Philip and Mary,
and originally conferred upon them the monopoly of the trade
with Russia. I n 1741, Parliament having duly considered the
clainis of the two rival Companies, empowered the Russian
Company to import Persian produce if obtained in exchange for
British manufactures, and not purchased by money-for the
latter case the penalty was forfeiture. Persian manufactures
could only be sent to English ports for exportation, and might
 196 CENTRAL ASIA.

not be worn in this country, without contravening an Act of

William III., entitled, ' An Act for the more effectual employ-
ing the poor by encouraging the manufactures of this king-
dom.'
The Russian Company upon this despatched agenta to
Qhilan with a cargo of English goods, and at the aame time Mr
John Elton was sent out as supercargo in the ship he had built
at Kazan, with Captain Woodroofe as commander. Elton,
however, almost immediately accepted service under Nadir
Shah as Superintendent of the Persian coast of the Caspian,
' with design to build ships in the European manner if it should
be found practicable.' This was no easy task, as might have
been foreseen from his own and Captain Woodroofe's experience
at Kazan. That energetic mariner relatea how he laid the ship's
keel and fixed stem and stern posts on the 15th January, 1741,
but could find ' neither boat-builder, rigger, or sail-maker ' in
the place. Nevertheless, he contrived to launch the vessel,
which waa 65 feet in length, on the 30th May, and on ' July
the 10th we stept our masts and bowsprit and set the rigging
over-head.' All the following winter they were frozen up, but
on the 25th April, 1741, being the coronation day of the
Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, they fired a salute, drank her
Imperial Majesty's health, and baptized their ship by the name
of ' Elizabeth.'
When all was ready Captain Woodroofe started under full
sail, at which the Russians expressed great admiration and
'represented the danger of running aground, but their appre-
hensions did not intimidate us.' While descending the Volga
they mere attacked by pirates, but on their firing into the
nearest boat and mortally wounding five or six of their aasail-
ante, they were suffered to proceed without further molestation.
Astrakan was reached on the 23rd May, after a voyage of
twenty-eight days, and the adventurers were hospitably enter-
 TEE RIVAL POWERS. 197
p ~ ~ - - ~

tained and warmly complimented by the governor and other

official personages.
Peter the Great, it is true, had kept up a flotilla on the
Caspian, of which the largest vessel was of a circular form and
180 tons burden. When laden, i t was bound round with
hawsers to prevent it from bursting and falling to pieces. But
in 1742 the Russians employed only long flat-bottomed bargea
with square sails-the topsails to haul down upon the deck :
' with such vessels, by the help of good ground tackle, they
navigate the Caspian.' The cordage waa exceedingly strong, ae
were also the anchors, though ill-shaped and of an ancient
fashion. The new anchors turned out by the famous Demidofs
in Siberia are pronounced inferior to these, but the canvas
procured from Yarislaw and Moscow ie mentioned with eom-
mendation.
A t that time very little was known of the Caspian, but it
was believed that rocks and shoals were numerous. 'The
natives of those inhospitable shores,' writes Captain Woodroofe,
' except the Russians, having hardly employed their imperfect
navigation to any other purpose than to surprise and plunder
their unguarded neighbours. Thus i t was with the Tartars and
Persians till the Russian army brought the one into subjection ;
and, awing the other, gained an entire jurisdiction over this
great Mediterranean lake.' The Kalmuk Tatars were deprived
of all their large boats, and permitted only to retain their small
fhhing craft. The 'Elizabeth,' drawing upwards of eight feet
when laden, showed clearly a great advance in shipbuilding.
The Russian exports to Persia, chiefly for the account of
the Armenians established in Gihilan, consisted of red leather,
linens, woollen cloths, and European manufactures ; and their
importa of silk sashes embroidered with gold 'for the con-
sumption of the Polanders,' wrought silks and stuffs, mixed
with rice, cotton, a few druge, and raw silk. 'They also
198 CENTRAL ASIA.

bring rhubarb, but as the Government has engrossed this

article, private persons are forbid to deal in it under penalty of
death.' Rhubarb was then carried into Russia by Tatars fro=
Yakutski, who travelled through Siberia to Samara, Kazan, and
Moscow.
Captain Woodroofe, acting upon instructions received from
Captain Elton, still his superior, though actually in the service
of Nadir Shah, carefully surveyed the Caspian Sea, and reported
Balkan Ijay and the adjacent isla~ldsto be a nest of pirutcs.
Nadir, accordingly, proposed to erect a fort there to overawe
the Toorkomans, but it was reserved for another sovereign and
people to take that step in the interests of civilization. The
scarcity of fresh water was also noticed by the English com-
mander, for it was nowhere obtainable except in the Island of
Naphtonia, so called from its naphtha springs, but which is
known to the Persians as Cherrican, or Cheleken.
When the Russians first began to navigate the Caspian,
about the middle of the 16th century, thcre was only five feet
of water off the mouth of the Volga. I n 1722 I'eter the Great
found a depth of six feet, which had doubled twenty years luter
and the water had become salt. At some distance from the
shore no soundings could be had with a linc of 4Z0 fathoms.
I t was remarked that the depth within the preceding thirty
years had everywhere perceptibly increased, arid that the sea
mas making inroads on the low coast to the north-west, and a t
Lengarood on the south, while at Astrabad there was twelve
feet of water where oilly fifty years before there was a ford used
by donkeys. Much the same state of things was observed in
Balkan Buy. According to local tradition the water rove for
thirty years and then fell for a corresponding period, but Jonas
Hanway was divposcd to assign as a cause for the increased
depth a long series of cool summers, during which the evapora-
tion had been less than usual.
 THE RIVAL POWERS. 199

Of late years there has been a marked diminution of the

volume of water in this inland sen. I t was stated by Mr
Delmar Morgan, at the meeting of the British Association at
Bradford, that 'The Caspian Sea, in its northern part, as filr as
Cape Karaghan, is ill-suited to navigation, owing to its extreme
shallowness. South of Cape Knraghan, as far as Balkan, the
sea is deep and good anchorage abu~ldunt. The most remark-
able feature of the Caspian Sea,' he continued, 'is ita deposit of
salt in Htrrabugaz Bay, which is connected with the Caspian by
a strait not more than 125 fathoms wide, and four fathoms deep.
The flow of water through the strait is never less than 26 verste
(a verst equals two-thirds of an English mile), solnetimcs attain-
ing a velocity of five versts per hour. The natural explanation
of this phenomenon is the evaporation caused by the intense
heats and the consequent diminution of the water, which can
only be supplied by the flow of water from the Caspinn, and the
vast quantity of salt thus deposited has converted the shores
into a saline marsh, where no creature can exist.' The cl~nnge
in the rainfall of Persia and the gradual desiccation of that
country have, of course, much to do with the contraction of the
area of the Caspian, just as the diminished rainfall in Toorkestnn
has caused the Aral to shrink within its borders since quite a
recent period.
While lIToodroofewas engaged in surveying the sea, Elton
was occupied in the more difficult task of building ships. I n
Ghihn, we are told, he found timber, but no roads for its trans-
port, whilc JIazanderan furnished abundance of iron ore, but
no iron-s~nithto work it. Nothing daunted, he fished up old
Russian anchors, mndc sail-cloth of cotton and cordage of flax,
ant1 collected a few Indians and liussian renegades, whom he
pluccd under a bhip's carpenter hc hnd borrowed from lToodroofe.
' Thus he contc~~~dcd with numerous and almost insuperable dif-
cultics ; but his spirit was cquul to the most arduous enterprise.'
200 CENTRAL ASIA.

His English employera, however, regarded all this energy

as misdirected, m long as it was not employed to their advantage,
while the Russian Government naturally took umbrage at his
widuity in raising up a rival power on the Caspian. The
Russian Company, therefore, deputed one of their moat intelli-
gent and sagacious partners to proceed to Russia, and if
necessary to Persia, to restore the balance of their affairs. H e
himself tells us that when he was on the point of starting from
London in 1743, Mr Richard Lockwood, a Turkey merchant,
made the prescient remark: 'Either you will teach the
Russians how to trade, and become an object of their jealousy,
if you have succees in this enterprise, or you will be plundered
in Persia ; and in either case your trade cannot laet long.' The
annual value of English exports to Russia did not then exceed
S220,000, while the imports from that county were estimated
a t only double that amount. Indeed, the cargo of broad cloth
with which Jonas Hanway sailed from Astrakan was worth no
more than S5000, and the venture was thought to be on a re-
epectable scale.
I t is clear that natives of India must have been engaged in
considerable numbers in the Russian trade, for a Hindoo temple
is mentioned among the sights of Astrakan. 'The object of
their adoration was a Ptrgod, ugly and deformed to a degree of
horror.' Some of the fruits offered to the idol were presented
to the Englishman, who declined the courtesy, 'not without
some melancholy reflections on the abject state to which humon
reason is frequently reduced."
Some forty gears later George Forster, in his overland journey from
Bengal to 'England, met with a hundred Hindoo merchants, or thereabout,
lodged in two Karavanserais at Herat, 'who by the maintenance of a brisk
cornmeroe and extending a long chain of oredit have become valuable subjects
to the Government; but, discouraged by the insolent and often oppressive
treatment of the Persians, they are rarely induced to bring their women into
this country.'
 THE PlVAL POWERS. 201
1 Failing to dispose of his wares in Ghilan, Hanway pro-
ceeded to Astrabad; but while he was vainly seeking for a
market, the town was taken and pillaged by Mohammed Hosein
Khan, chief of the Kajar Toorkomans'and ancestor of the
present Shah, Nusser-ood-deen. The place, however, was soon
recovered by Nadir's troops, and Hanway, having contrived to
eacape from the hands of his captors, made his way to Kasvin,
where he obtained from that monarch an order to recoup him
for his losses. I n 1744 he returned to Astrakan with a cargo
of Persian silk.
The Russian Government, however, could no longer brook
the resolute attitude of defiance assumed by John Elton, who
had even compelled a merchant vessel of that nation to lower
her flag to a Persian ship of war, which he had built for Nadir,
carrying twenty three-pounders, and which was more than a
match for anything then possessed by Ruseia on those watcre.
I t was in vain that the Company recalled their refractory agent,
who wrote to the Committee that he never conceived his building
a few ships for the Shah could give umbrage to such a power-
ful sovereign aa the Empress. British subjects, he continued,
were in the habit of serving Russia by land and by sea, while
many Russian subjects resided in Great Britain with the avowed
purpose of beooming acquainted with the arts and sciences, and
yet no foreign powers took offence. No doubt, aa the Company's
trade passed through her dominions, it was in the power of the
Empress to put a stop to it, but in that case what was the use
of a Treaty of Commerce, if the acts of a private individual
could thus destroy the rights and privileges formally granted to
a nation by euch Treaty P
Nadir Shah, on his part, regarded the conduct of the Eng-
lishman in a very different light. By a decree of the 19th
November, 1745, he positively forbade Elton to leave Persia,
deecribing him as 'the properest of the Christians,' and confer-
202 CENTRAL ASIA.

ring upon him the title of Qernal Beg, or 'the Well-fuvoured

Knight.' The latter end of this brave and energetic adventurer
was very sad.- Like most men of decided character, he had
made many enemies, and in the anarchy thnt ensued upon
Nadir's death he was forced to capitulate to two Persian Chiefs,
against whom he had fortified his house and garden. Regard-
less of the solemn engagement they had taken to spare his life,
these men sentenced hirn to be hanged, but at lcngth so far
humoured his prejudice that they suffered him to he shot,, in-
stead of ending his life on the gallows.
The Company had already ceased to exist. I n November,
1746, the Empress Elizabeth issued a decree prohibiting the
transit of English goods to Persia through Russia, and conse-
quently the Company were compelled to sell their two ships on
the Cuspiiln at a great loss to Xueviau merchants at Astrakan.
'The Itusaians, however,' Jonas Runway pliilosophicnlly re-
marks, ' benefitted by our loss, received no small advantage from
the models we left them, and by learning of us in those parts, ne
thep had before done in St Petersburg, the use of the best
materials for ship-building.' He did not, indeed, look upon
the suppression of the Cuspian trade as any great natio~inlloss,
and it certainly appears to have been on a ridiculously srnull
ecule. Though one hundred arid fifty persons were concerned in
it, in the five years from 1742 to 1746, both inclusive, the total
exports of British goods by this route nmouilted to no more
thun £172,G'J3, while the imports of raw silk, according to the
price paid in Persia, did not exceed 293,375.
Olic result of the suppression of this route was the devclop-
ment of the trade with China, the duty on Chinese raw silk
being shortly afterwards reduced. Kiidir Shah had made a
feeble attempt to do busixiess with Russia on his own account,
and, as a preliminary venture, had sent 200 bales of ram
silk to Moscow in charge of a trusty agent, but ull manner of
 THE RIVAL POWERS. 203

obstacles wcre placed in his way, nnd the transaction proved so

unsutisfactory that he was not tempted to repeat the cxperi-
ment.
The only check since experienced by Russia in establishing
her suprcmacy on the Caspian partook of the ludicrous. I n
1781 a Russian squadron, consisting of four frigates and two
armed sloops, anchored in the Bay of Ashrof, and extorted from
Aga Mohammed, the Kajar Chief, a reluctant permission to
build a factory at a 'point on the coast some miles distant.
When the works were nearly completed the wily Persian
invited the Russian Commander, Count Voinovich, and his
principal officers to a grand banquet at one of his hunting
lodges in the mountains, and on their arrival placed them in
irons. Under the threat of the grtllowe, Voinovich sent off a
peremptory order for the demolition of the ' factory,' which had
taken the form of a fortified post mounted with eighteen guns.
When the walls had been thrown down and the g u ~ l sre-em-
barked, tho Russians were released and sent back to thcir ships
with insult and contumely.
The comtnercial relations of Russia with Khiva date from the
14th century, but the first official communication took place in
1537, after the reduction of Kazan and Astrakan by Ivan tlie
Terrible, when envoys were sent by the ruler of Khwarezm to
obtain for his subjects permission to trade with the Muecovites.
Similar missions were despatched in 1566 and 1583, but in 1602
the Urn1 Cossaks descended upon the Khanat and plundered
the capital. On their homeward march across the steppe, how-
ever, they were overtaken and defeated with considel*able
slaughter.
Twenty years later a fourth embassy proceeded to Russia
on matters relating to trade, but in 1700 Khan Shamuz offered
to pay an annual tribute on condition that Peter the Great
rendered him aid against his rivals. The offer was accepted,
201 CENTRAL ASIA.

and in 1703 Peter extended his protection to the s u c c e ~of

Shamax, though it does not appear that he afforded any sub-
stantial support to either supplicant. I n 1714 Abou'l-Ghazee's
grandson, Hajee Mohammed Bahadoor Khan, sent an ambas-
sador to S t Petersburg to treat of an alliance, offering a safe
route through hie dominions to the western frontiers of China,-
a four months' journey,--and an auxiliary force of 50,000 horse.
The envoy, whose name is oorrupted into Ocherbi, was 'of a
lively and venerable aspect, wearing a long b a r d , and an
ostrich feather in his turban.'
Peter is said to have listened with pleasure to hie music,
an accomplishment for which the Khivans were widely famed.
Only three years later occurred the ill-fated expedition of
Prince Beckovich, but in 1740 Abou'l Khair, a Kirghiz Sultan
of the Lower UI-al,obtained poetmaion of the throne, and wea
accompanied to the capital by two Russian oEcers, in whose
presence he declared himeelf a vaseal of the Empress Anne.
This pusillanimous act raised up ,a rebellion h d e d by the
Khan's own aon, who established an independent principality
known as the Aral State, which continued to exist until 1802.
Occupied with more serious matters, the Government of
S t Petersburg suffered its relations with t.he Khivans to remain
in a state of abeyance until the year 1819, when Captain
Mouravief-the captor of Kars in 1854--was sent to Khiva
to propose an alliance. This mission narrowly escaped termin-
ating disastrously. Attended only by one servant, and his
whole caravan numbering no more than seventeen camels, the
gallant envoy reached I1 Gheldi, a fort situated some twentp-
three miles from Khiva, in eighteen days from the Caspian.
Here he was detained a close prisoner for forty-eight days,
during which he solaced himself as well as he could by opening
Pope's Iliad at hazard, with a sort of half-faith in divination.
The expediency of putting him to death had more than once
 THE RIVAL POWERS. 205
-
been discuesed, but at last the Khan consented to aee him. The
audience was neither imposing nor eatisfactory. The Russian
Envoy was conducted without ceremony into the third court of
a mean building, where he found the Khan seated at the en-
trance of a Kibitka, or Toorkoman tent, and his dismissal was
scarcely more respectful than his reception.
So far as the imperfect information he received would allow
him to form an estimate, Captain Mouravief computed the num-
ber of Russian slaves then in the Khanat of Khiva at 3000,
and of Persians at 30,000. A Russian in good health and about
twenty-five years of age wae valued at from sixty to eighty
tillahs,-a tillah being worth about thirteen shillings and four-
pence,-while rather less was given for a Persian. The latter
were forced to become Soonees, but the Russians were very
little molested in the exercise of their religion, and had even a
chamber in which they placed certain pictures of saints, though
it was only at night that they could obtain leisure for worship,
They contrived, however, to celebrate two festivals in the year,
at which they intoxicated themselves with a spirit distilled from
fruita, and these orgies occasionally finished with a murder.
Blaves were generally treated with cruel harshness. For slight
offences they were struck across the face with a whip, and for
serious misconduct had an eye put out, or an ear cut off.
The climate of Khiva appeared to the Russian envoy as
rather enjoyable than otherwise. H e speaks of the serenity of
the atmosphere, the slight fall of rain even in autumn, the brief
continuance of the winter, and the comparatively small quantity
of snow, though the wind is admitted to be piercingly cold.
The large, mild onions, the variety of grapes, the delicious
melons, the abundance of wheat, sorgum, and millet, the flocks
of sheep, the herds of cnttle and camels, and the beautiful gar-
dens, are all duly admired, if not actually coveted-though i t ie
significantly remarked that a force of 3000 Russians would be
200 CENTRAL ASIA.

ample for the conquest and tenure of the country. The iron
work was done in the mean time by Russian slaves, and from
Russia came the copper and glaee. Wheat was still ground by
the hand in primitive fsahion. The population was evidently
under-estimated by the Ruseian envoy at 300,000, of whom
10,000 are assigned by him to the 3000 houses, or hovels, that
constituted the town of Khiva
The true capital was Urghunj, the population of which
was considerably larger, and consisted chiefly of Sarts. There
were besides, three emaller towns, and several large villagas.
The fortifications were everywhere insignificant, and the regu-
lar army did not exceed 12,000 horsemen,-infantry there waa
none,-but on one occasion the Khan marched to the Caspian
at the head of 20,000 mounted warriors. The chiefs dwelt in
square fortified housea in the midst of spacious gardens, built
mostly of earth and without even a ditch to impede the
approach of an enemy. Their chief amusements were hawking,
and playing at draughts in the Russian fashion. I n the matter
of musical instruments, they preferred the drum, triangle, and
trumpet, to all others.
Mohammed Raheem Khan, the ruler, was a man of lofty
stature and robust frame, with a piercing eye. Though of a
crucl, implacable disposition, he had a kindly expression of
countenance, and, with his short white beard, might have been
t:~kenfor a Russian. He had at that time renounced his pro-
pensity for spirits, and was content with seven wives. He lived
almost pcrmnnontly in a kibitka, and was satiufied with plain
h e . Hn mas fond of watching a game of chess played by his
courtiers, and was warmly addicted to the chase. IIe would
slecp mostly in the day time, and worked all night. Though
maintaining the uemhlance of a Council, his government was
purely personal, and his ministers were almost exclusively of
alicn extraction.
 THE RIVAL POWERS. 207

The penal code was severe and barbaroue. Criminals were

not unfrequently hanged by the feet till death slowly inter-
vened.
At other times they were impaled, and endured that horrible
torture for two whole days. When the bastinado was inflicted,
the stick would be impartially applied to every part of the per-
eon. Any one discovered in the enjoyment of the forbidden
luxury of smoking, had his mouth split from ear to ear. A
slave detected in a second attempt to escape from bondage
was nailed by the ear to a stake or doorpoet, and there left to
dic of starvation. The punishment of decapitation had been
abolished, and tho privilege of being buried alive was reserved
for heretics and nmbasdors.
The Khan's revenue is put down at £160,000, but it must
be borne in mind that neither Oozbegs nor Toorkomans were
liable to takation. A mint had been established, but the cur-
rency was of very limited dimensions. Business, too, seerns to
have been conducted in a leisurely manner. A Khivan, bcing
asked the distance to Bokhara, made answer; ' A merchant
arrives there on the seventh day,-a robber on the third.'
Not.hing cnmc of Captain Nouravief's mission, though the
Khan sent some ngents to accompany the Russian envoy to the
head-quarters of the Commander-in-chief in the Caucasus,
ostensibly to concert measures for a joint attack upon the Toork-
onians, but in reality to gain time and put off the evil day.
Equally fruitless was the mission of Colonel von Berg-the late
Field-Uarshal von Berg-who landed at JIangishluk in 1825,
with an extremely small retinue, and struck boldly across the
desert to Khiva. Three months later he was back in Orenberg
witllout having accomplished any perceptible object.
Nothing more was done for fifteen years, but in 1830
General Pcrofski was instructed to proceed with a ~ t r o n gforce
from Orenberg to chastise the Khivan kidnappers. Unfor-
208 CENTRAL ASIA.

tunately, that gallant and accomplished officer chose the winter

season for his march, with a view to supply by mow the
deficiency of water in the desert. The expedition consisted of
5000 picked men, with 10,000 camels for the transport of pro-
vieions and ammunition. No expense had been spared in
clothing and equipping the troops, and nothing worse was
apprehended than what could be endured and overcome by '

courage and constancy. On the 16th November divine service

was solemnly performed, after which the following proclama-
tion was read aloud at the head of each regiment :

G E N E R U PEROPSKI TO THE EXPEDITIONARY FORCE.

'His Majesty the Emperor has commanded me to lead a

portion of the troops under my orders against Khiva. For
many years past Khiva has been sorely trying the patience
of her great and generous neighbour, and courted the thunder-
storm now about to discharge itself over her head. IIonour
nnd glory to all who enjoy the advantage of taking part in an
expedition intended to liberate SO many of our brethren, kid-
napped by the enemy, and living in ignominious slavery in a
foreign land. Comrades ! the frost and the snow storm, and
all the inevitable hardships of a prolonged march in the steppe
at this inclement season await us; but every precaution has
been taken to diminish the difficulties incidental to our task,
und your zeal, your patriotism, and manliness will do the rest
and secure success. I t is for the first time that such a con-
siderable force of the Orenburg Corps marches against the
enemy; it is the first time that Russia undertakes to punish
her wild and perjured neighbours of Khiva. Two months hence
we shall, with the Divine assistance, be in the hostile capital,
there erecting the cross which is the symbol of our faith, and
offering up prayers for Czar and country. I cannot conclude
without saying a word to those troops remaining at Orenburg,
 TnE RIV.4L POWERS. 209

in charge of their country's frontier. You are not lucky

enough to share our danger and our toil ; but you are none the
less worthy of all honour and the gracious consideration of His
Majesty the Emperor. I n bidding farewell to us, you will re-
member that you, too, have a sacred duty to fulfil during our
absence. You will remember your oath, and t,hat you have to
acquit yourselves of your service with twofold zeal now that
such a large numbcr of your comrades arc detailed for a special
object. I n due time we shall return to you, when you will
march out to give a brotherly greeting to your fellow-soldiers,
coming home from distant and difficult service.'
The march commenced on the following day. The Emba, a
distance of 350 miles, was reached in about thirty days, but
upwards of 3000 camels had already perished, and the suffer-
ings of the soldiers could only be compared with those that had
proved fatal to the French in their retrent from Moscow. Still
they persevered, and in another month had gained the oasis of
Ak Boulak, to t l ~ enorth-east of the Karabughaz Bay. Only
2000 camels now rcmained, and these utterly attenuated
and exhausted. The condition of the men was truly pitiable,
and threatened to become much worse, as their Kirghiz camel-
drivers and guides here suddenly abandoned them, carrying off
in their flight no small number of those indispensable beasts of
burden. The distance to the city of Khiva was still 300 miles,
and it was painfully manifest that even if the mere journey
could be performed, the fighting power of tho troops was already
destroyed. To push on any further would have been an act of
eheer madness. A retreat was accordingly decided upon, and
the miserable remnants of the gallant column that had so hope-
fully marched out from Orenberg that cold November morning,
straggled back as well as they could, famished and fro&-bitten,
with hundred8 of their comrade8 lying stiff and stark in the
enow upon the plateau.
14
210 CENTRAL ASIA.

The time waa not ripe for the conquest of the Khanat of
Khiva. ' Had Russia,' obeervea General Abbott, ' succeeded in
creeping to Khiva, the a i r s of A& mast have undergone a
revolution, the coneequencea of which would not have closed
perhape with the present or coming century ; and would pro-
hldy have embroiled a l l the prkipal nationa of Europe in
tumult and war.' He further expweaes a hope that England
will 'regard aa a breach of mutual confidence any future
encroachment of R u s k upon the territories of Khaurism.'
At that conjuncture a somewhat jaloua rivalry in Central
Asia threatened to embitter the political relations of Russia and
England. About the time that General Perofaki was supposed
to be at Khiva, it was in contemplation to despatch a British
Eorce acme the Bamian Paea in pursuit of Dost Mohammed.
This project appears to have been diecusaed in an interview
between Baron Brunow and Sir John Cam I-Iobhouee, at which
the R&an ambassador is reported to have mid : 'If we go on
at thie rate, Sir John, the Cossack and the Sepoy will eoon meet
upon the banka of the Oxus.' a Very pbably, Baron,' replied

the P~sesidentof the Board of Control ; 'but however much I

should regret the collieion, I should have no feer of the result.'
m e r e is much reaeon to believe that the aiege of Herat by
the Pmiane, in 1837, was the result of Rnseian intrigue, and
it is certain that Count Simonich, the Russian minister at the
wort of Teheran, took an active part in the siege operations.
Not lees energetically, if less openly, did Captain Vicovich
labour to poison Dost Mohammed's mind, and lower the British
pmetige in his eetimetion. Admitting that the English had
anticipated hie own countrymen in civilization by a couple of
iwnturiea, he added that they were no longer a military nation,
but simply 'the merchants of Europe.' I t is true that the
action of both thtw officers woa mbaequeatly repudiated by
Count Nesselrode, but in such cases it is net unfair to apply the
 THE RIVAL POWERS. 21 1
old test Cui bono ? and it is clear that these over-zealous a g e n t
had no peraonal interests to serve by embroiling Great Britain
with Persia and Afghanistan.
After the Persians had been compelled to raise the siege of
Herat, the British resident, Major d'Arcy Todd, conceived the
idea of opeling up direct communication with Oollah Kou?i
Khan, the mler of Khiva. H e accordingly sent to that poten-
tate, in June, 1839, a handsome rifle and a complimentary letter,
by the hands of a Mohammedan prieat. I n return, the Khan
despatched an Oozbeg envoy in company with the priest, and
charged him to present the British agent with 'a broken down
nag,' and a letter of inquiry as to'the character of the aupport
he might expect from his new ally. The Khan subsequently
told Major, now General Abbott, that he had never heard of the
English until some one chanced to mention Captain Pottinger's
bravery at Herat. None of his courtiers, however, could give
him any information as to what manner of men they were, and
he himself supposed that they were a petty tribe of the Russian
nation in a state of rebellion ; but, shortly afterwards, he learn-
ed that t h y had conquered Hindoatan and invaded the king-
dom of Kabul
AB the most effectual means of satisfying the Wan's rea-
sonable inquisitiveneae, Major Todd deputed his subordinate,
Major Abbott, an artillery officer of exceptional intelligence and
hardihood, to repreeent Great Britain a t the court of Khiva,
but the paltry gifts within hie means to d e r as a sample of
British skill and opulence were a too wmmon illustration of
the niggardly spirit that characterizes our dealings with petty
~rtatea, and our chponio unreadinem to meet unexpected con-
tingencba. Be Bahau remarks, .Le deapotie~nafait illdgalement
de g r a d 8 clroeee, ef la libertC He Re & n paa
~ la peine d'en faiis
l+akment de tr2a pelitea.
The first part of the journey-for the envoy started on
 212 CENTRAL ASIA.

Christmas Eve, 1&39 - lay across mountain ranges covered

with snow, and over trackless plains claimed by a Toorkoman
tribe calling themselves Jamshedies, who bartered their slieep
and horses for slaves, at the rate of two human beings for a
horse bnrely worth £15 of English money. Major A b h t t seems
to hn\-e h e n much pleased with his first glimpse of descrt life.
' The Toorkoman tents,' he sags, ' are the most comfortable
dwellings in this serene climate. A house cannot be adapted
to'the vicissitudes of heat and cold which mark the gear.
Whereas by removing a portion of the felt covering, this tent
is open to the air in summer; and in winter a fire lighted in the
centre makes it the warmest 'of retreats, all the smoke rising
through the skylight in the roof: not to mention the great
advantage of being able to migrate, dwelling and all, to a
mnny or sheltered spot.' I l e enjoyed also the Toorkoman
breakfast of home-made macaroni, rolled in b m d thin cakes
cut illto strips by a sword, and stewed with kooroot, milk, and
syrup of p p e juice, followed by n mutton and bread stew.
Early marriages are the rule among these wanderers. Boys
become husbands at fourteen, and girls are wives at eleven or
twelve. To each young couple is assigned a separate tent, the
furniture being provided by the bride according to the price
that has been paid for her, and the daughter of a well-to-do
Jamshedie is often worth £70 to her father, a widower being
constrained to pay double that sum for his second venture in
the miltrimonin1 market. Women, howerer, are never per-
mitted to eat in company with men.
The horses are famed for their endurance. A mounted
messenger will cover the 360 miles that intervene between
l i e n and Khiva in six days, on the same animal, carrying on
his crupper, 60 lbs. of barley, 20 lbs. of horse-clothing, and
food and water for his own use. On the other hand, the grass
was nlire with venomous snakes, panthers prowled about a t
 THE RIVAL POWERS. 213

night, and the tents swarmed with 'the familiar beasts which
signify love.'
The once populous town of Merv was reduced to a miserable
hamlet, consisting of about one hundred mud hovels clustered
round a mud fort, while the population of the entire province
was estimated at no more than 60,000 families spread over a
plain measuring sisty miles by forty. Here the envoy was
entertained by the Khaloofauh, or High Priest.
'After some discourse water and a basin were brought
round, and we washed our hands, drying t,heln, as usuol, oil our
handkerchiefs. Then a filthy cloth of chintz, greased to the
. consistence of leather, was spread on the ground before us. It
is co~~sidered thankless to wash from a table cloth the stains of
forrner banquets, or to suffer a crumb to be lost. Upon the
table cloth metallic trays were set, containing pilaus, hot and
very greasy. Tucking up my right slecre, I set to work, spill-
ing half the rice iuto my lap, and making little way ugainst
the practised fists and elbows of the pricsts. As for the Kha-
loofauh, he showed himself a rnan of might in the mybteries of
the table, teariug large handfuls of mutton from the bone, as a
bear might claw thc scalp from a human victim, and plunging
elbow-deep into the hot and greasy rice. TTith fists greased
above the wrists, we sat waiting for the water which was to
\\,ash off the slush upon our fingers, and event~~ally be absorbed,
with u lnrgc rnlrss of highly-scented mutton fat and gr:lvy, by
our llandkerchiofs, hauiltillg us for the rest of the day with the
stale sruell of pilaus.'
From Merv to Khivu the route lay across a sandy plain
uvith an exceedirl;~lyirregular surfuce, high ridges and deep
hvlloivs contiliually ulteriiatilig, with hero a ~ l dtherc patches of
wonnwoud a ~ i dca~ncl'sthorn. Wells were found only at long
interv:ils-in one instu~icoof 160 m i l e t i a n d the water was
generally brackish. Fodder for the horses hud to be conveyed,
 - -

ae well aa food for the riders, camele being invariably employed

aa the b t a of burden. On the way, Major Abbott overtook
a caravan bound for the same bourne as himeelf.
' They had brought,' he =ye, ' grain from Khiva, and are
returning thither laden with elarea, many of whom are nativee
of Heraut. The whole number, men, women, and children, may
be about 25. Some of the women are very decently clad, and
seemed to have been in good circumetaucea until e e i d for thlll
inhuman traffic. One poor female wae mounted a-straddle upon
a camel behind her master. Her child, an infant, waa lodged
in a grain bag hanging from the saddle. This poor wretch has
an inhuman mnster, and ia the picture of mieery-. Her master
has lost two children to the Pereians, and ie trying by this hor-
rible trade to raise money for the purchase of their freedom.
But the men are chained together by the throats at night, so
that rest is scarcely possible, while the contact of the frozen
iron with their skin must be a torture. For them also no car-
rhge is found, they walk the whole way, every step of which
renders their captivity more hopeless.'
On the 12th day from JLerv, the capital of Khiva appeared
on the horizon, and a messenger was sent forward to notify the
arrival of the British envoy, who was lodged for the night 'in
a respectable dwelling, some little distance ' outside the town,
described as*'such a place as an English farmer would use as a
wood or coal house.' Next morning he was conducted to a
' Palace,' nearer to the town, by the Vi"lcomer of Guests, escort-
ed by horsemen wcll mounted and armed with matchlock rifles.
' After riding a couple of miles,' JLajor Abbott continues,
' the town of Khiva appeared on our right, and we entered a
country, laid out in gardens and dwellings cf the gentry. The
houses have all one character, being an enclosure of very lofty
clay walls, flanked by ornamental towers at the angles, which
give them the appearance of castles. This name (Gulhh) they
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vcrv a..!c,irne," and in-tan111 a piecv of grw.-r chintz w a s
npr6:arl t : f , r e nl.=ai a :z!,Ie CI .:h, a n J b w d . rLli+iri, I,iid-s;lpr,
arul fnrit a-ere pl.lccd h.C,re me.' An:.n; the 0uzbc.p it
invariably t h e cu-:( ,rn to plxce refm$hn~t.atsbet:~rea \i-itor,
)*fore prw:et.rling citler to b u > i n t ~or mnl-ers~tion. After a
brief delay, the envoy wa3 taken through dark p - g e s to
 THE RIVAL POWERS. 217
a sinall inner court, in which mas pitched a black felt tent,
-about twenty-four feet in diameter-exactly aa described by
Captain Mouravief.
Oollah Kouli Khan was about forty-five years of age, of
middle stature, and stoutly built, with a round facc, high regular
features, and an amiable expression. His eyes were long and
sleepy, and his beard unusually ample for an Oozbeg, indicating
a tinge of Sart or Persian blood. His manner was languid
and spiritless, and he was propped up by a cushion, the only
article of furniture to be seen.
'Before him a wood fire blazed up, sending its smoke and
sparks through the skylight of the tent. IIe shifted his
posture from time to time. I t was always ungraceful and
unki~igly: sometimes crosa-legged, sometimes kneeling, somc-
times half reclining. His dress was a green cloak, fringed and
lined with dark sables, and showing at the waist a gold chain,
the exact use of which I know not. On his head was the
Oozbeg cylindric cap of black lambskin. IIe wore no ornament,
and his sole insignium of office waa a large dagger iu a sheath
of gold, which lay before him.'
There were no guards almut the tent, though the doors of
the courtyard mere duly guarded. Whenever the Khan wanted
his klilinuti, or pipe, it was handed to hirn by his Prime Minister.
According to the strict Mohammedans, smoking was OoIlal1
Kouli Khau's only vice, for ho indulged neither in snuff nor
in wine, and hud no more than four wives at a time. nlajor
Abbott evpreases himself pleased with his reception, though he
was kept standing, in his stockings, in the attitude of ' at ease,'
and had some dificulty in cxpluining the purport of his
minsion-the Persian language being cvcn less familiar to the
Xlitln than to himself. Notwithstanding the favour thus shown
to him, hc was not allowed to go beyond the grounds of his
 218 -TEAL ASIA.

Palace, nor wru h;e ever vinited by any of the nobles, rho,
benida, had very little intercame with one anotber.
The Khan of Khiva, says M. Vambery, ia tit& cupbearer
to the Sultan of Tarkey. His chief officers in 1810 were the
Mehtur or Ruzeer, and the Khooeh Begi or Grand Fslconer,
who was also the Commander-in-Chief. The priests, from
among whom were choeen the Kazia, acknowledged two heeds,
the Suqueeb and the 8heik-001-Islam. The Khnn alone had
power to peae eenteace of death. The revenue had senmily
i n c r d since Captain Mouraviefs visit, when it waa estimated
ht £100,000 per annum. At leaat, Major Abbott computea the
annual receipts at $285,900, of which llearly the whole amount
found ita way into the private treasary of the Khan, who paid
s neither the police nor the salariee of official personages. Taxeu
were levied upon houeee, upon property, and upon merchandise.
The Oozbega paid from six to thirty-six shillings on each house,
and the Toorkomans and Kuzzaks one in forty, or two-and-a-
half per cent., on their live stock. There were, beaides, duties
on imported and on liberated slaves, and upon wheat and
tobacco for exportation.
The settled inhabitants were required to furnish in war time
an armed horeeman for every fifty chains of arable land-but
thcre must be eome mistake in these figures, and for fifty it may
bo mfer to read 600. The Nomads were expected to equip one
horseman for four families, and while on nctive service the pay
was unuully about £3 for each expedition, every man finding
himself in provisions. The Oozbege, it was calculated, could
turn out 50,000 men, the Toorkomans 25,000, the Kuzzaks
26,000, ond the K i z i l h h e e 8,000; in all 108,000 ; but the
largest muster on record was one of 85,000 men.
The population of the Khanst wns set down by Major
Abbott at a little over two-nnd-a-half millions, and consisted of
600,000 Oozbege, 500,000 Toorkomans-divided into 91,900
 THE RIVAL POWERS. 21 9
families--200,000 Karakalpaks, 500,000 Kuzzaks, 100,000 Sarts,
So,ooo Kalmuka, 20,000 Kizilbashes, and 700,000 slaves, of
whom 30,000 were Persians. Taking the area of the Khanat
a t 450,000 square m i l e e t h a t is, assuming the extreme length
of the kingdom at 750 miles, and the extreme breadth at 600-
this would give only five-and-a-half to the square mile.
Among the wild animal8 and birds of the country are
mentioned lions, tigers, leopards, bears, panthers, wolves, foxes,
dromedaries, two-humped camels, goats, sheep like deer, but
with the head of a goat and the horns of n sheep, antelopes,
asses, hoge, hares, jerboae, pheasants, partridges-also the red-
legged variety--quail, woodcock, snipe, swans, geese, ducks,
fowh, ravens, crows, magpies (in flocks), plovers, larks, and
kingfiehers. Though situated in the same latitude as Rome,
the Amou in Khiva is frozen for four months in the year, and
in sheltered spots the snow lies in drifts five or six feet deep
till quite late in the summer. But while the cold in winter ie
irreeietible, the heat of summer is scarcely less intolexable, and
sleep beneath a roof is unattainable. Even linen clothing is a
burden.
I n subsequent interviews the Khan grew more communica-
tive, and gave an account of his disputa with Russia, differing
in many respects from thilt put forth by the Governmerit of S t
Petersburg. R e said that, about twenty years previously, hie
father stopped a caravan escorted by 200 Russian soldiers, from
penetrating into Bokhara from the eastern side of the Aral.
A t that time Khiva and Bokhara were at war with one another,
axid his father was reasonably apprchensive of the advantage
the enemy would derive from such a potent auxiliary. The
caravan wort accordingly assoiled by clouds of Kuzzak and
Toorkoman horse, but the Russinns defended themselves with
such obstiriate vulour that they were suffertd to witl~drawinto
their own territories without further molestation. Again, in
220 CESTRAL A S I A .
-- --
1833, tlie Russians built the fort of S u o v Alexnndrofski on the
Nangishlak promontory under pretext of protecting the fisher-
men of the Emba district against the Toorkoman pirates, but
in reality to obtain a standing-point whence to colnnlence
operations against Khiva.
Only three years before the arrival of the British envoy,
they pounced upon a Khivan caravan, and threw illto prison
550 traders. The Khan thereupon sent an ambassador to
Orenberg, with a letter for the Czar, with a 1-iew to negotiate
an exchange of prisoners. The Governor of that province,
however, refused to enter into any negotiations, or to libcmte
a single prisoner, until every Russian captive in Khiva was
unconditionally set free, and no notice was taken of the Khan's
letter to the Emperor Richolas. Another envoy was then
despatched, with six Russians, who were to be exchanged for a
like number of Kliivans. This time the envoy's brother was
detailled as a hostage, and not a single Khivan was released in
return for the Russians. A third time the Khan esnyed a
pacific overture, and set free 110 captives, who were acccpted
without a word of thanks and without the slightest reciprocity
of action. IIe felt assurcd, therefore, that the Rubsinns nieant
mischief, and were only waiting for the clearing away of tlie
SUOW.
The Father of Victory even eshibitcd, with ludicrous rever-
ence, a Ax-pounder bull which the Rusbillns had fired lit a body
of Toorkoninn caralry, who ' mould have swept the Rus.sia~isoff
the face of the earth, only for the cold which froze them to
their saddles,' while the otliers sat round n blazing fire and
diwharged these ' deadly missiles.' The Khivan force detailed
to encounter General Perofski, had he siiccccdctl in struggling
through the allows of the Ust Urt, euffex~edhorribly from tlie
cold. JL:uiy of the men lost olio or both hnnds, one or both
feet, the eare, the nose, the lips, and even the tongue, which
 THE RIVAL POWERS. 221

protruding in the night time would be frozen beyond recovery.

Something in the spirit of the British Prince, Caradmg-
Caractacus-at Rome, the Khan one day piteously complained :
' I t is very hard that they cannot find in all the world some
other battle-field than just my dominions.'
Mored to compassion by these frequent complaints, Major
Abbott volunteered to proceed to Russia, and 'to become in
fact, though not in name, the ambassador of a Khan of Tatary
to the court of the Nuscovite.' After some hesitation his offer
was accepted, and it was at length decided that he should
traverse the desert to Mangishlak, a distance of 480 miles, and
there take boat for a Russian fort built of stone, three marches
to the north of that peninsula.
I t was the first week in Narch before he actually started,
being entrusted with a jewelled dagger, an Ispahan sabre, and
a letter for the Czar enclosed in a bag of sarsenet flowered with
gold. The guide selected by the Khan was the chief of the
Chawdor Toorkomans, a tall, powerful, noble-looking barbarian,
but with a deep-set eye that 'was the very channel-light of
avarice and treachery.' The first day's march lay through a
well-wooded and highly cultivated country, interspersed with
large villages and spacious residences. The road was well
defined, and exhibited considerable movement. Strings of
camels going forth or returning, one-horse carts in which rode
an Oozbeg matron driven by a sluve, with whom his mistress
was frequently on improper terms of intimacy, and Toorkoman
horsemen, singly or in groups, impartd spirit and animation to
the scene.
On the next day the aspect of the land was still unchanged,
the natural aridity of the soil being overcome by artificial irrign-
tion. The ruins, too, were passed of the old Kalmuk capital
Unbarra, long ~ ~ i n abandoned
ce on the discoverp of huge bones,
supposed to have belonged to the ancient Anakim. A three
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 THE RNAL POWBRS. 223

On the 1st of April the British envoy reached the desert of

the Kuzzaks, a beardless race, living almost wholly on the milk
of sheep, marea, and camela, with occasionally a little camel's
flesh ealted and boiled. Their &like of ' villanoas saltpetre'
is not inferior to the aversion avowed by Sir John Fdstaff, and
of artillery they entertain a snperetitious dread. Men and
women drees alike Ignonmt, or careless, of the uae of linen,
they content themselves with a mantle of the half-tanned skin
of a sheep or young camel, with the wool turned inside, and
sometimes of the skin of a horse, with the hair outside. The
women are said to be too red and too robuet, and, 'perhap,'
the ugliest in the world.
In ten days more the Caspian was sighted, but not a single
sail broke the monotony of the blue expanse, for quite recently
the Toorkomane had set fire to every Russian vessel upon which
they could lay their hands. Rejecting the proposition of his
treacherous guide that ho should purchase a boat and a couple
of Russian slaves, and make for an island about five hours' sail
from the shore, where he would be certain to find shipping,
Major Abbott resolved to push on to the Russian outpost, about
three marchea distant. The headman of a small Kuzzak tribe,
in league with the Chawdor Chieftain, undertook to conduct
him, but in the darknese of the eecond evening the envoy was
suddenly assaulted, badly wounded, and beaten almost to
death. His servants a h were maltreated, and his property
divided among his brutal assailante. His life, however, was
saved by the interposition of the Kuzzak's brother, but for
mnny daye he waa dragged from one encampment to another,
until he wae released through the marvellous fidelity of a mea-
eenger despatched by Major Todd from Herat, who had started
from Khiva, without stopping to refreah himself after his forty
days' journey, and, as if dropped from heaven, arrived at a
moment when Major Abbott'e life hung by a thread.
--
994 CEJTBAL APIA.

The enroy was then safely guided to Fort S u o r ,%leinu-

drofnki, into which he was admitted after some comical precau-
tions on the part of the commandant, and ultimately forwaded
to Orenberg, whence the gallant, if unfortunate, Genenil
I'erofJci sent him on to St Petereburg. Though robbed,
bruised, and crippled for life in his right hand, Major Abbott
did not the leas exert himself to accomplish the object of his
humane and hazardous mission. I n the following year his
preliminary labours enabled hia successor, Captain, afterwards
Sir Richmond, Shakespear, to proceed to St Petersburg in
charge of 400 Ruwian slavea, who were exchanged for an equal
number of imyrbned Oozbegs and Toorkomans.
 KHIPA. 225

CHAPTER X.

KHIVA.

M I V A : HIBTORICAL NOTICE-NATUBAL PRODCCTIONB-THE RAXAUL-WPU-

LATION -THE CAPITAL CITY-THE KHAN A?SD HIS WIVEB-EXECUTIOBB-
PEBBIAN CAPTIVES-CARAVAN BOUTEGUBOHUNJ, OLD AND NEW-HAZAR-
ASP-KUNORAMAPTAIN CONOLLY'~JOUBNEY FBOY ABTBABAD TO H E U T
-MAXNEBS AND CUSTOXB O F THE TOOBK0M.WS-YERV.

THE extensive and fertile oasis in the midst of the sandy

deeerta of Central Asia, known in these days as the Khanat of
Khiva, was called by the Greeks Chorasmia, and by the Arabs
Khwnrezm. The Chorasmians were of the Aryan race, and
their contingent to the army of Xerxea was equipped precisely
in the Bactrian fashion. I t is probable that Chorasmia formed
a portion of the short-lived Greco-Bactrian monarchy, and it
certainly passed under the domination of the White Huns, from
whom it was subsequently wrested by the Toorks. I n the
legendary history of Persia, all the country enclosed between
the Oxus and Jaxartes, between the Caspian Sea and China, is
designated Tooran, from Toor the son of Feridoon, a prince of
the Paishdadian dynasty, whose founder Kaiomurs, a grandson
of Noah, selected Balkh as the seat of his government.
The most celebrated monarch of this line was Afraeiab, the
son of Pushung, who conquered Persia and reigned over it for
twelve years. Then arose the great Persinn patriot and hero,
Roostam, who encountered Afraeiab in battle and, dragging
him out of his snddle, would have slain or captured him, had
not the king's girdle broke at the criticnl moment. Falling to
16
 226 CEXTRAL A S I A .

the ground, he was rescued by a desperate charge of his troops.

The independence of Persia, however, was achieved, and the
river 0x11s ~vasmutually accepted as the boundary line between
the two States.
Peace did not long subsist on those terms. More thnn once
afterwards Afrasiab inraded Persia, but was at length com-
pletely worsted by Roostam, and compelled even to cede Bok-
hara and Fnmnrkand, with other important di~tl.icts. I n the
end he was put to death by Khai Khosroo, the third sovereign
of the Khniunian dynasty, who slew ~lfrasiub'sson, Sheidah, i n
single combat, and stigmatized the prostri~teprovince with the
name of Khomnrezm, or Easy Victory.
Surer footing is found when we come to the conquest of
Ehomssan arid JInwarulnahr, and their conversion to the faith
of Islam. During the ninth century Khwarez~ilwas an appan-
age of the Samanides, upon whose extinction it fell into the
hands of Nnhmoud of Ghuznee, the first Mohammedan invader
of Rindostan, nnd dcstroyer of the Temple of Somnauth. I t s
nest rulers werc the Scljooks, the last of whom, Toghrul II., fell
in battle against Sooltun Allah-d-deen Tukke~h, Khan of
Khwarezm. The first independent ruler of this oasis was
Kootb-ood-deen Mohammed, ewer-bearer to Sanjar the Seljook-
ian, upon whom it was conferred by that unfortunate monarch
at the close of the eleventh century. The last of this farr~ily
was the gallant Jclnl-ood-deen, ' whose active vnlour repeatedly
checked the Noguls in the career of victory,' and who, 'could
the Carizrninn empire hare been saved by a single hero,' would,
. in the opinion of Gibbon, have achieved that illustrious distinc-
tion. IIis Pdther, JLoha~nmed,provoked an unequal conflict with
the JIoghul hordes of Chinghiz Khan, in the early part of the
thirteenth century, and after the loss of his dominions 'expired,
unpitied and alone, in a desert island of the Csspiau Sea.'
For the nest 120 years Khwarezm was governed by the
 KBIVA. 227

descendants of Chinghiz Khan, who gave place to a succession

of petty Oozbeg princes, until the power of Timour Lung
estentled, at the opening of the fifteenth century, 'litrm the
lrtish and Volga to the Persian Gulf, and from the Ganges
to Damascus and the Archipelago.' From one of Tilnour's
Sc.cble successors it was torn in 1198 by Shah Bukht Soultan,
who, i r ~his turn, was vanquished and sluin at Mcrv twelve ycnrs
later by Shah Tsmail, the founder of the Souffavean dynasty
and the implacable enemy of the Oozbegs. Very shortly alter-
wards, however, the Oozbegs of Khwarezm again ussertcd their
irldrpendence of Persia, and maintained a separate misrule until
they passed beneath the shadow of Nadir Shah. Their Khan,
Sooltan Ilboorz, then suffered 'the death of a dog,' by 11111ing
his tliroat cut, and a kinsman of the Khan of Uokhara was
placed upon the throne he had dishonoured and forfiitetl.
Undcr tlie famous Beggie Jan, the Khan of Kliiva was re-
duce.1 to a state of vassalago to Uokhara, but since the death of
that half-crazy monarch, in 1802, the mutual relations of the
two States have been those of independent kingdoms divitletl by
jealousy, while their coulmon safety depended upon close uuion
and co~icertedaction. The Jluscovite consequently sits iu the
eeat of his ancient master, the Tatar, and the Cossack dolllineera
wherc the Kuzzak was despised.
Kliiva is bounded on the west by s desert which htretchcs
for 800 miles in a north-easterly direction, from the houth-
enst angle of the Caspian to the base of the Moughojar range,
alid for an equal diatance from that sea in a south-easterly
direction to Balkh. "l'his vast tract,' Canon Itawli~iuon
remarks, ' void of all animal life, without verdure or vegctrrtion,
dipreshed in parts (according to eomo accou~lts)below t l ~ elevel
of the ocean-the desiccated bed, as EIurnboldt thinks, of a 8ca
which once flowed betweell Europe and Asia, joinil~gthe Arctic
Ocean with the Euuine-~eparutcs more eff'cctunl1y t h ~ ai wiiter
 228 CENTBAL ASIA.

barrier between the Ruesian ateppea and the country of Khoras-

Ban, and liea like a broad dry moat outaide the rampart of the
Elbnrz range. I t is eandy and salt ; and is ecarcely inhabited,
excepting towards the skirta of the hills that fringe it, and
along the c o u of~ the rivers that deecend from those hills and
struggle--vainly, except in one or two instances-to force their
way to the Sea of Aral, or the Caspian.' On the east of Khiva
lies the Khanat of Bokhara, and immediately to the north is
the blue expanse of t.he Aral, or Sea of Khwarezm.
The country enclosed within them wide limits is highly
cultivated, being watered not only bp the Amon, but also by an
elaborate system of canals, sluices, and reservoirs. Wheat is
sown early and harvested in June, not nnfrequently yielding
sixty-fold. On the moist lands rice is grown very successfullp,
being planted in April, and gathered in September. A coarse
kind of eorgum, or jowamee, supersedes oats and yields three
hundred-fold, while the stalke are greedily eaten by the cattle.
Barley, millet, lent&, peas, &c., thrive well, as also cotton in
the southern districts, and in the northern hemp, tobacco,
sesame, and excellent madder. To make up for the absence of
meadow hay, lucerne is largely cultivated, and may be cut three
times in the year. The fruits of Khiva have been celebrated
from time immemorinl, and consist of apples, penrs, quince^,
plums, figs, peaches, apricots, and grapes, while the melons are
peculiarly delicious. Timber, however, is scarce, although there
is no lack of tall poplars, mulberry trees, and elms.
On the steppes vegetation is confined to a species of worm-
wood, the thorny shrub devoured by camels, and a kind of
willow, cnlled Saxaul, which is the only substitute for fire-
wood. This plant, the Anabmis Avlmodenclron of botanists, has
been described as ' sometimes g r o ~ i n gto a height of 15 feet, and
forming whole woods on rivers and lakes. I t is probably the
most lugubrious-looking tree in the world. I t has no leaves,
 KHIVA. 229

but only small excrescences of a livid hue ; it has no ramifying

branches, but only thin boughe coming immediately from the
stems; last, not least, i t does not grow erect, but laboriously
struggles up in zig-zag curves, as though it longed to return to
the earth, whence it sprang up with such painful effort. Still
the tree makes excellent fuel, and is an inestimable blessing in
a country in which there is no other material to kindle a fire.
Until lately, the Russians heated their steamers on the Aral
and Sir Daria exclusively with Saxaul.'
According to Dr WOW, the Jews of Toorkeatan will have it
that the Khivans are descended from the Hivites, who were
driven out of Palestine by Joshua, though it appears only that
they were made 'hewers of wood and drawers of water unto all
the congregdtion.' Re that as it may-and it would be scarcely
less absurd to discover a Hivite extraction for the Auvergnats
in Paris-the fixed population is at present divided into
Oozbegs, Tajeeks or Sarts, and Persians. The first of these
are the governing class, and came originally from the north
about the end of the fifteenth century, under the pressure of the
Russian advance. The Tajeeks, or Sarta, are of the Indo-
Persian stock, and have clung to the land while each new wave
of conquest has rolled over their bowed heuds. They constitute
by far the most useful and productive class of the community.
Intellectually, they are incomparably superior to their rulers,
and are not only occupied with agricultural and commercial
pursuits, but have for some time past taken an active part in
the management of public affairs. Ae for the Persians, they
are either slaves, or freedmen the descendants of ~laves,and are
e~nployedto till the soil and to discharge menial functione in
the households of the rich and powerful.
The nomad tribes are at leaat as numerous ae the fixed
population, though their actual numbers can orlly be matter of
conjecture from very imperfect data. The Knra-Kalpaks, or
230 CENTRAL ASIA.

Black Hats, roam about the delta of the Amou, and employ
~ n u c hof thcir time in fishing. They are said to possess 150
boats between Kungrad and the Aral, varying in burden from
300 lbs. to 2000 lbs. They are an inclustrious and unwarlike
tribe, and have nearly lost their wandering propensities. The
Kirghiz, on the other hand, being great breeders of cattle, are
always in n~ocement,pitching their tents wherever grass is
obtainable for their flocks and herds, and pussing on from one
grazing ground to another. Their chief haunts lie between the
Amou and the Yany Su, though not tjtrictly confined within
tllose limits. The Toorkomans occupy the southern and wcstern
borders, and are the most important of all the wandering tribes.
Towards the eastern coast of the Caspiim, the Kuzzaks are
chiefly found, and enjoy the unenviable distinction of producing
'perhaps the ugliest women in the world.'
The fauna of the Khivan Khanat has already been enumer-
ated. No mention, however, was made of the nightingi~le.
which, as me learn from M. Vambery, trills his thick-w:irblcd
notes the summer long, while at Bokhnra there are only storks,
RO tliilt the jeering Khivnn thus twits the lcss favoured Bok-
hariot : ' Tliy nightingale song,' he cries, ' is the till-cltlpping
of tlie stork.'
The city of Khioa is pleasantly situnted in the niidst 0.f
green ficlds, orchards, and lofty poplars. It en~loaestwo water-
courws, and is surrounded by a clay-built wall five miles in
circumference and ten feet in height. 7l'ithin this there is a
second wnll, between two and three miles in circuit,.nnd t\ventj--
eight feet in height, with a width of twenty-two feet in the
lower part. The epace between these walls is laid out to some
extent in gardens. On the ixincr wall were mounted twenty
guns to protect the Ark or Royal Castle, which comprises not
only the palace, but also the residences of the chief official
or llussulinaun sci~linal~ies.TLe
persons and s e ~ e r a ~~rrtlresrsrh.~,
l
 KHIVA. 231.
-

streets are narrow and tortuous, but the bazaar boasts of a

vnulted roof. The entrance into the Ark is by a narrow gate
which opens into a courtyard filled with servants and soldiers
of the body-guard. Two cannons were planted here by Nadir
Shah, highly ornamented, which he probably brought from
Delhi.
An inner gate leads into another and more spacious court,
on one side of which stands a mean-looking building that serves
for Government Offices, and where all the business of the state
is conducted under the supervision of the Mehtur or Prime
Minister. To the left of this is a guard-house occupied by
soldiers, police, and executioners, functionaries whose office was
no sinecure under Oozbeg rule, notwithstanding 31. Vatnbery's
assertion that ' the Khivan Oozbeg, although but rough-hewn,
is the finest character of Central Asia.'
13etmcen thew two luildings a rmall gate c!oscs the passage
to the royal residence, a poor mud hut, wit1:out nindows. The
furniture consists of a few costly carpets, some sofas and round
cushions, and several chests. I t is divided into the IIarcm, or
suite of apartments, and the Hall of Audience.
The Khan, at the time of N. Vambery's visit, was waited
upon by fifteen head servants. IIe wore a sheep-skin cap,
clumsy boots stuffed with yards of linen rag, and a thickly
wadded coat of silk or chintz, the ordinary costume of tlie
Oozbegs. IIe mould rise before tho dawn and attend the
morning prayer for liulf-an-hour. Ile then partook of tea,
seasoned with mutton fat arid salt. At times learned mollalia
were invited to discuss knotty tlicological problems, an exercitu-
tion that usuolly lullcd the Khan to sleep for r i couple of hours
or more. To this succeeded the business of the state, which
was follon~ctlby a heavy breukfust, all wlio wcrc present stnnd-
ing tlie while in a respectful attitude. Cliesv filled up tlie in-
terval till the mid-diiy prayer, an affair that occupied an hour.
232 CENTRAL ASIA.

Then came the Public Audience. Seated on a terrace over the

outer court, the Khan was compelled to listen with as much
patience as he could command to every one, no matter how
humble, who chose to address him, and not unfrequently he had
to endure home-truths of a very personal and unpleasant charac-
ter. The afternoon prayer cut short this disagreeable duty,
after which the Khan went forth for a ride outside the walls,
until sunset. Evening prayer was offered in full nssembly.
The labours of the day were then crowned with a luxurious
supper, washed down by spirituous drinks, and enlivened by the
performances of jugglers, singers, and musicians, the latter
making use of a tambourine and an instrument somewhat re-
sembling a violin, but with a longer neck, and with three
strings, one of wire and two of silk : it was played with a bow.
The songs were mostly of an erotic character. Two houra after
sunset the Khan retired into the harem, where he had only two
wives, but both of the Blood Royal, whose constant occupation
was the making of the articles of apparel worn by their lord.
At a stated hour the ladies were taken out for a drive in a large
gaudy carriage, ahlit in with red shawla and carpets, and pre-
ceded and followed by two horsemen bearing white staves. A s
the carriage passed along every one rose and made a low bow.
I n winter time the Khan lived in a light tent pitched outside
the walls, with a fire burning in the middle ; but in the sum-
mer season he frequently repaired to Rafenek or Tashhauz,
castles built in the Persian style, and possessing some window-
panes and even looking-glasses, with fine gardens around.
The executioners had, indeed, quite enough to do. M.
Vambery describes a horrible spectacle wit~lessedby himself.
While he was staying in Khiva, disguised as a dervish, three
hundred prisoners of the Chawdor tribe of Toorkomans were
brought into the town, and for forty-eight hours kept without
food. They were chailled together in groups of ten or a dozen,
 KHIVA.

with iron collars round their necks, and those under forty years
of age were sold as slaves, or bestowed as useful presents apon
nobles whom the Khan delighted to honour. The leaders were
conducted to the gallows or the block, but eight old men, who
were too feeble to be utilized in any way, were laid on their
backs upon the ground. ' They were then bound hand and foot,
and the executioner gouged out their eyes in turn, kneeling to
do so on the breast of each poor wretch ; and after every opela-
tion he wiped his knife, dripping with blood, upon the white
beard of the hoary unfortunate. . . As each fearful act
was completed, the victim, liberated from his bonds, groping
around with his hands, sought to gain his feet. Some fell
against each other, head against head; others sank powerless
to the earth again, uttering low groans, the memory of which
will make me shudder as long as I live.'
Their offence, it must be admitted, had been sufficiently
heinous. They had surprised and plundered a caravan of
Khivan traders, whom they then left in the desert without food
or clothing, so that fifty-two out of sixty peri~hedof cold and
hunger. Executions, however, were of daily occurrence, and
very frequently for offences against the law or traditions of tha
Koran. Another common sight was that of a body of horseme11
riding into the great square, and throwing down before the
officer appointed for that purpose the heads of robbers, or rebels,
which they carried at their saddle bows. I n truth, this was an
old and general practice in the East, and has prevailed among
most barbarous peoples. Pietro delle Valle relates how on the
21st March, 1618, being the Nou Roz, or Persian New-Tear's
Day, ' among tho presents brought to the palace (of Shah Abbns
at Ferhabad) was one on the part of the Khsn of Chornsan,
who, among many other things, sent nearly three hundred
heads of Uzbeck Tartare, besides a nobleman of distinction of
that nation, and eight or ten of his servants alive, who surren-
2 3.4 CENTRAL ASIA.

dcrcd themselves prisoners, the result of a skirmifih, in which

the remainder were put to the rout.'
31. Vambery, no friend of the Russians, candidly allows that
they have contributed largely to the suppression of barbarous
usages in Central Asia. B y means of their naval station a t
Ashouwda, for instance, they have put down kidnapping and
piracy by the Toorkomans along the shores of the Caspinn.
The latter, however, had a dcp6t for Persian slares a t Gomush-
tkpC, a small town about twenty miles from the mouth of the
Giirghcn, or Gurghan. Here those unhappy beings were fast-
ened with heavy chains, badly fed, ond clothed in rags, in
order to give greuter weight to their applications to their
fricnds for ransom. A t nigbt a n iron ring was put round their
necks and attached to a peg, so that a t every movement of their
body a rattling noise was produced. After a brief delay they
were sold for the Khiva or Bokhara market. Even worse than
G6muslitE1~C waa Attrek, on the river of that nnme-the
ancient Sarneius-which is pronounced emphatically to be a
place of torment for Persian captives.
Frorn this point there are three cnral-an routes to Khira.
Thc f i r ~ tskirts the Caspian a t the buck of the Grcntcr Balkan
for two days in a northerly dircction,nnd then for ten days runs
nearly due east. This route occupies twenty-four ( l a p , and is
badly supplied with water, but posscsscs the recornmendation of
being tolerably free from robbers. The second, or mitldle, course
lies along the ancient cliannel of the Osus, arid passing between
the Great and Little Ballinn proceeds north-east, Khiva being
reached in twenty dt~ys. On this line a t the foot of the latter
nlngc, which riscs to n height of 3000 feet, are marbhes thnt
I-cscmblc quicksands, nnd which have to be cautiously avoided.
The third route is by car the shortest, arid may be traversed in
R fortnight, sweet water being obtainable nt every halting-placc ;
but, on the other hand, it is terribly infested by Toorkomans,
and can be pursued only by rery numerous, or well-armed,
caravans. A t one point a table-land rises suddcnly out of tho
mii(1y desert, and is some 300 feet above the lower level. Here
antelopes and wild mses are seen grazing in large herds, and
3I. Vumbery conjectures thnt this plateau, which he calls Knf-
lankir, or Tiger-field, may formerly have been an island begirt
by the Oxus. *it another point the track skirts thc Shor (301, s
rectangu1:ir lake of salt water, about twelve miles in circum-
ference.
Uittil quitc a rccent period the commercial capital of the
Khanat war Iiohne or Kenya Urghiinj, called, also, Jorjnniah.
I t stood on both banks of tlie ,imou, with a bridge connecting
the two divisions. Thc place m11s utterly drstroyed by Chin-
gltiz's son Okkirdai, in 1221, but subsequently recovered milch
of its importance, until the river changed its course and left the
town, as it wcrc, stmnded in tlie interior. According to Pascal
of Vittoria, the tomb of Job was to bc srcn hcre in 13B8, but
Coloncl Tulc scepticully remarks that, if tombs are to be tuken
as evidence, ' the Inan of Uz' mus buried in Oudh.
S e w or Yani Urghunj is considcrnbly higher up the river,
from wlicli it is about piglit lnilcs distant. I t is surrounded by
a wall, and btnnds in tlic lnidbt of productive gnrdcns, with a
population estiluated at :3000 uouls. I3ctwecn thirty and forty miles
to tllc south-cast of Iilliva is the fbrtified town of Ilaxurusp,
boilsting of a mon~ifilctory of gunpo~vdcr. I t is slipposed to
contaii~-1000 i~thahitant.s.
Kuilgrntl, on the Tultlyk branch of the Amou, has filllcn
from its o11ce high estate. Though nonliilally fortified, it is
uttcrly delb~!celrss, and its mud hovels are in such a ruiito~is
contlitiori thnt it3 mixed popi~lationof Oozbcgq, Surts, Kuraktll-
pnks, ant1 Iiirgllizc, prefer to dnrell in tcilta. Thcrc nrr, iritlred,
a few public. briildirigts thnt sccm to bear witness to better tilrics
in the past, but Bdrnircll Uoutakof ddscribcs tlie strccts as nar-
233 CESTRAL ASIA.

row, crooked, dirty, and malodoroue, though he admired the

well-cultivated fields, gardens, and melon-grounds outside the
apology for a wall. I n shape it is an oblong square, and the
population is variously put at from six to eight thousand. The
Kirghiz come hither to exchange their cattle for cereals and
pulse, but the country around hue been cruelly devastated by
the Toorkomans, who have been in the habit of carrying off the
adults, and selling thcm as slaves to the Khivans alld Persians,
being wholly unrestrained either by the precepts of the Koran
or by feelings of patriotism.
Kungrad was for a time the chief seat of a petty Oozbeg
principality, but was reduced to obedience in 1814 by Moham-
med Raheem Khan. If it be identical with Major Abbot's
Gonghraut,' it was at one time memorable for a custom more
honoured in the breach than in the observance. Every stranger,
he says, was challenged to a wrestling match by an unmarried
damsel, and the conquered was sub-jected to the caprice
of the victor or victrix. The Ruesian mission to the late
Khan Said Afohalnmed, found the neighbourhood very un-
healthy, and complained bitterly of the mosquitoes and gad-
flies. The other towns of the Klianat are eyen less irnportalit
than those above-mentioned. Khoja-ili, Bent, Tabhhauz,
Khanki, and Nungyt, are all insignificant places, defenceless
save against the marauding Toorkornans, and inhabited by a
wretched and impoverished population.
I n the spring of 1830, Cuphin Arthur Conolly, an amiable
and intelligent officer of the Bengal Artillery, endeavoured to
make his way overland to India through Russia, Persia, and
Central Asia. I n this he was only partially suc'cessfiil, being
thwurted in his desire to traverse the Khanats of Kl~ivaand
Bokhara. For the purpom of this compilation it is sufficient
to mark his course from dstrabad, a few miles from which town
he made his first acquaintance with the Toorkomans, nominally
 KHIVA. 237
- - -

tributaries of the Shah, but who nevertheless kidnapped his

mbjecta.
'Four miles of our road from Aatrabad,' he wrote, 'were
through an open wood, in which there waa a vaat lake, and our
path lay for the most part over the heads of many strong dams
raised to divide the water, so that portions of it might be drawn
off at pleasure for rice grounds. Then we rode for six miles
acrom a very rich meadow to the river Qoorgaun. The grass
in some places grew so luxuriantly that, at a distance, we mis-
took it for grain. The Toorkoman tents, in camps of from
sixty to eighty families, were thickly dotted over it ; troops of
mares and foals, herds of oxen and camels, and numerous flocks
of sheep and goats, were ranging in all directions to choose
their pasture, watched here and there by a dog or a ragged
Tatar child.'
The Qurghan was here sixty yards wide, with a deep bed
which is filled to overflowing when the melted snows descend
from the Elburz mountains. I n summer-time it is shallow, but
the water is always sweet and drinkable after it has stood a
little while and had time to settle, though 31. Vambery avers
that it has a fishy flavour as high ae Gomushtkpk, owing to the
dense shoals of fish. For three miles on either side the land is
wonderfully productive, and is said to yield from seventy to a
hundred-fold.
Quitting the meadow land on the 26th April, Captain
Conolly came upon a light dry soil, covered with patches of
good grass, small thorns, and straggling bushes. On the next
day he crossed the Attreck by a ford, twenty-seven miles from
the Gurghan, where it was forty yards wide. I n spring this
river overflows its banks, and ita waters are muddy and dis-
coloured.
Marching due north all night across a barren country, he
passed the ruins of Meshed-i-Misreaun, and struggled on over
 533 CCZTI.4L ASIA.
-

r i q l p 3anal L;::a~:k-of Q;]. s :1: i:.e tLr m... :~,...:~rin the tent
a t 97%d-iriaz hi-J: L.:' :l.e 2 2 ~ asd . n.3t s L9xa:h of wind
+timing. D ( ~ T ; G : t~e h :LY c-ararm p=~i-!af up the old
W of the ()xu-, 2lb4r41 y:,-:- a!.:...szd px-LA on all night
through d n n c h i a g rain ti: tL.-!- n . I < Ld a rprin; of delici4,us
mater on a y L r c ~ uo ~ v e n i w l i t h ti:,? +
TL
.
, The B ~ l l i u nrmge
w a a b u t thirty mil:- to ti.r n..r:h, :~?e,undir.; in s p r i n p and
' with verdure clad,' r u ~ l n i ~ ifrOprug E . 3 E to W.S.W.
Mar-day a s q e n t in tr:r\-t r-iiip ' a barren n hire plain. on
which there a-1~inut a bla(1e of h ~ r t ~ t ~ ann cowtl . I n parts
it aru btron;l! iri1prcgrlatc4 ai:?is ~ l t and , portions of soil on
which tLe mineral lay in a t1.in cru.t, when rcfrac-ttd in the
extreme di-tlrnce, had the appc.ur,ince of white builtliup. The
hard earth sounded under the hory..)' feet, but wnic tntcks of
deep camel fi~tnlarlis that cnsh-d the plain, ~ l ~ o n - eth:it, d
earlier in the w a s n , it hat1 lnvu watered. Thcb-e, and tlie
bones of a camel wl~ichlay blc:~chi~ig in the sun, w ~ ~ the t . ~ollly
.
signs we had of any other livi~il:thing Laving pased over so
waste a place. Before us wa.3 a p p a r c ~ ~ tal yfore>t, but when w e
neared it every e v e ~ ~ i nwe g fi,u11(1olily large burjll~sgrowing in
deep sand, with here and t11el.c a ~ ~ l i ntree l l ; so much did the
mirage deceive us, accusto~nt~l a. w t r had become to its illusion.
A cuckoo was singing on t l ~ cclc~nyedbranch of a snlnll tree. ;
we saw some beautifully-colo~ired pnroquets (the btdy grecn,
head and wings of a ricli brow11 colour), and a flight of birds
like the Indiun ~ninas(a specie* of starling); and, desolate as
the m n e was, there wlu a beauty about it in the stillness of the
broad twilight. Occtruionally, during our jour~icy from the
Goorgaun, we had started a hare from her form; many ante-
lopce bound& across the p1;riil ; and the desert rat (an ~11ii1iii1
rather elighter than the corurncxi rat, with a tuft on the tip of
its tail, and which springs with four feet like a liangaroo) was
everywhere common.'
 KHIVA. 23'3

Captain Conolly hirl~selfwent no further than a 1:lrge pool

of water called Cheen Mohammed, about 210 miles from Astn-
bad. IIe w:ls here forced to retrace his steps, and more than
once was in danger of his life. However, he at length reached
Astrabad in sufety, and on the 12th June started afresh for
Meshed, travelling along the foot of the Elburz range, by Shah-
rood, Bbbasabad, Subzawar, alld Nishapoor, to Meshed, whence
he pursued his route to TIerat, 'the gate of India,' and travers-
ing the kingdom of Kabul, stood once more on British soil.
The conclusion he arrived at from what he had seen and heard
during his long and eventful journey was to the effect that if
ever the Russians became masters of Khiva, they would move on
by the Amou to Balkh, and create a revolution in the trade of
Central .isia. Should they ever attempt the perilous enterprise
of invading India, they will, a~ it seerued to Captain Conolly,
make Khiva their base of operations, whence they will ascend
the Amou to Balkh, cross the intervening mountains by the
Bamian Pnso, and push on to the Indus by Kabul and Peshnwur
-not then a Briti3h military station. There is a h another
and ee..;icr route through Korassan.
The line of march from Khiva to the Indian frontiers did
not clppear to this observant officer as likely to be impeded by
any verv extruordinal*ydifficulties, the Aniou being navigable
for eight ~nonthsof the year. At the same time the passage of
the IIinil(m Kuosll would be attended with considerable labour,
'for pruvi4olls must be carried all the way (from Balkh to
Kaltul), :rl~tlthere would be difficulty in transporting artillery
ant1 8tore.l over these stupendous mountains. However, the
pas.rerl are practicable during six moriths of the year.' From
Kabul a mouutiiinous but very ~avvuble road, well supplied
with water, leads to Attock, by way of Jelhlabud and Poshawur,
but it ia Kandahar that, in Captain Conolly's opiuion, will
pruvu the pivot upon which the real operations of war will turn.
240 CZXTEAL ASIA.

That a d d only be so, borerer, in tbe event of Mghaabtun

being previously rednced to the d t i m of a &&.an or a
BritiAh dependency.
During his brief experience of the desert, Captain Conollp
availed himaelf to the atmost of the opportunities he enjoyed of
studying the habits and castoms of the Toorkomana Hia de-
rrription of a modern tent is equally applicable to t h m which
aq~rtonishedWilliam de Baysbroek and other travelled triars of
the middle ages. Four pieces of finmework, made of light
wticks loosely ~ i v o t e don each other so that they may be drawn
out or put together at pleasure (after the manner of lazy tongs
or nciusore), are eet a p in a circle of twelve feet diameter, space
being left for the lintels of a wooden door. To the top of this
frame are tied the ends of many long pliant sticks, which bend
up in the shape of a dome, and are fixed in a circular hoop of
wood, which formu the top, and the chimney of the tent. Over
this skeleton-work are laid large cloths of thick black felt;
they are raised on forked sticks tied round the dome and kept
elm? by a broad bond which goes round the centre of the whole.
S o t a pin or a pole is required for these tents ; they are roomy
rtnd a defcnce agninst all weathcrrr, and one is no more than a
load for a camel.'
The amount nnd variety of disease, however, in an oubeh, or
cnmp, painfully surprised the traveller. Ophthnlmia was allnost
~inivcrsal,while cutaneous diseases, leprosy, elephantiasis, rheu-
mntinm, and insanity, were all represented in this small tented
village.
' I t is a wild scene, a Toorkomnn camp. All its tenants are
rrntir nt dnybreuk, and the women, after a short busy period,
rctiro to work within their tents. Towards the evening the
nion get together, nnd sit in circles, discoursing; the mistress
of R tent in sccn seated outside, knitting; near her is an old
ncPgrowomnn, dry rind withered as the deserts of Libya, who is
 KHIVA. 241
- - --
churning in a skill hung upon three sticks, or dandling the last
born; and the young fry, dirty and naked, except perhaps a
small jacket or skull cap, fantastically covered with coins, bite
of metal, or beads and charms, run about in glee, like so many
imps, ecreaming and flinging dust on each other, the great
game of these unsophisticated children of nature. As the day
declines, the camels are driven in, and folded within the camp ;
Boon after the sun has set a few watchem are set; here and
there perhaps in a tent remain for a short time the light of a
candle and the sound of the millstones, but soon the whole
camp is in still repose.'
The Toorkomans roam over the wilderness stretching from
the south-east of the Caspian Sea to the vicinity of Balkh, and
from the foot of the Elburz mountains to the banks of the
Amou. They speak of themselves as the Nine Peoples, or
Tribes, resembling each other in all essential points. The
Chawdors, numbering 12,000 tents, occupy the Ust Urt plateau
between the Caspian and the Aral. The 50,000 tents of the
Ersari, tributaries of Bokhara, are pitched along the lek bank
of the Amou. Near Andkui are met the Alielies, a small tribe
possessing only 3000 tents, while the yet smaller division,
named Karti, are content with half that number. I t is well
that these ore so few, for they infest the region between Andkui
and Merv, and are badly pre-eminent in fierceness and brutality.
Near the last-nnmed town the historic Salores, brave and far-
descended, fill some 8000 tents, and next to them on the Mur-
ghab come the equally warlike families of the Sarukhs, with
their 10,000 tents.
From Merv well nigh to Khiva the Tekkeh Toorkomans
wander orer the Kara-Koum or Black Sands, the most powerful
of all the tribes and the scourge of Khorassan. Their numbers
are estimated by M. Vambery at 60,000 tents, but General
Ferrier, a more trustworthy guide in this particular matter, is
16
242 CESTRAL ASIA.

content with 35,000. Sominnlly, ther are subject to the Khan

of Khiva, but plunder Hhivan and Persian with perfect im-
partiality. To check their inroads Shah Abbas established on
the frontier beyond Jleshed a colony of Koords, but he thereby
only increased the evil he had hoped to mitigate. For these
mountaineers, though Sheeahs, speedily made common muse
with the Toorkoman Sooneee, and readily connived at their in-
roads into Persian territory and seizure of their co-religionists.
I n 188.2, however, they were severely chastised by d b h s
Meerza and temporarily reduced to a state of order.
The 10,000 tents of the Goklana give life and movement to
the upper valleys of the Attreck and Gurghan. These are the
most civilized of all the Toorkomans and are comparatively
settled, cultivating the land and acknowledging themselves
subjects of the Shah. Near the mouth of those two rivera and
right across the desert to the confines of the oasis, the fierce
Y a m d s prey upon all alike, and in these latter days are be-
lieved to hare imposed their d l upon the Khan of Khiva.
They number, according to M.Vambery, 40,000 tents, which
General Ferrier cuts down to 25,000. The entire Toorkoman
population may be safely taken at about three-quarters of a
million.
'How can any spark (of civilization),' exclaims that ad-
venturous orientalist, ' penetrate to Ccntral Asia, as long as the
Toorkomans menace every traveller, and every caravan, with a
thousand perils! General Ferrier, however, was of opinion
that their incursions into Khornssan might easily be checked
by occupying the three principal passes which lead into the
steppe, and by stationing three or four columns of light cavalry
on the frontier, supported by a few howitzers and field-pieces.
' Unhappily,' he add.c, 'there is little hope that such a plan
would be adopted by the Government of the Shah ; provided
gold flows into his treasurv, little does he care whether his
 KHIVA. 243

people are pillaged or not, or that eight or ten of his principal

nobles eat up the revenues of the country.' This was written
prior to the Shah's romantic visit to Europe.
I f caring little for Fraternity, the Toorkomane practise
Liberty and Equality in the most uncompromising manner.
Their Aksakuls-literally Grey Beards-exercise no more than
a moral influence, each in his own aoul, or group of families.
When a Chief meditates a f o r a y e l l e d by them a chapporc,
or chap-aoudhe plants his lance, surmountd by his colours,
in front of his tent, and a crier goes about through the encamp-
ment inviting all good Moslemili to join in a raid against the
Persian infidels. The volunteers plant their spears beside that of
the Chief. When a sufficient number have presented them-
selves, the departure is appointed for that day month, in order
to give time to get the horses into condition. Each animal is
thenceforth allowed 6 lbs. of hay and 3 lbs. of barley per d i ~ m ,
which reduces his flesh and improves his pace. For half-an-
hour every day he is ridden at full epeed, after which some time
elapses before he is fed-very little water being given to him
during tha whole period of his training. Each Toorkoman
takes the field with two animals, one hie charger, the other a
yaho or packhorse. On setting out, it is the latter which
has to bear his maater, while the nobler beast follows like
dog.
The first day's march is usually n very short one, but the
length increnses daily. On the fourth day the charger is sup-
plic dwith a mixture cori~posedof i t lbs. barley flour, 2 lbs. maize
flour, and 2 lbs. raw shecp'a-tail fat, well mixed and kneaded toge-
ther. This compound is given in bulls, and is much relished,
while its liutritive qualities are shown in this, thut after four
days of such diet a horse is capable of enduring alrnost any
amouut of fatiguo. Iluy aud straw are absolutely forbidden.
The saddle is now transferred to the chorger. A secure retreat
 244 CENTRAL ASIA.

ia next sought out, in which the band reate, and secretes itself,
while scouts are sent out to look for a kafila. Sometimes the
robber spy will join an unsuspecting party of travellers, and
obtain from their own lip all the information he requires.
Porsian villagers too are often in league with the marauders
and furnish them with the deaired intelligence, in the hope of
themselvee being exempted from bonds and spoliation. Small
detachments, besides, scour the fields and carry off the tremh-
ling peasants.
When an attack is resolved upon, half-a-dozen of the band
remain with the yaboos, while the others fall like a whirlwind
upon village or caravan, and gallop off with everything upon
which they can lay their hands. Not unfrequently they will
fire the houses, and never draw bit until many a mile separates
thern from the scene of their depredations. Of the prisoners
some are taken up on the saddle, others are placed on the cap-
tured homes, and othera again are fastened by a long cord to
the saddle-bow of their captors, and pricked by lances if they
lag behind. When incapable of further exertion, they are
killed upon the spot, or left to perish miserably in the desert.
Two-thirds of the prisoners often die by the way.
Now and again it happenv that the villagers, apprized of the
approach of their relentless enemies, suddenly attack them
while paming through a defile, and give no quarter. At times
the Toorkomans penetrate to a considerable distance within the
Persian frontiers, gliding by night between villages, and care-
fully avoiding a conflict. ' The Turcomans,' according to
General Ferrier, ' are the best mounted robbers in the world,
but will never make good soldiers.' Should they chance to
return to their tents empt<y-handed,they are jeered at by the
women, who offer them petticoats, and otherwise insult their
misfortune. The plunder is sold to the Oozbegu ; a boy of ten
years of age being valued a t forty tomauns, or about £20;
 KHIVA.

while a man of thirty is worth only twenty-five, and of forty

only twenty tomauns.
Slightly different is the account given by Captain Conolly.
'The Toorkomans,' he says, ' train their horses for a long
march, and when they are going beyond the plain country, they
shoe them, which they do not at other times. Their longest
expeditions are undertaken in spring and autumn. With a bag
of flour and some oil cakes, a few kooroot balls, and a waterskin
for their own use, and a small bag of barley, or jotmrrce, for
their horses, they set out on a distant foray. Their pace L
alternately a yoorfntah, or gentle jog trot, and a long walk;
every hour or two they halt, and let their homes graze if there
be herbage-themselves perhaps snatching a few momenta'
deep, and occasionally they give them a handful of corn.
Marching on thus unceasingly to the point they have in view,
they get over much ground in a few days, and their horses', and
indeed their own, steady endurance of fatigue ia wonderful.'
Sometimes a piece of fat is rolled round the bit, to keep the
mouth moist.
General Ferrier enters at some length upon the Toorkoman
horses and their management. They are treated, he tells us,
more tenderly than wife or child, and are loved passionately, it
being deemed a sin to maltreat one. A Toorkoman will never
voluntarily fight from behind a wall or other barrier. He is
only himself when in the saddle. The grass of the ateppe ie
pronounced very sweet and nutritious, but is found only in
spring. ' I t produccs in their horses a higher temperature and
better condition of the blood, as well as a peculiar elasticity,
and strength of muscle quite wonderful.' No important expe-
ditions, according to General Ferricr, are undertaken before
the end of July. After that, horeea are fed on dry food, usually
about 7 lbs. of barley daily, nixed with dry chopped straw,
lucerne. sainfoin, or clover bay.
246 CESTRAI. ASIA.

The best h o w come of an Arab stock, and, though not

handsome, are worthy of their descent. Timour it seem, dis-
tributed 4200 Arab mama among the different tribes, -while
Nadir Shah bestowed 600 upon the TCkhs or Tekkehs. Their
he& may be too long, their chests too narrow, and their legs
too weedy, to please the eye of a European judge, but their
pace is excellent, and their power of hunger, cold, and fatigue
unsurpassed. Instances are known of Toorkoman h o r n cover-
ing 600 miles in six, and even in five days. General Ferricr
perwnally vouches for 420 miles being accomplished in twelve
days, of which three were ~ a s s e din inaction. This animal waa
ridden from: Teheran to Tabriz, from Tabriz to Teheran, and
thence back again to the original starting-point.
A common description of horse can be had for about fourteen
guineas, but a good horse of inferior breed will fetch from £40
to X48, while a second-rate animal of the best stock costs not
lcss than 2,120 to £160. The best of all are not procurable for
money, and can be torn from their owners only by superior
force. Foals are gradually broken in to work when about two-
and-a-half years old. Toorkoman horses are never placed in a
stuble, but always picketed in the open air, covered with warm
felt rugs. I n towns they are put into stables during the winter,
but as soon as a little warmth returns, they are turned out into
a courtyard or field, tied with head and heel ropes, and well
exercised every day, except when out at grass.
TFTatcris given to them at any time, even when in a lather
of perspiration, but in that case they are galloped up and down
for a while, to prcvent the skin under the saddle from puffing
up like a bladder. To a certain extent the Toorkomans are
good horse-doctors. For incipient glanders they administer
daily 6 lbs. sainfoin hay, 6 Ibs. camel's milk, with 1 lb. powdered
sulphur-the cure being usually wrought in about a fortnight.
If a young colt refuses to feed, an incision is made, and a piece
 KHIVA. 247

of cartilage removed from the upper part of the nostril. The

age of twenty to twenty-five years is not uncommon.
Every Toorkoman clan has ita own range, beyond the limits
of which it cannot wander without trespaesing on the grounde
claimed by some other clan. The different tribes are constantly
at variance with one another, their national o m s being a spear
ten or twelve feet long and a sword, though most of them now
possess a clumsy matchlock. They are inveterate thieves and
robbers, and do not scruple to stop and plunder a guest when
he has left the tent in which he has been hospitably entertained.
Nor are they so facetiously polite as the Arabs, whose equivalent
for 'Stand and deliver ! ' is, according to Captain Conolly,
' Cousin, undress thyself, thy aunt is without a garment.' The
forms of hospitality, however, are as closely observed by the
Toorkomans as by the wandering tribes of Syria. 'When a
stranger comes to an ot~beh(group or encampment), he is in-
vited into the first tent, the master of which welcomes him by
taking his hands within his own, and, holding the bridle of his
horse, orders his wife to prepare refreshment for their guest.'
The women, indeed, do all the work of the household. They
milk the camels, fetch water, make buttermilk, and collect fuel
in the morning ; while in the afternoon they milk the sheep and
g o a t ~ make
, curds, prepare milk for butter and kooroot, and
provide the evening meal. When not thus engaged, they nre
employed in sewing, knitting, carding wool, weaving carpets,
and making felt cloths and horse clothing. They are often
assisted, however, by slaves, ' who, for the most part, live very
much like dogs.' When men are conversing together in a
tent, it is customary for the women to pull up a small piece of
cloth from their bosom and cover their mouth. Their ordinary
co~tumeconsists of a long chintz chemiee, open in front of the
chest, which reaches to the feet and co-iers their loose drawers.
The huir is worn in two long plaited tails, horribly greasy and
219 CESTRAL ASIA.

swarming with vermin, with a bunch and some sort of ornament

at the end of the tail. Cnrnamed women part their hair in the
Hadonna fmhion, but matrons don a heavy ugly cap, from the
back of which hangs a red silk ecarf, and on the front are
strung any number of gold coins, according to the temporal
wealth of the husband. Chastity does not appear to be one
of their cardinal virtues, General Ferrier declaring that all that
their husbanb demand of them is obedience and hard work.
The men, he says, are rude, coarse, and of a cold, contemp-
tuous temperament. They have large flat faces with pointed
chins, and two small holes for eyes. Their heads look too small
for their muscular frames, and their beards are thin, sandy, and
irregular. They profesa to be Soonees, which is their excuse
for enslaving the heretical Sheeahs, but they know nothing of
the Kornn, nor heed even the ceremonies of their pretended
faith. They certainly do not pray, or fast, or wash, or purify
themselvee, and both physically and morally are an unclean
race. I n every question of life they are guided by ' deb,' or
precedent, of which they think far more than of the intrinsic
merits of the case. It seldom happens that they have more
than two wives, widows being preferred to maidens, by reason
of their greater experience of household duties. A divorce is
of rare occurrence. Persian female captives are not often kept
as wives, being usually sold to traders from Khiva or Bokhara.
' A really old Toorkoman woman,' Captain Conolly ungalluntly
remarks, ' looks as if she was made of leather, and as much like
a witch as any creature that can be imagined.'
The descendants of freed captives are called Kouls to the
most distant generation, and are despised by the Eegs, or free-
born, who never intermarry with them, and if they chance to
tuke the life of a Koul no blood feud arises ; and yet the latter
are said now to constitute the majority. Children are act,ually
married, not merely betrothed, at the precocious age of six or
 KHIVA. 249
--- - -

seven, and live together while yet of tender years. The bride
ia expected to provide, besides her own clothes, the carpets and
lighter articles of furniture ; while the bridegroom supplies the
tent, a few camels and sheep, and perhaps a mare. Should the
father's circumstances be too limited to enable him to furnish
his son with a separate establishment, he takes the young couple
into his own tent until they are in a condition to do better for
themselves.
The bridegroom's father, if a wealthp man, sometimes gets
up races in honour of the event, and will offer prizes to the value
of a hundred tillas, or 2 6 5 of English money. As might be
anticipated, the Toorkomans are passionately fond of racing,
but their matches are generally for long distances, even for
twenty miles for four-year-olds, but the pnce may be varied by
trot, canter, and gallop. For untrained animals, the distance
is often not leas than eight miles. ' I once heard a young
man,' says Captain Conolly, ' sing through his nose for half-an-
hour, occasionally striking the two wire strings of his guitar;
I could not make out any tune, but was told that he was rather
an artiste, and that he had been extemporising the history of a
famed horse.'
The ruling passion of the Toorko~nansia covetousness. Their
one thought is to increase their troops of mares and herds of
camels. But let them be ever so wealthy, they continue to live
on unleavened cakes of wheaten or barley meal. The dough is
kneaded in a wooden trough, or on a dried skin, and baked on
wood embers; at times, a little oil or ghee-clarified butter-is
mixed with the flour. They also eat rice and yarma, or bruised
wheat, and are fond of sour milk. On grand occasions they will
kill a 8heep to make broth or pillao. Camels are only slaughtered
when incurably lame or likely to die-a healthy camel, capable
of carrying the average.burden of 570 lba., being worth upwards
of thrce guineas. The ordinary drink of all classes is butter-
2-50 C t S T R A L ASIA.

milk, but the more opulent will, now and again, intoxicate
thmwlven with fermented mare's milk.
In every tent may be seen one or two cast-iron pota of
Ruwian manufacture, which are placed on tripods over the fire
for the family meal. Their luxuries are apices, coarse sugar,
tobacco, and gay articlea of dress, chiefly from Persia, for which
they exchange the produce of their flocks, and felts and carpeta
made by their women. The Toorkoman garb resembles that of
the Oozbep, and consist8 of a shirt, loose trousers, a vest, a
curncl'a-hair cloak belted round the waist, and a large sheep
akin cap. I n their tents they go barefooted, or with sandals
fiiuteried by a string round the big toe ; but on horseback they
qmrt Iick~ianboob, with pointed iron-tipt heels. Those who
carmot afford boots, roll folds of cloth mund their legs. Against
these dashing, reckless barbariane, the supple, timid Persians
are utterly helpless. ' A Toorkoman is a dog,' say they, ' and
will only be kept quiet, like a dog, with a bit of bread : give
it, then, is the doctrine of the traveller, and pass on unmo-
leu ted.'
I n the south-enstern extremity of the Khanat of Khiva is
situated the oft-pillaged town of Merv, IInro, or Merou, which
has belonged alternately to Persia, Khiva, and Bokhara.
Strictly spcaking, however, it now belongs to the Saryk or
Slinrukhs Toorkomans, and may therefore be properly noticed
in this place. According to tradition, Merv was originally
founded by Alexander the Great; but, falling into decay,
IVUR rebuilt by Antiochus Soter, who called it after himself
A~itiocheia Margiana. Both at that time and for many cen-
turies afterwards, the country around was remarkable for ita
fertility, being watered by the Murghab, the Margus of Strabo
and the Epardue of Arrian. A t a later period, the town was
honoured with the title of Merv, Shah-i-Jehan, the King of the
IJ'orld, and was the burial-place of Alp Arslnn, the sentimental
 KHIVA. 251

and slightly absurd epitaph on whose tomb has already been

given.
As long as it remained under the Persians the district was
exceedingly flourishing. Towards the close of the last century,
however, 8hah Mourad of Bokhara destroyed the dame of the
canals of irrigat<ion,demolished the town, and carried off the
inhabitants, estimated at 25,000 souls, to his own capital, where
they were settled in a separate quarter, and are said to have
taught their conquerors the manufacture of silk. On the death
of llourad the Bokharese garrison was withdrawn, and the
place abandoned to the Toorkomans.
Mahommed Raheem, Khan of Khiva, subsequently took
possession of nIerv, and Oollah Kouli Khan also marched an
army thither in fifteen days, sinking a well at every stage, but
nevertheless lost 2000 camels. Though only 200 miles from
both Khiva and Bokhara, neither Stnte now appears to consider
that it is worth the trouble and expense of a garrison. The
Russians may possibly after n while thhik otherwise of a post
which commands the roads to Herat and Meshed, and there is
little doubt that the alicient canals might to a great extent be
repaired. Lir Alesandcr Burnes speaks of ruins extending
over a circle of thirty to forty miles in circumference, but at the
time of his visit in 1832 the place was occupied by a few Oozbeg
families surrouuded by the tcnts of the Toorkomans.
I n the latter part of the eighth century nferv obtained an
unenviable reputation in the 3Xoslem world as the head-quarters
of a pestilent heresy. IIeretical notions were, indeed, very
prevalent just then. A spirit of philosophical inquiry had got
abroad, and there were individuals who denied that the world
had ever had a beginning, or would ever have an end. Men
and beasts, they said, sprang up like the plants, and would
have no existence beyond the present life. During this un-
wholesome state of excitement one IIasheem Ben Bakeem
dech-d th3t he h = r 'r s God- He h d been, he said, in
turn- l i t m , A b r ~ h1 I ,G + e . Je.3-i Mo'ummed, Abou Vmlem,
and n s-r, in the f.d3+.5c.i tine, ru m e to pariij- and rule the
rorlL His fi,;l*,ren rere d r a m chic.+ from bkhara and
Sanur'azd. -ti, from the e.,l.ur of their prmenta, men called
the J t i : e - P . ~ ~ b rbilc.
d, he EImse;i ru knorn as Uob;;innq or
The i-t-iltil He r a s st k wd:d and driven into a strong
fi~rtrt-. near Kesh, where he hi.3 out for sereral \-earn The
p ' h ~was at 1eng:h rr*luctd b- f~mine,and it is mid that the
imp t 5 r e a hIm+X in:d> a b!;tain; f u m c ~ in
, - : e x , order that it
mi;5t be bclierd that he had mturncd to Heaven This slight
thrt::d of h i - t o r i d fact IKE roren b~ Mwre into his pop&
pxrc, 'The Yeiltti Pnqthct of K h o m k s s '
 BOKHARA. 253

CHAPTER XI.
BOKHARA.

BOKHABIA-FBOHTIEBk-ABU-POPULbTION-THE OOZBEQB A N D THEIR

PECULIABITIEB-THE TWEEKB-OTHER BAC&8-BU88IAN BLAVES-THE
KOHIK, OB ZhBhPBHAN-VALLEY O P BHUHR-I-BUBZ--NATUBbL PBOBUC-
TIONS-Y ANUPACTWES-TRADE-M. DE NEQRI'B MISSION -JOURNEY
PBOY OBENBERQ TO BOKHABA-THE KHAN-SYSTEM O F ADMINISTBA-
TION-MANXEBB AND CUSTOMS-BEVmU&gYILITUY ? O m

PRIOR
to the rapid advance of the Russians towards the
south-east the Khanat of Bokhara mas bounded on the north
by the Sea of Aral, the Syr Darya or Jnxartes, and the moun-
tains of Ferghana, or Khokan. On the south it extended to
the ' Stony Girdle of the earth ' that separates Afghanistan
from Central Asia: to the eastward it was bordered by the high
table-land of Pameer: while on the west it was divided from
Khiva by the Desert of Khwarezm. I t ie justly observed,
howevcr, by M. Khanikof that the boundaries of Bokhara have
never been a fixed quantity, but have expanded or contracted
according to the strength or weakness of the reigning prince.
' The security of the frontiers,' he adds, ' is only relative ; for it
ia very doubtful whether they would prove a su5cient barrier
against an army organized according to European tactics,
pushed on at the right season,'with ita movements properly
regulated.'
All doubts on that point have long since been dissipated by
the fnciliby with which the Russians have pursued their cnrcer
of triumph. The ancient States of Asia seem, one and all, to
2 54 CESTRAL ASIA.

dissolve at the slightest touch, just as a corpse that has been

long buried is often disinterred looking as fresh and perfect as
on the day when it was first hidden away out of sight, but
straightway crumbles into dust if a finger be laid upon it, or
even if the air move over the surface of the deceitful image.
The widest divergence marks the estimates of the area and
population given by different writers. According to N. Ehanikof,
the superficial area of the Khanat is about 5600 geographical
square miles, but Baron Meyendorf is not satisfied with less
than 10,000 marine leagues, while another Russian authority
reduces it to 23,000 square miles. Sfill groater is the diffi-
culty of reconciling the widely-varying statements as to the
exact bearings of the country. Baron Neyendorf places it
between 37" and 41" North latitude, and 61" and 66" 30' East
longitude ; N. Khanikof, between 37" and 43" N. and 80" and
88" E., which must surely be a misprint for 60" and 6S" ; while
Sir Alexander Burnes asserts that it lies between 36" and 45"
N., and 61" and 67" E.
On the subject of population, again, opinions are equally at
variance. The last-named traveller fixes it at about one mil-
lion: Dr Wolff reports 1,200,000 souls, of whom 200,000 are
Persians : the authors of ' The Russians in Central Asia ' exactly
treble this calculation; and 31. Khanikof believes that there
may be in all some two and tl half millions of inhabitants ; but
Baron Meyendorf is more precise, and gives a grand total of
2,478,000. There are, he says-his mission to Bolihara took
place in 1820-1,500,000 Oozbegs, 650,000 Tujceks, 200,000
Toorkomans, 50,000 A r a b ~ ,40,000 Persians, 20,000 Kal~nuks,
GOO0 Eirghiz and Karakalpaks, 4000 Jews, 4000 Afghans, 2 0 0
Lcsghians, and 2000 Gipsies-the last-named being divided
into three tribes, chiefly engaged in horse-dealing.
The Oozbegs, whose nalno signifies one who is his own lord
or master, are said to be descended from Oozbeg Khan, whose
 BOKRARA. 255
-

ancestor, Sheihni Khnn, was a brother of the great Batou,

grandson of Chinghiz Khan, and conqueror of Russia, Poland,
Silesia, and Hungary. They first obtained a footing to the
south of the Syr Darya at the close of the fifteenth century,
and by their encroachments on his paternal territories the
gallant and genial Baber was driven from the mountains of
Ferghana to found an empire and a dynasty in India. I t was
not, however, until the reign of Shah Mourad, commonly called
Beggie Jan, that the Oozbegs came to be recognized as the
dominant class in the Khanat of Bokhara.
They are described by Mountstuart Elphinstone as of short
stature, with a stout, sturdy frame, a broad forehead, high
cheekbones, small eyes, a thin reddish beard, black hnir, and a
clear, ruddy complexion. Their costume consists of a cotton
shirt and trousers, a coat or tunic called chnppnou, of silken or
woollen materials, begirt round the waist with a girdle, and
over that a gown of woollen cloth, felt, or posteen. I n the
winter aeaeon some wear a little cap of b r o d cloth, lined with
fur, and fitting close to the head, while others prefer a pointed
silk cap, called a ka,'pnk; but the national head-dress is a large,
white turban usually worn over a white knlpnk. Boots ure
common to all classes, though the more affluent put on, for
house use, a sort of slipper of light shngreen made from horse
or donkey hides. Instead of stockings the legs are wound
round with bandages. A knife hnngs from the girdle, and also
a case containing a flint and steel.
The women dress very like the men, even to the boots,
except that their garments are ~omewhntlonger. Over the
head, too, they tie a silk handkerchief, nnd often enwrap them-
selves in a silk or cotton sheet. Ornumenta of gold and silver
are duly prized, and the hnir is plaited in a long tail, after the
Chinese fashion.
An Oozbeg breakfast consists of leavened bread a fortnight
256 CENTRAL ASIA.

old, and tea made from boiled 'lumps' or cakes of tea-leaves,

softened with milk or butter, but more generally with oil from
the fat tails of the Dombeh sheep: only the rich indulge in
sugar. The ordinary dish for dinner is thick mutton broth, or
pillao, with maseee of fat conspicuous, and much relished.
Horse-flesh is a delicacy reserved for the wealthy.
The favourite beverage is kt4meep, a white-looking, sub-acid,
intoxicating liquor obtained from mare's milk. I t is a home-
made preparation, chiefly in use during the last two months of
summer, when drunkenness is consequently very prevalent.
Bozeh, another description of fermented liquor distilled from
different kinds of grain, is much taken by the poorer classes,
being considerably cheaper than k u m ~ x . I t is of a sour taste,
and in appearance somewhat resembles thin water-gruel. As a
rule, however, the Oozbega may be considered a sober and
frugal race.
A few of them dwell in houses, but the vast majority cling
to the tents of their forefathers. The kibitka is a circular tent,
formed of a lattice-work of thin laths, covered with black or
grey felt, and hung inside with carpets and shawls. The roof
is made with four stout laths bent into a dome-shape, and held
together by a wooden hoop over the middle of the tent. This
simple contrivance combines the adrantages of warmth and
light, and is called by the Toorkomans knra-ooee, or Black
nouse. An encampment of twenty to fifty kibitkas is known as
an Aoul.
The Oozbegs, according to M. Khanikof, are addicted to
murder and rapine, being 'more straightforward in their
manners' than the Tajecks, but they like to have on their side
both darkness and superiority of numbers. As regards the
ceremonies of their religion, they are extremely fanatical, for,
except in the larger towns, few of them are able to reed or
write.
 BOKHARA. 257

Baron Yeyendorfs description of the Oozbeg costume aa

men by himself in Bolchara differs in a few respects from
Elphinstone's account, which probably referred more par-
ticularly to the section of that tribe dwelling to the south of
the Amou. The ordinary dresa of the Bokhariot, says the
Russian Baron, is composed of two long robes of blue and
white striped cotton, from fifteen to twenty yards in length.
Many Oozbegs, however, wear a pointed cap of red cloth,
trimmed with marten. The use of wide white trousers over
short, tight drawers is said to be universal. Those who can
afford it, indulge in robea of mingled silk and woollen texture,
while the great o5cers of State disport themselves in rich
Kashmeer shawls and gorgeous brocades. I n the streete the
women shroud their figures in long mantillas, or dominos, with
the sleeves fastened behind, and wear a black veil to conceal
their features. They are given to the use of cosmetics, and
some of them are barbarous enough to suspend a ring from the
nose. Their nails are tinged with henna, their eyebrow8
darkened and united with collyrium, and their eyelids touched
with soorma from Kabul.
The Tajeeks are probably descended from the ancient
Sogdians. They are certainly of the Aryan stock, and strongly
resemble Europeans, but they speak the Persian language.
They appear to be a tall, handsome race of men, with a fair
skin, and black hair and eyee. Their moral character is that of
most conquered peoplee. They are mid to be treacherous,
false, insolent, and cowardly. ' Nurder is unknown to them,'
writes M. Khanikof, 'not because of its heinous nature, but
because they have not sufficient courage to commit it.' They
have the bad taste, too, it seems, to prefer Bokhara to St
Petersburg, though Sir Alexander Burnes declares that the
inhabitante of Central Asia regard the Russian capital as ' a
very close approximntion in wine and women to the paradise of
17
 258 CENTRAL ASIA.

their blessed prophet.' Baron Meyendorf admits that they

have a geniw for commerce, and that they display as much
intelligence and activity in mercantile operations as parsimony
in their style of linng. I n their hands Bokhara has become
essentially a trading community, and those who can traffic in
nothing else offer their official influence to the highest bidder.
The Toorkomans who dwell between the capital and the
banks of the Amou have settled down to peaceful pursuits, but
the nomadic tribes beyond the river retain their hereditary
habits and wages. It is a common Persian saying that a
Toorkomm on horseback knows neither father nor mother, but
will seize and sell whatever lies at hie mercy. They are subject
to dryness of the skin, and often lose both eye-lashes and eye-
brows-vegetables being unknown to them. They suffer also
from ophthalmia and rheumatism.
The Arabs, on the other hand, who are also nomads, are to
be found chiefly in the northern parts of the Khanat. On
account of the cold they have exchanged the tents of their
Syrian ancestors for the more comfortable kibitka, and their
spoech would be thought a vile patois at Damascus. They are
of a swarthy complexion, with large black eyes, and have the
character of being simpler and less vicious than the Tajeeka.
Their main occupation is the breeding of sheep.
The Persians in the Khanat are mostly captives, or the sons
of captives. Many thousnnds of that nation were transplanted
in the latter part of the last century from Merv to Bokhara and
Samarkand. Their features are regular, and their hair bushy
and black. They cordially detest the Oozbegs, who, neverthe-
less, place much confidence in them, and freely admit them
into the regular military service of the State. Dr Wolff
estimated the number of Persian slaves in this Khanat at
200,000, whereas Baron Meyendorf cuts down these numbers to
40,000 : possibly, the latter calculation refers only to domestic
 BOKH ARA. 259

slaves, while the former embraces those engaged in agricultural

labour.
I n like manner, the Baron speak8 of five to six hundred
Russian slaves, but Dr Wolff protests that there were not more
than twenty in his time, though there were many deserters.
According to the Russian traveller, the price of a robust fellow-
countryman ranged from 3225 to 3232, a skilful artisan, how-
ever, being worth double that sum, and a young woman, if
good-looking, fetching as much as 32100. He also further stat-
that he saw a Russian slave who had had his ears cut off, his
hands pierced with a nail, the skin stript from his back, and
boiling oil poured over his arms, to make him confess in what
direction his comrade had fled. They do not seem to have
becn generally ill-treated, being greatly valued as field-
labourers and gardeners, but they complained, not unreasonably,
that even after their ransom was paid, they were not permitted
to leave the country. The indignant Baron accordingly sug-
gests reprisals, and recommends thnt on a given day all the
Bokhariote and Khivans ill Russia should be arrested, and kept
as hostages until eyery Russian captive was restored to his
native land. The persistent progesa of enlightenment in
Rusliia, he complncently remarks, summons that vast empire to
the realization of the generous idea of civilizing Central Asia.
To Russia it belongs to impart a salutary impulse to the
Khanats, and to diffuse over those countries the blessings of
European civilization.
Undoubtedly it must have been a painful and depressing
spectacle that met his eyes na he entered the capital in the suite
of M.de Negri. ' Nous kprouvtitnes,' he writes, ' un sentiment
bien pdnible en apercevant nu milieu de cetto population
seintique des soldata r w s dduits t l la triste condition d'esclaves.
La plupart Qtaient sexngdnaires et infirmes; A la vue de leurs
compntriotes, ila ne purcnt retcnir leurs lames ; ils bEgayaient
260 CENTRAL ASIA.

qualquea mote de leur langue maternelle ; ils s'efforcaient de se

prkcipiter an milieu de nous ; tant le plaisir de revoir noe
gnemere leur musait une vive kmotion. Cea scenea touchantes,
qui dkchiraient I'time, ne sauraient se depeindre.'
KO Englishman, at least, will deny that Russia would have
been fully juntified any time within the last half century in
dechring war against the two Khanate, but a very unpleasant
impression would have been made upon Europe had the govern-
ment of St Peteraburg adopted the policy of reprisal suggested
by Baron Meyendorf. I t is hardly necessary even to scratch
the JLuscovite in order to get at the Tatar. Nothing, for
instance, could be more thoroughly hrbarous than General
Neidhart's proclamation promising its weight in gold to any
one who should bring him the head of Shamyl. The Circassian
hero merely acknowledged the compliment, contemptuously
remarking that he would not give a straw for the head of the
Russian Gcneral.
The Kalmuks are, for the most part, descendants from the
hordes of Chinghiz Khan, while the hostages brought by
Timour from Afghanistan, China, and the western shores of the
Caucnsus will account far the sprinkling of Afghans, Chinese,
and Lcsghians. The Jews are supposed to have been brought
from Bnghdad. They live in a sepnrate quarter by themselves,
and are found in Bokhara, Samarkand, Kattakurghnn, and
Karshee. They may be readily distinguished by the cord tied
round their waists, over which they are not suffered to wear
any sort of flowing garment. Neither are they permitted to
ride on horse or ass within the town walls. On the other hand,
they may be beaten by a Mussulman within the town, or killed
outside the walls, with perfect impunity.
Though excessively ignorant, they werc much favoured by
Nusser-oollah Khan, the murderer of Stoddart and Conolly.
That prince was fond of asking questions about the coming of
 BOKHARA. 261

the Messiah, and not only was present at their Feast of Taber-
nacles, but even partook of their food. Though his profligacy
knew no restraints, he abstained from seizing upon Jewish
maidens to increase and vary his harem. According to these
Jews the Toorkomans belong to ' the house of Togarmah,' men-
tioned in Ezekiel, chap. xxvii. 14, as trading in the fairs of
Tyro ' with horses, and horsemen, and mules,' and Dr Wolff
asserts that they often call themselves Togmnah.
The Kirghiz occupy the northern portion of the Khanat,
while the Karakalpaks are met with between Jizak aud Oura-
toupeh. As for the Mazank, or gipsies, thcy are ubiquitous.
I n addition to the two great rivers, the Amou Darya, and the
Syr Darya-if the latter can fairly be said to have ever belonged
to Bokhura-the principal stream is the Kohik, better known
ns the Zarafshan, or ' Gold-scattering,' in allusion to its fertiliz-
ing qualities, and not to any gold that may have been discovered
in its sands I t is the Polytimetus, or ' Much-esteemed,' of
clilssical geographers, and issues from an extensive glacier in
the K~ra-tagh, or Kara-tau, a name signifying the Black
Mountains. The head stream is the Macha-darya, though ita
waters are also swollen by those of the Maghian-darya and the
Fan-su. I t runs from eaet to west until it reaches the Khanat
of Bokhara, when it bends to the south-west, and finully to the
south.
For the first hundred and thirty miles of its course the
Kohik runs with great force and rapidity through the moun-
tains of Khokan, carrying down much earth, which corlstitutes
an excellent manure when deposited by floods on the djucent
fields. Even at Samarkand the current is too strong to allow
ordinary boats to ply up011 it, nor is it fordable except at one
point, and then only in the early morning before the sun hae
had power to mclt the snows on tho mountains. Near nokhara
it is still fifty yards in width, and four feet in depth. The
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from *LC: k,<iri:lr.ri._+ asd in.: ,:.-sc~r,f t'x p~-crllr:i 33. K i t h the
exc peljln of t'& Scrira-t:i,&-cn =ti,. 5 Siui's -Irk ii said to
h%-.: ri-'..rl*sd -ikta;;:? ran,-. tkere are no hsls above 8
tho.~-arrdf9-t in hf ight. The sbil in the interrening phi= or
vallr.~fi.i a hard (:lay o r e r r d wit5 dri:'rlcg sin& to a consider-
able dg:pth, 3 r d prrzlucing yxn:ane&n-lr oclc the thorn^ shrubs
that -upply t l mmt-1'3 ~ mpu!-ire fare. The low ran,- of hills
are of primitire formation, traversed b- reins of iron ore. I n the
Kara-ta;h to the r3-tnard c d and copper ore hare been found
in corl-id'-r;iCle quantitim. Spur.? of this luftc range run in a
wrrthtrrly direction towar& Temeclh, and in the bllinch which
forms the ca+tcm b , u n & ~of the Shurh-i-Subz ~ a l l occurs
e~
6 e fcrmourr Kohluga Pax5 dwribed by IIiouen Tmng.
Although Bokhara lics in nearly the same latitude as Saples,
Madrid, and Philadelphia, the winters are far more severe there
 BOKBAEA. 263
than in any of those cities, and the cold ia infinitely more intense
than in Loudon, which is situated so much farther to the north.
The temperature of autumn is, on the other hand, considerably
higher id Bokhara than in Europe, but lower than in the
United States or at Pekin. The climate, indeed, is really hat
from the middle of March to the end of November, at whioh
season frost sets in, followed by snow to the depth of twelve to
eighteen inches-ice also forming from one to four inches in
thickness. But little rain ever falls, though thunderstorms are
of frequent occurrence, as likewise are earthquakes. The wind
blows for the greater part of the year from the north-mat, and,
except near the capital, the air is dry and salubrious.
The cultivated portion of the Khanat is estimated by Baron
Meyendorf at 1200 square leagues, and by M. Kbanikof at 600
square miles. The land is tilled for the most part by slaves,
but ngriculture generally is much impeded by want of water, aa
the canals require constant cleaning out and deepening. Rice
is little grown, and that little of inferior quality. Fruita are
abundant, but of watery flavour, and without aroma. Apricots,
peaches, quinces, pears, apples, plums, cherries, pomegranates, al-
monds, and the kishtnih, or stoneloss grape, all come to maturity,
Prunes of Bokliara, and sweet nuts
From the far groves of Samarkand.
I n the early morning, after the dew has evaporated, a cloth
h spread under a plant called the tikau, which, being shaken,
lets fall a white powder, or manna, much used in the prepara-
tion of sweetmeats.
There are no forests in the kingdom, but large quantities of
wood arc drifted down tho Zarafahnn from the mountainous re-
gion to tho east of Samarkand. Wheat and barley are the chief
cereals, though the poorer classes affect jowarree as more prolific.
Nillet is grown in small quantities, but orchards and gardens are
found more profitable than agriculture. Ploughing is reserved
264 CLSTRAL ASIA.

for night work. Gardens are generally inclosed within mud walls,
rilver poplars being planted all round, partly for shade, partly
for fuel. The centre in occupied by a quadrangular pond, or
tank, from which runnels are led in aU directions to water the
grounds. Four main w a l l , or paths, radiate from the pond.
There are thirteen varieties of grape, but the wine made from
them is hardly drinkablc, the process being probably more in
fault than the fruit. Two kinds of cotton are succesafully cul-
tivated, and almost exclusively for home consumption ; from
the seed an oil is extracted for cooking purposes. I n some
districts the tobncco-plant flourish-, while lucerne and trefoil
are aa common as in Khiva. Hemp ia grown, but chiefly for
the sake of the oil procured from the seed, the cattle being fed
upon the stnlka. Madder thrives, but neither indigo nor the
rugarcane has yet been introduced. Wheat is said to be reaped
for three yeam in succession from the same roots on the b a n h
of the Oxus, the stalks being eaten down by the cattle.
Of vegetables there is a great vnriety, such aa turnips,
oarrota, beetroot, onions, brinjals, radishes, greens, lentils be-
loved of the Tnjeeks, &c., &c. The melons are pronounced
delicious. The muek melon ripens in June, but July producee
a melon from two to four feet in circumference, with a firm
pulp two inches thick, sweet to the very rind. The water-
melons are so enormous that two suffice for a donkey-load.
Beef is never eaten, but the mutton is excellent, and the
tails of the sheep yield as much as 15 lbs. tallow. The Karakul
district is celebrated for its jet black curly fleeces.
And on his head he placed his sheep-skin cap,
Black, glossy, curl'd, the fleece of Kara-kul.
The lnmbs are killed a few days after birth, and 200,000 skins
are annually' exported, especially to Persia. A shawl-wool
nearly equal to that of Kayhmeer is obtained from goats, by
combing out the grey wool next to the skin.
 BOKHARA. 265

The price of a good camel varies from £6 to £7. The Bokhara

camels have sleek coats, and at the commencement of summer
shed their hrrir, which is woven into a fine waterproof cloth.
The two-humped Bactrian camel is much bred by the Kuzzaka
in the northern parts of the Khanat. I t will carry 640 lbs.,
while 500 lbs. are thought a good load for the ordinary camel.
There are no mules or buffaloes, but the horned cattle are
tolerctbly good, and the ass is a large and sturdy auimal. With
the exception of plover and waterfowl, game is by no menna
plentiful. To the bees and wasps of Bokhara Sir Alexander
Burnes ascribes a taste for fresh meat. Silkworms are very
generally reared, t2hemulberry being planted everywhere in the
neighbourhood of water.
Itlanufactures are susceptible of much improvement. No
manufacturer employs more than four or five men. Silken
goods are of two kinds : the one striped, after Russian patter118
-the other of different shades passing into one another, red
predominating ; cotton, however, is usually mixed with the silk.
The Toorkomans bring to market not only magnificent stallions
worth from £100 to £100 each, and butter in sheep-skins, but
also striped horse-cloths, woollen carpets, camel's-hair stuffs,
and goat's-hair felt. The Kirghiz contribute nothing to the
cornmon stock in this manner. being simply consumers. Ac-
cording to Baron Itleyendorf they annually barter 100,000 sheep
for silk dresses, coarse cotton stuffs, cheese, barley, and pulse.
The currency of Bokhara is extremely limited. The gold
till13 is worth thirteen shillings, the silver toaga seven-pence
halfpenny, and the copper poitl the thirty-eighth thousandth
part of a penny.
The dyers are invariably Jews, who make large use of
indigo : snndal-mood and a species of cochineal obtained in the
count,ry are also applied to silks. Tanning is still in its infnncy,
the leather being soft and not durable. A useful description
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tirf:;rrn~,:rrnlrrgcoloxr,' an1 Vwre d c - i c n i Zelii- 33
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With p*rn.r and =rea:ti .u& s the orhers row
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&,kt.nra1s rn~*dr.n¶ r e a r in m:ndfu!nes
Of f r l e n h or kiudred. drad or far srar.'

Sincr: the trade of Bokhara has been monopolized by R&a it

to calculate the annual value of exports and imports.
in not ei:11)_~
It in utatcd that the chief exports from Bokbara to Russia are
ccmfind to d r i d fruits and raw cotton, m-hich together corer
 BOKHARA. 2 67

about one-half of thc value of the imports, consisting of coarse

prints, muslins, brocades, furs, fair imitations of Benares kincoba,
English broadcloth, furs, nankeens, hardware, iron, brass, and
copper wire, leather, inferior cutlery and jewelry, paper, sugar,
spicos, cochineal, honey, wax, glass-ware, &c., Cc. From
India, chiefly through thc medium of Afghan merchanta,
Bokhara receives Dacca muslins, Knshmcer shawls, and Ben-
ares brocades, besides opium, indigo, and spices-though this
trade may be expected to cease, now that Russian ships pass
through the Suez Canal and draw their supplies direct from
Bombay. ii curious illustrution of the manner in which com-
merce finds its own level in spite of artificial restrictions and
impediments, was afforded during the blockade of the European
continent by the first Napoleon, when British goods were ob-
tained from India by the merchants of Rokhura and conveyed
by them to the Russian station at Orenberg.
b e years ago the trade betmecn Hokhara and Kabul
amountcd annually to three thousand camel-loads,-the return
goods being for the most part of Russian manufacture. From
Yarkund, again, china-ware, musk, rhubarb, bullion, and tea,
are carried across the Pamecr steppe and down the valley of
the Oxus to Balkh and thcnce to Bokhara, though the safer,
more direct, and usual route is by way of Khokan. The re-
turn caruvnns were laden with Rus~ian mcrcha~idise until
very recently, but, us will be shown hereafter, there is now a
fair prospect thut this trade, whatever it may be worth, will
be largely diverted into the hands of English manufacturers
and Indian trudcrs. Thc Kashgar traffic is supposed to have
arnountcd to about 1000 camel-loads annually, though horses
were exclusively employed on the lower route through Ba-
dakhshan.
The profits on each article were formerly enormous, but the
total value must have been very insignificant. Twenty yeare
268 CESTRAL ASIA.

ago, and it is unlikely that there wse much alteration prior to

the Rwqian occupation of Samarkand, the trade between
Bokhara and her too powerful neighbour did not exceed per
annum 5000 camel-loads, valued at half a million sterling.
Baron JLeyendorf, indeed, in 1820, anticipated a notable increase,
if the route were rcxidered more secure, nnd to this end he sug-
gested the annexation of the Khanat of P h i v a ' Independently,'
he wrote, ' of a great commercial advantage, the acquisition of
this Khanat would diminijh the frightful traffic in human
b e i n p and in Iiuhsian subjecta carried on by the Toorkomans
and Kirghiz, and would also augment the salutary influence of
R u ~ s i aover Western Asia ; finally, it would, little by little,
furnish Russia with the means of germinating and dcvelop-
ing in that part of Asia the blessing8 bf European civiliza-
tion.'
At that tirne it was believed that there was only one
Bokhariot merchant in existence possessed of a capital of
f 40,000, and that solitary individual had made his fortune, not
by commerce, but by forging Russian notes, and was conse-
quently unable to live in either of those countria.
Readers of the ' Arabian Nights '-and who is there that
has not devoured with insatiable interest those rare tales of
marvel?-are sometimes disposed to cavil at the constant re-
course to the pillage of caravans ae part of the permanent
machinery for the development of personal adventures, but it is,
in fact, only one of the many illustrations of the general truth-
fulncss of those charming delineations of social life in Asia
prior to the introduction of European influences. Modern
travellers assure us that caravans between Russia and Bohhara
have been always liable to be attacked and plundered by the
Khivans nnd Pirghiz, between Bokhara and Meshed by the
Toorkomans, between Bokharn and Kabul by the Eleuths and
IInzarrhs, and so forth. Neither life nor property was secure,
 BOKHARA. 269

and it was only the prospect of immense gains that induced

traders to encounter such imminent peril.
I n Bokhara there were no export duties of any kind, and on
imports Mohammedans were charged the orthodox 24 per cent.
ad w l o r c n ~IIindooa
, 5 per cent., and Christian8 four times as
much as Hindoos. I t was not, however, of the actual duties
that traders complained so much as of the exnctions and ra-
pacity of the subordinate officials.
British manufactures have always been in greater requisition
than those of any other country. ' The Oozbeg ladies,' accord-
ing to M. Vambery, ' when admiring the texture of the English
or Cabul chintzes, generally remarked, " One Russian thread
may be split in three Cabul threuds, and while the colour of an
English kerchief will stand the sun of three summers, the
Russian fabric will scarcely keep for a single summer." Similar
were the remarks in reference to cloth, and particularly to
muslin, of which every well-to-do man must wind at least seven
yards round his head in the shape of a turban-a stuff which
will be always a standard article for Central Asia.' The
Tajeeks, however, in whose hands the trade with Russia almost
exclusively centres, have not scrupled to invent the most absurd
tales to discredit English manufactures-asserting, for instance,
that swine fat is used in blenching muslins intended for turbans.
English manufacturers, too, frequently fall into the egregious
mistake of imprinting the figures of birds and animals upon
their goods, forgetful of the prohibition of the Koran against
the making likenesses of any creature that movea on the
earth, in the air, or in the waters. Stripes, checks, and am-
besques are the eofest patterns.
Caravans for Ruesia generally set out from Bokhara in the
month of Map in order to arrive at Nijni Novgorod in time for
the great annual fair held from the middle of July to the 20th
August-the journey occupying on an average about two months.
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 BOKHARA. 271

of June the heat of the sun scorches the scanty vegetation, and
verdure is superseded by the sere and yellow leaf. Stunted
brushwood is seen here and there, but only at two points be-
tween Orenberg and the biougliojar Mountains is there any
appearance of trees. Many little streams were crossed, which
in summer and autiunn would be distinguishable only by their
dry beds, or by a chain of stagnant ponds. On this steppe
some members of the mission found fossil belemnites, ammon-
ites, bivalves, and even a shark's tooth, and on the third day
they came upon traces of coal which burnt satisfactorily.
While passing through the country of the Kirghiz, Baron
Meyendorf paid a visit to Sooltan Haroun Ohazee, a powerf'ul
chief friendly to Russia. ' I found him,' he says, ' seated nearly
in the centre of a circular tent; his friends eat in a semi-circle
on one side ; on the other seats had been reserved for us. The
walls were hung with carpets. There were also garments sus-
pended from a rope, tiger-skins spread out, a rich lofty diadem
set with turquoises and bales rubies, the head-dress of a Kir-
ghese lady. Besides these articles, there might be observed
raw meat hanging from a hook, large bags of skin filled with
mare's milk, and several wooden vessels.'
The Moughojar hills are a branch of the Ural range, but do
not attain an elevation of more than eight or nine hundred feet.
Beyond them spread barren plains destitute of vegetation. On
the 2nd November the travellers reached Khoja Kul, the first
lake they had jet seen, and two days later were compelled to
burn ten of their waggons, their cattle being too exhausted to
drag them any further. Large quantities of salt had accumu-
lated in some of the depressions to the depth of two or three
inches, but very impure and earthy. At Saree-Boulak, on the
9th November, they came upon beds of small shells and fish
bones, two or three feet thick, and their Kirghiz escort assured
them that their fathers had seen the Aral washing the base of
that ridge, though it waa then forty milea diatant. They now
entered upon the dreary expanse of the Karakum, or Bhck
Sands, though the ssnda are of the usual colour.
The terrors of this dreary track have, however, ,disappeared
since it p a d under Russian domination. 'The sands of
Knra-Kum,' wrote the late military correspondent of the Golors,
' which border the north-east shore of the Am1 Sea, have always
been considered among the chief obstacles on the Orek-Kazali
road, terrible to the imagination of all travellers, and to remedy
which every effort haa hitherto proved vain. W e entered the
Kara-Kum sands with some feelings of nervousness, but were
from the very first agreeably mrprised at the first station of the
Turkestan region, Djulius, which appeared to us as a pretty
cottage, with large windows and a sloping roof. Inside the
station the cleanliness, and even comfort, were such as to re-
mind us at once of another country, and cause us to forget all
our expcriencea of the earth huts and kibitkas. I t waa pleasant
to stretch oneself out in this roomy apartment, to eat and drink
tea in a European fiishion, sitting a t a table, a custom to which
we had long been strangers in the postal kibitkas and earth
hub. I t was still more agreeable to hear that we should find
such comfortable cottages all the way to .Kazali. Travelling
over the frozen sands, which were here and there visible from
beneath the snow, was not very difficult. The horses in the
whole of the Turkestan region are contracted for by a Siberian
merchant, Kuznekoff, at 800 roubles per pair per annum, and,
contrary to the custom of the country, are fed with hay and
barley produced in the neighbourhood. The sands of Kara-
Kum extend for a distance of 200 versta on the Orak-Kazali
road between the station of Terekli and Galoffsk, but in order
to ease the horses and increase the rate of travelling, the whole
of this distance is divided into very short stages, and the
stations are placed close to one another at distances varying
 . BOKHARA. 273

from 9 to 17 vereta. Such are the very rational arrangements

that the most difficult stages, owing to the softness of the sands,
are the 9 versts between the stations of Nicolaieffsk and Alta-
Kuduk, and 16f versts from the last station to Ak-djulpask, in
all, 25 versts. All the rest of the distance these dreadful sands,
according to the accounts of all those who have frequently
crossed them, with the present organization of post stations and
driving do not present any exceptional difficulties, and cer-
tainly are not worse than the sands of the Yurom forest, the
neighburhood of Moghileff, and other such-like parts of Euro-
pean Russia and the Caucasus. Notwithstanding the porous
nature of the sand, the hillocks (here called barkhan) are
covered with clumps of grass and bushea, such as the saxaul,
which is the chief fuel in this country ; they cannot, therefore,
be compared with the drifting sands of Egypt and the Great
Sahara. I n this sandy steppe the Nomads can always find
better pasturage for their herds than in the neighbouring clayey
saline steppe of the Irghiz district. Water, too, is more abund-
ant in the sands of Kara-Kum at less depths and of better
quality than in the adjoining steppes of Orenberg, the elevated
plateau of Ust-Urt, or even the desiccated channel of the Amu
Daria. The principal post-stations in the Kara-Kum are sup-
plied with water from wells dug to a depth of 6 ft. to 14 ft.'
On the 19th November, forty-one days after leaving Oren-
berg, M. de Negri and his companions crossed the Syr Darya
oppoeite Karntepeh. The rate of travelling has improved since
then, for in 1873 the Grand Duke Nicholas Constantinovitch and
suite left Orenberg on the 23rd of February, ' fortified with a
good luncheo11,' and on the 3rd of March, 'about 10 o'clock in
the evening, in a bright light, arrived safely at Knzali.' From
Karatepeh to the mouth of the river extenda a vaet plain of
grass, rushes, and reeds. Along the southern bank the Kara-
kalpaks roamed frce and independent until the commencement
18
274 C & ~ A LASIA.

of the present centmy, but since then have been subject some-
timen to Khiva, at other times to Bokhara To the south of the
6yr Darya is the channel of the Yany Darya, pronounced
Jan-i-Daya by the Kirghis, now f.st drying up. The country
between the two rivere-thongh the latter ie aimply a branch of
the former--consists of a hard clay intersected with sandy
hillocks, and partially ooreral with a c o p of aaxaul and worm-
rood, the haunts of wolves, d d csts, and tigers. Ruins of
ancient habitations and of dimmed works of irrigation are not
anfrequent.
A broad beaten trtrck leada from the Yany Darya to Bok-
hsrs, much frequented by caravans, a d during the late expedi-
tion against Khiva 'atndded by dead and abandoned camels,
the impressions of homes' hoofs, the 801- of boots, and artillery
homes.' Between that river and the cultivated districts of
Bokhnra the K i d Kum deeert intervenes, eo cslled from the
redness not of the sand, but of. the substratum of clay. It is
about seventy miles in breadth, and entirely barren. Hillocks
of sand, from twenty to sixty feet high, alone break the drear
monotony. From the summit of an unnenally lofty eminence
Baron Meyendorf took a survey of the melancholy scene. 'The
eye wanders over a boundless surfacelike unto a stormy sea that
has suddenly been changed into a n d . In vain do you seek to
discover an object upon which to fix your gaze. On all sides
stretches a desert unutterably mournful and monotonous ; scarce
any brushwood, a few thorny shrubs, in autumn not a blade of
gram, and in spring a vegetation ao feeble that it is straight-
way scorched up, and reduced to powder. I t swarms with
lizards of different species, chameleons, tortoises, rats, marmotq
jerboaa, magpies, vultures, and with numbers of b i r b with a
bluish plumage, not unlike crows, though much smaller. Such
are the living creatures that venture into this deeert, notwith-
etanding its sterility.' A vast unpeopled tract extends from the
 BOKHARA. 275

Syr Ilarya to the Amou Daya, wparating Bokhara from the

Kirghiz steppee, and Khoksn from Khiva
After emerging from the Kizil Knm the mission traversed
a plain for about thirty milea, overgrown with wormwood, and
bounded on the right by the Boukan range, which rises to the
height of 600 feet. Though not lofty, these mountains are
precipitoue and intersected by n a m w ravines. This hilly re-
gion gave place to another plain, succeeded in its turn by a wide
tract of loose aand, after which the ground again rose to a con-
siderable altitude. Traversing another plain about thirty miles
in width, and shut in by distant hills, the wearied travellers were
a t length cheered by the sight of a hundred mulberry t r e a
planted round a well of sulphurous water, and on the 15th
December arrived at Aghatmo on the borders of the cultivated
portion of the Khanat. Here tbey feasted on new white bread
--a delightful change after aeventy days of hard biacui-e-
licious grapee, water melons, and pomegranates. The horsee
fell ill from over-eating, and fifty died after reaching Bokhara
h m change of diet, and the effects of fatigue.
From Aghatma the plain sloped gradually up'wards to the
belt of cultivation, which began suddenly after croeeing a series
of sandy hillocks. From this point to the capital, there was a
pleasing succession of canals, trees, housea, gardens, villagee,
orchards, mosques, and minarets. On the 20th December the
mieeion entered Bokhara in soldierly array, and remained till
the 22nd March, 1821.
The interval was advantageously employed in collecting ata
much information at3 possible respecting the reeourcee of the
Khanat, the system of government, and the manners of the
people. Upon the whole, the result of these inquiries made
upon Baron Meyendorf, at least, not a very favourable imprea-
sion. 'Never,' he says, ' have I beheld among the Bokhariota
a countenance animated by gentle gaiety; never have I wit
 276 CENTBAS, ASIA.
-

n d a p u k of disintereatedneaq never a good action.'

On the other hand, the Russians were as little admired by
the Bolrhariota. 6ir Alexander Burnee, epeaking of a period
twelve years posterior to M. de h'egri'e mission, obeenes,
' They -the Russiallghare impressed the whole of the Czbegs
with high notions of their power, to the detriment of all other
European nations; but they have yet to eradicate by their
futnre conduct other opiniona which have been ae universally
adopted, that they want trnth and honour in their diplomacy.'
Sir Alexander goes on to say that the people generallj were un-
friendly to the Russians, though the latter were no longer
bought and sold within the Khanat. I n his ignorance of t h e
wonderful improvemente that have since been introduced into
the military art, he was dispoeed to regard the conquest of Bok-
ham at3 a work of great di5culty on account of the nomadic
habits of the inhabitante. 'Regular troops,' he sententiously
remarka, ' would be uwless, and irregulars could not subdue a
race which had no fixed places of abode.' The present gener-
ation, however, has been taught the very different lesson that
undisciplined valour cannot, under any circumstances, offer an
effectual resistance to the skilful combinations of greatly inferior
f o r m armed with superior weapons.
The Government of Bokhara is a despotism sy regards the
settled population, checked by the influence of the Mollahs.
The Khan of Bokhara ass~~mes the title of Ameer ool Momeneen,
or Commander of the Faithful, while the Khan of Khokan has
adopted that of Ameer ool Moslcmeen, or Commander of the
Mussulmans. Ameer is, strictly speaking, a religious title, and
has therefore been more highly esteemed by many rulers of this
State than the more secular designation of Khan. Indeed, they
have seldom cared to be addressed aa King, but rather as
Prophet. The Sultan of Turkey, called here the Khalif of
Roum, is the spiritual superior of the Khan, and from time to
 BOKHARA. 277

time receives presents of money and other articles of value,

sending back in return copies of the Koran and of esteemed
theological treatises. The Khan, besides, is the honorary Bow-
bearer to the Sultan. His personal influence is very great, his
ministers merely executing his orders. I t can hardly be said
that there is an hereditary aristocracy. The most powerful in-
dividuals are probably the Khan's domestic slaves, many of
whom possess his entire confidence. The Hakeems, or govern-
ors of districts, usually purchase their posts, indemnifying
themselves at the expense of the people committed to their
stewardship. The whole system of administration being based
upon the Koran, it is only natural that the head men in towns
and villages should be Mollahs, or Khwajas-or Khojas-
claiming to be descended from the first Khalifs. Subordinate
governors are, to some extent, kept under restraint by the right
of direct personal appeal to the Khan, which is enjoyed and ex-
ercised by the poorest and humblest.
The Khan to whom 31. de Negri was accredited is de-
scribed as a fanatical libertine, encumbered with four wives
and two hundred concubines. He was also mean enough to
appropriate all the presenta designed for his chief officers of state.
Every Friday he went with much parade to the grand mosque,
and once a week repaired on horseback to another mosque, pre-
ceded by guards and outrunners. As he passed, every one
stopped and cried, 'Salaam Aleikoum! ' which an officer a p
pointed for the purpose mechanically reciprocated. The order
of succcxxion mercly requircs that the Khan shall be descended
from Chinghiz, and, as his most dangerous enemies are those of
his own house, mhcnever he slccps outside thc walls of the capi-
tal his eldest son also must retire to the suburbs.
The Council varies, according to the caprico of the ruler,
from fivc to twenty members, who take care to adopt the view
favourcd by thcir imperious master. At that timo thore were
mme 2000 prieata in the capital, and, ae the Khan much affected
the priesthood, every one who could read dubbed himself a
Mollah. The penal code was severe, and even sanguinary.
Adultery and drunkennew were equally punished by death.
There waa, however, much secret drinking, and concubinage
was limitad only by each individual's income. Smoking wtis
prohibited, because it is forbidden in the Koran to take into the
mouth anything of an intoxicating tendency. Astrology, how-
ever, was freely practised, and among the Ruseian importa
ehould be enumerated packs of playing car&, each pack con-
sisting of 36 car&, and the garnee all strictly Russian. Every
homeholder was expected to appear every morning at a mosque,
or was liable to be driven to it by the police, and at 4 p.m., the
hour of evening prayer, when the bazaars were moet crowded, all
businesa waa euddenly euepended, the police driving out the
laggarb with ecourginge.
The bastinado was administered with great severity on both
back and stomach, seventy-five blows being equivalent to a sen-
tence of death. For certain offencee a criminal would be tied
hand and foot, and thrust into a room swarming with flies of a
noxious kind, from whoae stings he waa generally releaeed by
starvation and fever on the third or fourth day. The healing
art, so far as the patient ie concerned, furniehee a fine field for
studying the doctrine of chances. Doctors feel the p u h , but
aek no questions. Constitutione are classed under four heade,
hot, cold, moist, and dry, and medicines are accordingly pre-
ecribed of a strengthening, heating, depressing, or etimulating
character, the line being rigidly drawn and no compromise even
attempted. Only three arteriee are recognized: one termin-
ating in the head, one in the chest, and one in the stomach.
The veins are a mystery of ramification. I t ie not, however,
from the absence of disease that human pathology ia so con-
teu~ptuouslyneglected. Intermittent fevers, for instance, ore
 BOKH ARA. 279

long, severe, and liable to frequent relapem after considerable

intervals. They u s d l y begin about the end of August, and
laat till the frost eeta in. Small-pox is prevalent and fatal,
and cholera by no meam a rare visitor. Coneumption, dropsy,
and weaknesa from excessive indulgences, are common com-
plaints, and strangers often suffer from total prostration, ac-
companied by swoons and irresistible drowsiness, terminating in
death. Swellings and ulcers on the neck and upper part of the
cheat are among the ills to which Uokharian flesh is heir; and
in children blotches upon the face, which leave deep, and often '

indelible, traces.
Cataract and a painful tendency of the eyelashes to turn in
upon the pupil are among the dieeaeee to which the eye ie
most subject. Far more serious ie a species of leprosy that
begins with white specks coming out, which rapidly spread
and cover the whole body. The skin dries and shrivels up,
while the hair, nails, and. teeth fall off. The disease is heredi-
tnry and incurable, but is fortunately confined to certain die-
tricts. Reference has already been made to the Rishta, a sort
of ulcer indicating the presence of the guinea-worm, bred from
drinking water drawn from cisterns in summer time, when they
ewarm with animalculse. One-fourth part of the population ie
annually attacked, and in strangers the first symptome often
appear several months after they have left the place. A man
has been known to have 120 of these worms at a time.
The only history taught in Bokhara is thtlt of Iskander
Zoulkarnain-Alexander the Great, or the Two-Horned-which
is read aloud, by the Khan's orders, in a public place, by a
Mollah, who receives trifling gratuities from the audience.
Geography is nothing thought of; and as for astronomy, there
are only five planets, and the sun revolves round the earth.
Education simply means ability to read, write, and quote the
Koran and a few of the commentaries to which it has given rim.
 .,
290 CENTRAL ASIA.

Persian is the language of the court and the Tajeeks, but the
nomad population adheres to Toorkee, the tdtgue of their fore-
fathers. There are said to be eome 10,000 students in Bok-
ham, for the most part going through a dry courae of theological
instruction, and the Khan's library, which fifty years ago was
thought large, at that time contained two hundred volumes.
The interior of the mud-built houses is as miserable and un-
inviting as the exterior. Furniture there is none, beyond a
few carpets, rugs, and cushions. When M.de Negri was first
presented to the Khan, that potentate was seated on cushions
covered with red cloth richly embroidered with gold, arranged
s t one end of a room covered with mean Persian carpets, the
walls plastered, and the ceiling of painted boards.
I n Central Asia it is not the custom to sit crowlegged as in
Turkey, but rather to kneel, the hams preslling upon the heels
-a posture almost impossible for a European adult. Visitors are
at once served with tea, fruits, and sugar, and are pressed to take
some away with them-should they not do so, it is sent after them
to their residence. When friends meet, they bow slightly and,
placing their right hand upon their heart, exclaim ' Khosh !'
After t l ~ emorning prayer they breakfast upon bread boiled with
milk and snlt, and at about five in the afternoon dine off a
pillao, mado of rice, carrots, turnips, and mutton, finishing with
tea, prepared as in Europe. Coffee is unknown, as also are
spoons and forks.
As proprietor of the land, the Khan derives a considerable
portion of his revenues from that source, which then yielded
about £400,000 per nnnum. Of this one-half is absorbed in the
maiiitcnance of garrisons in the fortified towns. The priesta
and the public schools nre a180 a heavy drnin upon the treasury.
The militia are not paid in money, but hold' their lands on the
condition of rendering military service when called upon. The
Khan's Civil List was supposed not to exceed £40,000, but it is
 • BOKHARA.

impossible to fix any amount for his private expenditure.

TBe army, *or to the dismemberment of the kingdom,
consisted of about 20,000 horse, 5000 foot, and 40 guns, many
of which were not mounted, or were honey-combed, or other-
wise worthless. The militia may have numbered 50,000 undis-
ciplined horsemen, good rather for predatory purposes than for
war as understood by civilized nations. Besides these, there
were the Toorkoman levies, on whom no particular reliance could
be placed, for, though not deficient in a certain dashing kind of
valour, they were not amenable to any sort of discipline, and
'fought for their own haud.' I n fine, Baron Meyendorf was
probably not far wrong when he said that 'the characteristio
features of the semi-barbarous Governmcnt of Bokhara are
superstition, a certain warlike spirit, and covetousness, spring-
ing from the influence exercised by that country over tho petty
khanats that surround it.'

I n the January (1873) number of ' Oceaii High\vays,' a summary is given

of a paper by Air Grebi'nkin, founded upon information obtained during a visit
to Kanhee, from which the following extract is taken:-
'The mountains witlrin the Shnhr-i-Subz Vallcy strikeoff from the massive
elevation twenty miles west of tlie Iskander-Kul. The northern ranges, unit-
ing with those of Kollistan of the upper Zarafslran Valley, enter the limits of
the Shahr-i-Suhz Valley from tlre great mountain knot called Sultan-1Iazret
DaGt, and spreading o"t, form goiges and defiles, through wllich issue the
right-lrand sources of the Kasbka-daria. There is no regular general name for
these mountains ; the natives of the Shahr-i-Subz Valley call them Samarcand-
tau, and the people of Samarcand give them the appellation of the
Sl~al~r-i-Suhz mountains. These are not snowy mountains within the limitsof
the valley ; they gradually fall in height towards the west, finally losing their
wild character from the Djam defile; here they are rounded off, and are
covered with acrust of earth, and beyond the Karzllri-Djam mad they dwindle
into a closely connected system of undulations. There are several passesover
these mountains, which are all practicable for field artillery; that of Djam
being particularly easy. The following are the names of eome portions of these
mountains of the north :-Takta-karacha, GurB-mar, Bit&, Ata-kinty, Ayakh-
chi, Kopkan-agtch.
'The mouutains skirting the southern side of the Shahr-i-Subz Valley are
 BOKHARA- RUSSIANIZED.

B O f HARA-HISTOBY-ABPEIX-THE AEK-PUBLIC BOILDIN-AINDOO+

JEWB4LIMATg--RUSSIAN BLA-KAND-BUaUOCCUPATIOX-
~BSHE&KHaTA~LEH-8HWB-I8LhY4H~UI-~~KUL-SHUH&
I-SWZ - HIS- - HISTORICAL SKETCH 01 BOKHARA -EXECUTIONS 0.
BMDDABT, CONOLLY, AND WYBURD-NURBEB-OOLLAE KEAN-MOZUPFAB-
OOD-DEEN KHAN-ADVANCS OF THE BUSBUNB-PRINCE ~~BTCEAKOF%
CIBCULAB-BATTLE OF YIBIUAB-PALL OP KEOJENII---CAPTWIb 01 BA-
M A B K A N ~ M I S S I O NFROM BOKEABA TO BT PSTEBBBUB(t-CAPTUBE OF
KDUA-THE RUSSIAN PBONTIEB LINE.

PBIOB to the Chinem occupation of Central Bsia the city of

Bokhara, if we may credit M. Vambery, waa called Jemkend.
Bukhar, it seems, signifies a Buddhist monastery, though,
according to Abou'l-Ghazee Khan, that word in the Moghul
language means ' a learned man,' while Baron Meyendorf dig-
covere its equivalent in * Treaeure of Study.' I t may, perhaps,
be more nntural to trace the modem name to a corruption of
Bazaria, by which appellation the district, at- leaet, B ~ ~ I I to
~B
have been known at the time of the Macedonian conquest.
However that may be, the capital of the Wanat ie now pro-
nounced Boukara by the Toorkomane, and Bokhara by the
. Persians.
Although we are aseared by Sir Alexander Burnee that
' b c a n d and Bokhara have afforded a theme for glowing
description to the historians and poets of all ages,' there ie
much reason to believe that the latter town was in the begin-
ning a mere fishing station in the midst of a reedy marsh in-
294 CESTBAL ASIA.

fested by wild beasta. The fishermen's huta g r a d d y clustered

together into a village, which, aa time went on, aaaumed the
proportiom of a town, and the mde art of fishing became s u p
plementary to the cultivation of the land and the breeding of
cattle. The ruins of Bykend, about twenty miles distant, pro-
bably cover the site of the original aggregation of huts.
Cnder the Samanides, Bokhara attained to a degree of
luru ry and rehement not surpassed at that time by the most
opulent city in Europe. Its riches, however, tempted the
cupidity of the hordes of Chinghiz Khan, and a long period of
desolation effaced the memory of its previous greatness. But
the advantages of its situation were too remarkable to be long
overlooked. On the highway between Europe and China, and
surrounded by an inhospitable desert, it was marked out by
nature as s resting-place for the way-worn caravans, and an
emporium for the productiom and manufacturea alike of the
E U Rand ~ the West. I t rose therefore once more into note
under Timour,-though Samarkand was the favourite residence
of that 'man of blood,'-and continued to flourish under his de-
scendants.
The Oozbeg chiefs who succeeded tho Timourides mostly
resided at Bokhara, and the wrath of Nadir Shah was averted
by the timely submission of the reigning Khan. From that time
to the present day no very important changes or chances have
befallen the city, and, though fallen from its once high estate,
it is still a place of great resort for the traders of Central Asia,
while in the eyes of' DIohammedans it retains its claim to the
honourable title of El Shereefuh, or the Holy.
' The aspect of the city from a little distance,' says Baron
Dfeyendorf, ' is to European eyes very striking. The domes of
its mosques, the lofty points of the facades of its medressehs,
the minurets, the palaces that tower in the midst of the town,
the crenellated wall that surrounds it, a lake situated close to the
walls and encircled with flat-roofed houses, or with pretty rural
villas, begirt with crenellated walls, fields, gardens, trees, and
the movement that always chtrracterizes the environs of a
capital, all contribute to produce a most agreeable effect. But
the illusion ceases aa soon as you enter the town ; for, with the
exception of the public baths, the mosques, and the medressehe,
there is nothing to be seen but mud houses of a greyish hue,
maased without order one beside the other, forming narrow,
winding, filthy streeta, traced without design.'
For t.he most part the dwelling-houses stand in court-yards,
showing only a blind wall to the street. The best streeta
barely exceed six feet in width, while the majority are not more
than three or four feet wide. Bs almost everybody rides, the con-
fusion arising from the crowd of camels, horses, and donkeys,
jostling one another as they struggle through these narrow
defiles, is both bewildering and disgusting. The building
materials are earth mixed with chopped straw, poplar poste,
four or five inches in circumference, being driven in here and
there, and at the corners, for the sake of security. The ceilings
are made of a hard wood, generally painted in different colours,
and the flooring of bricks, except in the houses of the opulent,
where glazed tiles are preferred. On the flat roof earth is
plentifully sprinkled, as a defence against both heat and cold.
I n the almost total absence of glazed windows. the interior
is, in winter, intolerably cold. I n the middle of the sitting-
room a brazier is accordingly lighted, over which stands a table
covered with a wadded quilt. Around this sit the family and
their friends, each holding the quilt up to their chins, while
their backe and fingers become painfully chilled. The residences
of the rich consist of several smell houeea within a common
wdl, and are usually surrounded with verandahs.
The aspect of the people is grave to the verge of melan-
choly. Every man distrusts not only his neighbour, but his
286 CENTRAL ASIA.

nearest kindred. There are no public @tee, and very little

private festivity. No merry voices, no sounds of music, break
the silence of the leaa frequented etreets. A settled gloom
broods over the capital.
The principal building is the Ark, or Royal Palace, built b y
Alp Arslan eight hundred years ago. I t stands on a natural
mound enlarged by human hands, about 200 feet high, and
rather steep. I n shape this eminenae is a truncated cone, the
base measuring from four to five hundred pacea in diameter.
The palace is surrounded by a mud wall sixty feet in height,
pierced for a gateway, erected by Nadir Shah in 1742, on each
side of which rises a tower ninety feet high, affording a secure
retreat for the storks in the breeding season. The palace, built
of earth, is altogether an unsightly edifice. Inclosed within
the outer wall are three mosques, the offices of the ministers,
the house of the Kooehbegie, guard-houses, menial offices, and
dungeons, one of which is called the Kana Khaneh, because
swarming with ticks, which are eupplied with raw meat when
there is no prisoner to be thrown to them.
At the foot of this mound is a spacious square known as the
Registan, lined on two sides with mosques and other public
buildings, while the fourth side is planted with trees and cooled
by a fountain. This is the favourite resort both of citizens and
strangers, who recline in the grateful shade, or inspect the
varied wares laid out for view in smart tenta or booths. Here
also is held the daily market for fruit, vegetables, grain, cotton,
and fuel. And here, too, executions take place, and human
heads are exposed on stakes, or laid out on the ground, at the
foot of the gallows. During Baron Meyendorf s brief stay in
Bokhara at least six Persian slaves and two Tajeeks were
hanged for theft, and he became familiarized with the ghastly
spectacle of the heads of Khivans, Toorkomans, and others.
For all that, so holy a place is Bokhara E l Shereefah that
 BOKHARA-EUSSIANIZED. 287

light there aacenda h m the earth, instead of descending Born

above as in leee favoured lande. Semarkand, Bays the proverb,
ie the paradise of the world, and Bokhara the strength of the
religion of Islam. Indeed, it bmta of 360 mosques, the l a r p t
capable of containing 10,000 worshippers, while the minaret of
Mirgharab, ascribed to Alp Arslan, but certainly rebuilt by
Timour, towers to a height of 180 feet, gradually tapering
away, and formed of bricks artistically arranged in pleasing
patterns.
The medramhs, or Mohammedap seminariee, exceed one
hundred in number, some no doubt very small, but others large
enough to accommodate from sixty to eighty students. They
are built like caravanserais, and have little to recommend them
fiom an architectural point of view. They are for the most
part well endowed, and maintain a considerable number of pro-
feseora and resident students in listless indolence. The coum
of instruction is purely theological, and even more puerile than
the disputations of the schools in ancient Christendom. How-
ever, for & months in the year the medressehs are closed, to
enable the wholere to earn their livelihood by industrial pur-

Besides theee considerable buildings,'there are sixteen pub-

-
lit baths of considerable magnitude, and fourteen caravanserais
for the use of travellers. 'Asiatics who travel,' writes Mr
Shaw, ' do so from one of three motives, and they can under-
stand no other. Their journeys are either religious, commer-
cial, or political. They will crow the whole continent to visit
a shrine; they will peril their livee on a trading trip; and
envoys are constantly threading their way from one distant
chief to another.' The erection of caravanserais has therefore
always been regarded as a meritorious work, and no prince is
more highly eateemed even by posterity than one who hae
aaeociated hie name with resting-placa for man and k t , in a
253 CEICTEAL ASIA.

land where armed robbers rwun abroad in formidable bands,

where water f& the wanderer at his utmost need, and where
otherwise he must pass the night unsheltered, and e x p o d to
heavy dews or drenching rains.
In the capital there are between sixty and seventy wells,
upwards of a hundred feet in circumference, a dozen stone steps
leading down to the m r v o i r of stagnant water derived from
the canal that flows mund the t o m I t k in these that are
developed the germs of the guinea-worms, locally supposed to
have caused the ' eore boils ' with which Job was smitten ' from
the sole of his foot unto his cmm.' The canal is opened only
once a fortnight, eo that in hot weather the water in the wells
swarms with animalch.
There are several large bazaam covered over, in which each
trade has its separate quarter: the two largest are called the
Morning and Evening bazaars. The circumference of the
t o m has been stated at eight milea I t is surrounded by two
mud walls about twenty feet in height, and strengthened by
buttresses. The outer one is in a tolerable state of preservation,
but the inner one has fallen to decay. According to some
writers there are twelve gates, while others insist upon only
eleven, built of brick with a round tower on each side. They
are closed at sunset, and a guard of soldiers is stationed at each.
There are thirteen cemeteries, and 360 streets ankle-deep in
mud or sand.
The population has been variously estimated at from
150,000 to 180,000, of whom three-fourths are Tajeeks, the
balance being made up of Oozbegs, Toorkomans, Afghans, Kal-
muks, Hindoos, foreign traders and pilgrims, Persian slaves,
and a sprinkling of negroes and Kafirs. The Hindoos are dis-
tinguished from Mussulmans by wearing a small square cap and
a string round the waist instead of a girdle. They are demure
of sspect and keep much to themselves. Their position is one
 BOKHARA-BUSSIANIZED. 289

of marked inferiority. They are not suffered to build templea

or set up idols, or indulge iu religioue procesaione. Neither am
they allowed to ride within the walls, or to purchase female
alavea. They wear a peculiar etyle of dress, and are mulcted in
a poll-tax varying from four to eight rupees; but they enjoy
equal righta before the law, and are prosperous in businese.
Their numbers are computed at about 300, mostly natives of
Afghanistan and Scinde.
The Jews are far more numerous, and are said to have been
deported from Baghdad to Samarkand, whence they migrated
to Bokhara, which has long since been their head-quartere in
-

Central &a, though a numeroue colony of that race is settled

at Meshed. They are also to be found in Shuhr-i-Subz,
Balkh, Samarkand, Herat, and Khiva, but not in Khokan,
Kashgar, or Badakhshan. They are restricted, however, to
three streeta in the capital, and are engaged in manufacturea
and dyeing, dealing likewise in raw silk and silken textilea.
Like the Hindoos, they are subject to a capitation tax, and
are forbidden to mount horse or see within the city walls.
Though suffered to keep the old synagogue in good order,
they may not build a new one. Until half a century ago
they were extremely ignorant, and few of them could either
read or write, while the whole community. posammd only two
copiea of the first three boob of the Pentateuch. All t h b has
b i n einm changed. Reading and writing are now universal
accompliehmenta, and comparatively few reepectable famqiea are
destitute of an entire copy of the Old Testament. For the reat,
they are described as a handmme race, with fair complexions,
large eyee full of expreseion, and long facea.
The city of Bokhara standa about 1200 feet above the level
of the sea. The climate ie dry and salubrious, and very cold
in winter, but in summer the temperature never exceeds 90"
Fahrenheit, though in the desert it is often 10" higher. The
19
 290 CIZNTUL ASIA.
-

atmosphere is wonderfully serene and cloudless, and the stars

rhine with marvellotw brilliancy. It is by the Light of the stars
that the Kirghiz beat tmw their couree over the eteppea Be
it is now, ao was it in the time of the Yacedonians. 'Qui
tranneant c a m m ' writes Quintua Curtius, ' navigantium modo,
noctn dera obeervant, ad quorum cursum iter dirigunt, et
propemodum clarior est noctis umbra, quam lux.'
The eeasons are very regular throughout the Khand. The
frpit trees put forth their bloeruwr, about the middle of February,
md a month later bnmt into leaf. After three w& of heavy
rain the p t heats begin,and laat till the end of October, when
wet weather returns for a fortnight or three we&. Frost
appears in November, and snow in December. The moet intense
ooM is felt in January, when ice forms on the river to the
thicknem of three or four inch-, and mow covers the ground
for a fortnight at a time. At the end of the first or second
week in February, the rains commence, and the annual cycle ia
repeated. Both in mmmer and winter, violent duat-storms
ariee, which have been known to overwhelm not only caravans,
but entire villages, with the gardzne in which they are em-
bosomed.
It may be remarked that no allueion haa been made to
Rusflian slaves as forming a part of the population of Bokhara.
A t present, of course, there are not any, and even Baron Mey-
endorf in his description of the capital allows for only a dozen,
independently of Tatara claiming to be Russian subjects. Sir
Alexander Burnes was of opinion that there were not 130
Russian slaves in the entire K h a n ~ t . 'The Mahomedans,' he
adds, 'are not sensible of any offence in enslaving Russians,
since they state that Russia herself exhibits the example of a
whole country of slaves, particularly in tho despotic government
of her soldiery. " If we purchase Russians," say they, " the
Russians buy the E u z z a h on our frontier, who are Mahomedms,
 BnKHARA-.RUSSIANIZED. 291

and they tamper with these people by threah, bribery, and

hopea, to make them forsake their crsed, and become idolaters."'
There b a wide difference, however, between proceeding of
this kind, and the seizure by force of inoffensive individuals,
and selling them like cattle or chattels.
The city that ranks in importance next to the capital,
though now an appanage of the flusaian empire, ia the far-
famed Samarkand, the Maracanda of the Macedonians and the
ecene of the odious murder of Kleitus. I t is favourably men-
tioned by the Buddhist pilgrim Hiouen Tsang, by the name of
Samokien, ae inhabited by a brave, energetic people, skilful in
the arb, and a model for neighbouring conntriee. I n the
seventh century it was the entrepot of the world, and much
frequented by camvane. Sir John Mandeville also refers to
the quantity of silk produced in this valley, and declares that it
was eo abundant that in Sumar-margo, as he calls the city, it
wae sold at the rate of 401 be. for ten francs.
Samarkand ia nearly quadrangular, and ia surrounded with
a wall pierced for eix gates. I t covers more ground than
.Bokhara, though the population prior to the Russian annexation
was probably not much over 30,000. The citadel, also, is more
imposing than the Ark at that city, and the mosques and
colleges, built of white marble, are much superior in appear-
ance. The ruined palace of Timour stands outside the walls,
but his jasper tomb, beneath a lofty dome inlaid with agates,
still the chief object of curioeity within the town. The g a d e m
around are extremely productive, being watered by numerous
a n a b and tanks filled from the gold-mattering Kohik. There
L likewise an observatory erected by Timour's grandson,
Ooloogh Beg. The manufacture of paper from silk was intro-
duced into Europe from Samarknnd, but the invention seems to
have been due to the Chinese.
I n the time of the Khalifs, this city was a JIetropolitan Soe
292 C ~ T B A LASIA.

of the Xestorian Chrietiana By Chinghiz Khan Samarkand

waa sacked and demolished, and 30,000 of the inhabitants
were distniuted as slaves among hie chief officemi. Under
Timour, however, it more than recovered its ancient prcmperity,
and beaune for a time the capital of his empire, and was em-
bellished with several stately mosques, medremehs, and public
baths. Owing to the vicinity of excellent atone quarries, in
which captives from distant lands, d egpecially h m India,
r e r e constantly employed, even private houeea were b d t of
durable materiala, and favourably contrasted with the mud
hovels of Bokhara, Urghunj, and Khivk
Towards thslatter pert of the ahteenth century, Samarkand,
previously an independent Ooabeg principality, wae annexed to
Bokhara, by AbdooIlah Khan, but wae wrested by General
Kaufmann from that Khanat, in 1868, and has eince then been
retained by the Russians. Prince Qortchakof, indeed, ~esured
Sir Alexander Buchanm, on: the 1st November, 1869, that it
wae the desire of the Emperor to reatore Samarkand to Bokhara,
'but that there was eome di5culty in aecertaining how this
could be done without a loes of dignity, and without obtaining
guarantees for the welfare of the populations which had accepted
the sovereignty of Russia.'
Again, on the 13th July, 1870, the Britiah ambassador at
St Petereburg informed Lord Granville that it was His
Imperial Majesty's intention to ' withdraw his troops fmm
Samarkand ae Boon as the Ameer of Bokhara fulfils his engage-
ments ;' and a little further on Sir Alexander explained that
the Ameer would be required ' not to appoint any one to the
government of Samarkand without General Kaufmann's ap-
proval of the appointment being previously obtained, and by
hie engaging to dismiss and punish the Governor so appointed,
if his conduct towards the subjecte of the Emperor ehould give
occasion to juet grounds of complaint. Under such an arrange-
 BOKEARA-RUSSIANIZED. 293
-

ment, however,' Sir Alexander remarks, ' the real sovereignty

of the province will apparently remain in the hands of Russia.'
I t has been found simpler and more satisfactory-at least, to
Russia-to keep absolute possession of the city, which, from ita
position on the upper waters of the Zarafehan, holds Bokhara,
as it were, in the palm of its hand.
On the caravan road from Samarkand to Herat and Kabul,
and about 85 miles to the north of the Amou, the once con-
siderable town of Karshee, or Nakhsheb, stands in the midst of
a fertile oasis, twenty-two miles in breadth, watered by the
river of Shuhr-i-Subz. Beyond the belt of cultivation extende
on all sides a flat, desolate waste, inhabited only by lizards,
tortoises, and ants. Karshee is a long straggling town, of mean
flat-roofed houses, surrounded by three concentric walls full of
breaches, and defended by a mud fort, encircled by a wet moat.
I t contains four medressehs, a covered bazaar, and two caravon-
semis, one of which is permanently occupied by Jews. The
population does not exceed 10,000. Cherries grow here to per-
fection, and fruit-trees and lofty poplars clothe the banks of the
stream until it is swallowed up by the sands of the desert.
The route to Herat crowes the Amou at Kherkee, a place
otherwise insignificant. Timour, however, preferred the pass-
age at Termedh, the Tami of Hiouen Tsang, a small town in a
state of decay, and which has never recovered from the ravages
inflicted by the Moghuls of Chinghiz Khan. I t was here that
the bodies of the slain were ript up in the hope of finding
precious stones, because one old woman confessed that she had
swallowed a pearl of great price,-a statement verified on the
spot at the cost of her life. Between these two hamlets is the
ferry over against the village of Khoja Saleh, the extreme point
of the western boundnry line between the territories of the
Ameers of Bokhara and Afghanistan.
I t may hereafter prove matter *for deep regret that the
294 CENTRAL ASIA.

British Government did not insist upon the line of demarkation

being c a r r i d due west from that point to the Persian frontier,
IU the eagerness of the Russian Government to keep Merv out-
aide of the quasi-neutral zone is calculated to excite euspicions
of ulterior designs, prejudicial to the security of the Afghan
dominions at their most accessible and vulnerable point. The
teason assigned for objecting to Merv being included within the
frontiers of the Ameer Shere Ali, that the country of the
Toorkomens, in which that town is situated, is becoming com-
mercially important, cannot be accepted as a serious argument
for handing it over to the feeble sway of the ruler of Bokhara,
a mere tool or pageant in the hands of Rnesia. However, i t
now only remains to watch with a jealous eIe the esercise of
Russian influence in that direction. I f Herat be the gate of
India, Merv is the key of that gate.
According to Sir Alexnnder Burnes, the Amou, at Khoja
Saleh, was, in the month of June, 800 yards in width, and
twenty in depth, with a current running at the rate of three-and-
a-half milcs per hour. Tho ferry-boat was drawn across by a
pair of horucs, one fastened to each bow by a rope attached to
hie manc, and the reins playing loose.
About eight milcs westward of Bokhara, is the little town
of Shuhr-Islam, which claims the honour of being the first place
in Muweralnahr to renounce idolatry for faith in Islam. I t is
also said to have been the farourite residence of the fabled
Afrasiab. 111the oft-quoted words of Firdousi,
' The spider weaves its web in the palace of Cmar :
The owl stands sentinel upon the watch-tower of Afrasiab.'

On leaving Bokhara, Sir Alexander Rurnes took a south-

westerly course towards Charjui, and crossed the Amou where
it was only 650 yards in width, but from twenty-five to twenty-
riine fect in depth, flowing between depressed banks, overgrown
 BOKHARA-RUSSIANIZED. -295
- - - -~ ~ ~~

with rank vegetation. A kindof dogfbh, eaten by the Oozbege,

and weighing aa much as 600 Ibe., is oaught in this part of the
river. Six miles on the other side of the Amou he came to
the town of Chajui, with a population of four to five thousend
souls, standing on the verge of both culture and desolation. I n
the bazaar were to be seen knives, saddles, bridles, and horse-
cloths of native manufacture, while European industry wse
represented by beads, chintz skull caps, lanterm, ewerq and'
copper pots. Busineas was transacted chiefly on horseback,
many even of the vendors being mounted, and no women were
seen abroad. A strong garrison was usually utationed here, to
repress the incursions of the Khivans.
Also in a south-westerly direction from Bokhara the well-
peopled town of Karakul is situated near the Denghiz, or large
lake,' which forms the termination of the Kohik. Cultivation
extends in this direction not more than thirty miles from the
capital, and year by year the desert encroaches upon the habit-
able lands. If Baron Meyendorf be a true prophet, ' the rich
and smiling oases of Bokhara will one day become sterile and
waste like those of Sejistan, whose ancient fertility is attested by
superb ruins, and which are now covered with sand and gravel.'
Independently of these towns there are several hamlets con-
sisting of three or four hundred houses, and many smaller
villages hidden away in luxuriant orchards, not unfrequently
encircled by a crenelated wall, flanked with towers, though
occasionally it is only the gardens that are so defended. A
village is generally an aggregation of perhaps a hundred small
detached houses made of earth, and separated from each other
by narrow lanes. The centre is occupied by a well, or tank,
and no village stands far from a canal.
Since the death of Nadir Shah the provinces of Shuhr-i-
The water of this lake, which L 25 m i l a in length and fed only by fresh-
water atrcams, is decidedly brackish.
 296 CENTBAL ASIA.

Subz and Hieear have been virtually independent, being

governed by Oozbeg chiefs with whose quite nominal allegiance
the rulers of Bokhara have been constrained to content them-
selves. The former State contains the hamlet of Kish, Timour's
birth-place, and is divided into the t h m begshipe of Shurh,
Kitab, and Yakobak. The population ia computed at 46,000
inhabitanta, scattered among fifty-three villages. I t produces
- cotton of good quality, and several kinds of dyes.
I n ancient times 'travellers from Bokhara or Samarkand
journeying to Balkh were accustomed to bear away to the east-
ward, traversing the rugged, precipitoue range of mountains
through which the only pasa was that called Kohluga, or the
Iron Gate. Thia route has long since been disused, caravans
now turning the fiank of the mountains and proceeding by way
of Karshee.
Of the petty state of Hiesar there ie little to be said, except
that to the old Mohammedan writers it was known as Sha-
ghanian. I t ia a hilly, but not mountainous district, and in the
plains rice is successfully cultivated, indicating a plentiful
supply of water. The modem capital, or fortress, stands fifty
miles further to the westward than the former city of Hissor, a
word signifying a fort, from which the province subsequently
received its name.
I n the army of Xerxes, the Sogdians were ranged with the Par-
thian~,~horasmians,Gardanians,and Dadim, and were equipped
in the Bactrian fashion, with short spars, bows and arrows made
of cane, and a head-dress similar to the Median. I n the Zen-
davesta their country is called Qugdha, and by Mohammedan
writers the Valley of Soghd. I n the time of the Macedonian
conquest the town of Maracanda became the temporary residence
of Alexander the Great, after the demolition of Cyropoli~and
apparent subjugation of the Bactrians and So+ans. There is
reason to believe that the original inhabitanta belonged to the
 BOKEABA-RUSSIANIZED. 297 '

great Indo-Persian race, and a180 that they were subject to the
short-lived Greco-Bactrian kingdom. Subsequently they paseed
under the yoke of the Chinese invaders, and of all the successive
hordes that moved down from the north-east, settling in Central
Asia but overflowing even into Europe.
I n the words of Colonel Yule (Ocean High~caya,April, 1873)
' we dimly see empires centred there, waxing and waning, and
extending sometimes to the delta of the Indue, or to the frontier
of China Proper, and coming now and again into collision with
Sassanian Persia. But what kind of civilization they had
reached, we know not. Perhaps remains of their cities, or cities
still older, may yet become accessible, and throw light on the
obscure history. A break in the clouds shows us at one period
the broad and clay-stained surface of the Oxus reflecting the
gleam of gilded pagodas and images of tranquil coloesi, with the
painted masts and bar-floating banners that characterize a
Buddhist country. And thus we gather that a company of
Buddhist monks had established their convent amid the reeds
and wild-ducks of the Sogdian swamps, as other monks did
among those of Ely or Glastonbury. And the very name of
Holy Bokhara, in modern times 'practically the spiritual centre
of Islamism,' remains a tide-mark in the remote north-west of
that strange power of Indian religion, whose traces are found
in a diametrically opposite direction as far as Ternate and
Tidore. To Buddhism must have belonged the idolatrous sculp
tures which continued to adorn the gates of the mosques of
Bokhara for three centuries after the conquest.'
'But Buddhism was not the only faith that Islam had to
extinguish in Bokhara. That of Zoroaster maintained a more
obstinate resistance. Long after the conquest, the nominal and
enforced converts continued to cherish the worship of their
fathers under the shelter of night, insomuch that every native
family was compelled to receive an Arab inmate, whose duty
298 CENTRAL ASIA.

was to watch against such backalidings. And among the few

antiqnitiea of Bokhara survivea a monument of thoee daya, re-
calling the subterranean church of St Clement on the Equiline,
an underground moaque bearing the name of the mosque of the
Magians.' Christianity was mow than tolerated, and during
the Middle Ages it waa currently reported in Europe that the
Tatars were Chrietiane, and that Prester John was the Cham
of Tatary.
Farly in the eighth century all Mawaralnahr, or the
country to the east of the river Jyhoon, was converted to Islam-
ism and governed from Khorassan. Under the Samanian
dynasty Mawaralnahr not only became independent, but
attained to as high a degree of civilization as then prevailed
even in Europe. The Seljoukian period was scarcely less
favourable, but in the early part of the thirteenth century the
Moghuls broke loose from their native pastures on the Ala-tagh
range, and devastated both Central and Western Asia. During
the interval of 150 years that intervened between the desolating
reigns of Chinghiz and Timour thirty feeble princes followed
one another in rapid succeesion, and left no trace behind them,
though in their case uneventfulneas was by no meam synonym-
ous with modest beneficence. Their respective reigns, however
brief, were marked with oppression, bloodshed, and anarchy.
Under Timour, whatever might have been the condition of
the rest of Asia westward to the Mediterranean and the Helles-
pont, Bokhara and Samarkand recovered much of their former
splendour, though they never attained to stable prosperity. The
descendants of Timour, like those of Chinghiz, were only re-
markable for their incapacity, with the exception of Baber,
whose early misfortunes were more than compensated by the
magnificent triumphs of his hter career.
The Oozbege were the next masters of Traneoxiana, and in
the sixteenth century Abdoollah Khan caused his reign of forty-
 BOKRARA-RUSSIANIZED. 299
- -

two years to become the standard of all that is good and great
on the part of an absolute monarch. With that glorious excep-
tion, however, the Oozbega failed to riee to the height of their
opportunity, and were more anxima to institute a number of
petty independent states than to establish an empire.
About the year 1784 the Manghit family rose to power.
This clan originally came from the north-east of Mongolia with
Chinghiz Khan, and nettled on the left bank of the Amou, in
the district now occupied by the Khivan Kara-Kalpaks. They
were at all times distinguished for their valour, but the first to
make unto himself a name was the Ameer Maassoum, son of
Ameer Daniel, called by his father Beggie Jan, and at a later
period Shah Mourad, or King's Wish. Thia crafty and perhaps
half-crazy adventurer obtained the throne of Bokhara partly by
force of character, but still more through his affectation of
extreme asceticism.
The nominal king was Abdool Ghazee Khnn, in whose name
Beggie Jan at first pretended to govern, but, as always happells
in such cases, the too powerful minister was at length almost
compelled by circumstances to assume the insignia as well as
the power of royalty. Personally he made great parade of
humility, and seemed never so happy as when surrounded by
the most learned doctors of the Mohammedan law, whom he
often sorely perplexed by the ingenuity of his inquiries. H e
always purchased and cooked his own provisions, though his
cooking utensils comprised only an iron cauldron, a wooden
bowl, and some earthen pots. H e insisted, too, upon waiting
upon his guests, who sometimes found it difficult to swallow the
abominable food placed before them, and the most menial offices
he performed for himself. His dress consisted of an old dirty
green mantle of camel's hair, patched in many placee, and the
only animal he would bestride was a donkey, which he rode
without a saddle. He invariably spoke of himself in the third
300 CEKTRAL ASIA.

person as 'The Fakeer,' though his subjects took care to

address him as ' His Excellency the Lord of Beneficence!
With regard to the due observance of the ceremonies of
religion, Beggie Jan was pitilessly severe. H e revived the
obsolete office of Reis-i-Sheriat, or Guardian of the Law, whose
duty it was to patrol the streets with a body of police furnished
with four-thonged 8courges, which were laid on to all who
failed to recite the Farz-ool-ain, or whose turban was without
the orthodox keseh, or balls of earth. Small delinquencies were
visited with terrible punishments, while death was the penalty
for theft or robbery, and for a second offence in smoking,
drinking, or neglecting the mosque. Though he himself lived
ao meanly, the officers of his court displayed great magnificence
and even extravagance.
Shah Mourad reduced beneath his sway all the country be-
tween the Syr and the Amou, and also made himself master of
Merv, deporting the inhabitants to Bokhara and Samarkand.
Finding Meshed too strong for him, he declared that the Imam
Reza appeared to him in a dream and bade him spare the place
in honour of his t.omb. I t is said that he could levy a force of
60,000 horsemen, and M. Vambery speaks of him as the last
Tooranian prince who invaded Iran sword in hand. Possibly
the strife might have been prolonged had not the Empreas
Catharine 11. invaded Persia from the Caspian Sea, and diverted
the Shah, Aga Mohammed Khan, the founder of the present
dynasty, from chastising the insolence of the Ameer who had
called him Akta Khan, or Eunuch Khan. The Shah, however,
wrote the Ameer a letter exhorting him to moderation and
peace. ' W e all of us,' so the letter ran, 'owe thanks to God
the Almighty, that He hath given the dominion over Turan
and Iran, over Rum, Rus, China, and India, to the exalted
family of Turk. Let each be content with the position that
hath fallen to him, and not stretch out his hand over the frontier
 BOKRABA-BUSSIANIZED. 301

of hia own kingdom. I also will dwell in peace within the

ancient boundaries of Iran, and none of us will pass over the
Oxus.'
Beggie Jan never himself aeeumed the title of Khan. On
his chair was engraven the style he sffedted to adopt-' Ameer
Mssssoum, the son of the Ameer Daniel,'--ancircled with this
characteristic maxim, 'Power and dignity when founded on
justice are from God ; when not, from the devil.' His death
took place in 1802, and he was succeeded by hie son the Ameer
Syud Hyder Towra, who lived and died a Mollah.
Syud Hyder's son, N m r Oollah Bahadoor Khan, ascended
the throne in 1826, and was suspected of having poisoned hie
father and five brothers. I n stature he did not exceed five feet
six inches, but was stout for hia height. H e had amall black
eyes aud a swarthy complexion, and the muscles of his face at
times twitched convulsively. He spoke rapidly and vehemently,
but when listening to others he framed his lips to a forced
smile. Though at the very outset of his reign he deprived the
Mollahs of the excessive influence they had exercised under hia
father and grandfather, he himself usually d r e d as one.
Nusser OoUah ia described as a vainglorious, cruel, cunning,
profligste prince, who fancied himself superior to all his
neighbours because he looked down upon the Afghans, and yet
they had succeeded in destroying a British army. I n the early
part of his reign he was guided by the wise counsels of hie
Kooshbegie, Hakeem Beyk, but this prudent minister was,
after a while, supplanted by Abdool ~8amutKhan, a fugitive
from Kabul, whose counsels proved most pernicious.
I n 1838 Colonel Stoddart, a brave but imperious and over-
bearing soldier, was sent to Bokhara from Teheran by Sir John
McNeil, and seems to have acted imprudently in giving some
sort of assurance that he would very shortly be accredited to
that court by the British Government. Fourteen months hav-
 302 CENTRAL ASIA.

ing elapsed without any letters of credence arriving from Eng-

land, the Colonel waa thrown into priaon and so barbarously
treated that his nervous system gave way, and he was prevailed
upon to profees faith in Islam in the hope of saving his life.
General Ferrier states that he could have left Bokhara in com-
pany with M. Kanikof, but that he waa too proud to owe hie
life to Russian intercession. I f this be so, he betrayed a stra.nge
inconsistency in renouncing hie religion for the sake of that
which he scorned to accept under an obligation to a friendly
and Christian Government.
Greater sympathy, however, is generally felt for the gallant,
kindly, gentle Captain Conolly, who was despatched from Kabul
to Khiva in 1840, and thence proceeded to Khokan by way of
Jizak, carefully avoiding Bokhara. I n an evil hour he subse-
quently trusted h i m l f to a safe-conduct from Nusser Oollah,
and visited that prince at hie urgent request when encamped at
Mehrem, not far from Khokan. Notwithstanding the Ameer's
assurances, he was seized, plundered, and carried off to Bokhara,
where he was thrown into the same dungeon with his unfortun-
ate fellow-countryman.
They were both executed on the 17th June, 1542, but
accounts vary as to the manner of their death. hi. Vambery
affirms that they were put to death in an open place, but Major
Abbott declares that Colonel Stoddart mas bastinadoed on the
feet till the skin peeled off, and being carried back to prison
was secretly murdered in the night, hie throat being cut and
his head severed from his body. Captain Conolly, he adds,
was led before the Ameer and promised his life if he would
abjure Christianity, and on his firm refusal was taken back to
prison, where he met his fate at night by the hands of a differ-
ent executioner.
D r wolff is more circumstantial-perhaps, too much so.
According to his informants, Captain Conolly was dragged to
 BOKHARA-RUSSIANIZED. 303

the place of execution, exclaiming in Persian, 'Woe to me!

Woe to me ! Woe to me I that I have fallen into the hands of
a tyrant.' I n another place he etatee that Stoddart and Conolly
were taken to a spot at the back of the Ark, where they kissed
each other, and the former said to Makhram Saadut : ' Tell the
Ameer that I die a disbeliever in Mohammed, but a believer in
Jesus-that I am a Christian, and a Christian I die.' Conolly
then turned to his companion and said : ' Stoddart, we shall see
each other in Paradise, near Jeeus ;' but Dr WOWomite to ex-
plain in what language thie remark was made. At such a
moment an Englishman would naturally exprese himself in hie
mother tongue, especially in addressing a fellow-countryman,
and in that case what he said would have been perfectly un-
intelligible to the bystanders. The statement seems quite ae
apocryphal as that relating to his woeful ejaculations.
When the heads of the victim were laid at the feet of the
Ameer and the Kazee Kelaun, or Chief Civil Magistrate, a
Dervish liftad up his voice and mid : ' The blood of these mur-
dered men ehall cry up to the Moat High againet you!' a
malediction that brought upon the utterer the besfinado and
banishment. The heads and bodiee of the English officers were
then thrown down a well, and, when the people heard of theae
things many of them wopt and said, ' A great calamity will be-
fall the country by reason of thh murder.' The Jews beat
their breasts, and evinced their eorrow in a demonatrative man-
ner. The b e e r himself afterwarde regretted the rash and
unjust act, and often murmured that nothing prospered with
him after he put the Franks to death. I t must be admitted
that for a sovereign who had assumed as his favourite maxim
the motto 'Truth and Equity,' hie entire conduct with refer-
ence to theee unfortunate Engliehmen was open to grave re-
prehension.
A few years previoue to this shocking outrage another
304 CENTRAL ASIA.

officer of the Indian army, Lieutenant Wyburd, had also

perished miserably within the territories of this hateful prince.
M. Vambery, indeed, declam that he died in the desert in con-
sequence of the violent treatment he experienced at the handa
of the Khivans; but Dr Wow, while acknowledging that he
had been knocked down and rifled by robbers, insists that he
eecaped to Bokhara, where he wae cast into the Black Well
and subsequently had his throat cut on his scornful refusal to
renounce Christianity and enter the Ameer's service. Three
other Europeans, Gibvanni Orlando, a watchmaker, Floree
Naaelli, and a Greek named Joseph, were likewise done to
death in this reign.
The disasters of the British army at Kabul arerted from
Nueser Oollah the punishment his crimes eo justly merited, nor
were his own subjects euccessful in their attempts to break his
galling yoke from off their necke. I n 1840 a conspiracy had
been formed for that purpose, but it8 only result was the execu-
tion of forty individuals suspected of being implicated. The
tyrant was at least consistent with himself to the end. His last
public act was to cause one of his wives, who had borne him
two children, to be decapitated in his presence, because her
brother had rebelled against him.
I n 1841 Nusser Oolah Bakadoor Khan made war upon
Khokan, whose ruler, Mohammed Ali, was of a gentle disposi-
tion and had ehown great partiality for the society of Captain
Conolly, but he was also weak and too much addicted to love
and wine. He was consequently defeated in battle, and com-
pelled not only to cede Khojend but to acknowledge the
ewerainty of Bokhara. Having again appealed to a r m he
was again worsted, made prisoner, and put to death. His
capital was given up to pillage and massacre for twenty-four
hours, his family and favouritee slaughtered, and his pregnant
widow ripped open. I n 1843 the people of Khokan re-asserted
 BOKHARA-RUSSIANIZED. .305

their independence, and, electing as their Khan their late

monarch's nephew, Shere Ali, repulsed the Bokharian army
and were never again overcome by Nusser Oollah.
This restless prince next meditated the reduction of the
province of Shuhr-i-Subz, but Dr W o l q according to his own
account, caused timely intelligence to be conveyed to the Go-
vernor, who cut the dams and inundated the country. That
eccentric missionary further states that he was told by Abdool
Saamut Khan that Nusser Oollah was advised by the Russian
envoy to declare war against Khokan, in the expectation that
the latter State would apply to the Government of St Peters-
burg for protection, and the event justified this anticipation.
I f this be true, i t is not surprising that the Ameer should have
afterwards shown scant courtesy to Major Boutenief.
His contempt for the English may partly be due to the
ehsbby presents sent to him by Colonel Sheil, and which were
almost an insult. They consisted of a silver watch and two
pieces of cloth, altogether not worth above £6. H e seems,
however, to have had an ear for English music, his band play-
ing our national anthem. The performers, it turned out, were
deserters from Runjeet Singh's service, and had picked up the
air from the British soldiers.
Nusser Oollah's successor, BIozuffar-ood-deen, found himself,
on his very accession to the throne, involved in difficulties not
of his own making, but not the lms hard to overcome. He was,
almost from the commencement of his reign, engaged in hoe-
tilities with Khokan, from which he won no laurels, but by
which he became entangled in the most fatal complications.
b so often happens in the last agonies of an expiring kingdom,
the people of Khokan had split into two great parties, hotly
opposed to one another. The northern division, from Uratupeh
to Tashkend, was governed by Khoda Yar Khan, who was a t
enmity with Russia; while the southern diviion from Ush to
20
906 CLSTP~L ASIA.

Yehrem was held by Khoda Tar's younger brother Shah

Ifourad, wpported by the K i p c h k I t mu 6 t h hhoda Tar
Khan that I l d - o o d - d e e n threw in his lot, a d thus brought
down upon himeelf the heavy hand of the White Tzar.
Ever since 1847 the R s k n s had been rtegdily p d n g
forward their etatione from Orenberg to the Jaurrtea I n that
year three forte were erected which gave them the entire con-
trol of the steppe, and effectually bridled the wandering t r i i
though they at first d i s c o m t e n a d the inclination to settle
down to agricultural pursuits displayed by the Iiirghiz, lest
the latter should give up the breeding of cattle and so diminish
the suppliw necessary for the military occupation of those in-
hospitable wastes. Fort tirnlsk, now Fort 1, was established at
the mouth of the Syr in 1847-48, and two armed steamere pro-
ceeded up that river to a considerable distance. I n '1853 the
fortress of d k JLusjtxd, now Fort Perofsky, after a vigornus
defence, was given up to the Russians by the present ruler of
E t c r n Toorkestan, not without suspicions that its reduction
waa facilitated by the same means that opened the gates of
Oly nthus to Philip of Ifacedon.*
During the Crimean war no progress could be expected, but
the apathy of Oriental States i illustrated by their neglect of
this opportunity to fall upon their common enemy at the
moment of his greatest weakness. Nothing, however, was
done to check the advance of Russia, and so early as 1854 a
Russian detachment, starting from Semipalatinsk, marched
southwarde to the Balkash Lake, and MI onward to the upper

It is at least remarkable that the 'most heroic resistance ' of Ak Musjeed

-to quote the official Gazette-should have cost the Russians only 25 men
killed, and 8 officers and 40 men wounded. Again, when Fort Perofsky was
besieged, a sortie was made but so stoutly met that the position of the Rus-
sians, according to their own account, became exceedingly critical. But how
ran 'the butcher's bill'? Of the enemy, 9000 slam-of the Russians, 18
killed and 49 wounded.
waters of the Ili, where they established a military station,
called Fort Vernoe, a Little to the north of Isayk-Kul. From
this post they commanded the route from Khokan to Kulja,
and threatened the northern frontier of Toorkastan.
I n 1863 Admiral Boutakof ascended the Syr to a point one
thousand miles from its embouchure, and in the following year
Chemkend, Toorkestm, and Aulietta were added to the line of
advanced forts which Prince Gortchakof, in his Circular of the
21st November, 1864, affirmed to be absolutely necessary for
the protection of the frontier tribes who had placed themselvee
under the protection of Russia. This Line, taken up with great
reluctance, produced a double result.
' I n the first place,' his Excellency remarks, ' the country
it take8 in is fertile, well wooded, and watered by numerous
water-courses ; it is partly inhabited by various Kirghiz tribes,
which have already accepted our rule; it consequently offers
favourable conditions for colonization, and the supply of pro-
visions to our garrisons. I n the second place, it puts us in the
immediate neighbourhood of the agricultural and commercinl
populations of Kokand. W e find ourselves in presence of a
more solid and compact, less unsettled, and better organized
social state ; fixing for us with geographical precision the Limit
up to which we are bound to advance, and at which we must
halt, because, while, on the one hand, any further extension of
our rule, meeting, as it would, no longer with unstable wm-
munitiea, such as the nomad t r i h , but with more regularly
constituted states, would entail considerable exertions, and
would draw us from annexation to annexntion with unforeseen
complicntions. On the other, with such statee for our future
neighbours, their backward civilization, and the instability of
thoir political condition, do not shut us out from the hope that
the &y may come when regulnr relations may, to the advantage
of both partiee, take the place of the permanent troubles which
308 CENTRAL ASIA.

have up to the present moment paralyzed all progresa in those

countries.'
I n 1865 Tashkend was captured by General Tchernaief
with a mere handful of men and eight old guns, after a severe
struggle in the open field. For this officious conquest General
Tchernaief was recalled in (eimulated) disgmce, and General
Romnnofsky, who succeeded to the command of the forces in
Russian Toorkestan, was instructed to pacify and consolidate
the newly acquired territories, and to resist all temptations to
further aggrandisement. I n that year Mozuffar-ood-deen had
taken the imprudent step of marching to Khokan to placc
Khoda Yar Khan upon the throne, and, not content with send-
ing a letter of defiance and menace to General Tchernaief, con-
fiscated all the property of Russian subjects he could lay hands
upon. By way of reprisal, the Russians seized upon the goods
of Bokhariot traders in Orenberg, and the Ameer hhd the
assurance to send an envoy to complain of this act of violence.
His mwenger, however, got no further than Fort Kazali, now
Fort 2, where he was placed in confinement. A counter-mission
despatched by General Tchernaief to Bokhara was treated in
like manner, but not otherwise ill-treated.
The Russian General, avoiding Khojend, puehed on to Jizak
through a barren country, until he found himself in presence of a
force twenty times more numerous than his own. He retreated,
however, in good order and without loss, and gave up the com-
mand to his successor, the olive-bearing Romanofsky. But
peace was at that juncture impossible. The Oozbegs, after a
series of smart skirmishes, had entrenched themselves at Chinaz
on the Syr, while Mozuffar-ood-deen took the field with 5000
regular troops, 35,000 Kirghiz, and 21 guns.
l'he two armies encountered each other on the 20th May,
1866, at Yirdjar, tr few milea to the north of Khojend. The
Ruseians had 20 guns, but only fourteen companies of infantry
 BOKHARA-RUSSIANIZED. 300

and five squadrons of cavalry, their total force not exceeding 4000
men. The issue of the fight, however, was never for a moment
doubtful. The Bokharian irregulars were thrown into con-
fmion at the very outset by the well-served artillery of the
Russians, and a gallant charge drove the entire host into head-
long flight. Their camp and artillery fell into the hands of
the victors, who affirm that they counted 1000 dead bodies of
the enemy on the field of battle, while their own loss in killed
and wounded did not amount to fifty.
This brilliant success was followed up by the surrender of a
small fort called Nau, and after a siege of seven days the im-
portant town and fortress of Khojend was carried by escalade,
the garrison suffering a loss of 2500 men, while that of the
Russians is again reported to have been insignificant. Con-
vinced of the uselessness of any further resistance, Khoda Yar
Khan hastened to save what yet remained to him of his domin-
ions-by accepting the hard terms imposed by the conqueror.
Not only did he acknowledge himself a vassal of the Tzar, but
he also ceded the valley of the Syr from Mehrem, threw open
all his towns to Russian traders and residents, and undertook
the payment of nn indemnity.
Untaught by the bitter experience of hie neighbour and
ally, the Ameer of Bokhara, in 1866, proclaimed a Jihad, or
religious war, against the infidel, in the vain hope of rousing
the fanaticism of his subjecta and of the nomad tribes of the
desert. The first consequence wne Count Dashkof s capture of
Uratupeh, and shortly afterwards of Jiztrk. I n the following
year General Kaufmann made himself master of Yenghy Kur-
ghan, and on the 13th May, 1868, with only 8000 troops, de-
feated Moxuffar-ood-deen's host of 40,000 men, drawn up on
the opposite bnnk of the Zarafshan. The rout was complete,
and the fugitives, on reaching the walls of Samark~nd,found
the gates closed ngainet them. That once beautiful and opulent
$1 0 CENTRAL ASIA.

city surrendered at discretion on the approach of the victorious

Rueeians, in whose hands it has ever since remained.
The Ameer Bed to the Kermeeneh, and his eldest aon
Abdool Malek Meerza to Bokhara, while General Kaufmann
followed upon the heela of the retreating army. Ketty Kur-
ghan submitted without firing a shot, and the final struggle
took place at &rpul, on the same ground that had witnessed
the defeat of Baber by Sheibani Khan and his Oozbegs. The
Ameer's troopa were advantageously posted, but the Russians
stormed the heights in the most dashing manner, and the
existence of Bokhara as an independent kingdom was brought
to a close.
I n the mean while, however, the feeble garrison left behind
in Bsmarkand was placed in a position of imminent danger. It
consisted of no more than 685 men, most of whom were on the
sick list, under the command of Baron Von Stempel. Thie
little band was suddenly attacked by 25,000 Oozbegs and
8amarkandians, but resolutely maintained their post from' the
12th to the 18th June, when they were relieved by General
Kaufmann, but not before they had forty-nine of their number
killed and 172 wounded.
The Ameer now laid down his arms, opened his county to
the Russians, undertook to pay an indemnity, and agreed to
place Russian traders on the same footing as J.iohammedans,
who are exempted by the Koran from paying a higher duty
than one in forty, or two and a half per cent. The fanatical '-

party, however, headed by Abdool Malek Meerza, were indig-

nant at the Ameer's submission, and demar~dedhis abdication
in favour of his eldest son, but this movement was speedily
crushed by the Russians, who took possession of Knrshee, the
stronghold of the rebels. The astonishment of the Ameer and
hie subjects was unbounded when, on the third day after their
 BOKHARA-RUSSIANIZED. 31 1
victorious entry, the Russians marched out again and restored
the town to its lawful sovereign.
There seems to be some doubt as to the ultimate fate of
Abdool Malek Meerza, beyond the fact of his marrying a
daughter of Shere Ali, the Ameer of Afghanistan. According
to M. Vambery, the prince either died in Khiva, or is a secret
guest of Yakoob W a n , the ruler of Eastern Toorkestan. I n
1869 the Ameer sent his fourth and favourite son Abdool Fut-
teh Tbleerza, though only twelve years of age, to St Petersburg,
the bearer of nine presents as from an inferior, with the covert
hope of securing the recognition by the Russian government
of his claims as heir apparent. The incident wae regarded by
Sir Alexander Buchanan aa of sufficient importance to be
notified to the Earl of Clarendon, at that 'time Secretary of
State for Foreign Affairs. The letter is dated S t Petersburg,
October 19, 1869, from which the following extract is given in
the 'Correspondence respecting Central Asia,' presented to
parliament during the sesaion of 1873.
' A mission from the Emir of Bokhara,' the British ambas-
dador observes, ' has arrived here, consisting of the fourth son
of the Emir, and other members of his family. The ostensible
object of this mission is said to be to give information to the
Emperor respecting the hostile intentions and intrigues of the
government of India and of the Afghans, but it is believed that
his principal object is to oecure the succession of the throne
of Bokhara to the fourth and favourite son of the Emir. M.
de Westmann tells me that the mission is merely one of
courtesy, but that it is true that the Emir is desirous that hie
fourth son should be his successor, a question on which hk
Excellency soys the Rusllian government can have no intereet.'
Considering the very prompt and decided line of action adopted
by General Kaufmann in crushing the pretensione of the eldest
312 CERTRAL ASIA.

son, it may be permiwible to question the indifference of the

Tzar's government with reapect to the Ameer's successor,
unless it be intended to reduce the W a n to a state of direct
vassalage, and to treat him as an hereditary governor of a pro-
vince, removable at the pleasure of his all-powerful masters.
Having thus established their power on a solid foundation
in the western portion of the frontier line between anarchy and
order, between barbarism and civilization, the Russians next
turned their attention to the eastward, and erected several forts
between Fort Vernik and the northern borders of Eastern
Toorkcstan. Nor did they rest contented with merely strength-
ening the line of demarcation drawn by Prince Gortchakof in
1864, when it was thought necessary to offer some sort of
apology for the recent annexation of Tashkend. Emboldened
by success and the supineness of the European powers, the Hus-
sian government in 1871 seized upon Kulja without any sort of
provocation beyond the standing challenge of the fat lamb to
the ravening wolf, and without condescending to offer any
explanation of this additional illustration of the policy, to pro-
mote the interests of humanity and civilization, sketched in that
perspicuous circular.
Tn this place it may be worth while to trace the exnct posi-
tion of Russia with reference to Khokan and Eastern Toor-
kestan previous to this last acquisition, ns described by Mr
Robert Michell in his paper on the Jaxartes or Syr Darga,
avowedly derived from Russian sources and published in the
Royul Geographical Society's Journal, N o . xxxviii. N r Michell,
it should be premised, is by no means a Ruasophobist. l i e
does not hesitate to express his belief that 'the contributions to
science which Russian officers and civilians have made since
they have been able to penetrate into the interesting regions of
Central Asia, are of greater value and importance than the
political side of the question as regards our Indiun possessions.'
 BOKHARA-RUSSIANIZED. 31 3

H e confesses his inability to perceive any material benefit likely

to accrue to Russia from accessions of territory in Central Asia,
and he is- fully persuaded that the scientific results of her recent
extensions in that direction are superior to all other considera-
tions.
' Those,' he adds, 'who form a correct estimate of the power
of the Russians to affect us in any way on the north-west fron-
tier of India, and who know the footing on which they stand
in relation to the Khivans, Bokharians, Kokandians, and
nomads, entertain only a feeling of pleasure at the prospect of
comparative well-being now opening before the degraded
fanatics of those regions, and they rejoice to see that a large
tract of the earth's surface is being cleared of the dark shadows
which tyranny and barbarism have so long c u t over it. With
these feelings, on the other hand, is mingled a not altogether
unfounded suspicion that the position of the Russians in Central
Asia is extremely precarious. Their position in Turkestan is
so isolated, their means of communication with the mother
country so difficult; their forces in the province so slender,
whilst the races are so numericnlly overwhelming, and more-
over so mistrustful, treacherous, and fanatical, that they might
any day be overtaken by some great calamity.'
Possibly, Mr Michell might now be willing to modify con-
victions so little justified by subsequent factme,but which mere
shared by no less distinguished a personage than the late Sir
Roderick JIurchison, who spoke in equally slighting terms of a
Russian invasion of India. 'When we consider,' he said in his
aunual address in 1868, 'that the Russian forces which have
now extended along the Syr Darya to Tashkend do not exceed
eight or ten thousand men in the remote provinces thcy have
brought into order, and that they are separated from their
p e a t centre of supply by many wild and sterile countries, I
trust we may hear no more of this phantom.'
314 CENTRAL ASIA.

I n 1868, as Mr Michell informa us, Russia possessed an

area of 143,000 aquare milee, along both banks of the Syr,
occupied by one million of inhabitants, in addition to a trian-
gular slice out of the territories of Bokhaw and Khokan, her
possessions south of the Syr extending from Khojend and Fort
Chinaz to Samarkand. The Russian picket-posts formed one
continuous chain from Jizak, eighty miles south of Chinaz, to
Uratupeh, 135 milee to the south-emt, skirting the base of the
Noura-tagh range to the north of Bokhara. From Uratupeh
the line tended in a north-easterly direction to Khojend, passing
Fort Nau. Bokhara was thus entirely severed from Khokan,
and the old caravan route from Khiva to China intercepted
and commanded.
Agnin, Khojend, with its forty-five to fifty thousand in-
habitants, wss connected by a aeries of military stations with
Tnshkend, fifty-four miles to the northward, all the country west
of the Urtak-tagh being claimed by Russia in her capacity of pro-
tectrix of the nomad tribe. From Tashkend the line of poets
ran due north, sixty-seven miles, to Chemkend, and thence
through a mountain paee between the Kara-tagh and Alexan-
drofsky ranges to Aulietta, whence it passed along the northern
foot of the latter mountains to Fort Vernoe, which is now con-
nected by a short chain of stations with Kulja. I n other words,
the Russian flag now waves over the whole of northern Asia
with the exception of Chinese Tatary.
 CHINESE TATART. 31 5

CHAPTER XIII.

CHINESE TATARY.

FLOOD8 OF YTIORATION IBOX THE NORTH-EA5T -ZUNOABIA, OB SEMI-

PALATINSK-FORT VEENOE- THE PROCE88 O F ANNEXATION - INTER-
NECINE RTEIFE BETWEEN THE BOGUS AXD SARA-BOOUB TRIBES-HABIT0
AND CUBTOMB O F THE KIROHIZ-ATTACK UPON A CARAVAN-IBYYK-KUL
-8EYIRECHIXSK-TEE ILK-ALMALIK-THE TBANB-NARYN DIBTBICT-
KHANAT O F KHOKAN----CHIEF TOWNL)--UBH-RUBBUN TOOEKESTAN -
OTUR

FROXChinese Tatary issued the migratory hordes that

overwhelmed and destroyed what little of Greco-Persian civil-
ization had taken root in the wide-spread regions atretching
westward to the high lands of Khorassan, and aonthward to the
Hindoo Koosh. From the contiguous steppea of BLongolia
moved the nomad tribea that., kach in ite turn, overwhelmed
the Chinese emigrante, and which, in the fulness of time, were
themselvea borne down by other floods of population pouring
forth from the same inhoepitable, but strangely populous regions.
I t ia, indeed, a problem worthy of a Coleneo, to reconcile with
credibility the ordinarily accepted atatementa of the countless
myriada that are alleged a t different periods to have awept over
Central and Western Aaia. That their numbera were greatly
exaggerated by the abject terror of the conquered peoples, may
be fuirly sseumed, and it must not be forgotten that whole
aations, including women and children, flocks and herds, rather
than mere armiea, were in motion-preesing onward like a
awarm of locusta, eating down every green thing in their way,
and, wherever they passed, creating a wildern-.
316 CENTRAL ASIA*

I t is related by Sir Alexander Burnes how, in the latter

part of the eighteenth century, a Kalmuk colony that had
migrated to the shores of the Black Sea, being dissatisfied with
their new settlement, set out in a stupendous column, three
days' march in breadth, for their original hbme in the far
distant province of Kashgar. They numbered one hundred
thousand families, including the aged and infirm, children of
tender years, and babes in their mothers' arms, and were accom-
panied by their flocks and herda, and whatever could walk or
be carried,-an exceeding great multitude. Though haraseed
by the Mussulmans throughout their long and tedious march,
1500 captives being made in Bokhara and sold as slaves, the
vast host pushed ever onwards until they reached their haven
of rest and security. This story is certainly hard to believe.
Taking a day's march at fifteen miles, we have a column forty-
five miles in breadth passing like the breath of the simoom
over-the immense tract of county that liea between the Baltic
and Eastern Toorkestan, traversing aeveral mountain-mngee,
crossing streams of considerable magnitude, and finally arriving
at their destination with no greater diminution of their original
numbers than ia made by the dashing onslaught of kites and
crows upon a cloud of locusts ' warping on the eastern wind.'
This startling episode, however, is an exact type of the
more extensive and aggressive migrations of the Haiatilla,
Toork, Moghul, Tatar, and Oozbeg hordes that have successively
been propelled from the ' frozen loins ' of the ' populous North,'
and the question again and again recurs, How came these bar-
barians to multiply so fast in those dreary wilds ? whence did
they procure arms and even a m o u r ? how did they maintain
thetnselves and their little ones and their four-footed accom-
paniments, while crossing the rugged mountains and barren
deserts that intervene between Bokharia and Mongolia ?
I t is, of course, no new thing that a comparatively civilized
 CHIXESE TATARY. 317
and disciplined soldier should be panic-stricken by the shrill,
piercing yells, the repulsive ugliness, even by the rude, ill-
shaped weapons, of untrained barbarians, ignorant of danger,
reckless of human life, and stimulated to frenzy by the presence
of their wives, their parents, and their children. And there is,
besides, good reason to believe that the ruling tribe, or ' govern-
ing classes,' in the settled dietricta were ill supported by the
mass of the population whom they held in subjection. The
mere conquest, therefore, of these fertile and flourishing coun-
tries by the northern savages has in it nothing very extra-
ordinary, nor is there any cause to marvel at the celerity with
which the latter degenerated from their original fierceness,
and became an easy prey to the next horde that went forth
from the ancestral steppe in search of a fat and pleasant land.
The real subject of wonder is the fact, if it be a fact, that
the scanty pastures of Mongolia should have been so much more
prolific of human life in the olden than in the present times.
The seemingly immeasurable extent of those grazing lands was
well described by nefoe, when he makes his immortal hero,
Robinson Crusoe, remark: ' W e were now launched into the
greatest piece of solid earth, if I understand anything of t,he
surface of the globe, that is to be found in any part of the
world ; we had at least 1200 miles to the sea eastward ; 2000
to the bottom of the Bnltic Sea, westward ; and above 3000 if
we left that sea and went on west to the British and French
Channels ; we had full 5000 miles to the Indian and Persian
6ea, south ; and about 800 to the Frozen Sea, north. Nay, if some
people may be believed, there might be no sea north-east till we
came round the pole, and consequently into the north-west, and
so had a continent of land into America, the Lord knows where.'
Truly, a mighty tract of dry land, but, one would say,
capable of supporting only a thin and scattered population,
living on the produce of their flocks and herds. A purely
318 CENTRAL ASIA.

pastoral people naturally requiree a far larger area than

one that l o o h chiefly to agriculture for its sustenance, and
eociety is divided, after the patriarchal fashion, into families,
and groups of families, rather than into the confused but
coherent aggregations of individuele that conetitute towns and
cities. These families, no doubt, quarrelled and disputed with
one another, and fought together and harried each others' flocks
and herds, as in the days when Abram the Hebrew dwelt in
the plain of Mamre, and when the five kin@, or khans, went
forth to join battle with the four.
Indeed, the sole occupation of the men as artificers appeare
to have been to extract iron from the ore, and forge weapons of
war, and occasionally defensive amour. I n Mongolia the main
difficulty to be overcome must have been the scarcity of fuel,
but it is clear that they did contrive to fabricate their own
arms, and that amourera and blackamitha were held in fair
esteem. M. Fambery states on the authority of Juvaini, that
the original name of Chinghiz Khan was Temourjee, or Black-
smith, and not Temoucheen, as it is commonly written, and i t is
undisputed that he belonged to the Moghul aristocracy. But,
after making due allowance for the exaggerated estimates of
numbers to be expected from the conquered, and for the natural
pronenoas of mankind to the marvellous, it can hardly be ques-
tioned that the province of Semipalatinsk and the adjacent disc
tricts were far more densely peopled in the days of yore than in
our own time.
The ancient kingdom of Zungaria, extinguished by the
Chinese about the middle of the 18th century, now constitutes
the Russian district of Semipalatinak, and, according to M.
Semenof, incloses the centre of the Asiatic continent, the
gigantic mountain group of the Tengri Tagh. This region,
observes that eminent geographer, ' has served from time im-
memorial ae the point of departure for migrating races from
 CHINESE TATARY. 3 19

the high lands of Asia, the cradle from whence they sprang, to
the low and arid steppes of the Bralo-Caspian depression, and
the still more distant and better favoured regions of the west.
I t was here, namely in Dzungaria, and on the fertile and smiling
banka of the Ili and Irtysh, that the migrating hordea lingered
for some time, loth, as it were, to venture out into the unknown
plain before them, stretching far away in the sandy ocean that
aeparates Europe from Asia, until a new tide of popular migra-
tion forced them at last to strike their tents and depart west-
wards from their mountainous halting grounds.'
Early in the preeent century the Russian traveller Madatof,
starting from Semipalatinsk, struck away due south, skirting
the Balkash Lake and Issyk-Kul, nnd crossing the Tian Shan,
or Celestial Mountains, traversed the country now called Eastern
Toorkestan, and finally reached India. The snow-clad Zun-
garian Ala-tagh may be said to have been unknown to scicnge
until within the last fifty years, but has since been explored by
the astronomer Federof and other scientific travellers.
The district was occupied for the most part by two powcrful
clans, the Buruts or Kirghiz proper, nnd the Kirghiz Kuzzaks
of the Great Horde. I n 1844 the latter tribe submitted to
Iluasia, which then formally annexed and created the Semi-
palatinsk didrict. I n order to protect these new tributaries
against their independent and troublesome neighbours, Go-
vernor-General Prince Gortchakof founded the military settle-
ment of Kopal on a fertile plateau, at the base of a snow-capt
apur of the Ala-tagh range.
Rusaian factories were shortly afterwards established at
Kulja and Chuguchak, though both of those towns were actually
situated within the Chinese frontier, and prepared the way for
future annexation. Kopal soon became a place of some com-
mercial importance, but failed to bridle the Buruts, as the
Chinese call the tribe known to the Russians as the Dikokam-
320 CENTRAL ASIA.

enni Kirghiz. General Hasford, therefore, resolved to occupy

the whole of the Trans-Ilian district, in order to secure the
flank of the Kirghiz steppe, and in 1854 thia work waa com-
pleted by General Peremyshelsky, who paseed that winter with
his detachment in the sheltered valley of the Talgar. I n the
following year General Hasford erected Fort Verniie at the
base of the Trans-Ilian Ala-tagh, at the head of the Almatynka
valley, which is described as ' p i c t m q u e l y wooded with apple
and apricot trees.'
' The occupation of the fertile Trans-Ili region,' & I.
Seme-
nof remarks, as interpreted by Mr Michell, ' well adapted for
agricultural and gardening purposes, and in all respects beau-
tifully endowed by nature, had the effect of protecting the
Great Horde from the attacks of the Buruts, but placed its
nearest tribes in tho same position as that occupied ten years
previously by the Great Kirghiz Horde.' For instance, the
Bogus tribe inhabiting the picturesque valleys and table-land
between the Thian Shan and the Trans-Ilian Ala-tagh, were
subject to frequent inroads from their fierce neighbours, the
Sara Bogus, and applied in vain for help to the Chinese govern-
ment, on whom they were nominally dependent. I n despair ,

they at length had recourse to General Hasford, who despatch-

ed a detachment from Fort Vernoe to Issyk-Kul, with orders to
survey the country and enforce tranquillity.
Tho Russian troops on this occasion were recalled before
they had penetrated to any great distance into the interior of
the mountains, but tho case precisely illustrates the position of
R u s ~ i ain Central Asia as described and deplored by Prince
Gortchakof in his circular of 1864. ' I t always happens,' his
Excellency observes, ' that when civilized states are brought
into contact with half-savage, nomad populations, possessing no
fixed socitll organization, they are forced by the necessity of
guarding their frontier and their commercial relations, to
 CHINESE TATARY. 331

exercise a certain ascendancy over those whom their turbulent

and unsettled character make moat undesirable neighbours.
First, there are raids and acts of pillage to be put down. To
put a stop to them tho tribes on the frontier have to be reduced
to a state of more or less perfect submission.
'This result once attained, these tribes take to more peaceful
habits, but are in their turn exposed to the attacks of the more
distant tribes.
' The State is bound to defend them against these depreda-
tions, and to punish those who commit them. Hence the
necessity of distant, costly, and periodically recurring expedi-
tions agnin~tan enemy whom his social organization makes i t
impossible to seize. If, the robbers once punished, the expe-
dition is withdrawn, the lesson is soon forgotten ; its withdrawal
is put down to weakness. I t is a peculiarity of Asiatics to
respect nothing but visible and pnlpable force ; the moral force
of reason and of the interests of civilization has as yet no hold
upon them. The work has then always to be done over again
from the beginning.
' I n order to put a stop to this state of permanent disorder,
fortified posts are established in the midst of these hostile tribes,
and an influence is brought to bear upon them which reduces
them by degrees to a state of more or less forced submission.
But soon beyond this second line other still more distant tribes
come in their turn to threaten the same dangers and necessitate
the same measures of repression. The State thus finds itself
forced to choose one of two alternatives, either to give up this
endless labour and to abandon ite frontier to perpetual disturb-
ance, rendering all prosperity, all security, all civilization an
impoesibility, or, on the other hand, to plunge deeper and
deeper into barbarous countries, where the difficulties and
expenses increase with every step in advance.'
M.Semenof explains in the clearest manner how the pmeas
21
 CENTRAL ASIA.

of annexation goes on among the restless, turbulent tribea

dwelling on the northern steppes. The Bogus and Sara-Bogus
clans located on the ehoree of Issyk-Kul became, he says, subject
to Russia, entirely through their mutual disputes and jealousies.
'The first cams klli between two tribes is generally a quarrel
between individuals. These quarrels frequently arise from such
cause as the buying, selling, or paying for goods, or sometimes
from difficulties about the land-marks dividing the territory of
two neighbouring nomad tribes. Quarrels respecting property
among the Kara-Kirghizee are settled by their own magistrate
(beg). These functionaries are generally men who have been
invested by the Kirghizcs, of their own free will, with a certain
authority, and are publicly recognized as Ministers of Justice.
The litigants have recourse to either one or the other of these
functionaries, who investigate the case, and fine the offending
party for the benefit of the injured : the fine is paid in sheep,
which are the currency of the country, and answer to our
roubles. The decision of the Justice is generally strictly ad-
hered to, but appeal is allowed from such decision to the Manap
(Deadman). The Manap has only an intermediate power of
jurisdiction, and refers the matter for reconsideration to the
nearest justices, whose decision is final.
' If the litigants belong to different tribes, they prefer their
complaints to two different Manaps, and the case can then only
be finally decided by the Manaps and Justices of the two tribes
in Session. I n such cases jealousies between rival tribes very
often prevent their respective Justices from arriving at a col-
lective decision. The offended party in such case cnrries out by
force the first decision of the Justice by seizing, with the assist-
ance of his friends, the number of cattle fixed upon as the
penalty due by the other. The number seized, however, is
eeldom limited to the amount of the fine, and the consequent
sufferers retaliate in a similar way, that is, by a baranta, or raid.
 CHINESE TATARY. 323

' The quarrel is considerably aggravated by the fact that

the cattle seized on these occasions is rarely the property of the
offender, but generally the first that comes, and that these
forays are generally attended by some fighting and loss of life.
Men's lives are valued at a certain number of sheep (upwards
of a hundred heads) ; every tribe keeps an account of its losses,
and continues to baranta until it has fully retaliated by inflicting
proportionate loss on the enemy ; but, as it is difficult to equalize
exactly the lossea on either side, a baranta very often grows into
a regular war.'
The Sara-Bogus Kirghiz, and their intimate allies the
Saltees, hold the lesser western portion of the Issyk-Kul basin,
and all the valleys of the tributaries of the Upper Chu, and
number over 80,000 of both sexes. The Bogus clan, on the
other hand, occupy the greater eastern portion of that basin,
together with the valleys of the Upper Tekhs and the Naryn,
and at present do not exceed 60,000, though at one time they
were more numerous. Their Headmen were closely connected,
-the Manap of the former, named Urman, having given his
beautiful and high-spirited daughter in marriage to the son of
Burambai, Manap of the latter tribe. Nevertheless, the two
tribes went to war in 1853, and in almost every engagement the
Sara-Bogus came off victorious, and at last drove tho Bogus
from the best pasture grounds, and appropriated the entire
south side of the lake.
Encouraged by these successes, Urman resolved to ~urprise
Burambai's aortl, where the women and children, the aged and
infirm, were left while the warriors went forth to battle. The
surprise was effected by a chosen band of 600 men, but these
were unexpectedly surrounded by the whole Bogus clan, and a
terrible hand to hand fight ensued in the darkness of the night.
After 'performing many deeds of heroic valour, Urman fell
mortally wounded by Burnmbai's nephew and adopted son,
 324 CENTRAL ASIA.

Klitcha, and died in the anxu of his daughter, in the yourta of

his son-in-law.
The Bogus now assumed the aggressive, and pushed on to
the Tierskd, on the opposite bank of which were massed
the Sara-Bogus, under the command of Urman's eon, Umbet
Ma. A period of inaction ensued, as neither party ventured
to cross the stream in presence of the other, but at the expira-
tion of a week Umbet Ah, leaving his brother and a small
force at the bivouac fires, made a rapid march round the north
side of the lake, and, suddenly falling upon Burambai's aotil,
carried off all his flocks and herds, his women and children.
The Bogus warriors hurried back as soon as intelligence reached
them that their homes were left desolate, but arrived too late
to rescue either their families or their property. The fiery
Klitcha, indeed, overtook a rearguard of some fifty horsemen,
all of whom bit the dust after a gallant resistance.
After such tragic incidents a pitched battle could no longer
be delayed, but the fortune of war was again hostile to the Bogus,
who were totally defeated and forced to flee up the valleys of
the TCkks and the Karkar. I n his sore distress, Burambai,
himself a Chinese Mandarin, applied to the Government of
Pekim for protection, but all in vain, and he was constrained
to transfer his allegiance to the m i t e Tzar. I n the mean time,
Urman's daughter, with a companion as courageous as herself,
effected her escape from her brother's camp, and after wandering
for seventeen days over pathless crags, almost without food, the
two women joined their husbands on the Tkkks, worn-out and
famished.
The aid of Russia turned the scale, and the Sam-Bogus,
powerless to inflict further injury upon their unfortunate neigh-
bours, followed their example, and in 1858 sent in their sub-
mission to the Russian General. Previous to 1850, they had
been nominally subject to China, but in that year they annexed
 CHINESE TATARY. 32 5

themselves to Khoknn. On accepting the supremacy of Russia,

they complained of the excessive taxation that had been imposed
upon them by that little State, struggling for ita own existence.
Captain Valikhanof, a Russian officer of Kirghiz extraction
-for a knowledge of whose interesting account of Zungaria,
the English public is indebted to Messrs Robert and John Michell
-represents the Kirghiz, as clinging to dirt, and refusing to
wash even their domestic utensils lest they should frighten
away plenty. They never change their linen, but go on wearing
the same garment till it falls to pieces and d r o p off their per-
son. Covered with vermin, they help one another in hunting
down the abominable parasites. Among their superstitions is a
reverence for fire, upon which they never spit, and a repugnance
to stepping over the tether of a mare while she is being milked.
Their mourning consists in total abstinence from the use of
water externally, and from change of raiment for twelve months,
a simple and unexpendve mode of expressing grief. Chastity
ia not held in high esteem.
Professedly, the Buruts are Mohammedans, but they have
no knowledge whatever of the history of Mohammed. They are
unacquainted with letters, and their Tatar mollahs are unable
to enlighten them. The harem and a savage fanaticism con-
stitute their acquaintance with Islam. They drink freely of a
spirit distilled from Kummeez, and are fond of listening to t a l a
of marvel. They call themselves ' Krgyz,' and have a tradition
that they are descended from the forty (Kyrk) maidens (Kyz)
of a Queen, by a red greyhound (Kezin-tnizan). As a fact,
they came originally from Siberia, whence they were gradually
extruded by the Russians in the latter part of the seventeenth
century.
One of their favourite legends relatee to a cruel ogre named
Mp, who waa overcome by the Kirghiz giant Batour in much
the eome way that Polyphemurr suffered at the hands of Ulyssso.
326 CENTRAL ASIA.

The Dikohmenni, or Buruts, poeserra an epic poem called ' The

Manas,' the centre figure of which is the giant Ifanas. I t ia
full of episodes, that are brought down to the present times in
a continuation called ' the Samyatei.'
The chief public games among the Kirghiz are named
B a i p , ' and consist of races and wrestling matchea, the prizea
being cattle and slaves. They are also given to the milder
pastime of endeavouring to pick up a m a l l coin out of a vessel
of milk with their lips, while their hands are tied behind them ;
the fun lies in the player overbalancing himself and tumbling
prone upon the floor.
To.the same clnsa of amusement belongs the waring of a
kerchief by a damsel to some particular swain, who straightway
dropping on one knee sits on one heel, and in that uncomfort-
able attitude chants an amorous lay, in tones said to resemble
a donkey's bray. Should his performance please the maiden,
the two stand up together in the middle of the tent, back to
back, and crane their necks round till their lips meet. Should
the singer, however, fail to give atisfaction, he gets a sound
drubbing to encourage him to greater exertions the next time.
The Kirghiz are fond of improvisation, and tolerably proficient
in that showy accomplishment.
Unhappily the Kirghiz are not content with such harmless
employment of the hours not given to tending their flocks and
herds. M. Semenof presents us with a graphic picture of an
attack upon a small caravan that came under his own eyes. As
President of the Physical Section of the Imperial Russian
Geographical Society, he conducted, in the year 1856, an ex-
ploring expedition from Fort Vernoe to the western shore of
Issyk-Kul. The object of the expedition was two-fold : to
eurvey the valley of the Chu, and to ascertain the moral effect
produced upon the Sara-Bogus by the appearance of a Russian
detachment in that valley. This was two years previous to the
 CHINESE TATARY. 327
submission of that turbulent tribe. The party had proceeded
about eighteen miles along the foot of the Ah-tagh, or Dappled
Mountaine-ao called from their dark surface being relieved
with frequent patches of snow-and had just reached the banks
of the river Keskelen, when they came upon a strange and
stirring scene.
' I rode,' says M. Semenof, ' with two Cossacks, half a vemt
(between fire and six hundred yards) a-head of the detachment,
the men of which were singing some melancholy air. Suddenly
we heard fearful cries a-head of us. Galloping to an eminence
in our front, we beheld an unexpected sight. A number of
Kirghiz horsemen hurriedly detaching themselves from a group
of people, whose cries had attracted our attention, with extra-
ordinary swiftness galloped away from us. The group of
people and pack-animals left by the plunderers were on the slope
of another hill in front of us, in picturesque confusion. Some
of the camels were lying on the ground, others stood unladen ;
some of the horses were tethered, others ran at liberty, and
their loads, which had been ransacked, lay scattered on the
ground. Of the ten Sarts (Tashkend traders) who composed
the caravan, two lay on the ground bound, one old man waa
on his knees, and several, half-stripped of their clothes, ran to
meet us with cries. My interpreters mere behind with the
detachment, and though we could not understand a word of the
rapid utterances of the Sarts, their expressive gestures suffi-
ciently explained the nature of the occurrence.
' A plundering band of Kara-Kirghizes had been in the act
of pillaging the caravan, binding the SartR, undoing their loads,
stripping and searching some of them, relieving them of the
valuables they were carrying in their girdles, on their brenats,
and in their boob, when a sudden interruption was put to their
proceedings by the sound of the distant Russian chorus which
had reached them. For some minutea they had listened to the
328 CENTRAL ASIA.

gradually approaching sounds, and then, seeing the leading files

of our detachment, they jumped on their horses and galloped
off, leaving the caravan, saved by our arrival, in the state of
picturesque confusion in which we found it. The baranta men
were thirty in number.
' The whole of our party soon came up. W e were now close to
one of the branches of the river Keskelen, where we had intended
to halt, after a march of twenty-six to thirty versta. Here we
had agreed to wait for fresh homes to be collected for us by the
Rueeian magistrate of the Kirghiz districts. As we had plenty
of time to spare, I called for volunteers to follow the hratrta
men. Fiftaen came forward, the remainder of the detachment
bivouacked on the bank of the river. I joined the volunteers
and we gave chaae to the marauders, though we were conscious
of the great difficulty of overtaking them, from the fact of our
Cossack horses being no match for those of the Kirghizes in
speed. However, we did not lose sight of the retreating Kir-
ghizes, or rather of some of them, for the unequal strength of
their horses scattered them over some extent of ground ; the
strength of our own horses soon began to fail, and one after
another our volunteers dropped behind and finally stopped.
' The pursuit terminated after sunset, seven of the hindmost
Kara-Kirghizea, after lightening their distressed horses by
throwing away their arms and even their outer clothing, were
going at a foot pace, followed at considerable intervals by three
of the pursuing Cossacks also at foot's pace. The Kara-Kir-
ghizes were looking round and apparently contemplating turn-
ing back, and falling on the Coesacks one by one. Notwith-
stonding the superiority of their arms, the Cossacks might have
shared the fate of the Curiatii, and therefore determined to
return, after collecting everything that had been thrown away
by the Kara-Kirghizes in their flight. I t was late a t night
when we all regained our encampment.' Seeing that the
 CHINESE TATART. 319

robbers had flung away their arms and even their outer gar-
ments, it could have been no very hazardous exploit for three
well-armed Cossacks to have tested the accuracy of their aim,
but discretion is sometimes the better part of valour.
The large expanse of water known as Issyk-Kul lies in a broad
basin between the Tian Shan mountains 011 the south, and the
Trans-Ili Ala-tagh on the north. This vale is 167 miles in length,
and fifty in breadth, and ie hemmed in by gigantic hills. The
lake itself measures 120 miles from W.S.W. to E.N.E., and is
about thirty-three miles broad. Between the water and the foot
of the highlands the ground is either flat or gently undulating.
The elevation of the lake is 4540 feet above the sea level. The
Trans-Ilian Ale-tagh on the north side of Issyk-Kul rises to the
height of 5500 to 6500 feet above the bed of the lake, and in
some parts ie not less than 14,000 feet above the sea. The
peaks are covered with perpetual snow, but on the southern
slope the snow lies in ecattered patches. This range rises
abruptly like a wall, intersected by a few valleys through which
mountain torrents rush down to the lake. On the south side of
Issyk-Kul the Tian Shan slopes rapidly upwards to the height
of ten or eleven thousand feet above ita banks, and with spurs
running down into the broad basin.
These magnificent mountains are surmounted ' with an end-
less row of gigantic peaks in an unbroken covering of snow.'
The line of perpetual snow beginning about two-thirde up from
the base. The Kungd tract on the north of the lake irr described
ae rocky, unfruitful, and covered with pebbles, with scarce a
tree to be met with, except here and there by the side of a
torrent. 'Occaaionally the white felt yourtw ((tenb) of the
Kirghiz herdsmen are seen to peep out of theae groves, and the
two-humped camel stretches out its long neck, and still more
rarely a numerous herd of wild boars rushee out of the forests
of thick reeds which surround the copses, or the terrible in-
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There t r-
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carp, hut t t e Kirg?iiz take no paiw to catch tFhm Its t r i i -
tart- are forty in namber, many of rhich u e fnroen up in the
r i r ~ t e rwaq,n, but daring the rest of the are full, rapid,

Little land fit for amble porposq though

many TJ~'! are mitable for horticulture. It is stated that an
important Chinese town once st& on the shore3 of the lake
Amording to L d William Hafs estimate, from Sijni-Sougorod
to 13.-k-Kul the di5tance is equal to a c a r a m journer of from
fifty-two to sixty dacs, by ~ a _of
r Elrsterineberg, Onnak, Semipa-
latinsk, and KopaL Between Isqk-Knl and Kashgar 250 miles,
or fiftcen days, intervene. From the last-named t o m to Leh, by
Yarkund, is an A i r of thirty-six days, m that a caravan travel-
ling by t h h route would occupy three months and a half in transit
from the great Rusian mart to the territories of the MaharajPb
of Kanhmeer, an important rather than powerful vassal of the
Indian ffovernment.
The Semirechinek region-+ called from the seven stream
by which it ia watered-in the vicinity of Lake Balkash merges
into o sandy steppe, which appeara at one time to have been the
bed of an inland ses, that has since dried up, with the exception
of that lake and of the two Ala-Kule. 'With currents be-
 CHINESE TATARY. 331

coming more and more sluggish, these seven rivers are bordered
by high reeds, tenanted by boars, tigers, and other animals.'
Only two of these streams now reach the Balkash-the others
being lost in the sands. What vegetation there is, belongs to a
d i n e flora.
The Ili, a very considerable river, separates Semirechinsk
from the district to the southward. I t flows from east to west
through a vale a hundred miles in width, and elevated a thou-
and feet above the sea. The banks are low and depressed, and
over two thousand yards apart ; the current running with great
rapidity. For the last 165miles the Ili passes through a sterile,
sandy steppe, and before discharging its waters into the Balkash
creates a reedy delta-the canes forming an impenetrable
thicket upwards of seventeen feet in height.
On, or near to, the banks of this river stood the old capital
of the Chagatai Empire. Under the Toorks, previous to the
rise of the Moghul ascendancy in Central Asia, Almalik-a
name signifying ' a grove of apple-trees '-had been a place of
much note, but its importance increased under the immediate
descendants of Chinghiz.
After the fall of the Zungnrian kingdom Chinese settlements
were thickly planted throughout the valley, each embosomed
in lofty trees, proving, as M. Semenof observes, that ' the arti-
ficial cultivation of timber is possible even in so dry a climate
as that of Central Asia.' Vines and pomegranates, if sheltered
in winter, bear fruit in this district, while apricots, plums, pear,
and apple trees flourish luxuriantly. Rice and maize are suc-
cessfully cultivated, and melons are abundant and good.
Fort Verniie stands about forty-seven miles to the south of the
ford over the Ili, at the base of the Tram-Ilian Ala-tagh, and
a t an elevation of about 2000 feet. These mountains run nearly
parallel with the Ili, and are almost impassable. The fort is
'situated at the point where the turbulent and impetuous Alma-
333 CESTRAL ASIA.

tynka emerges from its mountain bed : the valley of this river
ia clad with natural orchards, of apple and apricot trees bearing
excellent fruit. The settlement, which haa been formed b y
Cossacks and immigrant peasants, already (1857) consists of
4000 inhabitants, admirably located. The timber for building
purposes is supplied by the mountain slopes and transverse
valleys, which, at elevations of 4000 to 7500 feet, are overgrown
with the Siberian fir. The two Akeai and the two A l m a t p k a
streams issuing from the mountain valley near Verniie afford a n
abundant supply of water for irrigation, and hnve already raised
agriculture to a very flourishing condition.'
I n 1867 Bnron Osten Sacken was invited to accompany
Colonel Poltoratsky on a reconnoitring expedition from Fort
Verniie into the Trans-Naryn country, which was transferred to
Russia by the Treaty of Pekin in 1860, when the Chinese
frontier was drawn eastward of Iseyk-Kul along the southern
spurs of the Tian Shan to Khokan. This district comprises the
whole mountainous district south of Isayk-Kul to the borders of
Eastern Toorkestan, and includes the two Alpine lakes, the Su-
Kul and Chntir-Kul, as also the head waters of the Syr Dnryn.
At a place called Ueunagatch, half way between Vernoe and
the Kastek Pass,a severe engagement took place on the 21st
October, 1860, between the Russians and the Khokan levies.
The latter are said to have been 40,000 strong, while the former
did not exceed one thousand, and to make up even this small
force the fort had to be denuded of its garrison and entrusted to
civilians and women. I n the end General Kolpakofsky came
off victorious, and the whole Trans-Ili country was added to the
territories of the Whits Tzar.
Through the Kastek Pass runs the post road from Verniie to
the Syr Darya district. 'Here, too,' writee the Baron, as inter-
preted by Mr Delmar Morgan, ' a line of telegraph wires to
connect Russin with Turkistan is meditated. As we went
 CHINESE TATABY. 333

through the Pass we saw works in progress for making the road
practicable for wheel conveyances, an operation attended by
great difficulties owing to the large quantity of boulders which
obstruct the way, and the frequent windings of the little river
Kastek, whose waters first strike one side, then the other, of the
narrow defile. The work was being done by soldiers, and five
wooden bridges are ready. The newly-planed hand-railn
glistened in the sun, and our Kirghiz horses, startled at so un-
usual a sight, could hardly be forced across the bridges.'
The time was when this terror of the sapient animals would
have been ascribed to their recognition of the fact that the old
order of t,hings was pawing away, and that the lordship of the
mountains and the steppes was transferred from the pillagers of
caravans to the despoilers of kingdoms. The Indian Govern-
ment may well be shamed by the example of Rmsia in those
remote regions, to greater activity in pushing forward public
works that answer the two-fold purpose of promoting trade,
commerce, and industry, and of augmenting the aggressive and
defensive powers of the State.
Baron Osten Sacken's route lay across the long snowy chain
of the Alexandrofsky mountains, a branch of the Tian Shan
range. On entering the Chu valley the expedition was met by
the Chief Nanap of the Sara Bogus tribe. ' A gold medal,
with the ribbon of St George, and a deep scar on his forehead,
were sufficient proofs of Djantai's services to the Russian Go-
vernment.' TVhmt and millet are grown in this valley, while
white hollyhocks and the blue chicory flower are everywhere
conspicuous. The Alexandrofsky mountains are covered with
white pine forests, interspersed with the mountain ash, and re-
lieved by berberry, honeysuckle, dogberry, nnd wild rose. The
Shamsi Pass is described as being exceedingly picturesque, and
ita Alpine flora remarkably rich and varied. The ascent from
the north side was steep and over rough shingle, while the de-
scent to the south wae unpleasently abrupt.
331 CENTRAL ASIA.

A mall caravan was here met with that had travelled from
Andijan to Tashkend, Aulietta, Tokmak, and acroes the Shamsi
Pass to the valley of the Naryn, and was then on its way to
T'erniie with cotton cloth. ' One cannot help feeling astonieh-
ment,' exclaims the Baron, ' at the boldness and enterprise of
these traders, who venture in small numbers into parts of the
country where their lives are entirely at the mercy of the
cunning Kirghizes.'
The Woekar valley appeared dreary and monotonom,
whence a difficult road through defiles and over steep cliffs led
ever upward till the last lofty axis was reached, and the Su-Kul
basin opened out below. This lake is seventeen milea in length
by twelve in breadth. The water is drinkable, but not equal to
that of the streams which flow into it, and the fish are of no
great size. The banks are covered with short thick grass,but
the elevation is too great for timber. The clean white yourtas
of the Kirghiz added much to the beauty of the scene.
The road thence again wended, passing through the Molda-
Aau defile and a dark green belt of pine forest, with a very
steep descent into the Naryn valley, progress being much irn-
peded by boulders and coarse shingle. This valley is about
twelve miles broad, the banks of the river being fringed with
poplars and willows. On a high precipitous cliff overlooking
the vale was a Khokan fort, consisting of 'a number of small
buildings, crooked lanes, and hedgea,' but the garrison bolted
as soon aa the reconnoitring party came in sight. The Naryn
was crossed at a ford 200 yards wide, where the river divides
into several channels.
Forcing their way through a thicket of tall canes the expe-
dition Boon reached the Terek, fringed with poplars, the last
trees that were seen until within two days' march of Kaahgar.
A sloping path of hard clay led to a plateau also of hard clay,
without vegetation or water. Two days were occupied in
 CHINESE TATARY. 335

traversing the Jaman-daban PW, a wild dreary defile, with a

flora similar to that of the southern Himalaya. The elevation
of the pass above the sea was estimated a t 12,900 feet. I t looks
down upon the Arpa valley, which is divided by a low water-
shed from the Atbasha valley at the foot of the Tashrobat Pass,
much used by caravans, and named from a stone (taeh) caravan-
serai (robat) built against the mountain-side, and ascribed to
Abdoollah Khan of Bokhara. The caravanserai covers a space
about forty-nine paces square, and the Kirghiz pretend that the
number of the cells cannot be correctly counted.
This pass also is said to be 12,900 feet above the sea level,
but may be c r o w d in six or seven hours, a short descent lead-
ing to the Chatir-Kul plateau. The measurement of this lake
is given at fourteen miles for the length and six for the breadth,
the surrounding vegetation being of a saline character. The
water is brackish, but not deep, though it has no outlet. Chatir-
Kul marks the boundary between Russia and Eastern Toorkeshn,
and is about five miles distant from a range of snowy mountains
to the south.
The expedition pushed on thence by three forced marches
through mountains of decreasing altitude, and satiefied them-
selves that the descent from that point into Kashgar w k easy
and practicable. They stopped at last at the Kirghiz fort of
Tessik-Tash, eight miles from Artush, and only twenty from
the city of Knshgar, passing through fields of wheat, bordered
by willows and poplars, with the rural population pursuing
their peaceful labours. The hill county above the plain is in-
fested by wolves and bears. Hares are plentiful, and likewise
the Argali deer with immense twisted horns. This ie a very
timid animal, and is chased by birds of prey that terrify it to
such a .degree that in its headlong flight i t often falls down
precipices and is killed, or becomes entangled by its horns in
narrow defiles whence it ie unable to extricate itself.
 The ancient kingdom of Ferghana, the Feihan of Hiouen
Tsnng, is poorly represented by the Khanat of Wokan as a t
present constituted. Within the last fifty years, however, i t
extended 950 milea from east to weat, while ita greatest breadth
from north to south was not less than 360 miles. This mount-
ainous region was the patrimony of the illustrious Baber, but
in all the great crises of the history of Central h i a it has
shared the fate of Bokhara. I n the intervals it has usually en-
joyed a rude independence, being divided into numerous petty
dintricts, each under ita own ruler. Indeed, at the very time
when the only chance of retaining a separate existence depended
upon the clo.se and faithful concert of all ita inhabitants, the
country was divided into two great factions, each more bent
upon humbling its rival than upon offering a vigorous resistance
to the encroachments of the Russiane.
Eaokan is a mountair~ousand picturesque region, with pro-
ductive valleys and excellent pastures. I t is watered by
several con~iderablestreams, of which the most important are
the h'aryn and the Gulishan, whose union forms the Syr Darya.
The Z~rafahanalso derives ita waters from the highlands of
Khokan, uniting in one channel those of the Mocha Darya, the
Maghian Darya, and the Fan-Su.
The valley of the Fan is described as particularly beautiful.
One of its chief features i~ a burning mountain, a phenomenon
due to the ignition of carboniferous strata at no great distance
from the surface. Many useful minerals, such as alum, sal-
ammonia, kc., are found here. I t contains also two lakes, the
larger of which, named Iskander Kul, or Kulikolan, is eight
miles in length by seven in breadth. I n winter time the sur-
face is frozen over, as might be expected from it9 elevation of
7000 feet above the sea, and it is surrounded on all sides by
lofty mountains. According to ppular belief it is inhabited
by Adam-oba, or water people--posaibly, at some former period
 CRINESE TATARY. 337

seals may have been found here, as they are still found in the
Caspian, though not in the Aral.
The silk of Khokan is equal to any produced in Bokhara,
but the chief wealth of the people lies in their flocks and herds
and troops of hardy hill ponies. The population of the Khanat
was estimated by Dr WOW at three millions, and that of the
capital city at 300,000-a fantastic and ridiculous conjecture.
So far aa regards the town of Khokan it would be nearer the
truth to compute the inhabitants at one-tenth of that number,
or about 30,000. I t is situated six or seven miles from the Syr,
and is on the direct caravan route between Bokhara, Tashkend,
and Kashgar.
The ancient capital was Andijan, now a place of no import-
ance. Nnmanghan has also fallen from its former condition of
prosperity. Towards tlle southcm frontier the little town of
Ush is still frequented by pilgrims wending their way to the
Takht-i-Suleiman, or Solomon's Throne, an isolated: rock on
whose ~ummitthe Wise King cut the throat of a camel, at the
great Mohammedan fe.rtiva1 of the Eed-the surface being still
redden4 by tlle blood of the slaughtered animal. Whoso lies
long enough on this favoured spot will bo cured of rheumatism.
I n the seventh century Ou-cha was described by IIiouen
Tsang as inhabited by a coarse, savage people, addicted to
fraud and theft, ugly and with mean featurce, itnd dressed in
skins and woollen stuffs. Their rcdccming point was their
belief in nuddho, to whose service nearly a thousand monks,
occupying ten convents, devoted their lives. The district was
pleasant to the eyes, being abundantly wooded, rich in fruits,
enjoying R temperate climate, and containing jade of three
varieties, white, black, and green.
The most valuable portion of Khokan, however, now belongs
to Russia. The Sou-tou-li-se-na of the Chinese pilgrim, since
successively named Satroushna, Osroubhna, and Umtupeh, ie
22
 338 CENTRAL ASIA.

now becoming a place of some importance. Tashkend, or Stone

Town, fifty years ago was a badly built town of some 300Q
houma, with ten medreaaehs; but in 1865 was captured by
General Tchernaief, and has Bince become the capital of Rus-
sian Toorkestan, with a population estimated at 70,000. Kho-
jend, a fortress surrounded by gardens, situated on the SJT and
on the road from Uratupeh to Khokan, was the first-fruita of
the victory of Yirdjar won by General Romanofaky in 1866.
The Ta-lo-sse of Hiouen Taang, subsequently known as Tnlrrs,
Taras, and Toorkestan, has been a Russian possession since
1864; while Ak-Mesjeed, or the White Mosque, fell in 1853,
and merged ita very name in that of Fort Perofsky.
Few, if any, vestiges remain of Otrar, originally called
Farab, once upon a time the capital of Toorkestan. I t was
taken by Chinghiz in 1219, but is better known in history as
the scene of Timour's death in 1405. I t ie mentioned by
Haiton, the Armenian prince, ar, Ootorar, while Pegoletti speaks
of it as Oltrarre, and states that it ia forty-five days' journey,
with pack-asses, from ' Armalec '-Almalik on the Ili.
What remains of the Khanat of Khokan is virtually de-
pendent on Ruesia, and will be formally annexed at the first
convenient opportunity, with a view to 'the rectification ' of
the frontier lino from Samarkand to the ea~ternextremity of
the Tion-Shnn mountains. I t is simply a question of time, and
indeed it little mat.ters to Europe how aoon this measure is
carried out, provided it be not made a stepping-stone to en-
croachments upon Eastern Toorkestnn. Few, however, mill be
found to shore the late Sir Roderick Xurchison's enthusimtic
appreciation of the benefits conferred upon science, commerce,
and cirilization, 5y the progress of Russian influence in Asia.
I n hiu annual address delivered on the 23rd May, 1870, the
ust trio us President of the Royal Geographical Society com-
mitted himself to an expressiou of opinion that testifies rather
 CHINESE TATARP. 589

to his amiability than to his sagacity. 'The day, indeed, has

now arrived,' he said, 'and to my great delight, when the Rus-
sian Imperial Government on the North, and the British Go-
vernment on the South, are rivals in thoroughly exploring and
determining their respective frontiers, leaving between each
dominion wild tracta which will probably be for ever independ-
ent, but whose chiefs will well know how to respect their
powerful neighbours. These geographical operations are also,
I doubt not, the forerunners of the establishment of good com-
mercial intercourse, and are, I venture to think, the surest
pledgee of peace.'
 340 CEBTRAL ASIA.

CHAPTER XIV.

LIITLE BCCEARIA.'--
RIVERS-MOUNTAINS-THE GOBI-THE YAK-POPULA-
TION-THE KIROBIZ--THET m O A N I B - H O U B ~ O S T ~ ~ M m E &
HORSES-UOHLAK- COINAGE - M E ROBERT BHAW-LIEUTENANT HAY-
WARD--BANJU-UROEALIK-POSOU-SARKUND- YANOHIWB--KABH-
OAR-MOHAYYRD YAKOOB BEQ - AKBU - UBH-TURFAN-KHOTAN -X B
JOHNBON.

THE country now called Eastern, and until the last few
years Chinese Toorkestan, is more familiarly known to English
readers as the Lesser Bucharia, whose youthful and chivalrous
monarch Aliris, son of Abdalla, won the heart of Lalla Rookh,
the lovcly daughtcr of Aurungzeb.
The appellation of Little Bucharia, when first applied to
distinguisll Toorkcstan from Bokharia proper, was singularly ill-
chosen, for the former mas actually the more extensivo of tho
two countries. l i t that time it extended from the 35th to the
45th degree of north latitude, and from the 72nd to the 110th
degree of east longitude, and comprised not only Eastern Toor-
kestan, but also Ferghana and Zungaria, the desert of Gobi, and
the Chinese provinces of Kansu and Shensi.
Thc present kingdom may be described as n depressed valley
400 miles in length from north to sooth, by 300 in breadth
from cast to west, shut in on three sides by mountain-ranges
of grcat height, on the north by the Tian Shan, on the south by
the Kuen Lun, and on the west by the Bolor chain. I t is for
the most part a barren and unproductive country. Near the
 EASTERN TOORKESTAN. 341

foot of the hills the soil is clayey or stony, and in the interior
sandy, while to the eastward the sand drifts into shifting ridges
and hillocks. The air is dry, and rain of rare occurrence, but
the melting snows fill the river-beds with an abundant supply
of water.
The Kashgar river, or Kizil Darya-' Red River '-flows
out of a small lake situated in the angle formed by the inter-
sect,ion of tho transverse section of the Pameer chain by the
Tian Shan, there called the Artush range. After a course of
300 miles it joins the Yarkund river, which was discovered by
Lieutenant Hayward to take its rise not from the Sarikol dis-
trict as previously conjectured, but from the basin of a small
plateau upwards of 16,600 feet above the sea, a little to the
north-west of the Karakoram Pass. Abreast of the tom of
the same name this river, after a course of 420 miles, is nearly
a mile in width, and in summer can only be crossed in boats,
though in winter it is fordable on horseback. After uniting
their waters, the Kashgar and Yarkund rivers merge their
respective names in that of the Taryrn or Erguo (301, which
after a further course of 250 miles empties itself into the Lob
Nor on the edge of the Gobi, a word signifying ' desert.' The
entire length of the Yarkund river from its lofty source to its
final discharge into that extensive lake exceeds 1200 miles, and
below tho town of that name it is navigable during June, July,
and August.
Another river ia the Karakash, which rises on the northern
slope of the Karakoram mountains a t an elevation 16,800 feet,
and, after a course of nearly 600 miles, falls into the Yarkund
river. Its waters are much used for irrigation, especinlly in
the province of Khotan, but in winter it is frozen over.
Eastern Toorkestan stands at a considerable height above the
sea level. On the west the elevation of the h n d ia computed
at 4000 feet, with a gradual slope to the eastward, so that it
%42

--
CISTBA&~

h , l M.t exceed 13.1:~gd B rgr bt Go& 'LL

T L %an
~ T~
d.3 6- *hItC.l r tb
w , ~ i % h / n t n & ~ C t ; A - & ~ r r & ~ a r
Kf,k*Ldr m r p Ik.+ a b e ch&, h pb
rtat h p,hh e 13,:~:11 k in Ad&--
p?.F#dL,!? aL:'.L? & ? 1c,c11*:-* Ch-St&*PD
~ a e t 6 k t ~ b u 2 - & x d e~
d ek
mmdbgwbe
X v r a n q ir e n d r;,:h 5-msaa
P z u e ~it+?ry7 d&h ~ r = e ? a tBt ratar ErolPtia,
b a I r , f i ~taFj.:e-h.ad ?*;.;r*ifed
R heigb-, at- ftam the
H i d f i Kr/uh tr, the T i .Fhaa a :he rcat d tBt T& P~ga
This w n riPsm 32- +mtoa nqeaDedthe
~ l T i n t . r h i c m h ~r a T d e s t a n ~ a ~ u f
dep,rugyddr'pb I t n f d ~ ~ t h t t b e b
k c m and Kwn Lm mc>untaim rat d aac continmnm
chain, tmt k t a a n t H a - 4 rmtriwd that a d i h &
r a t e r * h d a d the Y h d and K a d d rirers intervene-
The Karalnram, gewranp g i n to m extensive md
h e r i n g rmge d mrmntains, i.3 applied d p to the prss,
r t 3 e the mountains themsel~esare ulled the Muztagh, or
Glacier 3f rmntaim
Ammling to Dr Thrlmpson, the eleration of the Karakoram
Parq h not 1- than 18,Mr) fret, while the Chang Lang Pas in
the aame mountains b said to be 18,839 feet above the eea.
The cbain may be taken to commence about 7-P east, whence
it runs in B math-easterly direction nearly parallel with the
Knen Lun. The crest aceramp about 30,OCa feet, but eeveral
peaks attain to 25,90(), while one near the Mnztagh Pass rises
to the enormous altitude of 28,278 feet.
On the north side the snow Line is placed at about 18,600
feet, and on the south a few hundred feet lower. The passes
are all impracticable till the end of My,by which time the
trees in eheltered valleys are in fnll leaf and blossom. The
 EASTERN ~ O R K E S T A N . 343

heaviest fall of snow uaually takes place in Barch. B e b e e n

the Karakoram and Kuen Lun ranges the highest line of
vegetation is fixed at 17,000 feet, by the ' Boorsee,' a plant re-
aembling lavender, above which no vegetable life is to be met
with.
The Kuen Lun mountains8 so called either from their blue
colour, or from the quantity of wild leeks with which they are
overgrown, until the air is heavy with the offensive smell, lie
between 7'7" and 81" E., and in the 37th parallel of north lati-
tude. The crest averages quite 20,000 feet, broken by peaks
rising from two to three thousand feet still higher. Unlikd
the broad mass of the Karakoram mountains, the Kuen Lun
range is a tall narrow wall, of which comparatively little is yet
known.
About six miles to the north-east of W o t a n commence8
the Takla MakSn, or Desert of Gobi. ' The edge of this desert,'
Mr Johnson observes, ' has the appearance of a low range of
broken hills, and consists of hillocks of moving sand, varying
in height from 200 to 400 feet.' Impelled by the north-easterly
gales the sand surges onward in gigantic billows, and is &bled
to have overwhelmed 360 towns and villages in twenty-four
hours. That places of considerable importance have at timea
been buried seems to be incontestable, and Mr Johnson men-
tions a quantity of Chinese tea bricks being found in a town
that had been again uncovered by the wind after the lapse of
several years. l l r Shaw also quotes n legend to the effect that
this desert was once peopled with infidels, to whom Julla-ood-
dccn preached the religion of Xohammed. The idolaters con-
sented to embrace Islam if he would turn their dwellings into
gold. I n answer to the saint's prayers that miracle wae per-
formed, whereupon they laughed him to scorn, and would have
nothing to do with him or his new creed. In sorrow and anger
he turned his back upon them, and huge waves of sand came
-
a d c r / r d :& a d d t b t ru u p ~ 3it. At p e j e n t the
ttkf der~iun~9 of the rw:c tre w e e d :o be badr of rild
GUJIJ:~~, and of an:rlo~rr* ri:h 1-mhp.4tqm T ne nmt re-
m;rrlrrtb h t w e , h ~ r e r e r ,of tk G"Li h an m t ~ > i r & e ,
al:t.+l I/,L Sc~r,rti.:h h - 5 in a d ~ y r w i o n= d d m m -
b i r u of the Io!:i~:-t character, r h c d~r a i n a ~it - ~ e j rith-
out any ay~~rc&i,!e erect upon its depth or arra, though it haa
a l p r c ~ oatlet.
~t Sear the rivers extensve mahhes are of
frquf:nt (,c*:unc-nw, hurroundd by barren t r a c - t ~Soath of the
THn Shan, aud ea+t of the Pamcer, ride sand! steppes are in-
~ ~ z H LetAwr.+n the mountains and the fertile districts T o n
and vilLk-9 nritumlly follow the course of the rivers. On the
yhirur the ~ ~ ~ Care L I Lsufficiently
T good for tw+rheeled convey-
anus, but the aws and the dromedary are in greater request than
carts. I n the mountains recourse is had to that hard1 and
w f u l animal, the Yak.
Acwrding to Captain Wood, the Yak nso;iUy stands about
forty-two inch- in height. I t is covered with hair. Its belly
b not above n u inch- from the ground, which is swept by its
bunhy tail, and long hair streams as it were doan its dewlap
and fore legs. The h o r n are those of the bovine race, to which
it A light d d l e with horn stirrups is placed upon
the back, and a string, passed through the cartilage of the nose,
serves for a bridle. I n Badakhshan the Yak is commonly
known as the Knsh-gow. These animals are as sagacious as the
elephant, perfectly sure-footed, and fond of extreme cold. I n
summer time they ascend to the line of perpetual snow, but in
winter come down to their calves which are left below. They
go in great herds, which will keep at bay a whole p k of
wolves. Their mode of grazing is peculiar. They eat upwards
from a lower level to a higher, furrowing through the snow with
their nose to get at the short graes beneath.
Their hair is clipt in spring, and woven into various articles.
 EASTERN TOORKESTAN. 34 6

The tail is the familiar c h w y , or fly-flapper, of Hindostan,

though in the hills it is made into ropes. The milk is remark-
ably rich. The Yak doea not thrive in warm climates, and
even at Kabul, 6000 feet above the sea, it pines away. The speci-
mens that have occasionally been introduced into Europe belong
to a Chinese variety, whose horns are even with the plane of
the visage, while those of the Yak of the Pameer and the Kara-
koram mountains are projecting.
The population of Kashgaria is conjectured at between
three and four millions, and comprises Oozbegs, Kipchaks,
Moghuls, Mohammedans, Chinese, Tunganis, Kalmuks, and
Tnjeeks, while the Kirghiz roam over the mountains with
flocks of sheep and goats, and herds of yaks and camels. The
original inhabitants of Eastern Toorkestan were of the Aryan
race, and are largely represented among the Yarkund villagers
even at the present day, their descendants being described as
tall gaunt men, resembling the typical Yankee in figure, and
with long faces, but with good noses and full beards.
About tho middle of the second century R.c., says Mr
Shaw, the Youchee Tatars were expelled by other Tatar tribes
from their homes in the north-east and driven into the districts
of Yarkund and Kashgar, where they mastered or dispossessed
the Aryans. A small remnant of that ancient stock was cooped
up for ages in the valleys of the Sarikol district, in the angle
formed by the intersection of the Pameer and the Muztagh, or
Karakoram, mountains. Quite recently this interesting colony,
numbering from 1000 to 1500 so&, having exhibited symptoms
of insubordination, was transplanted by the Atalik Qhazee into
the more cultivated regions. Their language was nearly pure
Persian, with a few Toorkee worde intermingled, but the Yar-
kund Aryans have entirely lost the language of their fore-
fathers and speak only Toorkee.
Tho Oozbegs are the most civilized of all the various tribes
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&Xs.L<? *LA.& r-2 =::zz 3 X % Z = -ze z:eF2:r c.! :h tent-

k s ;: .~:;/r-+ *1,1+r.Le fx . , f= 5 - r x cf r5:l b t!w fire-

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. .
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ry,rrrl.A r , s q ard r : , d a: rL1, 2:ri.i E + : - A ~ to & smoke.
'I;.J:t~::.*r are r e v c;l,m:',r~>',r r=;d i m r I o s to xxin, and Kill
t a : a . Each Gm2r prj,s+eone, and when a
yt,lrr,g r~,ci~,lr: rrtarry a wprate tent is prorided for them, and
tlrr-y Irr:rrr;c:li)rward cf)tihtitute a *prate W y in the encamp
llll~llt,'
All uvc:rugc:-ciuA tent in about sixteen feet in diameter, and
w1r1.11t r r ~ r v i r t~ a new encamping ground, d at once assist in
lo
mf.r.ikirrg tlru tunt, which is then packed on three yaks, and the
 EASTERN TOORKESTAN. 347

Kirghiz move off to f r ~ fields

h and pasturea new. They are
an excessively hardy race, ae men, women, and children alike
brave the rigoure of winter and the heat of summer amongst
their native mountains. Their food is the produce of their
flocka and herds, which are driven to pastures, and tended by
the men and boys during the day-time ; and on the approach of
evening return to their f o b in the encamping ground. Here
the women milk the yaks and goat-, make butter and curd
cakes, and are employed during the day in carrying water, or
'weaving the warm material which the wool of their flocks
affords them, into articles of wenring apparel. I n appearance
they are seldom attractive, and are short and robust. The men
are low in stature, and generally of spare wiry frame, with high
cheek-bones, a low and slanting forehead, and a broad flat nose.
Their complexion is a yellowish brown, with a ruddy tinge,
and they are mostly devoid of beard, with very little hair on
the face, while their features unmistnkably exhibit the true
Mongolian Tatar type.
The Tajoeks, or trading and industrial classes, are usually
good-looking, with a high forehead, full expreseivo eyes with
dark eyelashes, thin delicate nose, a short upper lip, and a rosy
complexion. Their beards are large and full, often of a brownish
and even reddish hue. They are stouter and with fuller faces
than the high caste men of the Upper Provinces of India,
though evidently sprung from the same Indo-Persian stock.
A11 these tribes are Soonees, and regard the Ameer of Bokh-
ara as inferior only to the Sooltan-i-Roum, or Emperor of
Constantinople. I t was the Ameer, indeed, who bestoacd upon
their present ruler, Yakoob Beg, the title of Atalik Ghnzee, or
Leader of the Champions of the Faith, and, more recently, of
Ameer. I n the Kilian valley, however, dwells a colony of
Sheeahs, comprising about forty families, who crossed, some
fifty years ago, from Wnkhan, over the Pameer, and live quilw
 -- ~

5:rn e e
--
~ ' T : ~ X X-Z Ip-p&t-;on
~ The &dm& are
Brlsi;'-:~ d -
~ ~ ' c -- c v
Ce or' *&e Fa
,8sn m t a i n s
T:rr LT YA-: w,cId. ;a-CJ 110md. a d Egh: oa horse-
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. w-5 u.1L 7 2 WS-

Iz t2e ten ii T L - ~ ~s ~se~;ll9:e oL q-er is +med to

-
rxe LL;~.
. .
ttw. Li;lgi.-:-i men oi ill repure, deitful, and
- . . .
~~>XL,.~.LK :LZZ:..~L--F 4 2 z ~ a : < . : ~ t~ r u 5 v s of British
I:-ii. l > . : i z x i rZe a x e :,nLT I ~ c - ~ rma: lIs.,hlmmdnn
T .-. - . .
. t ' \ ~ s . c l - . z v t'z=i=-*l
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of melons and
t
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j ~ ~ > ; rw.:x
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. i - 1.. r:: .\- ~':cr;'r.;.L x d LT e ~ ? : . ~ ~a es gardenem. d
Chj &:::,: ,; :.::
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M . , L x z : h :::':e ~ilf ,cldc r b t c ~ d d L>hxswho \ lim
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te
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r3.. ~ lht ~ 1 h~a . d Thew axe mmotm,
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i1: W ~ L Jw h2 m e z t s m s d e from
&e bit-.l ~i :x+s , 2 ~ 5 i tf i r k.xas nzdr rhr Lob Sor.
.
'1 T;z;i::-
: z c r c i s rucm plrric.& notice. At the
. ,
c\vzxucxzzrne::: L,i : ~ r .Z1::5:L3 era TcwrLrjtm peopled by
s b r c 2 h oi :Zc. ~ T S : T;;ir ELw.ia of TLwrks, cdtd by the
(
'
L 1,. lIf sit-. ~ 5 ~J,Jr .Ei..G-ULui. At the c l e of the
.,....,-3. ~ ~ x : r r r y:52
t.:.- ,
~':l:::w tr~~i~l:u:d a immense number
E*:<rz T.x>rkmtantc, L n < u and Shensi. The
c)f ~ A L I ~ : . fnlm
.~

T.r;c;rs trik oi I-:u- xu=. of uEom r e r e Nmich-~,

Y 23 UI.L:\>-. I ~ X C U -~\'F'J:'.~:~xI
I~~. C"ari5:iaxs, moved i n a M y from
the u~igkklur5~h.d <li6 ~ 5 to ; the
~ fn)ntiers of China. Sear
the clkw ~f the rzurh c-tLu:ur- rhe Kashspw vith their
yriuiw Ai:\.clk E+:b;yy Khu. r m b r ~ c dUohsmrnedmism, and
OYermu ZIJU-:LMI~A~, briLI+g :hc.t rirh them a long tmin of
c-:iptivt~~itlrt* T k ~ u ~trih. r i of Twrts, Many of these sub*
yutautlj- rvturut.d to .S.uudiaud, but not a few reruined behind,
and werv c;iUtd b ~ their
- o m ~cluntr!men T w ~ h a n i or e T111le-
uitw, riguib-iug ' The Remuant.' Both Chinghiz and Okkodai
h v t . large numbem of the rigw and T u n p i Uohammedwa
 EASTERN TOORKESTAN. 340

into China, who kept up an intercourse with Central Asia,

through the medium of the caravans that travelled from Kmh-
gar to Pekin. I n Eastern Toorkestan a fusion was gradually
brought about of the Uigurs and Tunganis, the mixed population
coming to be called by the latter name or by that of Dungem,
though they were better known to the Chinese as Uigurs or
Hoai-Hoai. At a later period, however, the Chinese applied
the epithet Tun-jen, or ' military people,' to the Mohammedan
colonists settled on the Tun-tien, or 'military lands' on the
western frontier of the empire.
The Tunganis, or Dungens, though Mohammedans and of
Toorkish extraction, resemble the Chinese in features, and until
quite recently used the same garb and speech. They are large-
built, powerful men, and abstain from wine, spirits, opium, and
tobacco. They are said to be passionate and quarrelsome, but
fond of trading and honest in their dealings, and are subject to
the spiritual authority of their Imams and Akhoonds.
The Manchu Government having taxed them with great
severity and unfairness, besides requiring the men to wear pig-
tails, and the women to compress their feet, their patience was
at length exhausted, and they flew to arms. Therebellion first
took form and shape in a city of Kansu called Hochow by the
Chinese, and Salnr by the Tunganis, but the first overt act of
violence occurred in 1868 at Singcmfu, the capital of Shensi.
A squabble arose between a Tungani and a Manchu, in which
the latter was stabbed to death, when a riot and general
massacre of the Chinese ensued. As the Pekin troops were
defeated in three successive engagements, the movement
naturally gained strength, and spread to the north-west. Such
was the resolution of the rebels, or patriots, that when they
found themselves unequal to a contest with their oppressors,
they would slay their wives and children and, abandoning their
property, flee to the mountains.
 s- a
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last in rillages
-+i b k z k.-: c.i xz2i
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' rere El cf nz-l l s c-.::i t'cct A e t thick log
of p r ; y 7 ss z l - r d :ti xwf G' L e r\:.um. p~fjingfrom m a l l to
rdl, r E 3 e 1 -: s:i,L rzrp Lid sen- &xu eech side, resting
on t 6 k bh r t e ni3Xe. A ~ > .c d i u 5 n g of mud on the
top of this f;,mtd :kz x...f. t L x ~ g hwhich a d opening was
left ncar the d.>>rto !i;>t eve
After entering, a step led u p
to the flmr of :he ~ ' m .mhi,-b mas ( V T P ~with felt carpeting.
There were she!\-* f,or c u p m3 di&= a11 mund the room, and
a large vr>.dcn b:d.rcd st one side, with a great quantity of
mod bedding. The 6rcpl~c-ep n ) j ~ t e dfrom the d l , forming
e
a kind of arch a b u t f ~ u feet r high; behind which the chimney
went up through the wall. A b u t a foot from the hearth were
Tbe forqoino p n i c u l s r s am taken from m able and exhaustive article
in the Eli,,Lnryd I;cri,-tr for April, 1SGS.
 EASTERN TWRKEBTAN. 351

receases on both eidee to hold the o k i n g pots over the fire.

Several vessels for water were standing in the corner, being
large double calabashes, the larger half below, and the smaller
above, joined by a neck round which a rope is tied. There was
another smaller room in the house; also several store rooms,
and a large cattle house. Outside the courtyard was a small
shed for the fowls.'
I n the houses of the rich, small 6ndows are introduced,
closed with glazed paper. The inner walla, also, are stuccoed,
and the niches adorned with scroll patterns. The housework is
performed by women, and in wealthy families by daves, both
male and female, brought from Badakhshan and Chitral. This
abominable traffic was conducted under the Chineee in a pecu-
liarly odious manner. I n Chitral parents sold their daughters,
if good-looking, to Badakhehee traders for about £6 each, and
thew disposed of their human wares in Yarkund for prices
varying from £20 to £25 a-head. The slave trade, however,
has been abolished by the Atalik Ghhee, though not domestic
&very, but in the East that form of servitude is usually very
mild. I n towns the women go about veiled, but not so in rum1
dietricts, and they are everywhere allowed considerable liberty.
I n Yarkund and Kashgar the streets are patrolled a t certain
hours by the KAzi, attended by half-a-dozen men carrying long
leathern scourges, with which they flog whomsoever they find
omitting to say their prayers at the preecribed periods of the
day, and likewise such women aa venture out-ofdoors without
a veil.
There are no indimtiom of individual poverty in Eastern
Toorkesttln. A sufficient livelihood falls to the lot of all. The
costume of the agricultural classes consbts of a loow chogn,
or dressing-gown, linod with wool or sheep's-kin, and girt round
the waist with a cord, or roll of cloth ; a round cap, lined with
eheep or lamb's wool; felt stockinge, and boob of untanned
 - --
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 F,ASTERN TOORRESTAN. 353

by a scarf round the waist. On his head, instead of a turban

was a tall cap of dark green velvet, turned up with a fur
lining.'
The countrywomen wear a loose cholah, somewhat shorter
than the men's choga, made of a light material in summer, but
in winter of a warm material lined with wool. In hot weather
they are content with a round silk cap, which in the cold season
is exchanged for one of cloth lined with fur or lambswool.
Under the cap they wear a white flowing veil, or a white ker-
chief covering the back of the head, the neck, and ears. They
have also long leather boots, mostly red or green. Town ladies
get themselves up in a more splendid style. They appear some-
t i m e ~in two silk cholahs of gaudy hues, lined and trimmed with
fur or lambswool. The summer covering for their head is a
round silk cap, richly embroidered, which gives place in winter
to a tall black lambswool cap, turned up, and trimmed with fur
or beaver skin, under which is secured a white veil that floats
over the sho~ilderswithin the house, but is brought over the
face out-of-doors. Their feet are encased in long red leather
boots with silk tassels, but they indulge in no ornaments. They
are often rather handsome, with round pleasant faces and healthy
complexions. They are somewhat short of stature, and of a
robust figure. They are fond of plaiting long masses of horse-
hair with their own, and this mixture they allow to hang down
behind in two long thick tails.
One of the virtues of this people is a profuse hospitality. A
stranger is always greeted on his arrival with a ' Dastar-KhPn,'
or present of welcome, consisting of trays of fruit, loaf-sugar,
eggs, bread, with sometimes a sheep and some fowls shown at
the door of the apartment. The bread is pronounced delicious.
I t ia made in large sheets, two feet across, and is unleavened,
but as light na a French roll. Equally unremitting ie the
politeness of salutation. ' If you receive a present, or enter a
23
364 CENTRAL M I A .

houee, or finish a meal, it is always All&-A-A-ho Akber ! The

Moghule pronounoe the Q very broad in this, ae in all other
words, sounding it like our arc.' When two officers meet they
dismount while yet twenty yards off, run forward, and embrace,
each putting his chin over the other's right shoulder, with
their arms round eaoh other'a body. The sitting posture is one
very trying to Europeans. The men, at least, kneel down, with
their robes well tucked in, and then sit back on their heels ; or
the to- may be turned inward, and they then ait on the h i d e
flat of the foot.
I t doe0 not gppear that the Toorlseetaneee are very proficient
in social accompliehmente, though quite ae much so ae most
Orientale. Their Andijan neighbourn, however, aeem to excel
them in dancing, nor is it thought a disgraceful exhibition
suitable only for itinerant perfmere. Mr Shaw's light-hoarted
Yoozbaahee favoured him with a epecimen of an Andijanee dance.
' It waa really s very pretty and effecti~emovement, mare like
a ballet step than anything I have seen in the East. With bare
feet, looee trowsers, and a red ecarf in each hand, he flew round
the room, changing feet at each step, and waving the scarves in
front and behind alternately with each hand.'
The musical instrlunenta in general use are a kind of harpsi-
chord, resembling a miniature piano without keys, played with
a pointed instrument held in the right hand, while the left
hand follows its motion and stops the vibration of the
There is also a long-necked guitar, called ' citar,' with nine
strings, played with a bow iike a violoncello. Only one string
is actually touched, the other8 being depressed below its level,
and helping to swell the tone of the instrument. A slender
fife and the tambourine are the commonest of all.
Letters are done up into a thin wiep gummed together, and
i m p r e d with the eeal of the sender in blank ink, but bear no
signature. A superior writing to'an inEerior makea use of a
 EASTERN TOORKESTAN. 355

small scrap of paper, while the htter in addressing the former

aeeks as large a piece as he can find. The position of the seal
likewiae varies according to the respective ranks of the corre-
spondents.
The Toorkestan horsee are etrong, active, and capable of
great fatigue. The aaddle is never removed from their backs.
The horse-clothing envelopes the whole body,and extenda to the
neck and head. The saddles are made of painted and polished
wood, with a high peak in front, and are raised well above the
backbone. The rich are fond of smart trappings, with embroid-
ered cloths and silver mounting. 'Very little g m s is given to
horses, but barley or Indian corn without stint. A6 the end of
their jorrrhey, the reeking animala are walked up and down tilI
they are quite cool. They are never turned out loose, but
always kept tied np. Yarknnd ponies are said to be superior
to the small Lsdakh breed, and will oarry from 200 lbs. to 250 Ibe.
each, across the mountain passes.
Where the r o d s are good, two-wheeled conveyances, called
Arabahs, are sflectsd by the wealthy. They are, in fact, covered
vans or &carte, a d are drawn by three horses, one between
the shafts, and two in tracee in front, which are driven by reim
and a long whip. The two-humped camel, darker, stouter, and
more hairy than the Indian species, is the ordinary bead of
burden.
The Toorkestaneesjustly pride themselves on their horseman-
ship. Their favourite amusement, called Ooghlak, ie practised
in this witm. The headless body of a gorrt being thrown on the
ground, the object ie to pick it up without leaving the saddle.
Going at top speed, they stretch down to it, with one foot and one
hand on the saddle. One clutches the prize and swings himael4
back into his aeat,aad gallops off,chased by the othem. Whoso
overtskea him, strives to wrest the prirze from his grasp, while
another may come up on the 0th- side. Away they all go,
 -
3.56 .I- MU-

heltrr&eIter. over banks and ditches, heedIrse of the path, acd

with the bridle often loose upon their horsed &. Tbe am-
sequence i not un&qwnt.Iy a 6Il, d a brohn
head or limb.
Partridp, too, are chased do- on horseback Sam tiring,
the? run along the p x n d d are knocked over with w h i p
Black eagIe4 are mined Like t ~ 1 t . mto fly at deer d antelope-
They - - h o o d 4 ripped up in n s h e e p k i n , md euried hed
d o v n d ~ until, within sight of the quarry, when they are
ldm0Iit.d and cat3t o&
The p z d d e L pecaliv on some points. The punishment
for thett, whaterer the d u e of the propert- stolen, is death by
h a n h n g or impding; but marderers are pardoned, as high-
spirited feI1ows who are L k e l to make p o d soldiers.
The winage of the coact? b o p n to improvement. Twenty-
fire cfirper coins are eqn.1 to one tan,% ralued at foorpence of
Enp1il.h moner. T h r are stmnz t # y t h e r . on one string,
rhic.h ii equal to ?(J tanFs. T a o al:J a half strings, worth
serentcen ~ t . i ! l i n ~ ,were g i ~ e nto IIr >'mr for hki daily main-
tenance, A Loorow, or lump of stamped silver, is worth E l 7
10.i.-ten m a l l l u m p making a tocrow. Gold tilhhs, stamped
in Khokan, are each worth from :I.-' to 3 5 tan,- There is
& a silver i n p t , calltxi Tamtwo, or Koory shaped like a boot
or shoe, and bearing a Chinese stamp, ahich 13 valued at 1100
tan,gas.
Tcn or a dozen years 333 no part of Central Ash was 1-
known to Eumpeana than the count?- ahich now passes by the
m e of F ~ s t e r nToorkcstan, or Knshpria, though called by the
people themwlves -1lt--Shuhr, or the Land of the Six Cities,
while .some writers maintain that its usual appellation is Yedi-
Shul~r,or the Land of the Seren Cities. Be that as it may, the
recent travels and observations of Mr Shaw and the late Lieu-
tcnan t Hay ward--since murdered by the Chief of Y assin-have
\
 EASTERN TOORKESTAN. 357

thrown so strong a light upon this hitherto unknown land, that

its geographical configuration, well as the manners and
customs of its inhabitants, are now familiar to the most general
reader, while further information may be expected from Sir D.
Forsyth's Report of his late Mission.
Mr Shaw belongs to that illustrious body of 'pioneere of
commerce,' who have opened out so many paths of wealth and
usefulness to their home-staying countrymen. His first journey
into the dominions of the Atalik Ghhzee was a purely personal
and tentative enterprise, fraught with much apparent danger to
himself, and the fruits of which would be chiefly gathered by
those who had neither sown nor planted. No trained diploma-
tist, however, could have displayed greater sagacity and self-
control, while hie kindly nature and thorough manliness won
the good will and respect of all who came within his influence.
I t is not too much to say that the favourable impression made
by Mr Shaw has been the most potential cause of the friendly
feelings entertained towards England by the ruler and people of
Eastern Toorkestan. Lieutenant Hayward, again, was an
adventurer in the cause of science. He was the able and
courageous representative of the Royal Geographical Society,
and fearlessly hazarded his life that knowledge might be
extended.
By a strange chance it happened that thew two remarkable
men, perfect strangers to one another and ignorant of each
other's projected journey, reached the frontiers of Eastern Toor-
kestan about the same time, although they never met face to face
until they were once more at Yarkund on their return townrda
British territory. Alarmed by a report that a party of fifty
Englishmen-pousibly the forerunners of an army-were about
to follow in their steps, the Atalik Ghbzee gave orders that the
two explorere should be hospitably treated but kept apart, and
should on no account be suffered to wander about the country
 EASTERN mORKEtiTAN. 859
--

accounts for the introduction of goltre into the oounty. Once

upon a time a holy man ueed to despatch a eagacious camel into
Yarkund, without any attendant, to collect the offerings of the
pioue. Some of the Poagam people, moved by the Evil One,
one day seized the unguarded animal, killed, and cooked i t
The Saint thereupon uncharitably prayed that the perpetratom
of the deed might be made known by mme sign on their throat.
And he was answered by the goltre, which is confined to the
Yoghul population, and eparee both the Oozbegs and stranger^
from foreign parts.
From Karghnlik to Yarkund the road passea through a
very productive country, devoid of hedgea, but presenting a
wooded appearance from the r o d e being lined with poplar and
mulberry trees, and from the numerous villages and hamleta
being surrounded by fruit-trees. Water-courses are led in all
directions, over or under the road, and across marshee and hol-
lows, while falls and sluices are employeb. in driving mills for
huaking rice, and pounding saltpetre to make gunpowder. The
machinery is of the simplest, being merely a wheel with a
eingle cog, and a pair of pestles rising and falling. Rice,
wheat, barley, Indian corn, carrota, turnips, clover, and cotton
are successfully cultivated, while sheep, goate, fowls, and
pigeons add to the comforts of the rural population; but
neither ducks nor geese seem to thrive, except in a wild etate.
Approaching Yarkund, 'the road waa covered with people
and animals, strings of camels and donkeys carrying bales of
eilk and goods from Khotan, country produce going in to mar-
ket, with men and women riding ponies, the latter astride the
elrddle like the men.' From a little distance the long low line
of the city walla rises against the horizon, with one conspicuous
object challenging observation. On a nearer approach thie is
made out to be a toll aquare acaffolding, with two platforms,
one above the other, built over the roof of a substantial build-
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 EASTERN TOORKESTAN. 361

being excavated on the top of a rock, a fire is lighted, and

when the heat is supposed to have penetrated sufficiently deep,
a quantity of cold water is suddenly poured into the trench,
with the effect of splitting off a considerable slab. The Torkee
name for jade, says Colonel Yule, is 'Kash,' but the Chinese
call it ' Yu-she, or Yu stone. The best quality is fished up in
the form of boulders out of the rivers of Khotan.
According to Lieutenant Hayward, Yarkund now contains
about 40,000 houses, but he estimates the population at only
120,000. There are five gates, the main street running from
the gate in the western wall to the Aksu gate in the eastern
side. The streets are usually narrow, never exceeding ten to
twelve feet in width, and are lined with shops kept mostly by
women. Some houses possess an upper storey, in which Mr
Shnw's quick eye observed mothers rocking cradles with their
foot, a novel spectacle in the East. Yarkund boasta of 160
mosques, numerous colleges, and twelve caravanserais, ' which
are always crowded with merchants from every country in
Asia.' The water for the use of the citizens ia brought from
the river by canals, and stored in large open reservoirs, or tanks.
About 500 yards to the westward of the city stands the
Pang-shuhr, or New Town, a citadel surrounded by walls of
earth forty feet high, and twelve feet wide at the top, parallel with
the four cardinal points. I t is nearly square, measuring about
700 yards each way. Each corner ie defended by a bastion
and a tower, with eight intermediate flanking defences, and the
parapet is loop-holed for musketry. A dry moat encloses the
fort, twenty-five feet in depth, eighteen feet wide at the bottom,
and thirty at the top. There are three gates, but only one ie
kept open. I n the south-west corner is placed the ' Urdoo,' or
residence of the chief authorities, girt with a wall thirty feet
high. The north-west corner is occupied by the inner-fort,
which, at the time of Mr Hayward's visit, was in s very ruinoua'
362 CENTRAL ASIA.

condition. No gune were mounted on the walls, but in the

street stood five long ewivels, two small mortars, and five four-
pounders mounted on camsgee, with ammunition wagpns
drawn up in the m. The gunners were chiefly Hindooataneea,
aoldiern of hrtune, and mutineers from the old Bengal army,-
the words of command being given in English.
The temperature of Yarkund varies considerably at different
seasons of the year. Early in January Fahrenheit's thermometer
sinks nearly to zero in the morning, rising to 23O at noon, but
by the end of May it marke 72", and in July and Auguat from
80" to 85O.
The road from Yarkund to Kaahgar paeees through the
hamlet of Kokrobat, with its 200 houses; s k i d the Dwht-i-
Hameed, a barren stony plain, exhibiting scanty patches of
graw and a few stunted shrubs ; traverses the busy townlet of
Kizil, consisting of 500 h o w , with furnaces for smelting the
iron ore procured from the lower slopes of the Kizil-Tagh, or
Red Mountains ; discovers several smaller villages ; crosses
another broad sterile plain, and finally reachee Yanghissar on
the left bank of the Sargrak. This town contains perhaps
11,000 houses, but the streets are very narrow, and lined with
booths succeeding each other in wild confusion, a stall covered
with silks standing next to one reeking with hornsflesh. Six
hundred yards from the town is a square fort, 250 yards in
length and breadth, with bastions, towers, and flanking defencee,
walls thirty-six feet in height, and a dry moat thirty-six feet in
depth. Yanghissar was the first place captured by Yakoob
Beg, and waa defended by the Chinese with desperata resolution
even after every article of food had been consumed ; the mere
handful that survived submitting to be circumcised.
Picturesque views may be here enjoyed of the Kizil Part
range, rising to peaks 20,000 feet in altitude ; with spurs run-
ning abruptly into the high table land below. Yanghissar is
 EASTERN TOORKESTAN. 363

about thirty milea north-wet of Yarkund, and a little over forty

from Ktrshgar. After leaving this town, N r Hayward traversed
a track of marshy ground before he again found himself in the
midst of oultivation. At Yupchan, a townlet of 700 homea, he
crosaed the Hosun river, and a little further on the Khanarik,
with a breadth of 700 yarde, between low banks, fringed with
grassy strip, covered with a jungle of tamarisk shrubs. The
- -

large village of Tasgam next cnme in view in the heart of a

fertile district, and then the Yangi-shuhr, or New Town, of
Kashgar. As at Yarkund, this is the citadel, and in 1864-65
was held by the Chinwe for eighteen months, until famine
compelled them to eurrender. The northern and southern
walls are about 600 yards in length, but the eastern and west-
ern are somewhat leas. They are forty feet high, constructed of
earth, and pierced for three gates, of which only one is in me.
They are surrounded with a dry moat, twenty-five feet deep and
forty in width. The interior is divided into three courts, in
the innermost of which is the ' Urdoo,' or King's Palace..
The town itself is sitiated four miles to the north, on the
other side of the Kizil Darya, or Kashgar river. I t is com-
monly called the Old Town, and is encircled with a clay-built
wall, penetrated by five gates. Kashgar is a flourishing city,
containing perhapa 28,000 houses, and a population estimated
by Mr Hayward at over 60,000 souls. 'The power in possess-
ion of Kashgar,' that traveller remarks, 'holds the key of
Eastern Turkestan from the north. Wonderfully well and
centrally situated, it is a place of the utmost importance, both
in a political and military point of view. Here all tho roads
from the manatee of Cerltral Asia converge, and in the h a n b
of any European Power it would be a place of immense com-
merce.'
+ Mr Shaw, however, is probably more correct in apelling this word lu
Oorda, evidently derived from the same origin ar, Oordoo, and corrupted into
our English ' hordc'
364 C E - S T P I L ASIA.

I n Hiown Tsng's time the people, ss compared viith the

C h i n e , appeared to be m,unlettered, and immoraL They
fl~t:t.nd the h a & of their babies, md e t e d their persong
Their e-es r e r e of a ,orpen colour, md their language peculiar,
though the? rrute in the Indian st+- the^ r e r e Buddhists,
and 10.1, h ml>&s C R T U P I ~ -I hundred conventa The province
rjs for the most part s m 3 ~ and s p r i n g 1 enltirated, but in
p L w pduLw.i g.hd c n p of fruit and grain. The local
t m Lit. s:out c h h , fine carpets., and b d -
m a ~ ~ x t l r ~were
Lieuten~nt IIs'~ardd - r i k as follovs, his interview
ri:h ^\I,.~h~rnrncd T~kivb &:. the I t & G h h . 'Passing
thruugh the north p t e into the fort, a bod^ of Tun,& soldiers,
mtd with long lsnt- r e r e tirst noticed, dram up on each
side of the FA?-, while a guard of Turki sipahis, in scarlet
uniform and high sheep4kin -pi were grouped around some
few pit- of srtilIev in position, near the msin entrance- . .
Dismounting at the entrance of a large courtard, I aas con-
ducttd by the Tuzkhee s~- this enclosure to the gate of
an inner court, where a T u m d - & h e e , b d in the costume
and ch;iin-amour of the Egyptian Namelukts, came forward
to SF that, if I u-ou1J sit d o n for a few minutes, the l t a l i k
aoulJ be p r e p & to see me. I acco&gly Kaited until he
returned, and ushenti rue a c - m the second court, which, with
the first, was tilltd vith men all d r d in silk, and armed- . .
'Htlvbg m c h t d the entmnce of the innermost court, 1
found it to be quite erupt-, ssFe of a piece of ordnance in poai-
tion, with muzzle p i n t t d towanis the entrance gate At the
further end of this court, sitting under the verandah in front of
hi3 apartment, was the Atdik G h k e e himself, and here, as at
Tarliund, no displar or decoration appeared in the plain and
unadorned buililinp of his place. As if scorning any costli-
new but that of milit? disph?, e v e r ~ h i n gabout him is in
keeping with his simple and soldier-like habits. . .
 EASTERN TOORKESTAN. 365
--

' The Yuzawal-bashee who escorted me retiring, I advanced

alone, bowed, and shaking hands, eat down opposite to the
Atalik. H e was dressed very plainly in a fur-lined silk choga,
with snow-white turban, and, in the total absence of any orna-
ments or decorations, presented a striking contrast to the
bedecked and bejewelled Rajahs of Hindustan. I was at once
favourably impressed by his appearance, which did not belie
the deeds of a man who in two years has won a kingdom twice
the size of Great Britain.' (Clearly an exaggeration.) ' H e is
about forty-five years of age, in stature short and robust, with the
strongly marked features peculiar to the Uzbega of Andijan.'
(He is said to be of Tajeek extraction.) 'His broad, massive,
and deeply-seamed forehead, together with the keen and acute
eye of the Asiatic, mark the intelligence and sagacity of the
ruler, while the closely-knit brows and firm mouth, with its
somewhat thick sensuous lips, stamp him as a man of indomit-
able will. . . Although an adept in dissimulation and de-
ceit, the prevailing expression of his face was one of concern
and anxiety, as if oppressed with constant care in maintaining
the high position to which he has attained. His manner, how-
ever, was most courteous, and even jovial at times.'
I n another place Mr Hayward said of this ~uccessfulsoldier
of fortune : ' I f the villainy and deceit which he has practised
during his career stand in strange contrast with his fortitude
and unflinching bravery, he has also fought well, for he haa
been twelve times wounded. And as an Asiatic will never
hesitate to stoop to treachery and deceit, it would be hopeless
to look for any trait of generosity and magnanimity displayed
by him during his rapid rise to power. H e is now proving
himself to be an able and energetic statesman, and a fit ruler of
the somewhat turbulent subjecta whom he has to govern.'
I n the north-eastern extremity of Eastern Toorkestan
stends the ancient town of Aksu, at the confluence of the Aksu
366 C ~ T X A L ASIA.
-- -

and Kobhal riven. Acoording to Oolonel Ypbe it contains

6000 h o w , and forms the central point of the Chinem kule,
whence diverge router to China on one side, and to Emtern
and Weetern Toorkestan on the other. The wmmnding die-
trict is particularly fertile, and prod- grapea, melons, mix&,
and cotton. Hiouen Tsang + faroarnbly of the cotton
and wool of Akm, or, M he calla it, Po-lop-Lis, bat tbese od-
vantages were tembly oountsr-bahmced by the fierce dragaaa
that infested the stony desert to the north-weat .nd attacked
travellers, who oonee~uentlyavoided uttering l d criea or
wearing red dmwe. I t oertainly liea unpleaantly ntar the
Mu-Art or I q Mountains, a branch of the Tian Shan,.cram
which pasaes the road to Kulja, larmerly the capital of the
Chinese Government of Zungaria and ToorIratan, but n o r
annexed to Russia.
A h a may have been the Auxacia of Ptdemy, and wan oer-
tainly the chief eeet of an extensive Chin- p r o ~ c eunder
the Han dynasty in the second century B.C. I t was, &, at
one time the farourite residence of the rulers of K d p r and
Yarkund. Hiouen Teang croseed the mountai~eto lesyk-Kul,
or Lake Thsung-Tchi, and ascertained that no m e dared to fieP
in ite salt, dark-green waters, for fear of the strange monatera
that dwelt beneath its stormy d c e . Another tawn of E t -
ern Toorkeetan is Ush Turfan, now an inconeiderable place,
but which once p o d a tolerably large population. I t ia
famous for the tobacco grown in the neighbourhood, and a
briek trade in cattle ie also carried on. The inhabitants hvkg
revolted from the Chinese ia 1765 were put te the sword, and
600 families brought in from the neighbowing dietrich ba
form the nucleur, of a new town.
A far more notable + is Khotan in the ewth-eastern
extremity of Alty-shuhr. I t was, says Colonel Yule, the
seat of a wry ancieut civilization, and had friendly relatiow
 -
with China upwards of a century before the Ohriatian era. I n
the fourth century it wae entirely devoted to Buddhism, and in
the time of Hiouen Tesng contained a hundred convents peopled
by 5000 m o n k According to that pilgrim, the people were
of gentle character, orderly in their conduct, palite in their
manners, skilful, industrious, and fond of music, eong, and the
dance. They wrote after the Indian fashion, but spoke in a
peculiar dialect. Their ordinary apparel was of white cotton,
few making use of either furs ar wool. Silkworms were much
oultivated, while carpets, felt, and cotton clothe were the chief
manufactures. Marco Polo ale0 makes mentiap of Cotan, a
Mohammedan province, eight days' journey in length, contain-
ing many tow- and castles, with much abundance of all things
necessary for life and comfort. The inhabitanb-who, it has
been suggested, may be deecended from the XLrtrr Scythianr, of
Ptolemy-were rather given to the pursuit of trade than of
a m . The silkworm, it is said, was introduoed by a Chinem
Princess, who, at a far dietant epoch, had married the ruler of
Khotan. The original capital was named Ilchi, and it ie quite
recently that the town of Khotan hae obtained any sort of
notoriety.
The ill-fated Moorcroft wae favourably impressed with the
natural capabilitiee of the province. Yaks, he srrys, were
bred on the mountains, and ordinary cattle in the plains.
Sheep of the Dumba stock and shawl-goate increased and mul-
tiplied. Among wild animale, the two-humped camel was
hunted down both for its flesh and for its wool The Gorkhar
or wild ass, many kinds of deer, including the musk deer, hares,
foxea, leopards, bears, wolvee, and perhaps tigers, provided pro-
fitable sport for hunters. Partridgee and the larger francolin
were common. The manufactures comprieed woollens, camleta,
cottone, & silks, and at one time ap extensive trade was
carried on with Hindoetan, but this had fallen off previous to
 36 5 m u LCJL

)Lzn(:r<,ftYr r & n p , b r c e n 1919 .ad li2-5. Tbe jde

r n a u u k t r u e ran then in a fl~&-Lbg mndirion, a d stones
fu trrm qwck r e r e m e d e r c l ~ r e l _ rfor his Celestial
Hajfnt?. I t r a a beliered that if r e r e put into a jade
cup the r d r d fly into pieces; that ! h p e n t s of jade
r v m uym the V r n avert the lightning h h ; and that any
liriw~rdrunk trcrm a jade cap d relieve palpitation of the
heart.
I n the year Mr TT. K Johnson, employed in the Indian
Trig~,nmmtricalSurrey Department, tinding himeelf a t Leh in
m k h , waa moved by truly British restlessness to m&e a
journey i l ~ 7 0 8 n the mountaim to Ilchi. Setting ont in the
month of July he took the usual route to the Pangong Lake up
the Changchenmo valley, and across the Pam. After that he
chow the Brinjga route, which traverses extensive plains with
an easy alope, but devoid of vegetation except a few l a ~ e n d e r
plank, and badly supplied with water. At the northern ex-
tremity of the plains the route dips suddenly to the Karakash
river, where gram and fuel are obtainable in small quantities.
I t thence leads over the snowy Passes of Brinjga, lofty and
difficult through the of wow and ice with which they
are encumbered I t then t u r n down a ravine for one whole
march, and afterwards crosses aeveral more passes and streams,
and finally dencend~ into the plains of Khotan near Bezilia.
' I wan informed,' Mr Johnson remarke, ' that by skirting the
Kiun Lun range wheeled conveyances might be easily taken
from Ilchi to the Changchenmo valley near Leh ; that water,
grass, und wood are obtainable at every halting-place, and that
tho only difficulty is the liability to meet with opposition from
tho al~cpl~crde of Rudok in the portion of the route which passes
acrosu tho Changthang Plain.'
AE it was, it took him sixteen days from the valley of the
Karakash to Ilchi, by a very difficult road and over a recently
 EASTERN TOORKESTAN. 3G9

discovered Pass. H e goes on to describe the province of Kho-

tan as an extensive plain gently sloping towards the north, and
well watered by mountain streams and artificial canals. The
soil is generally sandy, free from stones, and highly productive.
A n exceedingly fine sand, resembling minutely pulverized clay,
often falls in showers, when there ie not a breath of wind,
obscuring the light of day, but fertilizing the land which i t
covers. Much the same cereals are grown m in India, but of
superior quality, owing to the greater equality of the climate.
The most common trees are poplars, willows, and tamarisks.
The gram is magnificent, and cotton and raw silk are of excel-
lent quality. Minerals abound, such as gold, silver, iron, lead,
copper, antimony, salt, saltpetre, sulphur, and soda.
As a manufacturixig town Ilchi, or Khoton, ranks next to
ITarkund, and turns out silks, felts, carpets of a mixed fabric of
silk and wool, coarse cotton cloths, and paper made from mul-
berry fibre. The populatioli of the capital is estimated a t
40,000 and that of the province at 260,000. Females are said
to be in excess of males to the extent of twenty per cent.,
on.ing to the frequency of wars and rebellions. The men are
fair complexioned, well built, and good looking; and the
women, though rather short, are pretty, but with a slight
touch of the Totar cast of countenance. Men and women alike
were dressed in c l a n and cornfortublo attire, and see~ucdcheer-
ful and prosperous.
The Khan at that time dwelt in an old Chinese fort, built
of earth. The town wus eurrourided by a wall twenty-five feet
i l l height ant1 twenty in breadth. Watchmen patrolled the
streets at night, notifying their approach by striking a stick
against a hollow picco of wood, which gave forth a loud, un-
musical sound. The old Chinese instruments of torture were
then in use. One of them was the rack, workod by screws;
another, similar to our trcadn~ill; and a third, employd to
24
 5 70 CENTRAL ASIA.
-
-

extort confession, was a finme covered with sharp stones and

gravel, on which the culprit was forced to kneel with a heavy
log of wood laid acroea the inner part of hie knee joints, the
pain being excruciating. Hanging and blowing away from
guns were the ordinary modea of inflicting capital punishment.
Gallows were erected, for convenience sake, in varioua parts of
the city. Flogging with a leather thong waa also a common
method of chastising both men and women.
Mr Johnson was invited to Y a r k u ~ dto take yseesion of
the town and district in the name of the British Government,
and was informed that the inhabitants, weary of anarchy, con-
fusion, and oppression, had clubbed together to present him
with £30,000 and sundry robes of honour, if he would consent
to remain and be their ruler. The flattering offer was declinql,
and Mr Johnson returned to his humbler duties aa a surveyor,
and it is reported received something like a snubbing from the
Governor-General for wandering into unknown lands, and
incurring the liability of being pelted with provinces and
kingdoms.
 THE AMEER OP KASHGAR. 371

CHAPTER XV.

THE AMEER OF KASHGAR

HISTORICAL BRETCH O P ALTYSHUIIB-WALEE KHAN TOURA-MOHAMMED YA-

KOOB BEG-TUNCAKI BEBELLION-HEBOIC SUICIDE O F THE AMBAN-FALL
O F KASIIRAE-YAKOOB BEG DEFEATS T H E TUXGASIB-RECEIVES TITLE O F
ATALIK GHAZEE-TBEACHEROI'S BEIZUHE O P RHOTAN-REDUCTION OB
TASH RUHQHAN -OFFICIAL BELATIONS WITH RUSSlA -MR FOBSYTH'E
FIRST MIBBION-BARON VON RAULDARB' MISSION-EXPORTS AND IMPORTB
-PBOQBE88 O F BU88IAN IXFLUEXCE-AQA M E H D I E RAPHAEGBOL'TES
TO INDIA-LADAKII-3IR POBsYTkI'S BECOND 3IIsBION-LORD CLABIWDON'S
NEUTBAL ZONE.

B~IIDHISM was the national faith of Eastern Toorkestan

from the commencement of the Christian era to the close of the
14th century. During the 8th century, indeed, a long and
terrible war raged between the Arabs and the Chinese, in which
the former were victorious, and succeeded in impressing the
ritual observances of their faith upon the nomad population.
The original inhabitants and the Chinese settlers continued,
however, loyal to their ancient creed, and it wns not until the
reign of Timour that Islam finally superseded belief in the
teachings of Sakya-Muni. Under the descendante of Chinghiz
Khan, Altyshuhr-comprising the six cities of Yarkund, Kash-
gar, Ilchi, Aksu, Yanghismr, and Ush-Turfan-formed a por-
tion of the Chagatai Khanat. Religious toleration, or indiffer-
ence, wns one of the characteristic features of the early Tatar
domination, and in Marco Polo's time there existed several
nunneries belonging to the Ncstorian Christians.
 32 2 CENTRAL ASIA.

About the year 1678, the Khwajas or Khojas of the Black

Mountain fell out with the Khojas of the White Xountain, and
the latter, being worsted in battle, implored the aid of Galdan
Khan, chief of the Eleuths, or Kalmuks, of Zungaria. Assist-
ance was granted. Ismail Khan, ruler of Kshgar, and the
Black Mountain Khojas were carried off into captivity, and
their country reduced to a state of vassalage to Galdan Khan
and his eucceasors. I n 1757 the Zungarian empire was over-
thrown by the Chinese, who also annexed the Land of the Six
Cities, and expelled the Khojas of the White Mountain.
In the mountainous regions of Ferghana, or Khokan, these
descendanb of the Arabian prophet, revered by the people for
their sanctity and gift of working miracles, found a secure
aaylum from further persecution, but, unhappily for themselves,
could not rest contented with peaceful obecurity. I n 1827, Je-
hangheer Khan Khoja suddenly made himself master of Kash-
gar and Yarkund, but was soon driven out again by the Chinese.
Fleeing to Khokan, he was surrendered to his pursuers, and
executed at Pekin i11 the following year. The next attempt a t
recovering their former position was m d e in 1858 by seven
Khojas, but without success.
Five years later, however, the notorious TValee Khan Toura
obtained some nchblc a-lvantagcu until his own adherents, terri-
fied by his inrane cruelty, abandoned him to his fate. This
madman was in tlie habit of daily intoxicating himself with
Lhnrlg, and in his frenzy thought nothing of humtm life. A
K:uhgaree armourer one d:~y presented him with a sword
wrought by himself with special care. Drawing it from the
sheath, Walee Khnn with one sweep struck off the head of the
armourer's son, a youth standing by his father's side. ' Yes,'
he quietly remarked, ' i t is a good blade,' and turning to his
attendants, he added, 'Give this man a killut,' or robe of
honour. A t another time he ordered a musician to be beheaded
 THE AYEER OF KASHOAR. 373

for yawning in his presence, and scarce a day passed without

three or four executions. His chief officers eat before him with
downcast eyes, and open hands stretched out as in prayer. If
one of them raised his eyea or altered hie attitude, the penalty
was death. If the Muezzin called to prayers when W d e e
W a n was going out, he forfeited his head.
While this monster was besieging the Chinese in the fort of
Kashgar, the Prussian traveller Adolph von Schlagintweit in
an evil hour arrived at his camp. Conducted to the presence
of Walee Khan he asked how long the siege had lasted, and
was answered Three months.' . 'Oh ! ' he imprudently exclaim-
ed, ' my countrymen would take the place in three days. There
ie no di&cult,y at all.' 'Indeed,' replied the chief, and in
obedience to a sign the indiscreet traveller was led out of the tent
to the river-bank, where his throat was cut, and his head finally
oevered from his body.+ Walee Khan ultimately fell into the
hands of Yakoob Beg, by whom he was put to death in 1866.
I n 1857, Khoda Yar Khan, of Khokan, having given offence
to his people, was deposed by his nephew Malla Khan, and fled
to Bokhara, where he waa well received by the Ameer Nusser
Oollah, who gave him his daughter in marriage. Malla Khan
was murdered in his bed by five Kirghiz chiefs, in 1860, after
which a period of anarchy ensued until a Kipchak chief, named
Alam Kool, obtainod the ascendancy, which he secured by the
decapitation of the five Kirghiz murderers. He then aasumecl
the regency in the name of Malla Khan's son, Sooltan W a n ,
and for a time Khokan enjoyed the blessings of a vigorous and
united government. But in 1865, Alam Kool fell in battle
against the Russians, and Mozuffor-ood-decn, now Ameer of
Captain Talikhanof, who visited Eastern Toorkestan in 1859 in the
character of a native trader, alludes to the cruelties practised both by the
Kirgl~izaud Chinese in that mnutry. Schlagintweit's head waa exposed to
view as the apcs of a pyramid of skulls, and the road approaching Kashgar
was bordcred on ewli side with small wicker cages containing l~umanheads.
8 74 CENTRAL ASIA.

Bokhara, taking advantage of the confusion that prevailed,

restored Khoda Yar Khan to the throne. The Kipchaks there-
upon fled with the youthful Sooltan Khan to the Kooshbegie,
Mohammed Ynkoob Beg, who received the little prince with
every demonstration of respect.
Yakoob Beg is said to be of Tajeek extraction, and to have
been born at Pishpek, now a Russian possession; though Mr
Hayward fixes hia birth-place at a village near Namangan.
His courage and remarkable abilitics had raised him from one
poet to another, until he attained the high office of Kooshbegie,
or Commander-in-chief of the Khokan forces, then vainly
endeavouring to check the advance of the Russians. I n this
truly patriotic war Yakoob Beg displayed very considerable
military skill, and so fearlessly exposed his own person that he
was five times wounded by Russian bullets. His defence of
Ak Musjeed waa eufficiently obstinate to command the admira-
tion of the enemy, but circumstances connected with the ulti-
mate surrender of that strong place were held to prove that he
was not a second Fabricius. When Sooltan Khan fled to him
for protection he was serving in Kashgaria as the right arm of
Khoja Boozoorg Khan, son of the Jehangheer Khan who waa
carried to Pekin in a cage and executed in 1828.
Under the Chinese government, Zungaria and Eastern Toor-
kestan were the northern and southern circuits of a province
denominated Ili, and were governed from Kulja. The admin-
istration seems to have been of a qunei-military character, and
has been likened to the syatem that exists in the Non-Regula-
tion Provinces of India. The Chinese had incorporated large
numbers of the Tungallis among their regular troops, and had
thus supplied them with arms and discipline, while they thcm-
eelvea were demoralized by excessive indulgence in opium and
other drugs. I n 1864, the Mohammedan agitation, which had
broken out in M a r and Kansu, spread to the province of Ui.
 THE AMEEB OF KASHGAR. 375

Khamil and Urumchi were the first towns to rise in rebellion.

The latter town was the depot for tea for all Central Asia.
The Tungani soldiery having compelled their co-religionists,
the Sarh, to join them, put the Manchus to the sword, and an
extensive conflagration destroyed many warehouses filled with
tea.
The insurgents marched thence in two bodies, one to the
north, the other to the south. The former met with an unin-
terrupted series of successes, so that by the autumn of 1865 the
Chinese retained only four places in all Zungarin, including the
citadels of Kulja and Chuguchak. A t this last-named place
the Kirghiz declared for the Tunganis, while the Kalmuke
espoused the opposite side, and, crosaing the Russian frontier,
fell upon the Kirghiz encampment, which they plundered for
two whole days. The booty they then carried off consisted of
100,000 sheep, GOO0 hornod cattle, 600 cnmels, and 1300 horses,
while they left amid the ashes of the encampment 300 dead
bodies, 200 carcases of slaughtered sheep, and 1500 masterless
dogs, which, after devouring corpse and carcase, became des-
perate and scoured the country in formidable packs. Early in
1866 the Tunganis carried the citadel of Kulja by storm, mas-
sacred the garrison, and gained yoesession of Zungaria nortb of
the Tarbtigntai mountains.
I n the mean while, the southern wave of rebellion rolled in
westward from the desert of Gobi. I n the eastern districts the
population generally sympathized with the Tunganis, but not
so in Altyshuhr. Aksu and Ush-Turfan speedily fell, and no
quarter was nsked or given. The Mwulman host next elected
as their ruler Khoja Rasheed-ood-deen, and then marched
against Yarkund. The town at once fell illto their hands, but
the Chinese retiring into the fort held them a t bay for six
weeks, by which time everything eatable had been consumed,
and death by starvation aeemed imminent. The Tungani leader
376 CHNTEAL ASIA.

having offered life and amnesty to all who embracad the true
religion--as professed by himeelf-the venerable Amtmn or
Chin- governor of Altphuhr, called together his chief officers
in an upper room of the palace, and invited them to express
their opinions. A violent wrangle ensued, in the midst of
which the old man's daughters sat weeping at hie feet, while
his sons handed round tea and sweetmeab. Suddenly the tar-
rible war shout of the Moslemeen, ' Allah-ho &bar !' rang in
their eare. Addressing a few brief word13 of farewell to hie
children, the Amban calmly reversed his long pipe and allowed
the hot ashes to fall upon a train, connected with a large quan-
tity of gunpowder placed in the room below. An explosion
followed on the instant, and all were blown into the air, a little
page-boy alone escaping to tell the heroic tale.
Encouraged by the general confusion, the Kirghiz had
ewooped down from their mountains like a flock of vultures, but
lost their chance of plunder by suffering themselves to be de-
tained for six months before the walls of Kashgar. Ignorant
of the art of war, and wholly unprovided with artillery, they
could do nothing but cut off all supplies, and trust to famine
ae their surest auxiliary. And the besieged were reduced to a
sorry plight. 'First,' says Y r Shaw, ' they ate their horses,
then the dop'and cata, then their leather boots and strap, the
addles of their horsea, and the strings of their bows. At last,
they would collect together in parties of five or six, who would
g o prowling about, with ravenous eyes, till they saw some one
alone, some unfortunate comrade, who still retained the flesh on
his bones. They would drag him aside and kill him, after-
wards dividing the flesh betwixt them, eaoh carrying off his
piece hidden under his robe. Thirty or forty men died of hun-
ger every day. At last, when no defenders were left on the
walls, or at the gateways, the Kirghiz made good their entrance.'
Indescribable barbarities were committed by these snvagee
 THE AMEER OF KABHGAR. 377

until they were surprieed and routed by Boozoorg Khan and

the Kooshbegie, and their leadere summarily executed. Leaving
the main body of his troops to blockado the Chinese garrison in
the Yangshuhr, or Fort of Kashgar, Yakoob Beg marched with
a small force against the overwhelming host of the Tunpnis.
The two armies met on the Kanarik near Yupchan, and the
battle raged for eight hours. Yakoob Beg had two horses shot
under him, and received two severe gun-shot wounds, from
which he fainted, but not until the victory had been won by
repeated desperate charges. The submission of Yanghissar wm
the first fruits of this well contasted action, which broke the
power of the Tunganis. Early in 1865, the Chinese garrison
of the Fort of Kashgar surrendered to the Kooshbegie, accepting
life a t the cost of their religion.
Yakoob Beg waa not, however, equally successful a t Yar-
kund. Entoring the town with only 500 horsemen, he waa .
surprised to find that the population sided with the Tunganis.
The gates being closed upon him, 200 of his little band struck
down, and himself wounded, he rode up the city wall and
leaped down into the moat, ecrambling up the other side. I n
his daring leap he wes followed by the survivors of his party,
but he then went to the rear and was the laat to leave the moat
-a truly valiant barbarian. His second attempt also failed,
but at last treachery triumphed, and the Tungani faction was
overpowered.
Hitherto Yakoob Beg had fought and bled and conquered
as the General of noozoorg Khan, a feeblo old debauchee. H e
now felt that the time had arrived to throw off the mask and act
in his own name. The Khoja waa accordingly placed in confine-
ment, but in 1868 was permitted to make a pilgrimage to
Mecoa, whence he returned in scrfety by way of Bokharu, and
retired to his native hills of Andijan. The execution of tho
atrocious Khoja Wulee Khan must bo r e p d o d as almost a
878 CENTRAL ASIA.

meritorious act, and was necessary to the consolidation of

Y h b Beg's power. The vigour he had displayed in restoring
the Land of the Six Citiecl to Mohammedanism called forth the
approbation of the b e e r of Bokhara, who beetowed upon the
victorioue Champion of the Faith the appropriate title of
Atalik OhLee, until quite recently the official designation of
the present Ruler of Eastern Toorkeetan, but who has since
received from the Sultan of Turkey the still mom distinguished
title of Ameer.
The Atnlik's next exploit, however, was unutterably foul
and treacherous. The venerable Hajee Habiboula Khan, a Chief
eighty years of age, had at the commencement of the insurrec-
tion expelled the Chinese, and had subsequently routed the Tun-
ganis near Sanju and taken all their guns. This was the Ruler
visitad by Mr Johnson, the English surveyor, who declined the
goverument of Yarkund. The Atalik GhBzee proceeded with a
small force into the province of Khotan, aud encamping near
the capital, declared that he asked only for the Hajee'e blwing
on his e x m t i o n against the Tunganb in the north-eaet. H e
took even a solemn oath on the Koran to the old Chiefs eon
that he intended no harm to his father. Habiboula upon this
proceeded to Pakoob Beg's camp with a mere escort, and was
treated with every possible distinction. When about to take
his leave, however, he was arrested with all hie suite, while the
town was at the same time suddenly attacked and taken.
Habiboula, his son,nephew, and IVuzeer were carried off to Yark-
und and there secretly put to death. ' Their graves,' says Mr
IIajvard, 'may be seen behind the Tungani Zitrrat in the Fort,
where the Khotan sepahis, in memory of their old leader, pro-
ceed every morning to scntter flowers upon his grave.'
31aster of Khotan, the Atalik QhAzee haetened to the north,
and quickly reduced Aksu, Kucha, Ush-Turfan, and Bai
Sairam,-the Kalmuka up to the Ruesian frontier on the Ili
 TEE AMEER OF KASBGAR. 379

engaging to pay tribute. H e then returned to Kashgar for a

brief interval of repose, which was soon interrupted by disturb-
ances in the Sarikol district. The chief town in this mountain-
ous region was appropriately named Tash Kurghan, or the
Btone Fort, surrounded by a wall built of huge blocks of stone,
and a mile-and-a-half in circuit.* On the death of Babash Beg,
the local chief, in 1866, hie eldest son succeeded to the vacant
seat, but was murdered by his brother Alaf, who avowed
himself the vassal of the Atalik GhLzee, for until then, Sarikol
seems to have enjoyed a sort of rude independence, owing to its
isolated position in the hills and its intrinsic insignificance.
After a little time, however, Alaf renounced his allegiance, but
was compelled to flee to Badakhshan, while his brother, hie
wives, and his principal officers were carried off into captivity
-hie brother being soon afterwarde executed. I n 1868, the
entire population was transported into the plains, and a colony
of Kirghiz and Yarkundies sent up to occupy their deserted
homes and lands.
The whole of Toorkestan was now subdued, and it seemed
that, at last, Yakoob Beg might rest from his labours, and enjoy
the fruits of hi8 long toil. Unfortunately for his peace of mind,
the politico-geographical position of the kingdom he had so
hardly won was in some respects not unlike that of the Low
Countries between Austria and France. On the north, the
dark chilly shadow of Russia fell upon his dominions, and
threatened storm and destruction, while to the south he drended
the ambition or the jealousy of the British Government in Indie,
lest it should be moved to annex his otherwise worthless pos-
eessions to prevent them from falling into the hands of the
Russians. The danger from the north was real, imminent, and
abiding, while that from the south won appeared to be specu-
Hiouen Tsang visited this place in AD. 645, but calls it Kabanddha,
w d its foundation is ascribed to the legendary Afrasiab.
380 CENTRAL ASIA.
- - - -

lative and prospective. I t is not, therefore, a matter for aurpriee

that the Atalik GhAzee should have shown greater anxiety to
cultivate the friendship of his northern than of his southern
neighbourn.
The designs of Ruseia upon this country date from the reign
of Peter the Great, who despatched an expedition to explore
the Irtish, construct a fort on the frontier, and take poseession
of Yarkund, but the undertaking waa premature and came
to nothing. Prince Beckovitch had also instructions to enter
illto direct communications with the Great Moghul and open a
trade-route between the Caspian Sea and India, while a branch
expedition wss to ascend the Jaxartes into Little Bucharia and
push on to Yarkund. The fate of the gallant Circaesian and
his much-enduring troops need not be repeated in this place, but
me are assured by the Dutch Orientalist Bentinck that ' if the
late Emperor of Russia (Peter I.) had lived yet a little longer,
he would have laboured incessantly to establish a regular com-
morce between hie States and the city of Jerkeen, by the river
Irtis, which would have had very advantageous coneequencea
for the subjects of Russia' A hundred and fifty yean, later,
the grand projecta of the founder of the Muscovite Empire
npproacliod their realization. A fort has been erected on the
bnnks of the Naryn only six days from the city of Kaehgar,
and it is stated that both the Terek and the Kashgar-Davan
PURRCR have been made practicable for wheeled conveyances,
and therefore for artillery.
Tho first official communications betwecn the Atalik Qhbzee
nnd tho Russians took place in 1868, for previously to that time
tho latter affected to regard the people of Eastern Toorkestan
aa robole to their ally tho Emperor of China, and Yakoob Beg
as a mero adventurer and soldier of fortune. But in political
ethics success justifies all means, and accordingly in that year,
Cnptain Reinthal, aidc-de-camp to his Excellency the Governor-
 THE AMEER OF KASHGAR. 38 1

General of Russian Toorkestan, was sent from Tashkend on a

complimentary mission to Kashgar-possibly, to ' search out all
the country.' On his return to Tashkend, Captain Reinthal
was accompanied by Meerza Shadee, who went on to St Peters-
burg, where he was received with much distinction.
The Russian mission map perhaps have been hastened by
the steps taken by the Atalik Ghbzee to increase the natural
difficulties of access into his dominions from the north. Not
satisfied with building a fort in the mountains above Artush,
three days' march from Kashgar, he is said to have closed up
several Passes, and generally to have exhibited symptoms of
distrust as to the intentions of his neighbour. Beyond this, he
had twice sent envoys to the Indian GCovernment, but the policy
of a 'masterly inactivity'--or rather of a timid waiting upon
Providence-blinded the eyes and paralysed the arm of the
Viceroy, and Yakoob Beg, still apprehensive of the Chinese and
by no means certain of the loyalty of his own subjects, had no
alternative, but to throw himself into the arms of Russia.
I t is true that in 1870, Mr Douglas Forsyth, a distinguished
member of the Bengal Civil Service, was sent on a mission to
Ktlshgar, but with instructions to return within so brief a period
that he failed to have any interview whatever with the ruler of
the country, at that time engaged in suppressing a formidable
insurrection of the Tunganis in Ush-Turfun and Kucha. Mr
Forsyth, therefore, returned to India without accomplishing
the object ho had in view,-though, personally, he appears to
have done all that any man could do to counteract the mischief
embodied in his feeble, short-sighted instructions. The Atulik
GhLzee was meanwhile successful in his efforts to crush the
rebels, and was carefill, at the some time, to strengthen the dc-
fences of the Aksu and Nuzart Passes.
The Russians, however, watched his progress with a jealous
eye, and in April, 1871, seized upon the town of Kulja, though
382 CENTRAL ASIA.

situated in Chinese territory. I n May of the following year,

Baron Von Kaulbam arrived in Kaahgar, to arrange the pre-
liminaries of a Treaty of Commerce. The Baron had certainly no
r-n to complain of hie;etxption, the Atalik G h k exclaim-
ing with genuine Oriental exaggeration, 'Sit down wherever
you please, upon my knees, upon my bosom. You are guests
aent by Allah.' A military review of 3000 Chinese and
Tungani eoldiers, supported by a battery of artillery, must have
appeared to the Russians in much the same light ae the famoue
review in Windsor Park to tho military suite of Napoleon III.,
at the time of that Emperor's visit to England, in the early
days of the Crimean War. After this display of his weakness,
Yakoob Beg .mid to the Envoy : ' I reckon upon you as upon
my intimate friends, and it is for this reason I have shown you
my eoldiers. Had I thought that you were to become my
enemies, I certainly would not have done so.' H e also frankly
remarked to the Baron that, ' I t is not in the Russian to Live
at peace with his neighbour. R e may do so for a rear or two,
but that is tho utmost. After that he is sure to make war, and
conquer as much a8 he can.' Nevertheless, or perhaps to
lengthen the temporary lull as far as possible, he affixed his
signature to the commercial treaty, and sent Meerza Mah-ood-
deen Maasoum to Tashkend, in company with the Ruesian
Mission. 'To secure the friendship of a neighbouring State
without bloodshed,' said General Kaufmann to the Meerza, ' I
consider to be a blessing from God,' and he advised the Envoy
to visit all the establishment8 in Tashkend that are not yet to
be found in Kashgnr, 'but which in time will doubtless be
introduced there -'a phrase of ambiguous meaning.
The Ruesian idea of treaties with Asiatic Gtates has been
explained by Baron Ton Kaulbam in a letter to the S t Peters-
burg VedomostC, after a fashion little calculated to remove the
suspicions or allay the anxiety of the Atalik Gthbm. ' Speak-
 T E E AMEER OF KASHGAR. YbJ

ing of Treaties,' says the Baron, ' I ought to observe that in

Central Asia such like instruments have not the meaning
accorded to them in Europe. They are no more than a point
d'ap~ui which may be used for the gradual development of
amicable relations, but ought not to be carried out too promptly,
unless we wish to push t,he natives to resistance. Concluded
only to obtain a cessation of hostility, they are at first carried
out very unwillingly, until the natives perceive that the main-
tenance of peace is really the one thing we have at heart. Only
after some time do they realize the truth that peace and cbm-
merce are profitable to both sides, and condescend to hold
friendly intercourse and to profit by the rights accorded them.
The conclusion of Commercial Treaties, therefore, is by no
means the only thing required in Central Asia; it must be
succeeded by a discreet. uae of the privileges obtained, if our
conciliatory mission is to be fulfilled at all. I n fact, there M
nothing permanent on earth. In' Europe as in Asia Treaties
have been broken before now, and may be broken in the future.
I f the time should ever come when we shall be compelled to
conquer this or that country in Central Asia with which we
have previously entered into Treaty stipulations, we shall be
able to console ourselves with the reflection that we shall find
the soil prepared to receive the seed of our influence and culture.
Nor will it be disadvantageous to us in such a case to find a
good many acquaintances in the new country, whom we came
to know through the relations established under these Trea-
ties.'
The exports to India consist of felt cloths, silk, bhang,
pushmeena wool, gold, silver, and cotton ; while t.he imports
include opium, spices, sugar, tea, linen cloths, kinkfib, English
broadcloth, muslins, Knshmeer shawls, fire-arms, leather, uten-
sils of brass, and indigo. From Khokan are received Russian
prints and calicoes, silk, iron, silk caps, cochineal, porcelain,
YIwian k n i r ~and pedlock, E h bradcbths, t o b c m ,
mat& &. A profitable trade in tea might doabtless be carried
rm Altyrhuhr and Cpper India. Though it is Psed m
immmne quantitica, the price in Bashgar at the time of 1Ir
Hhaw'r dventaroan journey r a a ten shillings for a packet
hobline; a p ~ u n d a n d a q u a r t e r . The teasent frrrmChinainto
Cmtral Ania, b d m c r i h l by Moorcroft aa being compressed
into blrxkn of about 8 lbo. each. The leaves are firml,~pressed
together while moist, and each lamp ie covered with m
yellrr paper otampd with a neal impressed 6 t h Chinese
claracters. They are next wrapped in grase, and in that state
cc~nvcycdto I h w a , where they are packed in undressed yak-
skin, the hairy nide inwards, the joinings being neatly secured
by a %wing of fine thongs, or ha. Green tea in lumps way
then ~ ) l dat L d a k h , at the rnte of three rupees per seer, or
thrw nhillinga per pound, and black tea at rather less than two
al~illinpa pound-the retail prices being double these rates
The t r d c between Eastern Toorkestan and Hindatan is
mid to have i n c r m . d uevenfold between 1867 and 1871. I n
the former year a British Commiwioner was appointed to reside
nt Leh in L&kh for a certain portion of each year, to facilitate
commercial intercourse between India and Central Asin, and in
1870 thc 3Iaharajuh of Kashmeer was induced to abolish transit
duticn on merchundiw pakiing through his dominions. Still it
cannot be denied that the present value of this trade is quite
innignificant, if measured by the standard of mutual commerce
between any two European countries. Besides, it is as yet in
thc hands of native traders, and much resembles the itinerant
semi-retail mode of traffic that prevailed in Europe during the
middle ages. Neither the manufacturers nor the merchants of
England are likely to take much personal interest in an
exchange of commodities conveyed for many hundred miles over
pathless mountains on the backs of small ponies and smaller
 THE AXEER OF KASHQAR. 388

corns. A business of this kind is evidently more suited to the

semi-Asiatic, pedlar-like genius of the Russians, and it may be
safely predicated that by far the larger share of the trade of
Central Asia will ultimately fall into their hands. Indeed, they
have already secured a monopoly wherever their power has been
established. The Caspian Sea they have long since made a
iU(ire clnusunt, contrary to the spirit of international comity,
which requires that every navigable sea, and strait, and river
should be open to thc flags and commercial enterprise of all
nations. One might, perhaps, go further and insist that true
international cornity demands the abolition of all restrictions
upon trade, of alI export and import dutics, and that the inter-
change of produce and manufactures should be free and unfet-
tered over tfhe whole earth.
Awaiting that commcrciul millcnniurn, it cnnuot be un-
patriotic to exprcss a rcgret that Ilussia should thus become
dominant over two-thirds of the continent of Abia, and be
enabled to bring an irresistible influcncc to b a r likewise upon
the Chinese Empirc. IIalf a century ago 3loorcroft indignantly
asked if Ladakh, Tibet, and Lhassa were to dcrivc their supplies
of hardware and woollcns froxu England or from Itussia, and
answered his own question by the odrnission that there could be
little doubt ' to which thc prize will be awarded, fur eritcrprise
and vigour Inark the measurcs of Russia towards the nations of
Cc~ltralAsiii, wl~ilstours are characterized by mispluccd squeam-
islinese and unncccssary timidity.' IIc gives also a curious
illustration of tho mode of opcratioll pursucd by the Russian
G o r c r n ~ u cto
~ ~obtain
t accurate i~lformationan to t l ~ capabilitie~
c
of ~ e i ~ h b o u r i ustates,
g at tho hlrmo timc convcyuig exalted
notioxis of the power of Itussia, and holding out promisea and
expectations which could at any timc be repudiated by simply
disavowing the agent.
A g Mehdi Raphael, son of a Pcrsinn Jcw scttlcd in Kash-
26
356 CESTRAL ASIA.

meer, was at an early age left an orphan, and to obtain a lireli-

hood served in a menial capacity. Raving saved a little money,
he started as a pedlar and found his way into Russia, where h e
developed into a shawl-merchant. Up to that time he h d pro-
fessed Islam according to the doctrines of the Sheenhs, but h e
now proclaimed himself a Christian, and was presented to the
Tzar, who granted him a sort of roving commission, and em-
ployed him as an agent to ' extend the influence of Russia to
the confines of British India, as well as to acquire information
regarding the geographical and political circumstances of t h e
intervening countries.' He appears to have given satisfaction,
for on his return from a lengthened tour he received from the
Emperor, Alexander I., a gold chain and a medal, and was
again sent forth like the raven from the Ark. Among his
credentials were a letter from Count Sesselrode to Runjeet
Singh, commending to his notice the 'merchant and aulic
counccllor,' as a respectable person anxious to do business. A
similar letter was sent to the ruler of Ladakh. One whole year
of his adventurous career was passed by Aga Mehdi in the
service of an English dyer, settled in Russia, and he died at last
quite suddenly while crossing the Karnkoram mountains.
His partner, Jlohnmmed Zahoor, however, reached Leh with
a small kafilah of cochineal, indigo, mod, &c., kc., to be used
in Kashmecr in dying shawl goods, ' according to specimens of
colour on flannel furnished by a British artist at St Petersburg.'
Besidcs tliesc dyes, he had a collection of rubies and emeralds far
too costly for the Tibet and Lahore markets, 'and it seemed
probable that they were designed for presents rather than for
~:ile.' IIis stock of miecellnneous articles further consisted of
Russian telescopes, English cutlery, phosphorus boxes, kc., kc.,
and a considerable sum in money. I t was reported at Erarkund
that the Aga assured the Hohammedans that they might rely
upon the aid of Russia in throwing off the Chinese yoke, and
 THE ANEER OF KASBGAR. 387

that he had irlvitcd the rightful heir to the throne to St Peters-

burg, promising to send him back with an army to effect his
restoration to the throne of his ancestors. I t was also said that
Runjeet was to be asked to send envoys to St Peteraburg, whose
charges should be defrayed by the Russian government. At
Yarkund this clever emissary professed lfohammedanism after
the Soonee fashion.
According to Lieutenant Hayward, the most direct route
from India to Eastern Toorkestan lies across the Chang Lang
Pass, 15,830 feet above the sea, and keeping to the westward of
the Lingzie Thung plains, traverses the upper valley of the
Karakaeh river, crosses the Earatagh Pass, at an elevation of
17,953 feet, and so reaches the dk-tagh, or White llountains.
The track pursued by caravans from this point to the Karakoram
Pass is strewed with the skeletons of horses and other animals,
a spectacle that drew from the English traveller the obvious
remark that 'the great commercial enterprise of the Toorkestan
traders is fully evinced by their efforts to carry their merchan-
dise hundreb of miles over what would be thought in Europe
such impracticable mountains. Their losses in horses must be
considerable, for a caravan duriug its journey from Yarkund to
Leh, and b:~ckto Toorkestan, generally loses a third at least of
its horses.'
F1.orn the Ak-tagh the route descends the valley of the Yar-
kund river, crobses the Kuen Lun range by the Yangi Pass,
and, winding down into the plains at Kugiar, proceeds to Knr-
ghnlik and Yarkund. From the Chang-Chenmo Pass to
Koolunoolc1cc ill the Yarkund valley there would be little
difficulty in making a road practicable for two-whceled con-
vqanccs, rind in the upper Earakash tallcy there is a fair
supply of both grass and fuel. ' A n army,' N r IInywurd
rcmarks, 'attempting a pnssage across the mountains from
Eastern Toorkestan to India would have no great impediment
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17,r rrio:;:.+.,:n l,l,;;:-cr.n Little Tibet and Eastern

r.:.:.e
TIZ,I!,'.-*::~I id rot 1, - 3 t!,:In -I.;!, milei in length, and varies in
I , I I , to I ' O f e e . %me faint idea of the
kt I I ~ I , ~ : I I (.11:11.;11.11:r
IOII\ of ~ I I Cvo!l.xnic azencg that uphmved this
~ ~ . ( , ~ I I I . I I I ~ O1,:rrrir.r
III( rn:iy bc nffi,rrled by the fact that the base of

tht: l l i r r ~ : r l r t ~ :i ~r rrtowlrcrre 1r.s~than 400 miles in breadth from

t ~ r , t . f l r 11, r c o l t t 1 1 . It, in un if ull England and Scotland between
I , ~ , I I I ~llrtrlI ~ I I1,:tl i111n11'ghwcre sltddcnly broken up, and raised in
, u height of which the lowest indentation,
~ ~ r ~ * ~ - i l t i t tI I, rI ~rVuH ( ~ H to
or vtrll~y,nl~o~rltl bc on a lcvcl with the summit of Nont 13lnnc.
 TnE AMEER OF KASHGAR. 330

The route recommended by Mr Johnson starts from the

Punjab to the kindostan and Tibet road to the Chinese frontier,
crosses tho Chumourti plains to the Indus, whence it proceeds
to Rudok, and thence by the Changthang Pass to Yolou, five
marches to the south-east of Ilchi, or Khotan. This is a cir-
cuitous way, but possesses the advantages of graas, water, and
fuel, nnd avoids the most rugged passes. TVheeled conveyances,
Mr Johnson asserts, may be ariven from the Changchenmo
vnlley vib Rudok to Ilchi and Yarkund. H e further pronounces
the route across the Karakoram Pass to be good so far as the
mere road is concerned, but it is destitute of water and grass,
and in minter the cold is so intense that men and laden animals
have been frozen to death on the lofty plateau between the
Niobra and the Karakash river^.
Lieutenant Huyward was informed by an Afghan trader
that tho best route was by the Chitral valley, but that it would
be unsafe for an English traveller. One of the highest living
authoritics, however, is undoubtedly 9Ir Robert Shnw, formerly
a tea-planter in the Kangra valley, subsequently British Com-
missioner at Leh in Ladakh, and now British Resident at the
Court of the Ameer of Kashgaria. The Ladakh district is
formed by the widening of the valley of the Upper Indus, and
lies midway between the 'ten long mountail1 ridges, more or
less parallel, which divide India from Turkestan '-having five
of these ridges on each side. To the east and south-east lie tho
districts of Rudok and Chumourti ; to the south, Lahoul and
Spiti ; to the west Knshmeer and Baltistan, the formex; separated
from it by tho Western Himalayn, the latter by an imiiginary
line drawn from tho mouth of the Dras to the sources of tho
Niobra. Its greatest length from N.W. to S.E. is 240 miles,
and its greatest breadth 2!)0, but its mean length is about 200,
nncl its mean breadth 150 miles, containing a superficial area of
30,000 square miles.
 U a-n G e x J C&:Lm.,- k d d b~ the Tibet-

-
La-*+-. a d L.u \hr-~-L i-r :Le &xi or h w Land, and
wtzcrke.; EA<.=-;~ or 51:s.~h it It fi>rmerlrsub-
jet: :a LL- :b 'Z 1c34 it & b~ G L L Sizg, ~ and is
L.:-r r F?;FZCY ~f L ~ E z x - x . p:,yle arv B ~ d l i h and
~,
cf C-:rz.e:r+ s rFt h-pl W k h d e is the ~
mrrrl a d mx: p - ~ i - m pti.:,~ of t5e Lrtrict It is 1 . ' ~
- .
d z j l i z a d k r : t i r t . cl.mpr,rzz- rn uen of 4 0 : ~ )quare
d s ,ri:h a rct.tm zItci:i-n of 11.-?: fe:. tLc.u++ the town of
Leh k p h ~ b d nr-mnla: 11.74*.1ftvt a h r e the
Fn7m I-,& L I is m w h d b ' f v l l o r k ? up the two easiest
of the Ere r i v e n of &e h j a b to their Trarellers
fimn the -sx:Lem p r t of the h j ~ t b~ t ethe mute b~ the
EL,& ririrer. mEch 1-2s thmutfi the hn:i;irl of Kulln;
r 5 l e the more nor~Ezr1-m x e fCb2om the Jhe'kn rirer into the
e q - d c b u : i i u l and mom c e l e b n t ~ d\-ale of Calhmir. From
ttt- ~ C -n-ysti~t;!c. ea:h mute c m - 5 orer the natershed
J

k t o the d r s i - s ~of the C p p r Irdus, a nksicn distinguished by

aridit? and high eler~tion,and f ~ r m i n gp r t of the -t plateau
of Ti'st. The- t E w arrire f i n d ? at the p o t d e p e o n of
the r p p r In& d t d hdik'
' Thence,' cim:inut..j 31r Shsr, ' there is a choice of two
routes a r i n , and a r e T few r o A d l su5ee to show their
relative merits. &-snd Lsd& the lofty mountain rangee are
drained b?- rivers running in a ,nenerd dirwtion of S.W. The
d i m t n x d to Turkiltsn, which is the old one, strikes boldly
acnks all the diEcultis of this district, climbirg up to the
r i d p , and plcngkig into the p r p s , p b g at right angles t o
their general din~:ioa,and finsll?- cr05.qicg into the G n t r a l
Asisa b i n , orer the high lip or edge called the Garakoram
Pas, where for five da-s, at an elevation aren,&g 17,000 or
18,000 feet above the sea, no fodder can be found for tbe bag-
* O<.~.ror
nir:!rzfs: IugIEt, 1572.
 THE AMEER OF KASHGAR. 391

gage animals. With the view of avoiding these difficulties,

other routes have been sought out. I t has been found thnt by
going round a little to the east, the heads of all these rivers can
be turncd, and the traveller can pass round them in a high
country, where the ranges have sunk down, and the valleys
have been exalted 80 as to form a comparatively level tract
with but few formidable irregularities. This region, moreover,
possesses the advantage of supplying grass for the horses at
almost every stage, so that there is only one day in which the
animals are entirely dependent on the grain carried with them.'
I t is not, however, from this quarter that any danger to the
security of the British rule in India can be seriously appre-
hend~d. Under certain conceivable circumstances some mis-
chief might possibly be wrought by the intrigues of secret
emismria instructed apargere coces in rulgrtm nmhigrms, but for
such purpose it is by no means necessary that Russia should
possess a dominant influence in Eastern Toorkestan. ?tialicious
rumours may be originated at any point beyond as well as
within her territories, but it is scarcely possible that an invad-
ing army will ever be hurled against India, oven through the
compnratirely practicable valleys between the Karakoram and
Kuen Lun ranges. Neither can it be pretended that the money
value of the trade thnt under the most favourable contingencies
is ever likely to be carried on between British India and Cen-
tral Asia is worthy of much consideration on the part of the
British Government, or deserving of any very vigorous ex-
hibition of diplomacy. As a general rule, trade ]nay be safely
trusted to find its own level, and no amount of lectures-or lead-
ing articles will induce the people of Eastern Toorkestan to
lcan to Anglo-Indian ratlicr than to Ruushn traders, unless
they fiud it to be to thcir positive advantage to do so, through
the inferior price or superior quality of the goods offered in
barter for their own raw materials or textile fabrics. I t is
302 CESTRAL ASIA.

idle, therefore, to attach any extraordinary importance to the

coquetting missions that have been lately interchanged between
tho Atalik Cfhilzeo and the Viceroy of India. Friendly and
neighbourly relations are always worth cultivating, and in
that sense it is antisfactory to know that the visit paid to Cnl-
cutta in March, 1873, by Yakoob Beg's nephew and heir-
apparent, h:is been returned in a becoming style by Xr-now
Sir-Douglas Forsyth, as the representative of tho Indian
Government. As a matter of international courtesy the pro-
ceeding was quite proper and even commendable, but it cer-
tainly does not merit the tone of importance in which it has
been mentioned in the public prints.
At the same time the British Government would have
manifested culpable apathy, or irresolution, hnd it t i l e d to
take official notice of the rapid advance of the Russian forces
into Central Asia, and so far back as the spring of 1869 Lord
Clarendon 'earnestly recommended the recognition of some
territory as neutral between tho possessions of England and
Rusqia, mliich should be the limit of those possessions, and be
~cn~pulou.ily respected by both Powers.' The suggestion was
received in a friendly spirit by the Government of St Peters-
burg, but four years of protracted negotiation elapsed before a
definite arrrmgement could be devised equnlly accc;)table to both
parties. Tho original idea of a neutral zone was, however,
abandoned as prnctically impossible, or at least as ill calculated
to attain the object proposed by Lord Clnrendon, and in the
end it mas mutually irgrccd that the line of demarcation bc-
tween tho direct 'i~ifluenccs' of the two Governments sllould
be coincident with the northern boundary of the territories of
the Ameer of Kabul. The misunderstanding that threatened
to arise with reqpect to the exact definition of this frontier was
removed by the prompt and courteous adoption by the Russian
Government of the viclvs enunciated by the British Cabinet.
 THE AMEER OF KASBGAR. 303

I t was, therefore, finally decided that the Ameer Shere Ali

should be considered the sovereign ruler of Badakhshan, with
its dependent district of Wakhan, from the Sir-i-kul on the
east, to the junction of the Kokcha with the Oxus or Panjn;
and also of Afghan Toorkestan from that point on thc Oxus to
the post of Khoja Saleh, inclusive, embracing the districts of
Kunduz, Khulm, and Balkh, and extending in a westerly direc-
tion to Andkhui-the desert beyond being given up to the
Toorkomans.
I t is true that the petty States comprised within this
boundary enjoyed a rude sort of independence until they were
annexed to Afghanist.an by Dost 31ohammed in 1850, but it
appears from I\lountstuart Elphinstone's 'iiccount of the
Kingdom of Caubul'-published in 1814-that the Afghan
dominions reached to the Oxus at a much earlier period. ' The
only actual possession of the llfghauns in Toorkestnun,' he says,
' is the district immetliutely around Bnlkh ; but the possessor of
that city has always been considered as the rigl~tfulmaster of
its dependencies, which include the track having the Usus on
the north, the mountains of IIindoo Coosh and Paropamisus on
tho south, Dudukhshaun on the east, and (generally spenking)
the descrt on tlie west. The estcnt of this tract may be near
250 miles ill length (from cast to west), and from 100 to 120
miles in breadth (from north to south).'
- .-.- - -- - - - -

I n his nccoont of Central Asian discoreries published in the R q a l Geo-

graplrical Sucictj's ' Proceedings,' N r Shew remarks :-
r our Iicte President, Sir ltoderick Jlurchison, I descrihcd my
' I n n l c t ~ c to
nsto~~isLnrent in walking across an open plaiu from wntcrs which ruu towards
Ccnt~ulAsia to otllers wl~ichflow into the Indus; while the mighty mountain
range, topped sit11 glaciers and perpctunl now, wl~ich for days before L
reucl~cdit llad seemed to bar all access to the southern regions, was found, on
a nearer approncl~,to be riddled t l ~ r o u g land~ through by the streams which
risr in the nortl~cruplateaux. More recently a striking proor of the same
fact re;tchcd me. Lmt Scar I hod rcco~~~ntcnded certain shooting grounds
304 CENTRAL ASIA.

north of tlie Karakorum to some officers of the 37th Regiment in search of

sport. Captain Skinner and his companions, finding themselves on the Upper
Karakash Kiver, and their time being scanty, thought to return by a short cut
to the Indus, leaving the Karakorum Pass to the west of them. On arriving
at Leh their first inquiry of me was, " What has become of the Karakorum
Range P Has it vanished l" " I n fact, they had beeu tempted to follow a
broad opening southward from the Karakash Kiver, expecting always to cross
the lofty range marked on the maps; but, after traversing several high barren
plains, had found themselves on the banks of a stream running into the Indua,
without having crossed any range at all. Having thus abolished the Kara-
korum Chain, we map, I think, proceed to do the same with sereralothers, and
uotably with Humboldt's Bolor or Belut Tagh. The explorations of the Rus-
sians from Khokand and Samarcand, and of Major Nontgomerie's men from
t l ~ eUpper Oxus, seein to show that the highlands of the Pamir, Alai, kc.,
participate in the cliaracter of the country I have just described. High snowy
ranges there are, but tlley do not deterniine the main flow of the rivers ; on
t.hecontrary, the crossing from one great river systelii to the other is generally
over an almost insensible rise. The same miglit be gathered from a statement
of a Kashmiri prisoner, whom we met with in Kashgar. He l~adbeen captured
in one of the wild valleys soutl~of the watershed (near that wliere the unfortun-
ate Hayward was afterwards murdered). In accordance with the cuetoms of
that region he liad been sold as a slave. Wounded, barefooted, almost naked,
he hnd bccn tied to the tail of his master's liorae and led, with other slaves,
across into Central Asia. In such a piiglit he would probably hare magnified
fourfold any difficulties of the road ; but Ile could not, wlien asked, remember
having crossed any mountain pass on t l ~ ejourney, and only after repeated in-
quiry recollected a cert.ain spot were tho waters had been shed into opposite
directions.'
 BADAKHSHAN. 395

CHAPTER XVI.

BADAKHSHAN.

BADAKHBHAN-HIBTORICAL BKETCH-INHABITANTS- HISDOO KOOBH -THE

-BLAVE8- AIBEK - KHULY, OR TAEHKUBGHAX -
HAZAEEHB - BYKAN
MAZAB -BALKH -KUNDUZ - 00ZBIZG8 - KHANA-A-ABAD-TALIKHAN-
PYZABAD-JEBY-MANNERS AND CUBTOMB-WAKHLY-K00B00T-ISU-
KABHY -KUNDUT-KIBGHIZ ENCAMPXGXT.

BA~AKHSHA the
N ,Bactria of classical writers, shared the
vicissitudes of its more powerful neighbours, from the over-
throw of the Grew-Bactrian Kingdom down to comparatively
recent times. The royal family claimed to be descended from
Alexander the Great until the middle of the fifteenth century,
when the male line expired in Shah Sholtan Mohammed.
During Baber'e early struggles the whole of Tokhara was in
the hands of a Kipchak Toork, named Khosroo Shah, and tho
country was overrun by Toorks, Moghuls, and vagabonds dc-
scended from the hordes of Chinghiz and Timour. When
Baber was firmly seated on the throne of Delhi, he bestowed
the province of Badakhshan upon his son Hoomayoon, who
governed it for eight or nine years until his accession to the
Imperial power. From that time it remained practically in-
dependent till Shah Jehan, in the middle of the seventeenth
century, dcputed his sons Moorad and Aurungzeb to reesbblirjh
the imperial authority in that remote province. On tho rcduc-
tion of Balkh and tho adjacent territory, Shah Jehan appointed
as Governor the previous ruler Nnzar Nohammed, whose pos-
terity continued undisturbed for a hundred years, when thoy
306 CENTRAL ASIA.

wcrc succeeded by the dynasty that, a century later, succumbed

to the arms of Dost Mohammed.
I n 17G9 the Chinese pursued two of the Khoja family t h e y
hnd expelled from Kashgnria into Badakhshan, one of whom
shortly afterwards died of the wounds he had received. T h e
othcr, in definnce of all laws of hospitality, was arrested, con-
demned to death, and executed, to gratify the hatred of t h e
Chinesc. The Khoja, being also a Syud, cursed the country
that permitted the perpetration of such a sacrilego as the mur-
der of a descendant of the Prophet, and prayed that it might
be thrice depopulated. The uncharitable wish was gratified.
First, in 1765 Shah Walee Khan, TVuzeer of Ahmed Shah
Abdali of Kabul, ravaged the province, put to death the
treacherous Soolhn Shah, and-worse than all--carried off
JIobammcd's shirt, a relic not less authentic than St Veronica's
handkerchicf. Again, in the commencement of the present
century Kokan Beg, Chicf of the Kataghan Oozbegs of Kun-
duz, swcpt through the land with fire and sword. And for the
third time, in 1829, when Kokan's son Noorad carried off
thousands into hopeless captivity, or planted them in the pesti-
lcntinl swamps of Kunduz.
On Moorad's death his power passed to Nohammed Walee
Khan, Ameer of Khulm, but in 1850 the Afghans recovered
Balkh, and Kunduz nine years later, when Meer Jehandar
Shah was reinstated in the government of his ancestors, with
Fyzabnd for his capital. This arrangement, however, was not
destined to remain long in force, for in 1867 the province of
Dndakhshan was committed to the stewardship of Xeer Nah-
mood Shah, who was lately driven out by tho people, but re-
fitored by Ameer Shere Ali, to whom he pays an annual tribute
of 60,000 rupees, or £5000.
The Badakhshces, as the people of Badakhshan are called,
are descendants-according to Dr WOE-of the captive tribes
 BADAKRSHAN. 397
of Dan, Naphthali, Zabulon, and Asser. They are described
by Hiouen Tsang as a hard and violent race, without religion,
without letters, and of a mean aspect. The country he calls
Po-to-tch'oang, and speaks favourably of its productive powers,
notwithstanding the coldness of the climate, which necessitated
the use of woollen garments. I n the eyes of Marco Polo,
Badakhshan was a very great kingdom, producing lapis lazuli,
brrlas rubies-whence it was sometimes named Balakh-khan, or
Ruby Land-and silver ore. The horses, he adds, were won-
derfully swift, and though unshod traversed the mountains
with ease and safety. This statement is in some degree
confirmed by Captain Wood, except that he represents them a'i
being shod on the fore feet with circular shoes. They are
small, hardy animals, and always go at a gallop over the most
rugged and difficult country.
At the present day the population is almost exclusircly
Tajeek, a quiet, hospitable people, speaking Persian, much
given to trade, and professing the doctrines of the Sheeuhs.
A local tradition traces their origin to the neighbourhood of'
Baghdad, and they themselves pretend that their name is dc-
rived from the Arabic word Tarlj, an ornament for the head
which the founder of their race stole from Mohammed. I t is
probable, however, that they come direct from the original
inhabitants of the country.
Sir Alexander 13urnes was charmed with the romantic
beauty of the scenery, and speaks like a 'kindly Scot' of it,
mountain streams, leaping down from the highlands and fer-
tilizing tho plains. The fruits, the flowers, and the night-
ingales, likewise drew forth expressions of delight. I t ie true
that he had just emerged from the bleak gorges of the IIindoo
Koosh, and was prepared to welcome the change from barren
cliff8 and gloomy precipices to the pleasant champaign cou~ltry
that Iny spread out before him.
398 CENTRAL ASIA.

Strictly speaking, Hindoo Koosh is the name only of the

highest snowy peak, but it hm long since been applied to the
chain which begins in Kashmeer to the westward of the I n d m
and extends 440 geographical miles to the westward, winding
bctween 34" 30' and 3 5 O N. The highest point is a little to
the east of Bamian, after which the range gradually decreases
in altitude. I t was called by the Arab geographers ' the Stony
Girdle of the Earth,' and by their predecessors, the historians
of Alexander's campaigns, was regarded 8s a continuation of
the Western Caucasus. The Koh-i-Baba penk is said to attain
an altitude of 18,000 feet, but there are seven Passes, of which
the highest, Hajeekak, does not exceed 13,000 feet above the
sea, or 7000 above the city of Kabul. Between Kabul and
Bamian three considerable ridgea have to be traversed, and the
same number between Bamian and Khulm.
The spurs and valleys between the Afghan capital and He-
rat are peopled by Eimaks and Hazarehe, the latter a Tatar race
resembling the Kirghiz of the Pameer. Their numbers were
vnguely estimated by Captain Wood at 156,000, and at thnt
time-1836-they were subject to Kunduz, to whose ruler they
paid a small tribute in slaves. They barter carpets, felt, strong
brown chogns, and ghce, or clarified butter, in exchange for white
and coloured coarse cotton cloths, Peehawur loongees, &c.;
their possessions consisting chiefly of fine flocks of sheep of the
Dhumba breed, and small, hardy horses. Lead and sulphur
are found in Inrge quantities. The women go about unveiled,
and are delicate-looking for mountaineers. The men, there-
fore, do most of the out-of-door work, which for seven months
in the twelve is confined to gathering fuel. The houses nre
flat-roofed, and built of stone, and are divided into several
rooms-men and women sleeping apart.
The Haznrehs belong to the Sheeah sect, and one tribe, the
Jnkoorie, 'on hospitable thoughts intent,' tender their wives to
 BADAKHSHAN. 309

their guests. Rigid morality, indeed, does not appear to charuc-

terize the social habits of the Sheeahs. I n the holy city of
Meshed, 'une nombreuse population,' M. Khanikof cynically
remarks, 'de femmes jeunes et belles, qui d'apr8s lea r&gles
accommodantes du rite chiita ne ddmandent pas mieux que de
conclure des mariages parfaitement lkgitimes pour un mois,
pour quelqucs sdmaines, et m&me pour vingt-quatre heures,
prdsente au pkldrin Nusulman un moyen facile d'oublier qu'il
est loin du foyer domestique.'
I n the region of perpetual snow is found a caterpillar re-
sembling a silk-worm, which dies if removed to a moro genial
temperature. Birds often perish in attempting to fly across,
or when driven before the wind. Travellers, too, suffer much
from giddiness and retching, and usually provide themselves
with lumps of sugar and mulberries to relieve respiration.
But as a troop of pedlars from Cabool,
Cross underneath the Indian Caucasus,
That vast sky-neighbouring mountain of milk snow;
Finding so high that, as theg mount, theg pnss
Long flocks of travelling birds dead on the snow,
Choked by the air, and scarce can theg themselvee
Slake their parch'd throats wit11 sngar'd mulberries-
In single file theg move, and stop the breath,
For fear they should dislodge the o'er-hangiug snows.

As soon ns tlic snow melts in the valleys the ploughsharc is

driven into the ground. The seed is sown early in June, and
the crops gurnerd before the end of September. Ro trees are
to be seen on tho hill-sides, and tho only fuel obtainable is
funiished by a stunted furze with thorns like hedgehog quills.
Assofwtidn tllrivee lwurinntly nt an altitude of 7000 feet, and
grows to the height of eight to ten feet. I t is an annual, and
is cnten eagerly by both men and beasts. The milk as it exudes
from the htnlk is perfectly white, but soon turns yellow. When
it has hardened it is put into bags made of hair. A good-sized
400 CENTRAL ASIA.

plant will yield 4 lb. of dried juice. Aromatic planb also

abound. I n the valleys fruit trees are cultivated without d i 5 -
culty, the apricot being met with in sheltered nooks at a very
high clcvation.
The road often winds through tortuous defiles, and at t h e
foot of wall-like cliffs from two to three thousand feet in height,
which frequently approach on eithcr side so close that the s u n
is excluded at noon-day, and the polar star becomes risible.
At thc same time it must not be forgotten that during t h e
Afghan war a battery of the Bengnl Horse Artillery crossed
tllc Bamian Pass, 12,000 feet above the sea, nor can i t be
doubtcd that a considerable force might be transported from
one side to the other should the easier route by Herat be
judgcd unadvisable. Beyond Bnmian, travellers have to cross
tlic Akrobat-or JF'hite Caravanserai-Pass, 10,200 feet above
the ~ C I Llevel, whencc they dcscend to the village of Sykan i n
the Runduz district. The dreariness of the surrounding moun-
tains iq rclicvcd by the fresh verdure and fruitful gardens of
this valley, which being now happily subject to Kabul, pays its
unnnnl tribute in horses, and not in human beings, as when i t
was 11vld by the Oozbeg chief of Kunduz.
Cirptain Wood beheld ' the tribute ' on its way to that town.
' The able-bodied slaves were chained together ; the aged, who
were too infirm to walk, rode on donkeys, and behind them
wcrc bound children, whose extrcme youth rendered them
happily unconscious of the home they had left, and the liberty
they 1i:ld lost. They all of them were squalid and dirty, and
the rugged pieces of clothing that hung from their shoulders
were but a poor substitute for covering. Ono haggard old
woman, on whose lineaments Time had traced many a wrinkle,
presented an appenrance scarcely human; she was a humiliat-
ing sight.'
At Syknn the rond again nscenh to the Dundan-Shikan or
 BADAKHSHAN. 401

Tooth-Brealrer l'nss, so call~xlfrom its extreme ruggedness and

steepness. I t thence descends into a narrow valley lined with
orchards of apricot trees, and then passes between cliffs 3000
feet in height, and not 300 yards apart. Beyond this is the Kam
Kotal, or Black Pass, the lust on this route though still ninety-
fivc miles from the plains, and after a while the village of Dooab
is reached in the bed of the river of Khulm, between precipices
that appeared to Sir Alexander Burnes as 'terrific.' The
banks of the river, however, are overgrown with rank hemlock,
peppermint, bramble, sweet-briar, and hawthorn, and other
'homely shrubs and plants. A further descent between
' tremeridous defiles,' with hawks and eagles circling overhead,
leads through the Khurm valley to Aibek or Heibuk.
The poisonous arum ia here common as a weed ; vast flocks
browse on aromatic pastures; herds of deer bound along the
rocke overhead ; wild hogs haunt the reeds and jungle ; while
the heart of the valley is a vnst orchard of fruit-frees. Aibek
itself is a flourishing villoge, famous for its dried apricots. It
is the ancient Samangan, the birth-place of hostam, and the
residence of the filtlier of Rudabn, his wife. A conical rock-
cell on the sumrnit of an isolated mound is still known as the
Takht-i-Roostam, or Roostam's throne. Chinghiz is said to
have exterminated 7000 Hindoo families who at that time
peopled this mllcp. A castle built of sun-dried bricks ~ t a n d s
upon a hillock commanding the valley. The houses are dome-
shaped, with a hole in the centre at tho top, evidently modelled
on the Toorkish 2/0111.k(1, and not unlike the Kamtschadale jourts
described in C:~ptuinKing's continuation of ' Cook's Voyages.'
Tho climate is mild, but snakes and scorpions are disagreeably
plentiful. The road at last debouches from the hills by a
narrow defile, easily defensible, the mountains rising out of the
plain like a wall, black, bnre, and abrupt.
Tho chief town in Khulm is properly called Tashkurghan,
26
 402 CENTRAL ASIA.

though it now more frequently passes by the name of the dis-

trict. I n Moorcroft's time-1819 to 1825--it contained per-
haps 20,000 houses, built of clap and sun-dried bricks, one
storied, dome-shaped, and each standing within its own en-
closure. Earthen ramparts, with wooden gates, surround the
town, which is three miles in circumference. The streets are
straight, and tolerably wide, with a runnel of water running
down the middle. Sir Alexander Burnes, however, in 183.2,
estimated the populittion at only 10,000. According to Captain
Wood, 200,000 skins, including those of dogs and cats, are
annually sent thence to Bokhara. Lamb-skins, which are here
procurable for 24 to 30 shillings per hundred, are sold in Bok-
Eara at double those prices. Old Khulm is four or five miles
distant.
Bctwecn Rhulm and 13alkh is the ruined townlet of Mazar,
with its 600 houses, famous for tho Zinrat or Shrine of Hazrat
Mi, built by one of Timour's deuccndnnts, :lnd locz~llybelieved
to contain the body of the Shah JIurdan, or king of men, hli,
the nephew of JIohnmmed, though he was actually buried a t
Nejef near Baghdad. O~lcca year a great fair is held at Mazar,
to which tlie blind the hnlt, and the maim rcsort from a great
distance. Some are cured and some die, but the mzijority bewail
the want of faith that has counteracted the miraculous virtues
of the shrine. During the celebration of this religious fair no
highway robberies are committed in the district, though at
other tinlea of dnily occurrence.
Balkh, called Amo-001-Bulad, or Jiother of Cities, is now in
a stnte of utter decay. According to Persian tradition Balkh
was the birth-place of Zoroaster, and the capital of the empire of
Cyrus, whose throne-a block of white marble-was preserved
in the citadel until a very recent date, if it be not still there.
Firdousi makw Isfundear (Xerxes), the son of Gushtasp (Darius
Hpstaspes), Viceroy of Balkh, and dewriben hie victoria over
 BADAKHSHAN. 403

the neighbouring princes until he succumbed to the superior

prowess of Rooatam.
I n classical times Bnctra obtained a certain historic celeb-
rity as the scene of Alexander's marriage with Roxana, of the
conspiracy of the Pnges, and of the execution, or murder, of
Kallisthenes. I t was also the chief seat of the short-lired Greco-
Bactrian kingdom. During the Aryan empire Balkh was the
seat of an Arcliimagus, and was styled the ' bannerd,' and*
when Zoroaster yielded to Buddha, and the Pymum was re-
placed by the temple, it was still distinguished for its banners.
At the time of the Arab conquests, in the middle of the seventh
century, the great temple was decorated with pennons of silk a
hundred yards in length. I t was, however, still at the height
of its glory when visitcd by Hiouen Taang, who counted a
hundred convents in ' Po-ho,' inhubitcd by 3000 monks. The
New Convent boasted of a statue of Buddha made of precious
metals, and of many rare and valuable articles, the offerings of
the devout, but which mcre too frcqucntly pillaged by neigh-
bowing princes. Among the relics most worthy of veneration
was a basin that held about three pints, in which Buddha used to
perform his ablutions, probably a lotnh. The material maa some-
what of a mystery, but it was of many dazzling colours. There
was a broom dignified by similar nssociutions, with a handle
two feet in length, and seven inches in circumference, set with
precious stones. Yet more worthy of veneration was a tooth of
the divine Tenclier, an inch in length and nearly ns much in
breadth. The town wns strongly fortified, if not over-well
peopled, but the produce of the district wae abundant and
varied, so that it was 'diflcult to enumerate all the flowers
which grow in the water or on the land.'
At the period of ita conquest by the Khalif Othman, the
province of B a k h memured eighty leagues from east to west and
Edinlrrgh Retina, Januar~,1873.
404 CENTRAL ASIA.

forty from north to south, and the circuit of the town walls wtwq
about six miles. Marco Polo says, ' Balc is a noble city and a
great, though it was much greater in former days. Rut t h e
Tatarlr and other nations have greatly ravaged and destroyed
it. There were formerly many fine palaces and buildings of
marble, and the ruins of them still remain.' Although t h e
place capitulated on condition of security to life and property,
Chinghiz Khan compelled the entire population to go forth into
the plain under the pretext of numbering them, when they
were massacred without pity. Ibn Batuta, who visitcd Balkh a
century later, deplores its ruined condition, and remarks t h a t
it had not been 'rebuilt since its destruction by the cursed
Jengis Khan.' ' Its mosque,' he continues, 'was one of t h e
largest and handsomest in the world. Its pillars were incom-
parable ; three of which were destroyed by Jengis Khan,' under
the impression that treasure was concealed beneath them; but,
discovering his mistake, he spared the others. The youthful
Aurungzeb made Balkh the capital of his trans-Himalayan
government, but it was ngnin made desolate by Nadir Shah,
after whose dcnth it fell into the hands of the Afghans, from
whom it was wrested in 1823 by the Ameer of Bokhara. I t
mas recovered, however, by Dost Mohammed in 1850, and is
now included within the northern boundary line of the terri-
tories of the Ameer of Kabul.
The population, chiefly Afghans, was estimated by Sir Alex-
ander Burncs at only 2000. The town, overlooked by a weak
citadel, stands in a plain watered by the Dahash, or ancient
Bactrus. Clumps of trees and broken aqueducts attest its
former cultivation, but at present two-thirds of the district are
waste and unproductive. Luscious fruits, however, are still
procurable, and apricots as large as apples are sold for one
hilling a thousand. Snow is brought down from the moun-
tains, twenty miles distant, and may be enjoyed throughout the
 BADAKHSHAN. 405

summer at a ve'ry low price. Though the heat is never ex-

cessive, the place is considered unhealthy. The harvest takes
place in June, about fifty days later than at Peshawur.
Ninety miles to the westward of Balkh the prosperous town
of Shibrgan, formerly called Shabourkhnn, stands in the midst
of a richly cultivated plain. I t is t,he Sapurgan of Rlnrco Polo,
and wau then, as now, famou for its melons. ' They preserve
them,' he says, 'by paring them round and round into strips,
and drying them in the sun. When dry they are sweeter than
honey, and are carried off for sale all over the country.' I n
that respect, at least, the lapse of 700 years hae mado no change.
Still further to the westward the otherwise unimportunt town of
Andkhui marks the termination in that direction of the new
fro~ltiersof Afghanistan.
Eaatward from Khulm lies the Kunduz district, extending
thirty miles from east to west, and forty from north to south.
'The country,' says Captain Wood, ' strongly resembles the
delta of the Indw, but is more moist and unfavourable to
human lifo. The jungle grass is here taller and more dense.
Wo saw but one village, though the number of rice mills at
work and the continued barking of the dogs proved that the
region ]nust be populous.' I t is indeed so unhealthy that it is
proverbially said, ' If you wish to die go to Kunduz.' :The
roads ore constructed on piles of wood driven through matted
reede and rank vegetation. The soil, however, ie fertile, and
grows cvcellent crops of rice, wheat, and barley, as well as
npricots, cherries, plums, and mulberries. Towards the IIindoo
Koonh tho lalid rises into bcnutiful undulations, sometimes 1000
fcct in hcight, clothed with grass and flowers, but without
either trees or brushwood.
'The low smelling outlines of Kunduz,' Captain Wood
ra~~turously exclaims, ' ore as soft to the eye as the verdant eod
which carpets them is to the foot.' During three months of the
406 CENTRAL ASIA.

pear these pleasant pastured are covered with snow, but in t h e

plain the summer heat is excessive. Two small rivers descend
from the mountains and discharge themselves into the Oxus,
which flows about forty miles to the north of the chief town.
Kunduz is, in fact, rather a hamlet than a town, consisting of
five or six hundred mud hovels, some sheds built of straw, and
a certain number of Oozbeg tents. At the east end, upon a
low mound surrounded by a broken-down mud wall and a d r y
ditch, stands the fort, built of kiln-dried bricks, the winter
residence of the late Moorad Beg, a tyrant, and, in a small way.
a conqueror, whose followers were simply an organized banditti
15,000 strong, with whom he overran and plundered the coun-
try from Balkh to Chinese Toorkestan.
The Oozbegs, as the dominant class, will take to wife the
daughter of a Tajeek, but no Tajoek may hope to marry the
daughter of an Oozbeg. The priests, being Khojas, have con-
siderable influence, but at that time were notoriously engaged
in the traffic of slaves. Few Oozbegs condescend to read or
write. Thcy delight in robes of scarlet and other glaring
colours, though the women prefer dark, or pure white, dressca,
with a showy silk handkerchief bound rou~ldthe head. A wife
may be sold, but not a dog.
The Kunduz horses are inferior to t h o ~ eof the Toorkomans,
but not less patient of fatigue, and better adapted for hill work.
On completing their first year they are mounted by a light
weight, and ridden at top speed for some distance, but for the
ncxt two years the saddle is not again placed upon their backs.
After the third year they are broken in, and circular shoes
placed on their fore feet.
The Oozbegs take two meals a day, one in the forenoon, and
the other at twilight. They prefer horseflesh, but content
themselves mith mutton made into soup and pillao, which they
eat mith white leavened bread of good quality. Tea never
 BADAKHSHAN. 407

comes amiss to them. I t is called Keirnuk Cha, or Cream Tea,

and is boiled in a large iron pot, from which it is baled out
with a wooden ladle, and handed round by the host in small
china bowls. I t is softened with rich, clotty cream, or, where
that ie unobtainable, with fat, d t taking the place of sugar.
The tea-leaves are sometime^ served after dinner by way of
dessert.
Moorad Beg's summer residence was at Hhana-a-irbad, the
Gana of Narco Polo, ~ituatedabout seventeen miles from Kun-
duz on the banks of a small river c r o d by a stone bridge.
Immediately behind rises an isolated mountain, 2500 feet in
height, called Koh Umber, which divides the Kunduz district
from that of Talikhan. According to tradition the Koh Umbcr
was transported thither from Hindostan, and on ita sides may
be found every herb indigenous to India. Above the hills on
the road to Talikhan may be seen many eagles, with flocks of
white-backed and hooded crows, as in the time of the Venetian
traveller. There is, of course, a fort, and a large building for
the use of the governor, besides two medressehs, and five or
six hundred mud huts.
I n a northerly direction towards the Oxus is the town of
Hnzrat Imam, as large as Kunduz, with n much superior fort
encircled by a wet ditch. The place has the reput~tionof being
unhealthy, but this is partly attributable to the inveterate habit
of the Oozbegs of encamping and settling on the swampy plains
rather than move to the high grounds. Of the 25,000 families
deported from the northern side of the Oxus in 1830 by Noorad
Beg, scarce 6000 survived eight yeam later. The Oozbegs
hunt down the pheasants in these parts on horsebnck, the birds
after a co~iploof flights running along the ground. To the south
of Hunduz at the foot of the Hindoo Koosh are two small towns,
Khost and Andcrab, neither of which merits particular notice.
Fifty miles cast of Kunduz, and 170 from Balkh, the ham-
403 CENTRAL ASIA.
-. .-

lot, of Tulikhan-tho Talnkien of Hiouen T a n g , the Taicnn of

1'010, unrl tho Tulhan of Clotis-with its three or four hundred
11ovc:lw, wtl~ndnin a fruitful tract of land favourublc to the vine.
It i n now pooplcd by IJadakhnhios, probably dcscended from the
I'orlc!tinn'n ' ovil and murderous generation, whose grerrt delight
in in tlio wino-ehop ' (though Nohammedans) ; ' for thcy have
goo(1 wino (albcit it bo boiled) and are great topers; in fact,
tlroy uro constuntly gctting drunk. They wear nothing on the
hoatl but a cord, soma tcn palms long, twisted round it.' They
woro then mighty huntsmcn, and clad themselves in the skins
of Luastu. Suit nlirlcs are worked in the neighbouring moun-
tuiria.
A nvtrkot is hold twico a wcck, and the busy scene awoke
plra~:trrt ~.oc.ollectionsin Cuptain TFTood's mind. ' Troops of
Ilor~ortlonW O ~ O hurrying into market, many riding double.
(Ittuctily p i u t c d cradles, toys, bird-cages, &ins of animals, and
\\.llito und ntrilwd cotton cloth, wore the articles forming the stock
i ~ tr~tdo
r of aiost of tlio dcalcrs. All whom we met were blythe
~ ~ ~jcWrnld,
i c t aud but for tho difference of dress, and the large
pnqjortiou of tlltwo who n d c , I could have fancied them xu?-
owli vouiitry~ucnh~tstc~linp to some merry fair in Old England'
K~rt\vitllstiiudiugtho b i d - c : ~ pncsts are not molested, and the
sprnnt-s, wliicli Acw a b u t in flocks, took no trouble to concs-lil
tlic.ir rg$p Talikht111 was t a b by Chinghiz Urn after a
sic\&-\ that. l:~sttu\ u p \ c ~ d sof six months. Enraged by the
]rc.n,ic. fi\sist:~nceof t l ~ cgarrison, the barbarian left not a ,sod
~~li\.lb. or niit\ stonc s:.ulitlinp upou another.
;\ nroi1nt:tin r i d p divicl~>s--\fg!im Toorkcstan fmm &I%&>-
. Tlic nw1 lips rlin~righthe L It;iIr.u1d ~ P;LSand d=ez,c
into rllc cillcg t)f -\k-ll\l!ak, or the T]%it+. E p r i w g ~a d so i~
trr Kil:~,\t>h:la. alx1:it thirty ~ n i k sfnm Tdil;hm,-ahen IZP
snow is ,~nr f l c gn>uu,ii i ~ i ~ > shy : d p c t s of no!\-ts Ti<222:
i> x:i,-!mi :lkcr a f,ir:>,<,r .iL>xrnL>>- ai t u - ~ x ; ~ - sxZL>
ix bc-icz.2
 BADAKHSHAN. 409

which the J u n d u r a h range rises to the height of 6600 feet.

When traversed by Captain Wood these mountains were covered
with snow, but the descent on the eastern side was facilitated
by following the tracks made by the wild hogs. ' S o numerous
are these animals that they had trodden down the snow as if a
large flock of sheep had been driven over it.' H e then crossed
the narrow valley of Darah-i-Aim and the plain of Argoo, once
peopled by 6000 families, but then utterly desolate. He next
came upon the undulating district of Reishkhan, where Khan
Khoja, fleeing from Kashgar before the victorious Chinese, was
treacherously attacked, defeated, and mortally wounded by
Sooltan Shah, who was himself put to death a few years later
by Ahmed Shah Dourani.
Traversing the Kokcha valley, Captain Wood halted at the
small hamlet of Chittah. Since his departure from Talikhan
he had seen no signs of animal life save the hog-tracks and a
few partridges. I t was, no doubt, the winter season, but still it
appeared to him strange and depressing, that except in villages
thirty miles apart not a single human being had been encoun-
t e r d during a journey of upwards of eighty miles. Fyzabad,
the present capital of Bndakhshan, was only distinguished by
' the withered trees which once ornamented its gardens.' It
had bcen destroyed by Moorad Beg, and the inhabitants car-
ried off to Kunduz, ' a place only fit to be the residence of
aquatic birds.'
I t has since then revived, and is once more a place of com-
parative importance. I t stands on the right bank of the
Kokcha, and carries on a small trade in cast-iron utensila, the
manufacture of which, as Coloncl Yule suggests, may have been
taught by Chinese exiles or slaves. The town is unwallcd, but
the Zagurchie, or old citadel, overlooks it from the south bank
of the river, and the Meer lives in a mud fort, only useful in
the event of a sudden riot. The Khirkat-i-Shurecf, or the
41 0 CENTRAL ASIA.

.
Mosque of the Holy Shirt, once contained a garment, believed
to hare been worn by Mohammed. Behind Fyzabad, which i s
itself 3500 feet above the sea, a mountain rises to a height of
2000 feet. Thirteen miles distant, the village of Kasur crowns
an eminence, not less than 6600 feet in altitude.
From the 26th December to the 30th January, 1838, Cap-
tain Wood was detained by a heavy snowfall in the cluster of
hamlets that together make up the small town of Jerm, at that
time the most considerable place in Badakhshan, though the
population did not exceed 1500 souls. I t stands on the bank
of the Kokcha, at a point where the usually narrow valley
expands to the breadth of a mile. Some miles higher np the
river, where the width of the valley diminishes to 200 yards,
the once famous mines of Lajwurd, or Lapis Lazuli,. were
formerly worked by a rude gallery driven into the mountain-
side.
I n olden times Jerm wae a comparatively large and pros-
perous town, but it has s h a d the declining fortunes of Badakh-
shan. 'Enduring decay,' Colonel Yule remarks, ' probably
commenced with the wars of Chinghiz, for many an instance in
Eastcrn history shows the permanent effect of such devasta-
tions. And here wave after wave of war passed over a little
country isolated on three sides by wild mountains and barbarous
tribes, destroying the apparatus of culture, which represented
the accumulated labour of generations, and without the support
of civilization, and the springs of recovery. Century after
century only saw progress in decay. Even to our own time
the process of depopulntion and deterioration has continued.'
As already observed, Jerm consists of aeveral detached ham-
lets grouped together, and each enclosed within its own outer
wall. The houses are substantially built and plastered with
mud, both inside and out. The roofs are flat, with a hole in
* Described in chap, vi.
 BADAKHSHAN. 41 1
- --

the centre to pennit the smoke to escape, the aperture being

provided with a wooden frame, by which it can be closed at
pleasure. When a room ie unusually large, the roof is sup-
ported by four stout pillars arranged in a square in the middle
of the apartment. The floor is strewed with straw, or covered
with a felt carpet, according to the wealth or poverty of the
family.
To commence housekeeping comfortably implies the posses-
aion of property to the value of nearly six p o q d s sterling, or,
to speak by the book, f 5 14-to wit : A wife costs twenty-five
rupees, bedding six, an iron boiler two, culinary and other ves-
sels one and a half (including spoons, flour sieve, antimony for
the eyes, a red willow bowl, a firwood drinking bowl, table-
cloth, dresser, knife to cut beans, wooden ladle, frying-pan,
wooden pitcher, stone lamp, and iron girdle), the wife's ward-
robe four and a half (comprising a head covering, a shirt,
trousers, and shoes), arid the husband's outfit eighteen and
throe quarters (consisting of a turban, cloak, shoes, stockings,
girdle for the waist, loose trousers, a long eword, a matchlock
and its equipments). Earthenware is scarce and expensive.
Bread is baked upon a stone girdle, and of the same material
are the lamps, cut into the shape of a shoe. Reeds are also used
instead of candles, and are peeled round at a certain point, so
that the light may go out of itself, instead of being blown
out.
A bride, it should be mentioned, does not onter her parents'
house for a yeur after her marriage, except that on her wedding
day she visits her motherland receives a present, generally a cow.
She then entertains her female Gienb beneath her husband's
roof, but no men are suffered to intrude on such occasions. The
hill-men always go armed, but not the dwellere in the plains.
The ordinary dress is that of the Oozbeg~. I n Vpper Badakh-
shan, a strong man slave was, in 1836-37, valued at the Bame
412 CEYTRAL ASIA.

price as a horse or a large dog, that is, at eighty rupeea, or EX.

Indeed, men were frequently exchanged for dogs, but young
healthy girls were more highly esteemed. The Oozbegs a r e
said to compute time by the galloping of a horse, while t h e
more domestic Badakhshies in the upper part of the province
take for their standard the preparation of soup. The penal
code is severe upon donkeys. For a first offence in trespassing
upon a neighbour's lands they get a sound drubbing; for a
second, their ears are slit ; for a third, their oars are cut off, o r
an eye put out, or their tail docked, and sorneti~nesthey are
even lamed.
Throughout that month of January, the thermometer never
rose above 48" at noon, and at sunrise mas as low as 10". B u t
the most serious inconvenience to which the upper valley of the
Oxus is exposed, is the frequency of severe earthquakes. I n
1838 a shock was felt from Lahore to Jerm, where 15G
persons were missing out of 310 inhubiting three hamlets
that mere overthrown. I n the neighbouring viilley of Sir
Gholam, eighty-three perished out of a population of 155.
The mountains are often much shattered, and landslips occur
on a formidable scale.
Passing through Zebnk, a considerable village with houses
touching one another as in an English street, Captain Wood
entered the petty Ststa of TVukhan, after encountering the
' Bad-i-Walihnn,' a piercingly cold wind which blows for six
months in the year ; when ' it goes to sleep,' as the local saying
has it, the clouds gather from all quarters. Wakhun, the In-po-
kien of IEiouen Tsang and the Vocan of Marco Polo, embraces
the uppcr valley of the Oxus for the distance of rr three (lap'
journey fro111 Ishkashm. When visited by Captain 7TTood, in
the depth of winter, it appeared to contain not more than
a thousand inhabitants, though five times that number might
tiud within its bounds a cornfortablo living.
 BADAKHSBAN. 413

The people are Sheenhs, and resemble the Tajeeks, but spenk
a peculiar dialect. They assert of themselves that they are
descended from a Macedonian colony, planted by Alexander the
Great, and, like the Badakhshies, they have a superstitious dis-
like to blowing out a light. They will wave their hand beneath
a flame for minutes together, rather than breathe roughly upon
it, and they point to some old forts formerly occupied by the
Kafirs as ruins of the temples of the fire-morthippers. The men
wear woollen chrqbrcils, some few sport a turban, but the ordi-
nary head-gear is a tight-fitting cap. They are a rude and
reckless community, and not at all particular as to the con-
dition of their garments. The women's costume is simple, and
consists of a long white woollen gown, with a piece of cotton
cloth round the head-but this last is not universal. The
women clcan and spin wool, which the men weave into cloth.
From tho JVakhan goat is obtained much of the hair-wool,
of which Rashmccr shawls are made. A breed of dogs intro-
duced from Chitml is much esteemed. They somewhat reeemble
the Scotch colly, have long ears, a bushy tail, and a slender
frame, and are ~wift,fierce, and combative : their usual colour
is black or reddish brown. Barley, pulse, and a little wheat,
are grown in the lap of the valley, but not in sufficient quantity
to supply the wanta of the inhabitants.
Instead of a central fireplnce, the Wakhanies make use of a
stove plncecl against the side of the house, which gives out great
heat, though the smoke is apt to be troublesome. When dark-
ness npproaclics, the master of the house pulls down a dry
willow branch from the rafters, which he cute into convenient
lengths, and lighting these primitive candlea s t i c h them over
the inner liutel of the door.
A common article of food is a kind of cheese called kooroot.
New milk, after being curdled, is well churned, and the butter-
milk, after it has been thoroughly boiled, is poured into a bag,
416 CENTRAT, ASIA.

another, the felts ; and a third, its furniture : besidca which, tr

seat is found upon them for the feeble or young of the family.
I n one Kirgnh which we entcred, the children were conning
their lessons under the eye of an aged mullah. Some were
learning to write, by tracing letters upon a black board with a
bit of chalk, while others were humming over the torn lcaves
of well-thumbed copies of the Koran. Nutilated as was the
condition of their books, they were nevertheless highly valued,
if we might judge from the strong wooden box appropriated to
their preservation.'
The Pameer Kirghiz are men of short stature, from fire
feet two inches to five feet six inches in height. They h a r e
deep-seated, elongated eyes, with no ridge between. The fore-
head is protuberant, but not high, slanting back abruptly. Their
cheeks are large and puffy, and a thin beard sprouts from the
chin. They are not by any means a muscular race. The
women are rather good - looking, and apparently delicate.
Though Soonecs, they go about unveiled. They are fond of
ornaments, such as beads, gems rudely set in silver, fancy
objects of brass, and prettily fashioned articles cut out of the
pearl-oyster shell. Both men and women wear round, hollow,
brass buttons, obtained from the Chinese, and the latter are
partial to a high head-dress, sometimes adorned in front with
coloured brads. The Kirghiz women make good wives, being
thrifty and industrious. Slaves are rare, except as maid-
servants. Female children are highly valued, because a bride,
not escceding fifteen years of age, is often worth £40 to her
father. A widow passes on, in the first instance, to her hus-
band's brother, a n d then to the nest of kin,-failing theac, she
returns to her father.
The Kirghiz live principally upon milk and game. Cuta-
neous diseases are very prevalent among both sexes. The Kirghiz
ponies are rough-coated, ugly animals, without much endurance.
 BADAKHSHAN. 417

Brood mares are held in estimation, their milk, when acidulated,

yielding, in spring-time, the intoxicating beverage called
Kumees. The milk is drawn off in the evening, and churned
till sunrise, when it is fit to drink, a very small quantity pro-
ducing inebriety. A large appetite is said to attend upon
reburning sobriety. The chief men affix to their names the
epithet Bai-khan, or nobleman.
 418 CENTRAL ASIA.

CHAPTER XVII.

DARWAZ-ROBHAN-SHIGNAX-VARDOJ VALLEY-KAFIRS OR BIAHPOOSH-

CHITEAL--LIELTESANT HAYWARD ON THE MABEACRES COYMITTED LY
YASSIN BY THE WORAR-HI8 DEATH-4ILGIT-CHI4A8-BAI~TIsTAS-
PAMEEB-HIOUES TSANO--MAECOPOLO- COLONEL YULE-OVIS POLI-
BAM-I-DUIIAH-LAKE VICTORIA-NUB COSFLUENTS OF THE OXUS, OR
AMOU-THE GREAT CEOOMPIIICAL SWINDLE.

BEFORE
ascending the elevated table-land of Pameer, it may
be convenient to complete this brief notice of the petty States
that occupy the broken mountainous region inclosed between
the Karategeen mountains on the north, and the Hindoo Koosh,
or, rather, the Himalaya, on the south. North of the Panja,
and along the east bank of the Soorkh-ab, are the unexplored
districts of 7Vnkhsh-whence the Oxus probably derives its
n a m c n n d Khotl. Further to the eastward runs the Valley of
Dart\-az-signifying ' a door '-which Colonel Yule identifies
with the Kuxnidha of IIiouen Tsang and, perhaps, with
Ptolemy's Talley of the Comedae. The people are Tajeeks,
and lIohammedans in name, but their religious notions appear
to be confused on all essentinl points. They manufacture cotton
cloths, which they exchange for grain and gunpowder. Their
country ie exceedingly mountainous, but if Colonel Yule's con-
jecture be well founded, the Seric caravans from Byzantium,
travelling by way of Hyrcania, Aria, Margima Antiocheia
(Merv), and Bactra, must hare ' wound with toilsome march
their long array ' through this steep and rugged valley.
 PAMEER. 419

Roshun comes next, inhabited by 1000 families, and then

Shignan, with only 300, both professing the creed of the
S h m h s , and speaking a peculiar dialect. Shignnn is supposed
tb be Hiouen Tsang's Chi-ki-nil peopled by a savage rtice-
perhaps the Sam-who knew not the difference between right
and wrong, brutal, ignorant, caring for nothing but the present
moment, and without provocation committing murder in cold
blood. On the southern side of the Panja the beautiful table-
land of Shewa, containing a small sheet of water, called Sir-i-
Kul-a common name for lakes in those parts-was commended
by Marco Polo for the refreshing coolness of its climate and the
fresh verdure of its pastures.
South of the Shewa plateau, and westward of Ishkashm the
valley of Vardoj, or Wardodj, excited Captain 7Vood's enthusi-
mm on his return from the bleak Pameer. ' AB we approached
the bottom of the Wardodj valley, everything wore the joyous
air of spring. The change waa delightful. When we passed
up, snow lay everywhere. NOW,the plough was in the field ;
wild flowers were sparkling amongst the withered herbage of
the bygone year; and around the edges of the stones tufts of
young grass wero everywhere to be seen. The sheep let loose
from their sheds were remunerating themselves for the dry and
scanty fare of their winter's quarters. The streams were all
unlocked, and we encamped in tho open air. The raven, the
jay, the lark, the bulbul, or Budukhshan nightingale, wero all
up011 the wing. Numerous insccta, too, aroueed from their long
slecp, began to show tliernselves ; among them were butterflies,
and a most beautifully pninted s p i e s of gadfly.' I n all sub-
Alpine regions spring bursts forth as suddenly as Minerva from
the brow of Jupiter. By the time Captniri Wood again renchcd
Talikhan, ' the fine sward waa enamelled with crocuses, daffodils,
aud snowdrops.'
The southern spurs of the IIindoo Koosh, westward of the
420 CENTRAL ASIA.

Ueilnm river, are inhabited by a very peculiar people, called,

indifferently, Kafirs, or SiLhpooah. Marco Polo mentions their
country by the name of Bacian, or Basiam, and noticea their
singularity of speech, and brown complexions. H e accuses them
of dealing with enchantments and diabolic arts, but gives them
credit for wiedom. They lived upon animal food and rice, a n d
the men wore rings in their ears, and also gold and silver
brooches, eometimes set with gems.
A clear and ample description of Kafirbtan and its extra-
ordinary inhabitants is to be found in Mountstuart Elphinstone's
' Account of the Kingdom of Caubul.' According to Rennel's
Map of Eindostan, the district is comprieed between Kashkar
on the north-east, Badakhshan on the north, Kunduz on the
north-west, Anderab, Khost, and Kohistnn on the west, and
Kashmeer on the east. The peaks of the mountains are covered
with snow for the greater part of the year, but their sides a r e
clad with forests of pine, and furrowed by small fertile valleys
in which the grape arrives at maturity, though both wheat
and millet are of inferior quality. Sheep, cattle, and goats
constitute the chief wealth of the villagers. The roads are
little better than mountain tracks, the ravines being crowed by
wooden bridges, or by swinging bridges made of ropcs of withp.
The illa ages are perched on the hill-sides, and are populous and
well-to-do.
Strictly speaking, there is no national name for this people,
which is not so much a nation as an aggregation of separnte
tribes, each dwelling in its own valley. By the Jlohammednns
they are generally called Siah-poosh, or the Black-Vested,
though one division is best known as the Speen Knfirs, or
T l i t c Infidels, from their white cotton garments. They are
a11 fair-complcsioned, with blue eyes, and are rcmnrkablg hand-
some, with a fine open forehead, bushy arched eycbrows, black
hair and whiskers, and a lithe nctire figure. 'Cnlike most
 PAYEER. 421

Asiatics they prefer a chair to cushions or carpet, and pride

themselves on their supposed Greek descent, though it is pro-
bable that they are simply descended from the idolaters whom
the Mohammedans drove out of Kandahar. Different but
cognab dialects are spoken by the different sections of the
community, and all based upon Sanskrit.
They believe in the Unity of the Deity, though they make
to themselves graven images of wood and stone, male and
female, on foot and on horseback, to represent great personages
who have passed away from this world and now act as mediators
and intercessors. I n their eyes there is no virtue greater than.
a liberal and hospitable disposition. The idols are sprinkled
with cow's blood, and fire is used at all religious ceremonies.
They erect a stone and say : ' This stands for God, but we know
not His shape.' A fire is kindled in front of the stone, and
through the flames are thrown flour, butter, and water, while
the blood of a victim is sprinkled upon the stone itself. Part
of the flesh is burnt, and part eaten by the priests, who are
hereditary, but devoid of influence.
Fish is their abhorrence, but they are partial to goats' flesh
and to game. Their chief diet, however, consists of cheese,
butter, milk, brcad, and suet pudding. Meat they prefer half
raw. Both sexes drink too freely of wine, which is of various
qualities, red, white, and dark, with one kind almost of the
consistence of jelly, and very strong. They use silver goblets,
and possess pottery of curious patterns.
illen tnarry at from twenty to thirty yeam of age, and
women at about fifteen or sixteen. A bride is occasionally
valued at as many as twenty cows. Marriage is not so much a
religious ceremony as an excuse for cating, drinking, singing, and
dancing. Polygsrny is practised, and all the drudgery is done
by women. A mother and her babe are put away into a house
outside the village, and are considered impure for twenty-four
422 CENTRAL ASIA.

days, at the expiration of which they are brought back with eon g
and dance.
The coatume of the common people consista of four goat-
skins, two for a veat and two for a petticoat, worn with the l o n g
hair outside, and girded round the waiet with a leather belt ;
their arms are uncovered. The Siah-poosh go bare-headed, except
when they have slain a Xoslem. They shave their heads, with
the exception of a long tuft on the crown, and a curl over each
ear. The beard is suffered to grow to the length of four or five
inches, but they pull out the hair from the upper lip, the cheeks,
and neck. Rich people wear a shirt beneath the rest, as do
also the women, and instead of goat-skins clothe themselves in
cotton or black hair cloth, some preferring a white blanket
woven in Kashmeer, worn something like a Scottish plaid, but
reaching to the knee and fnstened round the waist by a belt.
They likewise indulge in cotton trousers, which, ae well as the
shirts, are embroidered with flowers in red and blue worsted.
The women dress like the men, only that their hair is plaited
and twisted round on the top of their head, surmounted by a
small cap, round which' a light turban is wound. Silver orna-
ments and cowry shells are decidedly fashionable. Virgins are
distinguished by a red fillet round the head. Both sexes have
rings round the neck and in the ears, and are partial to brace-
lets of pewter or brass, and especially of silver.
The houses are built of wood, with cellars for storing cheeee,
ghee, wine, and vinegar. They usually sit on drum-shaped
stools of wickerwork, like the Indian vnorah, and make use of
tables. They are passionately fond of dancing of a vehement
character. Their musical instruments are a tabor and pipe, and
the dancere keep time with their voices as well as with their
feet. Their music is quick, varied, and somewhat wild.
I n hunting and in war, they use a bow fifty-four inches in
length, with a leathern thong for string. Their srrowe are
made from light reeds, and have barbed heads, occarrionally
poisoned. On the right side they cxrfiy a dagger, and on the
left a sharp knife. Firearms and swords are still scarce, but
are becoming more common than formerly. The greatest g l q
a Siah~ooshcan ever hope to attain is by slaying a Moham-
medan. Otherwise, they are represented as a harmless, affec-
tionate people, merry and sociable, and as placable as they are
passionate. I t has been related in a preceding chapter how
Timour succeeded in striking awe into these barbarians by lower-
ing himaclf and his troops down by platforms from ridge to ridge,
until he reached the levcl of their narrow valleys. With that
one exception, they have always preserved their independence.
I n the Upper Vnllep of the Beilam or Kunar river liea the
considerable district of Chitral, which Colonel Yule is disposed
to regard as identical with the Venetian traveller's Cascar, or
Cashkar. Moorcroft speaks of an Upper and a Lower Chitral,
each with a chief town named Mastuch, or Mastoi. The Raja,
who resided chiefly at Yassin, was a Soonee, while his people
mere Sheeahs. They are Dards and Dungars, and speak a
mixed dialect. Though tnll, athletic men, they are of cowardly
disposition, and the women are sti,matized ns coarse and im-
modest. Their heads are of a conical shape, caused by a strong
band bcing tightly bound round them in infancy. According
to tradition, Chitral was the Shrab Khana, or Wine Cellar, of
Afrasiab. Colonel Yule conjectures that the Pashai province of
31al.co Polo, described m ten days to the south of Badakhshan,
coincided with Chitral, though the Pashiti tribe is now settled
on the left bank of the Kabul river between that city and Jelala-
bad-an aboriginal race, with a dialect similar to that of the
Kafirs, nnd not improbnbly the Udyana of Northern Buddhist
legends. I n the thirteenth century they were idolaters, and,
according to Marco Polo, ' a pestilent people and a crafty, and
they live upon flesh and rioe.'
424 CENTRAL ASIA.

I n the spring of 1870 the compiler of this work, at that time

editing a newspaper in Calcutta, received a letter from Lieu-
tenant Hayward, dated ' Camp, Tassin, March 7,' from which
the following extract is taken. A duplicate copy, sent to the
editor of a journal at iUlahabad, was imprudently published, to
the aore prejudice of that conregeons and persevering traveller.
' The countries of Chitral and Yaasin have been from time im-
memorial under the rule of the ancestore of the preaent Chief
of Chitral, Rajah Aman-i-Moolk, while the present Yassin Chief
is descended from a branch of the same family. They claim
descent from Alexander of Macedon, through the kings of
Khonrean. Certainly they poesesa a pedigree of high antiquity,
and can boast an uninterrupted succession. The older eon of
the Chitral ruler taka the name of Shah Katore, which title
was assumed by the grandfather of the present Chief, Aman-i-
Moolk. The chiefs of Yassin have intermarried ao frequently
with the ftunily of the Shah Katore, until, apart from a common
descent, they have become the same in their feelings and pre-
judicea. Even Swat can hardly be considered to be more in-
accessible to Europeans and strangers from the bigotry and
fanaticism of its inhabitants than the countries of Chitral and
Yassin. But there is this difference. While the population of
Swat owes no fealty to any ruler, and acknomled,ps aolely the
spiritual authority of the Akhoond, the inhabitants of Yessill
and Chitral aro as much subject to their respective rulers as
any serf in Russia, or fellah in Turkey or Egypt. The ablest
and most energetic of these later Yassin chiefs would appear to
have been Rajah Goor Rahman Khan, who ruled over Passin
and Gilgit from ubout 1835 to 1858, a period ever eventful ill
Indian history. During the reign of this chief, Goolab Singh
the Maharajah of Kashmir commenced hostilities against Gilgit,
after conquering L d a k h and Baltistan. While, however, the
able Goor h h m a n was alive, the Dogras could never obtain
 any footing in the country across the Indus. Dying in 1858,
di&nsions as to the succession arose amongst his sons, and the
present Maharajah of Kashmir, who had succeeded Goolab
Singh, mas enabled to take advantage of the divided state of
the country, to intrigue with members of the family. A large
force of Dogras suddenly crossed the Indus at Boonji, and suc-
ceeded in establishing themselves in the fort of Gilgit, which
position the Court of Jamoo has maintained solely by force of
arms during the last twelve years.
' Either from ignorance of the event, or from a disinclination
to interfere, this act of aggression did not call down the severe
remonstrance from the British Government which it so justly
merited. I n the treaty of 1846 between the British Govern-
ment and Maharajah Goolub Singh, it is stated in Art. I.:
. "The Dritish Government transfers and makes over for ever in
independent possession to Maharajah Goolab Singh and the
heirs male of his body, all the hilly or moulltninous country,
with its dependeucies, situated eastward of the river Indus, and
westward of the river Ravee, including Chumba and excluding
Lahoul, being part of the territory ceded to the British Qovern-
ment by the Lahore State, according to the provisions of
Article IV. of the Treaty of Lahore dated 9th March, 181G : "
And again in Art. IV. : " The limits of the territories of JIa-
harajah Goolab Singh shall not at any time be changed without
the concurrence of the British Government." I t will bo seen
that, by thus crossing the Indus and annexing territory
situated westward of the specified boundary, the Maharajah of
Kashmir has signally infringed the Treaty of 1846 with the
British Government, and furthermore the Treaty i being per-
eistently infringed by the continued aggressions of the Court
of Jamoo in the direction of Badakhshan and Yarkund. . .
'After the seizure of the Gilgit Fort the Dograa lost no
time in planning a further advance to Yaasin, or Hunza. The
Yassin territory offered the greater inducement for a mid, from
the country being more fertile and productive, and the ap-
proach easier; whereas the small mountainous tract occupied
by the Hunza tribe is not only most difficult of access, but
yields no producc which might tempt an invader. With the
exception of some petty disputes and acts of reprisal carried on,
on both sides, no serious expedition was undertaken until the
yenr 1863. I n the spring of that yenr the Dogras secretly col-
lected a force of some 6000 mcn, with the intention of invading
Passin. So unexpected was this raid that they surprised the
Chief and his followers, who, seeing they had no chance of
resisting such overwhelming odds, fled with their wives and
families to the hill fort of JIadoori, some six miles distant from
Yassin. Thc Chief escaped to Chitml, and the Ynssin villagers
who had fled for snfety to the hill of Madoori endeavoured to r
come to terms with the Dogra leaders. They wcrc assured
that no harm should befall them if they would come out of the
fort and lay down their arms. They did so in the simple faith
that, as sworn, no injury would be done them A part of the
Dogra troops who had gone round the fort then made their
appcarance amongst the women and children. The men were
outside the fort, and unable to protect thcir wires and little
ones, for whom they would doubtless have shed their blood had
not treachery beguiled them of their weapons.
'The Dogras immediately commenced massacring the
womcn and children. They threw the little ones into the air,
and cut them in two as they fell. I t is said the pregnant
womcn, after being killed, were ripped open, and their unborn
babes were cut to pieces. Some forty women, who had been
wounded and were not yet dead, were dragged to one spot and
were there burnt to death by the Dogras. With the exception
of a few wounded men and woqen who ultimately recovered,
every man, woman, and child within the fort was massacred.
 PAMEER. 427

I n all, from 1200 to 1400 of the Yassin villagers were mas-

eacred by the foulest treachery and wrong. After plundering
the place the Dogras retired to Oilgit, carrying off all the
cuttle, together with some 2000 women and men. Several
hundreds of thwe poor people died from exposure and starva-
tion before they had crossed the Indue. Xany Yassin villagers
are now in confinement in Kashmir, while of others not a trace
can be found. Most of the wonlen are in tho zenanas of the
Dogra leadera and sepoys.
' I have visited Xadoori, the scene of the massacre, and
words would be inadequate to describe the touching sight to be
wituessed on this now solitary and desolate hill. After the
lnpse of seven gears I have myself counted 147 still entire
skulls, nearly all those of women and children. The ground is
literally white with bleached human bones, and the remains of
not less than 400 men and women are now lying on the hill-
side. The Yassin villagers returned to bury their dead after
the Dogras had retired, and the skulls and bones now found at
3fadoori are, presumably, only those of villagers whose whole
families perivllcd in the massacre. I n one place, where the
massacre seems to have centred, are the blackened remains of
rafters mixed with charred human bones. I n this spot the
wounded, who were yet alive, were burnt to death by the
Dogra sepoys. I have seen and conversed with many orphans
in the Yassin territory, whose fathers, mothers, and brothers
all perished. One little girl of eight years of age was brought
to me with her right arm severed at the shoulder. A t the
time of the massacre she was a babe at the brea~t,and the blow
that severed her little arm, slew her mother. Her father per-
ished likewise. Such are the atrocities which have been com-
mitted by men in the service of a feudatory of the British
Crown.
' The Dogras have twice attacked Htmza, but unsuccessfully,
438 CENTRAL ASIA.

since they have been driven back with heavy losses. I n t h e

autumn of 1866 they invaded the country of Dilail, lying on
the right bank of the Indus opposite Chilas. Fortunately, t h e
villagers had time to place their families in safety, and no
women were massacred. Some 120 of the Dilail pewintry
were, however, seized and immediately hung, the sepoys cut-
ting at them with their tulwars, while they were hanging and
yet alive. On returning from Diluil to Gilgit the Dogra force
were caught in a heavy snow-storm on the Choujar Pws, where
nearly 150 sepoys perished from the cold. No active aggres-
sions hare since occurred, but the Naharajah of Kashmir has
pensioned a brother of the Yassin Chief, an unscrupulous villnin
who has already murdercd an uncle, a brother, and the whole
of that brother's family, and who is now in Gilgit petitioning
for troops to take Yassin and rule there on behalf of the
Dogmas. . .
' I t is, I believe, well known that Russian agents have been
well received in Kashmir. At least, this is known to those
who have had opportunities of ascertaining the fact, and view-
ing the system of policy pursued by the Court of Jamoo. I
may even hint at agents of the Neharajah who are now in
Central Asia, of agents in Tashkend and in Bokhara, all sent
secretly by the most loyal feudatory of the Viceroy of India.
The late annexation of the district of Kolab to Khokand bring3
Russian influence to within little more than 200 miles of the
Pass at the head of the Yassin and Gilgit valleys. That the
Maharajah is now intriguing with Russia through Bokhara
cannot be doubted, nor is it less clear that, should he be allowed
to continue his present policy, he will shortly involve the
British Gorerument in what may be most serious complications
in Central Asia. . . When this loyal feudatory was lately
paying his respects to the Duke of Edinburgh at the Lahore
purbor, amidst all the tinsel and glitter that Oriental pomp
 PAMEER. 429

and splendour could throw around him, would that those heaps
of human skulls and bones could have been there to tell their
.silent tale of treachery nnd bloodshed. . .
'For my expedition, I may mention that I have reached
Yassin, and have met with a friendly reception from the Rajah
Meer Wulli Khan, the Chief of the country. I have explored
nearly all the country in the basin of the Gilgit and Yassin
rivers, and have now just returned from the foot of the Darkote
Pass leading over into Wakhan nnd the bnsin of the Oxus.
The Pass, as well ns the Shundur Ptrss l d n g into Chitral, is
now closed by the snow, and I find there is no chance of getting
laden animals across until the month of June. Once across on
to the Pamir, and I am very sanguine of being able to explore
the whole country. The Yassin Chief has promised to assist in
every way, and altogether everything promises well for the
final success of the expedition. . . As it is somewhat risky
staying in Yassin until the Paases open, I am returning to
Gilgit, with the intention of passing straight on to the Pnmir
as soon as the Passea open.'
To this interesting communication was appended the fol-
lowing Postscript, dated March 22nd, Camp, Gilgit Valley :-
' I hare just returned to Gilgit, most fortunately. The Kash-
mir officials here have caused a report to be spread that I had
been plundered in Yassin (on the contrary, I have been par-
ticularly well treated), and the Kaahmir force haa marched out
towards Gilgit with the intention of invading Yassin. They
are now hurrying back, but not before I have become acquaint-
ed with the facts of the case, and the deep scheme to forward
tl~cirown views by such an act of faithlessness. Had I re-
mailled in Yassin and they had invaded, such nn act would
have been fatal to the wholo Pamir expedition. The Yussin
pcoplc could but have connected the aggreesion with my pre-
sence there.'
430 CENTRAL ASIA.

No man can avoid hie fate. On renewing his attempt to

reach the upper valley' of the Oxus, Lieutenant Heyward was
brutally murdered in the Yassin territory at the foot of the
Darkote Pass. He was aware of his danger and had kept
watch all night, revolver in hand. Towards the dawn, over-
come by fatigue and anxiety, he appears to have relaxed his
vigilance, perhaps to have fallen into a doze, when he was sud-
denly seized, dragged some distance from the tent, and slain
with hie own sword while uttering a prayer.
The Maharajah of Kaahmeer, the v a d of the British Crown,
affected much sorrow at this tragical event, but finding that
the Indian Government was more intent on imposing a vexa-
tious and oppressive income-tax upon its subjects than on aveng-
ing the death of a British officer, a martyr in the cause of
science, he soon conformed to the supineness that prevailed a t
Simla. After all, it might have seamed fastidious to make
much fuss over the murder of a solitary Englishman, after
having sold the county and all that was therein to the present
Chief's predecessor for three quarters of a million sterling.
Traffic in human beings is an atrocious and horrible thing-
unless it be done on a sufficiently wholesale and extensive sale.
To barter an individual, or even a family, for gold and s i l ~ e r
is held a crime equivalent to p i m y , but to dispose of a whole
nation for a good round sum is an act of statesmanship and a
step towards a Peerage.
For the rest, the petty State of Gilgit, on the right bank of
the Indus, may measure 100 milea from north to south, with a
mean breadth of 26 miles. Its inhabitants are Dardoo8,-the
Daradas of Sanskrit geography and the Daradm of Strabo.
The chief town, consisting of three or four hundred houses, is
nestled in a narrow valley, pleasantly wooded, and hemmed in
by lofty mountains. Grapes, mulberries, figs, pomegranates,
walnuts, and melons arrive at great perfection, and wine even
 PAMEER. 431

is made,-the people being nominally Sheeahs, but not etrict

observers of any particular system of religion or morality.
The chief currency is in the form of gold dust, found in the
eands of a little river that flows through the valley, and from
which the Rajah collecte a small royalty.
To the south-west, and on the banks of tho same etream,
lies the Chilas valley, whose inhabitants, formerly sincere Kafirs,
are now insincere Mohammedans. South-east of Gilgit the
mountainous and little known region of Baltistan occupies the
upper valley of the Indue, extending sixty miles in length, and
thirty-six in breadth. The chief town is named Skardo, and
the people are probably the same as Ptolemy's Bultai. Not
improbably this may have been the Po-lou-lo of the Buddhist
Pilgrim, who reviles the inhabitants as brutal, regardless of
justice and humanity, mean-looking, and devoid of religion.
Though several convents existed, the monks were indolent and
averse from study. At a later period, the name of Bolor seems
. to have been given to t h i ~district, whence it was transferred to
an imaginary chain of mountains supposed by Humboldt and
Ritter to hnve been the meridional axis of Asia.
I t irl time, however, to return to Captain Wood, whom we
left at Kundut on the south side of the Panja. Crossing that
river a little higher up, he reached the village of Langar-Kaish
at an elevation of 10,800 feet, the last inhabited place he met
with before he stood upon the table-land of Pameer. Instead
of a fanciful meridional axie, he found himself upon an immense
knotted mas8 of mountains, marking the convergence or point
of bifurcation of two enormou ranges ; of the Tian Shan to the
north-ecrst, and of the Himalayohe, with their parallel chains,
the Karakoram and the Kuen Lun, to the south-east.
The mountain-land between the Upper Oxue valley and the
basin of Eastern Toorkostan is, according to Colonel Yule, one
af the least known regions of the eurface of the globe. So
432 CENTRAL ASIA.

recently as 1864 it was commonly believed that the distalice

from Fyzabad to Kashgar did not exceed 200 miles, whereas it
is now ascertained to be more than 350. Between Yarkund a n d
the western side of this rugged plateau there are no settled
towns or villages. I t waa formerly reported, indeed, that t h e m
existcd a town named Karchu, but it now turns out that gar-
chu was an erroneous transliteration of Hatchiit or Ketchiit in
the Chinese tables of the later Jesuit surveyors, and which wrrs
intended to indicate Kanjut or Hunza near Gilgit.
Hiouen Tsang describes Po-mi-lo aa a bleak w a ~ t esituated
between two enowymountains, icy cold, subject to violent winds,
and where snow falls night and day, even in spring and sum-
mer. The soil is so impregnated with salt, and so covered with
pebbles, that corn and fruit refuse to grow. Even shrubs a r e
rarely seen, nor are there any inhabitants. I n the centre is a
great lake full of dragons (Nbgahrada), but the water is pure
and clear as crystal, and unfathomable. I t has a sweet
and pleasant flavour, though abounding with crocodiles, tor-.
toiscs, and other ungainly monsters. The dark blue surface is
all alive with cranes, geese, ducks, and wild fowl. Enormous
eggs are found on the plains and marshea, and sandy isles. A
river runs out of the western extremity, and flows illto the Po-
tsou (Osus), while another river issues from the enstern ex-
tremity, and joins the Si-to beyond Kashgar.
The Venetian traveller, relating his personal experiences,
is on all main points corroborated by Captain Wood, the only
European who has since visited that singular country, until its
recent explorntion by Colonel Gordon and hie party. ' There
are,' he says, ' numbers of wild beasts of all sorts in this region.
And mhen you leave this little country (Wakhan) and ride
three days north-east, always among mountains, you get to
such a height that 'tie said to be the highest place in the world.
And mhen you have got to this height you find [a great lake
 PAMEER. 433

between two mountains, and out of it] a fine river running

through a pluin clothed with the finest pasture in the world;
insomuch that a lean beast there will fatten to your heart's con-
tent in ten days. There are great numbers of all kinds of wild
beasts ; among others, wild sheep of great size, whose horns are
good six palms in length. From those horns the shepherds
make great bowls to ent from, and they use the horns also to
enclose folds for their cattle at night. [Messer Marco was told
also that the wolves were numerous, and killed many of thoee
wild sheep. Hence quantities of their horns and bones were
found, and these were made into great heaps by the way-side,
in order to guide trnvellers when snow was on the ground.]
The plain is called Pamier, and you ride across it for twelve
duys together, finding nothing but a desert, without habitations
or any green thing, so that travellers are obliged to carry with
them whatever they have need of.
' The region is ao lofty and cold that you do not even see any
birds flying. And I must notice also that, because of this great
cold, fire does not burn so brightly, nor give out so much heat
as usuiil, nor does it cook food so effectually. Now, if we go on
with our journey towards the enst-north-east, we travel a good
forty days, continually passing over mountaim and hills, or
through valleys, and crossing many rivers and tracts of wilder-
ness. And in all this way you find neither habitation of man nor
any green thing, but must carry with you whatever you require.
The country is called Bolor. The people dwell high up in the
mountnins, and aro savage idolaters, living only by the chase,
and clothing themselves in tho skins of beasts. They are in
truth an evil race.'
With regard to fire not burning well at a great height,
Major Montgomerie informed Colonel Yule that this was a mis-
take. The real difficulty is in procuring a sufficient supply of
good fuel. I t is true, however, that water does not boil pro-
28
4s C t ? i W ASIA.

perl? at a p i e r elevation tlun 15,000 feet, and msequentl?-

a enp of good tea is out of the question, neither do rice, dhal,
4p o t a t e , bemme .s eoft rs might be rished.
The old pictures of Eden,' C o l o d Yule obemes, ' figure
the four r i r m as literally diverging from a centid lake to t h e
four quarters of the earth ; and no spot a, nearly realizes this
ides as the high table-land of Pameer in the centre of the &iatic
world ; upon whose loft- plains a tusmck of grass decidehl the
conree of the watem, whether Kith the O m to the frontier o f
Earope, or Kith the Yarkund river to the verge of China ;
vhild the feeders of the Jasartes and Indns trom the borders
of the same treasury of waters complete the square number, and
the lakes that spot the lofty surface lend themselves to round
the resemblance.' Lieutenant Ha-ward, however, ascertained
by personal investigation that the Tarkund does not descend
from Pameer, but from a glacier a little to the north-west of
the Karakoram Pas, and there is reason to question the pre-
vious impresion that any of the true Pameer drainage descends
into the basin of Eastern Toorkestan.
The plateau is said to be at least 180 milea in length from
north to south, and 100 in breadth from east to west. ' I t con-
sists,' says Colonel Yule, ' chiefly of stretches of tolernbly level
steppe, broken and divided by low rounded hills, much of it
covered with saline exudationu, but intelqersed with patches of
willow, and thorny shruba, and in summer with extensive tracts
of p a s s , two or three feet in height, the fattening properties of
which hare been extolled by travellers from Narco Polo to Faie
Buksh. Many lakes are scattered over the surface of the
plateau from which streams flow. Wild fowl abound upon
these lakes in summer to an extraordinary degree ; and in the
vicinity of water deer of some kind are very numerous, and the
great sheep ( o r h Poli) apparently all over the plateau. I n
1869 a murrain amongst these latter is mid to have killed
 PAYEER.

them off in multitudes. A goat called Rang, affordiug a fine

shawl wool, is found on the steppe ; also a kind of lynx, whose
fur is valued. Foxes and wolves frequent Pameer; bears and
tigers are occasional visitors. The wild yak, according to Fair,
Buksh, is also found there ; if this be true, Pameer is its west and
north limit. Pameer was at one time the summer haunt of a
large nomad population of Kirghiz with their numerous flocks ;
but the depredations of the Shighnis (regarded also with horror
by the Kirghiz as Shiah heretics), and other kidnapping neigh-
bours, are said to have driven them to the eastern valleys, or to
the Kokan territory, and the only summer visitors now are
about one t,housand families, who frequent the shores of Rang-
kul in Little Pameer.'
I n Moorcroft's time the Hirghiz still pastured their flocks
on these lofty grazing grounds, and mention is made of a chief
named Gillin1 Bai, whose possessions comprised 30.000 sheep
and goats, 500 yaks, and 200 camels. Thie patriarch dwelt in
a house surrounded by a hundred cottages, but as a rule the Kir-
ghiz clung to their ancestral tents. The surface of the plateau is
occasionally broken by peaks that rise to a considerable height,
one near lake Victqria attaining an altitudeof 19,000 feet above
the sea. Difficulty of respiration is experienced in all parts,
garlick, leeks, and dried fruits being used as an antidote. The
eastern boundary is formed by a belt of lofty mountains, up-
war& of 20,000 feet above the sea Icrel, from which steep
rugged spurs run down into Eastern Toorkestan. The Kizil-
Yart branch of this range-the Trans-Alai chain of the late
Professor Fcdchcnko-traverses the plnteau north of Karakul,
and separates Pamcer from the Dasht or Steppe of Alui. As i t
runs to the west, gntss grows at a greater elevation. The
medium height, according to that lamented unrant, exceeds
18,000 feet, with p e ~ k snot less than 25,000 feet-altogether,
a very grand chain of mountains.
436 CENTRAL ASIA.

The Alai Steppe runs from west to east, aud is h i n d by

the Kurntegeen Soorkh-ab. I t extende forty miles in one
direction, and from seven to fourteen in the other. At the
western extremity it is about 8000 feet above the sea, but a t
the enstern it rises to 12,000. The Kizil P a r t Pass from near
Karakul into the Alai Steppe does not present many difficulties,
and two or three accessible passes lead from the steppe iuto
Khokan. The Taimurum Pass leads north-east into the Terek
Pam,the principal communication between Kashgar and Ush.
The northern boundary of Pameer-still following the sure
guidance of Colonel Pule-is the rugged region botween the
Karategeen and Khokan, enclosing the comparatively unknown
Tajeek States of Macha and Ignao. To the south towers the
tremendous barrier of the Hindoo Koosh, trnrersed, howerer,
by nineteen passes. On these mountains no timber trees are to
be found from Pameer to Xoh-i-Baba, north-west of Kabul,
except a dwarf fir called Archa. Poplars are plnnted near
rivulets, and the almond and pistachio nut are indigenous in
many parts of the range. Several varieties of willow also grow
as high aa 13,000 feet above the sea, but are mere shrubs. The
chief fuel is a scrubby furze-bush without much fibre, but ex-
cellent charcoal is made from the almond trees.
The wild sheep, locally called kutch-knr, is described as a
noble animal, with a venerable beard, and two magnificent
horns of grcnt weight that curl round. A pair of these horns,
presented by Captain Wood to the Royal Asintic Society,
measr~redround the curve four feet eight inches in length, and
fourteen and a quarter inchcs round the base, the distance
between the tips being three feet nine inches. Even when out
of condition rr single carcasc is a good load for a pack-horse,
such as are used in the hill country. The meat in winter is
tough and ill-tasted, but in the autumn is said to resemble
venison. The wool is of a dun colour. The kutch-kar, or
 PAMEER. 437
ori8 Poli, wanders over the steppe in flocks of five or six hun-
dred, which are much worried by wolves. The horns are still
used to mark off inclosures, and are piled in heaps to indicate the
snow-covered track. There is another description of sheep, if
it do not rather belong to the deer tribe, called Rass, with
straight spiral horns, and with redder wool than that of the
kutch-kar.
The Pameer table-land is known to Asiatics as the Bam-i-
Duninh, or roof of the world ; the idea being suggested by tho
flat terraced roofs of Orientnl houses. Its mean elevation is *
from 15,000 to 16,000 feet above the sea. I t may be said to Ee
the central boss between India, Eastern Toorkestan, Russian
Toorkestun, and Khokan. From a urn11 lake on this plateau,
situated in 37" 27' N., and 73" 40' E., issues the Panja, now
diplomatically accepted as the main branch of the Amou or
Oxus, though the south branch traced by Mojor Montgomerie's
Meerza to Yumeer Kul, at an elevation of 13,300 feet, is some-
what longer than the northern branch traced by Captain Wood
to Sir-i-Kul, at an altitude of 15,500 feet.
This lake, sometimes called the Lake of Great Pameer, and
sometimes Sikandari-Kul, or Alexander's Lake, is now recog-
nized by European geographers as Lake Victoria. I t is four-
teen miles in length from east to west, and about one mile in
breadth. On three sides it is bordered by hills about 500 feet
high, but which on the south side rise to the height of 3500
feet above its banks, or 18,800 feet above the sea level, and are
covered with perpetual snow. Indeed, at the time of Captain
IVood's visit, the whole country was buried in snow, with a
dark nn,T sky overhead, not a breath stirring, not n bird or a
beaet within sight. The water of the lake was frozen to the
depth of thirty inches, and ' owing to the great rarity of the
atmosphere a few strokes of the pick-axe produced an exhaust-
ion that stretched us upon the enow to recruit our strength.'
438 CENTRAL ASIA.

The lake itself waa not more than nine feet deep in the centre,
and the water was of a reddish colour, with a slightly fetid
smell ; the bottom being oozy and tangled with weeds. An
attempt to measure the breadth of the lake by the carriage of
sound entirely failed through the tenuity of the atmosphere.
' A musket loaded with blank cartridge, sounded as if t h e
charge had been poured into the barrel, and neither wads nor
ramrod used. When ball was introduced the report was louder,
but possessed none of the sharpness that marks a similar charge
in denser atmospheres. The ball, however, could be distinctly
heard whizzing through the air.' Conversation could not be
kept up. A run at full speed for a distance of Uty yards pro-
duced pain in the lungs, and prostration that lasted for some
hours. Some of the party were dizzy with headache, and a n y
sort of muscular exertion became very soon distressing. T h e
pulse rose in some instances to 124 beats in the minute, and i u
none was less than 110.
The line of perpetual snow ie here a little over 17,000 feet.
By the end of June the ice is broken up and the hills clear of
snow, when the surface of the lake is covered with aquatic birds.
'The grass of Pameer they (the Kirghiz) tell you is so rich that
n sorry horse is here brought into good condition in less than
twenty days ; and its nourishing qualities are evidenced in the
productiveness of their ewes, which almost invariably bring
forth two lambs at a time. Their flocks and herds roam over an
unlimited extent of swelling grassy hills of the sweetest and
richest pasture, while their yaks luxuriate amid the snow at no
great distance above their encampment on the plains.'
The Amou, or Oxus, in its upper course is formed by the
confluence of four rivers, traced by Colonel Yule with charac-
teristic conciseness and lucidity. I. The Surkh-ab, or Kizil-su-
literally, Red Water-rises in the A a i steppe which it drains,
receiving fro111 the left the river Muk, and rushes through the
 PANEER. 43 9

almost unknown Karategeen district, in a deep channel between

narrow gorges. The populntion of this state is estimated at
100,000 souls, of the Galchas race, speaking Persian. No
trade of any kind seems to be carried on. The Khan claims
descent from Alexander the Great, and the country is supposed
to have been formerly peopled by the P a r a t a m or Paretaceni.
I t was conquered in the early purt of the preent century by
the Khan of Darwaz, who expelled the native princes, but it
appears that they have since recovered their ancient poaseesions.
Horses and cattle are bred in considerable numbers, and SUE-
cient corn is grown for home use. Gold washing, working the
wlt mines, and the manufacture of very toleruble iron, furnish
employment for those who are not engaged in agricultural pur-
suits. Leaving Karategeen the Surkh-ab flows through Kulab,
coincident with the old provinces of IVakhsh and Kotl, and
which in the palmy days of the Arabs was full of trade and in-
dustry, both of which are now neglected. The Surkh-nb then
joins the Punja above the junction of the Kokcha, near the
little town of Kurghnn Tapah or Tippah.
11. Tho Punja is formed by the confluence of two streams
near Fort l'anja, 10,000 feet above the sea. These streams
descend from Pnmeer : the one, named Daruh-i-Sir-i-Kul, issues
from Luke Victoria, whence it hastens down for sixty-five to
seventy miles, till it joins Captain Wood's ' Stream of Snrhad,'
coming from the Sarhad \Yakhat, or Wakhan Xarches, and
proceeding from a lukelet known as the Barkut, or Pool, of
E'nusin. The course of this stream is about 100 miles in length,
passing through a very narrow valley, well peopled towards the
lower end, the inhabitants living in contiguous houses of stone
or mud, xarmed by stoves-the Po-mi-lo valley of Hiouen
Tsnng. From the Panja Fort, the river of that name flows for
sixty-six Inilea through a valley varying in width from a few
hundred jar& to a mile. At the western extremity of 7Vakhan
440 CENTRAL ASIA.

the Panja makes an elbow, enclosing the ruby mines, and then
turns to the north, skirting Shighnan, Roshan, and Darwaz.
111. The Kokcha, a less considerable stream, deriving its
name from the colour of its waters-' Kok ' in Toorkee signify-
ing ' blue'-is formed above the Fyzabad defiles by the con-
fluence of two little rivers from the Jerm and Vardoj valleys.
I t then forces its way through a narrow gorge, called the Tongi,
or Strait of Badakhshan, and receiving several tributaries falls
into the Amou near the fertile plain of Cha-ab.
IV. The Akaarai, called also the Surkh-ab for some distance
from its source, descends from the Bnmian Pass. E a r Ghori
the valley opens out, and at Kunduz the river takes the name
of Aksltrai, and joins the Amou about 160 miles above Khoja-
saleh.
The respective courses of these different rivers are thus
estimated by Colonel Yule. I. The Surkh-ab, from its pro-
bable source in the Karategeen highlands to the mouth of the
Aksami, 400 miles. 11. The Panja, from the Barkat Passin
to the same point, 425 miles. 111. The Kokcha, from the pro-
bable source of the Jerm river, 223 miles. IV. The B ~ m i a n
Su~kh-ab,or Aksami, 220 miles. The entire length of the
Amou from Rarkat Yassin to the Aral is thus about 1400 miles,
allowing 200 miles for windings.
The difficulty raised by the Court of St Petersburg to the
adoption of the Pnnja aa the line of demarcation between
Central Asia and the dependencies of Afghanistan may be
~ a r t l y ,perhaps principally, traced to an extraordinary p-
graphical swindle apparently perpetrated by the learned orien-
talist Klaproth. On the 14th August, 1806, the archives of
the Russian War Office were enriched by elaborate maps, with
thirty astronomical determinations of position, together with
the journal of a certain Freiherr Georg Ludwig von -- (the
name being left blank), who pretended to have been deputed by
 PAHEER. 441

the Indian government at the close of the last ccntury to pur-

chase horses in Toorkestan. For Anglo-Indian readers the
bare statement carries its own contradiction, but the Russinn
government found it convenient to be credulous, and, seemingly
without further inquiry, adopted the geographical reports of
this anonymous and apocryphal traveller.
I n 1821, Julius Henry Von Klnproth translated the itinernry
of a Chinese traveller through Eastern Toorkestnn, harmonizi~~g
with Freiherr Georg Ludwig's ' personal' observations. At a
somewhat later period Lord Strangford discovered in the Fo-
reign O5ce in Downing Street a ~aanuscriptreport of a Russinn
expedition through Central Asia to the frontiers of India accom-
plished in the beginning of this century, and which hild been
secretly purchased from Klaproth. Subsequently it mas ascer-
tained that theso three several narratives mere evidently writtcn
to illustrate a Chinese map constructed by the Jesuit rnisuion-
. aries in squnre blocks, one of which, containing Wakhan, Bad-
ukshnn, Pameer, Roshan, and Shighnan, hnd been accideuhlly
placed the wrong way, the horizontal sides being turned vertical,
or 90" degees out of their proper position. Since the exposure
of this error by Sir Hcnry Rawlinson and Colonel Yule, the
Russian government, as well as our own, has been compelled to
ncknowledgo the inaccuracy of its maps, and to replace these
districts where nature originally fixed them. 31. Veniukof
would hardly now declare that 'whoevcr is ruler of Bolor and
Badakhshan is in a position not only to dictate to the Chineso
at Kashgar and Purkund, but also is master of the road that
leads to India.'
442 CKSTRAL ASIA.

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE KHIVAN EXPEDITIOS.

COLONEL M A B I C O ~ ~ W ) FRECONNAISSANCE
'I Ih. 1872-DIPLOMATIC CORRESPOND-
ENCE-ADVANCE OF GENERAL GOLOF'B CORPS-A GRAND DUKE UNDER
FELT-FBIENDLINEBJ O P THE BOKEABIASB-BKIBMLSH WITH TOOBKO-
MANS-REPCLBE O P THE KHIVANB-PAMAGE OF THE AMOK---OCCUPA-
TION OP HAZARAJP-PUL OF KEIVA--GENERAL VEBEFRIN'B XARCE-
COLONEL LO.\IAKIN'B MARCH---COLONEL XABKOBOF'B DIFUSTER-BUBMIR
SION OF THE KHAN-PEACE-DIBTBIBUTIOY OF tIOSOUBS-BIB HENRY
LAWILESCE OX A RUSSIAN INVASION OF INDIA-BIB THOMAS MUNBO ON
OUR TREATMENT OF THE NATI\T~CORCLUBION.
INthe autumn of 1872, a small Russian force, consisting of
1000 foot, 300 horse, and six guns, under the command of .
Colonel Markosof, marched out from Krasnovodsk, on the
Caspian, and advanced without molestation to the borders of
the Khivan territories. The object of this expedition was
simply to effect a reconnaissance, and it so far succeeded that it
obtained practical experience of the suddenness of Toorkoman
onslaught. Too contemptuous of the enemy to send out
skirmishers, Colonel Markosof found himself in a moment in
the midst of a cloud of cnvalry, and was glad to escape with
the loas of 150 camela and nearly all his horses. The numbers
of the killed and wounded are seldom published by the Russians,
and never correctly.
The question of peace or war, if not previously determined,
ww necessarily decided by this repulse, for in the East a dis-
aster can never safely be allowed to puss unremedicd and
unavenged. At the same time there can be no doubt, notwith-
standing Prince Qortchakof's protestations and denials, that
 TEE KHIVAN EXPEDITION. 443

military operations against Khiva on an extensive scale were

meditated, if not actually arranged, by the Court of St Peters-
burgh in 1869. And it must be frankly admitted that hostili-
ties were fully justified by the persistence of the Khivans in
carrying off Russian subjects, and selling them into captivity.
The new establishment at Krasnovodsk, however, was declared
to be merely a trading factory, 'protected by a small armed
force,' but which could not be correctly spoken of as a fort.
' Somethiug,' also, was to be done ' to ascertain the feasibility
of opening up the old course of the Oxus to the Caspian,' and
it was confidently asserted that there were 'no physical diffi-
ci~ltiesto prevent a military force from marching from the sea
to the river.'
In March, 1872, M. Stremooukof, director of the Asiatic
department of the Russian Chancery, informed Lord A.
Loftus that the Khan of Khiva treated with contempt and
insult General Kaufmann's letters of expostulation, and obstin-
ately refused to hold friendly relations with the Govsrnor of
Toorkestan. I n reply to an inquiry from Lord Loftus, M.
Stremooukof charged the Khun with being in community with
the nomadic tribes who pillaged the caravans, with sheltering
the marauders and participating in the booty. ' The difficulty
we have in dealing with Khiva,' continued the Russian diplo-
matist, ' is the fact of its being so we&. I f we were to chastise
the Khan, the whole fabric would fall like a pack of cards.'
H e added that ' a reconnaissance had already been m d c on
both sides of Khiva, from the side of the Caspian and from
Tashkend, and that the occupation of Khiva would offor no
strntegical difficulties.'
At a somewhat later period the Khan beoame alarmed by
these military reconnaissances from opposite directions, and ex-
pressed a wish to mnd an envoy to St Peteraburg. He wne
naturally required, as a preliminary step, to liberate all Russians
444 CESTRAL ASIA.

held in bondage within his territories, but he would neither

comply with this just demand nor hold direct intercourse with
General Kaufmann, Governor-General of Russian Toorkestan.
No alternative remained, but to submit to constant outrages, or
to inflict such a severe chastisemeut as would not easily be for-
gotten. The latter course was inevitably adopted, and a con-
siderable force, equipped with a completeness that betrayed the
length of the preparations, was rapidly organized for the
subjugation of the Khanat.
Including all arms, the total strength of the three divisions,
or five detachmenta, ordered to concentrate upon Khiva, w
probably between twelve and fourteen thousand men, with
sixty or seventy guns. The Toorkestan division under the
supreme command of General Kaufmann was divided into two
columns. One of these, under General Golof, assisted by
Lieutenant-Colonel Baron yon Kaulbars, left Kazaly or Ham-
linsk, near the mouth of the Syr, on the 23nd March, and pro-
ceeded nearly due south to the Boukan Hills. The second
corps, called the Jizzak column, under General Golovntchof,
accompanied by His Imperial Highness Prince Eugene Jfarimili-
anorich Romanofsky, Duke of Leuchtenberg, may be said to have
started from Fort Perofsky, though its head-quarters were at
Tashkend. The van of this column left Tashkend on the 13th
March, and the entire Eastern, or Toorkestan, division nas
concentrated at Khala-ata or Khalaat, ninety miles eost of the
Amou, on the 24th April, when General Knufmann took the
command into his own hands.
His Imperial Highness, the Grand Duke Nicholas Constan-
tinorich, being associated with the fortunes of aeneral Qolof, a
few raps of 'the fierce light that beats upon a throne,' hare
gilded the earlier movements of the Kazalinsk corps. Gene&
Romanof, the military correspondent of the Goloss-who s u k
quently committed suicide-was on the Staff of the Grand
 T H E KHIVAN EXPEDITION. 4.25

Duke, and thus describes His ImperialHighness's first experience

of campaigning in the desert :-'We eat, live, and sleep in a
large kebitks (the cupola-shaped tent of the nomads of Central
Asia). To the left of the entrance is placed the bedstead of the
Grand Duke ; next to it, opposite the entrance, is mine; .in a
line with mine and to the right, of the entrance is that of Dr
Moreff, and next to him, nearer to the entrance, on the floor,
sleeps Baron Kaulbars. I n the middle of the round kebitka is
placed a little iron stove, with an iron chimney let through the
roof; between the stove and my bedstead there is a folding-up
table on which we take our meals, write our letters, &c. Near
the bedsteads and beneath them are piles of saddles, bags,
parcels, and portmanteaus. The walls of the tent are hung
with our overcoats, caps, revolvers, and swords. The above iy
a description of our nomad abode, near to which stands a similar
kebitka for our servants, furnished with an iron cooking stove,
on which our tea and dinner are prepured. I n this tent are
located the Grand Duke's footman, the Court huntsman, Dmitry
Babur ; his Highness's C m c k , Ignatius Tobolsky ; my mili-
tary servant, Alexander ; the Cossacks of his Highness's escort ;
and h e people who have charge of our horses. Both those
kebitkas, with their sides, stoves, and coverings, aro packed on
three camels, and accompany us evarywhero. They are pnt up
and taken to pieces in half an hour. On arriving at the halting-
place, or the night encampment, Alexander's first duty is to take
my coppor kettle off his pack and fill it with any kind of water
he can get, generally brackish or tainted, place it on the fire
made by the Cossacks of the escort of all kinds of steppe plaut,
such as wormwood, camel's thorn, tamarisk, d;c. Tea is then
put into the copper kettle, and notwithstanding its evident
dirtineee me drink it with great satisfaction out of metal tum-
blers. The bad taste of the tea is counteracted by a slice of
lemon, extract of cranbeny, or acid wine.'
440 CEXTRAL ASIA.

For the first 150 miles, all went well with this corps. O u t
of 3000 camels not above a hundred had given i n The
health of the troops, 2000 of the lower gmdea, way satisfactory, /
1
nnd their daily rations consisted of half a poundof fresh meat, a ,
l i t t l ~wine, and one pound of tea for a hundred men. Every '
tnan had a sheepskin and a piece of felt to lie upon, and ten
kibitkas were allowed to each regiment, besides one for the
o5cers and one for the sick. I n three days the 'arid loose
rirlnds' of the Kizil Kum, between sixty and seventy nlilcs in
extent, were safely traversed, though not without great fatieme
to men and benats. Cusks containing in all 2300 gallons of
water, in addition to what each man carried, Fere slung on
camels, and proved su5cient until they reached the deep wells
of Kizil-Kak. On the 2nd April, General Qolof had reached
the Boukan Hills, where he received instructions from General
Kaufmalin to push on into the territories of Bokhora.
By that time the heat at mid-day had become intolernble,
though the nights were still piercingly cold. On the 24th
April ta junction was effected with the Toorkestan, or Jizzak,
column, which had suffered considerably in crossing the steppe.
Owing to the general excellence of the arrnngements water, in-
deed, neyer failed the troops, but they were much harassed by
storms of mind, dust, and cold rain beating in their faces, with
the thcrmometcr at night as low as 5' Reaumur. Although
great exertions were made by the sappers to clear the road of
obstructions, the guns had to be lowered down the steep descents
by ropes, while the camel^ gave much trouble by their fnstidious-
ness as to the weight and adjustment of their burdens. Both
tho Ameer of Bokhnra and the Khan of Khokan had their re-
presentatives in General Kaufmann's camp, charged to render
him all the assistance in their power, just as a pack of wolves
will turn upon and tear to pieces any one of their number that
may be sick or wounded.
 THE KHIVAN EXPEDITION. 447
At the well of Balta Saldyr, the Governor of Nourata,
clressed in a brocaded dressing-gown and green Cashmere shawl,
and mounted on a handsome horse,' rode forward to pay his
respects to the Russian General, and placed 100 camels at his
disposal, while the nomads opened a sort of fair, and offered for
sale, fuel, cakes, tobacco, raisins, &c. The Governor also enter-
tained the General and his Staff at an oriental repast, at which
tea, pillao, and confectionery were plentifully served. He further
presented the detachment with a thousand bundles of clover.
' Beyond Balta Saldyr,' writes a correspondent of the I)~rnliclr,.
'the wide expanse of the desert offers a most dreary aspect.
Nothing but sand, with just a few thistles and absinth plants
to relieve the dire monotony of the scene. The further you
~enet~rate the less vegetation there is, and the higher the smd-
hills become. Sometimes the water is excellent., on other oc-
casions it is slightly salt, though, as a rule, very tolerable, and
fit to drink. The wells of the steppe are carefully dug, some of
them reaching a depth of 100 feet, with a diameter of five feet
and more. The inside is lined with stones, and the mouth pro-
tected from sand by an elevation of stones and trunks of trees.
A bucket of goatskin attached to a rope is let down, and acts
so well that even if there is but little water and the bucket
touches the bottom, it never brings up any mud. W e live
chiefly upon biscuits and preserved food. As to the hones,
they hare to content themsclvcs mostly with barley.'
The united Toorkestan dirision may be taken at about 5000
combatants, 1400 horses, !I000 camels, thirty-two guns, four
mortars, nnd four iron ferry-boats. The Khan of Khiva, tardily
coming to his senses, sent to the Russian camp twenty-one
Russian subjects who had been kidnapped within the previous
four years, and expressed his readiness to negotiate. Glencral
Kaufmann, however, merely accepted the prisoners, and prose-
cuted his march. Water now becoming scarce, an advanced
419 CENTRAL ASIA.
-

guard was pushed forward under Major-General Bardofsky, pre-

l a platoon of riflemen, and in front of these a patrol of
c c d ~ by
eight Cossacks, while o short distance a-head of these again rode
a small party of horsemen, consisting of 1,ieuten~nt-Colone!~
Ivanof arid Tichrnenief, four Cosmcks, and nine Kirghiz
guides. Late in the evening, a body of Toorkomans suddenly
swooped down upon their prey, cutting down the leading guide,
and at the first discharge wounding the two officers, the four
Cossacks, and three of the Kirghiz. They feared, however, t o
come to close quarters, qotwithstanding their overwhelming
numbers and the comparatively disabled condition of this gallant
little band. The sound of the firing brought up the patrol
at the gallop, and the riflemen at the double, and the Toorko-
mans retreated with three killed and six wounded. This
petty skirmi3h was a fair illustration of the entire campaign, so
far as fighting mas concerned. Beyond natural obstructions the
illvndcrs experienced no opposition worthy of the nnme.
The real object of General Bardofsky's separation from the
main body mas to dig as many wells as possible at Adam
Kriglan, and when he had excavated twenty General Kaufmann
set out from Kholaat. On the 15th May he made a fresh start
from Adam Kriglan, but, owing to the delay caused i n loading
the camels and leading them down the steep hillocks of loose
sand, very little progress was made, and water agnin running
short the main body moved on to Alty-Ruduk, while General
Bardofsky returned to Adam Kriglan and occupied three days
in sinking forty more wells and in filling his casks and bottles.
While thus engaged he was attacked by a small body of Toork-
omans, who were, however, easily repulsed without any casual-
ties on the Russian side. The camels now began to perish by
hundreds. Of the 2800 camels belonging to the train before
leaving Khalaat, only 1240 survived when General Bordofaky
returned to Alty-Kuduk. It became necessary, therefore, still
 THE KHIVAN EXPEDITION. 440

further to subdivide the small force collected at that spot.

General Kaufmann accordingly pushed on, on the 21st, f i t h ten
colllpnnies of infuntry, ten guns, and one mtniu of Cossacks.
The country between Alty-Kuduk and the Amou is de-
scribed as a succession of mounds or huge billows of loose dry
sand, exce~sivelyfatiguing, and aff'odingshelter to the enemy's
skirmishers. Throughout the whole night of t i e 22nd the camp
was harassed on three sides, and the troops deprived of the rest
so much needed. At damn on the 23rd-to follow General Kauf-
mnnn's Rcport to the Military Department at St Yetersburg
-' the detachment resumed their march, being still surrounded
by the enemy. Two companies of Turkestrrn Rifles marching
right and left of our van formed a continuous chain of skir-
mishers, who kept the enemy at a diukance. The van was im-
mediately succeeded by horse artillery, who had riflcmen, snp-
pers, and mitrailleuses, on their right, and infantry in loose
order, wit,h mountain guns, on their left. The next in the order
of march were the train and bcosta of .burden, who were entirely
eurrounded by four companies of skirmishers, supported by two
mountain guns. Five sotnias of cavalry and a rocket battery
brought up the rear. Hardly had our troops begun to move
when the enemy, suddenly opening fire, began to close in on all
sides at once. But all their efforts were in vain. 31arching
with the same regularity which they had been taught on the
parade ground, our troops, firing along the whole line, effectively
checked the advance of the enemy. The natives, soon recognizing
their utter impotence, gave a peculiar yell and decamped, to
. hide behind the nearest rising ground. After a while they re-
appeared and fired a volley, which did not cost us a single man.
Thus the game went on for three or four versta, when the
enemy, despairing of hindering our advance, determined to try
their luck against our train. Even before this Major-General
(folovatcheff, the commander of the force, who pereonally
29
450 CENTRAL ASIA.

directed the operatione of the day, had ordered Colonel Gln-

vatzki, the chief of the cavalry, to eend one half of his men to
the right and the other to the left flank of our baggage. A
little later, the enemy having disappeared on our left, the whole
cavalry mas concentrated on oar right, which movement t h e
natives mistook for a prepared attack, and they went howling
away even before they hnd time to injure any of our camels.
General von Kaufmann having strictly forbidden any pursuit or
interruption of the march to the Amou by any more fighting
than was indispensably necessary, our troops took no advantage
of the enemy's retreat, but steadily marched on. The artillery
fired but a single grenade, which, bursting in the midst of the
hostile mob, crented no little terror and confusion.'
No further resistance wm offered, though there could not
have been fewer than 3500 Toorkomans, Kirghiz, and Khivans,
hovering round thc Russian advanced guard. They even deserted
their camp nnd fled to Shourakhan, but the Cossack horses were
too much eshausted to keep up the pursuit for more than a few
miles. ' When General von Kaufmann reached the summit of
the hills whence he could see the Aniou flowing in the distance,
all he discovered of the enemy were some stragglers moriug in
the rear of the main force.' A vessel laden with cattle nnd pro-
visions was the immediate and welcome reward of this successful
skirmish, though it is not pleasant to read that 'the crew tried
to save themselves by swimming, but were nearly all drowned
or shot whilst struggling in the water.' The Khivans must
hare been a little puzzled to distinguish the difference between
humanity as practised by the Russians and inhumanity as per-
petrated by themselves.
On the 25th General Kaufmann was again on the march,
and on the 28th dispersed some Khivnn troops stationed on
the Pitniak hills, on the opposite side of the river. Two days
later he crossed the Amou at Sheik-Aryk, with very slight op7
 - - - .

position, though the prrsssge accupied four daps. On the 2nd

June a strong reconnoitring body wm pushed forward toward
Hazarasp, probably the strongest town in the Khanat, and sus-
tained a smart attack, sma~tlyrepelled. On the following day,
after a slight skirmish outside the walls, Haznraap opened its
gates and submitted to the invadere. Here the column rested
three dnys to give the Commiesariat time to c d e c t a train of
native carta, aa the camels were unfit for further service, and on
the 8th resumed its march upon the capital.
At eight a.m. on the 10th June General Kaufmann arrived
before the walls of Khiva, but only in time to learn that the town
was already in possession of the combined Orenbarg-Manghish-
lak corps under General Verefkin. This corps, after repulsing
a spirited attack by some 3000 Toorkomnris on the 8th, had en-
camped in the environs on the 9th and planted a battery close
to the outer or town wall. The Khan had by this time made his
escupe into the desert, but a desultory musketry fire was still kept
up at intervals, to which the Russians responded by an hour's
bombardment. At sunrise on the morning of the 10th the fire
from the walls re-commenced, whereupon General Verefkin blew
in one of the outer gates, and, without further resistance, estab-
lished himself in the outer town. On the previous day he had
roceived a slight wound on the head, and hnd two men killed
and tive officers and forty-five rank and filo wounded. At two in
the afternoon Geneinl von Kaufmann, nttended by their Imperial
Highncsscs tho Grand Duko Nicholas and the Duke of Leuch-
tenburg, made his triumphal entry into the capital of Khiva,
and four days later the Khan surrendered himself a prisoner.
I t is now time to trace the progress of the two corps from
Orenburg and the Caucasus. The formor detachment comprised
nine companies of the Orenburg Infantry of the Line, a corps
of snppcru, 600 Orenburg Cossacks, six pieces of mounted artil-
lery, six rocket appnrtus, four mortars-20-pounders, two
452 CEXTRAL ASIA.

rifled guns for defence of forte to be constructed, a battery of

artillery and ammunition transport, and some two-horse sledges,
in all about 3000 men. With so much care and foresight had all
the arrangements been made that it was calculated this column
would arrive before the gates of Khiva on the 8th of June, and
the calculation erred by only a single dny. The real start was,
of course, from the Emba Post, which the advanced guard quit-
ted on the 8th April, the main body being four days Inter. A t
first the troops suffered a good deal from the extreme cold, and
the horses cut their feet with the ice that coated the surface of
the snow, but by the 18th April they found themselves on 'a
good road in completely summer weather ; the grass was erery-
where verdant, and here and there the wild onion and field tu-
lips were seen.' Gmeral Verefkin, the commander of this
corps, appears to have experienced far less difficulty than had
been anticipated in traversing the dreary solitude of the Cst
Urt. Neither was he at all molested by the Kirghiz, whose
lender, Isset Kutebar, the famous son of a famous father, made
his submission at an early period of the expedition.
Not far from Kungrad General TTerefkin was opportunely
joined by the Manghisluk detachmeut of the army of the
Caucasus under Colonel Lornakin. The vnn of this fine body
of men-probably 2500 of ull arms-started from Kinderli, on
the eastern coast of the Caspian, about the 12th April, a fort-
night in adrnnce of the mail] body. The latter had waited too
long. At Kuyandi, only twenty miles from their starting-point,
they entered upon the open steppe, an arid waste, with the
thermometer at 40" Renumur, while a suffowting wind blew
over the treeless plain. ' Overpowered by the heat and dust '-
says a correspondent of the Moscolc Gazette-'man and beast
soon lay prostrate on the burning soil, to be forced up again by
a sensation as though they were being roasted alive on the
scorching sand. Many suffered from sunstroke.' The supply
 THE KHIVAN EXPEDITION. 453

of water, too, threatened to fail, nnd it was after sore toil and
travail that the Seneka wells were reached, and the expedition
saved from destruction. The rest of tho march across the Ust
Urt was comparatively easy.
Colonel Lomakin had intended in the first instance to join
General Verefkin at the Aibugir Lake, but actually effected a
junction at Kungrad. The lake, it may be mentioned, had
,

turned into dry, or at least marshy, land, owing to the de-

siccation of tho Laudan branch of the Amou. The junction
seems to hare been opportune. Although Kungrad had at
once recognized the futility of offering any resistance to
General Vcrefkin's column, the Khivaus had apparently re-
solved upon giving battle under the walls of Khoja-Ili. I t is
not likely, indeed, that they mould long have held their ground
against tlie steady advance and obstinute couragc of tho Russian
troops, but they could hardly hayo failed to inflict somo loss of
life, and for no advantage to either side.
Kungrad itself, situated at tho extremity of the cultivated
and settled district, on the Taldyk branch of ;he Amou, is de-
scribed in the Turl;eatnn.sky Vedomsiy as a town 'surrounded
by a wall about four versts in circumference, aild of double
thickness in some places. Part of the town wall facing the
river is nearly washed by its waters. The inhabitants number
about 8000, consisting of Uzbeks, Tadjiks, Kirghize, and a few
Persian slaves. The inhabitanb of Kungrad pay the ~ h a of n
Khiva's taxes on their property and on the cultivation of the
soil. This tax is two-fold, in kind and in money. The rich
farmers paid before sowing from three to five tingres (2s. to
3s.) per tanap (about an acre) according to the facilities for
irrigation. Any one unable to pay before sowing gave up a
third of the yield at harvest-time. Owing to its geographical
position, it may become an important administrative centre for
the government of the tribes on the Lower Amau. The en-
454 , CENTRAL ASIA.

virone of Kungrad from the wnlls of the town itself present a

oontinuous cultivated district limited by the inundated land,
which i overgrown with tau, thick canes. There is hardly
any meadow or pasture land, so that the cattle of the t o m s -
people must depend on the scanty herbage in the dried nater-
oourses. The neareet meadow land is fifteen v e r s t off, near
the hill of Tiube Tau, fifty versta along the Tnldyk, in the dis-
trict of the nomad Kirghize. The want of meadow and pasture
land in the neighbourhood compels the inhabitants to sow
grass. The environs of Kungrad will support a garrison of
from 1000 to 1800 men.'
The combined 2etnchments from Orenburg and Kinderli ad-
vanced in two parallel columns towards Khoja-Ili, slightly ha-
d on their flanks. I n front of the town a fortified camp
had been eatnblished, defended by 6000 infantry, six guns, and a
considerable body of light horse. The enemy, however, were
iutimidated not only by the junction of the two columns, b u t
also by the defection of Kalbin Beg, who had gone over to t h e
Russians with 2000 Kirghiz and Toorkoman tents. While the
Kinderli or Caucasidn detachment mpde a slight circuit threaten-
ing to intercept the retreat of the Khivans, General VerefEiin
with his Orenburgers marched strnight agtiinst the t o m , a n d
was met at the gate by the elders, who tendered their submis-
sion. The Russians then advanced to the camp, but o n l y to
find it so completely deserted that the only traces of the enem?
were the freshly constructed enrthworks, a small quantity of
flour, and a solitary gun stuck fnst in a garden. The only 1-
sustained was through the fire opened by the Ehivans from t h e
oppo~itebank, by which, though the river is there 700 yards
wide, two Russian soldiers were wounded, one of whom fell
into the river and was carried away by the current.
After resting two days in the captured camp, the troops con -
tinued their advance through a succession of jungles and s w a m p s
 THE KHIVAN EXPEDITION. 465
/

intercepted by canals, which might easily have been rendered

impamable. Aa it was, a body of 8000 foot, with three guns,
and supported by a cloud of the Yamood Toorkomans, made two
or three ~woopsupon the train, and at Mangit sixteen Russians
are acknowledged to have been wounded. The town was conse-
quently stormed and committed to the flames,-another illus-
tration of Muscovite civilization. On the 2nd June the march
waa resumed, sometimes through a reedy jungle, at other times
through fields of tall grain, and on one occasion a small'body of
Tamooods made a dash at the train, but were easily repulsed.
Agnin we are brought face to face with the hrbarous character
of Russian warfare. From Kitai Colonel Skobelef was des-
patched with two mtniaa and a rocket battery to destroy every
Yamood village within a circuit of several miles. After halting
a few days at Icitoi, the aombined detachments pushed forward
to Khiva, which they reached on the 9th June, after sustaining
a sudden onslaught of some 3000 Toorkomans on the previous
day. A t sunrise on the loth, as already related, Genernl
Verefkin occupied the outer wall, and held the town at his
mercy.
The part borne by the Bra1 flotilla in these military oper-
ations was quite insignificant. The squadron consisted of the
two steamers, Perofgki and Smnnrkatad and three long boats.
On the 10th May the Smnnl.katzd silenced the guns of the
Akkala Fort on the Ulkun Dsrya, though not before a shell
penetrated her f o r m t l e , and in bursting wounded her com-
mander and seven marines. By the 14th the flotilla had
ascended to within thirty-five miles of Kungrad, where it was
brought up by want of water. An ensign and five marinee
having been eent out to reconnoitre, and, if possible, open a
communication with tho land forces, were cut off by the enemy.
A third detachment from the west, starting from Chikislap
en the Caspian, under the command of the w e Colonel Mar-
456 CENTRAL ASIA.

kosof, who conducted the unfortunate reconnaissance of 1872,

was compelled to return without glory, if without disgrace.
This corps, about 2000 strong, left Chikislar about the 5th
April with two months' supply of provisions, and not only
reached the Igdy Wells without much difficulty, but had made
eeveral succes~fulrnids upon the Toorkomnn encampments, and
carriod off upwards of 1000 cnmels, which afterwards proved of
inestimable value. The sufferings of the column comn~enced
on the \.cry day they resumed their march from Igdy. The
heat was so intolerable that by eight o'clock in the morning a
halt had become absolutely necessary. To\rards the evening
the troops got over B further distance of eight miles, but with
extreme difficulty. According to the official report to the
Minister of War, 'camels dropped down dead, horses refused to
advance, and the men, completely exhausted, soon drnnk up all
the water which had been served out to them at their morning
halt.' The consequences of this impatience of thirst and want
of self-denial were very serious. Owing to the dryness of the
atmosphere, t.he water, even in casks, evaporated to the extent of
fully one-third in four-and-twenty hours. The nights being as
close ns the day, the men awoke unrefreshed and even weaker
than when they laid them down to sleep. Delay, however,
would have been fatal, and at sunrise the advance was renewed,
with still greater suffering than on the previous day. The
horses were so completely knockod up that the Cossacka were
compelled to dismount and lead them by their bridles, and the
400 men constituting this arm of the force were scattered over
a distance of five or six miles, but fortunately without being
attacked by the Toorkomans.
A halt wna called at 11 A.M., when 'the thermometer
(Reanmur, marked up to 55O) showed 53" of heat, and about
mid-day bu~bst.' A t half past four in the afternoon the cavalry
again started, though tho heat was still intense. ' Three versta
 THE KHIYAN EXPEDITION. 457

from their halting-place the character of the country changed,

the high mnd hills were replaced by still higher and still
steeper hills, composed of the finest hot lime dust, in which
nlerl and horses sank up to their knees. In the absence of the
lcnst breath of wind this dust remained stationary in the air,
rendering breathing difficult, end covering the horsemen with
a thick layer of dust. The situation of the cavalry detachment
now becnme worse at evcry step they took. The horses were
constantly falling and could hardly rise ngain ; the exhnustion
of the men reached its extreme limits ; some unnble to sit on
their hones fell off in u kind of swoon ; others on foot could
not walk any further. I t became necessiry to have recourse to
medical nssistancc to strengthen tile weakest.'
At midnight, the wells of Ortu-Roii being still invisible,
Colollel llarkosof had no choice but to stop where he wns till
daylight, three rnen being sent forward to discover the exact
position of the wells. As hours passed and no tidings arrived,
thirty of the least exhau~tedCossacks were despatched to tho
advancing infantry to obtain a supply of water. The foot
soldiers had fared no better than the cavalry. Although they
had a sufficiency of water, ' they fainted from the unusual heat
and dryness of the air; some of them, losing all their strength,
dropped down, unable any longer to keep up with their echelon,
which was scattered over ten versts.' The main body of the
Cossacks, retracing their steps in the track of the thirty, bore
up bravely until the sun had once more risen above the horizon.
Then, indeed, they gave wny altogether, ' and the detachment
becnme a line of stragglers, hardly ablo to move, many even
were without their horses, and could hardly keep their feet ;
others, hardly able to stand, led their wasted horses by the
bridles. The men swooned away at each step, and several lost
all consciousness.' At last about tan o'clock they were met by
ten.camels laden with water, the distribution of which Colond
459 CENTRAL ASIA.

hiarkoeof prudently took into hie own hands. I t was not, how-
ever, of good quality, and had become heated, so that the relief
i t afforded was slight and temporary. Both infantry and
oavalry were speedily reduced to the verge of exhaustion, and
destruction aeemed imminent, when the joyful intelligence
arrived that the wells of Bala-Ishen, not above ten milea distant,
had not been tampered with, and would yield a ~ u 5 c i e n supply
t
of tolerably good water.
Cheered by hope, a hnndful of Coeencks made a despemte
and successful effort to reaoh the wells, whence a string of
cumels was sent back with a load more precious than silver.
Had Colonel hlarkosof, instead of falling back, pushed forward
to the wells of Orta-KO$, which turned out to be only six or
seven miles from his midnight halting-ground, his troops would
have been spared much suffering, and it is possible that the
Chikislar column might have contributed to the full of Khiva.
I t is also evident from the minuteness of detail which charac-
teriza this report, that it was the desire of the war department
to exonerate the unlucky com~nanderfrom all blame for hij
second fuilure, and to allay the feeling of humiliation and dis-
appointment which must have h n experienced by the brave
fellows who shnred his misfortune. So great had been the loss
of camels and horaca, and so thoroughly prostrated were the
men of all branches of the aervioe, that it was at last wisely
resolved to return to Krasnovodsk. Thia was accomplished in
safety, though not without much distrese, and the lnst echelon
had occcrsionally to return the desultory fire of the Toorkomans.
Had the enemy posseseed the slightest courage or energy,
not a Russian would have survived to tell the tale, but the
nomad tribes have almoet a superstitious dread of artillery.
while their horses become ungovernable with terror at the noiae
and wayward flight of rockets. What was the r e d loss sue-
bind by this column will probably never be known, but there
 THE SHIVAN EXPEDITIOY. 469

can be no question as to its having finally straggled into the

fortified post at Krasnovodsk in an utterly demoralized con-
dition, many of the foot soldiers having flung away their arms
and accoutrements.
On the 11th of June, the anniversary of the birthday of
Peter the Great, divine service was performed in the great
square of the capital of Khiva, and three days later &id
Mohammed Raheem Khan, accompanied by his Ministers,
appeared in person .before General Kaufmann and surrendered
at discretion. Only twenty-five years of age, and of a weak,
fickle disposition, the Khan threw the blame of hia misconduct
more truly than generously upon his advisers, but fort~~nately
had not to deal with a Nadir Shah. Instead of being told that,
if he was unfit to govern his handful of subjecb, he was unfit
to live, he was treated with mare consideration thnn he deserved,
and finally received back his Khanat as a tributary of the Tzar.
All the country to the right of the Amou was, however,
taken from Khiva, and annexed to Bokhara in acknowledgment
of the Ameer's loyalty and good services throughout the cam-
paign. The Khan renounced the right of entertaining direct
relations with neighbouring sovereigns and Khana He en-
gaged to be guided solely and entirely by the supreme Russian
authorities in Central Asia. The navigation of the Amou was
ceded exclusively to Russia, even Khivan and Bokharese vesaels
requiring a licence for that purpose. The Russians also re-
served the right of conetructing harbours and piers on the left
bank of the river, of establishing factories and farms, and of
holding land, under the ixnmediate protection of the Khan's
government. Transit duties of every kind as regards Russian
merchandise were absolutely abolished. A war indemnity, or
fine, to the amount of two million two hundred thousand roublea
-fi30,000-payable by inatalmenta running over twenty years,
arrs further imposed upon the humbled and impoverihd
460 CENTRAL ASIA.

Khnnat. The liberation of all slaves and the abolition of all

traffic in human beings were likewise announced in the follow-
ing proclamation in the name of the Khan :-
' Penetrnted by veneration for the Emperor of Russia, I
declare all slaves in the Empire of Khiva to be free, and the
slave trade abolished for ever. I comn~and the immediate
execution of this order, and severe punishment will be inflicted
in case of refusal. All liberated slaves enjoy equal right6 with
my other subjects, and are permitted to rcmnin in the Khanate.
Sliould they wish to retiirn to their native country, special
measures will bo take;l. The liberated slaves are to assemble
nt the nearest market towns and to present themselves to the
authorities, who will inscribe their names on lists, and inform
the Khan of the number of those so liberated.'
The evacuation of the Khunat, with the exception of the '
two places retained as pledges, was at once commenced, and \\
the major part of the expedition gladly set out on their home-
ward march. The ~ O ~ o ~ o m c vwho e hadr ,
neglected every opportunity of attacking the Russians when
exhausted by heat and thirst, suddenly appealed to arms on
being summoned to pay 300,000 roubles us their share of the
war indemnity. A considerable force wRs accordingly de-
tached to bring them to their senses, and several shnrp(, skir-
mishes ensued, in which they are said to have lost 800 mkn-
the usual reticence being observed with regard to casualties'
the part of the Russians. The Yamoods at length yielded E
the superior arms and discipline of the Muscovite troops, w h h
the Karakalpaks and Kirghiz inhtlbiting the delta of the\\
Amou-Darya sent a deputation to Genernl Kaufmann, request-
ing the introduction of the syatem of administration that was
established on the Syr-Darya.
Thus, with the exceptiou of the ill-starred expedition from
 THE KHIVAN EXPEDITION. 46 1

Chikislar, the campaign had proved successful at all points ;

and nothing more remained to be done but to distribute t,he
honours and rewards that had been earned so well. The Khan
of Khokan is hencefort,h to be addressed as ' Your Serene High-
ness,' instead of as ' Your Honour,' the title which he had pre-
viously enjoyed in common with ordinary Russian merchants.
A silver medal, bearing the inscription, 'For the Khiva expe-
dition of 1873,' and supported by a riband worked in the coloure
of the Orders of St George and Vladimir, was awarded to all
who took part ill that brief and memorable campaign. Generals
Verefkin and Golovatchef each received the cross of the order
of St George of the third class, and Colonel Lomakin was pro-
moted to the rank of Major-General, while an Imperial Rescript
recognized the merits of the Commander-in-chief in terms of
high and merited luudation :-
' To our Aide-de-camp General, Lieutenant-General Con-
stantin von Kaufmann, Commander of the Troops of the Turk-
estan ~ i s t r i c and
t Governor-General of Turkestnn.
'The hostile relations between the Khanate of Khivn and
Russia compelled us at the beginning of spring of the present
year to take decisive steps against the Khanate. The general
command of all the troops destined for these operations was
given to you. You were at the same time instructed to take
the necessary measures to establish peace and order for the
future. Under your guidance the troops, after undergoing in-
credible hardships and privations, and overcoming with admir-
able firmness all natural impedimenta, brilliantly achieved our
object. You have fully justified our confidence by the wisdom
and foresight displayed in the conduct of operations, and as a
token of our acknowledgment of your merita we are pleased to
appoint you a Knight of the second class of our Imperinl Order
of the Great Nartyr and Victor S t George, the insignia of
462 CEXTRAL ASIA.

which accompany this reecript, and we command you to wur

them according to order.
' ALEUNDER.
' Czarskoe-mlo, Aug. 3, 1873.'
To General von Kaufmann is undoubtedly duc the chief
credit for the remarkable efficiency of the entiro force, the
admirable organization of the expedition, and the mnrvellous
precision of the pre-ordained combinations. I t evinced n o
ordinary powers of calculation to estimate with such nicety t h e
exact date at which five corps should concentrate upon a given
p i n t in the heart of a hostile country, defended by nature w i t h
barrierui previously deemed impasvnble by an army. From
K m l i n s k to Khivn is a distance of 520 miles, frorn Fort Perov-
sky to the same point 550, from Jieznk 576, from Manghislak
620, from Chikislar 650, and from Orcnburg to Kohne Ur-
ghunj 1000 miles. I t is true that only four of the five detach-
ments became united within the walls of Khira, but the Com-.
mnnder-in-chief can in no way be held accountable for the
disaster that overwhelmed Colonel Markosof's column. It
cannot, therefore, be denied, that the recent campaign was justly
undertaken, skilfially oonducted, and triumphantly concluded.
The jealousy very generally entertained and exprewed in
this country at the commencement of the Khivan campaign as
to the ulterior designs of Russia, gradually diminished with
every fresh success of the Russian arms, and seemed to have
entirely dimppcnred even before the Khan had consented to
become a rassal of the White Tzar. I t is not ensy to account
for this singular phenomenon. The betrothal of his Royal
Highness the Duke of Edinburgh to the only daughter of the
Emperor Alexander II., may powibly have had something to do
with this sudden subsidence of the very natural anxieby c x c i t d
by the approach of Russia towards the frontiers of British
 THE K R I V A N EXPEDITION. 4G8

India. But a mow potent cause may unhnppily be found in

the apathetic indifferenoe manifested by the British public with
respect not only to Central Aaia, but even to the political rela-
tions of Hindostan. I t may be that no serious apprehensions
of invasion from Khiva, Bolthara, or Kashpr, need disquiet
the minds of Anglo-Indian statesmen ; nor is there much occa-
sion to bewail the diversion of the trade of Central Asia into
Russian channels. As a fact, neither the Indian Government,
nor the British manufactul.er or merchant, has ever nttached
much importance to the pedlar-like traffic of those regions, and
it is, to say the least, an undignified proceeding to begrudge
the Russians what we never took any trouble to sccure for ourL
selves. The snappish surliness of the dog in the manger is
scarcely a bearing, or policy, worthy of n great nation. kit the
snme time we must not close our eyes to the fwt that in the
event of actual hostilities between Great Britain and Russia,
the possession of %ny one of these Khanate by the latter power
will compel the British Government to maintain a larger force
upon the north-westcm frontier of India than may consist with
vigorous operations in Europe.
Within a very few years a companti.c-ely easy and rapid
communici~tionwill be established between Orenburg, Khiva,
Ilokhara, Samarkand, and Kashgar, and consequently the
blocliade of the coasts of the Euxine and of the Sea of Asof
will lose much of its past importance, and would only slightly
affect even the army of the Caucasus. That point would
naturally be the base of operations in any attempt upon India,
but cren from Astrabad to Hernt is a distance of forty marchc~.
Too much stress, perhaps, sllould not be laid npon distances.
The rapid advance of the Russian columns upon Khiva, not-
withstanding the horrors of the deserts, must henceforth n h t o
all sense of security arising only from thnt consideration. Be-
sides, the cormtruct;ion of railways will bo an immense advantage
4 64 CENTRAT, ASIA.

to Russia, especially if Meshed be brought within the meslies of

the iron network. As time glidea on, BZerv will certainly
emerge once more from obscurity, and become a link in the
strategical chain of military posts connecting the extreme fron-
tiers of the Russian Empire with Moscow and St Petersbnrg.
Russia, i t must be remembered, never advances with the uild
bounds of tlie tiger, but rather with the cat-like stealthiness of
the cheetah, and seldom springs till she is sure of not missing
her prey. In tiny case, it is not so much an actual invasion of
India that need be apprehended, as the concentration of con-
siderable forces at advantagcous paints, ready to avail them-
selves of any opportunity that may bo afforded by weakness or
supineness, and, cs it were, parnlyzing one arm of her opponent
by compelling the maintenance in India of at lenst 70,000
British soldiers.
I t is well nigh twenty yenrs ago that the justly lamented
Sir 1Ie11ry Lawrence indicated the surest and only means of
averting all peril to India from without. ' Insensibly,' he said,
'and almost by eolcp-de-main, the Russian Empire has been
extended for 13,000 niiles across the wholo continent of E u m p
and Asia, and for twenty degrees over America Curbed to the
south and west, Russia has not waited an hour to push forward
her soldiers, her sailors, her savans, her engineers, and her
labourers to the Caspian, to the Aral, and even to the mighty
Amoor. Her old policy will now (1856) more vigorously than
ever be pursued, and, though the dreams of a century will never
be realized, her position in Persia will speedily be strengthened,
and posts will be established in Central Asia, and even in China.
Bomarsunds, if not Sebastopols, will arise at Orenburg, Astrakan,
and htrabad, perhaps even at Blilkh and Herat. Tho wave
has receded, to return with redoubled force, though at a differ-
ent angle. Such hns ever been and will be Russia's policy.
There will be no Russiun invasion of India, nor probably m i l l
 TIIE KBIVAN EXPEDITION. 463

the tribes bo impelled on us. . . There will be no foolish raid,

'

as long as India ia united, in tranquillity and contentment, under

.
British rule. . A small Russian army could not make good
its way through Afghanistan, a large army would be starved
there in a week. The largest army that could come, with
Afghanistan and Persia in its train, would be met at the outlet
of the only two practical passes, and while attempting to de-
bouch would be knocked into pieces. . . Herat is no more
the key to India than is Tabreez, or Khiva, or Koknn, or Meshed.
The chain of almost impenetrable mountains is the real key to
.
Iudia. . England's dangers are in India, not without; and
we trust that it will be in India they will be met, and that
there will be no third Afghan campaign. Such a move would
be playing Russia's game. W e are safe while we hold our
ground and do our duty. Russia may tease, annoy, and
frighten us by her money and by emissaries. She may
even do us mischief, but she will never put her foot in Hiu-
dostan.'
There is a marked distinction, however, to be drawn between
invasion with an idea to conquest, and invasion with an idea to
molestation. I t may, perbups, be safely conceded that the
former contingency is little likely to happen unt.il the decadence
of the British Empire hne approached the hour of dissolution.
The transport of a disciplined army of 100,000 men-and a
smaller force would insure defeat and destruction-with artillery,
ammunition, and commissariat mtores, across Persia and Afghan-
iatan, is an undertaking that mould tax to the uttermoet even
the colossal resources of Ruasia. But expeditions for the pur-
pose of annoyance, nnd of diverting to the East the aggrwiive
power of Great Britain, are quite within the bounde of proba-
bility. Even were Pemia and Afghaniaton to preserve a strict
neutrality, the rulers of Eastern Toorkocltan and Bokhara would
in vain proteet against the violation of their respective terri-
ao
466 CEKTRAL ASIA.

tories, in the event of a Russian force being directed towards

Kashmeer or Nepaul, the postern gates of British India.
The latter kingdom ie still an unknown land. The Indian
Governmest has hitherto tamely submitted to a degree of ex-
clusiveneee that was not so patiently endured in the wee of
either Japan or China. A British Resident, it ie true, is
stationed at Katmandoo, but he might ae well be stationed at
Timbuctoo. H e holds no intercourse with the people, and ie
not even permitted to ride or drive about the county. Hie
very attendants are spies upon his daily proceedings, and his
sayirlgs and doings are duly reported to the Nepaulese Govern-
ment. bluharajah Juug Behadoor, indeed, has avoided wming
into collision with the pomer.of England, and at the time of the
&poy Mutiny he even rendered some sort of assistance, though
not until it was no longer necessary. But it cannot be doubt&
that the feeling of the Nepaulese authorities is rather adverse
than amicable, and that fear rather than friendliness has pre-
vented the renewal of the hostile relatione which existed less
than sixty years since. The Maharajah of Kashmeer, again, is
a tributary, and, by himself, impotent to harm, but i t would
not be through his o m good will or exertions that his terri-
tories would be closed against a Russian force threading the
valley of Chitral, or turning the flank of the Kurakoram range
on its wny to Ladukh and the valley of the Indus.
England's danger and England's safety, however, i n India,
lie within and not beyond her own frontiers. There is little to
apprehend from without, so long as the people of India are con-
tented with British rule. But submission must not be mistaken
for satisfaction. Asiatics are by temperament patient, reticent,
and long-suffering, but this apathy is only an outward show,
for inwardly they treasure up the memory of their wrongs, real or
, wait for the hour of vengeance, without making
i m a g i ~ r yand
a sign. I t is commonly asserted that the natives of India enjoy
 TIIE KHIVAN EXPEDITION. 467

greater happiness under the British administration than ever

fell to their lot under either Hindoo or Mohammedan dynasties.
The position may be questioned. It is, of course, undeniable
that security of life and property now prevails where formerly
a man's life was not worth a year's purchase, and where 'the
good old rule, the simple plan ' was the order of the day, ' that
he should take who hath the power, and he should keep
who ctm.' But happinese is by no means synonymous with
' good government' I t is not enough that all men should be
equal before the law, or that the law itaelf should be theoretic-
ally and logically sound ; it must also be conformable to the
character of the people npon whom it is imposed. To be accept-
able to a nation ita lnwe must be of its own framing, must have
grown with, and out of, ita own growth,-must have been de-
manded before they were enforced.
This obvious truisrn has been too much overlooked by
British legislators with regard to India. Their motives have
been unexceptionable and generally benevolent, but they have
reasoned from premises that did not apply to the case under
consideration. They have been guided by analogies rather than
by nctual knowledge, the result of careful investigation. They
hove never carried their mind beyond the meridian of Green-
wich, and while in the flesh at Simla or in Calcutta, they have
remained in the spirit in the purlieus of Westminster. There
haa been quite enough of good intentions, but very much too
little of true statesmanship. One grent fault haa been the
strange omission to invite the co-operntion of the natives them-
wlves. The idea has bee11 that a pnternal government was
essential to a people in a state of pupillage, who could not
be expected to know what wus beet for them. This evil ia of
long standing. The growing jealousy of the native gentry, and
the supercilioue treatment to which they were being more and
more subjected, was a consbut subject of regret and remon-
468 CENTRAL ASIA.

strnnce on the part of both Sir John Malcolm and Sir Thomas
Munro.
' The main evil of our system,' mid the latter, * is the de-
graded state in which we hold the natives. . . W e treat them
as an inferior race of beings. Men, who, under a native
government, might have held the first dignities of the State--
who, but for us, might have been governors of provinces, are
regarded as little better than menial servankj-are often no
better paid, and scarcely permitted to sit in our preseuce. We
reduce them to this abject state, and then we look down upon
them with disdnin, as men unworthy of high station. Under
most of the Mohammedan princes of India, the Hindoos were
eligible to all the civil offices of government ; and they fre-
quently possessed a more important sl~arein them than their
conquerors.' I n another place he wrote, 'the ruling vice of
our government is innovation ; and its innovation has been so
little guided by a knowledge of the people, that, though made
after what was thought to be mature discussion, it must appear
to them as little better than the result of mere caprice.' Upon
the whole, Sir Thomas was of opinion that the natives had lost
more than they had gained by passing under British rule.
' One of the greatest disadvantages of our government in India,'
he added, ' is its tendency to lowcr or destroy the higher ranks
of society, to bring them all too much to one level, and, by .de-
priving them of their former weight and influence, to render
them less useful instruments in the internal administration of
the country.'
To the same purport is the evidence of Lord Ben-
tinck, who declared that 'in many respects the Nohammedans
surpassed our rule; they settled in the oountrios wliich they
conquered ; the interests and sympnthies of the conquerors and
conquered became identified. Our policy, on the contrary, has
been the rewrso of this--odd, selfish, and unfeeling. The iron
 THE KHIVAN EXPEDITION. 469

hnnd of power on the one side-monopoly and exclusion on the

other.'
Moved by the same spirit, Sir John Malcolm wrote in 1824,
'Our present condition is one of apparent repose, but full of
danger. With the menns we had at our command the work of
force was comparatively easy; the liberality of our government
gave grace to conquest, and men were, for the moment, satisfied
to be at the feet of geueroiu and humane conquerors. Wearied
with the state of continued warfare and anarchy, they hardly
regretted even the loss of power ; halcyon days were anticipated,
arid men prostrated themselves in hopes of elevation. All these
i~npressionsmade by the combined effects of power, humanity,
and fortune, were improved to the utmost by the character of
our first measures. The agents of government were generally
individunls who had acquired a name i11the scene in which they
were employed; they were unfettered by rules, and their acts
were adapted to soothe the passions and accord with the habite
and prejudices of those whom they hud to conciliate, or to
reduce to obedience. But there are many causes which operate
to make a poriod like this, one of short duration; and the
chinge to a colder syutem of policy, and the introduction of our
laws and regulations into countries immediately dependent upon
us, naturally excite agitation and alum. I t ie the hour iu
which men awake from a dream. Disgust and discontent suc-
ceed to terror and admiration ; and the princes, the chiefs, and
all who had enjoyed rank or influence, see nothing but a syrlteui
dooming them to immediate decline and ultimate humiliation.'
During the last half-century many important changes have
been made, and great progress has been achieved in the intro-
duction of a ' coullterfeit presentment ' of western civilization.
I f European ideas and mod- of thought have not actually taken
root in the land, a shadowy resemblance may here and them be
truccd in political formuluries, and social expreasions. I f we
470 CCHTRAL ASIA.

have not yet succeeded in producing patriots, we have done

something towards the propagation of parrots, and a Ben@-
Baboo will imitate with marvellone preoision the rounded
periods of Johnson, or the declamatory rhetoric of Burke. H i s
handa map be the hands of Emu, but his voice is the
voice of Jacob. I t is further worthy of note that the
generation that had suffered from the misrule and oppres-
sion which preceded the establishment of British ascendancy
has long since been gathered to ita fathem, and the Rense of
liberation hm been replaced by a consciousness of subjugation.
A t the same time a not ignoble ambition to take an act,ire part
in public affairs, has naturally been evolved fro111 even the im-
perfect education that has yet been imparted. I t is gradually
coming to be understood that ideas are something more than
mere figurea of speech, and that Liberty, Patriotism, and
National Life are realities, for the attainment of which every
true man must be willing to toil, suffer, and, if need be, die.
A t present this popular awakening is principally confined
to the Anglicized Baboos, who are seldom men of action, but as
they spreud themselves, in search of employment, through the
remotest provinces of the empire, they carry with them tdese
germs of discontent and engraft them on manly vigorous races,
clamoroue for a career. And it is greatly to be regretted, that
at the very moment the Bengalees, at least, seem willing to lap
aside their old prejudices, adapting themselves to European
habita and usages, a chilling coldness and want of sympathy on
the part of British officers, both civil and military, nre becoming
painfully manifest. The attraction of the natives is thus
counteracted by the repulsion of the Europeans, and a wide
and dangerous gulf threatens to yawn between the two racea
Much has unquestionably been done to enlarge the sphere of
native usefulness, and Indian gentlemen administer laws, sit on
the bench, and govern large tracts of country. Wherever con-
 THE KBIVAN EXPEDITION. 47 1

fidence hlrs been reposed in their integrity they have ehown

themselvee worthy of the trust, while their local knowledge ha8
given them, in difficult emergencies, an immense advantage over
their European colleagues.
Having proved themselves an honour to the magistracy, the
bar, and the bench, it is not surprising that they should now
look yet further afield, and insist upon their right, as well as
their competence, to take part in the framing of the laws under
which they are compelled to live. More particularly they ask
for Consultative Councils elected by themselves, to which all
financial measures shall be submitted for consideration, discus-
sion, and revision. They who have to find the money, reason-
ably ask to have a voice in settling the mode in which it is first
of all to be raised, and afterwards in regulating its distribution.
The independent princes, again, murmur nt the tutelage in
which they are held, contrary to the spirit of treatiee, and pro-
' test against the constant irritnting interference of Political
Agents, not unfrequently subalterns, and almost invariably
military officers trained only to command soldiers. Above all,
the ancieut nobles and landed gentry complain with too much
reason that they are regarded either with contempt or with dis-
trust. Their heaftfelt desire is to follow the profession of arms,
but in the British service there is no opening for a native gentle-
man. T b Saxons of England under the Plantageneta were
scarcely treated with greater insolence nnd suspicion than are
exhibited towaids the living representatives of the oldest and
noblest families of Hindostan. They who best know these men
spenk in the warmest terms of their cournge, manliness, and
thorough loyalty.
I n all times, in all countries, among all races and ranks of
mankind, confidence has been found to beget confidence. If
once we can sntisfy the natural chiefs and lenders of Indiap
society that their i~terestaare identical with our own, that
47 2 CENTRAL ASIA.

Trojan and Tyrian shall start fair, and on equal toms, in the
race of public life, and that we regard them from our hearts us
friends and fellow-subjects,-then it will little matter to us a:
what river in Central Asia tho C m k watere hie panting home,
or from what anow-clad height the Ruasian sentinel looks down
upon the soorched and withering plains below. But, again in
the words of Sir Henry Lawrence, 'legitimate outlets for
military energy and ability in all ranks and among all classes
must be given. The minds of Subadare and Ileseitdars, Sepoys
and Sowars, can no more with safety be for ever cramped,
trammelled, and restricted as at present, than can a twenty-feet
embankment restrain the Atlantic. I t is simply a question of
time. The question is only whether it ia to be gracefully con-
ceded or violently seized. Ten or twenty years must settle the
point.'
The extreme period has nearly elapeed, nnd the eolution of
the question is still undecided. I t cnnnot, however, be longer
deferred without serious injustice and grave peril. Conceesione
will avail nothing when the enemy ie at the gates. Time
presses, and the free spontaneoue offer that will now be re-
ceived with gratitude, will hereafter be spurned with derision
when it is wrung from necessity and fear. Union is strength,
but union is only possible where there i a community of
interests and the enjoyment of equal rights and privileges.

THE END.