PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Two-Dimensional Characteristics

LEARNING
MODULE 07:
Two-Dimensional
Characteristics

AE 411 – Aerodynamics 3

Prepared by:
Engr. Grant Irving G. Tomaub

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Two-Dimensional Characteristics

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
Exact Theory 4
Sample Problem – Exact Theory 5
Approximate Theory 7
First-Order Approximation 8
Sample Problem – First-Order Approximation 10
Practice Problems 12

TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Reading Material Time
Exact Theory
90 mins
Sample Problem – Exact Theory
Approximate Theory 40 mins
First-Order Approximation
90 mins
Sample Problem – First-Order Approximation
Activity
Practice Problems 120 mins
Assessment
Assessment 40 mins
Recitation 40 mins
Video Meeting
Online Lecture 60 mins

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Two-Dimensional Characteristics

This module discusses the approximate and exact theory in obtaining changes in
properties in a two-dimensional oblique shock wave, and comparisons between the
two theories.

ACADEMIC HONESTY STATEMENT

As students, you are expected to perform tasks with intellectual and academic
integrity. The college assumes basic standard of conduct in academic requirements
that students will comply with honesty and will be credited only for their own efforts.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Course Learning Outcome (CLO)

CLO 1. Valuing the study of Module Learning Outcome (MLO)

supersonic aerodynamics and its
application on the aviation industry. Topic Learning Outcome
CLO 6. Distiguish different types of MLO 1. Obtained expressions for (TLO)
shock waves in different Mach the change in thermodynamic
regime by definition and diagram conditions through two- TLO 1. Identify shock waves by
CLO 8. Display professional dimensional oblique and expansion approximate and exact theory
commitment to ethical practice by waves. formula in oblique shock wave.
showing sense of responsibility in MLO 2. Developed expression for TLO 2. Compare and contrast the
complying and compiling academic the change in pressure through an exact and approximate theories.
requirement. oblique shock wave in two-
dimensional supersonic flow.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Two-Dimensional Characteristics

TWO DIMENSIONAL SUPERSONIC AIRFOILS AND INFINITE WINGS

EXACT THEORY
Various authors have developed expressions for the change in pressure
through an oblique shock wave in two-dimensional supersonic flow. While the
theories are generally considered to be exact, there are certain basic assumptions
that must be made to permit reasonable relations to be obtained. The approximation
formulas, discussed on the next part, are actually only further simplifications of the
pressure relationships determined by this theory.

The usual assumptions that are made are as follows:

1. The effect of viscosity in the air and in the formation of a boundary layer is
neglected. It is assumed that the flow over the surface is not affected by
frictional forces. Separation and wake effects are likewise neglected.
2. The flow is assumed to be irrotational. This will be true only when the air is
deflected along a plane surface. Whenever the surface in the airstream has
curvature, the initial wave will be curved and the flow will have vorticity. The
initial slope of the shock wave is given by the present method. The curvature
of the wave is small if the curvature of the surface is small, and the effect of
vorticity will be correspondingly small.
3. No heat conduction exists between the adjacent streamlines or across the shock
wave. The error incurred by this assumption is negligible.
4. The shock wave must be attached to the corner or leading edge of the surface
over which the air is flowing.

To solve for supersonic airfoils using the exact theory, the concepts, formulas
and equations we have discussed on the Module about Oblique Shock Wave and
Expansion Fans will be used.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Two-Dimensional Characteristics

Sample Problem
1. Using the given parameters on the figure below, find θ, M, and P for the
compressive regions, and V, M, and P for the expansive regions.

For Region a & c,

𝑀𝑁𝑎 = 𝑀𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2 𝑀∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿 = [ ]
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑘𝑀∞ 2 + 𝑀∞ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 2
𝜽𝒂 = 𝜽𝒄 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟑°
𝑀𝑁∞ = 2.5𝑠𝑖𝑛30.0053°
𝑴𝑵∞ = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟐

(𝑘 − 1)𝑀𝑁∞ 2 + 2
𝑀𝑁𝑎 = √
2𝑘𝑀𝑁∞ 2 − (𝑘 − 1)

𝑴𝑵𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝑀𝑁𝑎 0.8125
𝑀𝑎 = =
sin⁡(𝜃 − 𝛿) sin⁡(30.0053 − 8)
𝑴𝒂 = 𝑴𝒄 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟔𝟖𝟓

𝑃𝑎 2𝑘𝑀𝑁∞ 2 − (𝑘 − 1)
=
𝑃∞ 𝑘+1
(2𝑥1.4𝑥1.25022 − 0.4
𝑃𝑎 = 10000 [ ]
2.4
𝑷𝒂 = 𝑷𝒄 = 𝟏𝟔, 𝟓𝟔𝟖. 𝟐𝟗𝟒𝟓⁡𝑷𝒂

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Two-Dimensional Characteristics

Region b & d,

1
𝑉1 = √6⁡𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 √ (𝑀𝑎 2 − 1) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 √𝑀𝑎 2 − 1
6

1
𝑉1 = √6⁡𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 √ (2.16852 − 1) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 √2.16852 − 1
6

𝑽𝟏 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟏𝟖°
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 + 𝜃 = 30.9118 + 16
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟗𝟏𝟏𝟖°

1
46.9118° = √6⁡𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 √ (𝑀𝑏 2 − 1) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 √(𝑀𝑏 2 − 1)
6

𝑴𝒃 = 𝑴𝒅 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟓𝟔𝟔
𝑘
𝑃𝑏 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀𝑎 2 + 2 𝑘−1
=[ ]
𝑃𝑎 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀𝑏 2 + 2
1.4
(0.4)2.16852 + 2 0.4
𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃𝑑 = 16,568.3338 [ ]
(0.4)2.85662 + 2

𝑷𝒃 = 𝑷𝒅 = 𝟓, 𝟕𝟎𝟏. 𝟑𝟓𝟓𝟓⁡𝑷𝒂

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Two-Dimensional Characteristics

THE APPROXIMATE THEORY

Various authors have obtained expressions for the change in thermodynamic

conditions through two-dimensional oblique shock and expansion waves. It is
possible to derive an approximate relation through simpler means and then to add to
the accuracy of the approximation by further terms obtained from the more involved
method, which will give a simple relation for the changes through the shock wave.

In this lesson, the simplified “linear” relation will be derived and then the
higher-order terms added to give an expression which is a very close approximation
of the true relation between the pressure before and after the oblique shock wave.
Certain basic assumptions must be made in the derivation of the linear term of the
approximation expression. First, it is necessary that no detachment of the shock
wave exist, either from the leading edge of an airfoil or away from the corner in the
case of flow in a corner. The term “detachment” refers to the condition of shock-wave
detachment because of the Mach number being too low for the deflection angle
rather than because of boundary layer. The presence of a boundary layer will alter
the shape somewhat, depending on the rate of increase of thickness of the boundary
layer and the effect of interaction with the shock wave, which generally tends to
make the boundary layer thicker. It is also necessary that the flow be perfectly two-
dimensional, i.e. that the air be deflected in only one plane perpendicular to the
direction of motion.

Approximation Method for Oblique Shock and Expansion Wave

This method provides simple means of determining the change in flow
conditions through oblique & expansion waves, particularly pressure distribution to
obtain the airfoil section characteristics.

Pressure Coefficient, ΔP
∆𝑃
𝐶𝑝 =
𝑞∞

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Two-Dimensional Characteristics

Pressure Ratio, P2/P1

𝑃2 ∆𝑃 𝑘
= 1 + [ ] [ ] 𝑀1 2
𝑃1 𝑞∞ 2
𝑷𝟐 𝒌
= 𝟏 + 𝑪𝒑 [ ] 𝑴𝟏 𝟐
𝑷𝟏 𝟐
Where:
P2/P1 = Pressure Ratio across the shockwave or expansion fan
ΔP/q∞ = Cp = Pressure Coefficient
M1 = M∞ = Upstream Mach Number

Pressure Coefficient Determination

First-Order Approximation
This theory is the well-known linear, or “Ackeret”, or “first-order” theory
(named after Jakob Ackeret – a Swiss aeronautical engineer known for his research
and innovations for supersonic aerodynamics) for the two-dimensional pressure
change through an oblique shock wave created by deflecting a supersonic stream of
air at Mach number M through a small angle θ. It constitutes a simple method for
determining the pressure distribution on airfoils at low angles of attack when not
influenced by any third-dimensional effects, i.e. for determining section
characteristics of airfoils. While it was derived for the compression oblique shock
wave, it is also applicable for the expansive case. When used to determine the
expansive pressure change, the value of θ employed in the expression has a
negative sign.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Two-Dimensional Characteristics

CPL = C1θ (positive for oblique shocks)

CPU = C1(-θ) (negative for expansion wave)
Where:
C1 = First-Order Approximation Coefficient
𝟐
𝑪𝟏 =
√𝑴𝟏 𝟐 − 𝟏

For Lower
𝑃2 𝑃2𝐿 ∆𝑃 𝑘
→ = 1 + [ ] [ ] 𝑀1 2
𝑃1 𝑃1 𝑞∞ 𝐿 2
∆𝑃 2𝜃
[ ] = 𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 𝐶1 𝜃 =
𝑞 𝐿 √𝑀1 2 − 1
𝑷𝟐𝑳 𝟐𝜽 𝒌
=𝟏+ [ ] 𝑴𝟏 𝟐
𝑷𝟏 𝟐
√𝑴𝟏 𝟐 − 𝟏

For Upper
𝑃2 𝑃2𝑈 ∆𝑃 𝑘
→ = 1 + [ ] [ ] 𝑀1 2
𝑃1 𝑃1 𝑞∞ 𝑈 2
−2𝜃
𝐶𝑃𝑈 = 𝐶1 (−𝜃) =
√𝑀1 2 − 1
𝑷𝟐𝑼 𝟐𝜽 𝒌
=𝟏− [ ] 𝑴𝟏 𝟐
𝑷𝟏 𝟐
√𝑴𝟏 𝟐 − 𝟏

Normal Force Coefficient on a Flat Plate, CN

∆𝑃 ∆𝑃
𝐶𝑁 = [ ] −[ ]
𝑞∞ 𝐿 𝑞∞ 𝑈
𝐶𝑁 = 𝐶𝑃𝐿 − 𝐶𝑃𝑈
2𝜃 2𝜃
𝐶𝑁 = − [− ]
√𝑀1 2 − 1 √𝑀1 2 − 1
𝟒𝜽
𝑪𝑵 =
√𝑴𝟏 𝟐 − 𝟏

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Two-Dimensional Characteristics

Where:
CN = Normal Force Coefficient
M1 = Upstream Mach Number
Θ = Deflection Angle in Radians

Sample Problem
1. A two-dimensional flat plate is set against an airstream with a pressure of 84,535
Pa, temperature of 278.25K and Mach number of 2.6733. Determine the C N, P2U,
and P2L when θ is 15°.

Given:
T∞ = 278.25K
P∞ = 84,535 Pa
M∞ = 2.6733
θ∞ = 15°
Required:
CN, P2U, P2L
Solution:
For P2L
𝑃2𝐿 2𝜃 𝑘
= 1+ [ ] 𝑀1 2
𝑃1 √𝑀 2 − 1 2
1

2𝜃 𝑘
𝑃2𝐿 = 𝑃1 [1 + [ ] 𝑀1 2 ]
√𝑀1 2
−1 2
𝜋
2 (15𝑥 ) 1.4
𝑃2𝐿 = 84,535𝑃𝑎 [1 + 180 [ ] 2.67332 ]
√2.6733 − 1 2
2

𝑷𝟐𝑳 = 𝟏𝟕𝟑, 𝟖𝟒𝟕. 𝟕𝟔𝟎𝟐⁡𝑷𝒂

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Two-Dimensional Characteristics

For P2U
2𝜃 𝑘
𝑃2𝑈 = 𝑃1 [1 − [ ] 𝑀1 2 ]
√𝑀1 2 − 1 2
𝜋
2 (15𝑥 180) 1.4
𝑃2𝑈 = 84,535𝑃𝑎 [1 − [ ] 2.67332 ]
√2.6733 − 1 2
2

𝑷𝟐𝑳 = −𝟒, 𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟕𝟔𝟎𝟐⁡𝑷𝒂

For CN
4𝜃
𝐶𝑁 =
√𝑀1 2 − 1
𝜋
4 (15𝑥 )
𝐶𝑁 = 180
√2.67332 − 1
𝑪𝑵 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟐𝟒

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Two-Dimensional Characteristics

Practice Problems
Solve the following problems. Write your answers in your notebook. Show your
complete solution. Round off your answer to 4 decimal places. Box your final answer.
Submit your work using Google Classroom, under the specific classwork.

1. Using the given parameters on the figure below, and given M∞=3.0, pressure
altitude of 10.5km and temperature altitude of 8km, find θ, M, and P for the
compressive regions and V, M, and P for the expansive regions. Use the Exact
Method.

2. A two-dimensional flat plate is set against an airstream with a pressure of 55,000

Pa, temperature of 260.15K and Mach number of 3.456. Angle of attack is set at 23
degrees. Determine the CN, P2U, and P2L.

3. A two-dimensional flat plate is set against an airstream initially at 1,500 meters

altitude at 2,000 mph at an angle of 15 degrees. Determine the normal force
coefficient and pressure at the lower and upper surface of the plate.

4. Repeat problem 1, but this time the diamond airfoil is subject to an angle of attack
of 8 degrees.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 07: Two-Dimensional Characteristics

TABLE OF REFERENCES
No. Reference
Bonney EA. (1950). Engineering Supersonic Aerodynamics (1st ed.). 480
1
Willow Springs Ln, York, PA 17406.

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