EFFECT OF INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEO ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

OF SOCIAL STUDIES STUDENTS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN

KATSINA STATE, NIGERIA

BY

ABUBAKAR Alhaji Audu

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS AND CURRICULUM

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA
NIGERIA

DECEMBER, 2015

i
EFFECT OF INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEO ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
OF SOCIAL STUDIES STUDENTS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN
KATSINA STATE, NIGERIA

BY

ABUBAKAR AlhajiAudu
MED/EDUC/5075/2010-2011

THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIAIN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER DEGREE IN
EDUCATION (INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY)

DECEMBER, 2015

ii
 DECLARATION

I declare that the work in this thesis entitled ―Effect of Instructional Video in Academic

Performance of Social Studies Students in Secondary Schools of Katsina State, Nigeria‖

was written by me in the Department of Educational Foundation and Curriculum. The

information derived from the literature has been duly acknowledged in the text and a list

of references provided. No part of this dissertation was previously presented for another

degree or diploma at this or any other institution.

_________________ _________________ ____________________

ABUBAKAR AlhajiAudu Signature Date

iii
 CERTIFICATION

This dissertation entitled ―Effect of Instructional Video on Academic Performance of

Social Studies Students in Secondary Schools of Katsina State, written by AUDU

ALHAJI ABUBAKAR meet the regulations governing the award of the degree of Master

of Instructional Technology, of Ahmadu Bello University, and is approved for its

contributions to knowledge and literary presentation.

___________________ _________________ ________________

Dr. S.Salau Signature Date
Chairman, Supervisory Committee

____________________ _________________ _______________

Dr. S. A. Zubairu Signature Date
Member, Supervisory committee

____________________ ___________________ _______________

Dr. B. Maina Signature Date
Head of Department

___________________ ___________________ ________________

Prof, K. Bala Signature Date
Dean, Postgraduate Studies

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All praise and gratitude are to the almighty, Allah (S.W.T). the most exalted, may the

peace and blessing of Allah (S.W.T) be upon our beloved prophet Muhammad (S.A.W)

his family companions and all those who rightly followed in to the last day. I am greatly

indebted to my supervisors, Dr. S. Salau, Dr. S. A. Zubairu, Prof. A.K Tukur and Malam

S. Muhammed for their meticulous and painstaking supervision of my thesis.My sincere

appreciation also goes to the Dr. B. Maina, HOD Department of Foundation and

Curriculum, Faculty of Education, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria. I also appreciate the

Principal of GJSS KofarKaura, GJSS KofarYandaka for allowing me to use their student

and school facilities in the course of this thesis.My deepest thanks goes to my Head of

Department Dr, A.I. Saulawa, Dr, U.F. Audu, Director Academic Planning, Research

and Statistic, Dr, M.A.Dikko, Dean, student affairs all of Federal College of Education

Katsina State. Finally, my love and appreciation to my wives and children for their

endurance during the course of my study.My profound gratitude goes to my late Parents

AlhajiAbubakarSakiwaNdeji of Patigi, HajiyaA‘ishatuAbubakar, may God almighty

grants them Aljannar Firdausi, Ameen, I also wish to extend my greatings to Dr. Dauda,

Dr. Ma‘aruf, and all Lecturers in Faculty of Education of Ahmadu Bello University

Zaria, Nigeria.

v
 ABSTRACT

This study examine theEffect of Instructional Video on Academic Performance of Social

Studies Students in Secondary Schools in Katsina State. The study adopted a quasi –

experimental design involving pre-test post-test control group class.Three objectives

research questions and hypotheses were drawn for the study. The population of the study

is all JSS II students in Katsina State. Two intact classes were used as the sample of the

study. Social studies performance test was developed and validated. Data collected were

analyzed using t-test statistic using 0.05 level of significance. The study conclude that

instructional video enhanced the academic performance of Social Studies Students, and

that shows that Female Students Performance better than Male Students after exposure to

instruction all video . Recommendations were made that the use of instructional should

be encouraged for basic Social Studies Teachers, professional organization such as

Social Studies. Association of Nigeria should organize seminar, workshops and

conferences. Federal and State Ministry of Education should sponsor basic Social

Studies teachers for refresher training on design, selection and utilization of instructional

video The study concluded that effective use in instructional video improve students

understanding of social studies.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

COVER PAGE I
TITLE PAGE II
DECLARATION III
CERTIFICATION IV
DEDICATION V
ACKNOWLEDGMENT VI
ABSTRACT VII
TABLE OF CONTENT VIII
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS IX

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem 2

1.3 Objective of the Study 3

1.4 Research Questions 3

1.5 Research Hypothesis 4

1.6 Basic Assumptions 4

1.7 Significant of the Study 4

1.8 Scope of the Study 5

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction 7

2.2 Conceptual Framework 7

2.3 The Concept of Educational Technology 7

2.4 Theoretical Framework 8

2.4.1 Relevance of the Theory to the Study 11

2.5 Psychological Based of Instructional Video 12

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2.6 Memory and Recall 15

2.7 The Concept of Social Studies 16

2.7.1 Nature And Scope of Social Studies 18

2.7.2 Objectives of Social Studies in Junior Secondary Schools 22

2.8 Rational For Integrating Instructional Video to Teaching 23

2.9 Impact of Instructional Video in Enhancing Learners Memory 27

2.10 Media Application of Instructional Video 30

2.10.1 Media Selection of Instructional Video 31

2.10.2 Roles of Instructional Video and Teaching and Learning Process 32

2.11 Empirical Studies 32

2.12 Summary 33

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction 34

3.2 Research Design 34

3.3 Population of the Study 35

3.4 Sample and Sampling Technique 35

3.5 Instrumentation 36

3.51.1 Validity of the Instrument 36

3.52 Pilot Testing 37

3.53 Reliability of Instrument 37

3.5.1 Procedure for Data Collection 37

3.5.2 Treatment Procedure

3.6 Procedure for Data Analysis 38

viii
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.1 Introduction 39

4.2 Answering of Research Questions 39

4.3 Hypotheses Testing 41

4.4 Discussion of Result 43

4.5 Major Findings of the Study 44

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction 45

5.2 Summary of the Study 45

5.3 Conclusion 45

5.4 Recommendations 46

5.5 Limitation of the Study 46

5.6 Suggestions for Further Studies 47

References 48

Appendices 61

ix
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Effect:To reduce as an effect, bring about accomplish: to effect a change when

something produces a change in a thing or person. Act so as to bring into

existence. The power or capacity to produce a desired result or out comes.

2. Instructional video: This area will provide you with a short video on various

recurring topics of interest. These topics are covered in our manual however, it

sometimes takes several pages of reading and studying of diagrams to convey

what can be shown. In just a few minutes by watching someone performance the

action, these video are movie film format that should be able to be played by

most media players.

3. Academic performance: Is the outcome of education, the extent to which a

student, teacher or institution has achieved their educational goals. Is usually

measured by examination or continues assessment. Academic performance also

refers to how students deal with their studies and how they cope with or

accomplish different tasks given to them. By their teachers, it is also ability to

study and remember facts and being able to communication your knowledge

verbally or down on paper.

x
xi
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Social studies is a unique and versatile subject in that it comprises a number of

subject that are taught interactively. Its importance cannot be over emphasized since it

forms the basis of subject like history, geography, sociology, anthropology, government

and many other. It is meant to serve as a foundation; it needs to be taught properly and

meaningfully so that pupil should acquire solid andpermanent experience. For learning

to be permanent, relevant and appropriate instructional material should be employed.

Teacher should take the pain of providing instructional material using available resource

in their locality to enhance the quality of teaching and learning ( Audu&Agbo 2010).

Students are exposed to expository rather the inquiry method of instruction which

does not predispose them to experimentation (Anulobi, 2009). However, the National

policy on Education (FRN, 2004), stated that the aim of education is to inculcate in the

child, the spirit of inquiry and creativity through the exploration of nature. Education

should equip students with skills with which to live effectively in our modern age of

science and technology. In line with the above objective, the aim of social studies is to

develop in students the ability to think critically in order to make reasonable decisions in

issues that concern them, and the society at large. Research findings in education intend

to indicate that the instructional materials adopted by teachers do influence the cognitive,

psychomotor and affective outcomes of the students (Ofili 2003). Instructional materials

perform specific functions in learning such functions ranges from simplifying teaching to

make teaching effective. One of such instructional materials is the use of instructional

video. This is the production of video programmes directed towards helping students

1
achieve specific instructional objectives with a specific target population. This is referred

to the transmission of educational programme which can be stored in video, CD and

DVD. They are used to teach students repeatedly till they gain mastery on what is being

taught. They could be employed in topics where teacher find it difficult to carry out

practical. The main basic tasks of teaching are to release and increase such motivational

process and forces like interest and the need desire, and wish to learn. Instructional video

could be used to achieve this aim (Ema, 2006).

Instructional video does not only state a fact oral speech, it also shows that fact,

illustrates it and within a few moments puts it in a large context of knowledge related to

the fact. These various kinds of elaboration via sound tracts and pictures increase the

memory of the basic statement or information. It has been found that the duplication of

sensory channels and the richness of elaborated information are feature that contribute to

the ease of learning and also to the strength of retention of verbal

information.Educational instruction video is used to achieve objective which are

supposed to reflect in the attitude of the learners (Adeosun, 2002). Ofili (2003) and

Okworo (2008) found out that television and video tape influence learners, stimulate

learning and enrich the class with material not likely to be available in real classroom

setting. According to these scholars they make learning more permanent and offer

experiences, instructional video is a useful tool that helps to stimulate our perception,

increase our learning and seeing simultaneously it also allows repetitive viewing, the

learner can repeated view until the concept taught is well understood Hallinan (2000).

Gender issues and academic achievement has become a very important issue

among researchers, some studies are in view that boys perform better than girls and vice

versa. Females and males could do well in social studies if exposed to similar conditions

(Nsofor, 2001). According to this view, gender difference has little or influence on

2
students performance in social studies. Essentially, achievement by learners depend more

on personal effort. This implies that high achievement could be traced to the individual‘s

efforts. It is against this background that the research finds it necessary to investigate

whether or not educational media in the instructional delivery (video) could improve the

academic performance and consequently better students coming of the subject.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The foundation for the use of instructional video was brought out of the problems

faced by teacher of social studies in their teaching and making of students note, test and

examinations which is being administered on them .thus this research intends to find a

solution for these problems and to fill the gaps. These problems have created in Katsina

State. Among the factors contributing towards declining of student‘s performance is

social studies in junior secondary schools are as follows: Lack of qualified social studies

teachers to teach the subject, Inadequate training of social studies teachers, Poor and

inadequate instructional materials in the JSS social studies, Over population of students,

Outdated or conventional methods of teaching social studies and Inadequate funding or

supplying of invented instructional machine to aid teachers of social studies delivery

(Eshiette, 2009).

The effect of all these problems enumerated above are clearly manifested in

producing high wastage inform of students to lose interest in taking social studies as a

subject, therefore ,it is anticipated that educational technology professionals could be

used to solve some of these problems. This is because application of educational

technology approach to instruction shifts emphasis on teaching and learning from

conventional talk and chalk to system and instructional materials approach (instruction

video). In order to enhance the performance of students in social studies.

3
1.3 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are to.

1. Examine difference between academic performance of students taught social

studies with instructional video and those without instructional video in Katsina

State.

2. Examine whether instructional video has any gender influence on the academic

performance of social-studies students in, Katsina State.

1.4 Research Questions

The study sought to find out the following research questions:

1. Will there any difference between the academic performance of the group

taught with instructional video from those taught without instructional video.

2. Does gender influence the performance of student taught with instructional

video, Katsina state?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were raised to guide the study:

Ho1: There is no significant difference in the academic performance between the group

taught using instructional video and the group taught without the use of

instructional video.

Ho2: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement score of males and

females students exposed to instructional video.

4
1.6 BasicAssumptions

The following are the basic assumptions of the study:

It is assume that the student were admitted in to the school using the same set admission

criteria.The researcher assumed that the students are randomly selected for the study are

representative of the secondary schools population in Katsina state.It is assumed that the

instructional video materials are available in secondary schools in Katsina State and they

are use by the teachers.

1.7 Significant of the Study

The findings of this research would be useful for the improvement of Nigerian

Basic Social Studies education in the following ways:

The study may serve as an insight to researchers, who might consult it in process

of carrying out similar study in the future. Education students in colleges and universities

may also find the study valuable when they consult it in the course of their studies. To

school administrators, it will bring to the fore, the vital functions that instructional video

play in teaching-learning process especially as relates to concretizing acquired

knowledge and skills for long term memory.Government may also find the study useful

because it attempts to show areas where its intervention is required, such as greater

commitment to issues like; re-training of teachers provision of structures, and material

resources/equipments that will promote effective teaching and learning. It is expected

that government will further realize the potentialities of the various instructional

materials as crucial tools to teachers for the attainment of instructional objectives and to

that effect provide' the needed financial and moral support to acquisition and proper

utilization of such materials.

5
 Curriculum planners and policy makers on education may also benefit from the

study in such a way that when engaged in further review of curriculum, interest groups

such as nongovernmental organizations and students' associations will be contacted to

make their input. It is hoped to be of significant value to social studies teachers who are

implementers of the Social studies curriculum.The study may avail social studies

teachers with an opportunity to broaden their professional skills in utilization of

instructional video in instruction. This would enhance their resourcefulness which will in

turn impact behavioral changes in the learners which is the ultimate goal of education.To

parents and non-governmental organizations, it could engage them to take prime roles in

the provision of instructional media to schools and creating opportunities for capacity

building to keep teachers abreast to recent developments in the art of teaching. Finally,

the study will provide additional literature that could enrich the existing ones in area of

instructional video.

1.8 Scope of the Study

This study was undertaken to determine the effect of instructional video

utilization on academic performance of social studies secondary schools of Katsina State.

The study was limited to:Junior secondary school (JSS II) students selected from the two

junior secondary schools in the following towns,The topic covered was limited to

national identity and lesson was taught for 6 weeks, including pre-test and post-test.

6
 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

This chapter presents review of related literature under the following

headings.Conceptual framework, The concept of education technology, Theoretical

framework The concept of social studies, Nature and Scope of social studies Objectives

of social studies Media application of instructional video, Media selection of

instructional video, Roles of instructional video in teaching and learning process,

Review of related empirical studies and Summary.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

The aims and objectives of education in any society are to better the live of its

people and bring about development. Education is the bedrock for the development of

any nation (Ikumelu, 2001). According to Fadeiye (2005), education is defined as a

weapon for combating ignorance, poverty and disease, as a bridge between confusion

and comprehension, as a dam for conserving man‘s store of civilization and for

generating the power to move to greater civilization, as a rocket for transporting man

from a state of intellectual subservience to a suite of intellectual sovereignty.

2.2.1Concept of Education

Translated from its Latin root, 'educo' or educare', the word 'education' means 'to

lead' or 'I lead'. In other words, education implies showing the way. In principles,

education is the process by which a person or group of persons lead in the act of

acquiring new knowledge or experience. Education is the result of gained knowledge.

Knowledge is the outcome of learning. When an individual has acquired knowledge in a

specific area, we consider him to be educated in that area. Education implies

experiencing. It involves al the experiences that an individual comes in contact with or

7
undergoes whether with or without the school. Everything that happens to an individual

whether deliberately or accidentally is an experience and every experience is education.

Education comes to the learner from parents, teachers, friends, the church, the market

places, and from every experience or things in the society. However, in this context,

education will be considered as experiences which teaching and learning provides (in a

school system) and, it involves the teacher who has the idea, knowledge, skills and

values (instruction) that is being imparted to the learners, Audu (2006).

2.2.2 Concept of Technology

Technology is often used as the generic term to encompass instruments,

machines, and devices people develop and use in their lives. The United Nations

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO (1985) define technology as:

the know-how and creative process that may assist people to utilize tools, resources and

systems to solve problems and to enhance control over the natural and man-made

environment in an Endeavour to improve the human conditions.

Thus, technology involves the purposeful application of knowledge, experience

and resources to create processes and products that meet human needs. The needs and

wants of people in particular communities determine the technology that is developed

and how is applied. People judge the desirability of technological applications by their

impact on health, personal well-being and lifestyle, economies and ecosystems.

Ogunranti (1988) states that 'technology is the application of science to make the world

more efficient‘. Ukeje (1991) views it as 'the application of scientific knowledge in

industrial methods'. Technology can also be viewed as the sum of the ways in which a

social group provide themselves with the materials of civilization. Thus, science and

technology goes hand in hand. Briefly put, science refers to the 'know-why', while

technology refer to the know-how', Therefore, one can deduce that technology is a

8
systematic approach in an integrated process to achieve practical purpose or achieve end

product. In essence therefore, technology involves a practical engagement, that is, the act

of doing. It is human innovation in action. Technology is meant to solve human

problems scientifically and systematically. Technology today makes problems solving

much more possible for man in all fields. Based on this,' there is technology in

agriculture, engineering, defense, medicine, communication, and of course, education.

2.3 Concept of Educational Technology

We live in a fast changing world that is becoming more scientific and more

technical. As the transformation occurs, education in all forms and in all subjects is not

left out. Teaching equipments and materials have changed over the years, not only to

facilitate teaching-learning situation but also to address the instructional needs of

individuals and groups. From what we have been studying so far, we may examine

educational technology in its simplest form. If we combine the definitions of education

and technology, it is possible to state that education technology is the application and

organization of people, methods, techniques, devices, equipment and materials

systematically and scientifically in order to solve teaching and learning problems, as well

as improve on the educational system. However, educational technology goes far beyond

this simple realm. Educational Technology is, by its nature, elusive because it is

relatively new, and so, it means different things to different people. Scholars, experts and

professionals i.eTicktons (1970), Gillet (1973), Rowntree (1982), Roblyer (2003) etc.

alike at various times and stages of educational technology have propound several

interpretations and definitions. What must have been responsible for these are:

The successes which the field has attained within the short time of its evolution which

made people of different background, training and experiences to -hold different views

about technology and education respectively; and The nature, stages and scope of

9
educational technology itself. Based on these factors, we do expect various definitions,

which vary from simple to complex. We shall look at some of these. Lawal M.M (2005)

defines it as media borne out of communication revolution. Which can be used for

instructional purpose alongside the teacher and the chalkboard. This definition

emphasizes product (gadgets or machines) and people (teachers). Process (systems

approach) was excluded. Therefore, this definition has a flaw. With reference to Roblyer

(2003) defined educational technology as a combination of the processes and tools

involved in addressing educational needs and problems, with an emphasis on applying

the most current tools: computers and their related technologies. Without doubt, this

definition is more explicit than that of Lawal M. M (2005). Gagne, R. M (1985) saw it as

a systematic application of scientific of other organized knowledge to practical tasks.

Furthermore, Ogunranti (1982) maintained that it is 'a principle and method which brings

together men and resources in a systematic bid to effectively resolve educational

problems'. As far as Adewoyin (1991) is concerned, educational technology is a

―systematic organization of men, machine, ideas and procedures in designing, planning,

implementing and evaluation the teaching-learning process in a bid to promote effective

teaching‘. Notwithstanding all these definitions, there is a need for us to examine the

popular, generally acceptable and comprehensive definitions of educational technology.

According to Tickton (1970), educational technology is a ―systematic way of designing,

carrying out and evaluating the total process of teaching and learning in terms of specific

objective, based on research on human and non-human resources to bring about more

effective instructions‖. In essence, the term signifies and analytical procedure which is

characterized by the identification of an instructional problem, setting of objectives

designing of learning experiences, selection of the needed resources which include

people, materials and facilities, implementation of the designed learning experiences and

10
the evaluation of instruction. Abimbade (1999) refers to this as the functional definition

of educational technology.

Ticktons (1970), educational technology is a systematic way of designing, carry

out and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific

objectives base on research in human learning and communication and employing a

combination of human and non-human resources to bring about more effective

instruction.From this view, Educational Technology involves using all educational

resources and all, planning strategies (including identification of Educational needs,

resources, procedures of analysis, assessment and evaluation) to solve educational

problems or improve educational qualities. AECT (1992) The Association of Educational

Communications and Technology defined Educational Technology as ―a complex,

integrated process involving people, procedures, ideas, devices and organization for

analyzing problems and devising, implementing, evaluating and managing solutions to

those problems involved in all aspect of human learning‖.

From all that has been discussed, it can clearly be understood that educational

technology is not the same as technical education. It can also be realized that the term

does not only refer to the use of audio-visual resources in teaching. It is simply a planned

systematic method of working to achieve effective teaching and learning. Therefore it

should not be considered as only a TOOLS technology but a SYSTEM technology.

2.4 The Concept of Social Studies

A search through the textbooks confounds the reader with numerous definitions

of social studies. Orakwe (2001) says ―the entire man surrounding constitutes the

laboratory of social studies‖ It is quite difficult to encompass the whole physical, social,

cultural, economic and political environment into a single definition. This account for

definitional dichotomy of social studies discipline, Mezleobi, Fubara and

11
Mezieobi(2008:2) simplified the definition of social studies as:an integrated field of

study which probes man‗s symbolic relationship with his environments, endows man

with the reflective or contemplative capacities, intellectual, affective, social and work

skills to enable him understand his words and its problems, and to rationally solve or

cope with them for effective living in the society.

N.E.R.C (1981:6) states that social studies is the study of man as he interacts with

the various environments, physical, economic, psychological, social and intellectual.

Thus its true nature is seen as the study of man, how he influences and is influenced by

other forces or how he solve his problems. Kissock, (1981:3) defines it as a ―programme

of study which a society uses to instill in learners the knowledge, skills, attitudes and

actions it considers important concerning the relationships human beings have with each

other, their world and themselves‖. As Aina et al (in Tikumah (2009:2) rightly explained

social studies is ―a study of man in his totally‖ Ololobou (2007:21) defined it as ―an

organized integrated study emphasizing on cognition, functional skills and desirable

attitudes and actions for the purpose of producing an effective citizenry.

According to Shaibu (2002:9) social studies is an aspect of learning which deals

with how to get on (get along) with ones environment, physical as well as human and

how to develop those skills knowledge, attitudes and values that characterize a respective

and responsible citizen in a free society. Also Lawton andDufour (1976) view social

studies as a course which is concerned with man as a social being and with the way he

organizes cultural, economic, political, historical and geographical aspects of his society.

Mezieobi (1992) defined social studies as a formalized, correlated or integrated

study of man and his environment which imbibe the learner with the cognition skills,

values, attitudes, abilities and competences that will make him become an informed,

rational, analytical, participative and functional citizen.Jarolimak (1977:4) social studies

12
concerns itself with learning about people, how and where they live, how they form and

structure societies, how they govern themselves and provide for their material and

psychological needs, how and why they love and hate each other, how they use and

misuse the resources of the planet that is their home. This definition implies that social

studies is particularly interested in man‘s problems and how to help him solve them.

From the above‘ literature it is obvious that social studies is concerned primarily

with man‘s relationship with all his environments, whose variety call for different forms

of knowledge and experiences to understand man himself. Ikwumelu (2001:13) remarked

―the problem of definition has continued to be the greatest impediment to the success of

social studies education‘ He added that it has affected both the teaching of the subject

and its popularity. Similarly Mezieobi (1993:14) asserted that ―the definitional

disagreement among Nigeria scholars and writers on social studies and their continuing

quest for an acceptable Nigerian‘s definition of social studies is an impediment to the

effective teaching of social studies in the Nigerian school system.

2.4.1 The Nature and Scope of Social Studies

Social studies can be conceptualized as an organized, integrated study of man and

his environment, both physical and social, emphasizing on cognition, functional skills,

desirable attitudes and actions for the purpose of producing an effective citizenry. It is

defined as, ― A prgramme of study which a society use to transmit to students the

knowledge, skills, attitudes and action it consider important concerning the relationship

human beings have with each other and with their world‖ (Rikichi, 2011).

13
Social studies is the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to
promote civic competence. Within the school programme, social studies
provides coordinated systematic study drawing upon such disciplines as
anthropology, Economics, Geography, History, Law, Political
Science,Religion etc, as well as appropriate content from the humanities,
mathematics and natural sciences. The purpose of social studies is to help
young people develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions
for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in
an interdependent world.

Mezieobi, Fubara and Mezieobi (2008 4-7) outlined the following distinguishing

characteristics of social studies.

Unlike the other field of study which sees knowledge in their separateness or in a

compartmentalized frame hence the discrete subject areas of the social sciences and the

humanities, social studies sees knowledge and man‘s social world as an integral whole.

In this way, one gets to exactly know how people live in the real world.It develops an

integrated view of reality, (and) free (himself) from the narrow confines of traditional

social sciences discipline. It is this integrative flavour of social studies that makes it an

inter-disciplinary discipline.

Social studies draw its content from mainly the social sciences, the humanities

and from many other relevant sources including the experiences of the children.

The Nigeria centric characteristics of social studies is to emphasize the social relevance

of social studies in which case it addresses the social needs, social realities and social

aspirations of Nigeria.

Social studies is socially or society sensitive. This implies that social studies must

keep pace with global changes particularly those affecting Nigeria, and must of necessity

reflect the changes, as they occur, in the school social studies syllabus or curriculum.

One very important characteristic of social studies is its emphasis on classroom without

walls in the community.

14
Good social studies programme is activity loaded and predominantly contains activities

to be done not knowledge to be acquired and fact to be stored. It makes the learner an

active participant in teaching learning process, which discourages learner‘s passivity.

The goal objects of social studies, simply put are to produce responsible and participative

citizens with analytic and reflective skills and attitudes to make their environments yield

all that make for good and successful living. The essence is to make the society a worthy

human habitation with a minimum of problems.

Another unique characteristic of social studies is that it evaluates criteria focus

principally on the affective domain-values and attitudes. The evaluation of the learner

performance in the other educational domain-cognitive and psychomotor has meaning

and significance only within the context of the affective; Further more instead of the

cognitive memory questions that are common in the other disciplines, questions in social

studies are largely though provoking, convergent, divergent and evaluative.

Ololobou (2007:4) sees scope as what does (or should) a typical social studies

program encompass? He goes further to highlight four broad areas that readily come to

mind as follows:

The environment, physical and social; emphasizing on unrestricted cognition.

Various skills (e.g. manipulative, intellectual, group, communication, study, economic

etc) for functionally relating with the environment.

Values, attitudes, aspirations,, appreciations and actions which are conducive to peaceful

co-existence and overall societal development.

Emergent issues (e.g. HIV/AIDs, AVIAN FLU, human trafficking, terrorism etc) and

other current affairs.

15
 He further says that social studies source facts from discrete academic disciplines

(the arts, social science, natural sciences, technology, vocations and contemporary

events). Also Orakwue (1990) say that the real nature of social studies with its ill-defined

and almost very broad content constantly outwits even the greatest lion-hearted teacher.

So much at times, is the confusion about the nature of social studies that the social

studies as a subject is mistaken for a new method of approach.

In response to the unlimited scope of social studies and the contents which are

drawn from multifarious independent discipline. Ikwumelu (2001) commented that

everyday comes with its strange set of social realities requiring the attention of social

studies education to cope with these realities, all its facets must be constantly reviewed

and restructured. According to Mezieobi (1993) people expect social studies to purify

our society, turn, and our criminals into saints, produce incorruptible leaders and

eradicate demonstration and indiscipline in our schools. Consequently, all aspects of

social studies, the definition, objectives, content, instructional materials need to change

at the same pace and in the same direction with social realities.

The scope of social studies is vast or broad and ordinarily limitless. The scope of

social studies, however, extensively covers the following as outlined by Mezleobi,

Fubara and Mezieobi (2008:8-9):

Content is tailored specifically to a particular society like Nigeria. Nonetheless,

content can be drawn from anywhere in the universe to enrich or complement the local

content. The content focuses largely on what is on ground-the present-with an eye on what it

should be in the future. The past is never ignored as there are experiences that may be drawn

to enrich the present or future content of social studies. The content of social studies

programme is drawn from the social sciences, the humanities, oral history, contemporary

issues, mass media, personal or group experiences of learners, teachers, parents and from

16
resource persons and places, ideas, past activities and though etc. The syllabus or

curriculum of social studies is flexible and accommodates new trends or changes,

problems or aspirations in the world or in a society that bear relevance to social studies

teaching as the classroom must reflect the goings on in the society. The implication of

this is that the scope of social studies is continuously enlarging to accommodate the

rapidity of knowledge explosion and knowledge implosion.

Whatever social studies aim at, in Nigeria the foremost aim ought to be

citizenships oriented in order that social studies education in our day may produce

Nigerians loyal to the central unit and not tribal groups.Social studies can be

conceptualized as an organized, integrated study of man and his environment, both

physical and social, emphasizing on cognition, functional skills, desirable attitudes and

actions for the purpose of producing an effective citizenry. It is defined as, "A

programme of study which a society use to transmit to students the knowledge, skills,

attitudes and actions it consider important concerning the relationship human beings

have with each other and with their world" (Rikichi, 2011:31)

The scope of social studies is quite extensive; it covers areas of knowledge, skills,

attitudes and values, with the ultimate aim of producing people are socio-civically

competent. Itscontents are drawn from disciplines such as anthropology, archeology,

economics, history, geography, law, political science, religion, mathematics, and natural

sciences (Rikichi, 2011). The primary purpose of social studies education is to help

young people to develop ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for public

good as citizens of a culturally diverse democratic society in an inter-dependent world.

The Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council,(NERDC) in 2006

designed and developed the current realigned 9-year Basic Education Social Studies

Curriculum to take cognizance of certain challenges facing this area of study as a core

17
subject. The new curriculum incorporated many of the contemporary issues of global and

local concern such as, youth unemployment and youth restiveness, environmental issues,

drug abuse, child/women trafficking, family life education, HIV/AIDS preventive

measures, gender issues, peace and conflict issues, Nigerian peoples and their cultures,

mass media, globalization, millennium development goals (MDGs), and sn. The new

curriculum, according to NERDC (2007) has its pivot. functional education, self reliance,

and responsible citizenship.

Thus Social studies is a dynamic course of study that is ever changing with

regard to the variables of space, time, and human development. One of the characteristics

of a functional social studies program is its ability to cope with and accommodate new

developments and challenges. According to Rikichi, (2011), social studies is not so much

concerned with theory building, rather it interrelates the already formulated theories in

order to gain an understanding and wider perspective in the study of man and how he

solves his/her societal/environmental problems.

2.4.2 Objectives of Social Studies in Junior Secondary Schools

The National Policy on Education (2004) listed Social Studies and Citizenship

Education among the core subjects that every pupil at Junior Secondary School is

expected to study to prepare him/her to acquire further knowledge and skills (p. 14). To

this end, NERDC.(2007) States that the overall objectives of social studies at both Basic

Education and Junior Secondary level should enable the pupils and students to achieve

the following:Develop the 'ability to adapt to his/her changing environment;

Become responsible and disciplined individuals capable and willing to contribute the

development of their societies;inculcate the right types of values;

Develop a sense of comprehension towards other people, their diverse cultures, history,

and those fundamental things that makes them human; Develop the capacity to recognize

18
the many dimensions of being human in different cultural and social contexts; Develop a

sense of solidarity and sharing based on a sense of security in one's own identity.

The social studies curriculum is basically geared towards inculcating in Nigerian

youth ideas, norms, and values that are essential for national development. Rikichi,

(2011) maintain that this would produce effective citizens who are Sensitive to their

environment: active participants in the polity; democratic-orientated minded; willingness

to assume and perform civic responsibilities; obedient to the law of the land; dogged in

defense of his rights; positive relation with political class; harmoniously co-exist with

other members of the society; and possess nationalistic and patriotic spirit towards

societal improvement.

In order to present social studies in a holistic manner to students, the thematic

approach to content organization was adopted. Major relevant themes were selected and

topics were arranged under them across" the 9-year basic education in a spiral manner to

sustain the interest of the students. For effective delivery of subject matter and improved

learning achievement of basic education, NERDC strongly recommends teacher

orientation and training on the implementation of the curriculum, as well as development

of relevant resource materials.

2.5 Theoretical Framework

In view of the subject matter involved, the research work is predicted on the

perspectives of Dual coding theory of memory (Paivio& Clark, 1991). It is an

empirically well founded characterization of the mental process that under lie human

behaviour and experience. The theory explains the psychological phenomena by

collective action of non verbal and verbal systems that specialized for processing of

imagery and linguistic information (Paivio, 1991).

19
 Dual coding theory is a general theory of cognition and mind (Paivio, 1991). It

was originated in the 1960s by Allan Paivio to explain the powerful effects that mental

imagery has on memory. It is sometimes referred to as a theory of mental imagery,

particularly visual imagery. Dual coding theory is a complete set of assumptions/

hypotheses about how-information is stored in memory (Sadoski&Paivio, 2001). The

theory suggests that memory consists of two separate and distinct mental representations,

or codes one verbal and one nonverbal. The verbal system is "language-like" in that it

specializes in linguistic activities associated with words, sentences, and so on. The

nonverbal system includes memory for allnonverbal phenomenon, including such things

as emotional reactions, images, and other -picture - like' representations.

Dual coding supports the idea that knowledge is represented on a concreteness-

abstractness continuum and that human cognition is predisposed to storing mental

representations in one of two forms corresponding to the ends of the continuum. At one

end are the visually based representations in which knowledge is stored in concrete and

non arbitrary ways. At the other end are the verbal, or semantic, representations in which

knowledge is stored in discrete and arbitrary ways. In this theory, the most fundamental

memory units are called logogens in the verbal system and imagens in the visual system

(Reiber, 2000)

Both the verbal and-visual subsystems have unique properties. Logogens are

stored in the verbal system as discrete elements, resembling words and sentences,

whereas imagens are stored as continuous units in the visual system having an "all-in-

oneness" quality. Dual coding predicts that three distinct levels of processing can occur

within and between the verbal and visual systems: representational, referential, and

associative (Paivio, 1991).

20
 Representational processing describes the connections between incoming stimuli

and either the verbal or visual system. Verbal stimuli directly activate verbal memory

codes, whereas visual stimuli activate visual memory codes. For example, hearing the

word "cat" first activates the verbal system, but seeing a picture of a cat directly activates

the visual system. Referential processing is the building of connections between the

verbal and visual systems. Hearing or reading the word "cat" will stimulate the

appropriate logogen in the verbal system. Subsequently forming a mental image of a cat

implies that the verbal system has directly activated the imagen corresponding to cat.

Associative processing leads to the activation of informational units withineither of the

systems (Paivio, 1991). The processes are elaborated diagrammatically in the following

figure:

Sensory Systems

Representations Connections

Logogens Imagens
Associative Structure
Associative Structure

Referential
Connections

Verbal Responses Nonverbal Responses

Fig. 2.1: Verbal and nonverbal symbolic systems of Dual Coding Theory.
Adapted from: Clark, J.M. &Paivio, A.(1991).
Paivio, (1991) postulates that the core idea behind dual coding theory of memory

is very simple and intuitive: He proposes that the human mind operates with two distinct

21
classes of mental representation (or "codes"), verbal representations and mental images,

and that human memory thus comprises two functionally independent (although

interacting) systems or stores, verbal memory and image memory. Imagery potentiates

recall of verbal material because when a word evokes an associated image (either

spontaneously, or through deliberate effort) two separate but linked memory traces are

laid down, one in each of the memory stores. Obviouslythe chances that a memory will

be retained and retrieved are much greater if it is stored in two distinct functional

locations rather than in just one (Thomas, 2010).

Teachers should be most interested in ways to increase the likelihood that

information will be dual encoded in long-term memory. Information encoded in both

verbal and visual forms with strong and flexible links between the codes enhances

retention, retrieval, and transfer. According to Kuo, & Hooper(2004) dual coding is more

likely to occur when the content lends itself to imaging. For instance, concrete concepts,

like "tree" or "house" are easier for people to visualize simply because they refer to

tangible objects that have a physical form. Conversely, people do not automatically form

internal images for abstract concepts, like "patriotism" or "kindness." In these cases, it is

often useful to provide the learner with a prototype image that communicates the most

important characteristics or attributes of the concept, such as two people shaking hands

to represent "friendship." This prototypical image is mostly analogical to the concept e.g.

the portrait of a blindfolded woman holding a set of scales to represent justice.

It can be seen that theoretical foundations of dual coding theory have definite

implications on the value and use of instructional media. Marzano, Pickering and Pollock

(2001) stated that instructional video enhance the development of non-linguistic

representations in students, thus enhances the development of the content to be learned.

The use of instructional media also helps students generate linguistic representations.

22
 Visuals help student to process and remember learning content by facilitating the

development of corresponding imagens. Again being a linguistic tool, text based

instructional video enhances the development of logogens thereby dual coding the

information. Thus the theory provides a plausible explanation and empirical evidence

that concepts are better recalled when presented in both verbal and visual cues.

2.6 Psychological Bases of Instructional Video

In order to locate principles, and theories that guide the planning,

implementation, evaluation, and modification of Instructional video for effective

instruction, educational technology being an eclectic field has turned to the area of

psychology of learning for help (Adewoyin, 1999). Learning theories have considerable

influence on instructional practice in general and instructional video in particular. Main

ideas of the three dominant classes of learning theories - behavioural, cognitive and

constructive - were presented briefly. Each makes qualitatively different assumptions

about how people learn and remember.

i) Behavioral Learning Theory

The theory of behaviorism as perceived by Mergel, (1998) concentrates on the

study of overt behaviors that can be observed and measured. It views the mind as a

"black box" in the sense that response to stimulus can be observed quantitatively, totally

ignoring the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind. He further stated

that, some of the key players in the development of the behaviorist theory include;

Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner. Behaviorism is founded on the formation and

strength of stimulus-response (S-R) associations. From an instructional perspective, a

stimulus is presented, such as ainstructional video that prompts the learner to respond in

an overt, observable manner. The relationship between the stimulus and the response is

strengthened through the use of reinforcement (Mergel, 1998).

23
 Operationally, the stimulus can be defined as either the material to be learned or

the instructional event that leads to the learner's initial response. One of the basic goals

of behavioral methods is to attain a measure of control or predictability of given

instructional stimuli. The repeated use of particular stimuli helps to establish predictable

control of learner responses, placing student responses under a form of stimulus control.

Using systematic stimulus control, responses can be shaped through the presentation of

directions or the repeated presentation of the same stimulus requiring the same response,

paired with appropriate reinforcement for the desired response.The response is the

learner's overt behavior made in response to the instructional stimuli. The learner's

response is the only recognized behavioral link to the instructional stimulus. Therefore, it

is crucial that a causal link between stimulus and response be established in order to

evaluate the effectiveness of the instructional stimulus. It is important that the

learnerclearly understand what response is required in order for the S-R bond to be

formed. The response must be judged as appropriate or inappropriate in clear, objective

terms, and this information is then conveyed to the learner as feedback. Instructionally,

responses are elicited through the presentation of instructional activities and shaped

through the presentation of systematically controlled activities, responses, and response

consequences.After a response is made and judged, a follow-up stimulus is presented to

the student as a consequence to the response. This learner-activated stimulus, or

reinforcement, is applied systematically to strengthen desired responses and is chosen

conditionally on the desirability of the response. A key element of reinforcement is the

principle of contiguity, where reinforcement is given closely in time with the response to

be strengthened (Gagne, 1985).

During instruction, numerous stimuli are presented. Part of the learner's task,

therefore, is to selectively identify relevant stimuli from irrelevant stimuli. Instructional

24
video are just one source of visual stimuli competing for the student's attention. From the

behavioral point of view, when two or more stimuli are provided, the learner will select

the one that most easily results in the correct response. This is known as the "principle of

least effort." A typical behavioral task would be to provide a student with a card

displaying both the word and picture of an object, such as a cat. If the student's task is to

identify the object, the principle of least effort predicts that the learner's attention will

focus predominantly on the picture instead of the word in order to achieve a correct

response (Reiber, 2000).

He further contented that, the principle of least effort requires instructional

designers to be wary of providing any stimuli, such as pictures, that may compete for the

learner's attention. If the picture is perceived as providing the information necessary to

respond correctly, it willdominate which S-R associations are formed and which are

neglected. From a behavioral point of view, therefore, instructional video can be potent

stimuli resulting in both appropriate and inappropriate learning. Instructional video can

provide the foundation for strong S-R associations or they can be disruptive or cause

interference. Research has shown that learners vary in their susceptibility to interference

by instructional video; learners with poor reading skills seem particularly vulnerable.

In essence, behaviorist principles of reinforcement, retention, and transfer are

important design considerations, as learning is facilitated by reinforcing the correct

performances.

ii) Cognitive Learning Theory

The cognitive revolution became evident in American psychology during the

1950's. Cognitive psychologists like Piaget, Bruner, and Ausubel contend that learning is

an internal process that cannot be observed directly. Learners first remember and then

25
retrieve information from the memory. Cognitivists emphasize on how human mind

works. They put particular emphasis on memory (Mergel, 1998).

Mergel, (1998), said cognitive theorists recognize that much learning involves

associations established through contiguity and repetition. They also acknowledge the

importance of reinforcement, although they stress its role in providing feedback about

the correctness of responses over its role as a motivator. Cognitive theorists view

learning as involving the acquisition or reorganization of the cognitive structures through

which humans process and store information.

To cognitive theorist, practice is an important aspect of learning because it gives

increased opportunities for reward and reinforcement. Cognitive structures are also

createdthrough practice, which leads to an efficient use of long term memory. Di Vesta,

(1987), maintained that in contrast to focusing on strengthening S-R bonds, cognitive

orientations to learning consider the actual thought processes occurring in between the

stimulus and the response as the most important aspects to learning. The emphasis is on

how a learner selects, perceives processes, encodes, and retrieves information from

memory.The implication of this theory to instructional designers is that they could use

various techniques of teaching such as chunking, mnemonics etc. for meaningful

organization of content and give practice for storing and retrieving information.

iii) Constructive learning theory

Alesandrini (2002) pioneered what became the constructivist approach

Constructivists believe that learners construct their own reality or at least interpret it

based upon their perceptions of experiences, so an individual's knowledge is a function

of one's prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects

and events. What someone knows is grounded in perception of the physical and social

experiences which are comprehended by the mind.According to Joseph E. (2009) The

26
Assumptions of Constructivism to learning are:Knowledge is constructed from

experience, Learning is a personal interpretation of the world, Learning is an active

process in which meaning is developed on the basis of experience, Conceptual growth

comes from the negotiation of meaning, the sharing of multiple perspectives and the

changing of our internal representations through collaborative learning and Learning

should be -situated in realistic settings; testing should be integrated with the task and not

a separate activity.

Joseph, (2009) opined that to design an instructional video for learning from the

constructivist approach requires that the designer produces a product that is much more

facilitative in nature than prescriptive. Instructional content and assessment of the visual

is to be based on the experience and self-evaluation of the learner.

2.7 Memory and Recall

Memory can be described as the processes by which people and other organisms

encode, store, and retrieve information (Roediger, 2009). Encoding refers to the initial

perception and registration of information. Storage is the retention of encoded

information over time. Retrieval refers to the processes involved in using stored

information. Whenever people successfully recall a prior experience, they must have

encoded, stored, and retrieved information about the experience. Conversely, memory

failure reflects a breakdown in one of these stages of memory.

Memory is critical to humans and all other living organisms. Practically all of our

daily activities - talking, understanding, reading, and socializing - depend on our having

learned and stored information about our environments. Memory allows individual to

retrieve (recall) events from the distant past or from moments ago. It enables us to learn

new skills and to form habits. Without the ability to access past experiences or

27
information, life would be a series of disconnected experiences, each one new and

unfamiliar. Without any sort of memory, humans would quickly perish (Roediger, 2009)

Memory and learning are closely related, and the terms often describe roughly the

same processes. The term learning is often used to refer to processes involved in the

initial acquisition or encoding of information, whereas the term memory more often

refers to later storage and retrieval of information. However, this distinction is not hard

and fast. After all, information is learned only when it can be retrieved later, and retrieval

cannot occur unless information was learned. Thus, psychologists often refer to the

learning/memory process as a means of incorporating all facets of encoding, storage, and

retrieval.

Roediger, (2009) further reported that people can learn and retain new facts and

skills throughout their lives. Although older adults may show a decline in certain

capacities—for example, recalling recent events—they can still profit from experience

even in old age. The brain remains plastic and capable of new learning throughout one's

lifetime, at least under normal conditions. Enhancing learners' recall of concepts in this

sense cannot be separated from the memory of subject content taught to the

students.Video content in instruction that will gear towards facilitating the recall abilities

of the students. The theory was of relevance to topic under study because it provided a

useful framework for understanding the mental processes of human memory, and the

subsequent recall of learnt materials. Again, a large part of educational assessment

involves tests of intelligence, achievement, and related cognitive processes that measure

verbal and nonverbal abilities of learners.

2.8 Rationale for Integrating Instructional Video to Teaching

Teachers are responsible for imparting knowledge, skills, and values to hundreds

of student everyday and ensuring that they are learning (Roberson, 2012). In order to do

28
this successfully, the use of instructional video in the classroom has become an important

teaching strategy.

Ellis (2001) identified three benefits of using instructional video organizers in

teaching and learning. First, instructional video organizers make content easier to

understand and learn. Instructional video organizers also help students separate important

information from what might be interesting but not essential information. Second,

according to Ellis (2001), instructional video organizers decrease the necessary semantic

information processing skills required to learn the material. By making the organization

of content information easier to understand, instructional video organizers allow material

to be addressed at more sophisticated levels. Finally, students who use of instructional

video organizers may become more strategic to learners.

An individual's approach to a task called a strategy (Bulgren& Lenz, 1996).

These strategies include how a person thinks and acts when planning, executing, and

evaluating a task and its subsequent outcomes (Deshler & Lenz, 1989). The students'

reading and writingskills. Communication skills, analytical skills as well as creative

skills are improved with the use of instructional video organizers (Ellis, 2005). The

relevance of instructional video to teaching-learning process in general can be seen in the

following aspects: i) Motivating Learners

An optimal amount of arousal (not too little and not too much) is essential to

activate the learners' interest and induce them for acceptable levels of performance.

Instructional video has the potential to increase the intrinsic motivation of a learning

environment by arousing students' curiosity, optimizing the challenge of an activity, and

encouraging students to use their imaginations (Richer, 2000). This makes the students to

concentrate fully on the learning task at hand.

29
 As educators learn more about how to reach all types of learners, instructional

media are used to assist teachers in differentiating instructional methods e.g. from verbal

to visual instruction and practical activities. Today's students need constant stimulation

therefore oral instruction / lecturing alone is not an effective teaching strategy by itself

(especially at lower levels of education). The use of instructional video allows teachers to

vary the delivery of lessons and keep students interested in learning (Roberson, 2012).

This caters for the different learning styles and abilities among the students.

Instructional video are more concise than words and enable us to communicate

ideas which are difficult, if not impossible to describe in words. They provide

opportunities for much needed access to content especially when learners are low-level

readers. Using pictures, concept maps etc. are ways to teach these students the lessons'

objectives while also keeping them interested in the material. Without instructional

video, these students will find it difficult to comprehend the lesson and keep up with

instruction, iv) facilitates greater comprehension

Instructional video make instruction meaningful for students and help the teacher

attain lesson objectives by providing emphasis in a different ways. Clear pictures,

graphs, or models multiply the students' level of understanding of the material presented,

and they can be used to reinforce a message, clarify points, and create interest. As

observed by Clark and Lyons, (2004) visuals help learners see the relationships among

information in a lesson and in turn help learners build mental models that are a basis for

higher-level thinking and problem-solving (Ellis 2005).They allow students to spend

more time with the content and solidify understanding. When students work together on

instructional video, there's a scaffolding of information and an exchange of ideas. This

experience helps students to the master materials, increasing their confidence and ability.

30
 Visual aids engage more students in the lesson because it requires a change from

one activity to another: from hearing to seeing and sometimes touching. This enables the

teacher to appeal to more than one sense at the same time, thereby increasing student's

understanding and retention level. With drawings, posters, transparencies and other

visuals, the concepts or ideas presentedare no longer simply words - but words plus

images. Therefore instructional video are great tools to use forengaging all students in

the learning process. It helps to cater for the individual differences among students in

terms of learning styles, intelligence, and maturity, this way all learners are carried along

during the instructional process.

Instructional video prove valuable in teaching abstract information by providing

spatial metaphors for logical structure. Using space, lines, boxes, arrows, color, and the

relative distance between elements, for instance, an illustration can provide a concrete

equivalent of abstract ideas. Many writers have outlined methods of making instructional

video representations of the common structures of information, such as comparison and

contrast, procedural steps, description, causation, and chronology. For example, column

charts are efficient for comparing or contrasting the characteristics of items; time lines

are good at showing chronological relationships; flow charts can show causation clearly,

Gaining the attention of students is a precondition to any kind of learning. It

appears first in most lists of events in the instructional process. In the terms of cognitive

psychology, gaining attention is critical because of the limited capacity and duration of

the "short-term" or "working" memory (which has a capacity of five to nine items and

duration of 10 seconds, according to most researchers). Instructional video help in

focusing attention and motivating learners. These are key factors in any successful

learning activity. The efficiency of the receptive mechanism of sight is fully exploited for

optimum learning. Research has shown that attention is naturally drawn to the novel or

31
unique (Fleming, & Levie1993). Obviously, the use of instructional video can be an

important strategy for influencing attention, if they are used deliberately in novel or

unique ways.

Studies suggest that when information is presented verbally and visually it has a

better chance of being remembered. Corroborating research shows that concrete words

are remembered better than abstract words, and that pictures alone are remembered better

than words alone (Fleming &Levie, 1993).

Learners are more likely to retain and recall contents that are presented visually

with a greater percentage than what they hear only. The visual dimensions added to the

learning material concretise learners' experiences. This is Vital because memory is frail

and fickle, unless it rests on understanding. This assertion corroborates with the Chinese

dictum:

What I hear, I Forget,

What I see, 1 remember,

What 1 do, I understand (Adewoyin, 1991).

The educational significance of instructional video as enumerated by Mudasir

and Aqueei, (2012) is to: help in Showing relationship by means of facts, figures and

statistics; understanding of abstract concepts and ideas in visual form; securing the

attention of the pupils by their attractive format and simplicity of layout; Gaining of

concepts of size, distance, space, location and direction by means of maps; developing

the power of analysis, synthesis and deriving conclusions from a data; and the grasping

of information easily.

32
 Baker andBixler (1990), states that the purpose of most instructional video is to

help explain something to the viewer in a manner that hopefully increases retention of

the subject matter. To him instructional video have seven possible functions in

instruction:

Descriptive - To show what an object looks like, Expressive - To make an impact

on the learner, Constructional - To show how the parts fit together into the whole,

Functional - To show a process or the organization of a system in a simplified manner,

Logico-mathematical - To display a mathematical concept such as a curve graph. Some

line graphs and charts with a scaled X and Y axis fall into this category, Algorithmic -

To show a holistic picture of the range of possibilities. Flow charts fall into this category

and Data display Illustration textual data visually. Bar charts, pie charts, and histograms

fall into this category

2.9 Impact of Instructional video in Enhancing Learners' Memory

For generations, instructional video have been incorporated within educational

materials to enhance learning (Reiber, 2000). As computer technology has advanced, the

potential variety and overall quality of the instructional video has increased. Such as

video programme on education and animation are examples of enhanced features that are

now readily used.

Alesandrini (2002) explains that from an instructional viewpoint, media can

facilitate learning in the following instances: a) when used to represent actual people,

places, or things; b) it helps to simplify difficult, complex, and/or abstract material (e.g.,

a government organizational chart); or c) when used as an analogical bridge between

familiar. already learned materials and unfamiliar, or to be learned materials (e.g.,

instructional video of a familiar truck to facilitate learning the functions of an unfamiliar

red blood cell).

33
 As identified by Tversky, B., Marrison, J. B. &Betrancourt, M. (2002) there are

several key reasons why instructional videos can be utilized to enhance learning. First,

they can make the learning more efficient. Pictures and other visuals help reduce the

need for long textual descriptions. In such cases, a picture really can be "worth a

thousand words." Thus the use of instructional video may lead to more efficient

processing of information by utilizing the visual channel while reducing the information

needed to be processed via the verbal channel. Second, well constructedinstructional

video can organize complex materials so that key features are more readily ascertained

and understood, as well as showspatial relations between important elements that

otherwise may not be discovered by a learner. Based on Mayer, (2008), active processing

assumption, well-designed instructional video programme may provide the needed

structure that allows learners to effectively select, organize, and integrate new

information.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (Osha, 2012) asserts that, the

impact of instructional video in increase the learners' understanding and retention level is

glaring. This claim could be substantiated from the chart below:

Retention of Information
65%

35%

10%

Oral Video Alone Video & Oral

Fig. 2.2: Percentages of Information retention

Source: Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (2012).

34
 Osha (2012), maintained that empirical studies on human learning and memory

reveal interesting statistics that support these findings:

Experimental psychologists and educators have found that retention of

information three days after a meeting or other event is six times greater when

information is presented by visual and oral means than when the information is presented

by the spoken word alone, Studies by educational researchers suggest that approximately

83% of human learning occurs visually, and the remaining 17% through the other senses

- 11% through hearing, 3.5% through smell, 1% through taste, and 1.5% through touch

and The studies suggest that three days after an event, people retain 10% of what they

heard from an oral presentation, 35% from a visual presentation, and 65% from a visual

and oral presentation (Osha, 2012).

A general benefit of instructional video is that they are visually appealing.

Viewers' attention is attracted to these displays, and viewers are more likely to study

them for longer periods of time. This, in turn, can lead to enhancement of memory for

information depicted in them. For example, one study of memory for materials taught in

introductory psychology courses found that students recalled ideas and examples

presented in pictures and in-class demonstrations better than information presented in the

text alone (Vanderstoep, 2000)

Mayer, (2008 ), maintained that in addition to directly enhancing memory for

information, instructional video can also make complex information easier to

comprehend. Thus require less cognitive effort to understand than text-based descriptions

of the same information. Better comprehension, along with more cognitive resources that

can be allocated to learning and memory, will together enhance memory for the

information to be learned. Michas and Berry, (2001) further explain that Visual displays

35
are particularly beneficial to the comprehension of concepts. They further asserted that

instructional video enhance learning in four dimensions:

First, it communicates cause - and - effect information. For instance, a diagram

can help illustrate how turning a key can unlock a door. When such displays are designed

to highlight the cause- and-effect sequence (e.g., by animating one portion at a time or by

using a sequence of arrows), viewers' comprehension and memory for the cause- and-

effect information is enhanced.

Second, visual displays' are frequently useful for representing relationships

amongst elements (e.g. a Venn diagram, a text-based media organizer, a scientific

model). One benefit of such representations is that they can facilitate problem solving.

Another benefit is that they provide concrete representation of key concepts or elements

and their relationships. Again, media organizers are often used to represent relationships

among the main ideas in a text. For example, information in a text can be summarized in

matrix form such that similar concepts are closer together along one or more dimensions.

Research has suggested that representations that group relevant concepts, such as

matrices, can significantly enhance memory for text compared to representations that

simply summarize materials, such as outlines.

Third, visual displays are useful for communicating information that is

intrinsically spatial. For instance, visual displays of a map of a building or a drawing of

how different parts of a car engine fit together communicate information that is difficult

to describe verbally. One general guideline is to design displays that facilitate integrating

relevant information (placing text and visual together) to reduce working memory load

and allow viewers to focus on learning relevant content.

Fourth, visual displays provide natural mappings to quantitative information

(using graph to show annual economic growth) and thus increase comprehension and

36
memory for quantitative information. One difficulty associated with graphs is that

students often make interpretation errors and therefore remember erroneous data. Shah

and Hoeffner, (2002) opined that it is pertinent for instructors to acquaint themselves

with the guidelines for designing graphs to depict data to students for instructional

purposes.

The roles of instructional video in learning are not limited to presenting visual

information to students, but also asking them to operate them. Furthermore, developing

the visuals forces students to consider the important elements and relationships in a topic

and also to identify what information they understand and what they do not. Thus, the

creation of instructional video can be used to enhance comprehension and memory for

to-be-learned information.

In summaryinstructional video facilitate understanding and retention of concepts,

develops inference and the potential discovery as well as learner motivation. It reduces

the cognitive load on learning new material as learners' attention is directed to the

significant elements and away from those items of less importance. Based on these

theoretical underpinnings, instructional video can impact upon overall learning.

.10 Media Application of Instructional Video

Abimbade (1999) described educational media as ―a broad range of media which

can be used to facilitate effective and efficient communication in the teaching and

learning process‖.Again, Adewoyin (1991), defined media as ―a channels through which

messages, information, ideas and knowledge are conveyed and or disseminated‖. They

are the tools or instruments through which stimuli can be passed and obtained.From the

above definitions educational media include printed materials, charts, transparences,

instructional films, video-tapes/cassettes, audio-tape/cassettes, audio-compact disc,

computer assisted instructional disc, television, radio etc. other main reasons for using

37
media include: Motivate interest, provide source of information and authority to save

teacher‘s preparation time and elucidate verbal concept.

2.10.1 Media Selection of Instructional Video

It is pertinent to begin this heading by defining media. Ughamadu (1998), define

media as the wide variety of instructional materials like textbooks, chalkboard,

models/markups, chart, television, radio and other projected and non- projected devices

or tools which bring about efficiency and effectiveness in the teaching-learning process

and invariably, promote and enhance the achievement of instructional objectives. Agun

(1988), educational media refers to all forms of information carriers, in addition, they are

materials that can be used to record, store, preserve and transmit or retrieve information.

They are essentially tools and devices through which stimuli can be passed on or

obtained. In other definition Ogunranti (1982) sees media as all channels or forms borne

of the revolution in communication through which information is passed out‖. Having

defined media, let now understand what are instructional media? Simply put instructional

media are those media that enhance effective teaching and learning.

Ogunranti, Julius, Babatunde, Akanbi and Egurin (1982) described instructional

media as media used to describe purposes in conjunction with teacher, textbook and

chalkboard. More so instructional media are categorized into four groups. They are

Mediating Media, Obligatory Media, Optional Media and Criterion Media.

Mediating Media: These are media that are placed between the learner and the object

he wishes to learn in other words they are used to gain insight into an object or even in

order to acquire skills, for example the telescope or Microscope.Obligatory media are

media that are compulsory and must be obtained and used if objectives are to be

achieved, for example maps, chalkboard.Optional Media are not compulsory for the

achievement of the teacher‘s objectives, but if found and used will lead to the enrichment

38
of classroom presentation, for example the use of the flannel, graph or magnetic board or

the use of the tape recorder for language teaching instead of the conventional language

laboratory.Criterion Media are media like models or mock-ups that must be used by

students in practicing a skill in order to achieve mastery.

2.10.2 Roles of Instructional Video in Teaching/Learning Process

The instructional video as a teaching tool has many uses and some of these are as

follows:Instructional Video can accompany slides, filmstrips, motion films or be used

entirely on its own, It can be used for vocabulary practice, dictations and direct

instructions, Information from different categories of people for example: newscaster,

politicians, old people and government officers, etc, A teacher to record sound as master

voice can use it, A whole lesson can be recorded for future reference and Schools can

record from the radio and keep the record for class use.

Generally, there are few constraints in the use of Instructional Video. These

include:Lack of adequate knowledge, about instructional media by the teacher.Wrong

application of instructional media.Failure of the media to generate or stimulate interest of

the pupils.Failure of the class/group to partake in the activity generated by the

instructional media. When a medium is over-utilized.

2.11 Empirical Studies

The researcher has not come across a significant amount of empirical studies on

the topic of studies. Most of the researches are on methodology of both secondary and

tertiary level of education.

Abdulmalik (2007) investigated Tape-recorder on effected Student learning

performance of oral English in second schools in Minna, Niger State. He established that

the studies have proved that: tape-recorder if use in the classroom to teach Oral English

provides practice and mastery for the students in all the forty four (44) phonemes of

39
English language. This is because in most of the areas of this study the (44) phonemes

we used as found in the different words of the target concepts.

Lawal (2005) ―effectiveness of instructional video on students performance in the

Achievement of Senior Secondary School Agricultural Science. The study established

that most schools in Nigeria have not been utilizing the instructional video in the

teaching-learning of agricultural science, hence, the performance of learners in Senior

Secondary Examinations have not been encouraging.

Alabi, (2009), study on two ―Effects of educational television and video-tape mediated

instruction on secondary school students‖. Achievement and retention in social studies

concluded that the devices convey information so that they could have effects on the

receiver Also learning with media and technology was also reviewed using the computer

based cognitive tools as developed to function as intellectual partners to enable and

facilitate critical thinking and higher learning of cognitive tools since the world is

moving toward computer age.

One of the most prolific instructional visual researches to date has been the study

conducted by Dwyer and his colleagues (1987). The conducted the research with more

than 8,000 high school students and 40,000 college students. The study investigated the

effects of presentational picture varying from highly detailed color photos to simple line

drawings as an aid to learning the content contained in the script. Also studied were the

effects of various lesson strategies on visualization instructions, such as using moving

arrows and inserted questions as cueing strategies. The most unique aspect to Dwyer‘s

research is it systematic approach to investigating the use of visual in instruction. The

instructional materials of every study involved a 2,000-word script describing the parts,

locations, and functions of human heart. True to instructional design principles,

instructional visuals were only added to illustrate part of the script found difficult to

40
learn. A total of 37 such critical areas were augmented with visuals (Reiber, 2000). The

types of visuals used in any one study depended on the research question being asked. A

variety of treatment combinations were studied, such as incorporating the programmed

materials into print-based materials, slide/tape materials with audio and computer –

based materials. This research effort, known as the Program of Systematic Evaluation

(PSE), has produced more than 150 published research studies.

Dwyer‘s research findings showed that visuals are not equally effective across

learning situations. Effectiveness of all instructional strategies, such as visuals, depends

on a wide array of factors, such as learners‘ characteristics, instructional task etc. The

most consistent results found by Dwyer were related to the amount of realism in the

visuals. The results suggest that pictures facilitate learning for adults under certain

conditions. Learners need sufficient time to scan and interpret visuals with highly

realistic details – richly detailed visuals required the learners to attend to and

systematically scan the visual in search of essential learning cues. They opined that, if

insufficient time is given, students may actually choose to ignore the visuals and attend

to the more familiar, printed text.

Most recently, Newby and Lai, (2008), carried out a research on the impact of

static graphics and animated graphics on a complex learning task. The study compared

the impact of different categories of graphics used within a complex task. One hundred

eighty five native English speaking undergraduates participated in a task that required

learning 18 Chinese radicals and their English equivalent translations. A post-test only

control group design compared performance differences following training between 5

groups of participants (control, concrete verbal imagery information, single static

graphics, multiple gradient static graphics, and animated graphics ) on both immediate

and 4-weeks retention tests. It is therefore hoped that the results obtained from the study

41
might provide additional literature to Basic Social Studies teachers and other stakeholder

to enable them realize the potential of instructional video as strategy for enhancing the

academic performance of student‘s in Nigeria junior secondary schools.

He recommended that further research shall be carried out on the effect of

educational television and video-tape mediated instruction.

2.12 Summary

In this chapter an attempt had been made to discuss the theoretical framework of

the study on the perspective of dual coding theory as postulated by Paivo (1990) its

elaborate the relevant psychological theories of the use of instructional video in teaching

learning process as well as their impart on enhancing learners recall of lesson content the

literature reviewed review that the application of instructional video to instruction could

bring about increased retention of content and induce active participation of learners in a

lesson. It is therefore, hope that the result obtained from the study might provide

additional literature to basic social studies teachers and other stakeholders to enable them

realize the potentials of instructional video as a strategy for enhancing the academic

performance of students in Nigerian secondary schools.

42
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter incorporated the description of the following subheadings: research

design, population of the study, sample and sampling technique, research instrument,

validity of instrument pilot testing reliability of instrument, procedure for data collection,

treatment procedure and procedure for data analysis.

3.2 Research Design

The design adopted for the study was quasi experimental research design

involving pretest - posttest control design. This type of experimental research is

concerned with finding cause-effect relationships between two or more variables.

The pretest-posttest-control design was applied to gather information on the effect of

instructional video utilization in enhancing learners' recall of concepts in social studies

amongjunior secondary schools students in Katsina Local Government area and

KatsinaLocal Government area of Katsina state, Nigeria. A pretest was administered to

the study sample in order to determine their academiccomparability ability level. (Dyel,

2011).

O1p X1 O2p

O1p X0 O2p

Figure 3.1: Research design illustration (Adapted from: Dyel, 2011)

The diagram can be expanded upon as follows:

O1 = Pretest

O2 = Posttest

43
X0 =Control

X1 = Treatment

P = Performance

3.3 Population of the Study

The population of the study is 1860 J.S.S. II students in Katsina Local

Government area of katsina state drawn, from six government junior secondary schools

The population distribution of JSS II social studies in junior secondary schools in

Katsina local government is presented in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Population distribution of selected schools

S/N Name of school No of male std No female std Total

1 GJSS K/Kaura 150 100 250

2 GJC Katsina 200 150 350

3 GJSS K/Yandaka 175 135 300

4 KCK (Junior) 250 120 370

5 SuncaisKatsina 180 120 300

6 GDJSS Katsina 210 80 290

Grand total 1168 705 1860

Source: Universal Basic Education Katsina 2013/2014 Annual School Census

3.4 Sample and Sampling Techniques

The selection of the sample for this study was given careful consideration bearing

in mind the purpose of the study. Stratified random sampling was used to select some

J.S.S. in Katsina, simple random sampling was used in selecting the schools, while the

systematic random sampling equally used to select respondents for this study. Two

44
schoolswere sampled for example: GDJSS KofarKaura and GJSS K/Yandaka. Eighty

students were selected from two intact class for the experiment.

Table 3.2: Distribution of sampleschools (J.S.S. II )

Selected Schools Population Sample population

M F
GJSS K/K 150 100 40
GJSS K/Yandaka 175 135 45
Total 325 235 85

3.5 Instrumentation

The instrument which the researcher used for this study is known as Social

Studies Achievement Test (SSAT) which was developed by the researcher to collect the

needed information. It is multiple choice objective typesof (20) questions.The test was

administered to study subject both in the control and the experimental group before and

after the experimental treatment to evaluate the students‘ performance. The topics

covered for the test was national symbols which means a sign or symbol that a country is

recognized or known, national pledge, national anthem, national flag, Nigerian currency

and coat of arm.

3.5.1 Validity of the Instrument

The content of the Social Studies Achievement Test was validated by experts in

the fields of instructional technology, evaluation and measurement and social studies to

ascertain its validity. The items were then taken to the research supervisors who made

some recommendations for adjustments, before a final draft was made. The decision by

the researcher to employ the services of experts was based on the remark of Rikichi

(2011) who stated that validation by specialists is an effective method of content

45
validation of a research instrument. The specialists assessed the suitability of the test

items, i.e., to ascertain whether or not the test items were related to the objectives of the

study. After evaluation of the instrument, it was suggested that the test items were

appropriate, and relevant to the objectives of the study.

3.5.2 Pilot Testing

Pilot testing was conducted to ascertain the feasibility and reliability co-efficient

of the test instruments through a trial run,. Government Day Junior Secondary

KofarYandaka was used for this purpose. The intact class of JSS II students studying

social studies. Social Studies Achievement Test (SSAT) was administered to the

subjects. Instructions on how to answer the test items were read and explained to the

students by the researcher. It was based on the analysis of the scores obtained from the

pilot testing of the instrument that its reliability coefficient established.

3.5.3 Reliability of Instrument

To find out the reliability of the instrument the test-retest reliability co-efficient

was adopted, based on Pearson Product Moment Coefficient (PPMC). Analysis of the

scores obtained from the pilot testing of the Social Studies Achievement Test (SSAT),

established the reliability coefficient for the test instrument at 0.87. the result showed a

high degree of relationship between the two test results. Therefore the test instrument for

the study was adjudged releasable.

3.6 Procedure for Data Collection

The researcher visited the selected schools to examine the facilities for the subject

and determine their suitability for the study and seek official permission and co-

operation to use the school and facilities from the respective school authorities. Each of

46
the sample schools was assigned to the experimental and control groups by means of

random sampling. The co-operation of students and staff in the selected schools was

sought for. The researcher personally handled the demonstration of teaching and

application of instrument (pre-test and posttest of all the groups) with the help of

research assistants, after two weeks and four week of teaching, the score obtained formed

the data for testing the hypothesis.

Two lessons were taught for each group and each lesson took two hours to

complete. Therefore, four hours were used for teaching the experimental group and

control group respectively, this consist a total of eight hours for the two groups. The

experimental group was taught with a combination of verbal instruction supplemented

with exposure of instructional video with 32 inches of LCD Television. The control

groups on the other hand was taught through lecture method only. Thus, it is assumed

that any significant difference in performance between the experimental and control

groups could be attributed to the effect of the treatment administered.

3.7. Procedure for Treatment

The study which involved junior secondary school students (JSS II) lasted for

four weeks. The researcher visited the selected schools to carry out the experiment and

administer the test instrument on the study subjects; after completion, the test scripts

were collected and used for analysis. These procedures were followed in order to collect

relevant data.

i. Training of research assistant

ii. Orientation of the study subjects.

iii. Exposure of experimental group to instructional video (treatment),

iv. Exposure of control group to lecture method (control)

47
 v. Exposure of study subjects to posttest.

i) Training of Research Assistant

Before the commencement of the treatment, the researcher trained two research

assistants. Their roles were to assist the researcher to handle the lessons in the

experimental group using instructional video learning package (IVLP). Two days were

earmarked of or the training which involved practical demonstration by the researcher on

how to conduct a instructional video enhanced lesson. The researcher assistants were

acquainted with the roles of the group head and on what was expected from group

members. Similarly, they were introduced to the types of activities expected from

students during the lesson. These include:

Encouraging all members participate actively in activities and discussion during

the lesson.Carefully study the features depicted in the displays and discuss their views

with group members to be able to maximize the benefits of instructional video to

learning.Emphasizing the importance of helping each other because students who helps

someone else end of helping themselves to learn better.

ii) Orientation of the Study Subjects

this was arranged o enable the researcher establish a rapport with the study

subjects, solicit their cooperation, and inform them about the desire to conduct

themselves in normal temperaments as in everyday class lessons.

iii) Exposure of Experimental Group to Instructional Video (Treatment)

The instructional procedure for the experimental group was based on the

instructional video learning package. The package encourages students‘ participation at

every step of the instructional process. Given the stimulus of a broad concept, such as

48
national identity generates examples of the selected concept; examples are derived from

the students‘ own understanding and experiences. Focusing questions such as ―what does

this word mean to you? Can you give examples of this concept?‖ this generates open-

ended responses in which students of all levels can participate. Such a process allows

students to search for interrelatedness and to organize a mass of material. Students

therefore create relationships in flexible manners and perceive the world, using their

personal schema.

The researcher acted as facilitator and asked students focusing questions such as,

can you name this objects? Why do you think that these thinks belong together? Students

were required to explain their reasoning and to seek clarification from each other.

Students would then be asked to think of non-examples of the broad concept. Using

focusing questions such as, can you name things that are not examples of these concepts?

In this way the definitional outlines of the concept were developed. The students then

determine a statement of generalization, using responses elicited from the discussion on

the concept. In this way the inductive and deductive reasoning process were developed in

the learners.

The experimental group involved two intact classes male and female students of

heterogeneous academic ability (as indicate by the students‘ two terms report sheets).

Before the study subjects entered into the classroom for each lesson, the instructional

video for the lesson were placed on the teacher‘s table. After a brief introduction to the

topic, the instructional video depicting the concepts to be taught to the class were

displayed to the students. This was supplemented with verbal explanation by the

researcher. The subjects were then instructed to carefully observed the materials and

respond to the teachers‘ questions after the teaching activity. During each lesson, the

49
researcher moved round the class to attend to those who had difficulty in understanding

concepts depicted in the visual display where no group member was able to help.

iiv) Exposure of Control Group to Lecture Method (Control)

The researcher used the traditional lecture method to teach the subjects in the

control group, that is exposing the subjects to lesson content through verbal instruction

alone. During the teaching process, important points which the study subjects were

expected to write down in their exercise books were written on the chalkboard for them

to copy. Assignment was given to the subjects after every lesson and they were

encouraged to read their textbooks for further clarifications.

v) Administration of Posttest

A posttest was administered by the researcher after completion of the treatment.

The students in both experimental and control groups were given a posttest (basic social

studies achieved test). The test instrument contained 20 multiple choice items and each

test has three response options. Subjects were instructed to identify the correct response

from the options provided. The subjects were allowed to read through the written

instructions on how to answer the test items on the question Papers. The subjects were

allowed 30 minutes for the posttest, this time frame was based on duration academic

achievement test suggested by Dyel, (2011).

The subjects‘ response in the posttest was collected and scored using a making

scheme as shown in Appendix C. each correct response was scored 1 point with

maximum score of 20 marks while any wrong response was scored zero. The students‘

scores from the posttest for the two groups (Experimental and control) was recorded

separately and used for the analysis.

50
3.8 Procedure for Data Analysis

The data collected for the study was used to answer the research questions and to

test the hypotheses. Mean and standard deviation was used to answer research questions

while-t-test statistics used to test the hypotheses using Statistical Package for Social

Science (SPSS). The rejection or non-rejection region of the stated hypotheses was set at

0.05 level of significance.

51
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.0 Introduction

This chapter discuss the analysis and interpretations of the data collected through

social studies achievement test conducted during the experiment. Consequently, the

analysis is presented sections. Sections One is analysis of research questions, Section

Two is on testing the null research hypotheses, Section Three is discussion of findings,

while Section Four summary of major findings.

4.1 Answering of Research Questions

Research Question 1: Will there be any difference between the academic performance

of the group taught with instructional video from those taught without instructional

video?

Table 4.1.2, Mean and Standard Deviation of the experimental and control group at pre-
test and post-test level.

Groups N Pre-test Post-test Mean Pre-test Post-test

Mean Mean gain SD SD
Experimental
40 6.70 10.80 4.10 1.98 1.57

Control 40 8.07 8.55 0.48 1.19 1.20

In Table 4.1.3, pre-test mean is 6.70, experimental group and the standard

deviation for pre-test is 1.98 for the experimental group while control group has the

mean score of 8.07 and standard deviation of 1.19 meaning that mean score for control

52
group is higher than mean score of experimental group in the pre-test. But after the

administration of the instructional video. The mean score of experimental group is 10.80

and the standard deviation is 1.35; while the mean score for control group after testing is

8.55 and standard deviation is 1.20, which means that the mean score of experimental

group became higher, that means there is effect of instructional video in the academic

performance of social studies students.

Research Question 2:Does gender influence the performance of students taught with

instructional video and the ones taught without instructional video?

Table 4.1.3:Mean and standard Deviation of male and female students in control group.

Groups N Pre-test Post-test Mean Pre-test Post-test

Mean Mean gain SD SD
Male
20 7.70 8.40 0.70 1.34 1.35

Female 20 8.45 8.70 0.25 0.87 1.03

Table 4.1.2 shows that the mean score for male in the pre-test is 7.70 while

standard deviation for male pre-test is 1.34 and the mean gain is 0.70. Consequently, the

post-test control group for male is 8.40 and standard deviation is 1.03, mean gain 0.25.

So, it shows that there is effect in the use of instructional video.

4.2 HypothesesTesting

Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference in the academic performance between

group taught using instructional video and the group taught without instructional video.

53
Table 4.1.1: comparison of the mean scores of the experimental group and control
group.

Groups N Mean SD SE df tcal P-Value

All Control Posttest
40 8.55 1.20 0.19 78 7.20 0.000

All Experimental Posttest 40 10.80 1.57 0.25

Table 4.1.1the experimental group taught using video instruction had higher

mean score (x = 10.80 + 1.57), then the control group taught using conventional method

(x = 8.55 + 1.20), which revealed statistically significant difference, + (78)= 7.20, p =

0.000.

Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement score of

males and female students exposed to instructional video.

Table 4.2.2: Comparison of the post-test mean achievement scores of male and female in

the experimental group.

Groups N Mean SD SE Df Tcal P-Value

Male Experimental Posttest
20 10.30 1.53 0.34 38 2.10 0.043

Female Experimental Posttest 20 11.30 1.49 0.33

The result of the analysis shown in Table 4.2.3, the mean achievement scores of

females experimental group is 11.30 and that of the males mean achievement score is

calculated t-value 2.10 at p-value of 0.00, that means we reject the null hypothesis and

conclude that there is significant difference in mean achievement score between male

and female students taught using instructional video. A critical look at the table reveals

that the females mean achievement score is higher than the male which implies that

54
instructional video has more effect on the mean achievement score of female students.

This further shows that gender has effect on the use of instructional video in the learning

process.

4.3 Summary of Findings.

1. Significant difference exist between the experimental group and control group

(conventional method) in favour of the experimental group.

2. Significant difference also exist between the academic achievement of males and

females experimental group taught using video instructional package in favour of

the female students.

4.4 Discussion of Results

The result of the study revealed that there is significant difference in academic

performance of students between control and experimental prior to the use of

instructional video it also revealed that there is significant difference in academic

performance of the control and experimental group after the use of the instructional

video. Which is in line with the findings of (Enemugha, 2008; Okworo 2008; Anulobi,

2009; Eshiet, 2009). They discovered that the use of instructional video in teaching

social studies subjects influence the students academic performance. Also they affirmed

that they are effective in teaching owing to their ability to capture and hold attention as

well as provide direct interaction of students with what is learnt. The use of instructional

video is effective and resulted to more learning in short time and make the students retain

what is learnt. Instructional video provide experience not easily obtained through other

media, contribute to the efficiency and variety of learning.

The position and impression of Newby et al (2006) about instructional materials

that they complement or play supportive role in teaching in the bid to bring about

55
adequate implementation of the curriculum it is in these circumstances that the result of

hypothesis two shows that there is significant difference in the academic performance of

the group taught using instruction video and the group taught without instructional video.

Furthermore, the study also shows that the use of instructional video have greater

influence in the academic performance of female students than male students, because

females pay more attention in watching films than the males, so that serves as an

advantage to the female students, that is why the mean achievement scores of females is

more than that of the male students which concludes that there is gender effect on the use

of instructional video.

56
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

The summary, conclusion, recommendation and suggestions for further studies

are provided in this concluding chapter.

5.2 Summary of the Study

The study titled ―effects of instructional video utilization on academic

performance of social studies students in secondary school of Katsina State was

presented under five chapters. Chapter one presents the background to the study,

statement of the problem, objectives of the study, research questions, research

hypotheses, significant and scope of the study. Chapter two presented the detailed

literature review including theoretical framework, the concept of educational technology,

the concept of social studies, nature and scope of social studies, media application of

instructional video, media selection of instructional video, role of instructional video in

the teaching and learning process. Chapter three presented the research methodology

which include research design which is quasi experimental involving pretest, post test,

experimental and control group design, the population include all the JSS II students in

two sampled schools, instrumentation, pilot testing, validity and reliability of the

instruments and procedure for data collection. The independent t-test was used to test the

three hypotheses. Chapter four presented the detailed data analysis which include

respondents answers to research question which include pre-test, post test, experimental

and control group and testing of research hypotheses, which the summary of major

57
findings concludes the chapter. Chapter five summaries, concludes and offer suitable

recommendations for the study.

5.3 Conclusions

The following conclusion can be deduced from the outcome of this research study:

1. The use of instructional video in teaching and learning process enhanced the

academic performance of students in social studies classes.

2. Female students performed academically better than their male counterpart after

exposure to instructional video.

5.4 Recommendations

The following recommendations are made:

1. The use of video for teaching should be encouraged among teachers of social

studies in secondary school to enhance effective academic performance of their

students.

2. Professionals and research organizations such as Social Studies Students

Association of Nigeria (SOSSAN), National Teacher Institute (NTI) and The

Nigerian Educational and research Development Council (NERDC) to carry out

seminars, workshops and conferences and should incorporate topics on the use of

instructional video in social studies.

3. The Federal and State Ministry of Education should sponsor basic social studies

teachers for refresher training on design, selection and utilization of instructional

video.

58
5.5 Limitation of the Study

This study has been an attempt among series of earlier enquiries into the ‗Effect

of Instructional Video on Academic Performance of Social Studies Students in

Secondary Schools of Katsina, Katsina State‘. The following are some of the limitations

of the study:

1. Due to the area covered, the study could not be generalized because it was limited

to only Katsina metropolis, only two (2) secondary school.

2. The researcher faced the problem of power failure during the course of the study.

3. Lack of cooperation on the path of staffs and students serve as major problem to

the researcher.

5.6 Suggestions for Further Studies

The following are suggestion for further study in related field.

1. A replication of this study is recommended to be undertaking in other states of

the federal as a basis for comparison of the findings of this study in order that a

situational report may be obtained for the country.

2. Further studies should be carried out on other instructional media so as to have a

holistic view about the usefulness of instructional materials.

3. Further studies should be carried out on instructional video in areas not covered

by the researcher in other subjects taught in our junior secondary schools.

59
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 APPENDIX A
ACHIEVEMENT TEST FOR J.S.S. II STUDENTS
SOCIAL STUDIES ACHIEVEMENT TEST

1. National Symbols are those things that___________

a) Unites us b) separate us c) confuse us
2. What are the factors that promote national unity
a) NYSC, sport, intertribal marriage
b) Sport, fighting, traveling
c) Playing, NYSC, laughing
3. Which of the following is not among Nigerian national symbols
a) National flag
b) National anthem
c) Tribe
4. The colour of Nigeria flag is __________
a) Blue, white, green
b) Blue, red, white
c) Green, white, green
5. Which among these is a symbol of national unity?
a) Singing b) national pledge c) fighting
6. The Eagle on Nigeria coat of arms stands for __________
a) Peace b) strength c) river
7. _____________ colour on the national flag stands for peace
a) White b) black c) green
8. The full meaning of NYSC is ____________
a) National youth service commission
b) National youth service corp
c) Nigerian youth service crops
9. National flag designed by _______
a) AlvanIkoku b) Alex Ekweme c) Sir TaiwoAkinkumi
10. Sports promotes all the following except _________
a) Friendship b) unity c) enmity

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11. Ethnicity can promote _________________
a) National Unity b) peace c) insecurity
12. We can promote National Unity through _____________
a) National sports festival b) ethnic Nationality c) Tribalism
13. The following are National symbol expect _______________
a) National currency b) National Anthem c) National service
14. _____________ can promote harmonious relationship in the country
a) Religious intolerance b) understanding c) ethnic conflict
15. National integration means ________________
a) Peaceful coexistence b) learning together in crisis c) Manipulative learning
16. We must stand at attention when ________________
a) Singing b) saying national anthem c) playing
17. Nigeria is a _______________ lingual state
a) Bi b) mono c) multi
18. Currency is one of the ____________
a) National symbol b) national archive c) national merit
19. Two hundred naira note carries the photo image of ____________
a) Sir Ahmadu Bello b) AlvanIkoku c) Chief ObafemiAwolowo
20. National identify promote the following except.
a) Development
b) Peace and stability
c) Corruption

77
 APPENDIX B

SOCIAL STUDIES ACHIEVEMENT TEST (SSAT)

Answer sheet

Introduction

Read each question carefully and three possible answers provided after each question.
Select one from the three options as our answer to the question and enter it on the answer
sheet by shading the letter A, B and C that corresponds to your choice. Example:

Supposing you choose letter B for questions 1, then you should cross letter B as shown:

A B AND C

School ____________________________

Class _____________________________

1. = A= =B= =C= 11. = A= =B= =C=

2. = A= =B= =C= 12. = A= =B= =C=
3. = A= =B= =C= 13. = A= =B= =C=
4. = A= =B= =C= 14. = A= =B= =C=
5. = A= =B= =C= 15. = A= =B= =C=
6. = A= =B= =C= 16. = A= =B= =C=
7. = A= =B= =C= 17. = A= =B= =C=
8. = A= =B= =C= 18. = A= =B= =C=
9. = A= =B= =C= 19. = A= =B= =C=
10. = A= =B= =C= 20. = A= =B= =C=

78
 APPENDIX C

MARKING SCHEME FOR SOCIAL STUDIES ACHIEVEMENT TEST (SSAT)

1. A
2. A
3. C
4. C
5. B
6. B
7. A
8. B
9. C
10. C
11. A
12. A
13. C
14. B
15. A
16. B
17. C
18. A
19. A
20. B

79
 APPENDIX D

LESSON NOTES FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

LESSON NOTE ONE

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY: Exposure To Instructional Video

SUBJECT: Basic Social Studies

LESSON 1: Unit 2

GROUP: Experimental Group

CLASS: JSS II

UNIT TITLE: National Identity

NO. OF STUDENTS IN CLASS: 45

TIME: Double Period (Hours)

TOPIC: National Symbol

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS: Television, Video, Fuse, Extension Wire

BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson students should be able

to:

I. Define national symbol

II. List two national symbol
III. Draw at least one of the two listed

Previous Knowledge: Students have been singing national anthem in schools.

Introduction: The teacher ask the students the following oral questions.

i. Sing national anthem?

Presentation of lesson

With the aid of instructional video the teacher present the lesson as follows:-

80
Step I: The teacher defines national identity as the sign or symbol that a nation is
been identify. Such as national anthem, national flag, national pledge, currency,
coat of arms,

Step ii: Teacher present a script using instructional video containing the national
symbol, showing their pictures one after the other.

1. National anthem
2. Nigerian flag
3. National pledge
4. National currency (naira)
5. Court of arm

Step iii: Teacher further explain the importance of national identity as follows:

1. It promote national unity

2. It serve as a mark of recognition
3. It give a citizen a sense of blogging
4. It encourage intertribal marriage
5. It promote democracy

Evaluation: The teacher instructs the students to identify them one after the other.

1. What is national identity

2. List five national symbols
3. Explain out of the five listed

Conclusion: He conclude the lesson by explaining to the students briefly the major
points of the lesson, that is national identity is a sign or symbol which the country is
been recognized, it promote unity which bring about development.

81
 LESSON NOTE TWO

Instructional Strategy: Exposure to conventional method (chalk and talk).

Subject: Basic Social Studies

Lesson 2: Unit 2

Group: Control group

CLASS: JSS II

UNIT TITLE: National Identity

NO. OF STUDENTS IN CLASS: 40

TIME: Double Period (Hours)

TOPIC: National Symbol

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS: Television, Video, Fuse, Extension Wire

BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson students should be able

to:

IV. Define national symbol

V. List two national symbol
VI. Draw at least one of the two listed

Previous Knowledge: Students have been singing national anthem in schools.

Introduction: The teacher ask the students the following oral questions.

ii. Sing national anthem?

Presentation of lesson

With the aid of instructional video the teacher present the lesson as follows:-

Step I: The teacher defines national identity as the sign or symbol that a nation is
been identify. Such as national anthem, national flag, national pledge, currency,
coat of arms,

82
Step ii: Teacher present a script using instructional video containing the national
symbol, showing their pictures one after the other.

6. National anthem
7. Nigerian flag
8. National pledge
9. National currency (naira)
10. Court of arm

Step iii: Teacher further explain the importance of national identity as follows:

6. It promote national unity

7. It serve as a mark of recognition
8. It give a citizen a sense of blogging
9. It encourage intertribal marriage
10. It promote democracy

Evaluation: The teacher instructs the students to identify them one after the other.

4. What is national identity

5. List five national symbols
6. Explain out of the five listed

Conclusion: He conclude the lesson by explaining to the students briefly the major
points of the lesson, that is national identity is a sign or symbol which the country is
been recognized, it promote unity which bring about development.

83
 APPENDIX E

Table 3.1: Population of JSS II students in Katsina state

LGA JSS 2

M F MF

Bakori 2,175 1,310 3,485

Batagarawa 762 425 1120

Batsari 701 45 746

Baure 822 641 1292

Bindawa 773 278 1051

Charanchi 549 442 878

Dandume 1044 313 1244

Danja 1391 452 1730

Dan-musa 871 616 1487

Daura 1269 872 2141

Dutsi 224 467 528

Dutsin-ma 1105 996 2070

Faskari 1208 390 1580

Funtua 2141 2458 4999

Ingawa 477 308 785

Jibia 1135 984 2115

84
Kaita 1867 829 2584

Kankara 544 266 809

Kankia 680 121 801

Kafur 1532 853 2397

Katsina 6232 5458 11735

Kurfi 649 306 955

Kusada 426 524 747

Mai‘adua 767 299 1067

Malumfashi 3030 1859 4887

Mani 571 122 689

Mashi 646 245 892

Matazu 622 197 818

Musawa 938 434 1370

Rimi 803 371 1174

Sabuwa 619 725 745

Sandamu 780 237 1017

Safana 488 710 1209

Zango 334 546 880

Total 38174 24498 62027

Source: Department of Planning, Research and Statistics, Development Partners & ICT. 2013/2014
Annual School Census; Junior Secondary Schools Students Enrolment, Universal Basic
Education Katsina State

85
Male Control Group

88
Female Control Group 1

89
Female Control Group 2

90
Male Experimental Group

91
Female Experimental Group

92