Accelerometer

Summary
Introduction
One of the most common inertial sensors is the accelerometer,
a dynamic sensor capable of a vast range of sensing.
Accelerometers are available that can measure acceleration in
one, two, or three orthogonal axes. They are typically used in one
of three modes:
 As an inertial measurement of velocity and position;
 As a sensor of inclination, tilt, or orientation in 2 or 3
dimensions, as referenced from the acceleration of gravity (1 g
= 9.8m/s2);
 As a vibration or impact (shock) sensor.
There are considerable advantages to using an analog
accelerometer as opposed to an inclinometer such as a liquid tilt
sensor – inclinometers tend to output binary information
(indicating a state of on or off), thus it is only possible to detect
when the tilt has exceeded some thresholding angle.
Principles of Operation
Most accelerometers are Micro-Electro-Mechanical Sensors
(MEMS). The basic principle of operation behind the MEMS
accelerometer is the displacement of a small proof mass etched
into the silicon surface of the integrated circuit and suspended by
small beams. Consistent with Newton's second law of motion (F =
ma), as an acceleration is applied to the device, a force develops
which displaces the mass. The support beams act as a spring,
and the fluid (usually air) trapped inside the IC acts as a damper,
resulting in a second order lumped physical system. This is the
source of the limited operational bandwidth and non-uniform
frequency response of accelerometers. For more information,
see reference to Elwenspoek, 1993.
Types of Accelerometer
There are several different principles upon which an analog
accelerometer can be built. Two very common types
utilize capacitive sensing and the piezoelectric effect to sense the
displacement of the proof mass proportional to the applied
acceleration.
Capacitive
Accelerometers that implement capacitive sensing output a
voltage dependent on the distance between two planar surfaces.
One or both of these “plates” are charged with an electrical
current. Changing the gap between the plates changes the
electrical capacity of the system, which can be measured as a
voltage output. This method of sensing is known for its high
accuracy and stability. Capacitive accelerometers are also less
prone to noise and variation with temperature, typically dissipate
less power, and can have larger bandwidths due to internal
feedback circuitry. (Elwenspoek 1993)

Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric sensing of acceleration is natural, as acceleration is
directly proportional to force. When certain types of crystal are
compressed, charges of opposite polarity accumulate on opposite
sides of the crystal. This is known as the piezoelectric effect. In a
piezoelectric accelerometer, charge accumulates on the crystal
and is translated and amplified into either an output current or
voltage.

Piezoelectric accelerometers only respond to AC phenomenon

such as vibration or shock. They have a wide dynamic range, but
can be expensive depending on their quality (Doscher 2005)

Piezo-film based accelerometers are best used to measure AC

phenomenon such as vibration or shock, rather than DC
phenomenon such as the acceleration of gravity. They are
inexpensive, and respond to other phenomenon such as
temperature, sound, and pressure (Doscher 2005)

Overview of other types that are less used in audio

applications
Piezoresistive
Piezoresistive accelerometers (also known as Strain gauge
accelerometers) work by measuring the electrical resistance of a
material when mechanical stress is applied. They are preferred in
high shock applications and they can measure acceleration down
to 0Hz. However, they have a limited high frequency response.

Hall effect
Hall effect accelerometers work by measuring the voltage
variations caused by the change in magnetic field around them.

Heat transfer
Heat transfer accelerometers consist in a single heat source
centered in a substrate and suspended accross cavity. They
include equally spaced thermoresistors on the four side of the
heat source. They measure the internal changes in heat due to an
acceleration. When there is zero acceleration, the heat gradient
will be symmetrical. Otherwise, under acceleration, the heat
gradient will become asymmetrical due to convection heat
transfer

Other
There are many other types of accelerometer, including:

 Null-balance
 Servo force balance
 Strain gauge
 Resonance
 Optical
 Surface acoustic wave (SAW)
Specifications
A typical accelerometer has the following basic specifications:

 Analog/digital
 Number of axes
 Output range (maximum swing)
 Sensitivity (voltage output per g)
 Dynamic range
 Bandwidth
 Amplitude stability
 Mass
Analog vs. digital: The most important specification of an
accelerometer for a given application is its type of output. Analog
accelerometers output a constant variable voltage depending on
the amount of acceleration applied. Older digital accelerometers
output a variable frequency square wave, a method known
as pulse-width modulation. A pulse width modulated
accelerometer takes readings at a fixed rate, typically 1000 Hz
(though this may be user-configurable based on the IC selected).
The value of the acceleration is proportional to the pulse width
(or duty cycle) of the PWM signal. Newer digital accelerometers
are more likely to output their value using multi-wire digital
protocols such as I2C or SPI.
For use with ADCs commonly used for music interaction systems,
analog accelerometers are usually preferred.
Number of axes: Accelerometers are available that measure in
one, two, or three dimensions. The most familiar type of
accelerometer measures across two axes. However, three-axis
accelerometers are increasingly common and inexpensive.
Output range: To measure the acceleration of gravity for use as a
tilt sensor, an output range of ±1.5 g is sufficient. For use as an
impact sensor, one of the most common musical applications, ±5
g or more is desired.
Sensitivity: An indicator of the amount of change in output signal
for a given change in acceleration. A sensitive accelerometer will
be more precise and probably more accurate.
Dynamic range: The range between the smallest acceleration
detectable by the accelerometer to the largest before distorting or
clipping the output signal.
Bandwidth: The bandwidth of a sensor is usually measured in
Hertz and indicates the limit of the near-unity frequency response
of the sensor, or how often a reliable reading can be taken.
Humans cannot create body motion much beyond the range of
10-12 Hz. For this reason, a bandwidth of 40-60 Hz is adequate
for tilt or human motion sensing. For vibration measurement or
accurate reading of impact forces, bandwidth should be in the
range of hundreds of Hertz. It should also be noted that for some
older microcontrollers, the bandwidth of an accelerometer may
extend beyond the Nyquist frequency of the A/D converters on
the MCU, so for higher bandwidth sensing, the digital signal may
be aliased. This can be remedied with simple passive low-pass
filtering prior to sampling, or by simply choosing a better
microcontroller. It is worth noting that the bandwidth may change
by the way the accelerometer is mounted. A stiffer mounting (ex:
using studs) will help to keep a higher usable frequency range
and the opposite (ex: using a magnet) will reduce it.
Amplitude stability: This is not a specification in itself, but a
description of several. Amplitude stability describes a sensor's
change in sensitivity depending on its application, for instance
over varying temperature or time (see below).
Mass: The mass of the accelerometer should be significantly
smaller than the mass of the system to be monitored so that it
does not change the characteristic of the object being tested.
Other specifications include:

 Zero g offset (voltage output at 0 g)

 Noise (sensor minimum resolution)
 Temperature range
 Bias drift with temperature (effect of temperature on voltage
output at 0 g)
 Sensitivity drift with temperature (effect of temperature on
voltage output per g)
 Power consumption
Output
An accelerometer output value is a scalar corresponding to the
magnitude of the acceleration vector. The most common
acceleration, and one that we are constantly exposed to, is the
acceleration that is a result of the earth's gravitational pull. This
is a common reference value from which all other accelerations
are measured (known as g, which is ~9.8m/s^2).

Digital output
Accelerometers with PWM output can be used in two different
ways. For most accurate results, the PWM signal can be input
directly to a microcontroller where the duty cycle is read in
firmware and translated into a scaled acceleration value. (Check
with the datasheet to obtain the scaling factor and required
output impedance.) When a microcontroller with PWM input is not
available, or when other means of digitizing the signal are being
used, a simple RC reconstruction filter can be used to obtain an
analog voltage proportional to the acceleration. At rest (50%
duty-cycle) the output voltage will represent no acceleration,
higher voltage values (resulting from a higher duty cycle) will
represent positive acceleration, and lower values (<50% duty
cycle) indicate negative acceleration. These voltages can then be
scaled and used as one might the output voltage of an analog
output accelerometer. One disadvantage of a digital output is that
it takes a little more timing resources of the microcontroller to
measure the duty cycle of the PWM signal. Communication
protocols could use I2C or SPI.

Analog output
When compared to most other industrial sensors, analog
accelerometers require little conditioning and the communication
is simple by only using an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) on
the microcontroller. Typically, an accelerometer output signal will
need an offset, amplification, and filtration. For analog voltage
output accelerometers, the signal can be a positive or negative
voltage, depending on the direction of the acceleration. Also, the
signal is continuous and proportional to the acceleration force. As
with any sensor destined for an analog to digital converter, the
value must be scaled and/or amplified to maximally span the
range of acquisition. Most analog to digital converters used in
musical applications acquire signals in the 0-5 V range.

The image at right depicts an amplification and offset circuit,

including the on-board operational amplifier in the adxl 105,
minimizing the need for additional IC components. The gain
applied to the output is set by the ratio R2/R1. The offset is
controlled by biasing the voltage with variable resistor R4.
Accelerometers output bias will drift according to ambient
temperature. The sensors are calibrated for operation at a
specific temperature, typically room temperature. However, in
most short duration indoor applications the offset is relatively
constant and stable, and thus does not need adjustment. If the
sensor is intended to be used in multiple environments with
differing ambient temperatures, the bias function should be
sufficient for analog calibration of the device. If the ambient
temperature is subject to drastic changes over the course of a
single usage, the temperature output should be summed into the
bias circuit. Smart sensors may even take this into consideration.
The resolution of the data acquired is ultimately determined by
the analog to digital converter. It is possible, however, that the
noise floor is above the minimum resolution of the converter,
reducing the resolution of your system. Assuming that the noise
is equally distributed across all frequencies, it is possible to filter
the signal to only include frequencies within the range of
operation. The filter required depends upon both the type of
acquisition as well as the location of the sensor. The bandwidth is
primarily influenced by the three different modes of operation of
the sensor.

Uses
The acceleration measurement has a variety of uses. The sensor
can be implemented in a system that detects velocity, position,
shock, vibration, or the acceleration of gravity to determine
orientation (Doscher 2005)

A system consisting of two orthogonal sensors is capable of

sensing pitch and roll. This is useful in capturing head
movements. A third orthogonal sensor can be added to the
network to obtain orientation in three dimensional space. This is
appropriate for the detection of pen angles, etc. The sensing
capabilities of this network can be furthered to six degrees of
spatial measurement freedom by the addition of three orthogonal
gyroscopes.

As a shock detector, an accelerometer is looking for changes in

acceleration. This jerk is sensed as an overdamped vibration.

Verplaetse has outlined the bandwidths associated with various

implementations of accelerometers as an input device. These are:

Location Usage Frequency Acceleration

Head Tilt 0-8 Hz xx
Hand , Wrist, Finger Cont. 8-12 Hz 0.04-1.0 g
Hand, Arm, Upper
Cont. 0-12 Hz 0.5-9.0 g
Body
Foot, Leg Cont. 0-12 Hz 0.2-6.6 g
Depending on the sensitivity and dynamic range required, the
cost of an accelerometer can grow to thousands of dollars.
Nonetheless, highly accurate inexpensive sensors are available.