Researches in Physical Geology

Author(s): W. Hopkins
Source: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London , 1839, Vol. 129 (1839),
pp. 381-423
Published by: Royal Society

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 [ 381 I

XX. Researches in Physical Geology. .By W. HOPKINS, Esq. M1A. F.R.S., Fellow
of the Royal Astronomical Society, of the Geological Society, and of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society.-First Series.

Received November 22, 1838,-Read January 17, 1839.

On the Phenomena of Precession and Nutation, assuming the Fluidity of the Interior
of the Earth.

?. Preliminary Observations on the Refrigeration of the Globe.

BEFORE I proceed to the discussion of the question which forms the principal sub-
ject of the present communication, I shall offer some general remarks on the refri-
geration of the globe, as introductory not only to this memoir, but to others which I
hope hereafter to bring under the notice of the Society.
In the first place, we may observe that there are two distinct processes of cooling,
of which one belongs to bodies which are either solid or imperfectly fluid, and is
termed cooling by conduction, and the other to masses in that state of more perfect
fluidity which admits of a free motion of the component particles among thernselves.
In this case the cooling is said to take place by circulation or convection. The na-
ture of the former process has been ascertained with considerable accuracy by ex-
periment, and the laws of the phenomena have been made the subject of mathematical
investigation, but of the exact laws of cooling by the latter process we are compara-
tively ignorant. It is manifest, however, that since time must be necessary for the
transmission of the hotter and lighter particles from the central to the superficial
parts of the mass, as well as for that of the colder and heavier particles in the oppo-
site direction, the temperature must increase with the depth beneath the surface;
and, moreover, that this increase will be the more rapid, the more nearly the fluidity
of the mass approaches that limit at which this process of cooling would cease, and
that by conduction begin, since the rapility of circulation would constantly diminish
as the fluidity should approximtate to that limit. But still, even in this limniting case,
it seems probable that the ten(lency to produce an equality of temperature throughout
the mass will be much greater, and consequently the rate of increase of temperature
in approaching the centre much less, than if the cooling of the mass had proceeded
by conduction during the same time, the conductive power being very small.
If ttle matter composing thle globe was originally in a high state of fluidity from
heat, the process of cooling would undoubtedly, in the first instance, be by circula-
tion. The manner in which t;he transition will take place fiom this mode of refri-

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382 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

geration to that by conduction, depends on certain conditions, of which, i

culations on this subject, it is important to form a distinct conception.
Since the heat increases with the distance from the surface while the mass i
by circulation, the tendency to solidification, so far as it depends on this
be greatest at the surface and least at the centre; but, on the other hand,
ure is least at the surface and greatest at the centre; and consequently the
to solidify, as depending on this cause, will be greatest at the centre and l
surface. To estimate this tendency under the joint influence of these cause
be necessary, in the first place, to know the law according to which the te
increases in descending from the surface to the centre, while the mass is
circulation; and secondly, the influence of the temperature in resisting solidif
as compared with that of the pressure in promoting it. These, however, a
on which we possess at present little or no experimental evidence, and the
only conclusion at which we can arrive is this,-that if the augmentation o
perature with that of the depth be so rapid, that its effect in resisting th
to solidify be greater than that of the increase of pressure to promote it, the
the greatest tendency to become imperfectlyfluid, and afterwards to solid
superficial portions of the mass; whereas if the effect of the augmentation of
predominate over that of the temperature, this transition fiom perfect to
fluidity, and subsequent solidity, will commence at the centre.
If we suppose the former of these cases to hold, it would appear that no
tion of the surface could take place so long as any inferior portion of the mas
its perfect fluidity, because as the superior particles should become conde
would continually descend into the perfect fluid beneath, always supposing
in that state in which an increase of specific gravity would result from a
temperature. The process of circulation would thus go on till every part o
should have lost that degree of more perfect fluidity, which admits of a mot
particles among themselves being excited by their unequal refrigeration.

which would then begin to cool by conduction, rapidly at the surface expo
low temnperature of the planetary space, and extremely slowly in the central
account of the small conductive power of the matter composing the ear
quently the globe would consist, after a certain time, of an exterior solid
interior fluid matter, of which the fluidity would increase in approaching th
where it might still approach to that more perfect fluidity which admits of
convection. With reference, however, to the mechanical action of any f
ducing either mnotion or hydrostatic pressure in the interior mass, the w
might, as an approximation, be considered perfectly fluid. No attempt ha
made to determine the present probable thickness of the earth's crust, assum
have been originally in a state of fluidity, on account of the difficulty alread
tioned, arising from our ignorance of the influence of high temperature i

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 383

solidification, compared with that of great pressure in promoting it. All that h
hitherto been determined on the subject is, that the present state of the earth's surf
may be consistent with the existence of a solid crust, of which the thickness is sm
compared with the earth's radius.
Let us now recur to the other case above mentioned, that in which the increase
pressure in descending towards the centre of the mass is supposed to have a grea
effect in promoting solidification than the inciease of tempe ature in preventing
Supposing the Inass to have been first in a state in wich every pa was cooling b
convection, this process would first cease, and that of cooling by conduction be
at the centre, while the superior portion would still continue to cool by convecti
so that these two processes would for a time be going on simultaneously in differ
parts of the mass. It is manifest, however, that the central portion, coolirng by c
duction, would constantly increase, while the exterior portion, cooling by convect
would constantly diminish, so that at length no part of the imass would be cooling b
the latter process. Before it should reach this stage of the refrigeration the cent
portion of a mnass so large as the earth mighlt become perfectly solid, so that at
instant when the circulation should entirely cease, the whole might consist of a s
central nucleus, surrounded by the external portion still in a state of fusion, an
which the fluidity would vary continuously from the solidity of the nucleus to
fluidity of the sutface, where, at the instant we are speaking of, it would be just slc
as not to admit of circulation,

When the mass should have arrived at this stage of the cooling, a change would take
place in the process of solidification, whichl it is important to remnark. Trhe superficial
parts of the mass must in all cases cool the most rapidly, and now (in consequence of
the imperfect fluidity) being no longer able to descend, a crust will be formed on the
surface, from whlich the process of solidification will proceed far more rapidly down-
wards, than upwards on the solid nucleus. Consequently, then, our globe would
arrive at that state, according to the mode of cooling we are now considering, in
which it would be composed of a solid shell, and a solid central nucleus, with matter
in a state of fusion between thlem, the fluidity of which, however, would necessarily
be less than that which might exist in the fused mnass very near the centre in the
case previously considered.
With respect to the thickness of the shell which may be consistent with the pre-
sent appearances of the earth's surface, the same conclusion will hold as in the former
case, i. e. it may be smnall compared with the eartth's radius. What would be the radius
of the solid nucleus at the instant of the first incrutstation of thle surface, or that which
would correspond to any assigned thickness of the exterior shell, it is quite impossible
to determnine from the want of all experimental evidence respecting the tendency of
great pressure to promote solidification at very high temperatures, and our ignorance
of the temperature at which the superficial incrustation of a large mass would begin,
when exposed to the temperature of the planetary space. It is, therefore, manifestly
MDCCCXXXIX. 3 D

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384 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

impossible to decide by any such reasoning as the above, whether the exterior shell
solid nucleus are now united, or are separated by matter still in a state of fusion
Upon the whole, reasoning suctl as the above can lead us to nothing more defi
than the following conclusions respecting the actual state of the earth, assumin
to have once been in a state of perfect fluidity.
(1.) It may consist of a solid exterior shell and an internal mass in a state of fusio
of which the fluidity is greatest at the centre; and it is possible that the thick
of the shell lmay be small compared with its radius, and the fluidity at the centre
approximate to that which would admit of cooling by convection.
(2.) It may consist of an exterior shell, and a central solid nucleus, with matter in
state of fusion between them. The thickness of the shell, as well as the radius of
solid nucleus, may possibly be small compared with the radius of the earth. T
fluidity of the intervening mass must necessarily be considerably more imperfect t
that which would just admit of cooling by circulation.
(3.) Tile earth may be solid from the surface to the centre.
It appears then that the direct investigation of the manner of the earth's refriger
tion, assuming its original fluidity from heat, still leaves us in a state of perfect un
tainty as to the actual condition of its central parts, not from any imperfection in
mathemnatical part of the investigation, but from the want of the experimental dete
nation of values which it must ever be found extremely difficult, if not impossible
obtain with accuracy. Under these circumstances, we are naturally led to consi

central fluidity. In reflecting this subject it occurred to me some time ago, th

such a test mnight possibly be found in the delicate but well-defined phenomen
precession and nutation. The connexion between these phenomena and the inte
fluidity will at once be seen by those accustomed to physical investigations of t
nature; since it is manifest, that the direct action of those forces which produce
precessional motion of the earth's pole must be entirely different on the interior pa
of the earth, if that part be fluid, to that which must be exerted, if the interior pa
be solid. It becomes, therefore, a matter of interest to examine how far the inte
* M. POISSON, was, I believe, the first to advocate the hypothesis of the solidification of the earth h
tommenced from the centre, and has stated in general terms that, in such case, it would proceed to the sur
which would be the last to solidify (Thiorie de la Chaleur, p. 428.). It is manifest, however, from what
been advanced, that this could not be literally correct, but that the solidification must necessarily commenc
the surface before the whole internal portion had become solid. The distinction is of little consequen
respects the object which M. POIssoN had in view, but is of the highest importance with reference to G
gical speculation, because it shows, that, supposing the earth once to have been fluid, it must be now or
been at some antecedent epoch in that state in which a solid exterior crust rests on an imperfectly fluid
incandescent mass beneath. It forms no part of my immediate object, to consider whether the hypothe
this being or having been once the state of our planet, best enables us to account for the igneous matter
has been injected so generally into the sedimentary portion of the earth's crust, but it is important to k
that this state of the earth, assuming its original fluidity, is one through which it must necessarily have pa
in the course of its refrigeration, whatever might be the process of its solidification.

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 385

fluidity may consist withl- the observed phenomena of the precessional niotion of th
pole. These phenomena have been shown to be perfectly in accordance with the
ternal solidity of the earth under certain lhypotlheses, which may be deemed perfec
reasonable, respecting the lalw of density; but so far firom any attempts lhaving bee
hitherto made to determine what would be the precessional motion on the supposition
of interior fluidity, I am not aware that the problem has been before suggested. I sh
now proceed to its solution, which forms the principal object of the presenit memoir

On Precession and Nutataion; assuming the Fluidity of the terior of the Earth
In the peset memoir shall investigate the pamount of the luni-solar precessio
and nutation, assuming the earth to consist of a solid spheroidal shell filled with flui
To present the problemn under its most simple form I shall first suppose the solid sh
to be bounded by a determinate inner spheroidal surface, of which the ellipticity
equal to that of the outer surface, the change from the solidity of the shell to t
fluidity of the included mass not being gradual but abrupt. I shall also here sup
pose both the shell and fluild homogeneous and of equal density. From ttlis I p
pose in a future memoir to pass to the case in which the earth is considered
heterogeneous.
?. Statement of the Problem.
1. If S denote the position of the sun, A the centre of the earth, A P its axis of in
stantaneous rotation, the sun's attraction tends to produce an angular velocity of
earth about an axis througlh A, and perpendicular to the plane S A P. The movi
force producing this rotation (supposing the earth a homogeneous spheroid),
3 1J, 4 r 2 n2 - C2) sin 2 A*
- 2 r3 *15 a12 c, (a2 C2) sin 2
whelre
= absolute force of the sun's attraction.

A = sun's polar distance.

r, = SA.

a, = equatorial radius.
c,- polar radius.
Also the moment of inertia of the spheroid about the axis of this rotatory mot

==- k a2 c, (a,2 +- c,2).

Consequently the accelerating force of rotation
3 r. a2 - ,sin2
--2 r3 a + c,2s1n
S
- 3= s sin 2A
(s = ellipticity of the spheroid); and if we denote this quantity by a, and the d
* AIRY's Tracts, Precession and Nutation.
3 D 2

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386 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

angular velocity of the earth by w, the angular velocity of A P about A will =

the instantaneous motion of P being perpendicular to the plane S A P*.
2. But let us now suppose the spheroid hollow, the hollow part being spheric
and having its centre coincident with that of the spheroid. The moving force of
tation'will be unaltered, but the moment of inertia will

4 k a,'2c, (a,2 + c,2) 8 k r

(r = radius of the hollow sphere). Therefore a will now
3 1C. a2 (a2 + cj")
- 2 r3 ae , (a12 + c72) - sin 2 A
which, if r be considerable, will be much greater than its former value.
3. Again, let us suppose this hollow sphere filled with matter in a state of per
fluidity. The pressures of this fluid on the interior spherical surface of the shell co
taining it being normal pressures (whatever be the causes producing them), th
directions will all pass through the centre of the spheroid, and cannot therefore
fluence the rotatory motion we are now considering; and since there will be no
tion with the assuned perfect fluidity of the interior matter, the value of a wi
precisely the same as that above stated, when the internal sphere is entirely emp
A much greater motion of the pole would therefore result fro this constiton
the spheroid than if it were perfectly solid; and it would, moreover, be entirely
dependent of the position of the axis of rotation of the internal fluid.
4. If the internal surface of the solid shell be spheroidal instead of spherical,
directions of the fluid normal pressures will no longer pass through an axis thro
the centre of the earth; and when the axes of diurnal rotation of the solid shell,
of the internal fluid do not coincide (as must generally be the case from the differe
actions of the sun and moon on the solid shell and on the fluid contained in it),
fluid pressure arising from the centrifugal force will introduce a new and importan
element into the calculation of the precessional motion of the pole. I shall now
ceed to the determination of this motion on the hypotheses previously stated.

?. Formation of the Differential Equation for the Motion of the Pole.

5. Conceive a sphere of radius unity described about the centre of the earth, whic
centre we shall always denote by A. Let 1I (fig. 1.)
be the point in which a line through the centre and
perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic meets the /| Fig. i.
sphere; and P and P' thle points in which it is met re-
spectively by the axes of instantaneous rotation of the
solid shell and of the internal fluid masst. Let P p
and P' be referred to the small circle O M, of which 11n - J! ___3
is the pole, and to great circles II P M, 1I P' M' respect- M M
* AIRY's Tracts, p. 197.
t The axis of instantaneous rotation may be regarded as coincident with the spheroidal axis of the

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 387

ively, I1 M being very nearly equal to the obliquity of the eclipti

arbitrary fixed point in the small circle, and let-
OM= x OM' = x'
M P =y M'P = y,
y, y' and x - x' will be in general very small, and may, therefore, be
straight lines. Our object will be to form a system of four simultaneo
equations, the integration of which will give x, y, xt, and y' as functions
purpose I shall first consider the arguments of the different terms in th
d dix d r dy
for d' -' d- and dt) which severally express the effects
causes affecting the motions of P and P', postponing the
values of the coefficients till we shall have integrated our
shall then have the advantage of knowing what degree o
in the determination of these values.

I. The Attraction of the Sun on the Solid Shell.-This will produce effects of pre-
cisely the same kind as if the spheroid were solid, but with different coefficients
(Art. 2.), and therefore, if the motion of I' depended on this cause alone, we should have
dx
dt - A- Bl cos 2 (n t + X)
dy
dt= D sin2 (nt +),
(where n t + x is the longitude of the sun at the time t), these bei
expressions which give the precessional motion of the pole, and
as far as they depend on the sun's action.
II. The Attraction of the JiMoon on the Shell.-This alone woul
dx
dt= A - B. cos 2 (n' t + X')

*dt = D sit 2 (n' t + 4'))

dt'-

whlere n -- period of D 's node

III. 7he Interior Pressure on the Shellfront the Attrac

Mass.-If the whole mass of the earth were perfectly flu
spherical, the attraction of the sun alone would transfo
spheroid, of which the longer axis would lie in the
centres of the sun and earth; and similarly if the inter
which we suppose to contain the internal fluid were sph
tend to make this fluid assume the spheroidal foirm jus
sequently produce a fluid pressure on the interior surf

for the greatest angular separation will be of the same order as e . P A P

comparison with P A P'

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388 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

would be equal at all points similarly situated with respect to the line just ment
through the centres of the sun and earth. If the interior surface of the shell be sp
roidal, but of small eccentricity, very nearly the same effect will be produced
pressure in this case will be exactly equal at points similarly situated with respe
a plane through the sun and the axis of rotation (A P) of the shell, and will c
quently tend to communicate a rotatory motion to the shell about an axis per
dicular to this plane and through the earth's centre; i. e. about the same axis as
about which the attraction mentioned in (I.) tends to communicate a rotatory motio
Also the effects of this pressure must recur with recurring positions of the sun ex
in the same manner as the effects of the sun's attraction just alluded to. Hence
terms depending on this cause will be of the same form as those in (I.), as wil
fact, be proved to be the case when we come to investigate their exact value.
will, therefore, give us
dx
dt = A3- B3cos 2 (nt + t )
dy __
dt D3 sin 2 (n t ).
IV. The Interior Pressure on the Shellfrorn the Attraction of the M
Mass.-This will give us terms similar to those arising fiom the s
this cause alone, therefore, we should have
dx
d-t A4 - B4 cos 2 (n' t + 1')
dy
-y- D4 sin 2 (n t + X).
V. The Interior Pressure on the Shell from the Centrifugal Force of the Fluid Mass.
-When P and P' do not coincide, the interior fluid mass will tend, from the effect of
centrifugal force, to assume a form different from that of the interior surface of the
solid shell. Thus normal pressures will be produced on the interior surface of the
shell; and they will manifestly act symmetrically with respect to a plane through P,
P' and A the centre of the earth, i. e. through the axes of rotation of the solid shell
and of the fluid mass. Consequently the tendency of these pressures will be to com-
municate a motion of rotation to the shell about an axis through A, and perpendi-
cular to this plane; and the consequent motion of P, if this force alone acted on the
shell, would be perpendicular to P' P, the axis of rotation of the shell having, fiom

this cause, an angular velocity in space = - (Art. 1.) c", being the quantity analogous

to vc in the article referred to; or since P and P' are supposed to be on the surface of

a sphere whose radius is unity, -X will be the linear velocity of P perpendicular to P' P.

Now when we come to the calculation of the quantities involved in these investiga-
tions, we shall I
find w
that - = I
y7 sin 2 3, where yr is a constant quantity depending on
~~~

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 389

the diurnal angular velocity (w), and on the magnitudes and ellipticity of the f
spheroid and solid shell; and where 3 the angle P A P', or = the line P' P. C
sequently,

t7 == Y sin 2. P' P,

or, since P' P will always be extremely small, the linear velocity of P perpendic
to P P,

= -2 Y1 .P' P;
and resolving this in directions parallel and perpendicular to M' M, we have (; being
the angle which P' P makes with the axis of x)

d- - 2 y. P' P. sin , = y -2 y1 (- y')

dy -2 y. P P cos = 2 , (x - x')
6. If we now take the sumnn of the different terms which express the effects of th
d- '
several causes affecting the motion of I, we obtain for the complete values of and

dtt

d = (A1 + A2, + A3 + A4) -- (B1 + B3) cos 2 (n t + x) - (B2 + B4) cos 2 (n' t + ')
-2 7Y (y -y');
d _
^dyt~ =(D + D3) sin 2 (n t + X) + (D2 + D4) sin 2 (n't
+ 2 (- x') ;
or putting
A 4- A2 + A3+ A = A
Bl + B3 = B
B2+ B4 = B'
D1 + D3= D
D2 + D4= D'
dx
d t + 2 y, (y -- y') = A - B cos 2 (n t + ;) - B' cos 2 (n' t + /')
dy -* (A.)
dt -_ 2 y, (x - x')

?. Motion of t
7. When any accel
which the whole sur
viz. that X d x + Y d

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390 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

independent variables x, y, z, and that X d x + Y d y + Z d z = 0, must be

differential equation to the free surface. If however no part of the surface of
fluid is free, as when the whole mass is contained in a rigid shell which it entir
fills, the former of these conditions is the only essential one of equilibrium. Al
there be several sets of forces which separately satisfy this condition when refe
to different systems of coordinate axes, it will manifestly be satisfied by all these
of forces taken conjointly; and if any proposed set of forces do not satisfy it, we m
still omit, in the determination of the motion resulting firom these forces, those t
in the expressions for X, Y, and Z, which taken conjointly do satisfy the analy
condition now spoken of. These considerations will materially simplify the follo
investigations.
S. We have now to consider the tendency of the forces acting on the intelnal fluid
to put it in motion.
I. Disturbing Force of the Sun.-Let x, y, z be the coordinates of any particle (Q)
of the internal fluid, the centre of the earth (A) being the origin, the line joining the
centres of the earth and sun (A S) the axis of x, and the axis of z being perpendicular
to the plane of the ecliptic. We shall then have

the disturbing force on Q parallel to x = 2 r- x

the disturbing force on Q parallel to y - - -3 y

the disturbing force on Q palallel to z - - * .,

substituting these quantities for X, Y, and Z respectively in the expression X d x

+ Y d y + Z d z, it manifestly becomes a perfect derivative. Consequently the
condition of equilibrium is satisfied, and the action of the sun has no tendency to
communicate motion to the internal fluid.
II. Disturbing Force of the Moon.-The investigation and result are precisely the
same as for the sun.

III. Centrifugal Force.-In investigating the equations of motion for the solid shel
it has been assumed (Arts. 4. 5.) that the spheroidal axis of the shell will not generally
be coincident with the axis A B' of rotation, which is now proved to be true, since the
disturbing forces of the sun and moon, while they produce a motion of the shell, cause
no motion by their immediate action in the fluid. Let B' A b' (fig. 2.) be the axis of ro-
tation of the interior fluid, and suppose the spheroidal axis first to coincide with it, th
clotted ellipse then representing the section of the interior surface of the solid shell.
'The shell, its form being supposed coincident with that of equilibrium of the fluid
will, in this case, produce no constraint on the fluid motion; but conceive the shel
to be afterwards brought into the position represented by the continuous ellipse, A B
being its spheroidal axis, while B' b' shall still represent the instantaneous axis of ro
tation of the fluid. It is manifest that the planes of rotatory motion of the fluid par-

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 391

tides near B' and b' can no longer, as in the former case, be perpendicular to A B', bu
must be constrained to move in planes very nearly parallel to the tangent planes
B' and b'; and it is also sufficiently obvious that whatever effect is produced on
T3'
_ B '._\~' B;___ __ZLT' Fig. 2.
X 13 _ ---_ z
1/i,-: ______ ....

= --- IIN ==

1Is \ 74

r b

planes of motion of the above particles, a si

more remote from B' and b'. Moreover, th
situated in contiguous planes of rotation will n
parallelism of these planes throughout the m
the instantaneous planes of rotation will alw
gree, to parallelism with the tangent planes at
aneous axis of rotation of the fluid. In the i
shall assume this to be accurately true, and
the approximation to the true motions thus
of motion, M N perpendicular to A B', and
as may be easily proved.
9. The sections of the interior surface of the
motion will be similar ellipses, so that the a
be accurately uniform. If, however, e' be th
ellipticity of the spheroid, and j the angle
small), it is easily shown thal;
e'2 = 2 3.

This is so small that we shall still consider the angular velocity uniform, which
be proved in the sequel to be correct to the degree of approximation to which it
requisite to carry our investigations.
MDCCCXXXIX. 3 E:

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392 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

We may proceed to determine the centrifugal force on the fluid.

10. Let AB' be now taken for the common axis of z and ', A C, perpendicula
A B', for that of x, and A D', conjugate to A B', for that of x', the axis of y being p
pendicular to the plane B A B', that of the paper. x, y, z will be the coordinates of
fluid particle (Q) referred to the rectangular system of coordinates, and i, y, z'
of the saine particle referred to the system in which the axis of z' is obliqule to
plane of x' y. Also D' A C = N M N' = l (Art. 8. III.). Then if r' be the dist
of Q from the axis of rotation of the fluid, mreasured in the plane of its motion, t
whole centrifugal force on Q in the direction of r' = w2 r, which (since x' and y
rectangular) is equivalent to w2 x' parallel to the axis of x, and w2 y' parallel to
of y. Hence
X -= cxt' cos =- w2 2
y =2 y
Z - c2 x sin S = 22 s . x (Art. 8.).
These forces do not satisfy the conditions of equilibrium, and therefore t
position will not be one of equilibrium. The conditions would be satisfie
if the only forces were 2 x and 2 y, and consequently the only force w
tend to produce motion would be Z, or 2 w2 E x. t. This is therefore the
the centrifugal force of which it is here necessary to take account.
11. In determining the motion produced by this force Z, we may obs
since it acts symmetrically with respect to the plane of x z, by which t
surface of the shell is divided symmetrically, there can be no motion in dir
pendicular to that plane. The motion of each fluid particle must theref
plane perpendicular to the axis of y, and must moreover be independent of
is so. Hence the determination of the motion is reduced to the case of fluid motion
in one plane, where (the plane itself being taken for that of x z) each particle is acted
on by the force Z = 2 w2 ? . x, and the boundary of the fluid is an ellipse whose ellip-
ticity is g, and whose centre is the origin of coordinates.
12. The general equation
dp = X d x + Z d,
where X and Z are forces which maintain the fluid in equilibrium, is easily reduced to
dp = Rdr+ - rd6,
where r and 0 are polar coordinates of any fluid particle, R the accelerating force
upon it in the direction of r, and 0 that in a direction pelpendicular to the former.
Hence we have the condition of equilibrium
dR d. r
dO dr

or if 0 be the force acting on the fluid, bu

librium with R, we have
dR d.(Or + r)
dO = dr

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 393

Now in the case to which this condition is to be applied, we have (d being m

from the axis of x, and r from the origin of x and z)
R -= Z sin 6

=2 w2 G r cos t sin 0

= ? r sin 2 8, (k = 2 62 g 3);
3 r = Z cos . r

= r2 cos2 0
dR

d-r =k rcos2 ,
d.Or
dr
-= kr ( +- cos 2 ).
Substituting these values in the above equation,
d. f r
k r cos 2 = kr (l + cos 2)+ -) -
d. Olr
d *d r r --krn

' r - - r2 + , () ;

and since ?' r must vanish with r, 5 (0) must - 0, and

3O' -- - r;

or if forces t' - -- r, and Z --k x act on each fluid part

motion.

Now suppose forces L- r and - - r equal and in opposite directions to act on each
particle perpendicular to r, together with Z. The motion produced by Z will not be
k
affected by this superposition. But the forces Z (= k x) and - - r are in equilibrium,

and therefore the motion produced by Z must be the same as that which would be
produced by -- r, acting perpendicular to r.

13, Since the motion we are considering is in space of two dimensions, the surface
of the fluid must be defined by some plane curve, if the particular form of which the
result at which we have just arrived is quite independent, being subject only to the
condition that no part of the fluid surface shall be free. Let us suppose the curve to
be a circle, of which the centre is the origin of coordinates. The angular accelerating

force on each particle := -, and is, therefore, the same for every particle. Also the
3 E 2

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394 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

reaction of the surface would, in this case, have no effect on the angular mo
the fluid. Consequently the angular velocity generated by Z in a unit of time
k

14. If the boundary of the fluid be an ellipse of which the centlre is the origin and
the eccentricity very small, the same result will manifestly be very approximately
true.

This last is the case, in which it was necessary to determine the angular motio
(Art. 11.). It follows that the angular velocity of the internal fluid mass round th
k
axis of y, which would be generated by the force Z in a unit of time = --, or (substi-
tuting the proper value of k) it = W2 s 3, neglecting quantities of the order s2 3.
15. This angular velocity will be coimpounded with that about the axis of z (w).
Now if we again suppose the fluid mass to be spherical, it would manifestly move
precisely as if it were solid, since the angular velocities w and w2 s S about the axes of
z and y respectively are common to all the particles of the mass, and the axis of in-
stantaneous rotation would consequently hlave an angular motion in space perpen-

dicular to the plane B A B' (fig. 2.) and = -= w 3. If the fluid mass be sphe-
roidal, as in our actual case, the ellipticity being small the same result will be very
approximately true.
We may now proceed to the formation of the differential equations for the motion
of the instantaneous axis of rotation of the interior fluid, or of the point P' (fig. 1.).

F. Formation of the Differential Equations fr the Motion of P' (fig. 1.).

16. Since the angular velocity of A B' (fig. 2.) is w s. 3 (Art. 15.) in a direction per-
pendicular to the plane B A B', the linear velocity of P' (fig. 1.) will also be w . 3, or
w . P P ; or if w s = 2 72, the linear velocity of P' perpendicular to P P' = 2 3Y2. P P.
This is exactly similar to the expression for the motion of P perpendicular to P P'
(Art. 5. V.), but it will be observed that the angular motion of the fluid about the axis
perpendicular to the plane B A B' (fig. 2.) which the centrifugal force tends to pro-
duce, is in the direction opposite to that of the angulatr motion of the shell which the
fluid prlessure on its interior surface, arising from this centrlifugal force, tends to pro-
duce (Art. 14.). Hence to obtain the differential equations for the motion of P' we
have only to put - 2 for y1 in the equations of Art 5. V. We thus have (now de-
noting by x y x' and y' the same quantities as in Art. 5.).
d .;'
- -2 y2 ( - y) = o

7dy 2 ( ( ')=0. . . (B.)

d-- + 2Y 2 (x - X) -

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 395

?. Integration of the Diferential Equationsfor the Motions of P and P

17. 'llhe equations (A) and (B) (Arts. 6, 16.) form a system of four simu
differential equations, viz.

d t 27 (y-y') A - Bcos (nt) -B'cos 2 (n' t +'), . . . (1.)

d 2 71 (x - x') = Dsin2(nt+X) + D'sin2 (n't + '), . . . (2.)

d xi
7 t-.%ea.y.^-y.).^
2 72 (Y -Y') -? - ,.................
*(3 (3.)
dy'
Yj- + 2 y2(x- x') - . . (4.)
(1.) X 72 + (3.) X 71 gives
dx drx
72 d + 7 - 1 = 72A -- Y2 cos2 ( t 4
and (2.) X 72 + (4.) X 7i gives
d.y dy'
72 - +- 71 d-t = 72 ]D sin 2 (n t + X) + 72 D' sin 2 (n't

Integrating these two last equations,

Y2 +r Yl == 2At- n sin (nt + )- sin2 (n' t+') +, . . (5.)

2Y + yY= )cos 2 ( + - cos2 (n t + ) +c2. . (.)

To determine the arbitrary constants cl and c2, let x, y, and y'each = 0 when t
Then

c- = B sin 2 X+ q- sin 2 ',

y 2D% D'
C-- n cos 2 X + 72 cos 2 X.

Equations (5.) and (6.) are two integrals of our four d

18. Substituting in (1.) and (2.) foi y' and xr, we ob

d + 2 (y7 + 72) y =2 2 2 + A- (B + -D) cos

-(B' + 7 )cos2(n' +X'),

^d - (I + 72) = - 2 cl (D + - ) sin 2
+ (D' + s) sin 2 (n' t+ X')-2y 2At.
Let = 71 + '2, K = 7Y A,
L =2 c + A, L' - 2 c,,

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396 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

M-B
Ml =+ B+^-
yD Ml-A=
Blt +'B'
2Dt
?
N=D+ + N-D'-. +
Then
dx
d- + 2 yy L - M cos 2 (n t + X) -M' cos 2 (n' t + X'),

- 2 L' +Nsin2(nt+X) +N'sin2 (nt+ ')- 2Kt.

The integration of these equations will be easily effected by tte meth

ation of the arbitrary constants. The simultaneous equations
dx
d-t+ 2yy= 0,
dt
dy
^-2yx -=0
are satisfied by
x = C1 cos2 y t - C2sin 2 y t
y = Ci sin 2 7 t + C2 cos 27t (C
and if we write equations (B.) under the form
dx
dt + 2 yy = q (),
dx
-dt 2y= x- (t),
we shall have, considering C, and C2 as functions of t,

d-l cos 2 y dt2 sin 2 y t = (t,

dt os2t
dC sin 2 y t +- dt2cos2yt = Y(t
dCO
dtl = cos 2 y t. ( (t) + sin 2 y t. -F (t),
d 02
-2 = - sin 2 y t. D (t) + cos 2 y t T (t).

Eachl term in C1 and C corresponding to the several terms in <> (t) and T (t) may be
determined separately.
Let P (t) = L, t (t) -L'; then
d1
dt =2 Ly. cos 2 y + L sin 2y t,

~dt- -- L sin 2 9y t + L' cos 2 y t;

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 wR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 397

L LI
.'. C= ...sin 2

C = 2-, cos 2 yt + sin 2 t

Let (t) -- -M cos 2 (n t + ),
y (t)= Nsin2 (nt + X); then

dCt _ - cos 2 t. cos2 (n t + ) +Nsin 2 yt. sin2 (n t + ),

dt = Msin2yt . cos 2 (nt+ ) 4+Ncos 2 y t.sin 2(nt + );

dt M r
.dt 2?^ I
+ - cos2(-- nt-- ) -cos2(y + ft +.)
M- N sin ( y-t - x) M +Nsin (ry+t + ):.
and .?yC
and* e2 (- )- --(7-+ n)
2 ?2 -+)
dt =c sin2 (y+nt+X)+sin2 (y
N r __ _
+ { sin 2 ( + n t +)--sin2 (y -nt - )
M+ N cos2(y
and +nt+
CA) M-N cose(y- nt--)
22 '.?(r+n) ?2- .
(y-n) .
Taking (t) = - M' cos 2 (n t + X),
~ (t) = N' sin 2 (n' t + Ax),
we shall obtain in a similar manner

MI -N' sin(2 (y--nt--) M1 +N' sin2 (y+nt + k)

2 `-(Y-y ) n2 2~(y + ')
M= + N+ cos 2 (Y + n't + .)) M
a2 - q a~~' *"'"" '"e (y + nt) 2 nl) ^-_ r
Let (t) == 0, (t) = - 2 K t; then
dC,
dt -- 2 Kt.sin 2 yt,
dC
t -- 2 K t.s cos 2 , t

.. C= -- 2 K (sint cos - t t)
C
C2= 2-2K (cos +
K ..K\ 2 4'
y+ sin rt t).

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

Ience for the complete values of C1 and C2 we have

L LI
C1 - sin 2 y t - cos 2 y t
M-N ------ M +N
- 4(y~ ) sin 2 (y nt- ) - ) - +
MI Nt Mt Ml+ N4'
4(yn') n')
-4(r- 4(7 Sin
+ nt')
2n(2/- n t - ') -

-2 K -
e4Ksin 2 +
- 2 tJ t C3;
cos 2 yt) +
LL'L
C2 = cos 2 y t + 2 sin 2 y
M+N M -N
-4(y+n) cos2 (y + nt + )-4(y -) cos 2 (-n t-X)
MI + Ml'- N'
4 (y + ') COS 2 ( +
--Kcose siney )
-2 K ( 4y- + ~yj ) + C4,
where c3 and c4 are arbitrary constants.
Substituting these values in equations (C.), we obtain after reduction,
L' nM-yN i n'M' -yN' N,
*x -= -- e- + , (f-_ n~) sin 2 (n t r+ k) + 2 (

+c3cos2yt- c4sin2yt+y--; J (D)

L K yM-nN -yM'-'N' -
2 =y-
.y e2j~' _- --COS(nt)-
Q(2fn)ccos2(nt+X) ( Mn'cos + (8.) (-) _
+ c3sin2yt + c4cos2yt.
To determine the arbitrary con
t = 0, which gives
nM-yN . n 'Mr'-yN' Lt
c= -- (y_ n) sin 2 x - ( - ^sin 2 x + y
yM-nN M' - n'N' L K
2 (y _- n2) Cos 2 X - ) . 2
Equations (5) (6) (7) and (8) are the four integrals of our f
tions.
We have now to express the coefficients of equations (D.)
and D'.

Y-a--z(y yisinn 2 +j sin 2

L K _ (D D'+) A A
272,pos
L Kr(D 2X-?
2;~i " P) cos2
COS 2 Yq-2j.
2 +$-_--
iArAo

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 399

-= (cos 2 . + 2 - cos 2 , ' +) ?.- .

n M-y Nn B -- .2 D- y D --y r B
MB y - B B /y B , D)?T
_1__ _ B- Je B *l_ .
' (y2-n2) - n D n
Similarly,
n_MI-YNf
M'-yN' f. 1I Bt _y
B /y
1 B'
B \ )D
D
"2 ( _ - n12) 2 '

ryM-nN yB + ynr D

-?9- n . -Yn-,D D

7n
Similarly,
y M' -_ N _ fi ri (y B'\"1f
y_ -y- yU
.YXD' r-(-n -: Di-, IS- if2'

3={D ,_( D-) sinB2X}

' fy N_ 7 sn 2
K= .{y I - . ).D ca}2 k

MtleSn 2-7D17 -- ) -sint B ';

tence we obtain by substitution,F t

cY 4 = z sin l sin2 cos 2 3

,B , 'Y 7~ Bt D~
MDCCCXXXIX. 3F

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400 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

D I- Fy B\D
r-) eCos2X - (i - ) Cos2
l-+
yrsint + ,2 (, ,R
i --B-'_l isi sIin
' D'c s 22 y
t t
+ (v _ B{ D At

+ z 7,( s sin 3 2 ( Y D--in ) sin ;

cos2X ncO A-r2_,2 ( n D) -- cos 2 X

L' osa2

+ A t sin 2 Y , (F._
y 'D sin 2 eA9(r
susiin7 s B1D
BDsin 2 x

7D )y B\ D
Y__--cos2 CS 2 (2 t + X .cost )2
_4 scns 2 y t (F)
+-"II)^
2 r6
rrz Cosi2-os
osi2'
( y~-n'" Yi2 lX'
_~--) ( --
1e r .D-
sin .. A
D
.Y _ -(cos2 t c4 2 +, cos 2 n +
+ DI I'V B DI A cosS 2 t ~ _- \~n ~/

?tA 42 B3 sin/ DI ' y

s+ina~c 2 (n?t W osi2L,t) + ' t-+ .
It D ) 'a
cos 2 (nt + c) 2 os ' + t

and substiing in these expressons the above values of ) and ) we have

x' ~/a B C2At

sin 2 (n -t + , os s 2- ( ),
'/co)- 1 c Bnt DI
---- ~ -- 1 I sin 2 (nt t - ; .)
B,sin 7 , B )D
+ l os2y ()COS
. I -- 1cos 2 (ny t + X9
+ Xy2 sin 2 a'y1 ' B sin 2 x
cos 2 x -- cos 2 x
' D~A sin 2 7y't
+ C ~ os 2 - VIr? -- ~ ? COS 2
+ X-Y A t + Yi aB sin 2 X + - p sin2l It I;

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 401

y2=-
/ -2yBn
- _\D) cos 2 (n t + x)

_ ,>;-1 t -2 -y g cos 2 (n' t + X')

ra )
c sin 2 x 1 _l2 (-t D 1 2 sin 2 t
- ty~l (B? )si2 sn2yt (H.)
-2 X+
+ in o+ 7
2 )2 csin 2 ()
|e 2 n/CS2 dl( D
B'-
_ in(sin 2 ,

Cos 2 B - ACO 2 C
cos 2 t) .

--

We have now to determine the values of A, B, D, B', D', r^ and 72, for which pur-
pose (Art. 6.) we must find the values of the following quantities:
AD1 B B D1

AC B2 D-

A3 B3 D3
A4 134 D4
Y1 72'

,. Determination of the Numerical Values of the Constants in equations (E), (F),

(G) and (H).
19. Values of Al, B1, and Dl.-The moment of the disturbing force of the sun comn-
municating a rotatory motion to the earth considered as a homogeneous spheroid,

--- r a2 c1 (a 2 - C2) sin 2 A (Art 1.)

3- -' 4T -' s
r-3 15 "l , sin 2 A;
and the monment of the forces on the shell

3p,iA 4 D4\
r=3
----- ' 5cl(a
- r 15 a-)sin2A,
a (a1 - 2) sin 2 A.,

a1
where q =- the ratio of the outer to the inner radius of the shell.
The moment of inertia of the shell

=: ,- a5 (q5- I),
3F2

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402 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

and therefore c- 3 p
s= 1o r A
--asin2
w 2r3
6 ~
= Ti- sin 2 A (T = one year)
3 r
= ^sin 2 A

(since T = 2 ar , i = 366'26), which is the same as if the spheroid

solid. This gives us*
3 r 1
A1 = - sinIcosI L
3S . I
B1 -= v sin Icos I T'
37r 1
D = - ssin T,

where I = inclination of the ecliptic.

20. Values of A2, B2, and D2.-In a similar manner we obtain

A2 = ) sin I cos I os2 i

B2 = i( s + ~ (cos2 I sin 2 I,
D.2=--sc
Dt Igcsls2
( s I sin 2 ipo T,

where i = inclination of the plane of the moon's orbit to th

T' = noon's sidereal period, v = number of days in it = 27'32;
mass of the moon
= mass of the earth =- ? llearl

21. Numerical value of A, B3 and D3.-Let the interior surface of the shell be re-
ferred to three rectangular co-oldinates xy z, the spheroidal axis being now that of S ;
and let p denote the normial pressure at the point x y z; j and % the angles which the
normal makes with lines parallel to the axes of x and z respectively. Then if
X = p . S cos ,, Z = p. S cos ,
the moment of the normal pressures with respect to the axis ofy
= : (Zx - Xz)
= 2 (x cos ~ - z cos S) p. S

= Z (- z -PCos ,
P S cos ~.
But 1
cos
COSC? = .. ' ^y r ,I2+ d z\
^ #-

* AIY's Tracts, p. 210.

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 403

dz
dx

COS V1 (~) + \,dy)

And in the spheroid
xs + /2 z2
"a2 +c2 1,
dz c2 X
- dx - a2 z

whence by substitution, the moment about the axis ofy

= 1 ( - a) .)xp Scos
2 e I xp. S cos ,
where
a - c

In the determination of p it will suffice to consider the spheroidal

spherical; and since the disturbing force of the sun is the only force pr
rotation we are now considering, the other forces may be here neglect
the line joining the centres of the sun and earth be taken for the axis o
plane through this line and the spheroidal axis for that of x' z',

X -= 3 2 x,

Y =--r3 y',

13

and

p- 3 f 2 x' y' B y' -' };

p-13 1 2 (y'2 + Z'2) + C
But considering the spheroid as approximately a sphere, and x' y' Z' a point on its sur-
face,
y 2 + '2 -a2_ x2
p= 3 (3 X2 2 + C);
and if the plane of x z coincide with that of x' z'
x' = x sin A + z cos A,
A being the sun's north polar distance, and the spheroidal axis that of z.

. p - - 2 "?.p
,,in2A+ ~
xzsin2A +z2cos2A
~~~~~~ S~ - --

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404 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

and the moment about the axis of y

-3 F3 { 3 sin2 A + z2 sin 2 A +-Z2 x cos2a-

Let z = r cos ,
y =- r sin sin ~,
x = r sin d cos p,

d being the angle which r nmake

makes with that of x z. Consid
may put r = a, and g =- . Als
S = a2 sin 6 . .

iHenmce JjfX3 cos . 8 S= a5J sin4 d cos 4 Cos3 p dpd_,

ffz2x cos. S= a5 sin2 d cos3 d cos pd d ,

fj'x cos . S -= a3f sin2 O cos d cos d d (,

fJc2 cos .S = a5jSi sin 2 cs2 4 cos2 ad4pdp.

Since 2 7 cos 2+ . d p = 0, each of these integrals except the last will vanish be-
tween the limits p- = 0 and p = 2 T. Consequently the moment about the axis of y

=3 r
- s a5sin23
3 A cos2
0 to cos2 d4
d 0 to
= _ 2 }
4-r 5 siN 2 o A54
5 rZ

The mroment of inertia of the shell = - a5 (q -- 1). Consequently the accelerating

force of rotation arising from the pressure we are now considering

--- ~- 3q_ 1 sin 2 A;

or if d be the angular velocity generated by this force in a unit of time
at 3 -
-= * 3 5 _ sin 2 ,

1 a
q--- . .. (Art. 19.)
Ience we have A3 --~5-
-A 1'

3 - 1'

D DIs~

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 405

22. falues of A4, B4, and D4.-In the same manner we obtain
AA

B4-- _ B
D4 -- __
D2

23. Value of yl.-We have seen (Art. 5. V.) that the angullar motion of the solid
shell produced by the centrifugal force of the fluid will be about an axis through the
centre of the spheroid, and perpendicular to the plane passing through the spheroidal
axis of the shell and the axis of rotation of the fluid. Let this axis be now taken for
that of y', and the axis of irotation of.the fluid for that of z', and let x' y' z' be the co-
ordinate of any particle of the fluid; then p denoting the fluid pressure there,

dp = (X' Y--d4) r!,+

(x'(dy-
d) + Z - d z^d z.
Now the impressed forces swith which we are here conce
arise from centrifugal force on the fluid, we have (referri
that the letters which are there unaccented are accented
X' == rl, y = 2 y1, Z = 2w 2 3..
Also, since the motion of the fluid about the axis of y' i
lerating force w2 s t . r acting perpendicularly to r (Art. 1
ds xI d2.y' ds zt
--=
?d2 d =3
- 07 de-_ = W2
d Of xt.= . i.
Hence we have by substitution,
dp = _2 (x' d y d + y'dy) + w2 s P (z' dx + x' d

..p ==- ('2 + y2) + 2 Px' ' +C.

The moment of this force about the axis ofy'
= 2saxp. Scos, (Art. 21.)
= W2 X (x,2 + y'2 + 2 e ) CScos .
In this expression we may consider x' y zf as co-ordinates of a point in thle
a sphere, whose radius = a. Therefore
,2 +t y'2 = a2 - z'2 approximately.
Also, since in our results we shall only retain terms of the order s 3, the te
tnay be neglected, the whole quantity under the integral sign being Tnu
This is the term arising from the effective force on the fluid.
Hence, the moment about the axis ofy
== '2 x (a- + C -- z2) S cos .

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406 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

The spheroidal axis being the axis of z we have

' = z cos 3 - x sin 3,
z2 = z2 co2 3 - z x sin 2 P +- x2 sin2 ;
and substituting the expressions for x and z in terms of the polar co-ordinates as in
article 21, the above expression reduces itself as in that article to
W2s sin 2 z x2 S cos

-= o2 sin 2 P a5 fsin3 S2 co s 2 c p d 6 d
4,r
= c 2 ssin 23 a5.

Dividing this by the moment of inertia (= a5 (qS 1) we have (if t be the an-
gular velocity generated in a unit of time by the force we are now considering)

c (i _ o) dsin 2 3,
and

-- = (q 1) sin 2;
and therefore (Art. 5, V.)

Y1 = 2 (qs-1)

7g2r
since if tl = one day, o = 2-r

24. Value ofV2.-We have seen (Art. 16.) that

r2 -

25. Substituting the values of A, B, B', D, and D' (Art. 6.) we obtain

A = -1 -? --E sin cos I T+ r - cos2 i )

q5 3r .r o 1
B -= - -- ssin I cos I T,
* $ 7r 1
B'- q5
- -q_
1 2 'v +
(6 scos2Isin2i
+ 1) m
q5 3: . 1
D =_ q1 .-. si I
-D-' = _ 5n 3(r c
D = - I -- -- - 6 Cos I ssin 2

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCI-ES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 407

These give us
- cos I,

B I) cos I

n T -- -T , (Art. 5, I. and II.)

,T I

'7Yi=^ = 5 ig.)(Art. 23.)

y2 -= <r -t (Art. 24.)
q5 1

For the convenience of reference we nmay

? . -- 1 q- Y5 - 1 1 / tT
_2_ qq' ---
-2 (sm
v '--v
sceT
nI qI " -1 i q5- T 1
7 g5 g - q5 T 8

7'Y1 _1 _-- l
YI , 36626- 186t

7 = 36626, =q 8'q
-'= 27'32, =- 70.
Also, taking the ellipticity which the earth would have ha
fluid and homogeneous, we have s = '004 nearly; which al

- = -68.

Hence it appears
7 that- can
18. never exceed
7 or '047, a
may be gre
thickness of the earth's crust,

?. Final Eguations, giving the Numerical Values of x and y.

We may now proceed to ttle substitution of the values found in the last section in the
coefficients of equations E, F, G, and H (Art. 18.). I shall begin with equation E,
26. The coefficients of sin 2 (n t + ?) is

M DcccxxxIB x D
C - ,2 8 '+ 72 -( )
'-4CCCXX I Y .
MDCCCXXXIX. 3 G

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408 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

Its value depends on that of -, which may either be much less than unity, equal to

unity, or greater than unity, according to the value of the ratio (q) which the outet
bears to the inner radius of the shell (Art. 25.).

1. Let the shell be thin, or q nearly = 1; then will- be small (Art. 25.). Conse
quently the coefficient becomes
( (l _7) B
Cy en

_ _ 72B
fy 2n

q5-1 B
q5 * OBn
3a
=-- -- sin I cos I.

2. Let the thickness of the shell be such that - = I nearly. Then (Art. 25.

q5- 1 1
2q q5 I neally,
2q - -- 1 nearly,

q = \e7-- ~/ nearly,
and
(3-71)-= 1'3 nearly,
which determines the corresponding value of the ratio of the inner and
the shell. I shall reserve this case for a distinct consideration in the

3. Let -- be greater than unity. If the shell be so thick that q beco

able, ry will become small, and the coefficient will becone

B
2n

= - sin I cos I
4v

(q being considerably greater than unity). This value is identical with that found in
the former case.

The coefficient of sin 2 (n' t + A') (since - is always small) becomes

Y2 B_ q5--1 Bt
-"7 q fn1-- q- ,a t nt

=- 4(+) T Tc 21 Isin 2 i

The coefficient of cos 2 y t consists of two parts, of which the latter (since - is sm

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 409

reduces itself to
D- sin 2 ';

and in like manner, when - is small, (or the thickness of the shell small) the first
part becomes

|. , sin2 X,
and the whole coefficient becomes

1 3 3 sinI sin I sin 2 i

=- qS * --. { sin 2 x- ( + 1) sin 2 X .

The coefficient of sin 2 y t becomes if - be small)

{% B/ ry A
{ C(os 2 COS 2 X'- }

13 f sin I cos I cos I sin 2 i

~*- =-,~ 0 . cos 2 x + (?) cos 2
sinIcos sin I c osI s cos cs2
-' ?: - ' 2(a + 1) 5

These two coeffcients being affected w

when q becomes considerable.

The coefficient of t : - A, and becomes

7

q A
3q v e , ,.. y f 1 , 1 v
= - sin [ cos I { + 1 * os2 T
v

The constant term becomes

sin I cos I sin 2 x 4-- ( + l) cos in 2 I sin 2 X.

Taking the expression for y, the coefficient of cos 2 (n t + X) becomes, when

y
is small,
7y2 D
7 in
3e r
- -- T4Y sin I.
This is also true when q becomes considerable.
The coefficient of cos 2 (n' + '-) becomes
% Dr
7y 2 r

= 4 J ( + )' cos I sil2 i

3 G 2

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410 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

The numerical values of the coefficients of sin 2 y t and cos 2 y t are respecti
the same as those of cos 2 7 t and sin 2 y t in the expression for x.
The constant term becomes

- sin I cos 2- i /, \O s sin 2 i cos 2 X

+-5{ ysinIcosI +- + cos2i

27. Hence we obtain the following expressions for x and y, for any thickness of
shell for which - is small.

x = -- - sin I cosIsin2 (nt + - ) - C + t * T cos Isin 2 i sin 2 (n't + -t)

1 3 f sin I sn. I sin Isin i .q5 t1 (

q + ' - - (- sin 2 -) cs 2 r - (I.)
sin I cos I cosos I sin i
f 3 ' -3 ya P cos2x+ 2 ^ ^ 2^i(-c + o I cos ' 2 ,
_^
sin ~I ~
co Y9 ._1
I s in . . I. I sin
I cos cos I2ci5~_ -
q - 1

.Sffs.y ,f i , 1 Q 1 1)
+ y sin cos -T + 1-' cos 2r + C
$Q s a ~-
y = -- v sin
1 3 f sin I sinIsin i . t
'--sin 2 2 - 2 sM2 sin 2 i
+^~ qs * 2si"n2A- y^as-+-i) sin2A
sin I cos I cos Q I sin i
cos2 ?, +- (. i ) cos2X '
t4'c- + qcos.2 r -+ C;
+ sin I os ssin I cos si I cos i c 5 1 t
~-.'.. v2 .'. /2( r+ 1) J
when C and C' are small constant terms whose values are

These are the expressions for x and y when y is small, or

comparatively small. When the thickness is such tha

greater than unity, the terms involving sine and co
tirely omitted, and the expressions will then be true in thi
28. Since the motion of the interior fluid cannot be s
would be useless to make the substitution of numerical
(H.) (Art. 18.). We may remark, however, that the mot
neous rotation of the fluid will be exactly similar to that o
of the same order, as is easily seen by comparing the tw
with the equations (E) and (F) of the same article.

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 MR. HOPKINSIS RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 411

I. Interpretation of the Final Expressions for x and y (Art. 27).

29. The terms in x and y which have 2 (n t + X) for their algumnents are
parts of solar nutation. They are identical with the expressions for solar
deduced on the hypothesis of the earth's being a homogeneous solid spher
will be recollected that this excludes the particular case in which the outer
radii are in a certain ratio to each other (Art. 26. 2.).
The terms of which the argumnent is 2 (n' t + X') are the two parts of lu
tion, which are, for any thickness of the shell, identical with the expressions
on the hypothesis of the earth's being entirely solid and homogeneous.
The term in x which constantly increases with t is the luni-solar precess
again identical with that found on the hypothesis just mentioned. We may
mark, that this agreement is independent of any approximation dependin
smallness of such quantities as - or -, and is consequently more accura
than in the expressions for nutation.
qS t
30. The terms of which the common
an inequality depending entirely on the f
the coefficients in these terms by G and H,
= Gcos 2 yt- H sin 2 yt,
y - G sin 2 y t + -I cos 2 y t;
or
x = V/G2 + I-P cos 2 (y t + K),
y = V/G2 + H2 sin 2 (y t + K);
where tan 2K= )which show that x and y would thus be the coordinates of a
point moving uniformly in a circle; and if R be its radius
R = +/G2

and the period of revolution would =

qS-- i tl
q e

It appears by the expressions for G a

when q5 is least i. e. when the shell
rise to magnitudes greater than tho
the thickness of the shell becomes con
the inequality will become quite inse
There is a corresponding inequality
tation of the fluid, indicated by cor
with the terms in x and y, we find (o

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412 MR. HOPK1NS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

x = - 271
G cos 2 y t +- 7H . sin 2 y t,
/ ' 7'

y =71
-72
71
G sin 2 yt- 72 H cos

or i = - G2 H2
7'
cos 2 (y + K),

y - 727' G2 + - -2 sin 2 (y t + K).

Consequently the locus of x' y' would also be a circle described about the commo
origin of x y, x' and y', and having a radius = - R. By this inequality, therefore
alone the points P and P' would describe circles about the same centre in the sam
periodic time, with radii in the ratio of yl: 72, and differing in angular position by 80
Thre motion now described is that which would obtain if no extraneous disturbin
forces acted on the spheroid, and the axes of instantaneous rotation of the shell an
fluid should be separated by a small angle. It is a case of rotatory motion which h
not before been investigated.
31. The cas&ewhich remains for our consideration is that in which y = n nearl
(Art. 26.).
In our previous investigations we have supposed the spheroidal shell to be of a de-
finite constant thickness, and not to increase with the time. It the case of the
earth, however, in which the solidity of the shell is conceived to be due to the external
refiigeration of the mass, this thickness must be constantly increasing, though the
rate of increase must be excessively slow; and our results, as expressed in equations
(E), (F), (G), and (H) (Art. 18.), will be true for any instantaneous value of q, or
of the thickness of the shell. So far, however, as the inequalities are of appreciable
magnitude, we have seen that they are independent of particular values of q, except
in the case which we have now to consider.

Referring to equation (E) (Art. 18.) we find that when y - n is very small, w
have (taking what then become the most important periodical terms)

x = - (i - ) - I sin 2 (n t + )
7i /e B D D
- n (D- l) sin 2 X cos 2 y t

+ ,n2 _ (n -- D cos 2 X sin 2 y t.

Now -- 7__
7y --n tI 72+n
Y+ n 7-n (since
ry-n y n nearly)
also
B
-_ = cos I.
D-vc

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 413

~/' D
Hence putting - (1 -cos I) = h, we have

x -- - -- sin 2 (n t + X)

+ ~- {sin2 cos2 yt +cos 2 X sin2 t}

=- n { sin 2 (y t -+ ) - sin 2 (n t + X)
sin 2 (y - n) t
-2 h. ) cos 2 (n t + X) very nearly,
n

0
an expression which assumes the fornm - when y = n accurately. To put it under a
more convenient form, assume t' a particular value of t, such that
2 (y -n) t' = some multiple of x
2 m r ;

and let t = t' + t",

y - n = s

and when t = t'

let y -- n = s
For the clearer interpretation of th
shell, and therefore y and s, to re

x -2 h 2ss1
sin l(t-
(tt
1Si
t cos
t") 2 (n t'

= sin 2 s, t" cos 2 (n t t + L).

1

In a similar manner we obtain

y = - s in 2 s t" . sin 2 (n t" + L).

Since s, is supposed very small compared with n and the product s tI" may be co
sidered as nearly constant for any one year, in which time sin 2 (n t" + L) will pa
through its period, and the solar nutation for that year will depend on

s sin 2 sl t"

Consequently from the time when t = t' or t" = O, this nutation will increase eve
year till 2 s t" = , after which it will again decrease. We should thus have a secula

inequality in the solar nutation, of which the whole period would be -, and of w[ic

the greatest value, with reference either to x or y, would

Si
be s

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I414 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

In the actual case in whicb y constantly decreases, suppose that at the time t" firo
the time t',
s =; y - n == s - r e',
r denoting the rate of decrease of y, and being taken constant during a small aug-
mentation in the thickness of the shell. Then shall we have

x -=- Sirsin 2 (s, - r ') t" .cos 2 (n t + L),

with a similar expression for y.
This expression indicates a secular variation in the secular inequality just noticed
which increases with the diminution of s, - r t", or the increase of t", till r t" become
greater than sl, after which the inequality will constantly decrease again.
The determination of r would require that of the rate at which the thickness
shell may increase. We have
ds t
y - = s = - sl-dt
dy dy

dt

3~BK~~~~ut~* d 1
But r= sQ t (Art. 25.)
a1 w

-as5 -a a1 T
dLy a1ba4 ira da
d /_ aa4 d a
dt-5 (a5 - a5) 2 at
qb re 1 da
= 5 (_ 1)tt * a at
Let a = increase of thickness in time T (one year); then
da
a=t T,

and q5 = ? a
r = 5 (' i 2T)T
aa I
=3 '35-
a T t,

by the substitution of numerical values (Art. 26. 2.). Hence r may be known when
a is determined.

Substituting for y, its value -, and for n its value we have

l (-cos)D.
h--_ (1 c- os I) D.

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 415

We mnaylere, without sensible error,put for q its particular value{

when y = n. We thus obtain

h =- 02 T- nearly, 1" being the angular unit.

Also (Art. 25.)

q5 1 72
-- q5 -1 t- T'

= (qii ]v-2)T

= (q5 1'464- 2) .
h
Hence the greatest value of the secular inequality =

q0 '?4 \"
\q_ I5 1464- -

and the whole period of the inequality =

T

5 1-464- 2
Qs- 1

If we assign any particular value to the above expression for

determine the corresponding value of q, and of the thickness of
also the period of the inequality, supposing the thickness of the s
nearly the same during such period. Thus, suppose the greatest value
to be 5", we shall have
*04
... = 5.
1-464 - -
q5__ 1

This gives 1
Ts = '77 nearly,

or ea = -77 al.
Also when y = n accurately, we ha
qt6
q5l 1'464 - 2 = 0,
which gives
-q =-'768472,
or, if a' be the corresponding value of a,
a' = '768472 . a1.
MDCCCXXXIX. 3 H

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416 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

Therefore
a- a'-= 6 miles approximately.
The period would be about 125 years.
In order that these numerical results tnay be approximately true, the variation of
a - a' during the period of 125 years must be small compared with a - a'. If we
suppose the thickness of our shell to ilncrease at the same rate as that of the earth's
crust in the process of its solidification, this will probably be true.
Again, if we suppose the inequality to amount to about 1000", we obtain
a - a' = 130 feet nearly;
and the period, supposing a constant, would be about 25,000 years, i. e. in one fourth
of that period the part of solar nutation dependent on the term we are discussing would
pass from zero to about 1000 seconds. If, however, we suppose the solid shell of our
spheroid to increase in thickness at the samre rate as the crust of the earth, the dif-
ference between a and a' would possibly not remain within the value just mentioned
for nearly so long as 6000 years; in which case, supposing the inequality to be zero
when a - a' should equal about 130 feet, it could never afterwards amolunt to nearly
1000 seconds; nor could it have been previously so great, because its previous values
must have corresponded to values of a - a' less than the above value. Our investi-
gation, however, does not tell us whether 120 or 130 feet would be near the value of
a - a' the last time the secular inequality should vanish before a became = a', and
consequently we cannot say with certainty that 1000 seconds would be the extreme
limit to which the inequality would attain. In fact, the exact determination of this
limit woutld require the very accurate determination of a as a function of t, which
cannot be known in the case of the earth's crust without an accurate knowledge of
the conductive power of the matter which constitutes it. From the small value, how.
ever, of a - a' and great length of the period corresponding to the maximum of 1000"
for the inequality we have been considering, it may perhaps be deemed extremnely
improbable that it should ever exceed that value in the case of the earth. The dura-
tion of time for which the effect of the cause we ate discussing on solar nutation
would be sensible to observation would be, that necessary for the thickening of the
earth's crust so to increase that a - a' should pass from + (6 or 8 miles) to - (6 or
8 miles), and might therefore be approximately determined if the quantity denoted
by r in this article were known.

?. Degree of Approximation in the preceding Results.

The results at which we have arrived above rest on the hypothesis of the instant-
aneous planes of rotatory motion being parallel to the tangent plane to the interior
surface of the shell at B' (Art. 8. III.); and it remains for us to consider the (legree
of approximation to the actual motion which has been thus obtained. It will be re.-
collected that, oni this hIypothesis, the centrifugal force produces a force Z = 2 w2 2 ., x
(Art. 10.), which alone is effective in producing motion in the fluid, this motion being

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 MR. hIOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 417

about the axis of y, and that which, combined with the angular mot
causes the angular motion in space of this latter axis. The value
found on the hypothesis of w being constant, or of the rotatory mo
being the samne as if the sections of the inner surface of the shell were
of being ellipses of small eccentricity (Art. 9.); and the pressure on th
of the shell depending on the centrifugal force has been calculated on
pothesis. It will be necessary therefore to examine the errors thus co
33. Let us conceive a closed cylinder entirely filled with fluid, which
fornrmly about the axis of the cylinder with a velocity w, and is not act
external force. If the form of the cylinder be then changed withou
volume, so that each section perpendicular to its axis shall become an
eccentricity instead of being circular, it is manifest from the conditions
that the angular motion of the fluid, though no longer uniform, will
about the same axis, as in the circular cylinder. Consequently if p' b
at any point on the surface of the elliptical cylinder, u' the velocity of t
point, we shall have
p' C - 0'2;

and if p and v be any corresponding values of p' and v' (wlich may be taken
mean values)
P=C-- V2,
and

P'-- - (v'2 -_ 2).

Now the quantity of fluid which passes through any section of the elliptic cylinder
made by a plane through its axis, must be constant, and therefore the velocity v' must
vary inversely as r'*, the radius vector of the elliptic section from its centre. There-
fore, if r be the value of r' when v is that of v' (i. e. the mean value of r')

ar2 - V2

= V2. *(1 - 2 ' cos O),

where b' is the axis minor of the elliptic section. Also
at + bl
2

and -1
,lr = 1 + ? :

? There can be no doubt of this hypothesis b

our immediate purpose.
3 H 2

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418 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

whence
v'2 - . = v2 s' ( - 2 cos2 0');
and

p' = p - 2 E cos 2 ',

or, putting in the small term w r for u,

p' =p + 2 r2 ' cos 2 4'.

We have here taken r' and 4' as the polar coordinates of the elliptical section of the
surface, but it is evident that this expression for the fluid pressure will be equally tlr
for any point of the fluid of which r' and 4' are the co-ordinates, p and r being taken
with reference to an ellipse passing through the point (r' d') similar to the elliptic sec-
tion of the cylinder, and similarly situated.
The case which presents itself in our actual problem is analogous to the one ju
considered, so far as regards the elliptical form of the sections made by the planes of
rotatory motion, these planes being parallel to the tangent plane at B' (fig. 2.). Th
common ellipticity of these sections is s (3 (Art. 9.), and, therefore, in finding the effe
on the shell, of the pressure arising from the centrifugal force on the fluid in article
23., we ought to have used for p the pressure as found in the last article, p', or

p + -2 r2 3 cos 2 4'.

This, however, would only introduce into p a term of the order sP , and which, there
fore, may be omitted, as shown in the investigation just referred to (Art. 23.). Al
taking this expression for p' as applicable to any point of the fluid (as explained i
the preceding paragraph), it is easily seen that the force Z (= w2 g P . x) will only
altered, in consequence of the ellipticity of the sections of the shell, by a quantit
small compared with itself, and which may, therefore, be neglected. Our result
then, will be quite accurate to the degree of approximation to which we have pr
ceeded, assuming the parallelism of the planes of rotatory motion to the tangent plan
at B'. I shall now proceed to this point.
34. It has been shown (Art. 15.) that the angular velocity of A B' in space = . s 3
and also (Art. 28.) that the angular velocity of A B is of the same order as that A
i. e. of the order (3. The angular motion of A B' (Arts. 12.... 15.) is due entire
to the obliquity of the planes of rotatory motion of the fluid particles, and the above
value of it is calculated on the hypothesis of these planes of rotation being parallel
the tangent plane at B'. It is easy to see, however, that if this hypothesis be not
curate, the value of y2 (Art. 16.) and therefore of the angular velocity of A
(Art. 15.) will still be quantities of the same order respectively as the calculated values
which have been given, so long as the planes of rotation shall make angles with planes
perpendicular to A B' which, instead of being = to i (Art. 8.), shall be merely of t
same order of magnitude. Without assuming, therefore, the accuracy of the ab

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 419

hypothesis, we mnay still assert that the angular velocities of A B and A B' will vneces-
sarily be of the order (3.
The positions of the planes of rotatory motion will be affected by the change of
position of the shell, or of A B, and also by that of A B'. It will be convenient to
consider these cases separately, first, supposing A B' fixed while A B moves, and
then taking A B fixed and A B' in motion.
In the assumption, that A B' shall be at rest, it is meant that it shall here be con-
sidered as unaffected by the angular motion which has been investigated, and which
is due to the obliquity of the planes of rotatory motion. Our first object will be to
examine whether any motion will be communicated to A B' as the direct and imine-
diate consequence of the motion of the shell, and independently of centrifugal force
in the fluid, to which the previously calculated velocity of A B' is entirely due; also
A B' ought strictly to be considered as the line of quiescent Jfuid particles, in which
sense it will not necessarily be a straight line, as we have hitherto considered it in
calculating the effects of centrifugal force on the fluid. It will, therefore, be neces-
sary to examine the degree of its deviation from rectilinearity.
Suppose the shell to be at first in the position represented by the dotted line
(fig. 2.) and then to be brought into that represented by the continuots line, A B,
coinciding at first with A B'. Then while A B moves through the angle B' A B (3),
the normal motion (N N") at any point (N) cannot exceed a quantity of the order s 3,
as is easily shown*. Also it is evident that (considering only the velocity due to the
displacement of the shell) the ratio
vel. of fluid particle at N
vel. of point B of the shell
N N"
must be a quantity of the same order as -Br B i. e. of the order s; and it is easily seen

that for any particle in the interior of the fluid the motion cannot exceed a quantity of
that order. Also the conditions of symmetry will evidently require that the particle
at A should remain at rest.

If the spheroidal axis, instead of moving from A B' to A B, move frorn A B to A 38,
the same conclusion respecting the ratio of the velocity of any fluid particle to the
velocity of B will still be true, as is easily seen.
Let vl be the velocity of B, u that of a particle Q, from the cause we are consideringg,
the distance of Q from A being r, and its distance from the axis A B' = g. Since v

will be of the order s v1 let v = k - vl, where k is a numerical quantity, the value of
which may depend on the position of the particle. Also the velocity of Q from the
motion of rotation round A B' = g. Consequently, if Q be so situated that these

* N v must manifestly vanish with e as well as with nd the expression for it must, therefore, involve
some power of e as a factor.

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420 A MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

velocities are impressed upon it along the same line and in opposite directions, th
whole velocity of Q will

= k a v1 - r,
and if this = 0, Q will be a point in the line of quiescent paLticles. This gives us
A _ke uI'
r co a

ais the angular velocity in spa

= k' P (suppose). Consequentl

k k'

a quantity extremely small compared with 3. A B' may, therefore, be considered as a

straight line, to the required degree of approximation. Also the angular velocity of
any point in A B' due to the cause here considered, is of the order S2 3; it may, there-
fore, be neglected in comparison with the angular velocity (w s () of A B' previously
determined (Art. 15.).
35. We may now proceed to consider the positions of the planes of rotation of dif-
ferent particles of the fluid when B does not coincide with B'. It has been shown
(Art. 8. IIl.) that the instantaneous positions of these planes must approximate more
or less to parallelism with the tangent plane at B'. This approximation, however,
may be different for different fluid particles, in which case it will manifestly be most
accurate for particles nearest to B' and b', and less so for those nearer the plane of
the equator. In considering, therefore, the degree of approximation it may be con-
venient to refer to a mean plane of rotation, or an imaginary plane whose inclination
is the mean of the inclinations of all the planes of rotation of different particles.
As B moves about B' the tangent plane at B' will move friom one position to another,
revolving about its ultimate intersection with the consecutive position, as an axis of
instantaneous rotation, with a certain angular velocity. If B moved uniformly round
B' (as would be the case if the motion were due entirely to the centrifugal force on
the fluid (Art. 30.)), the angular velocity of the tangent plane would be uniform; and
since the motion of the fluid would then be steady, the angular motion of the planes
of rotation would also be uniform, and the angle thus described in a unit of time by
the mean plane of rotation might be taken as a measure of the whole constrainining
force (arising from the reaction of the solid shell on the fluid) which produces this
particular motion. In the actual case the motion of B will not be uniform; but since
the variation of its motion will be extremely slow, the propositions just enunciated
will still be approximately true for any comparatively limited period, and we may
still take as a measure of the instantaneous constraining force, the angle actually de-
scribed by the mean plane of rotation, in the manner above explained, in a unit of
time.

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 421

Now if A B should move from A B' through an angle 3, it is easy to show that
tangent plane at B' must move through an angle of thle order s (; and it is easi
seen likewise that if A B move in any other direction, as from A B to A 3 throu
an angle (', the angle moved through by the tangent plane at B' will be of the or
(3'. In every case, therefore,
ang. vel. of the tang. plane = k' s . ang. vel. of A B
=k S2 (

where k is some finite numerical quantity. Consequently, since the angle describe
by thle mean plane of rotation in a unit of time cannot be greater than this, th
angle, and therefore the instantaneous constr aining force, must be of the order 12 (3
36. Let us now consider the relation between the constraining force and the ang
which the instantaneous mean plane of rotation niakes with the instantaneous tangent
plane at B'. Let i denote, as heretofore, the angle between the tangent plane and
plane perpendicular to A B', ' that between the tangent plane and the mean plan
Now instead of the shell mloving on continuously, let us conceive its motion to ce
at any instant, and consider its action, when thus at rest, on the fluid mass. If
take a fluid particle near to B' and in contact with the surface, B' may be consider
as the centre of its rotatory motion, provided its distance from that point be not less
than a quantity of the order s 3 (since the angular displacement of B' cannot exce
a quantity of the order S2 3). Consequently, if the motion of the plane should cea
at any instant, as above supposed, it is manifest that the plane of motion of this par-
ticle must be immediately constrained to coincide with the tangent plane at B', i.
the constraining force upon it must have been such as to change its plane of motio
through an angle of the order ' in a very short space of time. If we take a particl
in contact with the surface, rather more remote from B', the same conclusion mu
be approximately true, though a somewhat greater time may be necessary to produ
an equal change in the position of its plane of rotation. And similarly if we take
particle in contact with the shell at any point, for instance, between B' and N', th
reaction of the surface must produce a similar effect on its plane of rotation; an
moreover, it is easily seen that if the shell be supposed to retnain thus at rest for
whole revolution, for example, the effect produced in that time must be of the sam
order of magnitude as that for particles near to B'. Precisely the same effects mu
take place about b' and between b' and L', whence it will necessarily follow th
similar effects and of the same order of magnitude must be produced on the plane
of motion of the particles constituting the interior part of the fluid intermediate to
the portions N' n' and L' ' of the surface. Similar effects must also be produced on
the portion of the fluid exterior to that just specified, though these effects may de-
crease in magnitude as the particles are situated nearer to C and c.
Hence then it follows that (taking, for- the greater distinctness, one day for the uni
of time) if B, and therefore the tangent plane at B', were to remain at rest for a unit
of time, the constraining force, estimated as above described, arising from the reaction

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422 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY.

of the shell on the fluid, would be such as to cause the mean plane of rotation to mo
through an angle of the same order of magnitude as the instantaneous angle betw
that plane and the tangent plane at B', i. e. of the order /. But it is evident tha
the tangent plane at B', instead of retnaining at rest, as we have liere conceived i
do, have its actual motion from the instantaneous mean plane, the whole effect
one day on the plane of rotation of a particle near to B' orI b' must be greater than
the surface had remained at rest; and the same conclusion must also be true for
ticles more remote fiom B' or b'. Consequently the angle through which the m
plane of rotation moves in one unit of time, must, a fortiori, in the actual motion b
of the same order as /', i. e. the constraining force, estimated by this angle, must b
the order /. But it has been already shown (Art. 35.) that this force must be of
order s2 P. Consequently / must be of the order 2 3 ; or, since =- 2 s (, the an
between the mean plane of rotation and the tangent plane at B' is a small quantit
a higher order than k, which proves the truth of our assumption, in the previous in
vestigations, of the coincidence of these planes to the required degree of approx
tion.
37. We have hitherto considered B to nmove while B' remains at rest; let us n
consider B' to move while B remains at rest. Suppose A B' to move through
angle (' in its motion in space which has been previously investigated, B' then. comin
to 33'. If the shell were spherical, the angle between the tangent planes at B' and
respectively would = 3', and in the spheroid the angle between these planes can d
from P' only by a quantity of the order s P'. Consequently, in order that the m
plane of rotation should be always parallel to the tangent plane at the extremit
the axis of rotation of the fluid, it must move through an angle of the same order
that (f') described by that axis; whereas when A B moves througli an angle (',
corresponding angular motion of the mean plane of rotation is (as we have sho
only of the order s P'. We must examine how this angular motion of the mean p
is produced when A B' is in motion.
While the axis of instantaneous rotation in a rigid body changes its position in
body, the instantaneous planes of rotatory motion necessarily retain their perpendi
larity to it, and therefore the angular motion of those planes is equal to that of
axis. Now we have shown (Art. 15,) that the change in the position of A B' is
duced in a manner exactly similar to that in a solid body, so that the same ca
produces simultaneously the angular motion of A B', and an equal angular motio
the planes of rotation ; whence it is easily seen that the Ymean plane of rotatory mot
when the axis lhas moved to 3', cannot, on this account alone, deviate from paralleli
with the tangent plane at 33' by a quantity greater than of the order s 3'. Co
quently the additional angular velocity of the mean plane of motion necessary to pr
serve it in parallelism with the tangent plane cannot exceed a quantity of the or
g . ang vel. of A B',
=K K 2 .

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 MR. HOPKINS'S RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. 423

This additional angular velocity must be produced by the constraininig fo

viously described. The force, therefore, in this case, as well as in the one
considered, must be of the order S2 (3; whence it also follows, as before, tha
between the instantaneous mean plane and the tangent plane at the extre
axis of rotatory motion of the fluid nmust be of the order g2 p, a quantity
lected in comparison with s.
Also, since ' is small compared with t in each of the above cases consid
pendently, it will be likewise true whien the two causes act simnultaneou
the actual motion of B and B' about each other. Hence all our previous r
be true to the required degree of approximation.
The following then are the results at which we have arrived, supposing
to consist of a homogeneous spheroidal shell (the ellipticities of the oute
surfaces being the same) filled with a fluid mass of the same uniform de
shell.

I. The precession will be the same, whatever be the thickness of the shell, as if the
whole earth were homogeneous and solid.
II. The lunar nutation will be the same as for the homogeneous spheroid to such
a degree of approximation that the difference is inappreciable to observation.
III. The solar nutation will be sensibly the same as for the homogeneous spheroid,
unless the thickness of the shell be very nearly of a certain value, something less than
one-fourth of the earth's radius, in which case this nutation might become much
greater than for the solid spheroid.
IV. In addition to the aove motons of pecession and nutation, the pole of the
earth would have a small circular motion, depending entirely on the internal fluidity.
'l'The radius of the circle thus described would be greatest when the thickness of the
shell should be least; but the inequality thus produced would not for the smallest
thickness of the shell exceed a quantity of the same order as the solar nutation; and
for any but the most inconsiderable thickness of the shell would be entirely inappre-
ciable to observation.

In niy next communication I propose to consider the case in which both the sol
shell and the inclosed fluid mass are of variable density.
W. HOPKINS.

Cambridge,
November 19, 1838.

MDCCCXXXIX. 3 i

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