Experiment No.

Objective:

To show that the energy radiated at any angle with a surface is equal to normal radiation
multiplied by the cosine of angle between the direction of radiation and normal to the
surface.

Assignment:

1. Calculate the radiation from the source Io cos Φ

2. Plot Lux meter reading and calculated radiation vs. angle of rotation on the same
graph and compare.

Apparatus:

Radiation heat transfer and exchange apparatus.

Radiation heat transfer and exchange apparatus.

Theory:

 Lux Meter
A lux meter is a device for measuring brightness. It specifically measures the intensity
with which the brightness appears to the human eye. This is different than
measurements of the actual light energy produced by or reflected from an object or light
source.

PAGE 1
 A lux meter.
 Lux:

The lux is a unit of measurement of brightness, or more accurately, illuminance.

It ultimately derives from the candela, the standard unit of measurement for the
power of light.

Given the Illuminance Formula (or Cosine Law of Illuminance) is:

1
𝐸= cos 𝜃
𝑑2

Where:

𝑙𝑚
𝐸 = Illuminance (or density of luminous flux) reaching a surface (𝑚2 or 𝑙𝑢𝑥)

𝐼 = Luminous intensity or strength of a light source (𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎 or 𝑐𝑑)

𝑑 = Distance between light source and surface (𝑚)

Procedure:

1. Set-up and power-on the apparatus.

2. Place the light source and lux meter in front of each other i.e. 0°.
3. Measure distance between lux meter and light meter.
4. Note the reading on the lux meter.
5. Increase the angular displacement by 10° in clockwise direction and note the
lux reading.
6. Repeat step 5 until an angular displacement of 90° is achieved.

PAGE 2
 7. Repeat steps 5-6 for anti-clockwise displacement.

Observations and Calculations:

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (𝑑) =

Serial # Angle of Displacement (𝜃) Lux Meter Reading (𝑙𝑢𝑥)

10

11

12

13

14

PAGE 3
Serial # Angle of Displacement (𝜃) Lux Meter Reading (𝑙𝑢𝑥)

15

16

17

18

19

20

PAGE 4
CONCLUSION:

PAGE 5
Experiment No. 2

Objective:

To show that light passing through non opaque matter is reduced in intensity in
proportion to the thickness and absorptivity of the material.

Assignment:

1. Calculate the Ln of the observation (a) and labelled as Ln Ir

2. Plot the Ln vs. thickness of the plate from the observation (a) and calculate the
slop
3. From the slop , calculate the reflected component.
4. With the reflected component obtained from the previous observation, calculate
the absorptivity of the material for observation.

Apparatus:

Radiation heat transfer and exchange apparatus.

CR addition heat transfer and exchange apparatus.

Theory:

 Lambert’s Law of Absorption:

The Beer–Lambert law, also known as Beer's law relates the attenuation of light
to the properties of the material through which the light is travelling. The law is

PAGE 6
 commonly applied to chemical analysis measurements and used in
understanding attenuation in physical optics, for photons, neutrons or rarefied
gases. In mathematical physics, this law arises as a solution of the BGK
equation.

Lambert's law states that:

“Absorbance of a material sample is directly proportional to its thickness (path

length)”.

Much later, August Beer discovered another attenuation relation.

Beer's law states that absorbance is proportional to the concentrations of the

attenuating species in the material sample. The modern derivation of the Beer–
Lambert law combines the two laws and correlates the absorbance to both the
concentrations of the attenuating species as well as the thickness of the material
sample.

The general formula is:

𝐴 = 𝛼(𝜆)𝑏𝑐

Where:

𝐴 = Measured absorbance

𝛼 = Wavelength dependent absorptivity coefficient

𝑏 = Path length

𝑐 = Analyte concentration

 Absorptivity:

The absorptivity is the amount of radiation absorbed by a surface compared to

what is absorbed by a blackbody.

If the amount of radiation energy absorbed, reflected and transmitted when

radiation strikes a surface are measured in percentage of the total energy in the
incident electromagnetic waves. The total energy would be divided into three

PAGE 7
 groups they are as following absorptivity (𝛼), reflectivity (𝜌) and transmissivity
(𝜏).

𝛼+𝜌+𝜏 =1

Absorption is the fraction of irradiation absorbed by a surface, reflectivity is the

fraction reflected by the surface and transmissivity is the fraction transmitted by
the surface.

A body is considered transparent if it can transmit some of the radiation waves

falling on its surface. If electromagnetic waves are not transmitted through the
surface it is therefore called opaque.

Procedure:

1. Set-up the equipment in the darkened room in order to eliminate the influence
of the ambient light conditions.
2. Set the distance from the light source to filter plate to 100 mm and the distance
from the light source to light meter to 200 mm.
3. Switch-on the light source.
4. When the reading has stabilized record the filter plate thickness and lux meter
reading.
5. Place the 3 mm medium filter plate onto the holder and repeat the observation.
6. Repeat step 5 with different plate thickness by adding more medium filters.
7. Replace the medium filter plate with a clear filter plate and when the reading
has stabilized, record the filter plate thickness and lux meter reading.
8. Repeat step 7 for different optical densities using filter plates of increasing
optical density

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

PAGE 8
For variable material thickness:

Thickness (𝑚𝑚) Lux Meter Reading (𝑙𝑢𝑥)

For variable material density:

Material Density Lux Meter Reading (𝑙𝑢𝑥)

No Filter

Light

Medium

Dark

PAGE 9
CONCLUSION:

PAGE 10
Experiment No. 3

Objective:

To demonstrate the relationship between power input and surface temperature in free
convection.

Assignment:

Demonstrate the relationship between power input and surface temperature in free
convection.

Apparatus:

Free and forced convection apparatus.

Free and forced convection apparatus.

Theory:
 Convection:

Convection is the heat transfer process, often referred to simply as convection,

is the transfer of heat from one place to another place by movement of fluids.
Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases.

 Free Convection:

Natural convection, known also as free convection is a mechanism, or type of

mass and heat transport, in which the fluid motion is generated only by density

PAGE 11
 differences in the fluid occurring due to temperature gradients, not by any
external source (like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.).

In natural convection, fluid surrounding a heat source receives heat and by

thermal expansion becomes less dense and rises. Thermal expansion of the fluid
plays a crucial role. In other words, heavier (more dense) components will fall,
while lighter (less dense) components rise, leading to bulk fluid movement.

Graphic illustration of free convection.

Procedure:

1. Place the fan assembly at the top of duct.

2. Place the pinned heat exchanger into the test duct.
3. Set the heater power controller.
4. Allow sufficient time to achieve steady state condition before noting the heater
plate temperature 𝑇𝐻 and ambient temperature 𝑇𝐴 into the table.
5. Repeat step 4-5 for different heater power.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐴

PAGE 12
Power Input (𝑊) Plate Temperature Ambient Temperature
𝑇𝐻 Temperature 𝑇𝐴 Gradient ∆𝑇

20

40

60

80

PAGE 13
CONCLUSION:

PAGE 14
 Experiment No. 4

Objective:

To demonstrate the relationship between power input and surface temperature in forced
convection.

Assignment:

Demonstrate the relationship between power input and surface temperature in forced
convection.

Apparatus:

Free and forced convection apparatus.

Free and forced convection apparatus.

Theory:
Convection:

Convection is the heat transfer process, often referred to simply as convection,

is the transfer of heat from one place to another place by movement of fluids.
Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases.

 Forced Convection:

Forced convection is a mechanism, or a type of transport in which fluid motion

is generated by external source (like pump, fan or suction device etc.). It should

PAGE 15
 be considered as one of the main method of useful heat transfer as significant
amount of heat can be transported very efficiently.

Forced convection may happen by natural means, such as when the heat of a
fire causes expansion of air and bulk air flow by this means.

Graphic illustration of forced convection.

Procedure:

1. Place the fan assembly at the top of duct.

2. Place the pinned heat exchanger into the test duct.
3. Set the heater power controller.
4. Set the velocity of fan.
5. Allow sufficient time to achieve steady state condition before noting the heater
plate temperature 𝑇𝐻 and ambient temperature 𝑇𝐴 into the table.
6. Repeat step 4-5 for different fan velocities.

PAGE 16
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Temperature Gradient ∆T = TH − TA

Air Velocity (𝑚⁄𝑠) Plate Temperature Ambient Temperature

𝑇𝐻 Temperature 𝑇𝐴 Gradient ∆𝑇

PAGE 17
CONCLUSION:

Experiment No. 5

Objective:

PAGE 18
To find the thermal conductivity of liquids and gases.

Assignment:

To find the thermal conductivity of air and acetone.

Apparatus:

Thermal conductivity of liquid and gases apparatus

Thermal conductivity of liquid and gases apparatus.

Thoery:
 Thermal Conductivity:

The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of its ability to conduct heat.

It is commonly denoted by 𝑘.

Heat transfer occurs at a lower rate in materials of low thermal conductivity than
in materials of high thermal conductivity.

The defining equation for thermal conductivity, known as Fourier’s Law, is:

𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑡

Where:

𝑞 = Heat transfer rate

PAGE 19
 𝑘 = Thermal conductivity coefficient of material

𝐴 = Perpendicular area

Procedure:

1. Use air as a sample for calibration.

2. Make sure the temperature controller is set to 100℃.
3. Make sure there is cooling water supply to water jacket.
4. Turn-on the main switch and heater switch and adjust the power regulator to 5
Watt.
5. Record the power and temperature readings when all readings are stabilized.
6. Repeat steps 4-5 for different power by adjusting the power regulator.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Temperature Gradient ∆T = T1 − T2

Heat Loss QL = Q − QC

Serial Input 𝑇1 𝑇2 ∆𝑇 Heat Generated Heat Conducted Heat Loss

# Power (𝑊) 𝑄 (𝑊) 𝑄𝐶 (𝑊) 𝑄𝐿 (𝑊)

PAGE 20
 Experiment No. 6

Objective:

To investigate Fourier law for linear conduction of heat along a homogeneous bar.

Assignment:

Fourier law for linear conduction of heat along a homogeneous bar.

APPARATUS:

Heat conduction apparatus.

Heat conduction apparatus.

THEORY:
 Fourier’s Law:

The law of heat conduction, also known as Fourier's law, states that the rate of
heat transfer through a material is proportional to the negative gradient in the
temperature and to the area, at right angles to that gradient, through which the
heat flows. We can state this law in two equivalent forms: the integral form, in
which we look at the amount of energy flowing into or out of a body as a whole,
and the differential form, in which we look at the flow rates or fluxes of energy
locally.

PAGE 21
 In this form we take heat energy transfer rate or heat transfer density, where
heat density is the heat flow per unit time through a given perpendicular area.

Expression for Fourier’s law is given below:

𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑡

Where:

𝑞 = Heat transfer rate

𝑘 = Thermal conductivity coefficient of material

𝐴 = Perpendicular area

𝑑𝑇
= Differential change in temperature with respect to time.
𝑑𝑡

PROCEDURE:

1. Insert the 25 mm brass conductor module in the apparatus.

2. Install the temperature from 𝑇1 to 𝑇9 to test the module.
3. Turn the heater power knob anticlockwise.
4. Now switch-on the power supply to note the readings.
5. Now switch the readings from 20 to 0 to illustrate readings.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Power Input 𝑄 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇4 𝑇5 𝑇6 𝑇7 𝑇8 𝑇9
(𝑊)

10

15

PAGE 22
CONCLUSION:

PAGE 23
Experiment No.7

Objective:

Demonstration that heat flow is directly proportional to temperature difference between

faces.

Assignment:

Demonstration that heat flow is directly proportional to temperature difference between

faces

Apparatus:

Fig 7.1 apparatus

Procedure:

PAGE 24
 1. The apparatus is assembled with the full-length (102mm) aluminium sample in
position. Ensure that the ends of the sample are free from dirt and apply a thin
smear of contacting fluid to enable efficient thermal contact to be made. Suitable
contacting fluids are silicone grease or Heat sink compound
2. Hold the clamping lever positioned on the front of the apparatus in the
downward position and place the specimen between the heater and calorimeter
block, and clamp in position by releasing the lever.
3. Insert the thermocouples, in the sequence that they are wired to the support
posts, into the hol provided in the sample. Connect up the potentiometer-
measuring instrument to the terminals provided on the front of the panel. A
small amount of conductive paste should be used on each Thermocouple.
4. Place the Dewar vessel on position over the specimens.
5. Fit the thermometers into the special leak proof connections provided on top of
the calorimeter Base (left hand water out, right hand water in), and connect the
water pipes from the water supply to the header tank, the header tank to the inlet
on the apparatus, the apparatus outlet connection to drain, via the spring valve
provided and the header tank overflow to drain. (See Section 3 for details if
necessary).
6. Turn on the water supply and adjust the flow at source to give a small regular
overflow from the constant head tank to drain. Adjust the height of the header
tank and the clip on the outlet hose to obtain a water flow through the apparatus
of 0.5 to lec/sec., whilst maintaining the overflow. During the experiment, if
necessary, re-adjust the clip on the outlet hose to prevent the difference in
temperature between the two mercury-in-glass thermometers from exceeding
10°C, whilst maintaining the small overflow to drain.”
7. Check the supply voltage as indicated on the serial number label positioned on
the back of the apparatus is correct. Connect the apparatus to a single phase AC
supply point using the socket Provided in the right hand side of the apparatus.
Switch on the unit.
8. The heat delivered to the sample is controlled by regulating the current supplied
to the heater block using the control knob positioned on the front panel under
the ammeter. Turn the knob fully clockwise so that the maximum current is
supplied to the heater until temperature Ta, as indicated by the thermocouple
selection knob on the front panel approaches 80°C. Turn the heater control knob
until temperature Te stabilises at approximately 80°C and maintain this
temperature until each of the three other thermocouples are reading constant
temperature.
9. The following readings should be recorded.
W1 = Water inlet temperature °C

W2 = Water outlet temperature °C

T1-4 = Thermocouple temperature °C

M = Mass of water collected, Kg

PAGE 25
T = Time to collect M Kg of water, secs.

The flow rate of water is determined by timing the collection of a 100ces sample of
water using a stopwatch (not provided).

Progressively increase the heat supplied to the sample so that temperature T, increases
at increments of about 40°C up to a maximum value of about 250°C, and allow the
temperatures to stabilise for each progression. Record values of W1, W2, T1-4, M and
T, each time.

Switch of the apparatus.

Interpretation of Results

The value of heat supplied to the calorimeter from the heater is given by:
𝑀
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑝 × × (𝑊2 − 𝑊1) 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑇
Where Cp specific heat capacity of water, (4186 Joules/Kg).

A graph of heat transmitted through the sample Q, by a temperature driving force (T4-
T₁) will be straight line with origin at zero, demonstrating that heat flow is directly
proportional to the temperature difference between the faces – Fig. 2.1.

It will also be observed that for each value of T4, the temperature differences T4- T3.
T3-T2 and T₂ Ty are the same, (the distances between the thermocouples also being
equal). In other words the temperature gradient along the sample is always uniform for
stabilised conditions.

Experiment No.8

Objective:

Derivation of thermal conductivity of materials of high thermal conductance.

Assignment.

The temperature of the hot end of high conducting material (Ta) is bought to a
temperature of approximately 200°C and maintained at this temperature until the
Thermocouples indicate a stable output.

Apparatus:

PAGE 26
 Fig 8.1 apparatus

Procedure:

1. The apparatus is assembled with one short specimen (low conductivity material)
in the lower position and one long specimen (high conductivity material) in the
upper position, applying a thin smear of he contacting fluid at the ends of the
specimens before assembly.
2. Proceed as Experiment 1 except that the temperature of the hot end of high
conducting material (Ta) is bought to a temperature of approximately 200°C
and maintained at this temperature until the Thermocouples indicate a stable
output.
3. The following readings should be taken at two-minute intervals over a period
of ten minutes.
W1 = Water inlet temperature

W2 = Water outlet temperature

PAGE 27
T-T₁ = Thermocouple temperatures

M = Mass of water collected

t = Time for collection of My secs.

Interpretation of Results:

Thermal conductivity is defined as the amount of heat conducted along a specimen of

uniform cross section per unit cross sectional area, per degrees temperature difference
along unit length, heat conducted being inversely proportional to the length and directly
proportional to the cross sectional Area, and the temperature difference.
𝑀
Heat conducted 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑝 × × (𝑊2 − 𝑊1) watts
𝑡

𝑄×𝑙
And Thermal Conductivity 𝑘 = 𝐴×(𝑇2−𝑇1) watts/m2k/m

For the long specimens (good conductor)

where L-distance between the thermocouples, metres

Experiment No. 9

Objective:

To observe unsteady-state condition of the heat to the centre of the solid shape when a
step change is supplied to the temperature at the surface of the shape.

ASSIGNMENT:

Observe unsteady-state condition of the heat to the centre of the solid shape

APPARATUS:

Unsteady state heat transfer apparatus.

PAGE 28
Unsteady state heat transfer unit

THEORY:

A steady state thermal conductivity measuring setup based on the comparative radial
heat flow method is presented. The setup consists of a pair of coaxial cylinders as its
main components, with test fluid placed in the annular space between these cylinders
with water tight cover plates at the top and bottom of the cylinders. Experiment involves
heating the coil at the concentric-centre of the inner cylinder; steady state data are
acquired for the calculation of the thermal conductivity. Thermal conductivity is
calculated by comparing the radial heat flow between the cylinders and the test fluid
(comparative method). Thermal conductivity of water, glycerol, and ethylene glycol
was measured for varying temperatures and is in good agreement with the published
thermal conductivity values in literature.

PROCEDURE:

1. Again following the above procedure ensure the cooling water is flowing and
then set the heater voltage 𝑉 to approximately 100 volts.
2. If, however the local cooling water supply is at a high temperature (25-35 ℃ or
more) then it may be necessary to increase the voltage supplied to the heater.
3. This will increase the temperature difference between the hot centre and cool
circumference of the disc. Monitor temperatures
𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , 𝑇3 , 𝑇4 , 𝑇5 , 𝑇6 until stable.

PAGE 29
 4. When the temperatures are stabilised record 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , 𝑇3 , 𝑇4 , 𝑇5 , 𝑇6 , 𝑉, 𝐼.
5. Increase the heater voltage by approximately 50 volts and repeat the above
procedure again recording the parameters 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , 𝑇3 , 𝑇4 , 𝑇5 , 𝑇6 , 𝑉, 𝐼 when
temperatures have stabilised.
6. Repeat step 5 and if time is available, the procedure may be repeated further
noting that the maximum safe temperature for 𝑇1 is 100 ℃.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Time (𝑠) Bath Temperature Air/Water Specimen

𝑇1 (℃) Temperature 𝑇1 Temperature 𝑇3
(℃) (℃)

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

PAGE 30
CONCLUSION:

Experiment 10

Objective:

To demonstrate how temperature measurement can be affected by radiant

heat transfer to a sensor from its surrounding

Assignments:

1. Plot Temperature (°C) vs Heater Temperature (°C)

2. Plot Temperature (°C) vs. Air Velocity (m/s)

Apparatus

Radiant heat transfer to a temperature sensor

PAGE 31
Radiant heat transfer

Radiant heat transfer is thermal energy transferred by means of electromagnetic waves

or particles. Radiant heat transfer involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic
radiation that arises due to the temperature of a body.

Procedures:

1. Follow the basic procedure as written in section 6.1.

2. Lift the radiation shield up so that the thermocouples are exposed.

3. Open the throttle plate but do not turn on the fan.

4. Set the T10 as 50°C.

5. When all the temperature readings are stable, record reading T6, T7, T8,

T9.

6. Repeat the above procedures with different values, of T10. (100°C, 150'0,

200°C, 250'C, 300.C)

Note:

PAGE 32
 The temperature of the heated surface should not exceed 350.C. If this

happening, turn on the fan to cold down the heated surface if necessary.

7. Close the throttle plate and turn on the fan.

8. Set the T10 as 300°C during the whole experiment.

9. Turn the selector to read the air velocity measurement and adjust the

throttle plate until the velocity reading is approxirmately 4m/s.

10. Observe the temperature reading of T6 until T9. Record the T6, T7, T8

and T9 when all measurements are stable.

11. Repeat experiments with decreasing air velocity in the table.

Observation and Calculations

Fan Off

T6(°C) T7(°C) T8(°C) T9(°C) T9(°C)

50

100

150

200

250

300

PAGE 33
Fan ON

Ua(m/s) T6(°C) T7(°C) T8(°C) T9(°C) T9(°C)

4 300

2 300

1 300

0.5 300

Conclusion

PAGE 34
Experiment 11

Objective:

To determine the combination of heat transfer (convection, Qc and radiation, Qr) from
a horizontal cylinder in natural and forced convection with varying power input and
corresponding surface temperature.

Assignments:

1. Calculate the radiant hr, and convective hc, component

2. Calculate the heat lost due to convection Qc and radiation Qr
3. Calculate the heat lost Qlot

Apparatus:

Radiant heat transfer to a temperature sensor

Heat transfer :

PAGE 35
Heat transfer occurs between states of matter whenever a temperature difference exists
and heat transfer occurs only in the direction of decreasing temperature, meaning from
a hot object to a cold object

The transfer of heat can occur in three ways:

 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation

Conduction heat transfer

The transfer of heat by means of molecular excitement within a material

without bulk motion of the matter. Conduction heat transfer in gases and liquids
is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.

Convection heat transfer

Convection heat transfer is due to the moving fluid. The fluid can be a gas or a
liquid; both have applications in bio and nano heat transfer. Convection is the
energy transfer between two mediums; typically, a surface and fluid that moves
over the surface.

Radiation heat transfer

Heat transfer through radiation takes place in form of electromagnetic waves mainly
in the infrared region. Radiation emitted by a body is a consequence of thermal
agitation of its composing molecules. Radiation heat transfer can be described by
reference to the 'black body

Procedures:

1. Follow the basic instruction as written in section 6.1.

2. Rotate the heated cylinder 90° counter clockwise so that the thermocouple

position is on the side of the heated cylinder.

PAGE 36
 3. Set the heater voltage to 5 Volts by using the Programmable Power

Supply.

4. Select the temperature position T10 using the rotary selector knob and

monitor the temperature.

5. Fully open the throttle plate on the blower intake. Do not lum on the

blower since it will not be used in this experiment.

6. When T10 has reached a steady state temperature, record the T9, 110, V

and I.

7. Increase the heater voltage supplied to 7 volts. Monitor T10 for stability

and record all measurements.

8. Continue the experiment by increasing voltage supplied by 3 volts

increment until heater voltage supply

Note:

The temperature of heating cylinder should not exceed them 500℃. If happened
reduced the voltage supply accordingly

9. After completed the experiment, turn on the fan to cool down the heater

Observations and calculations :

No. V(volts) I(amps) T9℃ T10℃

1.
5

2.
7

3.
10

PAGE 37
 4.
13

5.
16

6.
19

Conclusion :

PAGE 38
Experiment 12

Objective:

To determine the effect of forced convection on heat transfer at varying air velocity

Assignment:

1. Calculate the radiant hf, and convective hc component.

2. Calculate the heat lost due to convection Qc and radiation Qf.

3. Calculate the total heat lost Qtot.

Apparatus:

Heat transfer :

Heat transfer occurs between states of matter whenever a temperature difference exists
and heat transfer occurs only in the direction of decreasing temperature, meaning from
a hot object to a cold object

PAGE 39
The transfer of heat can occur in three ways:
 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation

Conduction heat transfer

The transfer of heat by means of molecular excitement within a material

without bulk motion of the matter. Conduction heat transfer in gases and liquids
is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.

Convection heat transfer

Convection heat transfer is due to the moving fluid. The fluid can be a gas or a
liquid; both have applications in bio and nano heat transfer. Convection is the
energy transfer between two mediums; typically, a surface and fluid that moves
over the surface.

Radiation heat transfer

Heat transfer through radiation takes place in form of electromagnetic waves mainly
in the infrared region. Radiation emitted by a body is a consequence of thermal
agitation of its composing molecules. Radiation heat transfer can be described by
reference to the 'black body

Procedures:

1. Follow the basic instruction as written in section 6.1.

2. Rotate the heated cylinder 900 counter clockwise so that the thermocouple
position is on the side of the heated cylinder.
3. Set the heater voltage to 20 Volts by using the Programmable Power Supply.
4. Select the temperature position T10 using the rotary selector knob and monitor
the temperature.

PAGE 40
 5. Fully open the throttle plate on the blower intake and turn ON the blower,
6. Turn the common selector to read the air flow velocity then adjust the throttle
plate at the fan intake to obtain the velocity of 3m/s.
7. When T10 has reached a steady state temperature record T9, T10, V and
8. Repeat the experiment with increasing air velocity in steps of approximately
1m/s until the maximum velocity is reached.
9. After the experiment, tum off the power supply to the heater, then fully open
the throttle plate with the fan on to cold down the heater.
10. Turn off the equipment as detailed in section 6.2.

Observations Ana Calculations:

No V (Volts) I(Amps) Us(m/s) T9(C) T10(C)

1 20 3

2 20 4

3 20 5

4 20 6

5 20 7

6 20 8

7 20 9

8 20 10

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Conclusion :

Experiment No # 13

Objective:

To measure the temperature distribution for steady state conduction of heat

energy through the wall of a thick cylinder (Radial energy flow) and
demonstrate the effect of a change inheat flow.

Assignment :

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Prepare the plot of the temperature vs. reading from the center of the disk
with various heating power setting in a single graph for comparison

Apparatus:

 Radial heat flow apparatus

Theory:

A steady state thermal conductivity measuring setup based on the comparative

radial heatflow method is presented. The setup consists of a pair of coaxial cylinders
as its main components, with test fluid placed in the annular space between these
cylinders with water tight cover plates at the top and bottom of the cylinders.
Experiment involves heating the coil at the concentric-centre of the inner cylinder;
steady state data are acquired for the calculation of the thermal conductivity.
Thermal conductivity is calculated by comparing the radial heat flow between the
cylinders and the test fluid (comparative method). Thermal conductivity of water,
glycerol, and ethylene glycol was measured for varying temperaturesand is in good
agreement with the published thermal conductivity values in literature.

Procedure:

 Again following the above procedure ensure the cooling water is

flowing and thenset the heater voltage V to approximately 100 volts.

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  If however the local cooling water supply is at a high temperature (25-
35 ºC or more) then it may be necessary to increase the voltage supplied
to the heater.

 This will increase the temperature difference between the hot center and
cool circumference of the disc. Monitor temperatures T1, T2, T3, T4, T5,
T6 until stable.When the temperatures are stabilized record:T1, T2, T3,
T4, T5, T6, V, I.

 Increase the heater voltage by approximately 50 volts and repeat the

aboveprocedure again recording the parameters T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6,
V, I when temperatures have stabilized.

 Increase the heater voltage by approximately 50 volts and again repeat

the above procedure recording the parameters T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6,
V, I when temperatureshave stabilized.

 If time is available, the procedure may be repeated further noting that the
maximum safe temperature for T1 is 100ºC When completed, if no
further experiments are tobe conducted reduce the heater voltage to zero
and shut down the system.

Observation Table:

Heat T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
Power

Distance
from

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Heater

Conclusion:

PAGE 45
 Experiment No.14

OBJECTIVE:

To measure distribution along an extended surface and comparing the result with
theoretical analysis.

APPARATUS:

Extended surface heat transfer apparatus.

Extended surface heat transfer apparatus.

THEORY:

In the study of heat transfer, fins are surfaces that extend from an object to increase the
rate of heat transfer to or from the environment by increasing convection. The amount
of conduction, convection, or radiation of an object determines the amount of heat it
transfers. Increasing the temperature gradient between the object and the environment,
increasing the convection heat transfer coefficient, or increasing the surface area of the
object increases the heat transfer. Sometimes it is not feasible or economical to change
the first two options. Thus, adding a fin to an object, increases the surface area and can
sometimes be an economical solution to heat transfer problems.

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PROCEDURE:

1. The constant temperature bath is adjusted to 80 ℃ and started up at least an hour

before the start of the lab session.
2. Measure the free convection temperature profile, i.e. with the wind tunnel
switched off.
3. Record this temperature profile.
4. Start the wind tunnel with the counter set at 100.
5. Allow the fin to reach steady state.
6. Repeat Steps 5- for the wind tunnel counter settings of 200 - 500, in increments
of 100.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Input 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇4 𝑇5 𝑇6 𝑇7 𝑇8
Power
(𝑊) 𝑥= 𝑥= 𝑥= 𝑥= 𝑥= 𝑥= 𝑥= 𝑥=
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35

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CONCLUSION:

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