i

(A Guide for Bachelor of Physiotherapy- Based On DU Approved New Curriculum)

ANAM’S
Psychology
(An Exclusive Book on Written and Viva Examination)
For
Bachelor of Physiotherapy
(The University of Dhaka, University of Rajshahi,
University of Chittagong & Gono University)
Board Question with Answer

Edited By
Dr. Md. Akhsaful Imam (cPT)
BPT, MPT-Ortho (India), PMSLP (DU),
PGD-Sports Biomechanics (BKSP), DMS (MATIC)
Assist. Professor & HOD of Physiotherapy, CIMT.
LM of BPA-022, MBPA-0110, HCPC (UK) Reg. No. PH120107.
[email protected]
Dr. Sulakshana
MBBS, FCPS (Psychiatry)-BSMMU, PMSLP-DU.

Dr. Noushin Laila (PT)

BPT, Clinical Pediatric Motivator.
MBPA-0111

Publishers and Distributor:

Anam medical books

Physio publications

Phone: 01703774418, 01941904104

 ii

PUBLISHEDBY: AnamMedical Books, PhysioPublications (01703774418)

1st Edition: August- 2017
2nd Edition: April- 2020
3rd Edition: December-2022

Copy right: 2019, Reserved by the Publishers

All rights reserved by the publishers. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored, in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording or otherwise without
Publishers permission.

Computer composed: Dr. Akhsaful Imam

Cover concept: Antazul Haque Khan
For all correspondence: Antazul Haque Khan, Atia mam, Dr. Noushin Laila.
E-mail: [email protected]
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Price: Four hundred thirty taka (430tk)

 iii

PSYCHOLOGY Syllabus for BPT first professional students

Total Lecture: 50 Hrs
Exam time: 3 Hrs. Total marks: 100
Written: 80
Sessional: 20

 Introduction to psychology
 Perspectives of psychology
 Psychology and Disability, Illness and Rehabilitation
 Branches of psychology.
 Method of psychology.
 Behavior.
Definition, type, Development and growth, Infancy, Childhood and adolescence

 Motivation
Definition, Classification, Motivation cycle, Maslow‘s theory, Relationship
between motivation and behavior, Impact of motivation on rehabilitation

 Learning
Definition, Classification, Conditions of learning

 Memory
Definition, Types, Process and elements of memory, Memory upgrading
techniques, Memory loss (forgetting), Definition, Causes.

 Cognition
Cognitive development (incl. Piaget and stages of play), Intelligence, Intelligence
quotient (IQ) measures

 Socialization
Definition, Agents of socialization, Types of socialization, Secondary
socialization: Role, status & career

 Conflict
Definition, Types, Frustration
 Abnormal behavior
Definition, Types, Causes
 iv

 Heredity and Environment: Twins, Relative importance of heredity and

environment, their role in relation to physical characteristics, intelligence and
personality, nature – nature controversy.
 Development and Growth Behavior: Infancy, childhood, adolescence,
adulthood, middle age, old age. .
 Psychological needs: Information, security, self-esteem, competence, love and
hope.
 Emotions: Definitions: Differentiate from feelings, psychological changes of
emotion, Role of RAS, hypothalamus, cerebral cortex, sympathetic nervous
system, adrenal gland, heredity and emotion, Nature and control of anger, fear and
anxiety.
 Personality:
a) Definitions: List of components: Physical characteristics, character, abilities,
temperament, interest and attitudes.
b) Discuss briefly the role of heredity, nervous system, physical characteristics,
abilities, family and culture of personality development.
c) Basic concepts of Freud: unconscious, conscious, ID, ego and superego, List and
define the oral, anal and phallic stages of personality department list and define the
8 stages as proposed by Erickson, 4 concepts of learning as proposed by Dollard
and Miller; drive, cue, response and reinforcement.
d) Personality assessment: interview, standardized, non-standardized, Exhaustive,
and stress interviews, list and define inventories BAL, CPI, and MMPI, projective
test: Rorschach, TAT and sentence completion test.
 Thinking: Definition, concepts, creativity, steps in creative thinking, list the traits
of creative people, delusion.
 v

 Frustration: Definition, sources, solution, Conflict; Approach – approach,

Avoidance – avoidance, and approach – avoidance solution.
 Sensation, Attention and Perception
a) List of senses: Vision, Hearing, Olfactory, Gustatory and coetaneous sensation,
movement, equilibrium and visceral sense. Define attention and list factors that
determine attention: nature of stimulus intensity, colour, change, extensity,
repetition, movement size, curiosity, primary motives.
b) Define perception and list the principles of perception: Figure ground, constancy,
similarity, proximity, closure, continuity values and interests, past experience
context, needs, moods, religion, sex and age perceived susceptibility perceived
seriousness perceived benefits and socioeconomic status.
c) Define illusion and hallucination.
d) List visual, auditory, cutaneous, gustatory and olfactory hallucination.
 Democratic and Authoritarian Leadership: Qualities of leadership: Physical
factors, intelligence, self-confidence, sociability, will and dominance. Define
attitude. Change of attitude by: Additional information, changes in-group –
affiliation, enforced modification by law and procedures that affect personality.
(Psychotherapy, Counseling and religious Conversion).
 Defence Mechanisms of the Ego: Denial, rationalization, projection, reaction
formation, identification, repression, emotional insulation, undoing, interjection,
acting out depersonalization.

Health Psychology
1. Psychological Reactions of Patient: Psychological reactions of a patient during
admission and treatment anxiety, shock, denial, suspicion, questioning, loneliness,
regression, shame, guilt, rejection, fear, withdrawal, depression, egocentricity, concern
about small matters, narrowed interests, emotional over reactions, perpetual changes,
 vi

confusion, disorientation, hallucinations, delusions, illusions, anger, hostility, loss of

hope.
2. Reactions to Loss: Reactions to loss, death and bereavement shock and disbelief,
development of awareness, restitution, resolution. Stages of acceptance as proposed
by Kubler. – Ross.
3. Stress: Physiological and Psychological relation to health and sickness:
psychosomatic, professional stress burnout.
4. Communication:
a) Types verbal, non-verbal, elements in communication, barriers to good
communication, developing effective communication, specific communication
techniques.
b) Counseling: Definition, Aim, differentiates from guidance, principles in
counseling and personality qualities of counselors.
5. Compliance: Nature, factors, contributing to non-compliance, improving compliance.
6. Emotional Needs: Emotional needs and psychological factors in relation to
unconscious patients, handicapped patients, bed – ridden patients, chronic pain, spinal
cord injury, paralysis, cerebral palsy, burns, amputations, disfigurement, head injury,
degenerative disorders, parkinsonism, leprosy, incontinence and mental illness.
7. Geriatric Psychology: Specific psychological reactions and needs of geriatric
patients.
8. Pediatric Psychology: Specific psychological reactions and needs of pediatric
patients.
9. Behavior Modification: Application of various conditioning and learning principles
to modify patient behaviors.
10.Substance Abuse: Psychological aspects of substance abuse: smoking, alcoholism
and drug addiction.
11.Personality Styles: Different Personality styles of patients.
 vii

Preface because it has specific and predictable

influences on our behavior. Piaget’s
findings matter because they help us
When I first started teaching Introduction understand the child’s behavior (not just
to Psychology, I found it difficult- much his or her thinking). And social cognition
harder than teaching classes in matters because our social thinking helps
Biomechanics or Pathomechanics. I was us better relate to the other people in our
able to give a lecture on the sympathetic everyday social lives, which is quite
nervous system, a lecture on Piaget similar to proper handling of chronic
(stages of development), and a lecture on suffering patient. This integrating theme
social cognition, but how could I link allows me to organize my lectures, my
these topics together for the student? I felt writing assignments, and my testing.
a bit like I was presenting a laundry list of Second was the issue of empiricism: I
research findings rather than an integrated emphasized that what seems true might
set of principles and knowledge. Of not be true, and we need to try to
course, what was difficult for me was determine whether it is. The idea of
harder still for my students. How could empirical research testing falsifiable
they be expected to remember and hypotheses and explaining much (but
understand all the many phenomena of never all) behavior the idea of psychology
psychology? How could they tell what as a science was critical, and it helped me
was most important? And why, given the differentiate psychology from other
abundance of information that was freely disciplines. Another reason for
available to them on the web, should they emphasizing empiricism is that the
care about my approach? My pedagogy Introduction to Psychology course
needed something to structure, integrate, represents many students’ best
and motivate their learning. opportunity to learn about the
Eventually, I found some techniques to fundamentals of scientific research.
help my students understand and
appreciate what I found to be important. The length of existing textbooks was
First, I realized that psychology actually creating a real and unnecessary
did matter to my students, but that I impediment to student learning. I was
needed to make it clear to them why it did. condensing and abridging my coverage,
I therefore created a more consistent focus but often without a clear rationale for
on the theme of behavior. One of the most choosing to cover one topic and omit
fundamental integrating principles of the another. My focus on behavior, coupled
discipline of psychology is its focus on with a consistent focus on empiricism,
behavior, and yet that is often not made helped in this regard—focusing on these
clear to students. Affect, cognition, and themes helped me identify the underlying
motivation are critical and essential, and principles of psychology and separate more
yet are frequently best understood and essential topics from less essential ones.
made relevant through their links with
behavior. Once I figured this out, I began
tying all the material to this concept: The
sympathetic nervous system matters
 viii
Approach and Pedagogy on research—well-articulated and specific
examples of research within the content
I wrote this book to help students organize area, each including a summary of the
their thinking about psychology at a hypotheses, methods, results, and
conceptual level. Five or ten years from interpretations. This feature provides a
now, I do not expect my students to continuous thread that reminds students of
remember the details of most of what I the importance of empirical research. The
teach them. However, I do hope that they research foci also emphasize the fact that
will remember that psychology matters findings are not always predictable ahead
because it helps us understand behavior of time (dispelling the myth of hindsight
and that our knowledge of psychology is bias) and help students understand how
based on empirical study. research really works.
This book is designed to facilitate these My focus on behavior and empiricism has
learning outcomes. I have used three produced a text that is better organized, has
techniques to help focus students on fewer chapters, and is somewhat shorter
behavior: than many of the leading books.
1. Chapter openers. `In short, I think that this book will provide
I begin my focus on behavior by opening a useful and productive synthesis between
each chapter with a chapter opener your goals and the goals of your students. I
showcasing an interesting real-world have tried to focus on the forest rather than
example of people who are dealing with the trees and to bring psychology to life in
behavioral questions and who can use ways that really matter for the students. At
psychology to help them answer those the same time, the book maintains content
questions. The opener is designed to draw and conceptual rigor, with a strong focus
the student into the chapter and create an on the fundamental principles of
interest in learning about the topic. empiricism and the scientific method.
2. Psychology in everyday life. Each
chapter contains one or two features
designed to link the principles from the
chapter to real-world applications in
business, environment, health, law,
learning, and other relevant domains. For
instance, the application in Chapter 6
"Growing and Developing" “What Makes
a Good Parent?” applies the concepts of
parenting styles in a mini handbook about
parenting, and the application in Chapter 3
"Brains, Bodies, and Behavior" is about the
difficulties that left-handed people face
performing everyday tasks in a right-
handed world.
3. Research focus. I have also emphasized
empiricism throughout, but without
making it a distraction from the main story
line. Each chapter presents two close-ups
 1

Chapter- 1
Introduction to Psychology
The word psychology comes from two work in forensic fields, and they do provide
Greek words. Psyche ‘& logos – psyche counseling and therapy for people in
means soul or spirit. Logos means distress. But in every sector of our life we
knowledge or steely. From the meaning of have to manage surrounding without any
these words we can say that, psychology help of psychologist, in this context we
is a scientific study of human & all animal physiotherapist should follow some
behavior & their mental process. empirical role of psychology to manage our
About this different psychologist give department as well as during handling the
different definition those are given below: patient.
Psychology is the scientific study of
behavior and mental process. (This Origin of the Psychology Symbol:
definition contains three key ideas:
scientific, behavior and mental process) Is derived from a
Or: letter from the
Psychology is the science of human and Greek alphabet,
animal behavior and it includes the psi, which is also
application of this science to solve human the first letter of
problems. the Greek word
There is some definition given by different psuche, meaning
scientist which as follows: mind or soul, from which the term psyche
 Hume  Psychology is the science of arose; which in turn gave us the name of the
mental activities. discipline psychology which is most
 Watson (1913)  Psychology is the commonly defined as study of the mind.
science of human being and animal
behavior.
 Morgan and king (1975)  Psychology
is the science of human being & animal
behavior.
 Crider and others  Psychology can be
defined as the scientific study of
behavior and mental process.
 Hemry L Roediger and others (1984)
Psychology can be defined as the
scientific study of behavior & mental
life.

we are frequently exposed to the work of

psychologists in our everyday lives, we all
have an idea about what psychology is and
what psychologists do? Psychologists do
 2
History of Psychology components of consciousness and how those
Learning Objectives: components combined to result in our
By the end of this section, you will be able conscious experience. Wundt
to: used introspection (he called it “internal
 Understand the importance of Wundt and perception”), a process by which someone
James in the development of psychology. examines their own conscious experience as
 Appreciate Freud’s influence on objectively as possible, making the human
psychology. mind like any other aspect of nature that a
 Understand the basic tenets of Gestalt scientist observed. Wundt’s version of
psychology. introspection used only very specific
 Appreciate the important role that experimental conditions in which an external
behaviorism played in psychology’s stimulus was designed to produce a
history. scientifically observable (repeatable)
 Understand basic tenets of humanism. experience of the mind (Danziger, 1980).
 Understand how the cognitive revolution The first stringent requirement was the use
shifted psychology’s focus back to the of “trained” or practiced observers, who
mind. could immediately observe and report a
reaction. The second requirement was the
Psychology is a relatively young science use of repeatable stimuli that always
with its experimental roots in the 19th produced the same experience in the subject
century, compared, for example, to human and allowed the subject to expect and thus be
physiology, which dates much earlier. As fully attentive to the inner reaction. These
mentioned, anyone interested in exploring experimental requirements were put in place
issues related to the mind generally did so in to eliminate “interpretation” in the reporting
a philosophical context prior to the 19th of internal experiences and to counter the
century. Two men, working in the 19th argument that there is no way to know that
century, are generally credited as being the an individual is observing their mind or
founders of psychology as a science and consciousness accurately, since it cannot be
academic discipline that was distinct from seen by any other person. This attempt to
philosophy. Their names were Wilhelm understand the structure or characteristics of
Wundt and William James. This section will the mind was known as structuralism.
provide an overview of the shifts in Wundt established his psychology
paradigms that have influenced psychology laboratory at the University at Leipzig in
from Wundt and James through today. 1879. In this laboratory, Wundt and his
students conducted experiments on, for
Wundt and Structuralism example, reaction times. A subject,
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) was a German sometimes in a room isolated from the
scientist who was the first person to be scientist, would receive a stimulus such as a
referred to as a psychologist. His famous light, image, or sound. The subject’s reaction
book entitled “Principles of Physiological to the stimulus would be to push a button,
Psychology” was published in 1873. Wundt and an apparatus would record the time to
viewed psychology as a scientific study of reaction. Wundt could measure reaction time
conscious experience, and he believed that to one-thousandth of a second (Nicolas &
the goal of psychology was to identify Ferrand, 1999).
 3

(a) Wilhelm Wundt is credited as one of the founders of psychology. He created the first
laboratory for psychological research. (b) This photo shows him seated and surrounded by fellow
researchers and equipment in his laboratory in Germany.

However, despite his efforts to train as functionalism. Functionalism focused on

individuals in the process of introspection, how mental activities helped an organism fit
this process remained highly subjective, and into its environment. Functionalism has a
there was very little agreement between second, subtler meaning in that
individuals. As a result, structuralism fell out functionalists were more interested in the
of favor with the passing of Wundt’s student, operation of the whole mind rather than of its
Edward Titchener, in 1927 (Gordon, 1995). individual parts, which were the focus of

James and Functionalism

William James (1842–1910) was the first
American psychologist who espoused a
different perspective on how psychology
should operate. James was introduced to
Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural
selection and accepted it as an explanation of
an organism’s characteristics. Key to that
theory is the idea that natural selection leads
to organisms that are adapted to their
environment, including their behavior.
Adaptation means that a trait of an organism
has a function for the survival and
reproduction of the individual, because it has
been naturally selected. As James saw it,
psychology’s purpose was to study the structuralism. Like Wundt, James believed
function of behavior in the world, and as that introspection could serve as one means
such, his perspective was known by which someone might study mental
 4
activities, but James also relied on more of concrete products of mental activities and
objective measures, including the use of of anatomy and physiology (Gordon, 1995).
various recording devices, and examinations William James, shown here in a self-portrait,
was the first American psychologist.

Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory feelings and urges of which we have no

Perhaps one of the most influential and well- awareness. Gaining access to the
known figures in psychology’s history was unconscious, then, was crucial to the
Sigmund Freud. Freud (1856–1939) was an successful resolution of the patient’s
Austrian neurologist who was fascinated by problems. According to Freud, the
patients suffering from “hysteria” and unconscious mind could be accessed through
neurosis. Hysteria was an ancient diagnosis dream analysis, by examinations of the first
for disorders, primarily of women with a words that came to people’s minds, and
wide variety of symptoms, including through seemingly innocent slips of the
physical symptoms and emotional tongue. Psychoanalytic theory focuses on
disturbances, none of which had an apparent the role of a person’s unconscious, as well as
physical cause. Freud theorized that many of early childhood experiences, and this
his patients’ problems arose from the particular perspective dominated clinical
unconscious mind. In Freud’s view, the psychology for several decades (Thorne &
unconscious mind was a repository of Henley, 2005).

(a) Sigmund Freud was a

highly influential figure in
the history of psychology.
(b) One of his many
books, A General
Introduction to
Psychoanalysis, shared his
ideas about psychoanalytical
therapy; it was published in
1922.

Freud’s ideas were

influential, and you will
learn more about them when
you study lifespan
development, personality,
and therapy. For instance,
many therapists believe
strongly in the unconscious
and the impact of early
childhood experiences on
the rest of a person’s life. The method of while not invented by Freud, was certainly
psychoanalysis, which involves the patient popularized by him and is still used today.
talking about their experiences and selves, Many of Freud’s other ideas, however, are
 5
controversial. Drew Westen (1998) argues example, a song may be made up of
that many of the criticisms of Freud’s ideas individual notes played by different
are misplaced, in that they attack his older instruments, but the real nature of the song is
ideas without taking into account later perceived in the combinations of these notes
writings. Westen also argues that critics fail as they form the melody, rhythm, and
to consider the success of the broad ideas harmony. In many ways, this particular
that Freud introduced or developed, such as perspective would have directly contradicted
the importance of childhood experiences in Wundt’s ideas of structuralism (Thorne &
adult motivations, the role of unconscious Henley, 2005).
versus conscious motivations in driving our Unfortunately, in moving to the United
behavior, the fact that motivations can cause States, these men were forced to abandon
conflicts that affect behavior, the effects of much of their work and were unable to
mental representations of ourselves and continue to conduct research on a large scale.
others in guiding our interactions, and the These factors along with the rise of
development of personality over time. behaviorism (described next) in the United
Westen identifies subsequent research States prevented principles of Gestalt
support for all of these ideas. psychology from being as influential in the
More modern iterations of Freud’s clinical United States as they had been in their native
approach have been empirically Germany (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Despite
demonstrated to be effective (Knekt et al., these issues, several Gestalt principles are
2008; Shedler, 2010). Some current still very influential today. Considering the
practices in psychotherapy involve human individual as a whole rather than as a
examining unconscious aspects of the self sum of individually measured parts became
and relationships, often through the an important foundation in humanistic
relationship between the therapist and the theory late in the century. The ideas of
client. Freud’s historical significance and Gestalt have continued to influence research
contributions to clinical practice merit his on sensation and perception.
inclusion in a discussion of the historical Structuralism, Freud, and the Gestalt
movements within psychology. psychologists were all concerned in one way
or another with describing and
Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, And Gestalt understanding inner experience. But other
Psychology researchers had concerns that inner
Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka experience could be a legitimate subject of
(1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887– scientific inquiry and chose instead to
1967) were three German psychologists who exclusively study behavior, the objectively
immigrated to the United States in the early observable outcome of mental processes.
20th century to escape Nazi Germany. These
men are credited with introducing
psychologists in the United States to various
Gestalt principles. The word Gestalt roughly
translates to “whole;” a major emphasis of
Gestalt psychology deals with the fact that
although a sensory experience can be broken
down into individual parts, how those parts
relate to each other as a whole is often what
the individual responds to in perception. For
 6
PAVLOV, WATSON, SKINNER, AND most famous work occurred during the early
BEHAVIORISM 20th century at Johns Hopkins University.
While Wundt and James were concerned
with understanding conscious experience,
Watson thought that the study of

consciousness was flawed. Because he

Early work in the field of behavior was believed that objective analysis of the mind
conducted by the Russian physiologist was impossible, Watson preferred to focus
Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936). directly on observable behavior and try to
Pavlov studied a form of learning behavior bring that behavior under control. Watson
called a conditioned reflex, in which an was a major proponent of shifting the focus
animal or human produced a reflex of psychology from the mind to behavior,
(unconscious) response to a stimulus and, and this approach of observing and
over time, was conditioned to produce the controlling behavior came to be known
response to a different stimulus that the as behaviorism. A major object of study by
experimenter associated with the original behaviorists was learned behavior and its
stimulus. The reflex Pavlov worked with interaction with inborn qualities of the
was salivation in response to the presence of organism. Behaviorism commonly used
food. The salivation reflex could be elicited animals in experiments under the
using a second stimulus, such as a specific assumption that what was learned using
sound, that was presented in association with animal models could, to some degree, be
the initial food stimulus several times. Once applied to human behavior. Indeed, Tolman
the response to the second stimulus was (1938) stated, “I believe that everything
“learned,” the food stimulus could be important in psychology (except … such
omitted. Pavlov’s “classical conditioning” is matters as involve society and words) can be
only one form of learning behavior studied investigated in essence through the
by behaviorists. continued experimental and theoretical
John B. Watson (1878–1958) was an analysis of the determiners of rat behavior at
influential American psychologist whose a choice-point in a maze.
 7

methods and especially experimentation. In

addition, it is used in behavioral and
cognitive-behavioral therapy. Behavior
modification is commonly used in classroom
settings. Behaviorism has also led to
research on environmental influences on
human behavior.
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) was an
American psychologist. Like Watson,
Skinner was a behaviorist, and he
concentrated on how behavior was affected
by its consequences. Therefore, Skinner
spoke of reinforcement and punishment as
major factors in driving behavior. As a part
John B. Watson is known as the father of of his research, Skinner developed a
behaviorism within psychology. chamber that allowed the careful study of the
Behaviorism dominated experimental principles of modifying behavior through
psychology for several decades, and its reinforcement and punishment. This device,
influence can still be felt today (Thorne & known as an operant conditioning chamber
Henley, 2005). Behaviorism is largely (or more familiarly, a Skinner box), has
responsible for establishing psychology as a remained a crucial resource for researchers
scientific discipline through its objective studying behavior (Thorne & Henley, 2005).

(a) B. F. Skinner is famous for his research on operant conditioning. (b) Modified versions of
the operant conditioning chamber, or Skinner box, are still widely used in research settings
today. (credit a: modification of work by “Silly rabbit”/Wikimedia Commons)

The Skinner box is a chamber that isolates

the subject from the external environment
and has a behavior indicator such as a lever button or lever, the box is able to deliver a
or a button. When the animal pushes the positive reinforcement of the behavior (such
 8
as food) or a punishment (such as a noise) or psychologists were uncomfortable with what
a token conditioner (such as a light) that is they viewed as limited perspectives being so
correlated with either the positive influential to the field. They objected to the
reinforcement or punishment. pessimism and determinism (all actions
Skinner’s focus on positive and negative driven by the unconscious) of Freud. They
reinforcement of learned behaviors had a also disliked the reductionism, or
lasting influence in psychology that has simplifying nature, of behaviorism.
waned somewhat since the growth of Behaviorism is also deterministic at its core,
research in cognitive psychology. Despite because it sees human behavior as entirely
this, conditioned learning is still used in determined by a combination of genetics and
human behavioral modification. Skinner’s environment. Some psychologists began to
two widely read and controversial popular form their own ideas that emphasized
science books about the value of operant personal control, intentionality, and a true
conditioning for creating happier lives predisposition for “good” as important for
remain as thought-provoking arguments for our self-concept and our behavior. Thus,
his approach (Greengrass, 2004). humanism emerged. Humanism is a
perspective within psychology that
MASLOW, ROGERS, AND emphasizes the potential for good that is
HUMANISM innate to all humans. Two of the most well-
During the early 20th century, American known proponents of humanistic
psychology was dominated by behaviorism psychology are Abraham Maslow and Carl
and psychoanalysis. However, some Rogers (O’Hara, n.d.).
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) was an program. This program has been largely
American psychologist who is best known qualitative (not measurement-based), but
for proposing a hierarchy of human needs in there exist a number of quantitative research
motivating behaviors. Although this concept strains within humanistic psychology,
will be discussed in more detail in a later including research on happiness, self-
chapter, a brief overview will be provided concept, meditation, and the outcomes of
here. Maslow asserted that so long as basic
needs necessary for survival were met (e.g.,
food, water, shelter), higher-level needs
(e.g., social needs) would begin to motivate
behavior. According to Maslow, the highest-
level needs relate to self-actualization, a
process by which we achieve our full
potential. Obviously, the focus on the
positive aspects of human nature that are
characteristic of the humanistic perspective
is evident (Thorne & Henley, 2005).
Humanistic psychologists rejected, on
principle, the research approach based on
reductionist experimentation in the tradition
of the physical and biological sciences,
because it missed the “whole” human being.
Beginning with Maslow and Rogers, there
was an insistence on a humanistic research
 9
humanistic psychotherapy (Friedman, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is shown.
2008).
therapist needed to display three features to
Carl Rogers (1902–1987) was also an maximize the effectiveness of this particular
American psychologist who, like Maslow, approach: unconditional positive regard,
emphasized the potential for good that exists genuineness, and empathy. Unconditional
within all people. Rogers used a therapeutic positive regard refers to the fact that the
technique known as client-centered therapy therapist accepts their client for who they
in helping his clients deal with problematic are, no matter what he or she might say.
issues that resulted in their seeking Provided these factors, Rogers believed that
psychotherapy. Unlike a psychoanalytic people were more than capable of dealing
approach in which the with and working through their own issues
(Thorne & Henley, 2005).
therapist plays an Carl Rogers, shown in this portrait,
important role in developed a client-centered therapy method
interpreting what that has been influential in clinical settings.
conscious Humanism has been influential to
behavior reveals psychology as a whole. Both Maslow and
about the Rogers are well-known names among
unconscious students of psychology and their ideas have
mind, client- influenced many scholars. Furthermore,
centered therapy Rogers’ client-centered approach to therapy
involves the patient taking a lead role in the is still commonly used in psychotherapeutic
therapy session. Rogers believed that a settings today (O’hara, n.d.)

THE COGNITIVE REVOLUTION Although no one person is entirely

Behaviorism’s emphasis on objectivity and responsible for starting the cognitive
focus on external behavior had pulled revolution, Noam Chomsky was very
psychologists’ attention away from the mind influential in the early days of this
for a prolonged period of time. The early movement. Chomsky (1928–), an American
work of the humanistic psychologists linguist, was dissatisfied with the influence
redirected attention to the individual human that behaviorism had had on psychology. He
as a whole, and as a conscious and self- believed that psychology’s focus on
aware being. By the 1950s, new disciplinary behavior was short-sighted and that the field
perspectives in linguistics, neuroscience, had to re-incorporate mental functioning into
and computer science were emerging, and its purview if it were to offer any meaningful
these areas revived interest in the mind as a contributions to understanding behavior
focus of scientific inquiry. This particular (Miller, 2003).
perspective has come to be known as the Noam Chomsky was very influential in
cognitive revolution (Miller, 2003). By beginning the cognitive revolution. In 2010,
1967, Ulric Neisser published the first this mural honoring him was put up in
textbook entitled Cognitive Psychology,
which served as a core text in cognitive
psychology courses around the country
(Thorne & Henley, 2005).
 10
influencing its development. They also
suffered from the attitudes of white, male
psychologists, who were not immune to the
nonscientific attitudes prevalent in the
society in which they developed and worked.
Until the 1960s, the science of psychology
was largely a “womanless” psychology
(Crawford & Marecek, 1989), meaning that
few women were able to practice
psychology, so they had little influence on
what was studied. In addition, the
experimental subjects of psychology were
mostly men, which resulted from underlying
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. (credit: Robert assumptions that gender had no influence on
Moran) psychology and that women were not of
European psychology had never really been sufficient interest to study.
as influenced by behaviorism as had An article by Naomi Weisstein, first
American psychology; and thus, the published in 1968 (Weisstein, 1993),
cognitive revolution helped reestablish lines stimulated a feminist revolution in
of communication between European psychology by presenting a critique of
psychologists and their American psychology as a science. She also
counterparts. Furthermore, psychologists specifically criticized male psychologists for
began to cooperate with scientists in other constructing the psychology of women
fields, like anthropology, linguistics, entirely out of their own cultural biases and
computer science, and neuroscience, among without careful experimental tests to verify
others. This interdisciplinary approach often any of their characterizations of women.
was referred to as the cognitive sciences, and Weisstein used, as examples, statements by
the influence and prominence of this prominent psychologists in the 1960s, such
particular perspective resonates in modern- as this quote by Bruno Bettleheim: “. . . we
day psychology (Miller, 2003). must start with the realization that, as much
as women want to be good scientists or
Feminist Psychology engineers, they want first and foremost to be
The science of psychology has had an impact womanly companions of men and to be
on human wellbeing, both positive and mothers.” Weisstein’s critique formed the
negative. The dominant influence of foundation for the subsequent development
Western, white, and male academics in the of a feminist psychology that attempted to be
early history of psychology meant that free of the influence of male cultural biases
psychology developed with the biases on our knowledge of the psychology of
inherent in those individuals, which often women and, indeed, of both genders.
had negative consequences for members of Crawford & Marecek (1989) identify several
society that were not white or male. Women, feminist approaches to psychology that can
members of ethnic minorities in both the be described as feminist psychology. These
United States and other countries, and include re-evaluating and discovering the
individuals with sexual orientations other contributions of women to the history of
than heterosexual had difficulties entering psychology, studying psychological gender
the field of psychology and therefore differences, and questioning the male bias
 11
present across the practice of the scientific
approach to knowledge.

MULTICULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY half of the 20th century in psychology in the

Culture has important impacts on individuals United States) was dedicated to testing and
and social psychology, yet the effects intelligence testing in particular (Black et al.,
of culture on psychology are under-studied. 2004). That emphasis has continued,
There is a risk that psychological theories particularly because of the importance of
and data derived from white, American testing in determining opportunities for
settings could be assumed to apply to children, but other areas of exploration in
individuals and social groups from other African-American psychology research
cultures and this is unlikely to be true include learning style, sense of community
(Betancourt & López, 1993). One weakness and belonging, and spiritualism (Black et al.,
in the field of cross-cultural psychology is 2004).
that in looking for differences in The American Psychological Association
psychological attributes across cultures, has several ethnically based organizations
there remains a need to go beyond simple for professional psychologists that facilitate
descriptive statistics (Betancourt & López, interactions among members. Since
1993). In this sense, it has remained a psychologists belonging to specific ethnic
descriptive science, rather than one seeking groups or cultures have the most interest in
to determine cause and effect. For example, studying the psychology of their
a study of characteristics of individuals communities, these organizations provide an
seeking treatment for a binge eating disorder opportunity for the growth of research on the
in Hispanic American, African American, impact of culture on individual and social
and Caucasian American individuals found psychology.
significant differences between groups
(Franko et al., 2012). The study concluded Summary
that results from studying any one of the Before the time of Wundt and James,
groups could not be extended to the other questions about the mind were considered by
groups, and yet potential causes of the philosophers. However, both Wundt and
differences were not measured. James helped create psychology as a distinct
This history of multicultural psychology in scientific discipline. Wundt was a
the United States is a long one. The role of structuralist, which meant he believed that
African American psychologists in our cognitive experience was best
researching the cultural differences between understood by breaking that experience into
African American individual and social its component parts. He thought this was best
psychology is but one example. In 1920, accomplished by introspection.
Cecil Sumner was the first African American William James was the first American
to receive a PhD in psychology in the United psychologist, and he was a proponent of
States. Sumner established a psychology functionalism. This particular perspective
degree program at Howard University, focused on how mental activities served as
leading to the education of a new generation adaptive responses to an organism’s
of African American psychologists (Black, environment. Like Wundt, James also relied
Spence, and Omari, 2004). Much of the work on introspection; however, his research
of early African American psychologists approach also incorporated more objective
(and a general focus of much work in first measures as well.
 12
Sigmund Freud believed that understanding studying overt behavior and deemphasizing
the unconscious mind was absolutely critical the importance of unobservable mental
to understand conscious behavior. This was processes. John Watson is often considered
especially true for individuals that he saw the father of behaviorism, and B. F.
who suffered from various hysterias and Skinner’s contributions to our understanding
neuroses. Freud relied on dream analysis, of principles of operant conditioning cannot
slips of the tongue, and free association as be underestimated.
means to access the unconscious. As behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory
Psychoanalytic theory remained a dominant took hold of so many aspects of psychology,
force in clinical psychology for several some began to become dissatisfied with
decades. psychology’s picture of human nature. Thus,
Gestalt psychology was very influential in a humanistic movement within psychology
Europe. Gestalt psychology takes a holistic began to take hold. Humanism focuses on
view of an individual and his experiences. the potential of all people for good. Both
As the Nazis came to power in Germany, Maslow and Rogers were influential in
Wertheimer, Koffka, and Köhler immigrated shaping humanistic psychology.
to the United States. Although they left their During the 1950s, the landscape of
laboratories and their research behind, they psychology began to change. A science of
did introduce America to Gestalt ideas. behavior began to shift back to its roots of
Some of the principles of Gestalt psychology focus on mental processes. The emergence
are still very influential in the study of of neuroscience and computer science aided
sensation and perception. this transition. Ultimately, the cognitive
One of the most influential schools of revolution took hold, and people came to
thought within psychology’s history was realize that cognition was crucial to a true
behaviorism. Behaviorism focused on appreciation and understanding of behavior.
making psychology an objective science by
 13
• The nature of the nervous system is
PERSPECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY: electrical in part (Galvani)
• Different areas of the brain carry out
The study of all three of the following different functions (Broca).
perspectives is compulsory. The interaction • Small gaps exist between nerve cells that
of these three perspectives substantially require the action of chemicals to carry
influences behavior. neural transmissions across these gaps
• Hormones play an important role in our
The level of analysis approach reflects a psychological functioning.
modern trend in psychology towards
integration and demonstrates how The biological perspective is also known as
explanations offered by each of the three biopsychology or physiological psychology.
levels of analysis (biological, cognitive and Biopsychology focuses on the physical and
sociocultural) complement one another and biological roots of behavior. For example, a
together provide more complete and biological psychologist may research the
satisfactory explanations of behavior. influence of genetics on behavior or the
changes in personality after a person suffers
1. The Biological Perspective damage to certain parts of the brain. This
2. The Cognitive Perspective type of research also explores the
3. The Socio-Cultural Perspective (The physiological effects of drugs and diseases
Psychodynamic Perspective) on patients. Diagnostic tools, such as
There are also two types of perspective of positron emission tomography (PET) and
psychology has been explain by different magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans,
psychologist: play a vital role in biological psychology.
4. The Behavioral Perspective
5. The Humanistic Perspective The findings of biological psychologists are
often useful in discovering new treatments.
For example, a biological psychologist may
determine that the level of dopamine in the
brain plays a significant role in
schizophrenia. This could influence research
to test new drugs intended to stabilize
dopamine levels in schizophrenia patients.

Learning Outcomes of Biological

Perspective:
General Outcomes:
• Outline principles that define the biological
Biological Perspective level of analysis (for example, patterns of
At the most basic level of analysis, human behavior can be inherited; animal research
beings are biological systems. Our may inform our understanding of human
cognitions, emotions and behaviors are behavior; cognitions, emotions and
products of the anatomy and physiology of behaviors are products of the anatomy and
our nervous and endocrine systems. Over the physiology of our nervous and endocrine
last few centuries, discoveries have shown systems).
that:
 14
• Explain how principles that define the Topics such as memory, perception,
biological level of analysis may be artificial intelligence, amnesia and social
demonstrated in research (that is, theories cognition are studied.
and/or studies). Cognitive psychologists use traditional
• Discuss how and why particular research research methods (for example, experiments
methods are used at the biological level of and verbal protocols) but there is an
analysis (for example, experiments, increasing focus on the use of modern
observations, correlational studies). technology.
• Discuss ethical considerations related to Cognitive psychology stands in stark
research studies at the biological level of contrast to behavioral psychology. This
analysis. approach focuses on how internal thoughts
and feelings influence one’s behavior. The
Physiology and Behavior Outcomes: cognitive approach emphasizes the
Explain one study related to localization of importance of memory, perception and
function in the brain (for example, attention, language, decision-making and
Wernicke, Broca, Gazzaniga and Sperry). problem-solving.
• Using one or more examples, explain
effects of neurotransmission on human This approach often compares the human
behavior (for example, the effect of mind to that of a computer. It states that
noradrenaline on depression). human memory is comprised of three stages:
Using one or more examples, explain
functions of two hormones in human Encoding: Information is received.
behavior. Storage: Information is retained.
Discuss two effects of the environment on Retrieval: Information is recalled.
physiological • processes (for example, Cognitive psychology seeks to understand
effects of jet lag on bodily rhythms, effects why people learn and process information
of deprivation on neuroplasticity, effects of the way they do. Cognitive psychologists
environmental stressors on reproductive might help patients cope with memory
mechanisms). disorders, or they might consult on ways to
Examine one interaction between cognition improve educational environments and
and physiology in terms of behavior (for curriculum.
example, agnosia, anosognosia,
prosapagnosia, amnesia). Evaluate two Learning Outcomes of Cognitive
relevant studies. Perspective:
• Discuss the use of brain imaging Cognitive processes:
technologies (for example, CAT, PET, Evaluate schema theory with reference to
fMRI) in investigating the relationship research studies.
between biological factors and behavior. • Evaluate two models or theories of one
cognitive process (for example, memory,
Cognitive Perspective perception, language, decision‑making) with
Cognitive psychology represents a vast array reference to research studies.
of research areas including cognitive • Explain how biological factors may affect
psychology, cognitive science, cognitive one cognitive process (for example,
neuropsychology and cognitive Alzheimer’s disease, brain damage, sleep
neuroscience. deprivation).
 15
• Discuss how social or cultural factors affect that human beings possess little free will.
one cognitive process (for example, Rather, the behaviors exhibited by adults
education, carpentered-world hypothesis, result from their childhood experiences and
effect of video games on attention). the contents of their subconscious mind.
• With reference to relevant research studies,
to what extent is one cognitive process An analogy Freud used to explain the
reliable (for example, reconstructive subconscious mind is the iceberg. Only a
memory, perception/visual illusions small part of a floating iceberg is visible
decision‑making/heuristics)? above the water. Most of the iceberg is
• Discuss the use of technology in underneath the water. In Freud's analogy, the
investigating cognitive processes (for tip of the iceberg represents the conscious
example, MRI (magnetic resonance mind. The conscious mind makes up only a
imaging) scans in memory research, fMRI small percentage of a person’s thought
scans in decision‑making research). processes. A second, larger layer is the
subconscious mind. The subconscious mind
Cognition and Emotion: consists of thoughts that a person could
To what extent do cognitive and biological retrieve with effort. The last and deepest
factors interact in emotion (for example, two layer is the unconscious mind. The
factor theory, arousal theory, Lazarus’ unconscious mind consists of thoughts that a
theory of appraisal)? person is unaware of. Even with effort,
people are unable to become aware of
• Evaluate one theory of how emotion may unconscious thought processes.
affect one cognitive process (for example,
state-dependent memory, flashbulb memory, The psychodynamic perspective theorizes
affective filters). that the subconscious mind influences
behaviors. A person can overcome
Socio-Cultural Perspective (The undesirable behaviors and thoughts by
Psychodynamic Perspective): forming a better understanding of their
At the third level of analysis, the biological subconscious root causes. As a result, “talk
and cognitive systems that make up the therapy,” or “the talking cure,” was
individual are embedded in an even larger developed to guide patients to a better
system of interrelationships with other understanding of their internal processes.
individuals. At its beginning, psychology
largely confined itself to the study of the There are benefits to taking a page from
individual acting alone. As the discipline some or all these schools of thought in
matured, a few psychologists recognized that psychology. Psychologists can form
human behavior could be fully understood regimens that use different a combination of
only if the social context in which behavior psychological perspectives to offer a diverse
occurred was also taken into account. This understanding and practice.
recognition led to many investigations of
social influence, that is, how the presence Learning outcomes of Socio-cultural
and behavior of one or a few people affect cognition:
the behavior and attitudes of another • Describe the role of situational and
individual. dispositional factors in explaining behavior.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) founded the
psychodynamic perspective. Freud believed
 16
• Discuss two errors in attributions (for The Humanistic Perspective:
example, fundamental attribution error, The humanistic perspective, due to work by
illusory correlation, self‑serving bias). notable thinkers like Abraham Maslow and
• Evaluate social identity theory, making Carl Rogers, arose during the 1950s.
reference to relevant studies. Humanistic psychology focuses on the
• Explain the formation of stereotypes and importance of helping people achieve their
their effect on behavior. full potential for well-being. Instead of
Social norms focusing on abnormal psychology, the
• Explain social learning theory, making humanistic perspective emphasizes free will,
reference to two relevant studies. self-actualization and self-efficacy.
• Discuss the use of compliance techniques
(for example, lowballing, foot‑in‑the‑door, Before the development of this approach, the
reciprocity). psychology profession was dominated by the
• Evaluate research on conformity to group behavioral and psychodynamic approaches.
norms. Some psychologists critiqued these
• Discuss factors influencing conformity (for approaches as deterministic and pessimistic.
example, culture, groupthink, risky shift, Some of the central principles of the
minority influence). humanistic perspective are:
Cultural norms
• Define the terms “culture” and “cultural Human beings have inherent goodness and
norms”. will thrive under the right conditions.
• Examine the role of two cultural Each person is unique and has unique
dimensions on behavior (for example, experiences. As a result, psychologists
individualism/collectivism, power distance, should not rely heavily on group studies.
uncertainty avoidance, Confucian Individuals have free will and must accept
dynamism, masculinity/femininity). responsibility for their self-actualization.
• Using one or more examples, explain
“emic” and “etic” concepts. Psychology and Disability:
The Behavioral Perspective: Psychology and disability are completely
The behavioral perspective gained different meaningful words but these two
popularity during the early 1900s with words have a relationship with each other
groundbreaking work by John B. Watson that can be easily distinguished by
and Edward Thorndike. This approach definition, but the combination of the two
centers around learned behaviors rather than words describes a new meaningful and
internal processes like cognition. In other descriptively important emotional state.
words, behavioral psychologists explore PSYCHOLOGY is the branch of medical
psychology through observable behaviors science which deals with scientific study of
and actions. In this perspective, human & all animal behavior & their mental
psychologists treat all behavior as learned or process. On the other hand, the term
acquired. For example, a researcher could DISABILITY refers to physical, mental,
conclude that an introverted behavior pattern cognitive, or developmental condition that
was acquired in response to childhood impairs, interferes with, or limits a person's
rejection by peers during attempts at ability to engage in ADL or sociocultural
interaction. activity.
Among the various types of disability
psychological disability is one of the
 17
important types. The American Psychiatric individuals with health conditions in
Association defines a PSYCHOLOGICAL interaction with their environment”.
DISABILITY as any persistent Put simply, rehabilitation helps a child, adult
psychological or psychiatric disorder or or older person to be as independent as
emotional or mental illness resulting in possible in everyday activities and enables
impairment of educational, social, or participation in education, work, recreation
vocational functioning as reported by a and meaningful life roles such as taking care
mental health professional, based on a of family. It does so by addressing
diagnosis from the Diagnosis and Statistical underlying conditions (such as pain) and
Manual of Mental Disorders (1987, 3rd ed., improving the way an individual function in
revised). Examples of psychological everyday life, supporting them to overcome
disabilities include manic depression, bi- difficulties with thinking, seeing, hearing,
polar disorder, schizophrenia, personality communicating, eating or moving around.
disorders, post-traumatic stress disorders, Anybody may need rehabilitation at some
anxiety disorders, delusional disorders, and point in their lives, following an injury,
eating disorders. surgery, disease or illness, or because their
Psychological disabilities can create barriers functioning has declined with age.
to education in different ways. First, stigmas
associated with psychological disabilities Principles of rehabilitation:
prevent many students from self-identifying 1. Listen to the patient is very important for
and subsequently receiving the help that they purposeful rehabilitation.
may need. Additionally, individuals with 2. Therapist should listen in a professional
psychological disabilities often take way.
medication that may produce side effects These are some aspect of learning:
such as restlessness, fatigue, or excessive a. To give patient enough space and
thirst. The role of a psychologist varies time.
depending on the type of clients they see. b. To refuse his or her problem and put
However, in general, psychologists provide them into word.
assessments, interventions, consultations, c. Understand the patient.
and counselling to enable their clients to lead d. To see the world through this eyes.
more fulfilling lives. e. To respect his/her own personality.

Illness and Rehabilitation: Some examples of rehabilitation include:

According to WHO: ILLNESS is defined as  Exercises to improve a person’s speech,
the ill health the person identifies themselves language and communication after a
with, often based on self-reported mental or brain injury.
physical symptoms. In some cases, this may  Modifying an older person’s home
mean only minor or temporary problems, but environment to improve their safety and
in other cases self-reported illness might independence at home and to reduce their
include severe health problems or acute risk of falls.
suffering.  Exercise training and education on
healthy living for a person with a heart
REHABILITATION is defined as “a set of disease.
interventions designed to optimize  Making, fitting and educating an
functioning and reduce disability of illness in individual to use a prosthesis after a leg
amputation.
 18
 Positioning and splinting techniques to assistive products they require, or by
assist with skin healing, reduce swelling, addressing pain or other complications.
and to regain movement after burn Rehabilitation is an investment, with cost
surgery. benefits for both the individuals and society.
 Prescribing medicine to reduce muscle It can help to avoid costly hospitalization,
stiffness for a child with cerebral palsy. reduce hospital length of stay, and prevent
 Psychological support for a person with re-admissions. Rehabilitation also enables
depression. individuals to participate in education and
 Training in the use of a white cane, for a gainful employment, remain independent at
person with vision loss. home, and minimize the need for financial or
caregiver support. Rehabilitation is an
Rehabilitation is highly person-centered, important part of universal health coverage
meaning that the interventions and approach and is a key strategy for achieving
selected for each individual depends on their Sustainable Development Goal 3 – “Ensure
goals and preferences. Rehabilitation can be healthy lives and promote well-being for all
provided in many different settings, from at all ages”.
inpatient or outpatient hospital settings, to
private clinics, or community settings such Branches of Psychology:
as an individual’s home. A. Branches of pure psychology:
The rehabilitation workforce is made up of Pure psychology provides the framework
different health workers, including but not and theory of the subject. Its contents deal
limited to physiotherapists, occupational with the formulation of psychological
therapists, speech and language therapists principles and theories, which suggest
and audiologists, orthotists and prosthetists, various techniques for analysis, assessment,
clinical psychologists, physical medicine modification and improvement of behavior,
and rehabilitation doctors, and rehabilitation some branches of pure psychology are as
nurses. follows—
1. General psychology
The benefits of rehabilitation 2. Abnormal Psychology
Rehabilitation can reduce the impact of a 3. Social psychology
broad range of health conditions, including 4. Experimental psychology
diseases (acute or chronic), illnesses or 5. Physiological psychology
injuries. It can also complement other health 6. Para psychology
interventions, such as medical and surgical 7. Developmental psychology
interventions, helping to achieve the best
outcome possible. For example, B. Applied Psychology:
rehabilitation can help to reduce, manage or 1. Clinical psychology
prevent complications associated with many 2. Health psychology
health conditions, such as spinal cord injury, 3. Personality psychology
stroke, or a fracture. 4. Cognitive psychology
Rehabilitation helps to minimize or slow 5. Educational psychology
down the disabling effects of chronic health 6. Evolutionary psychology
conditions, such as cardiovascular disease, 7. Environmental psychology
cancer and diabetes by equipping people 8. Industrial and organizational
with self-management strategies and the psychology
9. Psychology of women
 19
10. Sports and exercise psychology b. Social influence.
11. Counselling psychology
12. Forensic psychology a. Social cognition:
13. Neuropsychology The study of the ways human beings
14. Occupational psychology process information about their social
15. Legal Psychology world including themselves, other people
16. Military Psychology & social essues.
17. Political Psychology b. Social influence:
18. Geriatric Psychology The study of the ways people influence
19. Paediatric Psychology each other‘s judgement‘s actions and
decisions.
A. Pure Psychology: [Ref. – AB Crider at 422]
1. General Psychology: It is relatively a
large area of field of psychology which Factors responsible for social
deals with the fundamental rules development:
principles and theories of psychology in Social development changes are caused
relation to the study of behavior of by several factors including war, flood,
normal adult human beings. Earthquake, population, education-
2. Abnormal psychology: Abnormal environment; man etc. following are the
psychology is the branch of factors which describe how they
psychology that look at psychopathology influence social change.
and abnormal behavior. 1. Demographic factors:
3. Social psychology: Social psychology Due to natural calamities, war, diseases
uses scientific methods to understand and environmental changes. We
how social influences impact human can find imbalance ratio of males and
behavior. It seeks to explain how females in population which direct social
feelings, behavior, and thoughts are changes.
influenced by the actual, imagined or 2. Economic factors:
implied presence of other people. A An individual economic condition affects
social psychologist looks at group social changes in clueing changes in their
behavior, social perception, non-verbal way of living way of interaction, culture,
behavior, conformity, aggression, routine life, languages etc.
prejudice, and leadership. Social 3. Industrial factors:
perception and social interaction are seen Like establishment of Industrial
as key to understanding social behavior. Township, urbanization and trade
unionism are responsible for several
Definitions of social psychology: kinds of social changes the lives of
Social psychology is the study of social people.
behavior. 4. Environmental factors:
Or. Due to flood earthquake excessive rain
Social psychology is the study of social change of season etc. so that
interaction or behavior the way people affect imbalance in population which directly
and relate to each other. affect the social relationship.
 We can divide social psychology into two 5. Psychological Factors:
areas: The cause of social changes in the
a. Social cognition. psychology of man himself as a of his
 20
tendency traditions waston ctc of every psychologists deal with issues like
human society are change. emotions, sleep, the senses, learning and
memory, communication, ingestion and
According to prof. Premnath following reproductive behavior. They also focus
are factors responsible for social changes. on neurological disorders, and study
a. Geographical factors – Natural disaster psychopharmacology to determine how
– migration of people. drugs impact the brain.
b. Environment factors. 6. Para psychology: It deals with extra
c. Population demographic factors. sensory perceptions, causes of
d. War. regeneration, telepathy and allied
e. Psychological, sociological factors – problem.
man education creativity. 7. Developmental psychology:
f. Technological factors – Inventions, Developmental psychology is the
discovers. scientific study of how and why human
g. Ideological factors – Culture, man. beings change over the course of their
h. Economical factors. life. Originally concerned with infants
i. Biological factors – man. and children, the field has expanded to
j. Political factors – Socially based on include adolescence, adult development,
rules and regulation, customs. So these aging, and the entire lifespan.
political leaders are product of society. Developmental psychologists aim to
4. Experimental psychology: The branch explain how thinking, feeling, and
of psychology concerned with the behaviors change throughout life. This
scientific study of behavior, motives, or field examines change across three major
cognition in a laboratory or other dimensions, which are physical
controlled setting in order to predict, development, cognitive development,
explain, or influence behavior or other and social emotional development.
psychological phenomena. Within these three dimensions are a
5. Physiological psychology: a branch of broad range of topics including motor
psychology that deals with the effects of skills, executive functions, moral
normal and pathological physiological understanding, language acquisition,
social change, personality, emotional
development, self-concept, and identity
formation.
Factors include motor skills, problem
solving, moral understanding, acquiring
language, emotions, personality, self-
concept, and identity formation. It also looks
at innate mental structures against learning
through experience, or how a person’s
characteristics interact with environmental
factors and how this impacts development.
Developmental psychology overlaps with
fields such as linguistics.

processes on mental life. Physiological

 21
B. Applied psychology: how people are individually different due to
1. Clinical psychology: psychological forces.
Clinical psychology integrates science,
theory, and practice in order to understand, 4. Cognitive psychology: Cognitive
predict and relieve problems with psychology investigates internal mental
adjustment, disability, and discomfort. It processes, such as problem solving,
promotes adaption, adjustment, and personal memory, learning, and language. It looks
development. at how people think, perceive,
A clinical psychologist concentrates on the communicate, remember, and learn. It is
intellectual, emotional, biological, closely related to neuroscience,
psychological, social, and behavioral aspects philosophy, and linguistics. Cognitive
of human performance throughout a psychologists look at how people
person’s life, across varying cultures and acquire, process, and store information.
socioeconomic levels. Clinical psychology Practical applications include how to
can help us to understand, prevent, and improve memory, increase the accuracy
alleviate psychologically-caused distress or of decision-making, or how to set up
dysfunction, and promote an individual’s educational programs to boost learning.
well-being and personal development.
Psychological assessment and 5. Educational Psychology: Educational
psychotherapy are central to the practice of psychology is the branch of psychology
clinical psychology, but clinical concerned with the scientific study of
psychologists are often also involved in human learning. Educational psychology
research, training, forensic testimony, and is an applied branch of general
other areas. psychology dealing with the application
of psychological principles in the field of
2. Health psychology: education. It deals with the learning
Health psychology is also called behavioral process of an individual, in the light of his
medicine or medical psychology. It observes physical, mental, emotional and social
how behavior, biology, and social context traits. It is a combination of the study of
influence illness and health. the individual and the study of the
A physician often looks first at the biological experiment in so far as they affect the
causes of a disease, but a health psychologist learning process. It helps the teacher to
will focus on the whole person and what foster harmonious overall development
influences their health status. This may of the learner.
include their socioeconomic status,
education, and background, and behaviors Scope of Educational Psychology:
that may have an impact on the disease, such The following are included in the scope of
as compliance with instructions and Educational Psychology.
medication. Health psychologists usually
work alongside other medical professionals I. Human Behavior:
in clinical settings. It studies human behavior in educational
3. Personality Psychology: situations. Psychology is the study of
Personality psychology is a branch of behavior and education deals with the
psychology that examines personality and its modification of behavior and hence,
variation among individuals. It aims to show educational psychology pervades in the
whole field of education.
 22
II. Growth and Development: important aspect of Educational
It studies growth and development of the Psychology.
child. How a child passes through various
stages of growth and what are the Importance /Purpose of Educational
characteristics of each stage are included in Psychology:
the study of Educational Psychology. W.A. Kelly (1941) listed the significance of
III. Learning Process: Educational Psychology as follows:
It studies the law of learning: learning is a I. To give understanding of the nature,
major phenomenon in education. It studies aims and purposes of education.
how learning can take place most effectively II. To give understanding of the scientific
and economically. methods and procedures which have
IV. Heredity and Environment: been used in arriving at the facts and
To what extent heredity and environment principles of educational psychology.
contribute towards the growth of the III. To present the principles and
individual and how this knowledge can be techniques of learning and teaching
used for bringing about the optimum IV. To give training in methods of
development of the child, form a salient measuring abilities and achievement in
feature of the scope of Educational school subjects.
Psychology. V. To give a knowledge of the growth and
V. Personality: development of children.
Educational Psychology deals with the VI. To assist in the better adjustment of
nature and development of the personality of children and to help them to prevent
an individual. In fact, education has been maladjustment.
defined as an all-round development of the VII. To study the educational significance
personality of an individual; personality and control of emotions and.
development also implies a well-adjusted VIII. To give an understanding of the
personality. principles and techniques of correct
VI. Individual Difference: training.
Every individual differs from another and it
is one of the fundamental facts of human Nature of Educational psychology:
nature, which has been brought to light by a. Educational psychology is a positive and
Educational Psychology. This one fact has not a normative science.
revolutionized the concept and process of b. Educational psychology is a Behavioral
education. science.
VII. Intelligence and its Measurement: c. Educational psychology is an Applied
The scope of Educational Psychology science.
includes the study of the nature of d. Educational psychology is Human
intelligence as well as its measurement. This Experimental Psychology.
is of great importance for a teacher or an e. Educational Psychology is a social
educator. science.
f. Educational psychology is an Outselling
VIII. Guidance and Counselling: This is one psychology.
of the most important fields or areas of g. Educational psychology is an
study included in the field of Educational science.
Educational Psychology. Education is
nothing but providing guidance to the
growing child. Thus, guidance forms an
 23
6. Evolutionary psychology: encourages individuals to critically
Evolutionary psychology looks at how analyze all subareas in psychology for
human behavior, for example language, their portrayal of women. The
has been affected by psychological psychology of women addresses topics
adjustments during evolution. An such as gender stereotyping, physical
evolutionary psychologist believes that development across the female life cycle,
many human psychological traits are theoretical perspectives on women’s
adaptive in that they have enabled us to personalities and mental health, women’s
survive over thousands of years. health issues, sexuality, reproductive
rights and reproductive health, verbal and
7. Environmental Psychology: nonverbal communications by and about
Environmental psychology is an women, women and intimate
interdisciplinary field that focuses on the relationships, career psychology of
transactions between individuals and women, women and leadership, gender,
their surroundings. It examines the way power and violence against women, and
in which the natural environment and our equity and social change.
built environments shape us as
individuals. 10. Sports and exercise psychology:
Exercise psychology and sport psychology
8. Industrial and organizational involve the scientific study of the
psychology: psychological factors that are associated
It is an applied discipline within with participation and performance in sport,
psychology, is the science of human exercise and other types of physical activity.
behavior in the workplace.
11. Counselling psychology: Counseling
9. Psychology of Women: The field of the Psychology is a generalist health service
psychology of women is also referred to (HSP) specialty in professional
as feminist psychology since the psychology that uses a broad range of
objective of this discipline is to culturally-informed and culturally-
understand the women behavior. The sensitive practices to help people
field of the psychology of women improve their well-being, prevent and
provides feminist correctives to the alleviate distress and maladjustment,
theories and research that have omitted, resolve crises, and increase their ability
trivialized, and distorted women’s to function better in their lives. It focuses
experiences to fit into a male-biased specifically but not exclusively on
structure. Thus, the field of the normative life-span development, with a
psychology of women recognizes the particular emphasis on prevention and
inequality of social and institutional education as well as amelioration,
power between women and men; makes addressing individuals as well as the
values of the researcher central to systems or contexts in which they
scientific study; studies women’s function. It has particular expertise in
behavior and experiences within social work and career issues.
contexts across the life cycle; and
advocates for change at the individual, 12. Forensic psychology: Forensic
organizational, and societal levels. The psychology involves applying
field of the psychology of women also psychology to criminal investigation and
 24
the law. A forensic psychologist practices 16. Military Psychology: This branch of
psychology as a science within the psychology is concern with the use of
criminal justice system and civil courts. psychological principles and techniques
It involves assessing the psychological in the military science.
factors that might influence a case or
behavior and presenting the findings in 17. Political Psychology: Here psychology
court. is use in studying politics and deriving
political gains.
13. Neuropsychology: Neuropsychology
looks at the structure and function of the 18. Geriatric Psychology:
brain in relation to behaviors and Geriatric psychology is a subfield of
psychological processes. A psychology that specializes in the mental and
neuropsychology may be involved if a physical health of individuals in the later
condition involves lesions in the brain, stages of life. These specialized
and assessments that involve recording psychologists study a variety of
electrical activity in the brain. A psychological abilities that deplete as aging
neuropsychological evaluation is used to occurs such as memory, learning
determine whether a person is likely to capabilities, and coordination. Geriatric
experience behavioral problems psychologists work with elderly clients to
following suspected or diagnosed brain conduct the diagnosis, study, and treatment
injury, such as a stroke. of certain mental illnesses in a variety of
The results can enable a doctor to provide workplace settings. Common areas of
treatment that may help the individual practice include loneliness in old age,
achieve possible improvements in depression, dementia, Alzheimer’s disease,
cognitive damage that has occurred. vascular dementia, and Parkinson’s disease.

14. Occupational psychology: Role of the Geriatric Psychologist

Occupational or organizational A geriatric psychologist specializes in the
psychologists are involved in assessing treatment of the elderly. This treatment can
and making recommendations about the include mental health problems or aid in
performance of people at work and in understanding and coping with the aging
training. They help companies to find process. In order to become a geriatric
more effective ways to function, and to psychologist, one must obtain a doctoral
understand how people and groups degree in psychology and specialize in adult
behave at work. This information can development and aging. Once the degree is
help improve effectiveness, efficiency, obtained, geriatric psychologists will usually
job satisfaction, and employee retention. work in hospitals, mental health clinics,
rehab centers, nursing homes, and research
15. Legal Psychology: It is an applied centers.
psychology which tries to study behavior
of the person like clients, criminal, Geriatric psychologists spend most of their
witnesses etc. with the help of workday addressing mental health issues in
applications of psychological principles older adults and counseling those that need
and technique. it. They also aid in the diagnosis of age-
related problems. In order to check for
mental health issues, geriatric psychologists
 25
will conduct clinical interviews, pediatric conditions, and advocating for
neuropsychological tests and behavioral public policy that promotes children's health.
observations.
Role of the paediatric psychologist
Psychosocial needs of the elderly patient: The field of paediatric psychology
Therefore, psychosocial needs of the elderly developed to address unmet needs for
involve mental, social and physical needs psychological services in the paediatric
among the aged. We will address some of setting and the field blends together several
these needs and some possible management distinct areas in psychology (such as
to promote comfort and dignity. behavioral medicine, health psychology,
developmental psychology, etc.) (Roberts,
Psychological problem of elderly person: Maddux, Wurtele, & Wright, 1982).
These psychological problems are studied Pediatric psychology is an integrated field of
under the umbrella of geriatric psychology. science and practice in which the principles
Four common problems that can affect of psychology are applied within the
elderly patients are depression, anxiety environment of pediatric health. The Society
disorders, substance abuse and psychotic of Pediatric Psychology (SPP, Division 54)
disorders. Each of these occurs in younger resides under the American Psychological
patients as well but are especially Association (APA), SPP aims to promote
problematic in older adults. health and psychological well-being of
children, adolescents, and their families
19. Paediatric Psychology through the promotion of evidence-based
Pediatric psychology is a multidisciplinary science and practice, education, training, and
field of both scientific research and clinical advocacy. The field was founded in 1969 and
practice which attempts to address the includes a broad interdisciplinary
psychological aspects of illness, injury, and foundation, drawing on clinical,
the promotion of health behaviors in developmental, social, cognitive, behavioral,
children, adolescents, and families in a counseling, community and school
pediatric health setting. Psychological issues psychology.
are addressed in a developmental framework
and emphasize the dynamic relationships Pediatric psychologists work in a variety of
which exist between children, their families, settings and fulfill various roles such as
and the health delivery system as a (Spirito, 2003):
whole.
(1) Providing psychosocial services for
Common areas of study include problems related to pediatric health
psychosocial development, environmental conditions
factors which contribute to the development
of a disorder, outcomes of children with (2) Psychological services for mental health
medical conditions, treating the comorbid problems appearing in medical settings—
behavioral and emotional components of which involves mental issues related to
illness and injury, and promoting proper medical conditions or the treatment of them,
health behaviors, developmental disabilities, coping related to chronic and acute illnesses,
educating psychologists and other health adherence, quality of life, pain, traumatic
professionals on the psychological aspects of medical stress, adjustment related issues on
 26
the psycho-social continuum, school pediatric psychology and delivered in
reintegration, and behavioral problems health care settings.
4. Research methods and systems
(3) Psychological services for mental health evaluation: Exposure to research design
problems without concomitant health issues especially pertinent to pediatric
condition psychology such as health services
research and clinical trials.
(4) Programs for promotion of 5. Professional, ethical, and legal issues
health/prevention and early intervention pertaining to children, adolescents, and
families: knowledge and experience with
(5) Provide assistance for those with Mental issues such as health care delivery,
retardation and/or developmental disabilities practice of psychology in medical
settings, and rights of caregivers vs.
(6) Psychological training and consultation children when making decisions
for physicians regarding medical care.
6. Issues of diversity: Experience with
(7) Public health and public policy. patients from diverse ethnic and cultural
backgrounds, as well as sexual
Scope of Pediatric Psychology: orientations, in health care settings and
According to the work of a recent task force understanding of nonmainstream health
commissioned by the Society of Pediatric practices influenced by a family's cultural
Psychology, Division 54 of the American or religious beliefs.
Psychological Association, 12 topic areas 7. The role of multiple disciplines in
adapted from Roberts et al. (1998) were service-delivering systems. Experience
identified as important areas of expertise in on multidisciplinary teams delivering
pediatric psychology: health care services.
8. Prevention, family support, and health
1. Lifespan developmental promotion: understanding the principles
psychopathology: the effects of one's of behavior change as they relate to
disease and medical regimen on healthy development, health-risk
emotional, social, and behavioral behavior, and prevention of disease in
development; additionally, normal adulthood.
developmental milestones may be used 9. Social issues affecting children,
such that preventative efforts can be adolescents, and families: exposure to
created and well-child visits can include a and experience with advocacy in
psychological-developmental pediatric health care including social
perspective. issues that affect health care delivery.
2. Child, adolescent, and family assessment:
experience with the assessment of health- Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial
related concerns such as health Development:
promotion, health risk, health outcome, Erikson maintained that personality
and quality of life. develops in a predetermined order through
3. Intervention strategies: Exposure to and eight stages of psychosocial development,
experience with empirically supported from infancy to adulthood. During each
interventions specifically applicable in stage, the person experiences a psychosocial
crisis which could have a positive or
 27
negative outcome for personality however, can be resolved successfully at a
development. For Erikson (1958, 1963), later time.
these crises are of a psychosocial nature
because they involve psychological needs of
the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with
the needs of society (i.e., social).
According to the theory, successful
completion of each stage results in a healthy
personality and the acquisition of basic
virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic
strengths which the ego can use to resolve
subsequent crises.
Failure to successfully complete a stage can
result in a reduced ability to complete further
stages and therefore an unhealthier
personality and sense of self. These stages,
more accurate perspective of human and
Aim or goal of Psychology: animal behavior, thoughts, and actions.
To sum up, psychology is centered on four To achieve this goal, psychologists use a
major goals: to describe, explain, predict, variety of research methods, including
and change or control behaviors. These goals surveys, case studies, natural observation,
are the foundation of most theories and and self-assessment tests. Through these
studies in an attempt to understand the scientific methods, behavior can be
cognitive, emotional, and behavioral described in minute details and as
processes that people face in their daily lives. objectively as possible. Once the action has
been described, the information gathered is
Four Main Aims or Goals of Psychology: used as basis to further study the behavior
Psychology is devoted to understanding an that just occurred.
individual’s emotions, personality, and mind
through a series of scientific studies, Explain
observations, experiments, and research. Once a specific behavior has been described,
Like every other subject, the study of psychologists then attempt to go beyond the
psychology aims to achieve a specific set of obvious and explain why people act the way
goals. Basically, it has four primary goals: to they do. Through a series of rigorous tests,
describe, explain, predict, and control scientific experiments, and observations,
behavior (Coon, Mitterer, 2013). psychology expounds on the reason behind
someone’s actions. Explaining behavior
Describe provides answers to why people behave the
The first goal of psychology is to describe way they do under different circumstances.
the actual phenomenon in which humans and Throughout the history of psychology, many
animals behave in different situations. By theories have been formulated to explain all
describing a problem, an issue, or behavior, aspects of human behavior. While some are
psychologists can distinguish between classified as mini theories (those that focus
normal and abnormal behavior, allowing on minor aspects of human thoughts and
them to gain a better understanding and a action), a large part of psychological studies
revolves around the grand theories that
 28
encompass intricate details to explain understanding the mechanisms behind a
everything about human psychology. certain phenomenon (“How the goals of
Some of the well-known theories that psychology,” n.d.). For instance, when
explain all aspects of human psychology qualitative data reveals that certain scores in
include Pavlov’s theory of classical aptitude tests predict student dropout rates,
conditioning, which refers to a learning the information can be used to estimate the
procedure where two kinds of biologically number of students who might leave school
potent stimuli are linked together to produce each year.
a newly acquired learning response from an Successfully predicting behavior is
animal or a person. important to the last and most important goal
According to John Watson, the American in psychology, which is to control or change
psychologist who popularized the behavior.
behaviorism theory, Pavlov’s classical
conditioning theory explains that everything Control
about human behavior—from speech to Aside from treating mental illnesses and
emotional responses—is simply patterns of enhancing well-being, changing or
stimulus and response (“Classical controlling human behavior is a huge focus
conditioning,” 2007). of psychology (“How the goals of
psychology,” n.d.). Various psychological
studies about human behavior are used to
influence, change, or control behavior using
previously gathered data about human
behavior.
In psychology, there are a number of theories
that deal with changing or controlling
people’s behavior. Some of these widely
known theories include the health belief
model, the theory of planned behavior,
diffusion of innovation theory, social
cognitive theory, the transtheoretical model,
and the social norms theory.
Whether behavior can be successfully
Predict changed or controlled largely depends on
Making predictions based on how people one’s ability to accurately define a
previously thought and acted is the third goal behavioral issue, assess the fundamental
of psychology. By analyzing past observed causes of these problems, and develop and
behavior, psychological studies aim to implement theory and evidence-based
predict and anticipate how a certain behavior interventions.
will appear again in the future. This allows
psychologists to form a pattern of behavior
and better understand the underlying causes
of people’s actions.
By analyzing qualitative data consisting of
thought and action patterns, psychologists
and researchers can accurately make guesses
about human behavior without necessarily
 29

Importance of psychology in the

different field:
1. In the field of Education/Learning:
 Baby has contributed a great deal towards
the improvement of the processes and
products of education.
 It has helped in the assessment of natural
abilities and acquired characteristics.
 Theories of learning, motivation and
personality are responsible for shaping
and designing educational systems
according to the needs of the students.
2. In the field of medicine:
 Behavior counts much more than
medicines and behavior can be learned
only through psychology.  Psychology has changed our outlook on
 Psychology has contributed many criminology.
valuable therapeutic measures like  A background knowledge of psychology
behavior therapy, group therapy. Shock is very useful for our lawmakers to know
therapy and psychoanalysis. the formal and informal laws of the
3. In the field of guidance and counseling: country.
 Knowledge of psychology helps to 6. Psychology as a teaching subject:
provide guidance and counseling to  Psychology has a large scope as a
persons with probles of adjustment, in the teaching subject in colleges and
field of education, employment and universities.
private life. 7. In the field of Self-development:
4. In the field of industry and business  Psychology helps the individual to –
management: know his assets and limitations, abilities
 Psychology has helped in selection, and short comings, habits and
training and placement of staff in temperament.
industry.  It may help him control his emotions
5. In the field of law: building of proper sentiments and
character.

Importance of psychology in physiotherapy:

 To understand others  To help to analyze the patients inner

 To understand the problem of the people feeling
 To identify the problem of the patient  To know the patients verbal and nonverbal
 To provide quality care to the patient cues
 To develop good relationship with the  To help to being cordial, caring,
client acceptable and friendly
 To provide proper sympathy and empathy
 30
 To help to giving accurate information be, in positive science we merely describe
about disease and can give feedback to the behavior as we discover or find it without
patient evaluating it.
 To understand about disease and other
problem.  It discovers and explains the underlying
laws and principles of behavior and forms
Nature/ Characteristics of Psychology: a well-organized theory of human
The nature of psychology is quite behaviors.
scientific. This fact has been property  It collects the subject matter or facts
recognized by eminent psychologists and of behavior by means of objective
thinkers as may be inferred from the methods such as observation and
definition of psychology, in terms of the experiment.
scientific study or science of behavior. A  I t helps us predict and control behavior
science is a systematic body of knowledge to some extent, with the
about a particular set of events, phenomena  help of the general laws it prescribes.
or objects in nature, accumulated through  It describes the facts of human behavior
methodical and systematic observation. and its laws as they are rather than as they
Any field of knowledge that satisfies this ought to be.
requirement can be called science. Let us
described the nature of psychology as On the basis of above characteristics, it
follows: may be established beyond doubt that
It is a positive or nature, not a normative, psychology qualifies as a science. Its
science, ethics is a normative science nature is quite scientific, and not
because it deals with behavior as it should philosophical.

METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY: b) Naturalistic observation methods:

Scientific basic Methods of Psychology: Information is gathered by observing
A. Specify the problem behavior as it unfolds in natural settings.
B. Design the study c) Experimental method: Study behavior
C. Collect the data by the use of controlled
D. Report the conclusions experimentation.
d) Clinical method: It is a case study
METHODS of Psychological research: approach in which psychologists study
There are some major scientific methods the problems and therapies in clinical
used in psychology as the scientific study of settings for the diagnosis of mental
behavior. disorders.
They are as follows— e) Correlational methods: A non-
a) Introspection methods experimental study designed to measure
b) Naturalistic observation methods the degree of relationship between two or
c) Experimental method more variables or events.
d) Clinical methods f) Survey methods: This method uses
e) Survey methods questionnaires to poll a large group of
f) Case study people.
a) Introspection methods: Self-analysis of g) Case study is a minute study of a
one’s own inner feelings. particular individual case. It is the in-
depth analysis of a person, group or
 31
phenomenon. This method is applied to analyzing one’s own emotional
study special behavioural problems of an experiences.
individual by specially trained teachers,
psychologists and psychiatrists. The Limitations Disadvantages:
main objective of this method is to help  The state of one’s mental processes is
the individual adjust better with the continuously changing: It is impossible
environment and gain self-confidence to to introspect one’s mental activity at a
attain higher levels of achievement. particular time.
 This method lacks repeatability: The
INTROSPECTION METHOD introspected individual’s report will not
Description: This is the oldest method for be the same as it is introspected again by
the study of behavior, which was introduced some other situation of same emotion.
by Wilhelm Wundt, the father of  It is not possible to verify the self –
psychology. The word introspection is observation: Generally, in scientific
derived from two Latin words, intra methods, the results can be verified, as
meaning ‗within’ or inward’ and spiere it is objective measurement, but in
meaning ‗to look’. Hence, introspection introspection the reports cannot be
means ‗looking within’. It is a sort of self- verified as it is more subjective
observation in which one perceives, measurement.
analyzes and reports one’s own feelings and,  It is impossible to acquire validity and
in fact, everything that takes place in one’s exactness in self-observation: In
mind during the course of mental act. For scientific meth odds, the results have
example, when an individual is in a state of validity and accuracy in measurement,
anger, anxiety or fear, one may be asked to but in the introspection there is no precise
determine one’s own observation about what data.
one sensed, thought or felt at the time of  This method cannot be applied to study
experiencing that emotion. all behaviors: It has limitations in
application, f o r example, the
Merits / Advantages: introspection is possible only by
 Introspection method is a simple and mentally matured individual not by all.
readily available method: One’s mental
processes are always present and can be NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
introspected at any time. METHOD
 It gives us a direct and immediate insight Description: Psychologists sometimes
into one’s own mental processes: The actively observe behavior in natural settings.
information gathered through these Naturalistic observation allows us to study
methods is always first-hand behavior that has not been tampered with by
information, which is immediate outside influences. It is thus essentially a
understanding and analysis of one’s own way of perceiving the behavior as it is. By
feelings, as are felt. this method, we can infer the mental
 It provides adequate knowledge of the processes of others through overt behavior
inner experiences and feelings: No other (external behavior). Thus, it is an indirect
method will provide an analysis of one’s approach to the study of mental process.
own emotional feelings. This method
paves the way for gathering and
 32
Merits / Advantages: the most powerful research tool that is used
 Naturalistic observation method is more in psychology as the most scientific study of
realistic or natural: This method gives behavior. Psychologists carefully control
more realistic data for the researcher to conditions in experiments to identify cause
analyze the nature of behavior, than is and effect relationship. In an experimental
provided by controlled observation. study, the experimenter has complete control
 It is used very much in developmental over the variables. Variables are any
studies: The human growth and conditions that can be changed and that
development or the changes in behavior might affect the outcome of the experiment.
over the span of time is studied through There are three types of variables:
this method more objectively. independent variables, dependent variables
 It is very much used to study abnormal and extraneous variables.
behavior: In the study of abnormal
behavior. Clinical psychologists collect a) Independent variables are conditions
data by observing people under natural altered or varied by the experimenter, who
conditions of their day-to-day life. acts their size, amount or value. Independent
variables are suspected causes for
Limitations / Disadvantages: differences in behavior.
 Observer effect: This method suffers with
the demerit of observer effect, a tendency b) Dependent variables measure the results
of people or animals to behave differently of the experiment. That is, they reveal the
from normal when they know they are effects that independent variables have on
being observed. behavior.
 Observer bias: This method has a major
demerit as the observer bias, a tendency c) Extraneous variables are conditions that
of observers to see what they expect to an experimenter wishes to prevent from
see or observe affecting the outcome of the experiments, but
 Each naturalist environment is unique: these conditions are not controlled by the
each naturalist sent with other. experimenter. Sometimes they can affect the
results of experiments without
 Observation that is made at one time in
one setting may not hold true forum time, consciousness of the experimenter.
even if the setting is similar, because it’s
conditions are not going to be die same Merits / Advantages:
time after time.  Experimenter has total control over
variables: In observation method, the
 Inability to establish cause and effect
relationship: In the beginning the psychologist or experimenter does not
have any control over the natural
observer does not have any control over
phenomenon, but in the experimental
natural environment, so it is impossible to
infer exact cause and effect relationship method the experimenter eliminates
irrelevant conditions and studies the
of any observed
phenomena. exact causal relationship between two
behavioral phenomena (independent and
dependent variables).
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Description: The experimental method is  It is more objective measure of behavior:
considered the most scientific and objective The results obtained are objectively
method of studying behavior. This method is
 33
observed and measured, on the basis of and clinical interview method for the
which certain conclusions are reached. investigation of an individual.

Limitations Disadvantages: Merits:

 Experimental environment is completely  In – depth information: This method
a rigid condition: Experimental condition provides tremendous amount of details
is more of an artificial situation, about single individual as it used different
therefore, the Behavior studied under techniques to collect the maximum
experimental condition is different from information from all the dimensions, such
the spontaneous or the natural as physical, social, emotional and
environment. environmental.
 It is difficult to control the intervening  Valuable method to study mental
variables. The experiment studies the disorders: Clinical method is more
relationship between independent suggestive way of collecting data or
variable and dependent variable, but in background information to diagnose the
real life experiment it is difficult to root causes of mental disorder
control all the factors that influence
human behavior Limitations:
 Human behavior is not mechanical:  Clinical method demands more
human behavior is always dynamic, it is proficiency in handling: Clinical method
not essary that the independent variable is not used by everyone as it demands
always produces the same effect, as is proper technical skills in handling the
produced by the mechanical activity information collected and special training
 Experimental method is costly and time in collecting the data, such as confuting
consuming: As the experimental the clinical interview.
condition is artificial, it is costlier and  The results cannot be generalized: As the
time consuming to establish the clinical method studies the individual
 desired environment. behavior you’re in depth, the obtained
result cannot be generalized because of
CLINICAL METHOD individual difference in case study.
Description: It is difficult or impossible to
use the experimental method to study mental CORRELATIONAL METHOD
disorders, such as depression or psychosis. Description: This method is used to find the
Case study is in – depth collection of degree of relationship, or correlation
information about a patient are mentally between two existing traits or behavior or
disturbed individual. Case studies are variables. The first two factors of interest are
sometimes called as natural clinical tests. At measured, and then a statistical technique is
the first level, the case study is employed to used to find their degree of correlation. The
understand the various factors related to the strength and direction of a relationship can
occurrence of a particular event. Clinical be expressed as a coefficient or correlation,
method is used to investigate the root causes such as positive or negative. Positive
of a problem or exceptional behavior and correlation shows that increase in one
suggesting as well as providing proper measure is matched by increase in
environment and possible treatment. This other. Negative correlation shows that
method uses other techniques such as increased in one variable is associates with
physical examination, case history analysis decreased in other. The correlation
 34
numerical interpretation ranges from 1.00+ Merits:
1.00 indicates perfect positive relationship  Use on a large group: It is a more suitable
and -1.00 indicates perfect negative method to study the behavior of a large
relationship. If the number is zero or close to group of people.
zero, the associated between two measures is  More economical and less time
weak or nonexistent. consuming: This method takes less time
to collect the information as it uses
Merits: questionnaires and the expenditure is also
 Discover the relationship between two or very less while collecting the data.
more variables: This method always  Results can be generalized: Through this
predicts the degree and direction of method, the result can be generalized
relationship between two or more because the data is collected on the
variables. sample of population as a whole and not
as an individual data.
Limitations:  More flexible: In the survey method, the
 Correlation method does not determine data collation is more flexible and any
the cause and effect connection always: data can be collected with lesser risk.
Correlation does not demonstrate
causation. Just because of the appearance Limitations:
of one variable, is not necessary for the  It is impossible to check the accuracy of
other variables to also always follow. information: As the survey data is
 Correlation method does not have collected from the sample subjects,
complete control over other factors: The sometimes the subject misunderstands
observation of correlation method has the the information.
limitation, as it has the lack of control
over the intervening variables.
Key school of thoughts or Systems of
psychology:
SURVEY METHOD
Description: In the survey method, public A. Holism:
Holism refers to any approach that
polling technique is used to answer
emphasizes the whole rather than their
psychological questions (questionnaires).
constituent parts. In other words, ‘the whole
Typically, people in a representative sample
is greater than the sum of its parts’.
are asked a series of carefully worded
Qualitative methods of the humanistic
questions. A representative sample is a small
approach reflect a holistic position. Social
group that accurately reflects a larger
psychology also takes a holistic view.
population. The survey method is employed
to know how a particular behavior is
B. Reductionism:
distributed among a group of people. For
Reductionism is a mode of explanation
example, if we want to understand the
(opposite to holism), which attempts to
attitude of college students then a survey is
describe and understand human behavior in
undertaken. Surveys can be generally
terms of simple components or units.
relating to the people at large or to specific
Complex phenomena should be explained by
groups like students or workers or business
the simplest underlying principles possible.
people, etc.
 35
C. Structuralism: John Dewey: one of the primary figures
Structuralism was the first school of associated with philosophy of pragmatism
psychology and focused on breaking down and is considered one of the founders of
mental processes into the most basic functional psychology. A well-known public
components. Researchers tried to understand intellectual, he was also a major voice of
the basic elements of consciousness using a progressive education and liberalism.
method known as introspection. Harvey Carr: developer of functionalism.
Along with John Dewey and James Rowland
Strengths of Structuralism: Angell, he is credited with the development
Structuralism is important because it is the of functionalism as a school of thought.
first major school of thought in psychology. James Angell: an American psychologist
Structuralism also strongly influenced and educator. He served as the president of
experimental psychology. Yale University between 1921 and 1937.
Like complex chemical compounds are
made of elements, psychologists made E. Behaviorism:
a similar approach and started looking for While both structuralism and
mental elements of which complex functionalism had considered the method
phenomena were composed of. As water of introspection as a valid one,
was analyzed into elements hydrogen and behaviorism, under the leadership of
oxygen by chemists, the taste of lemonade John B Watson (1878-1958) rejected it
(a perception) was considered to be as being something of a private
composed of psychological elements experience and not available for testing,
(sensations) such as sweet, sour, salt and observation and checking.
bitter. These elements were arrived at by the F. Freewill:
method of careful, trained introspection, (i.e. The freewill approach assumes that
looking within oneself). humans are free to choose their behavior,
that they are essentially self-determining.
D. Functionalism:
Psychologists like William James of  We think we can freely choose to do
Harvard University did experiments on many actions, think many thoughts,
ways in which learning, memory, problem etc.
solving and motivation helped people and
animals adapt to their environment.  Raising my arm.
Functionalism was a reaction to  Becoming a philosopher.
structuralism. Functionalism refers to a  To kill or not to kill.
general psychological philosophy that  To exit which door after class.
considers mental life and behavior in terms
of active adaptation to the person's
environment. As such, it provides the
general basis for developing psychological
theories not readily testable by controlled
experiments and for applied psychology.

Major Functionalist Thinkers:

William James: The first educator to offer
a psychology course in the United States.
 36

The ability of the student to see one of

the images and focus on it even though
there are two is considered freewill.

G. Determinism:
Determinism is the name of a broader
philosophical view that conjectures that
every type of event, including human
cognition (behavior, decision, and
action) is causally determined by
previous events.
In philosophical arguments, the concept
of determinism in the domain of human
action is often contrasted with free will.
A social category reflecting particular
To the Determinist, experiences shared by many people
the universe is like
clockwork. belonging to a category called race.

Culture:
A program of
Categories:
shared rules,
white,
attitudes,
black,
values, and
Native American,
beliefs that
Asian,
govern the
Hispanic/Latino
behavior of the
majority of community members
communicated from one generation to the
next.

Race:
a group of people distinguished by certain
similar and genetically transmitted physical
characteristics; antiquated and meaningless

Ethnicity
Cultural heritage i.e., common ancestral
origin, language, traditions, religion,
geographic territory.
 37
Nation
People who share common geographical K. Gestalt Psychology:
origin, history, language, & political entity Gestalt psychology, gestaltism or
Traditional culture configurationism is a school of
Cultural construct rooted in traditions, rules, psychology that emerged in the early
symbols, & principles established in past twentieth century in Austria and
Germany as a theory of perception that
Non-traditional culture or modern was a rejection of basic principles of
culture: Wilhelm Wundt's and Edward
Based on new principles, ideas, and practices Titchener's elementalist and structuralist
psychology.
H. Collectivism:
Behavior based on As used in Gestalt psychology, the
i. Concern for others German word Gestalt (/ɡəˈʃtælt, -ˈʃtɑːlt, -
ii. Care for traditions & values ˈʃtɔːlt, -ˈstɑːlt, -ˈstɔːlt/ gə-SHTA(H)LT, -
iii. Prefer harmony in conflict ⁠STAHLT, -⁠S(H)TAWLT, German:
resolution [ɡəˈʃtalt] (listen); meaning "form" is
iv. Found in Asian & former interpreted as "pattern" or
communist countries "configuration". Gestalt psychologists
I. Individualism: emphasized that organisms perceive
Behavior based on entire patterns or configurations, not
i. Concern for self & one’s primary merely individual components. The view
group. is sometimes summarized using the
ii. Prefer competitive strategies. adage, "the whole is more than the sum
iii. Found in Western countries. of its parts." Gestalt principles,
proximity, similarity, figure-ground,
J. Ethnocentrism: continuity, closure, and connection,
The view that supports judgment about describe how humans perceive visuals in
other ethnic, national, and cultural groups connection with different objects and
and events from the onlooker’s cultural environments.
outlook i.E., An implication that one’s
group of origin is better than others. L. Psychoanalysis:
Psychoanalysis is a set of theories and
therapeutic techniques that deal in part
with the unconscious mind, and which
together form a method of treatment for
mental disorders.

M. Humanism:
Humanism stresses the importance of
human values and dignity. It proposes
that people can resolve problems through
the use of science and reason. Rather than
looking to religious traditions, humanism
instead focuses on helping people live
 38
well, achieve personal growth, and make 3. Humanistic Therapy
the world a better place. Humanistic therapy focuses on
examining a patient’s worldview and
5 Types of Therapy in Psychology: how it affects their everyday choices. It
1. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy deals with unraveling one’s true self,
(CBT) processing others’ criticism, and
Cognitive behavioral therapy, or CBT, is realizing self-acceptance.
often utilized to help people who struggle This type of therapy is slightly different
with negative thoughts or are looking to from others because humanistic therapy
break a habit. In CBT practices, the focuses on the specifics of an individual’s
psychologist must study a patient’s day-to-day life.
patterns of thinking and gain Humanistic therapists’ job is to help
understanding of the origins of these patients gain personal acceptance,
patterns. Once identified, specialists can determine what they wish to achieve in
work to combat thought patterns that are life, and find the methods that will help
causing emotional harm, focusing on them get there.
developing coping mechanisms that will
help patients deal with issues as they Engaging in humanistic therapy requires
arise in the long term. the help of a psychologist or licensed
clinical social worker with training in
A psychologist (Ph.D.or Psy.D.), a humanistic therapy to guide participants
licensed clinical social worker (MSW), through the process.
or a licensed professional counselor
(M.A., M.S., or Ph.D.) trained in CBT 4. Psychoanalytic Therapy
can properly treat patients in need of this Psychoanalytic therapy deals with
specific counseling. understanding the subconscious or
unconscious mind. This type of therapy
2. Psychodynamic Therapy may be the best fit for those who have
This type of therapy focuses on self- undergone therapy for a long time and
awareness and self-examination. In this want to go deeper to understand the
practice, psychologists will guide unconscious origin of the thoughts that
patients toward identifying the root cause affect their actions.
of any suffering or problematic Psychoanalytic therapy is often used for
relationships. patients with compulsions, obsessions, or
Many parts of psychodynamic therapy phobias. The therapist will then help their
evolve from principles of psychoanalysis patients explore the unconscious and
and can be applied to a wide range of subconscious mind to find the origins of
psychological disorders. Psychologists destructive behaviors and work to
who practice psychodynamic therapy eliminate them.
help patients to form a practical and Psychoanalysts—likely psychiatrists
positive sense of self. (M.D.), psychologists, or licensed
Psychodynamic therapy can be carried professional counselors—who have been
out by a licensed clinical social worker, a trained in psychoanalytic theory and
psychologist, or a licensed professional technique are best fit to oversee the
counselor who has training or experience process of psychoanalysis.
in psychodynamic therapy.
 39
5. Integrative or Holistic Therapy greater awareness of self and the
Holistic therapy is an integrative environment, which will, in turn,
approach to counseling based on promote greater acceptance of self and
principles of psych synthesis. It deals clients. Therapists in this profession
with understanding the relationship views their patient’s symptoms as a
among the spirit, mind, and body of an window into their consciousness, which
individual and addresses how issues in can lead to or bring attention to a person’s
one aspect of a person’s lifestyle can higher awareness.
affect other areas.
Pursuing integrative and holistic therapy
as a career exposes practitioners to

Question:

1. Define psychology. [Jul-11, Jul-9, May-8, Feb-16, feb 2018]

2. Describe the perspectives of psychology. [Jul-11, Jul-09, 2019]
3. What are the aims of psychology? [Feb-16]
4. What are the branches of psychology? [Feb-2016]
5. What are the aims of psychology? [2016]
6. Define social psychology. [Jun-13, Mar-12, Jan-09]
7. What the factors responsible for social development? [Jan-9, Jun13, Mar-12]
8. Describe Erikson's stages of psychology social development. [Feb2016, jul 17]
9. Methods of psychology? [Feb 18].

Reference:
1. Stefana, Alberto. 2017. History of Countertransference: From Freud to the British Object
Relations School. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1138214613.
2. Freedheim, D.K.; DiFilippo, J.M; Klostermann, S. (2015). Encyclopedia of Mental Health
(2nd ed.). New York: Elsevier. pp. 348–356. ISBN 978-0-12-397753-3.
3. Birnbach, Martin. 1961. Neo-Freudian Social Philosophy. Stanford: Stanford University
Press. p. 3.
4. Kaplan & Sadock’s Concise Textbook of Clinical Psychiatry, 2nd edition, Lippingcott
Williams & Wilkins, 2004.
5. Gay, Peter. 1988. Freud: A Life for Our Time. New York: W. W. Norton. pp. 3–4, 103.
6. Mitchell, Juliet. 2000. Psychoanalysis and Feminism: A Radical Reassessment of Freudian
Psychoanalysis. London: Penguin Books. p. 341.
7. Fromm, Erich. 1992. The Revision of Psychoanalysis. New York: Open Road. pp. 12–13.
(points 1 to 6).
 40
8. Chessick, Richard D. 2007. The Future of Psychoanalysis. Albany: State University of New
York Press. p. 125.
9. Thompson, M. Guy. 2004. The Ethic of Honesty: The Fundamental Rule of Psychoanalysis.
Rodopi. p. 75.
10. Hinshelwood, Robert D. 2001. "Surveying the Maze." In Psychoanalysis and
Psychotherapy: The Controversies and the Future, edited by S. Frisch, R. D. Hinshelwood,
and J-M. Gauthier. Karnac Publishing. p. 128. [session frequency].
11. Borch-Jacobsen, Mikkel; Shamdasani, Sonu (2012). The Freud Files: An Inquiry into the
History of Psychoanalysis. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-72978-9.
12. Stengel, E. 1953. Sigmund Freud on Aphasia (1891). New York: International Universities
Press.
13. Freud, Sigmund, and Josef Breuer. 1955 [1895]. Studies on Hysteria, Standard Editions 2,
edited by J. Strachey. London: Hogarth Press.
14. Freud, Sigmund. 1966 [1895]. "Project for a Scientific Psychology." Pp. 347–445 in
Standard Editions 3, edited by J. Strachey. London: Hogarth Press.
15. Freud, Sigmund. 1896. "L'hérédité et l’étiologie des névroses" [Heredity and the etiology
of neuroses]. Revue neurologique 4(6):161–69. via Psychanalyste Paris.
16. Roudinesco, Élisabeth, and Michel Plon. 2011 [1997]. Dictionnaire de la psychanalyse.
Paris: Fayard. p. 1216.
17. Freud, Sigmund. 1953 [1896]. "The Aetiology of Hysteria." Pp. 191–221 in The Standard
Edition 3, edited by J. Strachey. London: Hogarth Press. Lay summary via University of
Washington.
 41

Chapter- 2

Anatomical & Physiological Aspects of Psychology

Concept about Nervous System
The nervous system is a complex network The nervous system includes both the central
of nerves and cells that carry messages to nervous system and peripheral nervous
and from the brain and spinal cord to various system. The Central nervous system is
parts of the body. made up of the brain and
 42
spinal cord and The Peripheral nervous  The somatic nervous system is
system is made up of the Somatic and the involved in voluntary activities, such
Autonomic nervous systems. as movement of skeletal muscle.
The brain receives information from sensory  The autonomic nervous is
receptors and sends messages to muscles and concerned with regulation of
glands. It is the centre of all conscious visceral functions. These are
awareness and is divided into different lobes involuntary activities.
with different functions. It contains the Brain:
cerebrum which makes up about 85% of the Brain is the portion of the central nervous
total mass. system that is located within the skull. It
The brain controls all functions of the body, functions as a primary receiver, organizer,
and interprets information from the outside and distributor of information for the body.
world, and defines who we are as individuals It has a right half and a left half, each of
and how we experience the world. The brain which is called a hemisphere.
receives information through our senses: Or,
sight, touch, taste, smell, and hearing. This The brain lies within the skull and is shaped
information is processed in the brain, like a mushroom. The brain weighs
allowing us to give meaning to the input it approximately 1.3 to 1.4 kg. It has nerve
receives. The brain is part of the central cells called the neurons and supporting cells
nervous system (CNS) along with the spinal called the glia. There are two types of
cord. There is also a peripheral nervous matter in the brain: gray matter and white
system (PNS) which is comprised of NS. matter.
The PNS is made up of 31 pairs of spinal Brain Divisions
nerves that branch from the spinal cord, and Recall that during embryonic development
cranial nerves that branch from the brain. the brain is initially composed of three
primary vesicles: Forebrain, Midbrain,
Functions of Nervous system: and Hindbrain. These vesicles ultimately
 The nervous system detects and become five brain
responds to changes and inside and divisions: Telencephalon, Diencephalon,
outside the body. It is the center of all Mesencephalon (midbrain), Metencephalon,
activities of the body. and Myelencephalon.
 43

The five brain divisions are convenient for

regionally categorizing the locations of
brain components. After this lab, you
should be able to identify brain divisions
present in a brain section or gross brain
specimen that you are asked to inspect.

Embryonic Derived Definitive Associated

Brain Division Brain Structures Brain Cavities Cranial Nerves
FOREBRAIN
Telencephalon Cerebrum Lateral ventricles Olfactory (I)
Diencephalon Thalamus, Hypothalamus,... Third ventricle Optic (II)
MIDBRAIN
Mesencephalon Midbrain Mesencephalic aqueduct III & IV
HINDBRAIN
Metencephalon Pons & Cerebellum Fourth ventricle Trigeminal (V)
Myelencephalon Medulla oblongata Fourth ventricle VI - XII

with the five brain divisions scheme. A

Note: The terms forebrain and hindbrain have graphic comparison is shown.
clinical significance with respect to localizing
lesions diagnostically in patients.

Another way to subdivide the brain

is: cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.

After this lab, you should be able to equate

this three component classification scheme
 44
The two hemispheres are connected by a
The portion of brain remaining after the thick band of neural fibers known as the
cerebrum and cerebellum are removed is corpus callosum, consisting of about 200
referred to as the brainstem. Brainstem = million axons. The corpus callosum allows
diencephalon, mesencephalon, pons of the the two hemispheres to communicate with
metencephalon, and myelencephalon. each other and allows for information being
processed on one side of the brain to be
shared with the other side.
The embryonic neural cavity develops into a Hemispheric lateralization is the idea that
brain ventricular system. Each of the five each hemisphere is responsible for different
brain divisions houses a ventricle, except for functions. Each of these functions are
the mesencephalon which contains the localized to either the right or left side.
mesencephalic aqueduct. The cerebrum The left hemisphere is associated with
contains two ventricles, one in each language functions, such as formulating
hemisphere. grammar and vocabulary, and containing
different language centres (Broca’s and
Wernicke’s area).
The right hemisphere is associated with
more visuospatial functions such as
visualization, depth perception, and spatial
navigation. These left and right functions are
the case in the majority of people, especially
those who are right-handed.
The cerebrum forms the bulk of the brain
and is supported on the brain stem. Each
hemisphere controls the activities of the side
of the body opposite that hemisphere. The
hemispheres are further divided into four
1. The cerebrum lobes:
Cerebrum is the largest and most  Frontal lobe
recognizable part of the brain. It consists of  Temporal lobes
grey matter (the cerebral cortex) and white  Parietal lobe
matter at the center. The cerebrum is divided  Occipital lobe
into two hemispheres, the left and right, and
contains the lobes of the brain (frontal,
temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes). The
cerebrum produces higher functioning roles
such as thinking, learning, memory,
language, emotion, movement, and
perception.
Right Brain – Left Brain
The cerebrum is divided into two halves: the
right and left hemispheres (Fig. 2). The left
hemisphere controls the right half of the
body, and the right hemisphere controls the
left half of the body.
 45
2. The cerebellum The frontal lobes contain the motor cortex,
Cerebellum is located under the cerebrum which is responsible for planning and
and is responsible for monitoring and coordinating movements.
regulating motor behaviors, especially It also contains the prefrontal cortex, which
is responsible for initiating higher-lever
cognitive functioning, and Broca’s Area,
which is essential for language production.

automatic movements. This structure is also

important for regulating posture and balance,
as well as recently being suggested for being
involved in learning and attention. Although
Figure: Frontal lobe structure.
the cerebellum only account for roughly
10% of the brain’s total weight, this area is
thought to contain more neurons (nerve Temporal lobe:
cells) than the rest of the brain combined. The temporal lobes are located on both sides
of the brain, near the temples of the head,
3. The brainstem hence the name temporal lobes (Figure 5).
Brainstem is located at the base of the brain, The main functions of these lobes include
it consists three parts, Mid brain, Pons and understanding, language, memory
the Medulla oblongata. This area connects acquisition, face recognition, object
the cerebrum and the cerebellum to the recognition, perception, and processing
spinal cord, acting as a relay station for these auditory information.
areas. The brainstem works by regulating There is a temporal lobe in both the left and
automatic functions such as sleep cycles, right hemispheres. The left temporal lobe,
breathing, body temperature, digestion, which is usually the most dominant in people
coughing, and sneezing. is associated with language, learning,
memorising, forming words, and
remembering verbal information.
Description of Brain: The left lobe also contains an important
Frontal lobe: language centre known as Wernicke’s area,
The frontal lobes are located at the front of which is essential for language development.
the brain, behind the forehead (Figure 4). The right temporal lobe is usually associated
Their main functions are associated with with learning and memorising non-verbal
higher cognitive functions, including
problem-solving, decision-making,
attention, intelligence, and voluntary
behaviors.
 46
information and determining facial
expressions.
Parietal lobes
The parietal lobe is located at the top of the
brain, between the frontal and occipital
lobes, above the temporal lobes (Figure 6).
The parietal lobe is essential for integrating
information from the body’s senses in order
to allow us to build a coherent picture of the
world around us.
These lobes allow us to have a perception of
our bodies through somatosensory
information (e.g. through touch, pressure,
and temperature). It can also help with
visuospatial processing, reading, and
number representations (mathematics).
The parietal lobes also contain the
somatosensory cortex, which receives and
processes sensory information, integrating
this into a representational map of the body.
This means it can pinpoint the exact area of
the body where sensation is felt, as well as
being able to perceive the weight of objects,
shape, and texture.

Occipital lobes
The occipital lobes are located at the back of
the brain behind the temporal and parietal
lobes and below the occipital bone of the Cerebral Cortex
skull. The surface of the cerebrum is called the
The occipital lobes receive sensory cerebral cortex, and has a wrinkled
information from the retinas of the eyes appearance, consisting of bulges, also
which is then encoded into different visual
data. Some of the functions of the occipital
lobes include being able to assess size,
depth, and distance, determine colour
information, object and facial recognition,
and mapping the visual world.
The occipital lobes also contain the primary
visual cortex which receives sensory
information from the retinas, transmitting
this information relating to location, spatial
data, motion, and the colours of objects in
the field of vision.
 47
known as gyri, and deep furrows, known as
sulci.
A gyrus (plural: gyri) is the name given to
the bumps ridges on the cerebral cortex
(the outermost layer of the brain). A
sulcus (plural: sulci) is another name for
a groove in the cerebral cortex.

Figure: The cortex contains neurons (grey

matter), which are interconnected to other brain
areas by axons (white matter). The cortex has a Figure: The amygdala in the limbic system plays a
folded appearance. A fold is called a gyrus and key role in how animals assess and respond to
the valley between is a sulcus. environmental threats and challenges by
evaluating the emotional importance of sensory
The cerebral cortex is primarily constructed information and prompting an appropriate
of grey matter (neural tissue that is made up response.
of neurons), with between 14 and 16
billion neurons being found here. Thalamus and Hypothalamus
The many folds and wrinkles of the cerebral The thalamus is involved in relaying
cortex allow for a wider surface area for an information between the cerebral cortex and
increased number of neurons to live there, the brain stem, and within other cortical
permitting large amounts of information to structures.
be processed. Because of its interactive role in relaying
sensory and motor information, the thalamus
Deep Structures: contributes to many processes including
Amygdala attention, perception, timing, and
The amygdala is a structure deep in the brain movement. The hypothalamus modulates a
which is involved in the processing of range of behavioral and physiological
emotions, and fear-learning. The amygdala functions.
is a part of the limbic system, a neural It controls autonomic functions such as
network which mediates emotion and hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual
memory. activity. In order to do this, the
This structure is also involved in tying hypothalamus integrates information from
emotional meaning to memories, processes different parts of the brain and is responsive
rewards, and helps us make decisions. This to a variety of stimuli such as light, odour,
structure has also been linked with the fight- and stress.
or flight response.
 48

Figure: The thalamus is often described as

the relay station of the brain as a great deal
of information that reaches the cerebral
cortex, first stops in the thalamus before
being sent to its destination.

Hippocampus
The hippocampus is a curved-shaped
structure in the limbic system which is
associated with learning and memory.
This structure is most strongly associated
with the formation of memories, is an early
storage system for new long-term memories,
and plays a role in the transition of these
long-term memories to more permanent
memories.
Basal Ganglia
The basal ganglia are a group of structures
which regulate the coordination of fine
 49
motor movements, balance, and posture, As well as providing cushioning, the
alongside the cerebellum. cerebrospinal fluid works to circulate
These structures are connected to other nutrients and chemical filtered from the
motor areas and link the thalamus with the blood, as well as removing waste products
motor cortex. The basal ganglia are also from the brain. cerebrospinal fluid is
involved in cognitive and emotional constantly being absorbed and replenished
behaviors, as well as playing a role in reward by the ventricles.
and addiction. If there were a disruption or blockage, this
can cause a buildup of cerebrospinal fluid
and can cause enlarged ventricles.

Neuron:
The neuron is the basic unit in the nervous
system. It is a specialized conductor cell that
receivers and transmits electrochemical
nerve impulses.

Parts of Neuron:
There are three different parts of the neuron:

 The cell body

 Dendrites
 Axon

The Basal Ganglia Illustration

Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

Within the brain there are fluid-filled
interconnected cavities which are extensions
of the spinal cord, called ventricles. These
are filled with a substance called
cerebrospinal fluid, which is a clear and
colourless liquid.
The ventricles produce cerebrospinal fluid
and transport as well as remove this fluid.
The ventricles do not have a unique function,
but it provides cushioning to the brain and is
useful for determining the locations of other
brain structures. Cerebrospinal fluid
circulates the brain and spinal cord and 1. Cell body of a neuron:
functions to cushion the brain within the The cell body is like any other cell with a
skull. If damage occurs to the skull, the nucleus or control center.
cerebrospinal fluid will act as a shock
absorber to help protect the brain from 2. Dendrites:
injury. The cell body has several highly branched,
thick extensions that appear like cables and
 50
are called dendrites. The exception is a Characteristics of Neurotransmitter:
sensory neuron that has a single, long To be considered as a post – junctionally
dendrite instead of many dendrites. Motor acting neuro – humoral transmitter a
neurons have multiple thick dendrites. The substance must fulfill the following criteria:
dendrite’s function is to carry a nerve
impulse into the cell body.  It should be present in the
presynaptic neuron (usually along
3. Axon: with enzymes synthesizing it).
An axon is a long, thin process that carries  It should be released in the medium
impulses away from the cell body to another following nerve stimulation.
neuron or tissue. There is usually only one  Its application should produce
axon per neuron. responses identical to those produced
by nerve stimulation.
 Its effects should be antagonized

or potentiated by other substances

Neurotransmitter: which similarly alter effects of nerve
Neurotransmitters are chemical substances stimulation.
that are secreted when the axon terminal of
a presynaptic neuron is excited and transmit Neuron Communication:
nerve impulse across the synapse (from The communication between neurons is
neuron to neuron and from neuron to called synapses. Neurons communicate with
effector cells) either to excite or inhibit the each other via synaptic clefts, which are gaps
target cells. between the endings of neurons. During
synaptic transmission, chemicals, such as
neurotransmitters are released from the
 51
endings of the previous neuron (also known
as the presynaptic neuron). Ependymal cells
These chemicals enter the synaptic cleft to These types of cells are column shaped and
then be transported to receptors on the next usually line up together to form a membrane,
neuron (also known as the postsynaptic called the ependyma. The ependyma is a thin
neuron). membrane lining the spinal cord and
Once transported to the next neuron, the ventricles of the brain. in the ventricles,
chemical messengers continue travelling these cells have small hairlike structures on
down neurons in order to influence many them called cilia, which help encourage the
functions such as behavior and movement. flow of cerebrospinal fluid.

Glial Cells Cranial Nerves

Glial cells are non-neuronal cells in the There are 12 types of cranial nerves which
central nervous system which work to are linked directly to the brain without
provide the neurons with nourishment, having to pass through the spinal cord. These
support, and protection. allow sensory information to pass from the
organs of the face to the brain.
Astrocytes
These are star-shaped cells which function to Mnemonic for Order of Cranial
maintain the environment for neuronal Nerves:
signalling, through controlling the levels of Some Say Marry Money But My Brother
neurotransmitters surrounding the synapses. Says Big Brains Matter More
They also work to clean up what is left Cranial I: Sensory
behind after synaptic transmission, either Cranial II: Sensory
recycling any leftover neurotransmitter or Cranial III: Motor
cleaning up when a neuron dies. Cranial IV: Motor
Cranial V: Both (sensory & motor)
Oligodendrocytes Cranial VI: Motor
These types of glial have the appearance of Cranial VII: Both (sensory & motor)
balls with spikes all around them. They Cranial VIII: Sensory
function by wrapped around the axons of Cranial IX: Both (sensory & motor)
neurons to form a protective layer call Cranial X: Both (sensory & motor)
myelin sheath. This is a substance which is Cranial XI: Motor
rich in fat and provides insulation to the Cranial XII: Motor
neurons to aid neuronal signalling.

Microglial
Microglial are small cells with oval bodies
and many branches projecting out of them.
The main function of these cells is to respond
to injuries or disease in the central nervous
system. They respond by either clearing
away any dead cells or remove any harmful
toxins or pathogens that may be present, so
are therefore important to the health of the
brain.
52
 53
Chapter- 3
Behavior

Most people use the word ‘behavior’ to Creativity–Pushes people past their comfort
mean conduct. Behavior is anything that a zone.
person does. In psychology, behavior is
regarded as any observable activity by
human being. Most human behavior results
from a combination of factors such as
culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics,
authority, rapport, persuasion, coercion and
genetics.

“Behavior is the manner in which a person

behaves, whether they can conform to the
accepted social standards or not”.
•Attitude–Is an expression of favors or
Principles of Human Behavior: disfavor, likes and dislikes of a person
1. Almost all human behavior is learned. toward a person, place, thing, or event. The
2. All behaviors occur for a reason. way a person behaves depends a lot on how
3. No behaviors occur “out of blue.” he looks at the situation.
4. Behaviors continue to occur because they
are effective. Classifications of Human Behavior:
5. Behaviors stop occurring when they are Based on the way people act or behave in
ineffective. different situations and in response to
different stimuli, human behavior can be
A – B – C Model of Behavior divided into different types. Let’s discuss
below some known and important types of
A. Antecedent Trigger human behavior.
B. Behavior Action
C. Consequence Response Here are the common types of behaviors
human beings can have:
Factors Affecting Human Behavior: 1. Molecular and Moral Behavior
2. Overt & Covert Behavior
•Genetics–Patterns of behavior are 3. Voluntary and Involuntary Behavior
influenced by inheritance from parents. 4. Normal and Abnormal Behavior
•Early Childhood Experiences 5. Conscious behavior and Unconscious
•Social Norms shape our behavior and behavior.
attitudes. Every individual manipulates 6. Anti-social behavior
his/her behavior to best ‘fit in’ with others. 7. Interpersonal behavior
•Core Faith and Social Culture shape our
religious faith, philosophical thinking and
emotional wellbeing (e.g. Emotions such as
shame and guilt connected to moral living).
 54
Description: society. When an individual is able to
1. Molecular and Moral Behavior function adequately and performs daily
Molecular Behavior: It is an unexpected living activities efficiently and feels satisfied
behavior that occurs without thinking. One with his lifestyle, he is said to have normal
example is suddenly closing eyes when behavior.
something is about to this the eyes.
Moral Behavior: Unlike molecular
behavior, this type of behavior occurs after
thinking. For example, a person changes the
way when she or he sees a harmful thing.

2. Overt & Covert Behavior

Overt Behavior: It is a visible type of
behavior that can occur outside of human
beings. Eating food, riding on a bicycle, and
playing football are some examples.
Covert Behavior: Unlike overt behavior,
this type of behavior is not visible. Thinking
is a good example of covert behavior Characteristics of Normal Behavior:
because no one can see us thinking.
•A perception of reality.
3. Voluntary and Involuntary Behavior •A positive attitude toward one’s own self,
Voluntary Behavior: It is a type of behavior accepting weaknesses and taking pride in
that depends on human want. We can strengths.
characterize walking, speaking, and writing •Adequate in work, play and leisure.
•Willing to use problem solving approaches
in life process.
•Capacity to adapt oneself to current
situation.
•Capacity for withstanding anxiety and
stress.

Normality vs. Abnormality:

as voluntary behaviors. •In the Medical Practice, it is easy to decide

Involuntary Behavior: Unlike voluntary what is normal in examining the temperature
behavior, this type occurs naturally and of the body, the blood pressure, the Blood
without thinking. Breathing air is a perfect Glucose value, etc.
example of involuntary behavior •However, on a Psychological or
Behavioural Level, we can’t have an ideal
4. Normal and Abnormal Behavior model of a man or ideal behaviour to be set
Normal Behavior: as standard or norm.
Word ‘NORMAL’ derived from the Latin
word ‘norma-’ which means rule. Therefore
‘normal behavior’ means that which follows
the rule or pattern or standard as set by the
 55

causes harm in others.

Abnormal Behavior: •Inability to Function Effectively.
Abnormal Behavior is defined as behavior •Legal Concept.
that is disturbing (socially unacceptable), -Know the Difference Between
distressing, maladaptive (or self-defeating), Right and Wrong.
and often the result of distorted thoughts
(cognitions). Types of Abnormal Behavior:
Abnormal includes three different
The word ‘abnormal’ with prefix ‘Ab’ (away categories; they are subnormal,
from) means anything away from normal or supernormal and paranormal. The science
acceptable. of abnormal psychology studies two types of
•It means deviation from the norm or behaviors: adaptive and maladaptive
standard or rules. behaviors.

Causes of Abnormal Behavior:

1. Genetics.
2. Biological causal factors.
3. Socio-cultural factors.
4. Systemic factors.
5. Biopsychosocial factors.

Disturbance in behaviour which is seen in

•Cognitive Domain (Thinking, Knowing,
Memory)
•Affective Domain (Emotion and Feeling),
and
•Conative Domain (Psychomotor Activity).
•The individual with abnormal behaviour
manifests his/her mental distress through
Defining Abnormality: thought, feeling and action.
•Deviation from the Normal.
•Deviation from the Ideal. Characteristics of Abnormal Behavior:
•Create discomfort in Others. •Change in Person’s Thinking Process,
-Produces distress, anxiety, guilt, or Memory, Perception and Judgement.
 56
•Reduced Work Efficiency and General memory loss in response to a particular
Stamina. stress.
•Forgetfulness -Dissociative Fugue (“a Fugue State”),
•Unable to Cope with Stresses. where the patient runs away
•Develops Anxiety and Worries at the from home after forgetting his/her identity.
Slightest Disturbance in Daily Routine.
•Complete Lack of Respect for Self and d. Affective Disorders in which person
Others. suffers from abnormally high or low
•Lack of Self-Confidence. moods for long periods of time.
•Lack of Gratification. -Major Depressive Disorder where he
suffers from hopelessness, guilt, sadness,
Symptoms of Abnormal Behavior: and apathy for more than two weeks. Caused
•Easily getting annoyed or nervous. by endogenous depletion of
•Often or always appearing angry. Neurotransmitter Serotonin’
•Always putting the blame on others. -Mania, where there is overly hyperactive
•Refusing to follow rules or questioning and optimistic state.
authority. Because of overconfidence, the patient takes
•Arguing and throwing temper tantrums. series of terrible
•Having difficulty in handling frustration. decisions leading to overspending.
-Bipolar Disorder with extreme shift in
Psychological Disorders Associated with moods, Depressive phase may
Serious Behavioral Abnormalities: lead to suicidal thoughts, or action out of
a. Anxiety Disorders, such as – overconfidence leading to accidental death.
-Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
(PTSD) e. Personality Disorders (Replacing the
-Obsessive Compulsive Disorder old terms of ‘psychopaths’ and
(OCD) ‘sociopaths’).
-Panic Disorders -Schizoid Personality, who lacks in feelings
-Phobia for other people and
is often withdrawn. Does not make friends
b. Somatoform Autonomic Disorder with others.
-Conversion Disorders -Paranoid Personality, who find it difficult
(Paralysis, Blindness, etc.) to trust anyone.
-Hypochondriasis -Antisocial Personalityengages in crimes
(Insignificant Symptoms that such as rape and murder
the patient thinks to be seriously because of lack of development of
detrimental to his/her health) conscience.
-Narcissistic Personality are people who
c. Dissociative Disorders, when the person are in exaggerated love
has a personality that is fragmented or with self-leading to overconfidence and a
separated from the rest; constant need for attention.
-Dissociative Identity Disorder, when
more than one personality 5. Conscious behavior and Unconscious
is present in his mind. behavior.
-Dissociative Amnesia, where the person Conscious behavior:
suffers from selective • Any behavior that the person is aware of
 57
Unconscious behavior: its principles, we can tell the differences
• Any behavior that the person is not aware between growth and development in
6. Anti-social behavior psychology. With regards to development, it
• It refers to may action that deviates always follows a pattern. Development is not
significantly from established social norms. a chaotic and immediate process. It takes
7. Interpersonal behaviour time, just like growth. For example, the
• Interpersonal behaviour is how people cephalocaudal sequence is a pattern of
interact with one another. development. When a baby grows, his
Interpersonal behaviour divided into three— activities develop from head to toe. A baby
a) Aggressive behaviour learns how to move his head first before he
b) Non-assertive behaviour/ passive can walk. Since it follows a pattern, we can
behaviour say that development is also predictable. We
c) Assertive behaviour can say that development is gradual and is
d) Health behaviour the same as growth. Like development,
Health behaviour divided two— growth is not an immediate process. It is a
a) Compliance behaviour continuous process. The parts of the body
b) Avoidance behaviour continuously grow given the proper nutrition
c) Illness behaviour it needs. Until the parts of the body reach
d) Treatment behaviour their peak of growth, they will continue
growing. The growth rate of humans is not
Growth vs Development in Psychology: usually uniform. During a human’s early
“Psychology” is defined as “the scientific years, his growth rate is at its peak.
study of the mind and behavior.” In this However, during the later years, the growth
discipline, it also covers the growth and rate becomes slower. When we will look at
development of human beings. Humans are the parts of the body, we can also say that
very interesting subjects. Humans are a each part has a different growth rate. When
mystery and constantly change. This a baby is born, we can notice that the head
includes their growth and development as seems bigger than the length of the body.
interesting areas of this topic. “Growth” and The head is actually one-fourth of the body’s
“development” always come in pairs. But length in babies. It is very interesting to
what are exactly the differences between watch humans grow and develop. During the
growth and development in the field of development years of humans, development
psychology? Let us all find out in this article. proceeds from general to specific. Let us
For a quick differentiation about growth and take a child for example. When a child wants
development, psychology defines “growth” something, he uses his whole hand to point
as “the physical change that a particular at the thing he wants. But as he grows older,
individual undergoes.” On the other hand, his brain and muscles are developed. With
psychology defines “development” as “the that, he can now use a finger instead of his
overall growth of humans throughout their whole hand when pointing at something. As
lifespan.” Development includes the a child develops, he is being affected by his
understanding of how and why people environment, nutrition, peers, and even his
change in terms of physical growth, genes. With that, we can say that the
intellectual, emotional, social, and other development of a child largely depends on
aspects of human growth. In psychology, his genetic traits and the factors around him.
there are several principles concerning Growth is more on the physical aspect while
growth and development. Just by looking at development is more on the mental aspect.
 58
These two processes are highly correlated identify their mothers by sight, and they
with each other. If a child has good physical show a striking sensitivity to the tones,
health, most likely the child also has above rhythmic flow, and individual sounds that
average mental capacity. With good physical make up human speech. Even young infants
growth, a child can be more sociable with are capable of complex perceptual
other people, too. judgments involving distance, shape,
direction, and depth, and they are soon able
Summary: to organize their experience by creating
categories for objects and events (e.g.,
1. “Growth” and “development” always
people, furniture, food, animals) in the same
come in pairs. Psychology defines “growth”
way older people do.
as “the physical change that a particular
Infants make rapid advances in both
individual undergoes.”
recognition and recall memory, and this in
2. Psychology defines “development” as turn increases their ability to understand and
“the overall growth of humans throughout anticipate events in their environment. A
their lifespan.” Development includes the fundamental advance at this time is the
understanding of how and why people recognition of object permanence—i.e., the
change in terms of physical growth, awareness that external objects exist
intellectual, emotional, social, and other independently of the infant’s perception of
aspects of human growth. them. Infants’ physical interactions with
their environment progress from simple
Psychological development: uncoordinated reflex movements to more
The development of human coordinated actions that are intentionally
beings’ cognitive, emotional, intellectual, repeated because they are interesting or
and social capabilities and functioning over because they can be used to achieve an
the course of a normal life span, external goal. At about 18 months of age, the
from infancy through old age. It is the child starts trying to solve physical problems
subject matter of the discipline known by mentally imagining certain events and
as developmental psychology. Child outcomes rather than through simple trial-
psychology was the traditional focus of and-error experimentation.
research, but since the mid-20th century Three-month-old infants already display
much has been learned about infancy behavioral reactions suggestive of such
and adulthood as well. A brief treatment of emotional states as surprise, distress,
psychological development follows. For relaxation, and excitement. New emotional
fuller treatment, see human behavior. states, including anger, sadness, and fear, all
appear by the first year. Infants’ emotional
Infancy: life is centred on the attachments they form
to their mothers or other primary caregivers,
Infancy is the period between birth and and through these interactions infants learn
the acquisition of language one to two years to love, trust, and depend on other human
later. Besides a set of inherited reflexes that beings. Babies begin to smile at other people
help them obtain nourishment and react to beginning at about two months, and their
danger, newborns are equipped with attachments to mothers and caregivers are
a predilection for certain visual patterns, developed by about six months. These
including that of the human face, and for attachments form the basis for healthy
certain sounds, including that of the human
voice. Within a few months they are able to
 59
emotional and social of time and number, and a greater
development throughout childhood. appreciation of seriation and other
hierarchical relationships.
Childhood: Emotionally, children develop in the
direction of greater self-awareness—i.e.,
The second major phase in human awareness of their own emotional states,
development, childhood, extends from one characteristics, and potential for action—and
or two years of age until the onset they become increasingly able to discern and
of adolescence at age 12 or 13. The early interpret the emotions of other people as
years of childhood are marked by enormous well. This contributes to empathy, or the
strides in the understanding and use ability to appreciate the feelings and
of language. Children begin to comprehend perceptions of others and understand their
words some months before they themselves points of view. These new abilities
actually speak. Infants on average speak contribute to children’s moral development,
their first words by 12–14 months, and by which typically begins in early childhood as
the 18th month they have a speaking concern over and avoidance of acts that
vocabulary of about 50 words. Children attract pain and punishment and progresses
begin to use two- and then three-word to a more general regulation of conduct so as
combinations and progress from simple to maintain parental regard and approval. A
noun-verb combinations to more further shift in moral reasoning to one based
grammatically complex sequences, using on the avoidance of internal guilt and self-
conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and recrimination marks the passage from
tenses with growing fluency and accuracy. childhood and adolescence to adulthood. All
By their fourth year most children can speak of these emotional advances enhance the
in adultlike sentences and have begun to child’s social skills and functioning.
master the more complex rules
of grammar and meaning. Adolescence:
In their cognitive abilities, children make a Physically, adolescence begins with the
transition from relying solely on onset of puberty at 12 or 13 and culminates
concrete, tangible reality to performing at age 19 or 20 in adulthood. Intellectually,
logical operations on abstract and symbolic adolescence is the period when the
material. Even two-year-old children behave individual becomes able to systematically
as though the external world is a permanent formulate hypotheses or propositions, test
place, independent of their perceptions, and them, and make rational evaluations. The
they exhibit experimental or goal-directed formal thinking of adolescents and adults
behaviour that may be creatively and tends to be self-consciously deductive,
spontaneously adapted for new purposes. rational, and systematic. Emotionally,
During the period from two to seven years, adolescence is the time when individuals
children begin to manipulate the learn to control and direct their sex urges and
environment by means of symbolic thought begin to establish their own sexual roles and
and language; they become capable of relationships. The second decade of life is
solving new types of logical problems and also a time when individuals lessen their
begin to use mental operations that are emotional (if not physical) dependence on
flexible and fully reversible in thought. their parents and develop a mature set of
Between the ages of 7 and 12, the beginnings values and responsible self-direction.
of logic appear in the form
of classifications of ideas, an understanding
 60
Adulthood:
Adulthood is a period of optimum mental
functioning when the
individual’s intellectual, emotional, and
social capabilities are at their peak to meet
the demands of career, marriage, and
children. Some
psychologists delineate various periods and
transitions in early to middle adulthood that
involve crises or reassessments of one’s life
and result in decisions regarding new
commitments or goals. During the middle
30s people develop a sense of time
limitation, and previous behaviour patterns
or beliefs may be given up in favor of new
ones.
Middle age is a period of adjustment
between the potentialities of the past and the
limitations of the future. An emotional
rebellion has been observed in some persons,
sometimes referred to as a midlife
crisis, engendered by the recognition that
less time remains to be lived than has been
lived already. In women, dramatic shifts in
hormone production lead to the onset
of menopause. Often women whose children
have grown or left home experience the
“empty-nest syndrome”—feeling unwanted
or unneeded. During late middle age,
individuals become more aware of ill
health and thus may consciously or
unconsciously alter the patterns of their
lives. Individuals accept the limits of their
accomplishments and either take satisfaction
in them or despair and become anxious over
unachieved goals or unrealized aspirations.

During old age, sensory and perceptual

skills, muscular strength, and memory tend
to diminish, though intelligence does not.
These changes, together with retirement
from active employment, tend to make the
elderly more dependent on their children or
other younger people, both emotionally and
physically.
 61
Question:
1. What is behavior? [June-13, Mar-12,10, Jan-09, feb 18]
2. What are the types of behavior? [June-13, Mar-12, Jan-9, Mar, feb 18].
3. Describe the factors determining Behavior. [June-13,09, Mar-10,14, feb 18]
4. What is abnormal behavior? Briefly describe the psychological cause of abnormal
behavior according to psychological theories. [Feb-14]
5. Short note:
a. Sick role
b. Behavior [July-11, Feb-14, 2019]
c. Behavior modification technique [jul 17]
d. Abnormal behavior [jul 17]

Reference:
1. Christina Driver et al. Knowledge, behaviors, attitudes and beliefs of physiotherapists
towards the use of psychological interventions in physiotherapy practice: a systematic
review. Disability and rehabilitation, ISSN: 0963-8288 (Print) 1464-5165 (Online) 2016.
Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/idre20.
2. Maria Sandborgh, Elizabeth Dean, Eva Denison, Maria Elvén, Johanna Fritz, Petra von
Heideken Wågert, Johan Moberg, Thomas Overmeer, Åsa Snöljung, Ann-Christin
Johansson & Anne Söderlund (2020) Integration of behavioral medicine competencies
into physiotherapy curriculum in an exemplary Swedish program: rationale, process, and
review, Physiotherapy Theory and Practice, 36:3, 365-377, DOI:
10.1080/09593985.2018.1488192.
3. Differences Between Growth and Development in Psychology.
http://www.differencebetween.net/science/differences-between-growth-and
development-in-psychology/#ixzz7TeWmGmOb.
 62

Chapter- 4

Motivation

Futures of motive:
We never observe them directly.
They are inferences from behavior.
We may or may not be aware of them.

CLASSIFICATION OF MOTIVES
1. Primary Motives: -
a. Not learned
b. Physiological based.
2. General Motives (Stimulus motives): -
MOTIVATION: Derived from Latin -
a. Nether purely primary nor
word movere, which means to move. secondary.
It is defined as a driving force that b. Not learned and not physiologically
initiates and directs behavior. Motivation based.
is a kind of internal energy which drives a c. Stimulate tension within a person
person to do something in order to - Curiosity, manipulation & activity
motives
achieve something. It is a temporal or - Affection motives (love)
dynamic state within a person which is 3. Secondary motives: --
- Are learned or acquired over time.
a. Power Motive
b. Achievement Motive (TAT)
- Moderate degree of risk taking
- Need for prompt and precise
feedback
- Satisfaction with achievement
than rewards
- Dedication towards the task
c. Affiliation Motive
d. Security Motive
not concerned with his/her personality e. Status Motive

Example: A runner who wants to NOTE: STATUS – rank a person holds

complete a marathon will train more relative to others within a group,
vigorously than an individual with only a organization or society
casual interest running.
Significance of motivation
Someone who understands your motives
MOTIVE: Motive is Energetic force that
will understand.
which moves a person to act. (the
activating force for the motivation). Why do you do the things you do.
Similar older terms for motive are –
needs, drives.
 63
Can also make predictions about goals. It is through motivation that the
behavior/ the rang of things a person will human resources can be utilized by
do. making full use of it. This can be done by
Many theories of personality are really building willingness in employees to
theories about people’s motives. work. This will help the enterprise in
Unconscious Motivation is major concept securing best possible utilization of
of psychoanalytical theory of personality. resources.
Ulterior motive is part of Transactional
analysis. 3. Improves level of efficiency of
employees
Purpose of motivation: The level of a subordinate or a employee
Motivation reflects something unique does not only depend upon his
about each one of us and allows us to gain qualifications and abilities. For getting
valued outcomes like improved best of his work performance, the gap
performance, enhanced well- being, between ability and willingness has to be
personal growth, or a sense of purpose. filled which helps in improving the level
Motivation is a pathway to change our of performance of subordinates. This will
way of thinking, feeling, and behaving. result
into-
Importance of Motivation: a. Increase in productivity,
1. Importance of Motivation for b. Reducing cost of operations, and c.
Physio: Improving overall efficiency.
The knowledge of motivation process will
help the physiotherapist in the profession 4. Leads to achievement of
as follows: organizational goals
The goals of an enterprise can be achieved
1. It will help PT in maintaining his/her only when the following factors take
own mental health. place: -
2. It will be helpful in his/her adjustment a. There is best possible utilization of
with doctors, patients and their relatives. resources,
3. It will give his/her an etiology of b. There is a co-operative work
patient’s behavior leading to better environment,
understanding. c. The employees are goal-directed and
4. It will help his/her in the diagnosis of they act in a purposive manner,
the disease. d. Goals can be achieved if co-ordination
5. It will help facilitate faster cure of the and co-operation takes place
disease simultaneously which can be effectively
6. It will give PT’s job satisfaction. done through motivation.
7. It will improve PT’s relations with
colleagues. 5. Builds friendly relationship
8. It will be useful in solving most of Motivation is an important factor which
the problems in interpersonal brings employees satisfaction. This can be
relationships. done by keeping into mind and framing an
incentive plan for the benefit of the
2. Puts human resources into action
Every concern requires physical, financial
and human resources to accomplish the
 64
employees as well as employees. This will
lead to a good public image in the market
which will attract competent and qualified
people into a concern. As it is said, ―Old
is gold‖ which suffices with the role of
motivation here, the older the people,
more the experience and their adjustment
into a concern which can be of benefit to
the enterprise.

employees. This could initiate the

following things:

a. Monetary and non-monetary incentives,

b. Promotion opportunities for employees,
c. Disincentives for inefficient employees.

In order to build a cordial, friendly

atmosphere in a concern, the above steps
should be taken by a manager. This would
help in:
Effective co-operation which brings
stability, Different psychologists define
Industrial dispute and unrest in employees motivation in various ways—
will reduce, According to Goldenson (1970), ---
The employees will be adaptable to the “Psychologists a combination of
changes and there will be no resistance to forces which imitates, directs and sustain
the change, behaviour towards a goal”.
This will help in providing a smooth and
sound concern in which individual Stephen P. Robbins --- “The willingness
interests will coincide with the to exert high levels of effort towards
organizational interests, organizational goals, conditioned by the
This will result in profit maximization effort’s ability to satisfy some individual
through increased productivity. needs.”

6. Leads to stability of work force

Stability of workforce is very important Four types of Motivation:
from the point of view of reputation and 1. Extrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic
goodwill of a concern. The employees can motivation comes from outside us. In
remain loyal to the enterprise only when extrinsic motivation, rewards or other
they have a feeling of participation in the incentives like praise, fame, or money
management. The skills and efficiency of are used as motivation for specific
employees will always be of advantage to activities.
 65
Example: External factors drive this
form of motivation. Being paid to do a
job.

2. Intrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic

motivation is defined as the doing of an
activity for its inherent satisfaction
rather than for some separable
consequence.
Example: When intrinsically action, but more often, motivation is a
motivated, a person is moved to act for building process. For example, if lung
the fun or challenge entailed rather than cancer's risk could motivate a person to
because of external products, pressures, quit smoking, many people would
or rewards. easily quit smoking.
Or,
Intrinsic motivation is done for internal How do we use motivation?
reasons, for example to align with How to become (and stay) motivated
values or simply for the hedonistic 1. Set goals.
pleasure of doing something. 2. Choose goals that interest you.
3. Find things that interest you within
3. Introjected Motivation: Introjected goals that don’t.
motivation is an internalized 4. Make your goal public.
motivation like intrinsic motivation, but 5. Plot your progress.
it is a form of motivation resulting from 6. Break up your goal.
the feeling pressured to perform in 7. Use rewards.
order to gain appreciation from 8. Don’t do it alone.
individuals of importance such as
parents or bosses. Example of Motivation in Psychology:
Example: Introjection means taking in An example of intrinsic motivation is to
the cause of doing something but not have a sense of achievement or
fully accepting it. An example would be accomplishment. When a student begins
a student who spends lots of time college and wants to get their degree as a
practicing piano for a recital because sense of accomplishment. An example of
she believes if she doesn't play well, extrinsic motivation would involve an
others will look down on her. athlete who seeks the admiration of his or
her fans.
4. Identified Motivation: Identified
motivation presents itself as feeling the Motivation cycle:
need to perform or accomplish a task To analyses motivation, we have four
but not acting on the need until the stages—
desire to do so actualizes. 1. Need
Example: Often people believe the 2. Drive
behavioral influencers such as a reward 3. Instrumental behaviour or response.
or punishment are enough to motivate 4. Goal
 66

The Fourth stage is need satisfaction. The

individual arrives at the goal, satisfies the
need.
Motivation theory:
Motivational theory is tasked with
discovering what drives individuals to
work towards a goal or outcome.
Businesses are interested in motivational
theory because motivated individuals are
more productive, leading to more
economic use of resources.
Figure of motivational cycle:
MASLOW’S THEORY:
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a
motivational theory in psychology
comprising a five-tier model of human
needs, often depicted as hierarchical
levels within a pyramid. From the bottom
of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are:
physiological, safety, love and belonging,
esteem, and self- actualization.

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF BASIC

HUMAN NEEDS:
Most Needs Have to Do with Survival
Physically and Psychologically
Figure: The process of Motivation 1. PHYSIOLOGICAL OR SURVIVAL
NEEDS
Description of stages of motivation: Example: Needs for air, nutrition
The First stage is an unsatisfied need (Food), water (drink), elimination,
which is a deficiency of something within thermoregulation (warmth, physical
the individual. comfort), shelter and sex.
2. SAFETY NEEDS
The Second stage is to creation to tension Example: Needs for shelter and
(physical or psychological) which urges freedom from harm and danger. Job
the person to forget everything else and security, safety regulations
cater to the aroused need first. This tension 3. SOCIAL NEEDS
or discomfort state is called drive. Example: Friendship, love, affection,
belongingness
The Third stage is goal directed 4. NEEDS ESTEEM NEEDS
behaviour (Ability & Activity) the Example: Ego, status, respect,
unsatisfied need causes tension within the prestige, promotion, influence, power,
individual leading the individual to engage recognition, etc.
in some kind of activities towards 5. NEED FOR SELF-
attainment of the objective goal. ACTUALIZATION
 67
a. Maslow emphasizes need for self- strength when a primary emotion triggers
actualization is a healthy individual’s an opposite emotional response, which
prime motivation lasts longer than the primary emotion.
Example: It explains why people 5. Incentive theory: Proposes that
write poetry, plays, book and motivation is determined by stimuli in the
music, play music, act in films, environment
take up hobbies, climb mountains, that ―pull‖ the organism in certain
take part in charity activities, etc. directions.
b. Self-actualization means actualizing
one’s potential becoming all one is Relationship between motivation
capable of becoming and behaviour:
Example: Challenging projects,
Motivation has a complicated
opportunity for innovation and
creativity. relationship with behavior in addition
to stimulating, guiding and maintaining
behavior. Behaviors of the same kind
Maslow also identified some of the key may have different motivations, i.e.,
characteristics of self-actualized people: different motivations are manifested by
1. Acceptance and Realism/Practically
the same kind of behavior, and
2. Problem-centering
3. Spontaneity/Naturalness different behaviors may come from the
4. Autonomy/Independence same or similar motivation.
5. Solitude and privacy Motivation causes “GOAL-
6. Philosophical sense of Humour DIRECTED BEHAVIOUR”. If a
7. Enjoy the journey person strongly feels the need of
8. Continued freshness of appreciation something he will behave in such a way
9. Peak Experience
that he tries to satisfy himself so that he
Other major theories of motivation are does not feel the lack of that particular
given below: thing. This can be explained as follows
1. Instinct theory: Holds that some with the help of a figure.
behaviour are controlled by some genetic
factors which
dispose and organism to respond in a
particular way when confirmed with
certain stimuli.
2. Drive theory: Holds that organisms are
motivated to eliminate state of tension or
arousal,
such as hunger or thirst and to return to a
state of balance known as homeostasis.
3. Arousal theory: Suggests that there is a
preferred or optional level of arousal that
is neither too high nor too low.
4. Opponent – process: Theory holds that
acquired motives, such as thrill seeking or
drug addiction are maintained and
 68

1. Motivation to think according to

perspective of Psychology.
2. Motivation to take appropriate
decision making.
3. Motivation to do chronological
execution.
4. Motivation to environmental
situation encoding.
5. Motivation to reflex on final
judgment.

Impact of motivation on
rehabilitation:
In rehabilitation, motivation is
suggested as a predictor of functional
outcomes. The motivation for
rehabilitation is reported to influence
physical activity and participation in
training. Thus, motivation can be
expressed as physical activity and
attitude toward rehabilitation.
A patient's motivation is arguably one
of the most important factors which
influences the speed and extent of their
recovery. It is a particularly notable
factor for the patient who is going
through a lengthier surgical
rehabilitation such as an ACL or Labral
Repair.
Providers can better achieve overall
patient wellness by using a set of
patient motivation techniques that
drive better health behavior. In all of
healthcare, but especially in chronic
disease management, it is important for
patients to be active participants in
their own wellness journey.
 69

Question:
1. Define motivation.[Jun-13,Mar-12,10,Jul-11,09,May-8, feb-18, 2019]
2. Discuss the maslows theory of needs.[June-13,Jul-11,09,Mar-16,May8,feb-18, 19]
3. Describe major theories of motivation.[Mar-12]
4. Describe the motivation cycle.[July-9,May-8,feb-18.

Reference:
1. McGrane N, Galvin R, Cusack T, Stokes E. Addition of motivational interventions to
exercise and traditional physiotherapy: a review and meta-analysis. Physiotherapy. 2015
Mar 1;101(1):1-2.
2. Driver C, Kean B, Oprescu F, Lovell GP. Knowledge, behaviors, attitudes and beliefs of
physiotherapists towards the use of psychological interventions in physiotherapy practice:
a systematic review. Disability and rehabilitation. 2017 Oct 23;39(22):2237-49.
3. Synnott A, O’Keeffe M, Bunzli S, Dankaerts W, O'Sullivan P, O'Sullivan K.
Physiotherapists may stigmatise or feel unprepared to treat people with low back pain and
psychosocial factors that influence recovery: a systematic review. Journal of
physiotherapy. 2015 Apr 1;61(2):68-76.
 70

Chapter- 5

Learning
Learning is the act of acquiring new or According to some renown Psychologist
modifying existing knowledge, behaviors, Learning is as follows:
skills, values, or preferences and may Gardner Murphy (1968)- the term
involve synthesizing different types of learning covers every modification in
information. behaviour to meet environmental
requirements.
- It is a relative permanent change in Gates (1946) – learning is the modification
behavior or mental state based on of behaviour through experience.
experience. Woodworth (1945) – any activity can be
- Learning may occur consciously or called learning so far as it develops the
unconsciously. individual (in any respect, good or bad) and
makes his later behaviour and experiences
This definition has three important different from what they would otherwise
elements— have been.
Learning is a change in behavior – better Kingsley and Garry (1957) - learning is
or worse. the process by which behaviour changed
It is a change that takes place through practice or training.
through practice or experience, but
changes due to growth or maturation are not Nature and characteristics of learning
learning. 4. Learning is the change in behaviour.
This change in behavior must be 5. Learning is a continuous life long
relatively permanent, and it must last a process.
fairly long time. 6. Learning is a universal process.
7. Learning is purposive and goal directed.
This definition three critical aspects— 8. Learning involves reconstruction of
1. Learning involves a change in either experiences.
immediate or, potential behaviour. 9. Learning is the product of activity and
2. The change must be relatively environment.
permanents. 10. Learning is transferable from one
3. The change must be due to situation to another.
permanents change in behaviour that 11. Learning helps in attainment of teaching
occurs as a result of practice or experience. – learning objectives.
12. Learning helps in the proper growth and
Or. development.
13. Learning helps in the balanced
Learning is an adaptive process. It is so development of the personality.
important in our survival. Learning can be 14. Learning helps in proper adjustment.
defined as a relatively permanent change in 15. Learning helps in the realization of goals
immediate or potential behavior that results of life.
from experiences. 16. Learning does not necessarily imply
improvement.
 71
Definition of terms: achieved by repeated pairings of the
• STIMULUS – it is an external and internal neutral stimulus with the potent stimulus.
change which generate the response of the
body. THE CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
•RESPONSE – reaction shown by the body. PROCESS
•CONDITIONED – learned A. Stage 1. Before Conditioning:
•UNCONDITIONED –unlearned

Types of learning/ Classifications of

learning:

1. Non-associative Learning – is learning

that does not require linking or
associating stimuli together.
a. Habituation: it is when repeated
exposure to a stimulus decreases an
organism's responsiveness to the
stimulus.
b. Sensitization: it is learning that
occurs when stimulus is repeated, and
each time your response to it increases •The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) The
as it goes on and on unconditioned stimulus is one that
2. Associative Learning – is the process unconditionally, naturally, and
by which an association between two automatically triggers a response.
stimuli or a behavior and a stimulus is •The Unconditioned Response (UCR) The
learned. (, Operant Learning) unconditioned response is the unlearned
a. Classical Conditioning or Classical response that occurs naturally in response to
Learning: - “Pavlovian” or “Respondent the unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioning”. - It is a learning process
in which an innate response to a potent B. Stage 2. During Conditioning:
• The Neutral Stimulus
- Another stimulus which has no effect on a
person.
- NS could be a person, object, place etc.
- The NS in classical conditioning does not
produce a response until it is paired with the
unconditioned stimulus.
•The Conditioned Stimulus •The
conditioned stimulus is previously neutral
stimulus that, after becoming associated with
the unconditioned stimulus, eventually
comes to trigger a conditioned response.

C. Stage 3. After Conditioning:

stimulus comes to be elicited in response •The Conditioned Response •The
to a previously neutral stimulus; this is conditioned response is the learned response
to the previously neutral stimulus.
 72
b. Operant Conditioning or “Instrumental Schedules of Reinforcement:
Conditioning”: - Continuous reinforcement schedule
- It is a learning process in which - Fixed interval reinforcement schedule
behavior is sensitive to, or controlled by - Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule
its consequences. - Variable reinforcement schedule
- It is a type of learning in which behavior
is strengthened if followed by Punishment is the presentation of an
reinforcement or diminished if followed adverse event or outcome that causes a
by punishment. decrease in the behavior it follows. (Positive
Punishment, Negative Punishment). In both
The Components of Operant of these cases of punishment, the behavior
Conditioning: decreases.
- Reinforcement is any event that - Positive punishment sometimes
strengthens or increases the behavior it referred to as punishment by application,
follows. involves the presentation of an
(Positive Reinforces, Negative unfavorable event or outcome in order to
Reinforces). In both of these cases of weaken the response it follows.
reinforcement, the behavior increases. Examples:
 Positive reinforces are favorable events • An employee exhibits bad behavior at
or outcomes that are presented after the work and the boss criticizes him. The
behavior. In situations that reflect behavior will decrease because of the
positive reinforcement, a response or boss’s criticism.
behavior is strengthened by the addition •In an experiment, the subject received a
of something, such as praise or a direct slight electric shock when they got an
reward. answer wrong.
Examples: - Negative punishment, also known as
•A mother gives her son praise (positive punishment by removal, occurs when an
stimulus) for doing homework favorable event or outcome is removed
(behavior). after a behavior occurs.
•The little boy receives gifts (positive Examples:
stimulus) for every A he earns on his • After getting in a fight with his sister
report card (behavior). over who gets to play with a new toy, the
 Negative reinforces involve the removal mother simply takes the toy away.
of an unfavorable events or outcomes • A teenage girl stays out for an hour past
after the display of a behavior. In these her curfew, so her parents ground her for
situations, a response is strengthened by a week.
the removal of something considered • A third-grade boy yells at another
unpleasant. student during class, so his teacher takes
Example: away "good behavior" tokens that can be
• Before: Hands are wet. redeemed for prizes.
• Behaviour: Rub them in the towel.
• After: Water is gone from his hands.
• Future behaviour: Thomas will rub his
hands when they are wet.
 73
Difference between classical conditioning 4. Discrimination learning: Learning to
and operant conditioning differentiate between stimuli and showing an
Classical Operant appropriate response to these stimuli is
Conditioning: Conditioning: called discrimination learning. Example,
• First described by • First described by sound horns of different vehicles like bus,
Ivan Pavlov, a B. F. Skinner, an car, ambulance, etc.
Russian American 5. Learning of principles: Individuals learn
physiologist. psychologist certain principles related to science,
• Involves placing a • Involves applying mathematics, grammar, etc. in order to
neutral signal reinforcement or manage their work effectively. These
before a reflex. punishment after a principles always show the relationship
behavior between two or more concepts. Example:
• Focuses on • Focuses on formulae, laws, associations, correlations,
involuntary, strengthening or etc.
automatic weakening 6. Problem solving: This is a higher order
behaviors. voluntary learning process. This learning requires the
behaviors. use of cognitive abilities-such as thinking,
reasoning, observation, imagination,
generalization, etc. This is very useful to
Types of learning in developmental overcome difficult problems encountered by
sequence: the people.
1. Motor learning: Most of our activities in 7. Attitude learning: Attitude is a
our day-to-days life refer to motor activities. predisposition which determines and directs
The individual has to learn them in order to our behaviour. We develop different
maintain his regular life, for example attitudes from our childhood about the
walking, running, skating, driving, climbing, people, objects and everything we know.
etc. All these activities involve the muscular Our behaviour may be positive or negative
coordination depending upon our attitudes. Example:
2. Verbal learning: This type of learning attitudes of nurse towards her profession,
involves the language we speak; the patients, etc.
communication devices we use. Signs,
pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, Domains of Learning: Conversationally
etc. are the tools used in such activities. We learning is discussed under followings-
use words for communication.
3. Concept learning: It is the form of learning 1. Cognitive domain of learning
which requires higher order mental (knowledge)
processes like thinking, reasoning, 2. Affective domain of learning (attitudes)
intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts 3. Conative domain of learning or
from childhood. For example, when we see Psychomotor learning (skills)
a dog and attach the term ‘dog’, we learn that Description:
the word dog refers to a particular animal. 1. Cognitive domain: It involves-
Concept learning involves two processes,  Information
viz. abstraction and generalization. This  Development of knowledge
learning is very useful in recognizing,  Intellectual skill
identifying things
 74
2. Affective domain: Based upon
behavioral aspects, this beliefs domain
incorporates-
 Attitudes
 Emotions enthusiasms
 Feelings
 Values
 Appreciation
 Motivation
3. Psychomotor domain: This skill based
domain includes-
 Muscular skills
 Coordination
 Use of the motor skills areas  Nature of the contents or learning
experience
 Selection of the content or learning
Factor influencing learning experiences
a. Learner Related Factor –  Organisation of the contents or learning
 Learner’s physical and mental health experience
 The basic potential of the learner
 The level of aspiration and achievement
motivation Theories of Learning:
 Goal of life Psychologists have tried to explain how
 Readiness and will power people learn and why they learn. They have
b. Teacher Related Factor – conducted many experiments on animals
 mastery over the subject matter and children and come to certain definite
conclusions which explain the modes of
 Art and skill teaching
learning.
 Personality traits and behaviour of the
These are called as theories of learning. In
teacher
many books, these explanations are treated
 Level of adjustment and mental health of as kinds of learning. In a sense it is true. But
the teacher the term learning is very comprehensive. It
 Type of discipline and interaction covers a wide range of activities which
maintained by the teacher cannot be explained within a limited
Contents Related Factor- framework. There are many theories
explaining modes of learning. Important
among them are:

1. Trial and Error Method of Learning

Thorndike’s Experiment- (1874-1949):
He used a 24 hours’ hungry cat. The cat was
fully fed 24 hours back. He used a puzzle
box which had a door that could be opened
by a device by pressing a lever, the latch or
pulling a string. The box had ventilation. The
hungry cat was put inside the box and a fish
 75
was placed outside. The cat tried to come out
by random movements. These random Thorndike's laws of learning and its
movements and actions are called educational implications
exploratory movements. By chance it
happens to press the lever – the door opens, I. Law of Readiness: - First primary law
it comes out and eats the fish. The cat is of learning, according to him, is the
starved again and put in the box and the ‘Law of Readiness’ or the ‘Law of
whole thing is repeated many times. The cat Action Tendency’, which means that
learns the method to open the door. Now if it learning takes place when an action
is put in the box, it can easily open the door. tendency is aroused through
It is called trial and error. This is a chance preparatory adjustment, set or
learning or S.R. (Stimulus Response) attitude. Readiness means a
learning. This is also called Associative preparation of action. If one is not
learning. prepared to learn, learning cannot be
automatically instilled in him, for
example, unless the typist, in order to
learn typing prepares himself to start,
he would not make much progress in
a lethargic & unprepared manner.
II. Law of Exercise:- The second law of
learning is the ‘Law of Exercise’,
which means that drill or practice
helps in increasing efficiency and
durability of learning and according
to Throndike’s S-R Bond Theory, the
connections are strengthened with
trail or practice and the connections
Fig. Thorndike’s experiment. are weakened when trial or practice is
discontinued. The ‘law of exercise’,
THE THEORY therefore, is also understood as the
a. Learning means establishing proper ‘law of use and disuse’ in which case
bond between stimulus and response. connections or bonds made in the
This theory is also called brain cortex are weakened or
connectionism. According to loosened. Many examples of this case
Thorndike Learning is a mechanical are found in case of human learning.
process. We learn from mistakes. The Learning to drive a motor-car,
correct responses are rewarded and typewriting, singing or memorizing a
they are stamped in. poem or a mathematical table, and
b. “Learning is a process of acquiring music etc. need exercise and
and stabilizing successful or rewarded repetition of various movements and
responses and of eliminating the actions many times.
unsuccessful or unrewarded III. Law of Effect: - The third law is the
responses.” ‘Law of Effect’, according to which
c. Education is the process of acquiring the trial or steps leading to satisfaction
and stabilizing successful habit stamps in the bond or connection.
pattern through rewarded responses. Satisfying states lead to consolidation
 76
and strengthening of the connection, VI. The Law of Associative Shifting:
whereas dis-satisfaction, annoyance According to this law we may get a
or pain lead to the weakening or response, of which a learner is
stamping out of the connection. In capable, associated with any other
fact, the ‘law of effect’ signifies that situation to which he is sensitive.
if the response satisfy the subject, Thorndike illustrated this by the act of
they are learnt and selected, while teaching a cat to stand up at a
those which are not satisfying are command. A fish was dangled before
eliminated. Teaching, therefore, must the cat while he said ‘stand up’. After
be pleasing. The educator must obey a number trails by presenting the fish
the tastes and interests of his pupils. after uttering the command ‘stand up’,
In other words, greater the satisfaction he later ousted the fish and the overall
stronger will be the motive to learn. command of ‘stand up’ was found
Thus, intensity is an important sufficient to evoke the response in the
condition of ‘law of effect’. cat by standing up or her hind legs.
IV. Law of Multiple Response: According to this theory the task can
According to it the organism varies or be started from the easier aspect
changes its response till an towards its difficult side. This
appropriate behaviour is hit upon. approach will benefit the weaker and
Without varying the responses, the backward children.
correspondence for the solution might A small child learns some skills
never be elicited. If the individual through trial and error method only
wants to solve a puzzle, he is to try in such as sitting, standing, walking,
different ways rather than running etc. In teaching also, the child
mechanically persisting in the same rectifies the writing after committing
way. Throndike’s cat in the puzzle mistakes.
box moved about and tried many In this theory more emphasis has been
ways to come out till finally it hit the laid on motivation. Thus, before
latch with her paw which opened the starting teaching in the classroom the
door and it jumped out. students should be properly
V. The Law of Set or Attitude Learning motivated.
is guided by a total set or attitude of Practice leads a man towards
the organism, which determines not maturity. Practice is the main feature
only what the person will do but what of trial and error method. Practice
will satisfy or annoy him. For helps in reducing the errors
instance, unless the cricketer sets committed by the child in learning
himself to make a century, he will not any concept.
be able to score more runs. A student, Habits are formed as a result of
similarly, unless he sets to get first repetition. With the help of this theory
position and has the attitude of being the wrong habits of the children can
at the top, would while away the time be modified and the good habits
and would not learn much. Hence, strengthened.
learning is affected more in the The effects of rewards and
individual if he is set to learn more or punishment also affect the learning of
to excel. the child. Thus, the theory lays
emphasis on the use of reward and
 77
punishment in the class by the What is Classical Conditioning?
teacher.
The theory may be found quite helpful
in changing the behaviour of the
delinquent children. The teacher
should cure such children making use
of this theory.
With the help of this theory the
teacher can control the negative
emotions of the children such as
anger, jealousy etc.
The teacher can improve his teaching
methods making use of this theory.
He must observe the effects of his
teaching methods on the students and i. Classical Conditioning- A learned
should not hesitate to make necessary reflex/response that you do when
changes in them, if required. evoked by a stimulus.
The theory pays more emphasis on ii. Pavlov performed experiments with
oral drill work. Thus, a teacher should dogs on to collect saliva.
conduct oral drill of the taught iii. He noticed that the dogs would
contents. This help in strengthening salivate when powdered meat was
the learning more. present.
iv. Pavlov associated the ringing of a bell
2. Pavlov’s theory of classical with the presence of powdered meat.
conditioning: v. He rang the bell every time the dogs
Ivan Pavlov were served food Pavlov started
 Ivan Pavlov was a famous Russian ringing the bell and the dogs would
psychologist. salivate without the powdered meat
 He lived from 1849 to 1936. being present.
 He made many discoveries in the
psychology field. Pavlov was
interested in behaviour (digestion) Thus, a learned reflex in the Classroom:
and he was studying salivation in Teachers can use classical conditioning to
dogs. He was measuring the amount quiet down the students-
salivation produced by the salivary Example:
glands of dogs by presenting them i. First day of class, students walk into
mean powder through a food class and teacher sits at desk. Teacher
dispenser. goes towards board when ready to
 Pavlov won the Nobel Prize in teach and children quiet down.
psychology in 1904. ii. Second day of class, students are
chatty when the teacher goes to the
board. Teacher asks to be quiet.
iii. Third day of class, students are
automatically quiet when the teacher
walks to the board.
 78

 Students will be conditioned in a

positive manner. same sequence was repeated and with more
 Students will learn the expectations of trials the time taken to press the lever
their teachers. eventually decreased. The random
 Students will learn the expectations of movements of the rat eventually became
their school. deliberate; rats then ate the food as fast as
they could press the lever.

3. Operant Conditioning theory  Operant conditioning can be described as

(Skinner): a process that attempts to modify
Experiment with Rats- behaviour through the use of positive and
MATERIALS: Skinner Box which is a negative reinforcement. Through
small chamber in which an animal learns Operant conditioning, an individual
how to make a particular response for which makes an association between a
the consequence can be controlled by the particular behaviour and a consequence.
researcher, it contains a speaker, signal Example- parents rewarding a child’s
lights, lever, food dispenser which dispenses excellent grade with candy or some other
pellets, and grid floors which can deliver a prize.
mild electric shock. There is also a
cumulative recorder which records the For details of Reinforcement and
frequency and speed of the desired response Punishment please see before. (Page no:
which is made by the pressing of a lever. 72)
PROCEDURE: A hungry rat was placed in
the Skinner box and every time it pressed the 4. Cognitivist Theory of Learning (Robert
lever it was rewarded with a food pellet in Gagne):
the food dish which was used to reinforce its Robert Gagne’s Hierarchy of Learning:
behaviour.
RESULTS: Rats scurried around the box a) Signal Learning
randomly touching parts of the floor and  Learn how to respond to a signal, like
wall. Eventually the rat accidently touched Pavlov’s dog (Pavlov’s classical
the lever and a food pellet was released. The conditioned response).
 79
 Usually the response is emotional.  Initiates the internal process of
b) Stimulus(S) expectancy and helps motivate
– Response(R) Learning. the learner to complete the lesson.
 Learn precise response to precise signal / III. Stimulate Recall Prior
stimulus. Knowledge
 Different from signal learning, signal  Associating new information
learning leads to involuntary responses, with prior knowledge /
whereas the responses in S-R learning are experiences can facilitate the
voluntarily controlled. learning process.
IV. Present The Material
c) Psychomotor Connection Learning.  new content is actually
presented to the learner.
 Occurs when a chain of stimuli and  Content should be chunked and
responses are formed. organized meaningfully, and
typically is explained and then
 Able to chain 2 or more stimulus- demonstrated.
response. V. Provide Guidance For Learning
4. Verbal Association Learning  To help learners encode
information for long-term
 Use terminology in verbal chains
storage, additional guidance
should be provided along with the
presentation of new content
5. Multiple Discrimination Learning
Robert Gagne’s 9 Events of
 Learn how to distinguish between
Instruction.
similar stimuli
VI. Elicit Performance
 Make different responses to each type
 Practice by letting the learner
of stimulus, even when they may be
do something with the newly
perceptually similar.
acquired behavior, skills, or
6. Concept Learning
knowledge.
 Singular / common response to an VII. Provide Feedback
entire class of stimuli.
 Show correctness of the
7. Principle Learning
learner's response, analyze
 Viewed as a chain of two or more learner's behavior.
concepts. VIII. Assess Performance
 Learn to apply rules.  Test / assessment to determine
8. Problem Solving if the lesson has been learned.
 Highest learning type which lead to IX. Enhance Retention & Transfer
the discovery of higher order rules  Inform the learner about
 All other types of learning must have similar problem situations,
been completed for it to be present. provide additional practice, put
9. Robert Gagne’s 9 Events of Instruction the learner in a transfer situation,
I. Gain Attention review the lesson.
 Use an “interest device” that
grabs learner’s attention.
II. Inform Learner of Objective
 80
5. Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Example (Stage 1):
Learning: • Suppose I have acquired a basic concept
Theory meaningful learning takes place such as “tree” – trunk, branches, green
when an idea to be learned is related in leaves, and may have some kind of fruit.
some sensible way to ideas that the • Now, I learn about a kind of tree that I
learner already possesses. Ausubel have never learn before “persimmon
believed that before new materials can be tree” – conforms to my previous
presented effectively, the student’s understanding of tree.
cognitive structure should be • My new knowledge of persimmon trees
strengthened. is attached to my concept of tree, without
substantially altering that concept in any
Purpose of Ausubel’s Meaningful way.
Verbal Learning: • So, I had learned about the persimmon
• Helps introduce a new lesson, unit, or trees through the process of derivative
course. subsumption.
• Helps summarize major ideas in new
lesson or unit. Correlative Subsumption: New
• Based on student’s prior knowledge. material is an extension or elaboration of
• Show similarities between old material what is already known.
and new material. Example (Stage 2):
• Allows student to transfer or apply • Suppose I encounter a new kind of tree
knowledge. that has red leaves, rather than green. • In
• Provides structure for new information. order to accommodate this new
• Helps teach complex concept that is information, I have to alter or extend my
similar to information learned concept of tree to include the possibility
previously. of red leaves. • I have learned about this
new kind of tree through the process of
The process of meaningful learning: correlative subsumption. • In a sense, you
Ausubel proposed four processes of might say that this is more “valuable”
meaningful learning: learning than of derivative subsumption,
- Derivative subsumption since it enriches the higher-level concept.
- Correlative subsumption
- Superordinate learning Superordinate learning: An individual
- Combinatorial learning is able to give a lot of examples of the
concept but does not know the concept
Subsumption is a process by which new itself until it is taught.
materials related to relevant ideas in the Example (Stage 3):
existing cognitive structure. • Imagine that I was well acquainted with
Derivative Subsumption: New material maples, oaks, apple trees, etc., but I did
or relationships can be derived from the not know, until I was taught, that these
existing structure. Information can be were all examples of deciduous trees.
moved in the hierarchy, or linked to other • In this case, I already knew a lot of
concepts or information to create new examples of the concept, but I did not
interpretations or meaning. know the concept itself until it was taught
to me.
• This is superordinate learning.
 81
Combinatorial learning: The first three Constructivism “Learning is an active
learning processes all involve new process in which learners construct new
information that "attaches" to a hierarchy ideas or concepts based upon their
at a level that is either below or above current/past knowledge’’
previously acquired knowledge.
Combinatorial learning is different; it 7. Social learning theory
describes a process by which the new Albert Bandura Basic Social Learning
idea is derived from another idea that is Concepts: There are three core concepts at
neither higher nor lower in the hierarchy, the heart of social learning theory. First is the
but at the same level. idea that people can learn through
observation. Next is the notion that internal
Example (Stage 4): mental states are an essential part of this
• Now, suppose I learn about how fish process. Finally, this theory recognizes that
eggs are fertilized. just because something has been learned, it
• I might relate it to previously acquired does not mean that it will result in a change
knowledge about pollination in plants. in behavior. Let's explore each of these
• Both of the ideas are different, but it is concepts in greater depth.
related to the “process of breeding”. a) People can learn through observation:
Observational Learning in his famous
Conclusion: Ausubel’s theory is Bobo doll experiment, Bandura
concerned with how individuals learn demonstrated that children learn and
large amounts of meaningful material imitate behaviors they have observed in
from verbal/ textual (lecture/ books) other people. The children in Bandura’s
presentations in a school setting as studies observed an adult acting violently
opposed to theories developed based on toward a Bobo doll. When the children
experimental settings. were later allowed to play in a room with
the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the
6. Bruner’s constructivist theory of aggressive actions they had previously
learning observed.
Bandura identified three basic models of
OBJECTIVE observational learning:
A. Explain the individual’s ability  A live model, which involves an actual
and development to represent individual demonstrating or acting out a
knowledge. behavior.  A verbal instructional model,
B. Differentiate and discuss the kinds which involves descriptions and
of categories of identity, explanations of a behavior.  A symbolic
equivalence and coding. model, which involves real or fictional
C. Explain how spiral curriculum characters displaying behaviors in books,
works. Constructivism films, television programs, or online
Constructivism is an media.
epistemological belief about what b) Mental states are important to learning:
"knowing" is and how one "comes (Intrinsic Reinforcement)-
to know." Bandura noted that external,
environmental reinforcement was not the
Constructivism is an epistemological belief only factor to influence learning and
about what "knowing" is and how one behavior. He described intrinsic
"comes to know." So according to
 82
reinforcement as a form of internal iii. Reproduction:
reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a Once you have paid attention to
sense of accomplishment. This emphasis the model and retained the
on internal thoughts and cognitions helps information, it is time to actually
connect learning theories to cognitive perform the behavior you
developmental theories. While many observed. Further practice of the
textbooks place social learning theory learned behavior leads to
with behavioral theories, Bandura improvement and skill
himself describes his approach as a advancement.
'social cognitive theory. iv. Motivation:
c) Learning does not necessarily lead to a Finally, in order for observational
change in behavior: learning to be successful, you have
While behaviorists believed that learning to be motivated to imitate the
led to a permanent change in behavior, behavior that has been modeled.
observational learning demonstrates that Reinforcement and punishment
people can learn new information play an important role in
without demonstrating new behaviors. motivation. While experiencing
d) The Modeling Process: these motivators can be highly
Not all observed behaviors are effective, so can observing other
effectively learned. Factors involving experience some type of
both the model and the learner can play a reinforcement or punishment. For
role in whether social learning is example, if you see another
successful. Certain requirements and student rewarded with extra credit
steps must also be followed. for being to class on time, you
The following steps are involved in the might start to show up a few
observational learning and modeling minutes early each day.
process:
i. Attention: 8. Kohler’s Insight Learning:
In order to learn, you need to be Insight learning is the abrupt realization
paying attention. Anything that of a problem's solution. Insight learning
distracts your attention is going to is not the result of trial and error,
have a negative effect on responding to an environmental stimulus,
observational learning. If the or the result of observing someone else
model interesting or there is a attempting the problem. It is a completely
novel aspect to the situation, you cognitive experience that requires the
are far more likely to dedicate your ability to visualize the problem and the
full attention to learning. solution internally - in the mind's eye, so
ii. Retention: to speak - before initiating a behavioural
The ability to store information is response.
also an important part of the Experiment:
learning process. Retention can be A. In one experiment, Kohler put the
affected by a number of factors, chimpanzee, “Sulthan” inside a cage
but the ability to pull up and a banana was hung from the roof
information later and act on it is of a cage. A box was placed inside the
vital to observational learning. cage. The chimpanzee tried to reach
the banana by jumping but could not
 83
succeed. Suddenly he got an idea and understand the relevant parts of the
used the box as a jumping platform by situation and overlooking the
placing it just below the hanging irrelevant ones.
banana.
B. In another experiment Kohler made Importance of learning for
this problem complicated that two or physiotherapy:
three boxes were required to reach the Modern physiotherapy is a complicated and
banana. challenging profession. The student physio
C. In a more complicated experiment, a must have clear goal interest to learn. She
banana was kept far outside the cage has to acquire a l ot of information from
and two sticks – one larger than the books, lectures and discussions. There are
other- were kept inside the box. When many complicated skills she has to learn
failed to reach the banana by one with repeated practice.
stick, with a sudden bright idea the
chimpanzee tried to reach the banana The following 14 suggestions listed by
by joining the two sticks. Crow, Crow and skinner may be of practical
value to the physio in the development of
Steps in insight learning: the habits of effective study:
a) Identifying the problem: The learner 1. Study with a definite purpose in mind.
recognizes the presence of an 2. Evaluate immediate and remote goals.
intervening obstacles on his way to 3. Provide a definite place for study.
the goal. 4. See that physical conditions are
b) Understanding the Problem: The conducive to study.
learner observes the problematic 5. Plan and follow a definite time schedule.
situation, analyses it and perceive the 6. Look for the main ideas in the reading
relation between the goal and the material.
obstacles. 7. Outline the study material.
c) Incubation of Ideas: After analyzing 8. Make brief, well organized notes in your
the total situation he reaches in own language.
conclusions by means of hesitation, 9. Evaluate the difficulty of the material.
pause, concentrated attention etc. 10. Study with intent to recall.
d) Sustained Attention: The learner 11. Attend carefully to all illustrative
maintains frequently recurrent materials.
attention to the goal and motivation. 12. Complete all study assignments.
e) Insight Development: In a certain 13. Shut out all emotional distractions.
moment there is a sudden perception 14. Make intelligent use of the
of the relationship in the total dictionary.
situation and the organism directly
performs the required acts.
f) Steady Repetition of Adaptive
Behaviour: After getting an
insightful solution, the individual
tries to implement it in another
situation.
g) Comprehension of Ability: The
learner reaches the ability to
 84

Reference:
1. Alexanders J, Anderson A, Henderson S. Musculoskeletal physiotherapists’ use of
psychological interventions: a systematic review of therapists’ perceptions and practice.
Physiotherapy. 2015 Jun 1;101(2):95-102.
2. Solomon P. Problem-based learning: a review of current issues relevant to physiotherapy
education. Physiotherapy theory and practice. 2005 Jan 1;21(1):37-49.
3. Dahlgren MA, Dahlgren LO. Portraits of PBL: Students' experiences of the characteristics
of problem-based learning in physiotherapy, computer engineering and psychology.
Instructional science. 2002 Mar;30(2):111-27.
4. http://physicsdiary.com/2014/04/26/trial-and-error-method-of-learning-thorndike-1874-
1949/
5. http://dgwaymade.blogspot.in/2010/10/thorndikes-laws-of-learning-and-its.html
6. http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/

Question:
1. Define learning. [Nov-10, Jan-09, May-08, Feb-14, feb 18]
2. Describe the types and condition to learning. [Nov-10, feb 18]
3. Discuss the factors of learning. [Jan-09]
4. Short note: Learning [Jul-9, June-13]
5. Describe the differences between classifiable and operant condition learning. [May-08,
Feb-14]
6. Classify Learning. [Feb-14, feb 18]
7. What is learning? [Feb-16] What are the types of learning? [Feb-16]
8. Compare between classical and operant conditioning. [Feb-2016].
 85
Chapter- 6

Memory
Concept about Memory
Memory was the one of the first Memory is the retention of, and ability to
phenomena to be studied in a recall, information, personal experiences,
psychological laboratory (Eddinghaus and procedures (skills and habits).
1864). Without memory there would be (Skeptic’ Dictionary).
no leaning, we would react to each
occurrence of a situation as though it had ‘Memory’ is a label for a diverse set of
not yet been experienced. The power to cognitive capacities by which humans and
store experience has occurred is called perhaps other animals retain information
memory. The current trend in the study of and reconstruct past experiences, usually
memory emphasizes cognitive or mental for present purposes. (Stanford
processes. Cognition concerns the internal Encyclopedia).
processing of information received from
the senses. One aspect of this processing Brain Areas Included in Memory
is memory. Memory is the encoding,  The hippocampus, a primitive structure
storage and retrieval of information. deep in the brain, plays the single largest
Memory is defined as the capacity to

retain and retrieval information. role in processing information as memory.

Forgetting is the loss, permanent or
temporary of the ability to recognize  The amygdala, an almond-shaped area
something learned earlier.
near the hippocampus, processes emotion
Definition of memory:
In psychology, memory is an organism's
mental ability to store, retain and recall
information. (Wikipedia)
 86

and helps imprint memories that involve memory closely related to “working”
emotion. memory is the very short time that you
 The cerebral cortex, the outer layer of the keep something in mind before either
dismissing it or transferring it to long-
brain, stores most long-term memory in
term memory. Short-term memory is
different zones, depending on what kind of shorter than you might think, lasting less
processing the information involves: than a minute. It’s what allows you to
language, sensory input, problem-solving, remember the first half of a sentence you
and so forth. In addition, memory involves hear or read long enough to make sense of
communication among the brain’s network the end of the sentence. But in order to
of neurons, millions of cells activated by store that sentence (or thought, fact, idea,
word, impression, sight, or whatever else)
brain chemicals called neurotransmitters.
for longer than a minute or so, it has to be
transferred to long-term memory.
Types of memory: Example: To remember the phone number
long enough to dial. We have to transfer it
1. Short term Memory: from sensory memory into a longer Laster
Temporary storage system with limited memory system is called short term
capacity. memory.
Capacity: Can store 7±2 items.
Duration: up to 20 seconds. 2. Long term Memory:
Short term memory holds relatively small Permanent storage system.
amount of information for period last’s Capacity: Enormous amount of
less than twenty seconds. Short-term information.
 87
Duration: Long periods of time. Al through this memory system can store
Finished using the information in short an enormous amount of information. It is
term memory it can either be transfer to a not very useful in remembering the phone
permanent memory system is called long number. Science the memory lasts lees
term memory. Long term memory has the then and second. Sensory memory is the
unlimited capacity to store information for ability to retain impressions of sensory

days, month, years, and even a life time information after the original stimulus has
information can’t be last or at least non ceased. It refers to items detected by the
retrieved. Long-term memory is anything sensory receptors which are retained
you remember that happened more than a temporarily in the sensory registers and
few minutes ago. Long-term memories which have a large capacity for
aren’t all of equal strength. Stronger unprocessed information but are only able
memories enable you to recall an event, to hold accurate images of sensory
procedure, or fact on demand—for information momentarily. The two types
example, that Paris is the capital of France. of sensory memory that have been most
Weaker memories often come to mind explored are iconic memory and echoic
only through prompting or reminding. memory.
Example: You always remember your Example: The phone number is presented
name, your father’s name, date of birth & visually so it enters through the eyes.
other personal data.
Declarative Memory
3. Sensory or Immediate memory:  Declarative memory is the aspect of
Capacity: Large capacity, storing almost human memory that stores facts. It is so
everything. called because it refers to memories that
Duration: Less than 1 second. That we see can be consciously discussed, or declared.
or hear. It applies to standard textbook learning and
Sensory memory registers information that knowledge, as well as memories that can
enters through one or more of the five be 'travelled back to' in one's ' mind's eye'.
sense.
 88
Procedural Memory continuous despite frequent blinks and eye
 Procedural memory is the longterm movements. For example, iconic memory
memory of skills and procedures, or "how holds sparks in an electric sign as
individual images as it travels in a

circle, as a result you see a continuous

to" knowledge (procedural knowledge). It circle of light rather than single dots of
is considered a form of implicit memory. light.
2. Echoic memory:
Types of sensory memory: Sensory A momentary sensory memory of auditory
memory are three types- stimulus; if attention is elsewhere, sounds
1. Iconic memory: and words can still be recalled within 3-4
Is a form of sensory memory that holds seconds. It lets you to play back auditory
visual information for almost quarter of a information and gives you time to
second to 2 seconds. It makes things in recognize sounds as words.
your visual world appear smooth and 3. Haptic Memory:
 89
Lasts less than 1 second and consists of  Sensory memory (SM)
information from touching things.  Short-term memory (STM)
 Long-term memory (LTM)
Functions of sensory memory:
 Prevents from being overwhelmed: Memory span:
Sensory memory keeps you from being The number of items, usually words or
overwhelmed by too many incoming numbers, that a person can retain and
stimuli. Anything you do not attend to, will recall. Memory span is a test of working
vanish in seconds. memory (short-term memory). In a typical
 Gives decision time: Sensory memory test of memory span, an examiner reads a
gives you a few second to whether list of random numbers aloud at about the
some incoming information is interesting rate of one number per second. At the end
or important. Information you pay of a sequence, the person being tested is
attention to will, automatically be asked to recall the items in order. The
transferred to STM. average span for normal adults is seven to
 Provides stability, playback and nine.
recognition.
Memory Process
The Atkinson-Shiffrin model Human memory, like memory in a
(also known as the Multi-store model, computer, allows us to store information
Multimemory model and the Modal for later use. In order to do this, however,
model) is a psychological model proposed both the computer and we need to master
in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard three processes involved in memory.

Shiffrin as a proposal for the structure of 1. Encoding: the information gets into our
memory (Theory of Storage and transfer brains in a way that allows it to be stored.
Model). It proposed that human memory
involves a sequence of three stages:
 90
2. Storage: the information is held in a way iii. recall or retrieval
that allows it to later be retrieved. iv. recognition
3. Retrieval: reactivating and recalling the
information, producing it in a form similar Factors influencing memory:
to what was encoded. a. Ability to retain
b. Good health
c. Age of the learner
d. Maturity
e. Will to remember
f. Intelligence
g. Interest
h. Over learning
i. Speed of learning
j. Meaningfulness
k. Sleep or rest

Methods to improve memory:

Scientific facts for memory
improvement:
1. RECALL:
Component or elements of Memory: This involves digging into the memory and
Memory involves four basic components bringing back information on a
or factors stimulus/response basis, e.g., "What is the
i. learning capital of New Zealand?" Answer:
ii. retention "Wellington". Recall often needs
 91
prompting with cues to help us retrieve return quickly, even if it hasn't been used
what we are looking for. It is not a reliable for many years.
form of memory and many of us
experience the feeling that we know the Tips for memory improvements:
answer but simply can't dig the 4. Brain exercises:
information out. This is the technique we Memory, like muscular strength, is a “use
use to remember people's names; hence we it or lose it” proposition. The more you
often forget them. work out your brain, the better you’ll be
There are three types of recall: able to process and remember information.
• Free recall: when no cues are given to 5. Aerobics:
assist retrieval The best way to improve our memories
• Serial recall: when items are recalled in a seems to be to increase the supply of
particular order oxygen to the brain, which we can do by
• Cued recall: when some cues are given to aerobic exercising. Walking for three
assist retrieval hours each week suffices, as does
swimming or bicycle riding.

2. Recognition (re+cognition):
Is a process that occurs in thinking when General guidelines to improve
some event, process, pattern, or object memory:
recurs. Coming from the base cognition; 1. Pay attention: You can’t remember
cognition has various uses in different something if you never learned it, and you
fields of study and has generally accepted can’t learn something that is, encode it into
to be used for the process of awareness or your brain, if you don’t pay enough
thought. attention to it.
2. Involve as many senses as possible. 
3. Relearning: Relate information to what you already
Another means of remembering is through know.
relearning. Relearned information may 3. Organize information.
 92
4. Understand and be able to interpret Memory and aging
complex material.  Rehearse information Several factors cause aging brains to
frequently and “over-learn”. experience changes in the ability to retain
5. Be motivated and keep a positive attitude. and retrieve memories:
6. Study is work and takes time, so plan a a. The hippocampus is especially vulnerable
study schedule to cover the study content. to age-related deterioration, and that can
7. Rehearsal is crucial for transferring affect how well you retain information.
information from STM to LTM. b. There’s a relative loss of neurons with age,
8. Remember the importance of organization. which can affect the activity of brain
9. Give a feedback to yourselves by testing chemicals called neurotransmitters and
your grasp. their receptors.
10. Review before examination. c. An older person often experiences
11. Give some short rest pauses between your decreased blood flow to the brain and
study times. processes nutrients that enhance brain
12. Study repeatedly to boost long term recall activity less efficiently than a younger
overlearn. person.
13. Refresh your memory by activating
retrieval cues. Forgetting (retention loss):
14. Minimize interference. Refers to apparent loss of information
15. Study right before sleeping. already encoded and stored in an
individual's long term memory. It is a
Healthy habits to improve memory: spontaneous or gradual process in which
A. Regular exercise: old memories are unable to be recalled
a. Reduces the risk for disorders that lead to from memory storage. It is opposite of
memory loss, such as diabetes and remembering.
cardiovascular disease. Munn- “Forgetting is the loss, permanent
b. Increases oxygen to your brain. or temporary, of the ability to recall or
c. May enhance the effects of helpful brain recognize something learned earlier.”
chemicals and protect brain cells. Drever- “Forgetting means failure at any
B. Managing stress: time to recall an experiences, when
a. Cortisol, the stress hormone, can damage attempting to do so, or to perform an action
the hippocampus if the stress is unrelieved. previously learned.” This is inability to
b. Stress makes it difficult to concentrate. recall the previously learnt material.
C. Good sleep habits:
a. Sleep is necessary for memory Causes of Forgetting:
consolidation. There are two kinds of forgetting
b. Sleep disorders like insomnia and sleep 1. Normal Forgetting: It's normal to forget
apnea leave you tired and unable to things once in a while as we age, but
concentrate during the day. serious memory problems make it hard to
D. Not smoking: do everyday things like driving, using the
a. Smoking heightens the risk of vascular phone, and finding your way home.
disorders that can cause stroke and
constrict arteries that deliver oxygen to the Causes of Normal Forgetting:
brain. a) Entropy through disuse: Older experience
the weaker its memory.
b) Interference: Forgetting by interference is
a case of retention amnesia, here stability
 93
and existence of memory traces are
disturbed Ex. Crowded learning, Unspaced
learning.
c) Retroactive and Proactive inhibition:
Inhibition means checking of causing to
withhold. It has been found that if one
period of learning is ‘A’ is immediately
followed by the another effort of learning
‘B’ which is similar material when any one
of them has to be recalled.
d) If the learning is not meaningful forgetting
occurs as it does not give scope for the
development of relationship.
e) Inadequate impressions at the time of Forms of amnesia:
learning leads to forgetting. ✂ ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA: In
f) Lack of interest in the learning material Anterograde amnesia patient cannot retain
leads to forgetting. any new memory.
g) Mental or physical ill health sets in ✂ RETROGRADE AMNESIA: In
physical and mental fatigue and affects Retrograde amnesia the patitent cannot
learning. recall the past events.
h) Motivated forgetting: Unpleasant events
are to be forgotten soon to participate in 2. Repression:
the present. Refers to the inability to recall
information, usually about stressful or
1. Abnormal Forgetting: This happens traumatic events in persons' lives, such as
because of some unusual conditions when a violent attack or rape. The memory is
recall is completely blocked. stored in long term memory, but access to
Causes of Abnormal Forgetting: it is impaired because of psychological
 It may result due to severe injury. defense mechanisms. Persons retain the
 Repression of experiences having guilt capacity to learn new information and
shame or frustration. there may be some later partial or complete
Example of abnormal forgetting: recovery of memory. This contrasts with
1. Amnesia e.g. anterograde amnesia caused by
“Amnesia is loss of ability to memorize amnestics such as benzodiazepines or
information or to recall information stored alcohol, where an experience was
in memory.” Causes amnesia: prevented from being transferred from
Amnesia is most commonly associated temporary to permanent memory storage:
with either brain damage through injury or it will never be recovered, because it was
degeneration of brain cells in dementia. never stored in the first place. Formerly
known as "Psychogenic Amnesia"
Interference theory.

Interference theory:
(also known as retrieval interference
(Roediger & Karpicke, 2006) refers to the
idea that forgetting occurs because the
 94
recall of certain items interferes with the good retrieval cue must be consistent with
recall of other items. In nature, the the original encoding of the information. If
interfering items are said to originate from the sound of the word is emphasized
an over stimulating environment. during the encoding process, the cue that
should be used should also put emphasis
Types of interference: on the phonetic quality of the word.
1. Proactive interference Underwood (1957)
provided early evidence that things you've
learned before encoding a target item can
worsen recall of that target item. In a meta-
analysis of multiple experiments, he
showed that the more lists one had already
learned, the more trouble one had in
recalling the most recent one. This is
proactive interference, where the prior
existence of old memories makes it harder
to recall newer memories.

2. Retroactive interference Retroactive

interference occurs when later learning
interferes with previous learning; i.e.,
learning new things somehow overwrites
or obscures existing knowledge.

3. Output interference Output interference

occurs when the act of retrieving interferes
with the retrieval of the actual information
needed in the first place. Primarily, this is
caused by the limited capacity of the short-
term memory.

Cue-dependent forgetting:
It is the failure to recall a memory due to
missing stimuli or cues that were present at
the time the memory was encoded. It is one
of five cognitive psychology theories of
forgetting. It states that a memory is
sometimes temporarily forgotten purely
because it cannot be retrieved, but the
proper cue can bring it to mind. A good
metaphor for this is searching for a book in
a library without the reference number,
title, author or even subject. The
information still exists, but without these
cues retrieval is unlikely. Furthermore, a
 95

Question:
1. Define memory. [June-13, Mar-12, Jul-11, Mar-10, jul 17, 2019]
2. Describe the storage process of memory. [June-13, Jul, 17]
3. How memory can be improved? [June-13, Jul-11, Jul-9, jul 17]
4. What are the major views of forgetting? [Mar-12, Feb-14]
5. What are the stages of memory system? [July-09]
6. Mention the definitions and the type of memory. What are the major views of
forgetting? [Feb-14].
7. What is memory? What are the processes of memory? How memory can be improved?
[Feb-16, 2019]
8. Short note:
i. Memory. [May-08]
ii. Process of memory. [Nov-10]
iii. IQ [feb 18]
Reference:
1. Clarke R, Schofield H, Tantam K. Lessons from a review of physiotherapy and psychological
rehabilitation received during ICU stay and beyond to inform the development of an ICU
follow clinic. Journal of the Intensive Care Society. 2022 May;23(2):103-8.
2. Rastall M, Brooks B, Klarneta M, Moylan N, McCloud W, Tracey S. An investigation into
younger and older adults' memory for physiotherapy exercises. Physiotherapy. 1999 Mar
1;85(3):122-8.
3. Malthouse R, Fox F. Exploring experiences of physical activity among people with
Alzheimer's disease and their spouse carers: a qualitative study. Physiotherapy. 2014 Jun
1;100(2):169-75.
4. Geffen G, Isles R, Preece M, Geffen L. Memory systems involved in professional skills: A
case of dense amnesia due to herpes simplex viral encephalitis. Neuropsychological
rehabilitation. 2008 Jan 1;18(1):89-108.
5. Reis F, Guimarães F, Nogueira LC, Meziat-Filho N, Sanchez TA, Wideman T. Association
between pain drawing and psychological factors in musculoskeletal chronic pain: A systematic
review. Physiotherapy theory and practice. 2019 Jun 3;35(6):533-42.
6. Johnston M. Models of disability. Physiotherapy Theory and Practice. 1996 Jan 1;12(3):131-
41.
7. Rönnberg J. Cognitive and communicative perspectives on physiotherapy: a review. Advances
in physiotherapy. 1999 Jan 1;1(1):37-44.
8. Li Z. Study on the General Design of the Manipulation Interface of the Household
Physiotherapy Instrument for the Elderly.
 96
Chapter- 7
Cognition

Cognition refers to "the mental action or In science, cognition is the mental

process of acquiring knowledge and processing that includes the attention of
understanding through thought, working memory, comprehending and
experience, and the senses". producing language, calculating,
It encompasses all aspects of intellectual reasoning, problem solving, and decision
functions and processes such as: making.
perception, attention, thought,
intelligence, the formation of knowledge, Stages of cognitive processes:
memory and working memory, judgment A. Sensation: It refers to our awareness about
and evaluation, reasoning and various stimuli which we encounter in
computation, problem solving and different modalities such as vision,
decision making, comprehension and hearing, touch smell and taste.
production of language. Imagination is
also a cognitive process; it is considered as
such because it involves thinking about
possibilities. Cognitive processes use
existing knowledge and discover new
knowledge.
“Cognitive psychology is the branch of
psychology that studies mental processes
including how people think, perceive,
remember, and learn. As part of the larger
field of cognitive science, this branch of
psychology is related to other disciplines
including neuroscience, philosophy, and
linguistics.”
Various physical energies in the
Cognitive Psychology study of these environment act on the sense organs. The
mental activities: receptors in them are stimulated from
1. Concept formation which nerve impulse are transmitted in the
2. Problem solving brain. Perception of object and events are
3. Decision making produced when this nerve impulse are
4. Judgment formation processed.
Cognitive- comes from the Latin
‘cognito’, meaning to Apprehend or B. Attention: Many competing stimuli, but
understand only limited capacity. Therefore, need to
Cognition- A general term including all focus, and select.
mental processes by which people become a. Visual attention: Based on location and
aware of and understand the world. colour.
Cognition is the process by which the b. Auditory attention: Based on pitch, timbre,
sensory input is transformed, reduced, intensity, etc. Color can be a powerful tool
elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. to improve user interfaces, but its
 97
inappropriate use can severely reduce the that we do not have to be consciously
performance of the systems we build. engaging in a "sensing" process.
c. Focused Attention: II. Perception can be defined as the active
i. Only one thing can be the focus of process of selecting, organizing, and
attention. interpreting the information brought to the
ii. Attention focus is voluntary or involuntary brain by the senses.
Factors affecting attentional focus
• meaningfulness How they work together?
• structure of display I. Sensation occurs:
• use of color, intensity, a. sensory organs absorb energy from a
• use of modalities. physical stimulus in the environment.
b. sensory receptors convert this energy into
iii. As mentioned earlier, during attention we neural impulses and send them to the brain.
selectively focus on a particular stimulus II. Perception follows:
among many stimuli available to us. For a. The brain organizes the information and
instance, while listening to a lecture in the translates it into something meaningful.
classroom we attend to the words
pronounced by the teacher and, try to D. Learning: It helps us acquiring new
ignore the other stimuli present in the knowledge and skills through experience
classroom, such as noise made by the fan. and practice. The acquired knowledge and
skills further bring a relative change in our
C. Perception: In the case of perception we behavior and facilitate our adjustment in
process information and make out the varied settings. For example, we learn
meaning of the stimuli available to us. For language, riding a bicycle and applying
example, we look at a pen and recognize it mathematical skills to solve various
as an object used for writing. What one problems.
perceives depends on selection,
organization and interpretation of stimuli. E. Memory: The information we process and
An individual selectively attends to certain learn is registered and stored in the
stimuli and not to other. memory system. Memory also helps us to
Factors influences perception: easily retrieve the stored information when
1. Functioning of sense organs it is required for use. For example, writing
2. Functioning of brain the answers in the examination after
3. Previous experiences studying for the paper. Memory has three
4. Psychological state components Sensory memory, short-term
5. Interest memory and long-term memory. Which
6. Motivation are discuss before, for details see memory
7. Behavior of an organisms chepter-5.

Differences between Sensation and F. Thinking: In the case of thinking we use

Perception our stored knowledge to solve various
I. Sensation can be defined as the passive tasks. We logically establish the
process of bringing information from the relationships among various objects in our
outside world into the body and to the mind and take rational decision for a given
brain. The process is passive in the sense problem. We also evaluate different events
 98
of the environment and accordingly form 3. Try to find out possible solution
an opinion. 4. Try to find out best solution
5. Try to find out alternative solution
G. Decision making: The thought process of 6. Maintain win-win situation.
selecting a logical choice from the
available options. When trying to make a Application of cognitive processes:
good decision, a person must weigh the In this case, we will look on how cognitive
positives and negatives of each option, and processes applied to our daily life, we can
consider all the alternatives. For effective try to make generalization and consider
decision making, a person must be able to their applications for educational.
forecast the outcome of each option as a. People control their own learning: B. F.
well, and based on all these items, Skinner (1954, 1968) argued that students
determine which option is the best for that must make active responses in the
particular situation. classroom if they are to learn anything.
Cognitivists share Skinner`s view: they
H. Problem-solving: It is a mental process emphasize mental activity rather than
that involves discovering, analyzing and physical activity.
solving problems. The ultimate goal of b. Memory is selective. Because learners
problem-solving is to overcome obstacles usually receive much information than
and find a solution that best resolves the they can possibly process and remember,
issue. The best strategy for solving a they must continually make choices about
problem depends largely on the unique what things to focus on and what things to
situation. In some cases, people are better ignore.
off learning everything they can about the c. Attention is essential for learning. We
issue and then using factual knowledge to know that attention is critical for log-term
come up with a solution. In other instances, retention of information, attention to a
creativity and insight are the best options. particular stimulus is all that needed.
d. Actually, the things that teachers do in the
The Steps in Problem-Solving: classroom can make a big difference in the
a. Identifying the Problem. extent to which students pay attention to
b. Defining the Problem. the topic at hand.
c. Forming a Strategy.
d. Organizing Information. Developmental Stages of Play – Piaget:
e. Allocating Resources.
f. Monitoring Progress and
g. Evaluating the Results.

According to Prof. Abul Monsur sir; HOD

of Dept. of Mass communication and
Honorable Syndicate Member of Dhaka
University, there are six steps of problem
solving or conflict management, as
follows….
1. Identify the problem.
2. Try to understand other person’s
perception
 99
Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist in the — JOHNSON, CHRISTIE & WARDLE
early 1900s. He created theories of 2005
cognitive development based on his
observational studies of children. The 9. Sensorimotor Stage:
theories of Piaget reinforce the idea that The name of the first stage
children learn through play. here (sensorimotor) gives you a clue
you will discover Piaget’s four stages of about how children learn in those
cognitive development and how these first two years of life. Right from
relate to his developmental stages of play. birth, babies use their senses to learn
Piaget devised a series of about their world. Exploratory play
developmental stages of play. We through the five senses is the primary
can observe them throughout his four type of play you will see at this stage.
stages of cognitive development. Young children in this stage are
focused on two things:
Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive a. Their own bodies
Development: b. External objects.

Piaget's theory of cognitive You will notice babies and toddlers in the
development proposes 4 stages: sensorimotor stage are focused on repeated
1. Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years patterns of movement or sound. They
2. Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7 spend their time sucking, shaking,
3. Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to banging and babbling.
11
4. Formal operational stage: ages 12 Piaget observed babies from around 6
and up months onwards organised their
knowledge conceptually. At first babies
“According to Piaget, children engage in might not understand a specific toy, but as
types of play that reflect their level of they look, feel, and touch it, they start to
cognitive development: functional play, form a concept of the toy in their minds.
constructive play, symbolic/fantasy play, As they learn more about the properties of
and games with rules.” objects and how they can be manipulated,
 100
they begin to understand the effects of play In the preoperational stage, their thinking
on their environment. is still dominated by intuition rather than
10. Preoperational Stage: The next logic though.

stage of cognitive development is the

preoperational stage. You will 11. Concrete Operational Stage:
observe children in this stage are As children move through the concrete
learning to associate objects with operational stage, Piaget noticed logical
words and the way they use and thinking emerges. Hands-on games with

represent objects has no real adult rules become extremely effective learning
logic behind it. tools to use with children in this stage of
development.
Piaget noticed children in this stage use
imaginative play to represent objects, and Initially, rules provide the structure
they build their conceptual knowledge and repetition sought after by their
through pretending and dramatic play. development of logical thinking.
Gradually, the children in the
At around 4 years of age, they become concrete operational stage become
more interested in social interactions and more focused on the social aspects of
start to enjoy structured games with rules. play. They play in order to seek
 101
connection and acceptance by the competitive games and games with
group. more complex rules. Piaget observed
children in this stage also needed less
12. Formal Operational Stage:

By the formal operations stage, direction from adults, as they are

children are developing the ability to more capable of thinking
reason and think hypothetically. independently.
Abstract concepts such as the future,
justice and values are engaging and easily Piaget’s Four Developmental Stages of
understood by children in the formal Play:
operations stage. Piaget suggested the stages of
The children in this stage of cognitive development occur in a
cognitive development desire more particular order. Children will not
skip a stage but progressively move
through each one. He also believed
the stages of play to be progressive,
with visible changes in children’s
play as they pass through each stage.

According to Piaget, children engage

in types of play that reflect their level
of cognitive development. Play is
children’s work.
Through play-
 Children develop cognitive skills and
learn new information.
 They learn and practice social skills.
 Children develop effective
communication skills.
 They learn self-regulation skills.
 102

 Children develop the ability to

resolve conflicts. 1. Piaget’s Functional Play:
 They work on problem-solving skills. Any repetitive action that the child
 Children learn to cooperate with finds enjoyable is functional play.
others. Functional play is the first type of
 They learn about themselves and play children experience. It begins
their place in the world. Children with babies in the sensorimotor stage
explore roles, interests, skills, and of cognitive development. When
relationships. babies learn to control their bodies
and objects, they experience
Play is how children explore and learn functional play.
about their world.
 103
Babies play through repetitive stacking, jumping, and bouncing,
actions, like shaking a rattle, they are taking part in functional
splashing in the bath, or repeatedly play.
dropping toys from their highchair.
These basic actions become play
when the child deliberately engages

in the activity for pleasure (Frost,

1992). 2. Piaget’s Constructive Play:
As children develop cognitively, When children manipulate objects to
their simple, repetitive actions create something, they are taking part
become more and more complex and in constructive play. Constructive
coordinated. Functional play is not play is often seen in the classroom
exclusive to the sensorimotor stage through hands-on inquiry type
of cognitive development. pedagogies. In constructive play,
Children can observe and enjoy children develop their conceptual
functional play throughout their knowledge by posing questions,
entire childhood. Whenever children testing ideas, and gathering
discover and practice new motor information. Through their
skills like sliding, climbing, experimentation with learning
 104
materials they plan, explore, and As educators, we should encourage
discover. Constructive play allows this type of play because it lays the
children to make sense of their world. foundation for academic, social,

In constructive play, children also and emotional success.

develop Young children prefer constructive
a. Their imagination. play. When given a choice of play
b. Problem-solving skills. activities, preschool children choose
c. Fine motor skills. constructive play more than 50% of
d. Their self-esteem. the time (Rubin, Fein, & Vandenberg
1983).
 105

Piaget saw constructive play as a that they can make something new
transition from functional to with them.
symbolic play. It allows children to
manipulate and control their Constructive Play Investigation Areas:
environment and gives children a Because constructive play is driven
sense of accomplishment. The key to by children’s interactions with their
promoting constructive play in your environment (Chaille 2008),
classroom is to provide your children designing an appropriate learning
with age appropriate and inspiring environment will take the
learning materials. The children constructive play in your classroom
should be able to use these materials to a new level. Try adding new and
in an organized, goal-oriented way so novel materials like loose parts to
your investigation areas to spark
 106

interest and invite children to explore playgrounds. They are excellent

the materials in new ways. invitations for children to take part in
Integrate your investigation areas and constructive play.
repurpose the materials you offer the Other areas you might like to
children in your class. consider adding to your outdoor
a. Combine the woodwork bench with space are
the art area a. Water tables
b. Add some math manipulatives or b. Woodwork benches
loose parts to your literacy area c. Art easels and paints
c. Add the science table to your blocks d. Outdoor mats or tables with baskets
area of blocks puzzles, lego and other
d. Use the veranda or outdoor space by traditional classroom materials.
taking indoor materials and resource A large garden for children to work
outside and play in also encourages a variety
e. Bring outdoor materials and of constructive play.
resources inside the classroom
f. Set up the collage trolley in the
playground
g. Add a tray of lego to a picnic blanket
under a tree.
Constructive Play in the Playground:
Water play troughs and sandpits are
staples in most early childhood
 107

Piaget’s Symbolic/Fantasy Play: use objects to represent something

Symbolic/Fantasy play is role else like driving a car by moving a
playing or make-believe play.
Symbolic play is the ability of
children to use objects, actions, or
ideas to represent other objects,
actions, or ideas. Classroom dramatic
play areas and small world setups are
the perfect learning experience to
foster symbolic/fantasy play.
Symbolic/fantasy play is widely
considered the most sophisticated
play activity during the preschool
and kindergarten years. Symbolic
play encourages the development of
social skills, academic abilities, early
literacy concepts, and behavioural
self-regulation (Leong & Bodrova 2015).
pretend steering wheel or using a
Symbolic/fantasy play can be seen in block of wood as a cell phone.
children as young as 18 months of Drinking from an empty cup or
age. You may have seen toddlers pretending to feed a doll are also
engaging in pretend play when they examples of symbolic play.
 108
As children develop through Piaget’s world. Dramatic play helps children
cognitive developmental stages, their to move away from their egocentric
play includes fantasy and drama. thinking. Through symbolic or
Preschoolers enjoy role play and fantasy play, children will learn
often include social norms in their skills in negotiation, cooperation,

pretend play. As their role-plays and listening, sharing, taking turns, and
imagination become more respecting others’ feelings, thoughts,
sophisticated, socialization becomes ideas, and physical space. Symbolic
an important part of their play. play is also a prerequisite to
You will notice these children will literacy and numeracy. When we
start to designate roles to themselves write letters and numbers, we are
and to others. They will begin to using symbols for what we want to

include sequential steps and convey. When children are engaged

organised plans in their imaginative in symbolic play, they are practicing
play. these very concepts.
Researchers have found that a child
Dramatic play is vital to cognitive who follows a sequence when playing
development and should be a vital (stirring milk and then feeding the
component of the classroom. It doll) will also be able to manage
provides the opportunity for children syntax in language (“I need paper and
to explore various roles and social crayons”).
rules that they may not otherwise Children will also be developing their
have the chance to explore in the real cognitive skills when they use their
 109
imagination and take part in symbolic Board games and card games are
or fantasy play. New neural pathways other types of games with rules.
are created whenever a child learns Through these games, children
how to think creatively. The develop an understanding of
development of creative thinking cooperation and competition.
skills helps children to become Games with rules are often
effective problem solvers. Creative characterized by logic and order, and
thinking skills are also vital for as children mature, they can develop
bringing new perspectives into our method and planning in their game
world. playing (Frost 2004).
“By initiating their own games with rules,
3. Piaget’s Games with Rules Play: children learn the need for rules, how to
Any play which has imposed rules to negotiate with each other, and fairness so
be followed by the players is games that the game is enjoyable for everyone.
with rules play. Team sports and board games are games

that have very specific rules and encourage

This is the last type of play the development of strategy. Electronic
documented by Piaget. To games are designed to target children at
successfully take part in this type of different stages of development and often
play, children must first have the encourage the practice and mastery of new
cognitive ability to understand and skills through challenging tasks and
remember the rules. These games will fantasy” (frost 2001).
also require children to self-regulate.
They will need to control their own
desires and needs in order to follow
the rules of the game. Children are
usually first introduced to games
with rules at school. Games like
Tiggy, Cat and Mouse or Duck-
Duck-Goose are always classroom
favourites. These class games are
often a child’s first introduction to
games with rules play.
 110

Piaget's theories about learning comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly

strongly suggest we should focus on and learn from experience. It is not merely
creating engaging learning book learning, a narrow academic skill, or
environments which provide test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a
opportunities for children to broader and deeper capability for
experiment and interact with the comprehending our surroundings—
world around them. "catching on," "making sense" of things, or
Educators need to provide "figuring out" what to do.
interactive, hands-on learning According to Intelligence: Knowns and
experiences so children can progress Unknowns (1995), a report published by
through Piaget’s stages of cognitive the Board of Scientific Affairs of
development and meet their cognitive the American Psychological Association:
developmental milestones. For Intelligence in individuals differ from one
children to construct new knowledge another in their ability to understand
and mental models of understanding, complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the
we must carefully plan and provide environment, to learn from experience, to
purposeful play experiences for our engage in various forms of reasoning, to
students. overcome obstacles by taking thought.
Play experiences which encompass Although these individual differences can
a. Functional Play. be substantial, they are never entirely
b. Constructive Play. consistent: a given person's intellectual
c. Symbolic/Fantasy Play. performance will vary on different
d. Games with Rules Play. occasions, in different domains, as judged
by different criteria. Concepts of
Intelligence: "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and
Intelligence is controversial, varying in organize this complex set of phenomena.
what its abilities are and whether or not it Although considerable clarity has been
is quantifiable. Some groups achieved in some areas, no such
of psychologists have suggested the conceptualization has yet answered all the
following definitions: important questions, and none commands
According to "Mainstream Science on universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen
Intelligence" (1994). Intelligence is a very prominent theorists were recently asked to
general mental capability that, among define intelligence, they gave two dozen,
other things, involves the ability to reason, somewhat different, definitions.
plan, solve problems, think abstractly,
 111
Human intelligence is the intellectual and social intelligence come from the same
power of humans, which is marked by theories or if there is a distinction between
complex cognitive feats and high levels them, and they are generally thought to be
of motivation and self- of two different schools of thought. (Main
awareness. Intelligence enables humans article: Social intelligence)
to remember descriptions of things and use
those descriptions in future behaviors. It is Intelligence theories:
a cognitive process. It gives humans the 1. General Intelligence – Charles Spearman
cognitive abilities to learn, form Described a concept known as “general
concepts, understand, and reason, intelligence” or “g-factor “Examines
including the capacities to recognize subject’s performance on a number of
patterns, innovate, plan, solve problems, mental aptitude tests People who
and employ language to communicate. performed well on one cognitive task
Intelligence enables humans tended to perform well on others – and vice
to experience and think. versa – if a subject performed poorly on
one task, they tended to perform poorly on
Emotional intelligence: the others. Concluded that intelligence is a
Emotional intelligence is thought to be the general cognitive ability that could be
ability to convey emotion to others in an measured and numerically expressed.
understandable way as well as to read the 2. Primary Mental Abilities – (Louis
emotions of others accurately.[23] Some Thurstone): Thurstone’s theory focused on
theories imply that a heightened emotional seven different primary mental abilities:
intelligence could also lead to faster Verbal comprehension Reasoning
generating and processing of emotions in Perceptual Speed Numerical ability Word
addition to the accuracy.[24] In addition, fluency Associative Memory Spatial
higher emotional intelligence is thought to visualization.
help us manage emotions, which is 3. Multiple Intelligences – Howard Gardner
beneficial for our problem-solving skills. Argued that numerical expressions of
Emotional intelligence is important to human intelligence are not a full and
our mental health and has ties into social accurate depiction of people’s abilities
intelligence.[23] Proposed a theory that described eight
(Main article: Emotional intelligence) distinct intelligences based on skills and
abilities that are valued within different
Social intelligence: cultures.
Social intelligence is the ability to The eight intelligences of Gardner’s theory
understand the social cues and motivations are:
of others and oneself in social situations. It a. Visual-spatial intelligence
is thought to be distinct to other types of b. Verbal-linguistic intelligence
intelligence, but has relations to emotional c. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
intelligence. Social intelligence has d. Logical-mathematical intelligence
coincided with other studies that focus on e. Interpersonal intelligence
how we make judgements of others, the f. Musical intelligence
accuracy with which we do so, and why g. Intra-personal intelligence
people would be viewed as having positive h. Naturalistic intelligence.
or negative social character. There is
debate as to whether or not these studies
 112
4. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: IQ: Intelligence Quotient
Robert Sternberg Defined intelligence as A number derived from a standardized
mental activity directed towards purposive intelligence test. Originally scores were
adaptation to selection and shaping of real- calculated by dividing the subject’s mental
world environments relevant to one’s life age by their chronological age and then
Argued that Gardner’s intelligences are multiplying by 100.Today, scores are
more like individual talents rather than calculated by comparing the subject’s score
mental activities. to the scores of other people in the same age
group. IQ tests are designed to measure
5. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: both crystallized and fluid intelligence
Successful intelligence is comprised of Crystallized intelligence: the knowledge
three different factors: Analytical and skills one has acquired throughout their
intelligence: problem-solving abilities life Fluid intelligence: one’s ability to
Creative intelligence: the ability to deal reason, problem-solve and make sense of
with new situations using past experience abstract information Subjects must
and current skill Practical intelligence: the complete a series of subtests designed to
ability to adapt to a changing environment. measure mathematical abilities, language
skills, memory, reasoning skills, and
6. Book smart and street smart: information-processing skills.
Concepts of "book smarts" and "street On modern IQ tests, the average score is
smart" are contrasting views based on the 100 with a standard deviation of 15This
premise that some people have knowledge means that 68% of people will have an IQ
gained through academic study, but may from and 95% of people will have an IQ
lack the experience to sensibly apply that between 70 and 130While an IQ test may be
knowledge, while others have knowledge a good general indicator of your reasoning
gained through practical experience, but and problem-solving abilities, many
may lack accurate information usually psychologists suggest that these tests do not
gained through study by which to tell the whole story – they do not measure
effectively apply that practical abilities and talents.
knowledge. Artificial
intelligence researcher Hector Emotional Intelligence
Levesque has noted that: Refers to a person’s ability to perceive,
Given the importance of learning through control, evaluate and express emotions.
text in our own personal lives and in our Research suggests that it can be learned
culture, it is perhaps surprising how utterly and strengthened Others suggest that it is
dismissive we tend to be of it. It is something you are born with.
sometimes derided as being merely "book
knowledge," and having it is being "book Four Branches of Emotional
smart." In contrast, knowledge acquired Intelligence:
through direct experience and Perceiving emotions: Being able to
apprenticeship is called "street understand nonverbal signals such as body
knowledge," and having it is being "street language and facial expressions.
smart" Reasoning with emotions: using
emptions to promote thinking and
cognitive activity. Emotions help us to
prioritize what we pay attention and react
 113
to – we respond emotionally to things that ability to succeed in coping with
get our attention. environmental demands.
Understanding Emotions: interpreting
the causes and meanings of emotions. For 2. Multifactor Emotional Intelligence
example, if your teacher is acting angry, it Scale (MEIS)
might mean that they are dissatisfied with An ability based test in which test-takers
your work or behavior, or it could be perform tasks designed to assess their
because her cat threw up on her new shoes ability to perceive, identify, understand
and she spilled coffee on her shirt this and utilize emotions.
morning before work.
Managing Emotions: regulating 3. Seligman Attributional Style
emotions, responding appropriately and Questionnaire (SASQ)
responding to the emotions of others. Measures optimism and pessimism. And
was used by life insurance companies.
How do we measure EQ?
1. Reuven Bar-On’s EQ-I 4. Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI)
A self-report test designed to measure Based on the Self-assessment
competencies including awareness, stress questionnaire. Involves having people who
tolerance, problem solving, and happiness. know a subject offer ratings of that
Believed that emotional intelligence is an person’s abilities on a number of different
array of non- cognitive abilities, emotional competencies.
competencies and skills that influence our

Question:
1. What do you mean by cognitive Development? [May-08]
2. Discuss cognitive development according to jean Paget. [May-08, Feb14]
3. Short note: Intelligence [Feb-14, jul 17]
4. Define cognitive development. [Feb-14]

References:
1. Psychology and Social for GNM and BPT Students, 3rd Ed, Author Jacob Anthikad.
2. Psychology for Nurses, 6th edition, Author Annie Altschul and Helen C. Sinclair.
3. Cognitive Theory and Application, 6th, Author Stephen K. Reed.
4. Cognitive Psychology, 3rd, Kathleen M. Galatti.
5. Synnott A, O’Keeffe M, Bunzli S, Dankaerts W, O'Sullivan P, O'Sullivan K.
Physiotherapists may stigmatise or feel unprepared to treat people with low back pain
and psychosocial factors that influence recovery: a systematic review. Journal of
physiotherapy. 2015 Apr 1;61(2):68-76.
6. Synnott A, O’Keeffe M, Bunzli S, Dankaerts W, O'Sullivan P, Robinson K, O'Sullivan
K. Physiotherapists report improved understanding of and attitude toward the cognitive,
psychological and social dimensions of chronic low back pain after cognitive functional
therapy training: a qualitative study. Journal of physiotherapy. 2016 Oct 1;62(4):215-21.
7. www.alleydog.com.
8. For IQ measurement: (Book);
9. https://www.shortcutstv.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/sim_IQ-test2.pdf
 114

Chepter-8
Socialization
socialization, we tend to have different
Socialization (Adapting One`s Culture) is personalities although we are living in the
the learning process wherein we develop same society. For example, the Yanomamo
our personality through adapting another Indians living on the border area between
person`s culture. Human infants are born Brazil and Venezuela tend to train the
without any culture yet. When a baby is younger generation of boys to become
born, socialization takes place in order for aggressive and strong. On the other hand, the
him to have a culture based on what his Semai tribe living on the central Malay
parents and his environment would teach Peninsula in Malaysia does not like violence
him. So what exactly is socialization? and hostility. This is why the younger
Socialization is the process of knowing generation of boys is trained to become
another person`s culture and learning how gentle and peace-loving.
to live within it. When we talk about
culture, we are referring to the totality of Agents of socialization:
moral norms, values, language, attitudes Socialization agents are a combination of
and other aspects comprising a society. All social groups and social institutions that
of us have roles to accomplish within our provide the first experiences of
society, and socialization helps us to harbor socialization.
knowledge and skills to satisfy these 1. Families,
societal roles. 2. Early education,
3. Peer groups,
According to Psychology: Socialization is 4. The workplace,
the process whereby an individual learns to 5. Religion,
adjust to a group (or society) and behave in 6. Government,
a manner approved by the group (or society). 7. Media,
8. Ethnic group,
According to Sociology: The process by 9. Clubs/ Social groups,
which a human being beginning at infancy 10. School.
acquires the habits, beliefs, and accumulated All communicate expectations and
knowledge of society through education and reinforce norms.
training for adult status.

Importance of Socialization
Socialization is an important part of the
process of personality formation in every
individual. It is true that genetics is the
reason behind the structure of human
personality, but socialization is the one that
causes this personality to be molded to
specific directions through the process of
accepting or rejecting beliefs, attitudes and
societal norms. Because of the dynamics in
 115

Role of family for socialization of a child:

2. Other family member:
Family is the first and for most important Other family members are also a media for
media to achieve socialization. In family socialization. In everyday
the socialization of a child largely depends life he learns social behaviour from family
on… members. He learns what to do and what not
1. Parents: to do.
Children are dependable and helpless. At This helps him to adjust in society.
first they depend on their mother for
feeding, care and love. For this reason, role Role of family in social development of
of mother is first to achieve social learning. children depends on following factors:
On the other hand, a child gets his father as a. Status of family
source of drive reducing. So, father is also a b. Human relationship c. Family size
media for socialization – d. Parental expectation
In a word parent gives to learn – e. Child training method f. Position of the
a. Behave in a society. child
b. Approved social role. g. Gender of the child h. Birth order
c. Develop social attitude i. Socio-economic condition of the family.
 116
development, but research suggests this is
Early in a child development: particularly true during adolescence.
The family is the strongest agent but as the
child advance to pre-school. Age programs Types of Socialization:
or schools being to exert influence. At school Generally, there are five types of
age pears are active socialization agents. For socialization: primary, secondary,
the first eight years, family, school, developmental, anticipatory and
community and pears play a role in the resocialization.
following aspects of a child’s socialization.
3. Primary socialization
(i) The development of trust. This type of socialization happens when a
(ii) The development of independence child learns the values, norms and behaviors
(iii) The tendency to take initiative. that should be displayed in order to live
(iv) The sense of competence and accordingly to a specific culture.
ambition. Example: A child hears his father talk bad
(v) Decisions about who one is. words against an old lady. The child would
(vi) Relations with others. think that this behavior is socially
(vii) Reflation on one’s life acceptable, so he would start talking bad
words against older people.
Child socialization development influenced
by parent’s that— 4. Secondary socialization
This type of socialization occurs when a
 Self-confidence. person learns an appropriate behavior to be
 Law respect. displayed within a smaller group which is
 Coverage bravery. still part of a larger society. The changes
 Honor, respect. within the values, attitudes and beliefs of an
 Patience. individual are seen to be less important than
 Liberty & liability. the changes made in him as he participates in
 Riskiness & aggressiveness. the larger society.
 Honesty & truthfulness. Example: A high school graduate chooses a
 Hospitality. career in Business Management after
participating in a small group career seminar
Role of peers in socialization: led by college business majors.
While most research suggests that family is Role of Secondary Socialization:
the most influential in personality Secondary socialization refers to the process
development (Hutteman et al. 2014), the role of learning what is the appropriate behavior
of peers can be highly influential, as a member of a smaller group within the
particularly in childhood and adolescence. larger society. Basically, it is the behavioral
Peers, or a group of people who have similar patterns reinforced by socializing agents of
interests, age, background, or social status, society. Secondary socialization takes place
serve as an important source of information, outside the home. It is where children and
feedback, and support to individuals as they adults learn how to act in a way that is
develop a sense of self. Peers help socialize appropriate for the situations they are in.
an individual by reinforcing or punishing Schools require very different behavior from
behaviors or interpersonal interactions. the home, and children must act according to
Peers are essential throughout one’s social new rules. New teachers have to act in a way
 117
that is different from pupils and learn the 6. Anticipatory socialization
new rules from people around them. This type of socialization refers to the
Secondary socialization is usually associated process wherein a person practices or
with teenagers and adults, and involves rehearses for future social relationships.
smaller changes than those occurring in Example: A child anticipates parenthood as
primary socialization. he observes his parents perform their daily
roles.
5. Developmental socialization
This type of socialization involves a learning 7. Resocialization
process wherein the focus in on developing This type of socialization involves rejecting
our social skills. previous behavior patterns and accepting
Example: A shy senior high school student new ones so the individual can shift from one
starts to teach English to new freshmen part of his life to another. Resocialization is
students in order to develop verbal said to be happening throughout human life
communication. cycle.

Question:
1. Narrate the role of family for socialization of a child.[Mar-10,Feb-14, jul 17]
2. Define socialization. [Nov-10, Feb-14, Feb-16, jul 17]
3. Discuss the role of peers for socialization of child.
4. Mention the types of socialization and role of peers for socialization of a child. [Feb-
2016, 2019].
Reference:
1. Lindquist I, Engardt M, Garnham L, Poland F, Richardson B. Physiotherapy students'
professional identity on the edge of working life. Medical teacher. 2006 Jan 1;28(3):270-6.
2. Sabih F, Siddiqui FR, Baber MN. Assessment of stress among physiotherapy students at
Riphah Centre of Rehabilitation Sciences. J Pak Med Assoc. 2013 Mar 1;63(3):346-49.
3. Eisenberg N, Cumberland A, Spinrad TL. Parental socialization of emotion. Psychological
inquiry. 1998 Oct 1;9(4):241-73.
 118
Chapter-9
Conflict

Concept about Conflict: that he belongs to a group and does what his
The word conflict has been derived from friends do. For an adolescent in Western
a Latin word ‗Conflicts’ which means ‗strike culture, that is a strong motive.
two things at the same time’. Conflict is a
special type of frustration. The existence of Characteristics of conflict are as follows:
frustration in life is unavoidable, without 1. Conflict is a Process:
which development is not possible when Conflict occurs in ‘layers’. First layer is
conflicts become excessive, they become always misunderstanding. The other layers
harmful. Excessive conflicts indicate a are differences of values, differences of
weakness of determination. Strong will viewpoint, differences of interest, and
power is required to get rid of conflicts. When interpersonal differences. It is also called a
you are unable to resolve the conflict, process because it begins with one party
obstacles cannot be overcome and delays perceiving the other to oppose or negatively
will have to tolerate. Too much of conflict affect its interests and ends with competing,
may make people neurotic. Conflict is an collaborating, compromising or avoiding.
opposition or a tug-of-war between 2. Conflict is Inevitable:
contradictory impulses. According to Colman Conflict exists everywhere. No two persons
“A conflict is the anticipated frustration are the same. Hence they may have individual
entailed in the choice of either alternative”. differences. And the differences may be
Conflicts occur in the individual when more because of values or otherwise, lead to
than one, equally powerful desires or motives conflict. Although inevitable, conflict can be
present at the same time and pressurize for minimized, diverted and/or resolved. Conflict
immediate satisfaction. develops because we are dealing with
Conflict is a natural disagreement resulting people’s lives, jobs, children, pride, self-
from individuals or groups that differ in concept, ego and sense of mission. Conflict is
attitudes, beliefs, values or needs. We define inevitable and often good, for example, good
conflict as a disagreement through which the teams always go through a “form, storm,
parties involved perceive a threat to their norm and perform” period.
needs, interests or concerns. Conflict
develops because we are dealing with 3. Conflict is a Normal Part of Life:
people’s lives, jobs, children, pride, self- Individuals, groups, and organizations have
concept, ego and sense of mission or purpose. unlimited needs and different values but
A.W. Green states “Conflict is the deliberate limited resources. Thus, this incompatibility
attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will is bound to lead to conflicts. The conflict is
of another or others”. Jhon Newstrom utters not a problem, but if it is poorly managed then
“Conflict is any situation in which two or it becomes a problem.
more parties feel themselves in opposition”.
So in general conflict, in psychology, the 4. Perception:
arousal of two or more strong motives that It must be perceived by the parties to it,
cannot be solved together. A youngster, for otherwise it does not exist. In interpersonal
example, may want to go to a dance to feel interaction, perception is more important than
 119
reality. What we perceive and think affects choices are satisfying. That’s occurs between
our behaviour, attitudes, and communication. two positive goals.
5. Opposition:
One party to the conflict must be perceiving Example: A high school senior has been
or doing something the other party does not accepted at two excellent colleges & she must
like or want. decide which one attend. Such a conflict is
6. Interdependence and Interaction: generally easy to resolve.
There must be some kind of real or perceived
interdependence. Without interdependence 2. Avoidance-Avoidance conflict:
there can be no interaction. Conflict occurs It occurs when an individual comfort two
only when some kind of interaction takes unattractive alternatives, choose between
place. two negative goals, consider the case of a
7. Everyone is inflicted with Conflict: college graduate, who has been unable to find
Conflict may occur within an individual, a job after many months of searching. He is
between two or more individuals, groups or finally offered a position that has no future &
between organizations. does not pay well.
8. Conflict is not Unidimensional:
It comes into different ways in accordance 3. Approach-Avoidance conflict:
with degree of seriousness and capacity. At It is the most difficult to resolve because in
times, it may improve even a difficult this conflict a person is both attracted &
situation. repelled by some goal objects.

In brief conflict is— Example: Ice cream is delicious but it also

More than a mere/simple disagreement. causes obesity. A man wants to marry a girl
A situation in which people, groups or for her beauty but at the same time her
countries are involved in serious discrepancy. educational level is too low.
A violent situation or period of fighting
between two countries. 4. Multiple/Double-Approach-Avoidance
A situation in which there are opposing conflict:
ideas, opinions, feelings or wishes. In which the individual must be choose
A situation in which difficult to choose the between two or more alternatives each of
better one. which has attractive & unattractive aspects to
use a simple frustration. In this conflict
Types of conflict: resolve in one of three ways—
Conflicts are the four categories-
1. Approach-Approach conflict. Finding new factors that make one option
2. Avoidance-Avoidance conflict. preferable.
3. Approach-Avoidance conflict. Finding a third alternatives.
4. Multiple/Double-Approach-Avoidance Choosing one of the alternatives in order to
conflict. stop having to worry about the problem.
In this conflict many positive on many
1. Approach – Approach conflict: negative goals.
In an approach conflict, the individual must
choose between two attractive, alternatives. Causes/ Reasons/Sources of Conflicts:
Approach conflict does not produce a great Conflicts may be caused by any one or more
deal stress, since both of the following reasons-
 120
1. Cognitive (Recognition and 10. Competing goals.
Understanding) Dissonance (Difference 11. Misunderstanding of job responsibilities.
of opinion): 12. Misunderstanding of requirement.
It is a conflict between convergent (ability to 13. Interdependence.
narrow the number of possible solutions to a 14. Feedback mechanism.
problem by applying logic and knowledge) 15. Performance appraisal system.
and divergent thinking (thinking outwards 16. Conflict of interest.
instead of inward). 17. Disagreement about strategy.
2. Status (Self-centered): 18. Lack of focus.
Status is a state, condition, or situation. When 19. Poor planning.
there is a need for status and a “wrong” person 20. Blame culture.
is promoted. 21. Fear of failure.
3. Incongruence: 22. Lack of team responsibility.
A party is required to engage in an activity 23. Managerial Actions:
that is incongruent with his or her needs or Poor communication (employees being
interests. not informed of new decisions, programmes
4. Incompatibility: etc., not involved in decision making, and
A party holds behavioral preferences like rumor mongering allowed); insufficient
attitudes, values, skills, goals, and resources (Disagreement on allotment of
perceptions, the satisfaction of which is work, stress from inadequate financial,
incompatible with another person’s equipment, facilities, and other resources and
implementation of his or her preferences. privileges); absence of personal chemistry
Economics: Insufficient remuneration to between managers and employees (both sides
employees. having rigidity, dislike for absence of self-
5. Stress: traits); lack of clarity in roles and
Conflicts from stress from external sources; responsibilities, arbitrariness in employees’
i.e., functional or dysfunctional situations. performance appraisal; weak leadership, and
Poor or Inadequate Organizational Structure inconsistent, too-strong, or uninformed
and Lack of Teamwork. leadership (lack of openness, buck-passing
6. Seeking Power: with little follow-through, lingering on issues,
Often a conflict for power struggle takes place first-line managers failing to understand their
when everyone wants to be a leader and subordinates’ jobs). All these factors cause
nobody wants to be a follower. dissatisfaction.
7. Weak Leadership:
Conflict is bound to result if someone of less Conflict Indicators:
stature leads a more qualified and experienced 1. Body language.
worker. 2. Colleagues not speaking to each other or
8. Arbitrary interpretation and ignoring each other.
application of rules and policies: 3. Deliberately undermining or not co-
Lack of transparency and openness creates operating with each other, to the downfall
dissatisfaction among the affected people. of the team
9. Differing viewpoints among colleagues
about each other:
In case of joint action two parties may have
partially exclusive behavioral preferences.
 121
4. contradicting and bad-mouthing one
another.
5. Disagreements, regardless of issue.
6. Withholding bad news.
7. Surprises.
8. Strong public statements.
9. Airing disagreements through media.
10. Conflicts in value system.
11. Desire for power.
12. Increasing lack of respect.
13. Open disagreement.
14. Lack of candor on budget problems or
other sensitive issues.
15. Lack of clear goals.
16. No discussion of progress, failure relative
to goals, failure to evaluate the styles in currency in 21st century, as shown in
superintendent fairly, thoroughly or at all. Figure:
17. Factions meeting to discuss issues
separately, when they affect the whole 1. Avoidance (Leave-lose/win):
organization. It is non-assertive and non-cooperative. The
18. One group being left out of organising an manager may think or pretend that no conflict
event which should include everybody. exists or just ignore it. This strategy is used
19. Groups using threatening slogans or when the effort to resolve is not worth the salt.
symbols to show that their group is right But this approach over the time worsens the
and the others are wrong. situation.
Avoidance might take the form of diplomatic
Conflict Management Styles: sidestepping the issue or postponing
Conflict management must aim at minimizing resolution in time to come or simply
affective conflicts at all levels, attain and withdrawing from a situation. A turtle is a
maintain a moderate amount of substantive symbol for avoidance, because it can avoid
conflict, and also to match the status and everything by pulling its head and legs into
concerns of the two parties in conflict. Many the shell to be off to everything.
styles of conflict management behavior have
been researched in the past century. Mary 2. Accommodating (Yield-lose/win):
Parker Follett described them as domination, Accommodating is non-assertive and
compromise, and integration (involves cooperative, just opposite of compet-ing. To
openness, exchanging information, looking solve the conflict, if someone puts his
for alternatives, and examining differences to interests last so as to satisfy concerns of other
solve the problem in a manner that is people by giving in, sacrificing, or accepting,
acceptable to both parties). She also or yielding to other’s view point, it is called
mentioned avoidance and suppression as accommodation.
other forms of handling conflicts. Robert R. However, being too accommodating too often
Blake and Jane S. Mouton then presented can weaken your position to the point where
five styles: forcing, withdrawing, smoothing, your voice is never heard. There will be high
compromising, and problem solving. The five relationship orientation. This style is also used
when the new approach is to be used in the
very near future. It may solve the conflict for
 122
the other party, but a conflict will begin in working together. Through this style,
manager. This style is not objective. A employees develop ownership and
chameleon is a symbol of the accommodating commitment. Sometimes this style gives birth
style since it changes its color to match the to new mutual needs.
color of its environment. By changing its
color to accommodate its surroundings, The How to Minimize (Manage) Inter-Personal
chameleon fits quietly into its environment. Conflicts?
 According to Prof. Abul Monsur sir;
3. Competing (Win/lose): HOD of Dept. of Mass communication and
The style is assertive and non-cooperative. A Honorable Syndicate Member of Dhaka
person puts his/her interests before anyone University, there are six steps of problem
else’s interests. It is also known as dominating solving or conflict management, as
style. One stands up for his rights and uses all follows….
the power to win his position. There is low 1. Identify the problem.
relationship orientation. Managers, using this 2. Try to understand other person’s
style, want others to follow his dictates or get perception.
his way. This style can be used only when 3. Try to find out possible solution.
one’s leadership is established. There would 4. Try to find out best solution.
be low relationship orientation Low 5. Try to find out alternative solution.
relationships orientation a lion can be a 6. Maintain win-win situation.
symbol of a competitive style. The lion’s roar
helps the lion to satisfy its interests.  The Managerial Action:
No manager should avoid a conflict, hoping it
4. Compromising (Mini-win/mini-lose): will go away. It would be better to ask the
It is some assertive and some cooperative. participants to describe specific actions they
Compromise is on the path toward want the other party to take. It would be
collaboration, somewhere between beneficial to have a third party (meaning a
competition and accommodation. The style non-direct superior with access to the
means mutual give-and-take to satisfy both situation) involved. Finally, it is advisable not
parties, or both may say, “Something is better to meet separately with people in conflict.
than nothing.” It has equal distance between A manager should take following actions to
competing and accommodating. There would minimize conflicts:
be negotiated relationship orientation. When 1. Regular Review of Job Descriptions:
the objective is to move on, not to stop the With the pace of change the job description
journey, the manager may compromise. A must also change. But this will be possible
zebra can be a symbol for the compromising only when the job descriptions are regularly
style. A zebra’s unique look seems to indicate reviewed.
that it didn’t care if it was a black horse or a 2. Establish Rapport and build
white horse, so it “split the difference” and Relationship with all of Your
chose black and white stripes. Subordinates:
For it, meet them at regular intervals; ask
5. Collaborating (Win/win): them about their achievements, problems, and
It is assertive as well as cooperative, just challenges.
opposite of avoiding. It may also be called 3. Regular Reports:
integrative style. This style focuses on A manager must get progress report about his
satisfying the underlying concerns of both the subordinates regularly, indicating
parties, meeting many current needs by
 123
achievements, current needs and future 2. Self-concept:
scenario. The way we think and feel about ourselves
4. Training: and opinions about others affects as to how we
Every manager needs to be provided training approach conflict with the other person.
in interpersonal communication, conflict
management, and delegation of authority. 3. Expectations:
5. Mutual Development of Procedures: If we believe that our team or the other person
For routine tasks, the procedures should be wants to resolve the conflict, we would be
developed keeping in mind the inputs positive to resolve the conflict?
received from employees. If possible,
encourage them to write. Such written 4. Position/Power:
procedures should be distributed to all Where do we stand in power status
concerned. If the need be, concerned relationship with the person we are in
employees be trained in those procedures. conflict? It means whether the other man is
6. Holding Regular Meetings: equal to, more than, or less than us in status.
The managers need to hold regular
management meetings to inform subordinates 5. Life Experience:
about new initiatives to be taken and the Through knowledge and experience, we
progress of current programmes. might have gained skills about conflict and
7. Anonymous Suggestion Box: “conflict management understanding”. It
Consider such a box in which employees can enables us to determine what conflict mode to
provide suggestions. use with the particular person with whom we
are in conflict.
Factors affecting Conflict Styles:
1. Gender: 6. Communication skills:
Some of us use assertive conflict modes The basic of conflict resolution and conflict
because of our gender and particular kind of management is how effectively we
socialization. Some males, because they are communicate. People using effective
male, were taught to “always stand up to communication will be able to resolve
someone, and, if you have to fight, then fight”. conflicts with greater ease and success.
If one was socialized this way, he will be more
likely to use assertive conflict modes versus
using cooperative modes.

Question:
1. What is conflict? [Nov-10, Jan-09, feb 18]
2. Mention the copping Strategy is of conflict. [Nov-10, feb 18]
3. Discuss the type of conflict. [Jan-09, feb 18]
4. Short note: 1. Conflict [Mar-12, June-13]
Reference:
1. Jevon SM, Johnston LH. The perceived knowledge and attitudes of governing body chartered
physiotherapists towards the psychological aspects of rehabilitation. Physical Therapy in Sport. 2003 May
1;4(2):74-81.
2. Nerdrum P, Rust en T, Helge R. nnestad M. Psychological distress among nursing, physiotherapy and
occupational therapy students: A longitudinal and predictive study. Scandinavian Journal of Educational
Research. 2009 Aug 1;53(4):363-78.
3. Alexanders J, Anderson A, Henderson S. Musculoskeletal physiotherapists’ use of psychological
interventions: a systematic review of therapists’ perceptions and practice. Physiotherapy. 2015 Jun
1;101(2):95-102.
 124
Chapter-10
Heredity and environment:
Heredity is a term that refers to traits and Types and zygosity or Twins
features that are inherited from one's 1. Dizygotic (fraternal) twins
parents and ancestors. For example, at 2. Monozygotic (identical) twins
birth a person inherits 50% of each parent's 3. Polar body and semi-identical twins
genetic material (genes) that are passed 4. Sesquizygotic twin type
along through the chromosomes found in the The vast majority of twins are either
DNA. “The term environment is used to dizygotic (fraternal) or monozygotic
describe, in the aggregate all the external (identical). Less common variants are Polar
forces, influences, and conditions, which body and semi-identical twins and
affect the life, nature, behaviour, and the Sesquizygotic twin type.
growth, development and maturation of Fraternal twins can be any of the following:
living organisms.” Environmental a) Female–female twins: Sometimes
psychology is a branch of psychology that called sororal twins (25%).
explores the relationship between humans b) Male–male twins: Sometimes called
and the external world. It examines the way fraternal twins (25%).
in which the natural environment and our c) Female-male twins: This is the most
built environments shape us as individuals. common pairing (50%), simply by
Environmental Psychology emphasizes how virtue of it encompassing both
humans change the environment and how the "female-male" (25%) and "male-
environment changes humans' experiences female" (25%) twins.
and behaviors.
Important of twin’s study in Psychology
Twins Twins provide a valuable source of
Twins are two offspring produced by the information for health and psychological
same pregnancy. Twins can be either research, as their unique relationship allows
monozygotic ('identical'), meaning that they researchers to pull apart and examine genetic
develop from one zygote, which splits and and environmental influences. Twin study
forms two embryos, or dizygotic ('non- findings have been influential in detecting
identical' or 'fraternal'), meaning that each and treating various diseases and
twin develops from a separate egg and each psychological disorders. Because identical
egg is fertilized by its own sperm cell. Since twins share all of their genes, their
identical twins develop from one zygote, measurements of IQ and sleep time will be
they will share the same sex, while fraternal more similar the bigger role genes play in it
twins may or may not. In rare cases twins can (i.e., differences between two identical twins
have the same mother and different fathers must be caused by the environment because
(heteropaternal superfecundation). In their genes are the same).
contrast, a fetus that develops alone in the
womb (the much more common case, in Relative Importance of Heredity and
humans) is called a singleton, and the Environment
general term for one offspring of a multiple 1. The foregoing discussion reveals that
birth is a multiple. Unrelated look-alikes both heredity and environment have their
whose resemblance parallels that of twins share in moulding the life and personality
are referred to as doppelgangers.
 125
of the individual. But as regards the the environmental situation, improve its
extent of their influence opinions differ. quality, even though the heredity remains
2. Heredity is responsible for all the inborn constant, the behaviour will improve. It
traits, the instincts, emotions, I.Q., reflex was explained above children brought up
action and physical traits. in nursery and progressive schools or in
3. Environment is responsible for the good foster homes showed improvement
growth and development of the physical, in their intellectual caliber after some
mental and social traits. time. They were better than those who
4. The two forces heredity and environment were brought up in ordinary environment
are not opposed to each other, but are but were initially of the same heredity.
complementary like seed and soil, ship Two individuals of the same heredity
and current, ‘warp and woof, bed and might differ when put in dissimilar
stream etc. Both of these forces are environments. Again two individuals of
required for the same purpose. The differing heredity would probably differ
heredity is the raw material out of which in spite of identical environments. So we
the object is to be prepared, and can predict that if we change either
environment in the technique and other factor, the product is changed. But
material for the manufacture. Algebra alone will not help us in
Environment is nothing but a process measuring the quantity of improvement.
under suitable conditions to change the Detailed investigations are needed for
shape of raw material just as potter does that but roughly we can make an estimate
while making toys of mud. Human of the changes in the behaviour due to
behaviour is the product of heredity and change in either of the factors.
environment. Hence both are equally
important. The verdict of T. Percy Nunn Suppose we have got three children of three
is nothing short of final: “Circumstances different grades of heredity viz., superior,
of life are to men what rocks and winds, average and low (symbolically put as S, A
and currents are to a ship, merely and L). Suppose there are three grades of the
accidents that make their qualities environment also (S, A and L). If the child
manifest but have nothing whatever to do with superior heredity is put in superior
with producing them.” environment, his personality will be highly
5. Interaction of Environment and Heredity: superior because S x S = S2. If he is put in
Human behaviour is determined by average environment his personality will be
interaction of heredity and environment. somewhat superior (S x A = SA).
The individuality of person is
characterized by some inborn traits The different combinations are as follows:
inherited by the person. The task of the a. Superior heredity and superior
environment is to shape these traits in a environment, S x S = S2
proper form, to give opportunities for b. Superior heredity and average
their unfoldment and fulfillment, and to environment, S x A = SA
help making improvements. Thus the c. Average heredity and superior
personality of the individual is a product environment, A x S = AS
of heredity and environment. d. Average heredity and average
6. Improvement through Environment: environment, A x A = A2
Environment can definitely improve e. Superior heredity and low environment,
upon the behaviour of a person. Increase S x L = SL
 126
f. Low heredity and superior environment, Hereditary Influences
L x S = LS Evidence for hereditary influences on
g. Average heredity and low environment, intelligence comes from the following
A x L = AL observations:
h. Low heredity and average environment, a. Family studies show that intelligence
L x A = LA tends to run in families.
i. Low heredity and low environment, L x b. Twin studies show a higher correlation
L = L21 between identical twins in IQ than
between fraternal twins. This holds true
Roles of heredity and environment in even when identical twins reared apart
physical health / Characteristic: are compared to fraternal twins reared
Heredity is responsible for all the inborn together.
traits, the instincts, emotions, I.Q., reflex c. Adoption studies show that adopted
action and physical traits. Environment is children somewhat resemble their
responsible for the growth and development biological parents in intelligence.
of the physical, mental and social traits. Family studies, twin studies, and adoption
studies, however, are not without problems.
Roles of heredity and environment in
physical health intelligence and Heritability of Intelligence
personality: Heritability is a mathematical estimate that
Heredity of the genetic basis is a very indicates how much of a trait’s variation in a
important determinant of personality population can be attributed to genes.
because the principal raw material of Estimates of the heritability of intelligence
personality such as physique, intelligence vary, depending on the methods used. Most
and temperament are to a large extent researchers believe that heritability of
dependent on the genetic endowment of a intelligence is between 60 percent and 80
person. Environment is also a very important percent. Heritability estimates apply only to
determinant of personality development. groups on which the estimates are based. So
far, heritability estimates have been based
Influence on intelligence mostly on studies using white, middle-class
Today, researchers generally agree that subjects. Even if heritability of IQ is high,
heredity and environment have an heredity does not necessarily account for
interactive influence on intelligence. Many differences between groups. Three important
researchers believe that there is a Reaction factors limit heritability estimates:
Range to IQ, which refers to the limits a. Heritability estimates don’t reveal
placed on IQ by heredity. Heredity places an anything about the extent to which genes
upper and lower limit on the IQ that can be influence a single person’s traits.
attained by a given person. The environment b. Heritability depends on how similar the
determines where within these limits the environment is for a group of people.
person’s IQ will lie. Despite the prevailing c. Even with high heritability, a trait can
view that both heredity and environment still be influenced by environment.
influence intelligence, researchers still have
different opinions about how much each Environmental Influences
contributes and how they interact. Evidence for environmental influences on
intelligence comes from the following
observations:
 127
a. Adoption studies demonstrate that white people on standardized IQ tests.
adopted children show some similarity in Controversy exists about whether this
IQ to their adoptive parents. Adoption difference is due to heredity or
studies also show that siblings reared environment.
together are more similar in IQ than Role of Heredity and Environment in
siblings reared apart. This is true even Personality Development
when identical twins reared together are Meaning of Heredity:
compared to identical twins reared apart. Each individual has a different pattern of
b. Biologically unrelated children raised behaviors and personality. This difference is
together in the same home have some seen due to the influence of heredity and
similarity in IQ. environment. Truly speaking heredity and
IQ declines over time in children raised environment play an important role in the
in deprived environments, such as development of the personality and other
understaffed orphanages or qualities in the individual. No person can be
circumstances of poverty and isolation. born without heredity and genes cannot
Conversely, IQ improves in children who develop without proper environment. An
leave deprived environments and enter individual’s heredity is present since the
enriched environments. moment of conception, and some
environmental conditions also start
c. People’s performance on IQ tests has influencing him from this very stage.
improved over time in industrialized Each trait and response of an individual
countries. This strange phenomenon, depends on his heredity and environment.
which is known as the Flynn Effect, is Therefore, in order to know about the
attributed to environmental influences. It individual, it is necessary to understand his
cannot be due to heredity, because the heredity and environment.
world’s gene pool could not have
changed in the seventy years or so since Every human being is born as a result of
IQ testing began. conception which takes place due to certain
biological Factors and process. When two
Possible Causes of the Flynn Effect germ cells meet together an organism’s life
The precise cause for the Flynn effect is starts. In the ovary of the female an ovum or
unclear. Researchers speculate that it an egg cell is present. Ovum is a kind of
may be due to environmental factors such female’s egg cell. In the ovum 23 pairs of
as decreased prevalence of severe chromosomes are present in different shapes
malnutrition among children, enhancing and sizes. In the male’s sperm there are also
of skills through television and video present numerous germ cells.
games, improved schools, smaller family In a germ cell there are 23 pairs of
sizes, higher level of parental education, chromosomes as is the case with female’s
or improvements in parenting. ovum. When a chromosome of female meets
the chromosomes of male. Fertilization takes
d. Cultural and Ethnic Differences place and the life begins to take place. It is
Studies have shown a discrepancy in this cell or chromosomes which in the
average IQ scores between whites and process of heredity an individual gets from
minority groups in the United States. his parents.
Black, Native American, and Hispanic The child carries with himself several
people score lower, on average, than physiological and psychological
 128
peculiarities that are present in the parents.
In fact, it is the heredity that determines
structure, complexion, structure of hair,
height. Facial features nasal index etc. of the
child. Thus different types of the genes help
in the formation of a body. According to
geneticists, sex is also inherited. They say
that there are two big chromosomes. They
have named these chromosomes as ‘X’ and
‘Y’. In the germ cells of the male there is one
big ‘X’ chromosome-and a small ‘Y’
chromosome. If the germ cell engaged in the The result of the union of the genes is called
formation of a creature an ‘X’ chromosome heredity.
of the mother and the other ‘X’ chromosome
of the father enter, then the child will be a Fig. Mechanism of Heredity
female, and contrary to this, if in the germ
cell an ‘X’ and a ‘Y’ chromosome enter, the Meaning of Environment:
child will be a male. A study of Environment is nothing but the sum total of
chromosomes has revealed that genes of the the surroundings in which an individual has
‘X’ chromosome are comparatively stronger to live. Psychologically an individual’s
than the genes of the ‘Y’ chromosome. An environment is related to all those stimuli
individual’s heredity depends on the genes which he faces from the moment of
of his parents, that is, whatever one gives to fertilization till death. Environment is
his children is through the genes. The generally divided into two categories-natural
mechanism of heredity is explained below. and social. Natural environment refers to all
those things and forces on and around the
Mechanism of Heredity: earth that influence a person.
(i) Mating: Mating is the 1st step for
reproduction. The union of male sperm with Social environment we mean the
female ovum the results is zygote. environment which the person sees around
(ii) Growth: It involves repeated division of himself on acquiring consciousness in the
the fertilized cell or zygote. society, i.e., language, religion, custom,
(iii) Chromosomes: Every woman and man tradition, means of communication, means
receives 23 chromosomes from each parent of luxury, family, school, social groups etc.
or 46 in all. By human society we mean those institutions
(iv) Genes: Each chromosomes consists of or organizations which human beings have
small particles numbering 40 to 100 which established for their own protection and
are called genes. security. Psychologists like Freud,
(v) Chance factor:Both ovum and sperm Havelock, Eills have accepted the fact that
before fertilization contains 23 pairs of social environment is very much responsible
chromosomes each. At the time of for changing in human behaviour and its
conception, the genes in the chromosomes of personality.
the sperm, pair the genes of ovum and
determines the potential characteristics and
qualities of the off spring.
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Educational Implications of Heredity and The nature-nurture controversy
Environment: The nature-nurture controversy is an age-old
The knowledge of heredity and environment dispute among behavioral psychologists,
has a great influence on human philosophers, theologians, and theorists of
development. Human development is the consciousness as to the source of the creation
product of both heredity and environment. of human personality: Does it develop
The development pattern of the children is primarily from biology (nature), or from the
determined by both heredity and environments in which we are raised
environment. As per the developmental (nurture)? People have been pondering the
pattern of the children the educational role of nature and environment since the
pattern, methods and learning environment time of Hippocrates (c. 460-c. 377 B.C.). He,
should be made by the teacher in the for instance, linked human behavior to four
teaching-learning situation. So the bodily fluids, or humors: yellow bile, blood,
knowledge of heredity and environment black bile, and phlegm. Hippocrates
helps the teacher in various ways which are classified personalities into four types
discussed hereunder. related to these four humors: choleric
I. Knowledge of heredity and (yellow bile), or hot-tempered; sanguine
environment helps the teacher to (blood), or confident; melancholic (black
know the varying needs and abilities bile), or moody; and phlegmatic, or slow to
of the children. take action.
II. It helps to provide proper guidance to
his children in the field of Unlike Hippocrates, the philosopher John
educational, vocational and personal. Locke (1632-1704), whose ideas were a
III. It helps the teacher to classify the precursor to behaviorism, believed that
students as gifted, normal or slow behaviors were externally determined.
learner and arrange different types of Similarly, the philosopher Jean-Jacques
education for them. Rousseau (1712–1778) theorized that people
IV. It helps the teacher to provide better were born essentially good, and that positive
learning environment in the school. aspects of the environmental contribute to
V. It helps the teacher to know the the development of behavior. Locke
principle of individual differences believed that people were born essentially
and arrange the educational blank, like a blackboard, and who they
experience accordingly. "became" was entirely the result of their
VI. It helps the teacher to study the experiences.
behaviour of the children under The first scientist of the modern era to
different situations. seriously consider the genetic and
VII. It helps the teacher to organize environmental effects in personality
various curricular and co-curricular development was Sir Francis Galton, a
programmes for the best benefit of the wealthy British scientist. He dabbled in the
children. arts and sciences but became primarily
So the knowledge of both heredity and interested in what we today call genetics
environment is of utmost value to the after his cousin, Charles Darwin, published
teachers, administrators and educational The Origin of the Species in 1859. He was
planners. If it is realized, the system of fascinated by the idea of genetic pre-
education will be changed to a great extent. programming and-sought to uncover the
ways in which humans are predestined.
 130
Many of his experiments were eccentric and finally met, at King's Cross Station in May
ill-conceived, but his contributions to the of 1979, each was wearing a beige dress and
field are still considered vital. His studies, a brown velvet jacket…. Both had the
curiously, led to the development of the eccentric habit of pushing up their noses,
science of fingerprinting and to the concept which they called 'squidging.' Both had
of the word association test. He also coined fallen
the term "eugenics" and believed that
science would one day be able to direct, with Genes and behavior
absolute precision, the development patterns Is a child's athletic ability inherited, or
of human evolution. Taking the other simply a product of training? If one parent
position in this early debate was John has schizophrenia, will his child acquire the
Watson, the eminent behaviorist who once disease? The genetic foundations of
made the outlandish claim— which he later behavior are studied by behavior genetics, an
modified—that he could turn babies into any interdisciplinary science which draws on the
kind of specialist he wanted. resources of several scientific disciplines,
including genetics, physiology, and
Over the years, much research has been done psychology. Because of the nature of
in the nature/nurture controversy, and today heredity, behavior geneticists are unable to
nearly everyone agrees that both nature and assess the role played by genetic factors in
nurture play crucial roles in human an individual's behavior: their estimates by
development. This outlook has come to be definition apply to groups. There are 23 pairs
known as interactionism and is the dominant of chromosomes in each human cell (a total
system of belief among biologists, of 46 chromosomes each with approximately
psychologists, and philosophers nearly 20,000 genes). Genes from both members of
everywhere. a pair act in concert to produce a particular
trait. What makes heredity complex and
Much of the research in the late 20th century extremely difficult to measure is the fact that
has focused on twins who were separated at human sperm and eggs, which are produced
birth. In studying such pairs, psychologists by cell division, have 23 unpaired
can be relatively certain that any behavior chromosomes. This means that one half of a
the twins share has a genetic component, and person's genes comes from the mother, and
those behaviors that are different have the other half from the father, and that each
environmental causes. There are many individual, with the exception of his other
famous cases of twins separated at birth identical twin, has a unique genetic profile.
being reunited later in life to find that they
have many things in common. One of the
most striking studies of twins, reported in a
1995 New Yorker article, was conducted by
Thomas Bouchard, a professor of
psychology at the University of Minnesota
and founder of the Center for Twin and
Adoptive Research. The twins, Daphne
Good ship and Barbara Herbert, had been
separated at birth and sent to economically
different areas of London. The article's
author, Lawrence Wright writes, "When they
 131

Reference
1. Jacobson KC, Rowe DC. Genetic and environmental influences on the relationships between
family connectedness, school connectedness, and adolescent depressed mood: sex
differences. Developmental Psychology. 1999 Jul;35(4):926.
2. Provins KA. Handedness and speech: a critical reappraisal of the role of genetic and
environmental factors in the cerebral lateralization of function. Psychological review. 1997
Jul;104(3):554.
3. Klump KL, Burt SA, McGue M, Iacono WG. Changes in genetic and environmental
influences on disordered eating across adolescence: a longitudinal twin study. Archives of
general psychiatry. 2007 Dec 1;64(12):1409-15.
4. Effects of Heredity and Environment on our Personality.
5. Role of Heredity and Environment in Personality Development.
6. Educational Implications of Heredity Vs. Environment Psychology.
7. Role of Will and Character in Personality Development.
8. Relative Importance of Heredity and Environment in Psychology
 132
Chapter-11
Psychological Needs

Any need that is essential to mental health Relatedness

or that is otherwise not a biological  Feeling connected to others around
necessity. It may be generated entirely you (e.g., family, friends, colleagues,
internally, as in the need for pleasure, or it exercise instructors).
may be generated by interactions between  Good social support network.
the individual and the environment, as in  Feeling like other people care about
the need for social approval, justice, or job you.
satisfaction. According to SDT there are
three psychological needs (autonomy, Some examples of Psychological Needs:
competence, relatedness) that are Satisfying needs in the context of child
universally important for psychological weight
wellbeing and autonomous motivation. You How might a needs-satisfied parent/carer
can think of these universal needs in the feel?
same way you think of physiological needs
(e.g. hunger, thirst, sleep). That is - if any of Autonomy - Parent/carer feels it is they
these needs are not satisfied, wellbeing will who has made the decision to become
suffer and motivation is likely to dip. healthier. They feel they have some control
Conversely if you feel autonomous, and choice over their behaviours (rather
competent and related to others in a than simply going through the motions
particular area of your life (e.g. physical because someone else has told them to).
activity), you are likely to feel
autonomously motivated to pursue that Competence - Parent/carer feels they have
behaviour. the skills and resources required to become
Autonomy healthier. For example, they feel the
 Feeling like you are in control and physical activity plan they have set is
have choice. realistic and they have the skills and
 Making informed decisions (based knowledge to make the dietary changes
on your values and beliefs). required. They might draw on previous
 Taking responsibility for your successes to enhance their belief that they
decisions and actions. can change.
 Feeling free and willing.
Competence Relatedness - Parent/carer feels they are
 Having an optimal level of challenge connected to and supported by others to
(i.e., to give you the opportunity to change their family’s lifestyle behaviours.
feel a sense of competence - not too These others may be friends, family
easy, not too difficult). members or professionals and support may
 Feeling able to have a go at be emotional or practical. Essentially, they
challenges. feel like people care and are supportive of
 Feeling confident in your ability to what they are doing.
complete tasks.
 Feeling goals are achievable.
 133
and freedom that separates from fear and
Psychological Needs of Information: anxiety, and especially the feeling of
The term information need is often satisfying one's needs now (and in the
understood as an individual or group's future).” The psychology of security is
desire to locate and obtain information to intimately tied to how we think: both
satisfy a conscious or unconscious need. intellectually and emotionally. Over the
millennia, our brains have developed
Levels of Information need: complex mechanisms to deal with threats.
The four levels are labelled: According to Understanding how our brains work, and
Taylor, 1968. how they fail, is critical to understand- ing
 The visceral need, the feeling of security. Psychological safety
 The conscious need, is the belief that you won't be punished or
 The formalized need, and humiliated for speaking up with ideas,
 The compromised need questions, concerns, or mistakes. What is
psychological safety at work in particular?
Types of information needs: It's a shared belief held by members of a
The three different types of information team that others on the team will not
needs are known as: embarrass, reject, or punish them for
 The verificative information need; speaking up.
 The conscious topical information
need; and
 The muddled topical information
need.

Psychological Needs of security: Psychological Needs of Self-esteem:

The Sense of Security from the Perspective Self-esteem is your overall opinion of
of Western Psychology. In Western yourself- how you feel about your abilities
psychology, two prominent theories define and limitations. When you have healthy
security as an essential basis for human self-esteem, you feel good about yourself
survival. According to Maslow's hierarchy and see yourself as deserving the respect of
of needs (1970), the need for security is one others. When you have low self-esteem,
of the most important human needs. As a you put little value on your opinions and
decisive factor of mental health, ideas. Self-esteem impacts your decision-
psychological security has been widely making process, your relationships, your
concerned. Maslow defined psychological emotional health, and your overall well-
security as “a feeling of confidence, safety being. It also influences motivation, as
 134
people with a healthy, positive view of  Social Awareness: Social awareness
themselves understand their potential and is the ability to understand what
may feel inspired to take on new challenges. others are feeling and have the
For example, when you value yourself and understanding to take their
have good self-esteem, you feel secure and perspective.
worthwhile. You have generally positive  Relationship Skills: To be successful
relationships with others and feel confident in school, children need to be able to
about your abilities. You're also open to form positive social relationships,
learning and feedback, which can help you work together, and deal effectively
acquire and master new skills. A simple with conflict.
approach to meditation will increase your  Responsible Decision-Making:
self-esteem. When young children learn to make
positive choices about their personal
Types of self-esteem: and social behavior, they are making
The three types of self-esteem are: - responsible decisions.
1. Sense of superiority,
2. Others' approval, Psychological Needs of Love:
3. Uniqueness. Love is much deeper, more intense, and
includes a strong desire for physical
Components of self-esteem: intimacy and contact. People who are "in
There are 4 components that define the like" enjoy each other's company, while
esteem you might feel for yourself: those who are "in love" care as much about
1. Self-confidence, the other person's needs as they do their
2. Identity, own. This is the strongest of the basic
3. Feeling of belonging, psychological needs. The need to love and
4. Feeling of competence. be loved, to belong and have friends, is
almost as strong as the need to survive. The
Psychological Needs of Competence: need to be loved is characteristic of all
Competence is the psychological need to human beings. Code words for
exert a meaningful effect on one's love/connection are togetherness, passion,
environment. It refers to the innate unity, warmth, tenderness, and desire. The
propensity to develop skill and ability, and fifth need is for growth. According to the
to experience effectance in action. A triangular theory of love developed by
competency framework the knowledge and psychologist Robert Sternberg, the three
skills, and attitudes, values, and judgment components of love are intimacy, passion,
needed to perform the work of a and commitment. Intimacy encompasses
psychologist. feelings of attachment, closeness,
connectedness, and bondedness. Passion
The Five Core CASEL Competencies: encompasses drives connected to both
 Self-Awareness: Self-awareness is limerence and sexual attraction.
the ability to recognize and name Commitment encompasses, in the short
personal emotions. term, the decision to remain with another,
 Self-Management: Self-management and in the long term, the shared
is the ability to regulate emotions and achievements and plans made with that
behaviors so that goals are achieved. other person.
 135
“Romantic love evolves when one feels a helplessness, increases happiness, reduces
sense of interdependence, attachment, and stress, and improves our quality of life. An
that their psychological needs are being example of hope is when a person believes
met,” Kane says. “Some researchers say his life situation will approve and his run of
oxytocin plays a part in the evolution of back luck will end.
romantic love as it is released in the brain
during orgasm, which contributes to the Here are some different ways you can
couple’s ability to bond with one another.” rediscover it in your life again:
 Believe you can achieve your goals.
Psychological Needs of Hope:  Reflect on past success.
The American Psychological Association  Practice prayer or meditation.
defines hope as “the expectation that one  Use uncertainty as a tool.
will have positive experiences or that a  Focus on the positive.
potentially threatening or negative situation  Be creative.
will not materialize or will ultimately result  Find humor.
in a favorable state of affairs.” Hope is also
 Have social support.
linked to optimism- the attitude or outlook
that good. Hope reduces feelings of

Reference:
1. Alexanders J, Douglas C. The role of psychological skills within physiotherapy: A
narrative review of the profession and training. Physical Therapy Reviews. 2016 Nov
1;21(3-6):222-7.
2. Hemmings B, Povey L. Views of chartered physiotherapists on the psychological
content of their practice: a preliminary study in the United Kingdom. British journal of
sports medicine. 2002 Feb 1;36(1):61-4.
3. Hills R, Kitchen S. Toward a theory of patient satisfaction with physiotherapy:
Exploring the concept of satisfaction. Physiotherapy theory and practice. 2007 Jan
1;23(5):243-54.
4. Driver C, Kean B, Oprescu F, Lovell GP. Knowledge, behaviors, attitudes and beliefs
of physiotherapists towards the use of psychological interventions in physiotherapy
practice: a systematic review. Disability and rehabilitation. 2017 Oct 23;39(22):2237-
49.
 136
Chapter-12
Emotion

Emotions are often confused with feelings Different psychologist is given different
and moods, but the three terms are not definition- There are given below
interchangeable. According to the American a. Crider & others-
Psychological Association (APA), emotion Emotion is a complex stage involving,
is defined as “a complex reaction pattern, subjective physiological and expressive
involving experiential, behavioral and components.
physiological elements.” Emotions are how b. Rodiger and others-
individuals deal with matters or situations Emotion is complex physiological &
they find personally significant. Emotional cognitive stage that people describe in
experiences have three components: a subjective terms.
subjective experience, a physiological c. Wood worth & Marguis (1975)-
response and a behavioral or expressive Emotion is moved or stirred up state of the
response. Feelings arise from an emotional individual.
experience. Because a person is conscious of
the experience, this is classified in the same In brief emotion is-
category as hunger or pain. A feeling is the - A stirred up or excited state
result of an emotion and may be influenced - A motivated state
by memories, beliefs and other factors. A
mood is described by the APA as “any short- Emotion involves
lived emotional state, usually of low 1. Feeling
intensity.” Moods differ from emotions 2. Thinking
because they lack stimuli and have no clear 3. Activating of the nervous system,
starting point. For example, insults can 4. Physiological changes
trigger the emotion of anger while an angry 5. Behavioral changes such as facial
mood may arise without apparent cause. So expressions.
emotion also be defined as the stirred up or
excited state of mind associated with Characteristics of emotion:
physiological arousal in response to external 1. To a considerable extent, emotions are
or internal stimuli. Emotion is a complex, accompanied by the activation or an
subjective experience accompanied by aroused state in the organism.
biological and behavioral changes. Defining 2. They are normally accompanied by
emotions is a task that is not yet complete. physiological changes like gestures,
Many researchers are still proposing theories muscular movements, changes in facial
about what makes up our emotions, and expression, and changes in
existing theories are constantly being physiological reactions like blood
challenged. Still, there’s a good basis of pressure, heart beat, pulse rate and
knowledge to analyze when exploring the respiration.
topic. 3. Whenever an organism is experiencing
an emotion, a lot of energy is
released/ Exception is grief, when the
energy and activity level are reduced.
 137
6. Vary along a number of dimensions;
Classification of emotion: Four types of intensity, type, origin, arousal, value,
emotion are— self-regulation, etc.
1. Positive vs Negative emotion: 7. Are reputed to be antagonists of
Emotion can be divided – rationality.
a. Positive emotions like- joy, love & 8. Determine personal viability
happiness. 9. Prepare us for action
b. Negative emotion like- fear, anger & 10. Shape & colour our behaviour (emotions
sadness are reinforcing)
2. Primary vs Mixed emotion: 11. Regulate social interaction
The primary emotions are limited number &
larger number of mixed emotion. 10 Basic Emotions:
The primary emotions include at a maximum 1. Happiness. One of the first core
happiness disguiser, surprise, sadness, anger emotions we all experience is
& fear. happiness.
Mixed emotion are mixture of sadness and 2. Sadness.
surprise, while jealousy is considered a 3. Anger.
combination of love & anger. 4. Anticipation.
3. Opposite emotion: 5. Fear.
Many emotions exist as pairs of paler 6. Loneliness.
opposite sites. Thus we recognize joy as 7. Jealousy.
the opposite of sadness & love as the 8. Disgust.
opposite of hate. 9. Trust.
4. Emotional intensity: 10. Surprised.
Emotions vary in their degree of intensity.
For example: Fear can be described in Components of emotion:
increasing degrees of intensity as follows— Three components of emotion are-
Uneasy, tense, apprehensive, tremulous, 1. A characteristics feelings or subjective
agitated panicky & terrified. components.
2. A pattern of physiological arousal.
Causes of emotion: 3. A pattern of over divert expression.
Emotions are created by our brain-
It is the way our brain gives meaning to 1. Subjective components: The
bodily sensations based on past experience. subjective components are unvoiced,
Different core networks all contribute at the lovely which we attach to our
different levels to feelings such as emotions such as fear, anger, joy or
happiness, surprise, sadness and anger. sadness.
2. Physiological components: It includes
Functions of emotion: all of the bodily changes that occurs in
1. Adaptive function emotion. Our language contains many
2. Socio moral development phrases that express these physiological
3. Source of pleasure a pain experiences.
4. Largely a consciously phenomena For example: When we speak of
5. Involve more bodily manifestations than button flies in the stomach, when
other conscious states fearful, lump in the throat when sad of
tingling with pleasure.
 138
3. Divert expression: These are important role for mental health
components include the body positions, professionals.
& the facial expressions, characteristic Those interested in exploring the difference
of different emotion. between feelings and emotions and
For example: A wide eyed stare often understanding the mind, human behavior,
express fear. and strategic ways of helping mental health
patients usually complete advanced
The Difference Between Feelings and programs of study such as a master’s in
Emotions: counseling. This education is necessary to
Emotions and feelings are all traits we share understand the difference between feelings
as humans. According to an article in the and emotions from a clinical perspective.
publication Psychology Today, “emotions Let’s explore that difference, along with
are multi-faceted experiences” of “internal how emotions can impact daily life for
subjective experiences, facial expressions many individuals.
and physiological reactions.” Teasing out
the feelings and emotions that people have,
and learning why they have them, is an

Emotion Feeling
1. Emotion establish our initial attitude 1. Feelings establish our long term attitude
2. toward reality.
Emotion alert us to immediate 2. toward reality.
Feelings alert us to anticipated
3. dangers
Emotionsand prepares
ensure us for survival
immediate action. 3. dangerous and prepares
Feelings ensure long-termussurvival
for action.
of
4. of self, (body
Emotions & mind).
are intense but temporary. 4. self. (body
Feelings are&low-key
mind) but unstainable.
5. Emotion is not a part of feelings. 5. Feeling can trigger an emotion.
6. Emotion persists for lesser time than 6. Feeling persist for longer than emotion.
feeling.
7. Emotion can direct & control thought 7. Feeling can result in thought.
8. Emotion may be deeper experience. 8. Feeling is the inner body experience.
9. We can have many emotions at the 9. We can only have a few feeling at a
same time. time.
10. Emotion is a unconscious thought. 10. Immediate unconscious thought.
11. Emotion is a mental state. 11. Immediate unconscious thought.
12. Emotion is an outward expression of 12. Direct consequences of emotion.
feelings.
13. Emotion is something that affect us 13. Feeling is easy simple and sensory.
entire system.
14. Emotion are harder to understand 14. Feeling increase the impact of a given
because they are more complicated. situation.
15. Example: 15. Example:
a. Happiness is a feeling. a. Joy is an emotion.
b. Contentment is a feeling. b. Fear is an emotion.
c. Bitterness established our initial c. Enthusiasm is an emotion.
attitude toward reality.
 139
Feelings versus Emotions These responses are brought about by
Many people use the terms “feeling” and changes in activity in the sympathetic,
“emotion” as synonyms, but they are not parasympathetic, and enteric components of
interchangeable. While they have similar the visceral motor system, which govern
elements, there is a marked difference smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
between feelings and emotions. throughout the body. Intense activity of the
Feelings. Both emotional experiences and sympathetic division of the visceral motor
physical sensations such as hunger or pain system prepares the animal to fully utilize
bring about feelings, according to metabolic and other resources in challenging
Psychology Today. Feelings are a conscious or threatening situations. Conversely,
experience, although not every conscious activity of the parasympathetic division (and
experience, such as seeing or believing, is a the enteric division) promotes a building up
feeling, as explained in the article. of metabolic reserves. Cannon further
Emotions. According to Psychology suggested that the natural opposition of the
Today, an emotion “can only ever be felt expenditure and storage of resources is
through the emotional experiences it gives reflected in a parallel opposition of the
rise to, even though it might be discovered emotions associated with these different
through its associated thoughts, beliefs, physiological states. As Cannon pointed out,
desires, and actions.” Emotions are not “The desire for food and drink, the relish of
conscious but instead manifest in the taking them, all the pleasures of the table are
unconscious mind. These emotions can be naught in the presence of anger or great
brought to the surface of the conscious state anxiety.”
through extended psychotherapy.
A fundamental difference between feelings Activation of the visceral motor system,
and emotions is that feelings are particularly the sympathetic division, was
experienced consciously, while emotions long considered an all-or-nothing process.
manifest either consciously or Once effective stimuli engaged the system, it
subconsciously. Some people may spend was argued, a widespread discharge of all of
years, or even a lifetime, not understanding its components ensued. More recent studies
the depths of their emotions. have shown that the responses of the
autonomic nervous system are actually quite
Psychological changes in emotion: specific, with different patterns of activation
The most obvious signs of emotional arousal characterizing different situations and their
involve changes in the activity of the visceral associated emotional states. Indeed,
motor (autonomic) system. Thus, increases emotion-specific expressions produced
or decreases in heart rate, cutaneous blood voluntarily can elicit distinct patterns of
flow (blushing or turning pale), piloerection, autonomic activity. For example, if subjects
sweating, and gastrointestinal motility can are given muscle-by-muscle instructions that
all accompany various emotions. During result in facial expressions recognizable as
emotional experiences other activities like anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, or
perception, learning, consciousness and surprise without being told which emotion
memory are affected. Along with bodily they are simulating, each pattern of facial
changes, there are psychological changes muscle activity is accompanied by specific
that also take place during the emotion. For and reproducible differences in visceral
example, confusion in perception, clouding motor activity (as measured by indices such
of consciousness and blocking of memory. as heart rate, skin conductance, and skin
 140
temperature). Moreover, autonomic of muscles and muscle groups, such as the
responses are strongest when the facial obicularis oculi, that cannot be activated by
expressions are judged to most closely force of the will, but only “put into play by
resemble actual emotional expression and the sweet emotions of the soul.” Duchenne
are often accompanied by the subjective concluded that the emotion-driven
experience of that emotion! One contraction of these muscle groups
interpretation of these findings is that when surrounding the eyes, together with the
voluntary facial expressions are produced, zygomaticus major, communicates the
signals in the brain engage not only the genuine experience of happiness, joy and
motor cortex but also some of the circuits laughter. The smile characteristic of these
that produce emotional states. Perhaps this emotional states has therefore been termed
relationship helps explain how good actors the “Duchenne smile” by subsequent
can be so convincing. Nevertheless, we are investigators.
quite adept at recognizing the difference In normal individuals, such as the Parisian
between a contrived facial expression and shoemaker illustrated here (figure A), the
the spontaneous smile that accompanies a difference between a forced smile (produced
pleasant emotional state (Box A). by voluntary contraction or electrical
stimulation of facial muscles) and a
Box A spontaneous, “emotional” smile testifies to
Facial Expressions: (Pyramidal and the convergence of
Extrapyramidal Contributions) descending motor signals from
In 1862, the French neurologist and different forebrain centers onto premotor
physiologist G.B. Duchenne de Boulogne and motor neurons in the brainstem that
published a remarkable treatise on facial control the facial musculature. In contrast to
expressions. His work was the first to the Duchenne smile, the contrived smile of
systematically examine the contributions of volition (sometimes called a “pyramidal
small groups of cranial muscles to the smile”) is driven by the motor cortex, which
expressions that communicate the rich communicates with the brainstem and spinal
experience of human emotion. Duchenne cord via the pyramidal tracts. The Duchenne
reasoned that “one would be able, like nature smile is motivated by accessory motor areas
herself, to paint the expressive lines of the in the prefrontal cortex and ventral parts of
emotions of the soul on the face of man.” In the basal ganglia that access brainstem
so doing, he sought to understand how the nuclei via multisynaptic, “extrapyramidal”
coordinated contractions of groups of pathways through the brainstem reticular
muscles express distinct, pan-cultural formation.
emotional states. To achieve this goal, he Studies of patients with specific neurological
pioneered the use of transcutaneous injury to these separate descending systems
electrical stimulation (called “faradization” of control have further differentiated
after the British chemist and physicist the forebrain centers responsible for control
Michael Faraday) to activate single muscles of the muscles of facial expression (figure
and small groups of muscles in the B). Patients with unilateral
face, dorsal surface of the head, and neck. facial paralysis due to damage of descending
Duchenne also documented the faces of his pathways from the motor cortex (upper
subjects with another technological motor neuron syndrome) are unable to move
innovation: photography (see figure A). His their lower facial muscles on one side, either
seminal contribution was the identification voluntarily or in response to commands, a
 141
condition called voluntary
facial paresis (figure B, left panels).
Nonetheless, many such individuals produce
symmetrical involuntary facial movements
when they laugh, frown, or cry in response
to amusing or distressing stimuli. In such
patients, pathways from regions of the
forebrain other than the classical motor
cortex in the frontal lobe remain available to
activate facial movements in response to
stimuli with emotional significance. A much
less common form of neurological injury,
called emotional facial paresis, demonstrates
the opposite set of impairments, i.e., loss of
the ability to express emotions by using the
muscles of the face without loss of volitional
control (figure B, right panels). Such
individuals are able to produce symmetrical
pyramidal smiles, but fail to display
spontaneous emotional expressions
involving the facial
musculature contralateral to the lesion.
These two systems are diagrammed in figure
C.

(A) Duchenne and one of his subjects undergoing

“faradization” of the muscles of facial expression (1).
Bilateral electrical stimulation of the zygomaticus
major mimicked a genuine expression of happiness (2),
although closer examination shows insufficient
contraction of the obicularis oculi (surrounding the
eyes) compared to spontaneous laughter (3).
Stimulation of the brow and neck produced an
expression of “terror mixed with pain, torture … that
of the damned” (4); however, the subject reported no
discomfort or emotional experience consistent with the
evoked contractions.
 142
This evidence, along with
many other observations,
indicates that one source of
emotion is sensory drive
from muscles and internal
organs. This input forms
the sensory limb of reflex
circuitry that allows rapid
physiological changes in
response to altered
conditions. However,
physiological responses
can also be elicited by
complex and idiosyncratic
stimuli mediated by the
forebrain. For example, an
anticipated tryst with a
lover, a suspenseful
episode in a novel or film,
stirring patriotic or
religious music, or
dishonest accusations can
all lead to autonomic
activation and strongly felt
emotions. The neural
activity evoked by such
complex stimuli is relayed
(B) Left panels: Mouth of a patient with a lesion that from the forebrain to autonomic and somatic
destroyed descending fibers from the right motor
cortex displaying voluntary facial paresis. When asked
motor nuclei via the hypothalamus and
to show her teeth, the patient was unable to contract the brainstem reticular formation, the major
muscles on the left side of her mouth (upper left), yet structures that coordinate the expression of
her spontaneous smile in response to a humorous emotional behavior.
remark is nearly symmetrical (lower left). Right
In summary, emotion and motor behavior
panels: Face of a child with a lesion in the
left forebrain that interrupted descending pathways are inextricably linked. As William James
from nonclassical motor cortical areas, producing put it more than a century ago: What kind of
emotional facial paresis. When asked to smile an emotion of fear would be left if the feeling
volitionally, the contractions of the facial muscles are neither of quickened heart-beats nor of
nearly symmetrical (upper right). In spontaneous
response to a humorous comment, however, the right shallow breathing, neither of trembling lips
side of the patient's face fails to express emotion (lower nor of weakened limbs, neither of goose-
right). (C) The complementary deficits demonstrated flesh nor of visceral stirrings, were present,
in figure B are explained by selective lesions of one of it is quite impossible for me to think … I say
two anatomically and functionally distinct sets of
descending projections that motivate the muscles of
that for us emotion dissociated from all
facial expression. bodily feeling is inconceivable. -William
James, 1893 (Psychology: p. 379.)
 143
Examples of some Psychological changes primarily through their modulation of
during Emotion: dopaminergic signaling. The fibers that arise
1. Depression or anxiety from these locations combine with other
2. Apathy pathways that ascend to the cerebral cortex
3. Emotional inability and thalamus to promote wakefulness,
4. Verbal outbursts vigilance, and overall arousal. These
5. Physical outburst pathways from the reticular formation must
6. Impulsive behaviour be functional for normal attentional abilities
7. Negativity and sleep-wake cycles to be preserved. The
8. Egocentricity Reticular Activating System (RAS) nerves at
9. Rigidity and inflexibility our brainstem that filters out unnecessary
10. Risky behaviour information so the important stuff gets
11. Lack of empathy through. The RAS is the reason you learn a
new word and then start hearing it
Bodily changes in emotion: everywhere.
1. Increase blood pressure & heart rate
2. Changes in the rate of respiration when The RAS does this by altering the brain's
depressed, breathing is slow. electrical activity, including the electrical
3. Dilation of purple of the eyes. voltage of brain waves and the speed by
4. Increased blood sugar which neurons (nerve cells) fire. Depending
5. Production of more energy on how the RAS configures these signals,
6. Increased motility & gastrointestinal you may be more alert or less alert, more
tract. awake or less awake, or more cognizant or
7. Erect hair on the skin (goose pimples) less cognizant.
8. Changes in the frequency of the brain If the system is damaged, it can result in
waves. sleep problems, lethargy, or coma. It also
9. Increase muscular tension and can play a role in narcolepsy and
performance. degenerative brain disorders such
as Parkinson's disease and Progressive
Role of RAS: Supranuclear palsy (PSP).
Role of RAS in emotion:
The Reticular Activating System (RAS) is a Components of the RAS
bundle of nerves that sits in the brainstem. The RAS is composed of interlinked
And its job is to regulate behavioral arousal, pathways that start in the brainstem located
consciousness and motivation. The RAS at the back of the brain.4 It then continues
controls sleep and waking and fight-or-flight upward through the thalamus in the center of
responses. It functions as a filter out the brain and further on to the cerebral cortex
unnecessary noise that can interfere with the (the thin layer of neural tissue on the surface
processing of messages or slow the of the brain). Other components of the RAS
processing of messages during sleep. While situated deep within the brain include the
this system provides signals that modulate midbrain reticular formation, mesencephalic
our wake-sleep states, it also serves to help nucleus, thalamic intralaminar nucleus,
us respond to the world around us. dorsal hypothalamus, and tegmentum. The
Cholinergic pathways in the brainstem are RAS releases chemicals that regulate motor
part of the ascending reticular activating function (movement) as well as emotions,
system, and are thought to influence emotion wakefulness, and memories on the other.
Those involved in motor function is
 144
composed primarily of an organic chemical fall asleep without notice. Narcolepsy is a
called acetylcholine, while those associated dangerous condition that can place you at
with consciousness and feelings are mainly risk of injury while walking, driving or
composed of monoamine neurotransmitters operating machinery. Parkinson's disease
such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and also can affect RAS function. As neurons
serotonin. break down as a result of the disease, they
fire less frequently. Not only does this affect
Sleep Regulation motor function, it can affect sleep quality by
The RAS helps the brain gear up for a higher disrupting the REM cycle. Progressive
level of activity so that you can arise in the supranuclear palsy (PSP),10 a degenerative
morning.6 Think of it as the brain's attention brain disease often mistaken for Parkinson's
center in which external stimulus is or Alzheimer's disease, is also believed
systematically organized into conscious linked to RAS dysfunction. With PSP,
thought. In order to get you up in the neurons in the brainstem and cerebral cortex
morning, the RAS responds to various develop abnormal clumps of protein called
triggers, such as the sun, sounds, and other tangles. These tangles interfere with RAS
external stimuli. During wakefulness, the pathways and contribute to cognitive
brain will produce low-voltage, fast-firing impairment and sleep-wake dysregulation in
brain waves so that signals can be organized people with PSP.
rapidly, contributing to alertness and
attentiveness.2 The same occurs during the
REM cycle of sleep, characterized by rapid Treatment
eye movements, intense dreaming, body RAS damage caused by a traumatic brain
movements, and increased pulse and injury is generally not “fixable” but can be
breathing rates. During the sleep-wake treated with rehabilitation strategies that
transition, the neurons will fire at a much focus on the sleep-wake cycle. Examples
slower rate, making organizing thoughts less include: Improved sleep hygiene, with the
coherent. This will give way to high-voltage, aim of changing behaviors and
slow-firing brain waves that facilitate non- environmental conditions that otherwise
REM (deep, dreamless) sleep. disrupt sleep. Cognitive-behavioral therapy
(CBT), which may include relaxation
RAS Dysfunction training, stimulus control, and sleep
If the RAS becomes damaged in any way, it restriction. Pharmaceutical drugs, used with
can affect both wakefulness and sleep. Such caution as they can sometimes trigger
damage is often the result of a traumatic seizures, reduce the plasticity of neurons,
brain injury, such as an ischemic stroke or a and cause a worsening of sleep symptoms.
severe blow to the head injury. A coma is People with narcolepsy are often treated with
one such example, characterized by a deep the same medications used in people with
state of unconsciousness in which are you attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
unable to move or respond to external (ADHD) in addition to psychological
stimulus. Another disorder associated with counseling and the use of selective serotonin
the RAS is narcolepsy, a chronic disorder reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) antidepressants.
characterized by poor control of sleep-wake Sleep disturbances in people with
cycles. This disruption of the cycle can degenerative brain disorders are more
manifest with extreme and uncontrollable difficult to treat and require an
bouts of sleepiness, causing you to suddenly
 145
individualized approach overseen by an Role of activates the sympathetic nervous
experienced neurologist. system & adrenal gland:
After the amygdala sends a distress signal,
Use of RAS: the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic
Use facial expressions to make silent nervous system by sending signals through
commentary on the insightfulness of the the autonomic nerves to the adrenal glands.
question, put your index finger to your chin These glands respond by pumping the
and look off into space, or widen your eyes hormone epinephrine (also known as
as you wait. Use humor or an anecdote. adrenaline) into the bloodstream. As
Humor is a jolt to the RAS. Use topic-related epinephrine circulates through the body, it
visual aids as you talk such as photographs, brings on a number of physiological
cartoons or charts. changes. The heart beats faster than normal,
pushing blood to the muscles, heart, and
Techniques to calm the RAS: other vital organs. Pulse rate and blood
After supporting your head, gently move pressure go up. The person undergoing these
your chin toward your chest to deactivate changes also starts to breathe more rapidly.
the reticular activating system. This turns Small airways in the lungs open wide. This
off the thinking mind (doing) and turns on way, the lungs can take in as much oxygen
the being mind. as possible with each breath. Extra oxygen is
sent to the brain, increasing alertness. Sight,
Role of hypothalamus: hearing, and other senses become sharper.
The hypothalamus has plays an important Meanwhile, epinephrine triggers the release
role in emotion. Recall, that many of brain of blood sugar (glucose) and fats from
structures have not one but many functions. temporary storage sites in the body. These
This is true for the hypothalamus. Indeed, nutrients flood into the bloodstream,
lateral part of the hypothalamus is involved supplying energy to all parts of the body. All
in emotions such as pleasure and rage, while of these changes happen so quickly that
the median part is associated with aversion, people aren't aware of them. In fact, the
displeasure, and a tendency to uncontrollable wiring is so efficient that the amygdala and
and loud laughing. However, in general hypothalamus start this cascade even before
terms, the hypothalamus has more to do with the brain's visual centers have had a chance
the expression (symptomatic manifestations) to fully process what is happening. That's
of emotions than with the genesis of the why people are able to jump out of the path
affective states. of an oncoming car even before they think
about what they are doing. As the initial
Role of the cerebral cortex: surge of epinephrine subsides, the
Humans have a very large and highly hypothalamus activates the second
developed outer brain layer known as the component of the stress response system
cerebral cortex. The cortex provides humans known as the HPA axis. This network
with excellent memory, outstanding consists of the hypothalamus, the pituitary
cognitive skills, and the ability to experience gland, and the adrenal glands. The HPA axis
complex emotions. To know details about relies on a series of hormonal signals to keep
role of cerebral cortex on emotion (Please the sympathetic nervous system the "gas
see chepter-2). pedal" pressed down. If the brain continues
to perceive something as dangerous, the
hypothalamus releases corticotrophin-
 146
releasing hormone (CRH), which travels to 1. Evolutionary Theory of Emotion:
the pituitary gland, triggering the release of Naturalist Charles Darwin proposed that
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). This emotions evolved because they were
hormone travels to the adrenal glands, adaptive and allowed humans and
prompting them to release cortisol. The body animals to survive and reproduce.
thus stays revved up and on high alert. When Feelings of love and affection lead people
the threat passes, cortisol levels fall. The to seek mates and reproduce. Feelings of
parasympathetic nervous system the "brake" fear compel people to fight or flee the
then dampens the stress response. source of danger. According to the
evolutionary theory of emotion, our
Discuss the theory of emotion: emotions exist because they serve an
The major theories of emotion can be adaptive role. Emotions motivate people
grouped into three main categories: to respond quickly to stimuli in the
A. Physiological theories suggest that environment, which helps improve the
responses within the body are chances of success and survival.
responsible for emotions. Understanding the emotions of other
B. Neurological theories propose that people and animals also plays a crucial
activity within the brain leads to role in safety and survival. If you
emotional responses. encounter a hissing, spitting, and clawing
C. Cognitive theories argue that thoughts animal, chances are you will quickly
and other mental activity play an realize that the animal is frightened or
essential role in forming emotions. defensive and leave it alone. Being able
to interpret correctly the emotional
displays of other people and animals
allows you to respond correctly and avoid
danger.

2. The James-Lange Theory of Emotion:

(Felt emotion is the perception of bodily
changes) The James-Lange theory is one
of the best-known examples of a

Within these major three group there are

six theories are most common.
1. Evolution theory.
2. James Lange theory.
3. Cannon Bard theory.
4. Schechter Singer theory.
5. Cognitive Appraisal Theory:
 147
physiological theory of emotion. Cannon disagreed with the James-Lange
Independently proposed by psychologist theory of emotion on several different
William James and physiologist Carl grounds. First, he suggested, people can
Lange, the James-Lange theory of experience physiological reactions linked to
emotion suggests that emotions occur as emotions without actually feeling those
a result of physiological reactions to emotions. For example, your heart might
events. According to the James-Lange race because you have been exercising, not
theory of emotion, an external stimulus because you are afraid. Cannon also
leads to a physiological reaction. Your suggested that emotional responses occur
emotional reaction depends upon how much too quickly to be simply products of
you interpret those physical reactions. physical states. When you encounter a
danger in the environment, you will often
For example, suppose you are walking in the feel afraid before you start to experience the
woods and see a grizzly bear. You begin to physical symptoms associated with fear,
tremble, and your heart begins to race. The such as shaking hands, rapid breathing, and
James-Lange theory proposes that you will a racing heart. According to the Cannon-
conclude that you are frightened ("I am Bard theory of emotion, we feel emotions
trembling. Therefore, I am afraid"). and experience physiological reactions such
According to this theory of emotion, you are as sweating, trembling, and muscle tension
not trembling because you are frightened. simultaneously. Cannon first proposed his
Instead, you feel frightened because you are theory in the 1920s, and his work was later
trembling. expanded on by physiologist Philip Bard
during the 1930s. More specifically, the
theory proposes that emotions result when
the thalamus sends a message to the brain in
response to a stimulus, resulting in a
physiological reaction. At the same time, the
brain also receives signals triggering the
emotional experience. Cannon and Bard’s
theory suggests that the physical and
psychological experience of emotion happen
at the same time and that one does not cause
the other.

Figure: James Lange theory

3. The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion: Figure: The Cannon-Bard Theory of

(Felt emotion and bodily response are Emotion
independent events)
Another well-known physiological theory is
the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion. Walter
 148

4. Schachter-Singer Theory: (Two 5. Cognitive Appraisal Theory:

factor’s theory) According to appraisal theories of emotion,
Also known as the two-factor theory of thinking must occur first before
emotion, the Schachter-Singer theory is an experiencing emotion. Richard Lazarus was
example of a cognitive theory of emotion. a pioneer in this area of emotion, and this
This theory suggests that the physiological theory is often referred to as the Lazarus
arousal occurs first, and then the individual theory of emotion. The cognitive appraisal
must identify the reason for this arousal to theory asserts that your brain first appraises
experience and label it as an emotion. A a situation, and the resulting response is an
stimulus leads to a physiological response emotion. According to this theory, the
that is then cognitively interpreted and sequence of events first involves a stimulus,
labeled, resulting in an emotion. Schachter followed by thought, which then leads to the
and Singer’s theory draws on both the simultaneous experience of a physiological
James-Lange theory and the Cannon-Bard response and the emotion. For example, if
theory. Like the James-Lange theory, the you encounter a bear in the woods, you
Schachter-Singer theory proposes that might immediately begin to think that you
people infer emotions based on are in great danger. This then leads to the
physiological responses. The critical factor emotional experience of fear and the
is the situation and the cognitive physical reactions associated with the fight-
interpretation that people use to label that or-flight response.
emotion. The Schachter-Singer theory is a
cognitive theory of emotion that suggests 6. Facial-Feedback Theory of Emotion
our thoughts are responsible for emotions. The facial-feedback theory of emotions
Like the Cannon-Bard theory, the suggests that facial expressions are
Schachter-Singer theory also suggests that connected to experiencing emotions. Charles
similar physiological responses can produce Darwin and William James both noted early
varying emotions. For example, if you on that, sometimes, physiological responses
experience a racing heart and sweating often have a direct impact on emotion, rather
palms during an important exam, you will than simply being a consequence of the
probably identify the emotion as anxiety. If emotion. The facial-feedback theory
you experience the same physical responses suggests that emotions are directly tied to
on a date, you might interpret those changes in facial muscles. For example,
responses as love, affection, or arousal. people who are forced to smile pleasantly at
a social function will have a better time at the
 149
event than they would if they had frowned or
carried a more neutral facial expression. B. Negative emotion:
a. Anger
Stage of emotion: b. Fear
There are ten difference basic emotional c. Sadness
states five positive and five negative as d. Boredom
enumerated below: e. Guilt

A. Positive emotion: Ways of control emotion:

a. Love As a physio, you should be concerned
b. Laughter with the expression and control of
c. Hope emotions:
d. Optimism 1. In yourself
e. Self-confidence
2. In others neurotransmitter norepinephrine. Previous
research by same author found that carriers
1. In yourself: of a deletion variant of this gene showed
As a physio, you are the central figure in greater attention to negative words. This
health care. You will be much more poised latest research is the first to use brain
and productive if you are emotionally imaging to find out how the gene affects how
controlled and mature in your behavior. vividly people perceive the world around
Emotional poise is also important for your them, and the results were startling. People
physical and mental health. The following with the deletion variant would probably
suggestions will help you to develop show this emotionally enhanced vividness.
emotional poise. Carriers of the gene variation showed
significantly more activity in a region of the
2. In others: brain responsible for regulating emotions
When you first come into contact with a and evaluating both pleasure and threat. This
patient, he will respond to whatever message may help explain why some people are more
you give through the tone of your voice and susceptible to PTSD and intrusive memories
body language. following trauma. "Emotions are not only
about how feel about the world, but how our
Influences of heredity on emotion: brains influence our perception of it," says
Your genes may influence how sensitive you Adam Anderson, professor of human
are to emotional information, according to development at Cornell University and
new research by a UBC neuroscientist. The senior author of the study. "As our genes
study, recently published in The Journal of influence how we literally see the positive
Neuroscience, found that carriers of a certain and negative aspects of our world more
genetic variation perceived positive and clearly, we may come to believe the world
negative images more vividly, and had has more rewards or threats." There are also
heightened activity in certain brain regions. benefits to carrying the gene variant. "People
"People really do see the world differently," who have the deletion variant are drawing on
"For people with this gene variation, the an additional network in their brains
emotionally relevant things in the world important for calculating the emotional
stand out much more." The gene in question relevance of things in the world." "In any
is ADRA2b, which influences the situation where noticing what's relevant in
 150
the environment is important, this gene can lead to problems—problems at work, in
variation would be a positive." A prime your personal relationships, and in the
example of a carrier of this variation was overall quality of your life.
French novelist Marcel Proust: "He bit into Anger can make you feel as though you're at
the Madeleine cookie and then wrote seven the mercy of an unpredictable and powerful
volumes of memoirs," she says. "He emotion.
probably was emotionally sensitive too and The nature of anger
he was certainly creative. He's a classic Anger is "an emotional state that varies in
deletion carrier. Some observation of his intensity from mild irritation to intense fury
research as follows… and rage," according to Charles Spielberger,
PhD, a psychologist who specializes in the
1. The amount of "noise," or pixelation, study of anger. Like other emotions, it is
applied to images that had either accompanied by physiological and
positive, negative or neutral biological changes; when you get angry,
emotional content. your heart rate and blood pressure go up, as
2. Compared to non-carriers, carriers of do the levels of your energy hormones,
the ADRA2b deletion variant gene adrenaline, and noradrenaline. Anger can be
estimated lower levels of noise on caused by both external and internal events.
positive and negative images, relative You could be angry at a specific person
to neutral images, indicating (such as a coworker or supervisor) or event
emotionally enhanced vividness, or (a traffic jam, a canceled flight), or your
EEV. anger could be caused by worrying or
3. Carriers of the deletion variation also brooding about your personal problems.
showed significantly more brain Memories of traumatic or enraging events
activity reflecting EEV in key regions can also trigger angry feelings.
of the brain sensitive to emotional
relevance. Expressing anger
The instinctive, natural way to express anger
About the gene is to respond aggressively. Anger is a
The ADRA2b deletion variant appears in natural, adaptive response to threats; it
varying degrees across different ethnicities. inspires powerful, often aggressive, feelings
Although roughly 50 per cent of the and behaviors, which allow us to fight and to
Caucasian population studied by these defend ourselves when we are attacked. A
researchers in Canada carry the genetic certain amount of anger, therefore, is
variation, it has been found to be prevalent necessary to our survival.
in other ethnicities. For example, one study On the other hand, we can't physically lash
found that just 10 per cent of Rwandans out at every person or object that irritates or
carried the ADRA2b gene variant. annoys us; laws, social norms, and common
sense place limits on how far our anger can
Nature and control of anger: take us.
“Control anger before it controls you”
We all know what anger is, and we've all felt Fear vs Anxiety:
it: whether as a fleeting annoyance or as full- The difference between fear vs anxiety is
fledged rage. Anger is a completely normal, also based on a difference between emotions
usually healthy, human emotion. But when it that are functional vs excessive and
gets out of control and turns destructive, it dysfunctional. Fear is an emotional reaction
 151
to a specific, real danger, while anxiety is an would expect, and they experience a lot of
excessive and unfocused fear that may be unreasonable anxiety, such as fear of a
triggered by a variety of stimuli. Anxiety situation that likely will never happen. With
caused by stress may persist long after the anxiety disorders, anxiety may last for a long
trigger is removed or arise with no trigger at time, long after the situation or problem has
all. When anxiety continues to flare, you been resolved. Anxiety may feel impossible
might find it difficult to carry on daily to control or manage, and you may begin to
activities. Maybe you no longer want to walk avoid specific places or actions that often
down the street at night. When anxiety cause anxiety.
continues, your fear of your anxiety can
grow. This cycle can lead to developing Control of Fear & Anxiety:
unhealthy behaviors as a way to avoid what In general, professionals treat anxiety
causes you anxiety. These excess feelings of disorders with a combination of
anxiety at seemingly normal events are psychotherapy, medications, and self-help.
classified as anxiety disorders when they In many cases, psychotherapy is
start to interfere with everyday life, such as recommended as the first treatment, with
doctor’s appointments, grocery shopping, or medications recommended if psychotherapy
getting around town. Approximately 20% of doesn’t work on its own. Self-help includes
individuals in the US experience symptoms little things you do every day to take care of
of an anxiety disorder during their lifetime. yourself, like eating well, staying active,
Just like there’s a difference between fear vs getting enough sleep, and watching your use
anxiety, there is also a difference between of alcohol and drugs. These strategies can
feeling anxious and having an anxiety have a big impact on your long-term well-
disorder. An anxiety disorder is a mental being. The tools you need to take control of
health condition. It’s normal to be anxious in your unique mental state, and our programs
certain situations, but if you have feelings of include:
anxiety over a long period of time and in 1. Individual counseling
inappropriate situations, it may be a sign that 2. Daily interaction with therapists
you have an anxiety disorder. When 3. Friendly, experienced caretakers
someone experiences an anxiety disorder, 4. Nutrition education
anxiety often comes up unexpectedly, for no 5. Group counseling and peer support
apparent reason. Their anxiety response to a 6. Reestablishing communication skills
given trigger is much stronger than they
 152
Question:
1. Define emotion.[Jun-13,Jul-11,Nov-10,Jan-09,May-08,Feb-14, jul 17, 2019]
2. Classify emotion.[Mar-12,July-11]
3. What are the bodily changes of emotion.[Mar-12,May-8,Nov-10,Jul11,Feb-14, jul 17,
2019]
4. What are the components of emotion.[Jan-9]
5. Mention the difference between and feelings.[Jan-9, jul 17]
6. What do you mean by emotion?[Feb-14]
7. Emotional intelligence [ jul 17 ]

Reference:
1. James W. What is an emotion? Mind. 1884;9(34):188-205. doi:10.1093/mind/os-IX.34.188.
2. Cannon WB. The James-Lange theory of emotions: A critical examination and an
alternative theory. Am J Psychol. 1987;100(3/4):567. doi:10.2307/1422695.
3. Stanojlovic O, Sutulovic N, Hrncic D, et al. Neural pathways underlying the interplay
between emotional experience and behavior, from old theories to modern insight. Arch Biol
Sci (Beogr). 2021;73(3):361-370.
4. Schachter S, Singer J. Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state.
Psychol Rev. 1962;69(5):379-399. doi:10.1037/h0046234.
5. Lazarus RS, Folkman S. Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. Springer Publishing Company.
6. Marsh AA, Rhoads SA, Ryan RM. A multi-semester classroom demonstration yields
evidence in support of the facial feedback effect. Emotion. 2019;19(8):1500-1504.
doi:10.1037/emo0000532.
7. Gard G, Gyllensten AL. The importance of emotions in physiotherapeutic practice.
Physical Therapy Reviews. 2000 Sep 2;5(3):155-60.
8. Pearson L, Jones G. Emotional effects of sports injuries: Implications for physiotherapists.
Physiotherapy. 1992 Oct 10;78(10):762-70.
9. Walsh JM, Feeney C, Hussey J, Donnellan C. Sources of stress and psychological
morbidity among undergraduate physiotherapy students. Physiotherapy. 2010 Sep
1;96(3):206-12.
 153
Chapter-13

Personality

Definition of personality: traits which include, talkativeness,

Personality derived from the Latin word assertiveness and high amounts of emotional
persona which means mask. Our character’ expressiveness, have made extraverted
is reflected in how we think, what and who people widely recognizable over many years
we like, and how we respond to life. The sum of social interaction. We all have that one
total of ways in which an individual reacts friend or family member - or several - who
and interacts with others. Personality is a aren’t exactly wall flowers in a social
pattern of stable states and characteristics of interaction. They thrive on being the centre
a person that influences his or her behavior of attention, enjoy meeting new people and
toward goal achievement. It is the unique somehow tend to have the biggest friends
patterning of behavioral & mental process and acquaintance group you have known.
that characterized an individual & The opposite is, of course, someone else in
individual’s interactions with the our lives we may know, an introvert. They
environment. The study of consistent prefer solitude and have less energy in social
patterns of individual difference in human situations. Being at the centre of attention or
behaviour & experience. It consists of making small talk can be quite taxing.
relatively long lasting behaviour patterns Extroverts tend to have very public facing
that yield fairly consistent reactions to a roles including areas such as sales,
number of different situations. Which is a marketing, teaching and politics. Seen as
combination of individual physical leaders, extroverted people will be more
constitution; face strength, ability, & his likely to lead than stand in the crowd and be
believe attitude, emotion, expression etc. seen to not be doing anything.
List of component of personality: Agreeableness
Many modern and traditional studies in People who exhibit high agreeableness will
psychology point to 5 basic dimensions of show signs of trust, altruism, kindness, and
personality. Evidence of this theory has affection. Highly agreeable people tend to
grown over the years with the principle have high prosocial behaviour which means
theory emerging in 1949. The five broad that they’re more inclined to be helping other
personality traits described by the theory are people. Sharing, comforting and cooperating
extraversion (also often spelled are traits that lend themselves to highly
extroversion), agreeableness, openness, agreeable personality types. Empathy
conscientiousness, and neuroticism. towards others is commonly understood as
another form of agreeableness even if the
Extraversion
term doesn’t quite fit. The opposite to
Extraversion (sometimes referred to as
agreeableness is disagreeableness but it
Extroversion) is a trait that many will have
manifests in behaviour traits that are socially
come across in their own lives. It’s easily
unpleasant. Manipulation and nastiness
identifiable and widely recognizable as
towards others, a lack of caring or sympathy,
“someone who gets energized in the
a lack of taking interest in others and their
company of others.” This, amongst other
problems are all quite common. Agreeable
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people tend to find careers in areas where someone you know who is always planning
they can help the most. Charity workers, ahead for the next time you meet - and in the
medicine, mental health and even those who meantime, regularly staying in contact,
volunteer in soup kitchens and dedicate time checking in on your wellbeing. They like to
to the third sector (social studies) are high in organize around certain dates and events and
the agreeableness chart. are focused on you when you meet. People
low in conscientiousness tend to dislike
Openness structure and schedules, procrastinate on
Openness is a characteristic that includes important tasks and fail to complete tasks as
imagination and insight. The world, other well.
people and an eagerness to learn and
experience new things is particularly high
for this personality trait. It leads to having a Neuroticism
broad range of interests and being more Neuroticism is characterized by sadness,
adventurous when it comes to decision moodiness, and emotional instability. Often
making. Creativity also plays a big part in mistaken for anti-social behaviour, or worse
the openness trait; this leads to a greater a greater psychological issue, neuroticism is
comfort zone when it comes to abstract and a physical and emotional response to stress
lateral thinking. Think of that person who’s and perceived threats in someone’s daily
always ordering the most exotic thing on the life. Individuals who exhibit high levels of
menu, going to different places and having neuroticism will tend to experience mood
interests which you would never have swings, anxiety and irritability. Some
thought of… that is someone who has a high individuals who experience sudden changes
openness trait. Anyone low in this trait tends in character from a day-to-day perspective
to be viewed with more traditional could be highly neurotic and respond to high
approaches to life and may struggle when it stress levels in their work and personal lives.
comes to problem solving outside their Anxiety, which plays a large part in the
comfort zone of knowledge. makeup of neuroticism, is about an
individual's ability to cope with stress and
Conscientiousness perceived or actual risk. People who suffer
Conscientiousness is a trait that includes with neuroticism will overthink a lot of
high levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse situations and find difficulty in relaxing even
control, and goal-directed behaviour. This in their own space. Of course, those who
organized and structured approach is often rank lower on the neurotic level will exhibit
found within people who work in science a more stable and emotionally resilient
and even high-retail finance where detail attitude to stress and situations. Low
orientation and organization are required as neurotic sufferers also rarely feel sad or
a skill set. A highly conscientious person depressed, taking the time to focus on the
will regularly plan ahead and analyses their present moment and not get involved in
own behaviour to see how it affects others. mental arithmetic on possible stress-
Project management teams and HR inducing factors.
departments regularly have highly On other hand we can explain component of
conscientious people working in their teams Personality as follows…
to help balance out the structural roles within 1. Physical characteristics: The include the
the overall team development. A good mode of dressing manner of walking
example of a conscientious person would be
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postural, body build, health, complexion
& facial expression. 1. Plump
2. Value system (character): Includes a 2. Chubby
person’s attitude values, believes and 3. Stocky
philosophy in this aspect is referred to as 4. Overweight
character. 5. Fat
3. Interests & abilities of the peoples. 6. Pudgy
4. Ways of reaching to other peoples. Such 7. Medium build
as (behaving, thinking, feeling). 8. Small frame
5. Temperament. 9. Large frame
6. Intellectual – Talking, patterns of people. 10. Athletic build
7. Social component: Good manners, 11. Slender
correct manner is including of the 12. Lanky
personality. 13. Fit
8. Emotional: Includes like or dislike 14. Slim
emotional in nature. 15. Trim
16. Skinny
17. Skeletal
Physical characteristics of Personality: 18. Buff
Physical characteristics are defining traits or 19. Toned
features of a person's body. These are aspects 20. Muscular
of appearance that are visually apparent to 21. Ripped
others, even with no other information about 22. Well built
the person. They can include a variety of
things. Hair and facial features play a big Height Characteristics:
role but aren’t the whole picture. Physical Another area of physical appearance you
characteristics are what you see with the may consider is how tall a person is. While
naked eye. They encompass any way you you can't really determine a person's exact
can describe the physical traits of a person or height without measuring them, chances are
group of people based on what you can you'll notice what general category best
visually observe. The first thing we noticed captures their individual height.
in physical characteristics is, when we look 1. Short
at someone could be their hair, clothes, nose, 2. Tall
or figure. These are all examples of physical 3. Petite
characteristics. To get good examples of a 4. Average height
person's physical characteristics, consider 5. Above average height
factors relevant to their physical appearance, 6. Below average height
such as their build, face and other physical 7. Tiny
traits. 8. Extremely short
9. Extremely tall
Build Characteristics 10. Towering
When describing the physical characteristics Complexion Characteristics:
of an individual, one of the first things that When describing someone's skin tone and
will strike you is their overall build or body complexion, there are a number of
type. Many common adjectives can be used descriptive words to consider. It's often
to describe the build of a person. necessary to use more than one word to
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accurately describe a person's complexion. Eye Color and Other Eye Characteristics:
For example, someone can be fair and Human eyes don't all look the same. The
freckled or tan and freckled. color, shape and positioning of a person's
1. Dark eyes are examples of physical traits that
2. Light impact their overall appearance.
3. Fair
4. Medium 1. Blue eyes
5. Rosy 2. Green eyes
6. Olive 3. Hazel eyes
7. White 4. Brown eyes
8. Black 5. Small eyes
9. Brown 6. Large eyes
10. Pale 7. Wide eyes
11. Pasty 8. Slanted eyes
12. Bronzed 9. Close-set eyes
13. Tan 10. Deep-set eyes
14. Freckled 11. Bushy eyebrows
15. Jaundiced 12. Thin eyebrows
16. Wan 13. Sparse eyebrows
17. Pale 14. Sculpted eyebrows
15. Dark eyebrows
More Skin Characteristics: 16. Light eyebrows
A person's complexion isn't the only 17. Long eyelashes
characteristic associated with the appearance 18. Short eyelashes
of their skin. A number of other traits or 19. Dark eyelashes
features can be described to convey the 20. Light eyelashes
appearance of a person's skin.
More Facial Features:
1. Age spots All of a person's facial features impact how
2. Clear their physical appearance could be
3. Dry described. Any distinguishing
4. Dewy characteristics of a person's face can be
5. Oily discussed in the category of facial features.
6. Pimply
7. Scarred 1. Short nose
8. Crow’s feet 2. Narrow nose
9. Fine lines 3. Broad nose
10. Wrinkled 4. Long nose
11. Cracked 5. Pert nose
12. Dirty 6. Snub nose
13. Clean 7. High cheekbones
14. Rough 8. Sunken cheekbones
15. Smooth 9. Chubby cheeks
10. Rosy cheeks
11. Long face
12. Heart-shaped face
13. Round face
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14. Oval face there are things you can do to help ensure
15. Thin face positive perceptions of your physical
16. Thin lips characteristics if you want to. Small changes
17. Full lips can have an impact on how positively others
18. Pink lips see you.
19. Red lips
20. Pouty lips Good hygiene shows that you take care of
21. Pointy chin yourself.
In some cultures, appropriate eye contact can
Hair Characteristics: demonstrate respect or interest. A friendly
The appearance of a person's hair has a smile can show that you're approachable.
significant impact on their physical
appearance. The words that you'd use to More Ways to Discuss Appearance
characterize someone's hair can describe People are born with certain physical
color, texture, shape, length, and more. characteristics, which work together to
1. Blond create their physical appearance. While
2. Auburn people often style or dye their hair or get
3. Red contact lenses, ultimately, it's important to
4. Brown embrace your own unique physical
5. Black characteristics, as well as those of others.
6. Grey Judgment is never the way to go; stick to
7. White positive terms when describing what
8. Long someone looks like. Use these descriptive
9. Puffy words for appearance for inspiration. Then,
10. Matted start considering how to describe
11. Flat personality.
12. Bouncy
13. Short Factors influencing Personality
14. Curly development:
15. Frizzy Personality is a dynamic growing thing
16. Wavy different in each influenced by the following
17. Permed three factors:
18. Straight A. Environmental or social factors:
19. Natural 1. Heredity
20. Bald 2. Influencing of home
21. Receding 3. Order of birth the first born child may
22. Greasy be dominating
23. Shiny 4. Only child-may become a problem
child
Improving Perceptions: Your Physical 5. School and peer group.
Characteristics 6. Community and social roles
Rightly or wrongly, physical characteristics
can play a role in defining how people are B. Biological factors:
viewed by others, especially in terms of 1. Endocrinal glands and personality
forming first impressions. While many 2. Blood glucose level
physical characteristics can't be changed,
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3. Externally imposed biological C. According to Allport: Allport classifies
conditions. all individuals into two types:
1. Ascendant
C. Mental or psychological factor: 2. Descendant
1. Our motives
2. Acquired interest D. According to Heart disease: Two specific
3. Our attitudes behavior pattern types are known to be
4. Our will and character associated with increased with increased
5. Intellectual capacities such as or decreased likelihood of coronary
intelligence artery disease:
6. Reasoning 1. Type A Personality
7. Attention 2. Type B Personality
8. Perception and imagination

Types/ Classifications of Personality: Character:

A. Hippocrates classification of By the term character, we mean an enduring
personality based on Temperament: and distinguishing mental and moral
characteristics in an individual. It is the only
Personality Characteristics Type factor which determines our reaction or
types of response to the given event or situation. It
fluids defines a person’s behaviour pattern,
in the thinking style, controls feelings. It is based
body on the environment that surrounds us, mental
1. Sanguine Cheerful, Blood ability, moral principles and similar other
vigorous, factors. It is the most precious thing
confident, possessed by a person, evidenced by the
optimistic limits he/she never crossed.
2. Phlegmatic Calm, slow Mucus
moving, Key Differences Between Personality and
unexcitable, Character:
unemotional The significant differences between
3. Choleric Irritable, hot Yellow personality and character are discussed in the
tempered bile following points:
4. Melancholic Depressed, Black
morose bile 1. Personality refers to the combination
of qualities, attitude and behaviour,
A. Types based on body build that makes a person distinct from
(Physiological type): others. Character refers to a set of
1. Kretschmer (Physical character) moral and mental qualities and
2. William Sheldon (Bosed on different beliefs, that makes a person different
layers of skin) from others.
2. Personality implies Who we seem to
B. Classification by Psychological types: be? On the other hand, the character
1. Extroverts represents Who we actually are?
2. Introverts 3. Personality is a set of personal
qualities whereas character is a
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collection of mental and moral facility, verbal comprehension, word
characteristics of an individual. fluency, memory, inductive reasoning, and
4. The personality is the mask or the so forth, depending on the theory or test.
identity of a person. Conversely, the b. Physical Ability.
character is the learned behaviour. Physical ability is the capacity to do tasks
5. Personality is subjective, but the that demand stamina, desired, strength and
character is objective. similar characteristics. It can identify
6. Personality is the outer appearance individuals who are physically able to
and behaviour of a person. At the perform the essentials function of a job
same time, character indicates the without risking injury to others. Research on
traits of a person which are hidden the requirements needed in hundreds of jobs
from sight. has identified nine physical abilities
7. The personality of an individual may involved in the performance of physical
change with time. However, the tasks. These are -dynamic strength, static
character lasts longer. strength, trunk strength, explosive strength,
8. Character requires validation and extent flexibility, dynamic flexibility, body –
support of society. In contrast, the coordination, balance, and stamina.
personality, does not need validation
and support of the society. Difference between Skills and abilities:
Skills and abilities are tasks that you
Conclusion naturally do well, talents and strengths that
After reviewing the above points, it is clear you bring to the table as a student and/or
that personality is different from a character employee. These include natural capabilities
in a sense that personality reflects the outer you've always had, in addition to specific
shell, whereas the character, shows the inner knowledge and skills you've acquired
self. If you combine your personality and through experience and training.
your character, the result will be who you are
in reality. Temperament:
An aspect of personality concerned with
Abilities: emotional dispositions and reactions and
Existing competence or skill to perform a their speed and intensity; the term often is
specific physical or mental act. Although used to refer to the prevailing mood or mood
ability may be either innate or developed pattern of a person. The notion of
through experience, it is distinct from temperament in this sense originated with
capacity to acquire competence. Ability is Galen, the Greek physician of the 2nd
synonymous with capability, potential, or century AD, who developed it from an
capacity. It determines whether or not you earlier physiological theory of four basic
possess the means to do something. For body fluids (humours): blood, phlegm, black
example, stamina is the ability to exert bile, and yellow bile. According to their
yourself physically over long periods of time relative predominance in the individual, they
without getting winded or out of breath. were supposed to produce, respectively,
temperaments designated sanguine (warm,
Types of Ability pleasant), phlegmatic (slow-moving,
a. Intellectual Ability. apathetic), melancholic (depressed, sad), and
Intellectual abilities as measured by tests of choleric (quick to react, hot tempered). More
an individual in areas of spatial recent theories emphasize the influence of
visualization, perceptual speed, number
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the endocrine glands on emotional reactivity. behaviour of individual persons. For
Modern psychology attributes primary example, one tends to group others into
importance to the activity of the autonomic common classes (i.e., all of the people in this
nervous system, particularly its sympathetic room are wearing basketball uniforms). One
branch, in emotional reactivity: autonomic also classifies objects such as paintings or
over-responsiveness is intimately linked events such as battles. The quality of one’s
with neurotic dispositions. Because such attitudes is judged from the observable,
responses can be conditioned, individual evaluative responses that are made. While
differences in ease of conditioning (also one might consult one’s inner experiences as
probably innate) also play a part in evidence of one’s own attitudes, only public
determining temperament. behaviour can receive objective study. For
this reason, investigators rely heavily on
Interest: behavioral indexes of attitudes-e.g., on what
Interest refers to both the psychological state people say, on how they respond to
of engagement and a relatively enduring questionnaires, or on such physiological
predisposition to reengage particular content signs as changes in heart rate.
(e.g., mathematics) over time. Interest
positively influences attention, goal setting, An attitude is a predisposition to react in a
and learning strategies for people of all ages persistent and characteristic manner to some
both in and out of school. Interest is a situation idea, material object or person. Our
powerful motivational process that energizes set ways of reacting to religious rituals, to
learning, guides academic and career our parents and teachers, to our profession
trajectories, and is essential to academic and other professions are examples of
success. Interest is both a psychological state attitudes. Attitudes can be positive or
of attention and affect toward a particular negative. An attitude of respect towards
object or topic, and an enduring elders in a positive attitude. An attitude of
predisposition to reengage over time. hatred towards a certain community in a
negative attitude. Attinades accompanied by
Types of interest: strong feelings are called sentiments. We
a. Situational interest. often remark that certain person has a great
b. Individual interest (sometimes attitude or bad attitude or should change his
referred to as topic interest). or her attitude. The media regularly reports
c. Well-developed individual interest. on people's attitude towards a wide range of
topics like drugs, smoking, marriage, dowry,
Attitude: divorce, sexual harassment, assisted
A cognition, often with some degree of suicides, capital punishment, fast food, ctc.
aversion or attraction (emotional valence), An attitude is any belief or opinion that
that reflects the classification and evaluation includes an evaluation of some object,
of objects and events. While attitudes person or event along a continuum from
logically are hypothetical constructs (i.e., negative to positive. It predisposes us to act
they are inferred but not objectively in a certain way towards that object, person
observable), they are manifested in or event. Our attitudes have a great effect on
conscious experience, verbal reports, overt our behavior and have many other functions.
behaviour, and physiological indicators. The Attitude research has become a big business.
concept of attitude arises from attempts to Large sums of money are spent each year on
account for observed regularities in the measuring or trying to change buyers'
 161
attitude towards consumer products and in Components of Attitude:
measuring and trying to change attitude of Attitudes structure can be described in terms
voters towards candidates. of three components.
An attitude is a predisposition to react in a 1. Affective component:
persistent and characteristic manner to some This involves a person's feelings / emotions
situation, idea, material object or person. about the attitude object. For example: "I am
Or. An attitude is any belief or opinion that scared of spiders".
includes an evaluation of some object, 2. Behavioral (or conative) component:
person or event along a continuum from The way the attitude we have influences how
negative to positive. we act or behave. For example: "I will avoid
According to (Hoge & Vaughan 2005) "An spiders and scream if I see one":
attitude is a relatively enduring organization
of beliefs, feelings, and behavioral 3. Cognitive component:
tendencies towards socially significant This involves a person's belief / knowledge
objects, groups, events or symbols. about an attitude object. For example: "I
believe spiders are dangerous". This model
Characteristics or Functions of Attitude is known as the ABC model of attitudes.
Three general features of attitudes are:
A. Evaluation: Scale of Measurement of the Attitude
An attitude is evaluation. It involves likes Some of the important attitude scales are:
and dislikes. An attitude is like a point in the  Thurston’s scale of equal appearing
thermometer that ranges from very negative interval, developed to measure attitudes
to very positive, e.g. Tem makes negative towards war Blacks, etc.
evaluation of using make up which means  Rammers and sitanee master scale
she has developed a negative attitude suitable to measure a variety of issues.
towards make up.  Likert’s method of summuated rating
scales
B. Targeting:  Paired comparison method
The evaluation is targeted towards the same  Rank order method
object, person or event Tem's negative  Social distance scales
attitude is targeted against a specific event
that is wearing makeup. Types of Attitude:
1. Positive: An attitude of respect towards
C. Predisposition: elders in a positive attitude.
An attitude predisposes us to behave in a 2. Negative: An attitude of hatred toward a
certain way. This means we approach some certain community in a negative attitude.
objects, people and events and avoid others.
Because of corresponding positive or Strategies to improve the attitude:
negative attitudes. Terri's attitude towards A. Always act with a purpose: Before you
ward wearing makeup predisposed her to take any action, decide how it will serve
fight against it. even to the point of losing her your grater goals. If the connection is
job. weak or non-existent, take that action off
your to-do list. Aimless activity wastes
time and energy.
B. Stretch yourself past your limits every
day: Doing the same old same old is
 162
depressing, even if your same - old has what's wonderful in your life. You must,
been success in the part Success is like and should, thank other people for their
athletics, if you don't stretch yourself gifts to you, even if that gift is something
every day, you gradually become slow as simple as a smile.
and brittle.
C. Take action without expecting results: Change of Attitude:
While you naturally must make decisions The attitudes once originated and developed
and take action based upon the results in the family environment are changed by
you'd like to achieve, it's a big mistake to school and other world experiences. A
expect those results and then be teacher, a friend, a specific event content of
disappointed when you don't get them. school curriculum, etc. ‘can make attitudinal
Take your best shot but don't obsess changes in children.
about the target.
D. Use setbacks to improve your skills: Concept about Aptitude
Rather than feeling bad if you fail or get Aptitude means ability or a particular skill or
rejected, look back at your actions and a potential. While intelligence is a measure
see what you can do (if anything) to of general ability, aptitude is a special
improve your performances. Remember: ability. It is the capacity to achieve on
the results you receive are the signposts special lines. It is the special aptness or
for the results you want to achieve. fitness for a special ability, such as
E. Seek out those who share your positive mechanical, musical, artistic, scholastic or
attitude: It's a scientific fact your brain religious. It is, highly specific tendency or
automatically imitates the behaviors of aptness due to special neural or (muscular
the people around you. (It's because of organization possessed by the individual
something called a mirror neuron). which sets him apart as being superior to the
Therefore, you should surround yourself average in performance in that trait or
with positive thinkers and shun those activity. Different people have different
who are excessively negative. aptitudes for different things. Aptitude is
F. Don't take yourself so seriously: If you neither completely inborn nor acquired. It is
want to be happier and make those the outcome of both heredity and
around you feel more comfortable, environment. Aptitudes are talent potentials
cultivate the ability to laugh at yourself. but tan be improved by training in
If you don't (or can't) laugh at yourself, I environment.
guarantee you that the people you work
with are laughing behind your back! Aptitude Tests:
G. Forgive the limitations of others. Aptitude test, examination that attempts to
H. High standards are important, but determine and measure a person's ability to
humans are, well, human. It's crazy to acquire, through future training, some
make yourself miserable because other specific set of skills (intellectual, motor, and
people can't do a job as well as you think so on). A person who has aptitude for a
you could, or when people don't share particular skill needs only a minimum
your vision with the same passion that training for development, Thus, the use of
you feel. aptitude test is important for vocational
I. Say "thank you more frequently: guidance and selection of jobs. Aptitude
Achieving an attitude of gratitude" tests that are used to help predict success in
requires more than simply being aware of some particular course of study are called
 163
scholastic aptitude tests (SAT). The the missing figures of the series from the
differential aptitude test (DAT) developed alternatives.
by George K Bennet. Harold G Seashor and  Subtest IV space relations: The subject is
Alexander G Wesman measures verbal given 30 minutes to answer the 40
reasoning, numerical ability, abstract problems.
reasoning, special relationships, mechanical  Subject V mechanical reasoning: To
reasoning, clerical ability and linguistic answer the 68 questions the subject is
ability Special relationships is the ability to given 30 minutes.
visualize a constructed object from a picture
and an ability to Imagine how an object Role of Heredity in Personality
should appear if rotated in various ways. It development:
requires mental manipulations of objects in The maturation of physical and mental
three-dimensional space. qualities that make up an individual's
hereditary endowment determines and is
Practical Experiment of Aptitude Test: intimately related with the personality
Problem: pattern. Although social and other contextual
To measure the differential aptitudes of the influences influence the shape of a
subject using the differential aptitude test personality pattern, it is not instilled or
battery DATB. controlled from without; rather, it emerges
from the individual's potentials. Heredity
Plan: provides the primary raw materials for
The seven subtests of the DAT battery are personality: physical appearance,
administered one after the other and intelligence, and temperament. The
performance of the subject are recorded. environmental influences in which a person
grows determine how he or she develops.
Materials: Many academics have emphasized the
• Differential aptitude tests battery booklet importance of inherited roots in defining
• Answer sheets personality patterns. The interaction of
• Key and norms significant figures (first the mother, then the
• Stop clock father and siblings, and finally extra familial
• Writing materials, characters) with the kid is said to shape
personality. The child brings a biological
Procedure: constitution, a set of needs, and intellectual
 Subtest I verbal reasoning: The subject is capacities to this connection, which define
asked to read the instructions and how a person is acted upon by major figures
examples given in the verbal reasoning in her surroundings. The person picks from
test booklet. He is allowed 30 minutes to his surroundings what matches his needs and
complete the 50 sentences as per rejects what does not as a result of the
instructions. The subject has to give his combination of hereditary and
answer in the answer sheets. environmental factors. As a result,
 Subtest II numerical ability: Here the personality patterns emerge as a result of
subject is allotted 30 minutes to answer interactions with the environment that an
the 40 arithmetic problems. individual has begun. One rationale for
 Subtest III abstract reasoning: The emphasizing the importance of heredity in
subtest has 50 problem figures. The the development of personality is to
subject is allowed 25 minutes to find out acknowledge that personality patterns are
 164
limited. A person with a low level of expect. For the most part, attractive people
intellect, for example, will be unable to enjoy a lot of perks.
create a personality pattern that will lead to
acceptable personal and social adjustment Role of family in personality
even under the most favorable development:
environmental conditions, whereas a person Humans rely heavily on learning for child
with a high degree of adjustment will be able development. Because we are not born
to do so. As a result, a person's development knowing how to behave in society, we have
is constrained by heredity. to learn many of the behaviors from the
environment around us growing up. For
Role of Nervous System in Personality most of us, this learning starts with the
development: family at home. Learning comes in many
The brain and spinal cord both receive forms. Sometimes children learn by being
signals from afferent neurons and transmit told something directly. However, the most
signals through efferent neurons to muscles common way children learn is by
and glands. As humans develop into observation of everyday life. A child’s
maturity, among other things, the nervous learning and socialization are most
system may have significant effects on their influenced by their family since the family is
ability to see, hear, read, and communicate the child’s primary social group. Child
emotions. It controls complicated processes development happens physically,
like movement, thought and memory. It also emotionally, socially, and intellectually
plays an essential role in the things your during this time. To make an analogy, if you
body does without thinking, such as were constructing a large building, you have
breathing, blushing and blinking. Nervous to make sure that it has a solid foundation so
system affects every aspect of our health, that the rest of the building can stand tall and
including: Thoughts, memory, learning, and strong for many years to come. If the
feelings. foundation is not strong, the building will
have trouble standing on its own. Just like
Role of Physical characteristics in people, if our foundations are not solid, we
Personality development: find it more difficult to be successful in our
Physical appearance is a major factor in the relationships with others, work, health, and
development of personality, because people ourselves. So, it cannot be stressed enough
form opinions by what they see in a person how important the family is in development
physically, and respond to that person of a child. Ultimately, the family will be
accordingly. In turn, people tend to fulfill the responsible for shaping a child and
expectations they believe others have for influencing their values, skills, socialization,
them. Physical activity is one such factor. A and security during these childhood
physically inactive lifestyle may weaken development stages.
personality stability and lead to non-
desirable personality changes through its Role of culture in personality
link with disease burden, functional development:
limitations, cognitive impairment, and There are both universal and culture-specific
depressive symptoms. A person's physical aspects of variation in personality. Some
appearance has a meaningful impact on their culture-specific aspects correspond to
life experiences and opportunities, but the cultural syndromes such as complexity,
story is more complicated than people might tightness, individualism, and collectivism.
 165
Our culture greatly contributes to the comprising unconscious affects, cognitions,
development of our beliefs and values. For and memories that encodes the nature and
this reason, both cultural psychologists and quality of our early relationships that most
social anthropologists believe that culture directly affects our adult personality,
affects one's personality. In addition, gender adjustment, and relationships.
differences also influence the personality
traits a person possesses. According to some Conscious:
sociologists, the development of personality Conscientiousness is the personality trait of
and the acquisition of culture are not being careful, or diligent. Conscientiousness
different processes, but one and the same implies a desire to do a task well, and to take
learning process. The studies carried out in obligations to others seriously. The
1937 by Linton, the social anthropologist, conscious mind is known to be responsible
and Kardinar, the psychoanalyst, for one's awareness about an incident at
demonstrate that each culture tends to create present which includes some of the internal
and are supported by a “basic personality mental functions and external happenings.
type”. In their view, the basic personality For example, a person can concentrate on the
type found among most of the members of a wind blowing out the window while paying
particular society is the result of the attention to his own pattern of breathing. In
culturally similar early childhood Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of
experiences, and not of instincts or inherent personality, the conscious mind consists of
‘drives’. The child is not born in a vacuum everything inside of our awareness. This is
but in a cultural context which affects his the aspect of our mental processing that we
mental make-up, habits and attitudes. can think and talk about in a rational way.
Consciousness seems especially useful for
enabling behavior to be shaped by non-
Basic concept of Freud in personality: present factors and by social and cultural
Freud proposed that the mind is divided into information, as well as for dealing with
three components: id, ego, and superego, and multiple competing options or impulses. It is
that the interactions and conflicts among the plausible that almost every human behavior
components create personality (Freud, comes from a mixture of conscious and
1923/1949). According to Freudian theory, unconscious processing.
the id is the component of personality that
forms the basis of our most primitive ID:
impulses. In Freudian psychoanalytic theory, one of
the three agencies of the human personality,
Unconscious: along with the ego and superego. The oldest
Unconscious personality processes are a of these psychic realms in development, it
subset of unconscious processes that occur in contains the psychic content related to the
human information processing in the areas of primitive instincts of the body, notably sex
affect, attitudes, cognition, memory, and and aggression, as well as all psychic
skilled motor sequences. In Sigmund Freud's material that is inherited and present at birth.
psychoanalytic theory of personality, the The id (Latin for “it”) is oblivious of the
unconscious mind is defined as a reservoir of external world and unaware of the passage of
feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that time. Devoid of organization, knowing
outside of conscious awareness. While all neither logic nor reason, it has the ability to
these processes affect personality harbor acutely conflicting or mutually
development, it is the relational unconscious contradictory impulses side by side. It
 166
functions entirely according to the pleasure- imagination). The ego is not coextensive
pain principle, its impulses either seeking with either the personality or the body,
immediate fulfillment or settling for a although body concepts form the core of
compromise fulfillment. The id supplies the early experiences of self. The ego, once
energy for the development and continued developed, is capable of change throughout
functioning of conscious mental life, though life, particularly under conditions of threat,
the working processes of the id itself are illness, and significant changes in life
completely unconscious in the adult (less circumstances.
unconscious in the child). In waking life, it
belies its content in slips of the tongue, wit, Ego development:
art, and other at least partly non-rational The newborn human infant reacts to but
modes of expression. The primary methods cannot control, anticipate, or alter sources of
for unmasking its content, according to stimulation, be they external or internal. At
Freud, are the analysis of dreams and free this stage perception is primitive and diffuse,
association. Many psychoanalysts now motor activity is gross and uncoordinated,
consider the conception of an id overly and self-locomotion is impossible. Learning
simple, though still useful in drawing is limited to the simplest type of stimulus-
attention to the unconscious motivations and response conditioning. The infantile ego
irrational impulses within even the most develops in relation to the external world and
normal human being. reflects (as psychoanalysis has emphasized)
the helpless and dependent infant’s efforts to
Ego: alter or alleviate painfully intense stimuli.
In psychoanalytic theory, that portion of the Mechanisms evolve for controlling tension
human personality which is experienced as while seeking means by which gratifications
the “self” or “I” and is in contact with the can be obtained, and these mechanisms
external world through perception. It is said develop into increasingly complex forms of
to be the part that remembers, evaluates, mastery. At the outset, perception and motor
plans, and in other ways is responsive to and activity are closely tied, with stimulation
acts in the surrounding physical and social immediately provoking motor action. The
world. According to psychoanalytic theory, delay of action, while tolerating the
the ego coexists with the id (said to be the consequent tension, is the basis for all more-
agency of primitive drives) and superego advanced ego functions. This delay is
(considered to be the ethical component of prototypic of the ego’s role in later
personality) as one of three agencies personality functioning. The learned
proposed by Sigmund Freud in description separation of stimulation and response
of the dynamics of the human mind. Ego allows the interposition of more complex
(Latin: “I”), according to Freud, comprises intellectual activities such as thinking,
the executive functions of personality by imagining, and planning. By not reacting
serving as the integrator of the outer and directly, the ego develops the capacity to test
inner worlds as well as of the id and the reality vicariously, to imagine the
superego. The ego gives continuity and consequences of one or another course of
consistency to behaviour by providing a action, and to decide upon future directions
personal point of reference which relates the to achieve probable ends. The accumulation
events of the past (retained in memory) with and retention of memories of past events is
actions of the present and of the future necessary for internal processes of thought
(represented in anticipation and and judgment. The acquisition of language,
 167
started during the second and third years, Psychosexual theory of personality: (The
provides a powerful tool for the development stage of personality development).
of logical thought processes as well as According to Freud, all human beings pass
allowing communication and control of the through a series of psychosexual stages of
environment. development. This psychosexual energy of
Some characteristics of Ego: libido’ was described as the driving force
1. Develops – 6-8 months, out of the id behind behaviour; early experiences play a
2. Represents the paganized, rational and large role in personality development and
planning dimensions of personality continue to influence behaviour later in life.
3. Operates on the reality principle. At each stage, pleasure is focused on
4. Seeks to satisfy urges in a realistic way. particular and sensitive body areas called
5. Understands reality and logic erogenous ones. According to Freud, the 05
6. Mediates between id and superego (five) stages of psychosexual development
are as follows—
Superego:
In the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund a. Oral stage (0-2year)
Freud, the latest developing of three b. Anal stage (2- 3 year)
agencies (with the id and ego) of the human c. Phallic stage (3-7 year)
personality. The superego is the ethical d. Latent period (7-11 year)
component of the personality and provides e. Genital (from puberty-adult)
the moral standards by which the ego
operates. The superego’s criticisms, a. Oral stage (0-2 years):
prohibitions, and inhibitions form a person’s i. Pleasure centre‘s on the mouth
conscience, and its positive aspirations and sucking, biting, chewing
ideals represent one’s idealized self-image, ii. Weaning can lead to fixation if not
or “ego ideal.” The superego develops handled correctly
during the first five years of life in response iii. Unresolved conflicts can lead to oral
to parental punishment and approval. This activates in adulthood
development occurs as a result of the child’s iv. Feeding, mouthing new objects, even
internalization of his parents’ moral relief of teething pain
standards, a process greatly aided by a v. Mouth is source of all pleasure in the
tendency to identify with the parents. The first year
developing superego absorbs the traditions vi. A baby given too little or too much or
of the family and the surrounding society made too anxious about it. Oral
and serves to control aggressive or other fixation.
socially unacceptable impulses. Violation of vii. Adulthood excessive oral behaviour
the superego’s standards results in feelings in terms of concrete forms e.g.
of guilt or anxiety and a need to atone for Smoking.
one’s actions. The superego continues to
develop into young adulthood as a person b. Anal stage (02-03 years)
encounters other admired role models and i. pleasure focuses on coping with
copes with the rules and regulations of the demands to control bowel & bladder
larger society. See also Oedipus complex. elimination.
ii. toilet training can lead to anal fixation
(anal- retentive or expulsive
behaviours in adulthood) if not
handled correctly
 168
iii. Anus becomes highly sensitives to the vi. A time of focus on achievement and
stimulation of holding on and letting mastery of skills
go‖. vii. Libido is channelled into mastery
iv. Kids gain pleasure and libido activities
satisfaction from being in control. viii. Freud thought little of interest
happened here
c. Phallic stage (03-07 years) ix. Others have argued the sense of self-
i. Pleasure in the genitals. esteem is established here.
ii. Coping with incestuous sexual
feelings (Oedipus or Electra complex e. Genital stage (from puberty-adult)
can occur). i. Puberty onwards
iii. Fixation can lead to excessive ii. Maturation of sexual interests
masculinity in males and the need for iii. Sexual feelings re-emerge and are
attention or domination in female. oriented towards others
iv. After child has been toilet trained iv. Healthy adults find pleasure in live and
there is increase in awareness of work
genitals. v. Fixated adults have their energy tied up
v. It is in this children develops sexual in earlier stages
feelings towards the patient. vi. Mature sexual interests appear
vi. Adopting behaviour patterns and vii. The focus lies outside the self and
ideas. family
 Oedipus Complex
 The Electra Complex

d. Latent Period (07-11 years)

i.Sexuality is repressed and inactive
ii.This is the period of puberty
Theories of Personality Development:
iii.Children participate in hobbies school
1. Freud Stars of Psychosexual
and same sex friendships
Development
iv. According to Freud not very important
In addition to being one of the best known
in the development of personality
thinkers in the area of personality
v. The child learns more about the world
development Sigmund Freud R. In his well-
and the ego expands
known stage theory of psychosexual
 169
development, Freud suggested that across the entire lifespan. At each stage of
personality develops in states that is related psychosocial development, people face a
to specific, ergo failure to complete these crisis in which a task must be mastered.
stages, he suggested, wool lead to Those who successfully complete each stage
personality problems in adulthood. emerge with a sense of mastery and well-
being. Those who do not resolve the crisis at
2. Freud’s structural model of each stage may struggle with those skills for
personality the remainder of their lives.
Freud not only theorized about over the
course, but he also developed the basic Erikson’s 8 stages of psychosocial
driving force of personality and behavior is development as follows…
known as the libido. These libidinal energy Erik Erikson was a German psychologist
fuels the id, the ego and the superego. The id who theorized that there's a specific
is the aspect of personality present at birth. It psychological struggle that takes place
is the most primal part of Personality and through the eight stages of a person's life.
drives people to fulfill their most basic needs These struggles, he believed, contribute to
and urges. The ego is the aspect of your personality throughout your
personality charged with control of the urges development. In what became known as the
of the id and forcing it to behave in realistic eight stages of development theory, Erikson
ways. The superego is the final aspect of provided insights into both social and
personality to develop and contains all of the psychological development. The framework
ideals, morals and value imbued by our of his thinking assesses the context of
parents and culture. This part of personality relationships in your life at these life stages.
attempts to make the ego behave according Erikson’s theory suggests that your ego
to these ideals. The ego must then moderate identity develops throughout your entire life
between the primal needs of the id, the during eight specific stages:
idealistic standards of the superego and
reality. Freud’s concept of the id, ego and 1. Infancy – Basic trust versus mistrust
superego has gained prominence in popular 2. Toddler – Autonomy versus shame and
culture, despite a lack of support and doubt
considerable skepticism from many 3. Preschool-age – Initiative versus guilt
researchers. According to Freud, it is the 4. School-age – Industry versus inferiority
three elements of Personality that work 5. Adolescence – Identity versus identity
together to create complex human behaviors. confusion
For more detail see (basic concept of Freud 6. Young adulthood – Intimacy versus
in personality). isolation
7. Middle age – Generativity versus
3. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial stagnation
Development 8. Older adulthood – Integrity versus
Erik Erikson’s eight Stage theory of Human despair.
Development is one of the best known
theories in while theory builds on Freud’s Each of these stages is a building block that's
Stages of psychosexual development, crucial to maturation across the span of your
Erikson chose to focus on how social life. These stages don’t end with one and
relationships impact personality begin with another, though. Erikson
development. The theory also extends suggested that these stages may overlap. A
beyond childhood to look at development
 170
stage you don't master may extend into other to do things independently. They feel a sense
stages later in life. If a toddler, for example, of purpose in their life. If they are criticized
doesn’t overcome shame and self-doubt, or discouraged by caregivers, they may feel
these feelings will continue to impact their guilty instead.
development as they move through other
stages of childhood. Meanwhile, they Stage 4 - Early school years: Here,
continue to progress through subsequent development centers around industry and
stages. inferiority. This stage begins at age six and
lasts till age 11. During this stage, your
Stage 1 - Infancy: During this stage, child's becoming aware of their
development centers around trust and individuality. They see accomplishments in
mistrust. This stage begins at birth and school and sports and seek praise and
usually lasts until a baby is 18 months old. support from those around them. If teachers,
When your baby is born, they're learning caregivers, and peers offer support and a
about the world around them. They're sense of accomplishment, they feel
completely dependent on you for care. When competent and productive. If they don’t
your baby cries or fusses and you meet their receive positive reinforcement for their
needs by holding, feeding, and caring for accomplishments, they may feel inferior or
them, you build trust. Over time, your baby incompetent.
learns that they can trust other caregivers,
too. When babies are neglected or their Stage 5 - Adolescence: At this stage,
needs aren’t met, they develop mistrust. If development centers around identity and
trust isn’t established at this stage of role confusion. This stage begins at around
development, it's more difficult to establish age 12 and lasts till age 18. When you hear
later in life. They may feel a sense of the psychological term “identity crisis,” it
hopelessness when faced with crisis. comes from this stage of development.
During adolescence, you’re trying to figure
Stage 2 – Toddlerhood: During this stage, out who you are and establish goals and
which begins at 18 months old and lasts until priorities for your adult life. You’re
age two or three, your toddler's development establishing your place in the world. If
focuses on autonomy versus shame or doubt. young people are overwhelmed by
Now, your toddler's learning how to do expectations and responsibilities at this
things for themselves. By giving praise, you stage, they may not be able to establish their
help them establish a foundation for self- identity. This leads to confusion about what
belief and autonomy. If you discourage your their needs and goals are.
toddler or don’t allow them to work
independently, they may feel discouraged, Stage 6 - Young adulthood: At this stage,
ashamed, and doubtful of their abilities. intimacy and isolation are the focus of
development. This stage begins at age 19 and
Stage 3 – Preschool: Development at this lasts until age 40. During this time in your
stage centers around initiative and guilt. This life, you are establishing and building upon
stage begins at age three and lasts until age relationships.
five. Here, your child focuses on doing If you have meaningful relationships with
things independently and begins to develop friends and family, you experience intimacy
a sense of aims and goals. When they feel with others. If you struggle with
encouraged, these children take the initiative
 171
relationships, you may feel isolated and them plays an important role in the
lonely. formation of personality.

Stage 7 - Middle adulthood: The 5. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral

development in this stage is around Development:
generativity and stagnation or self- Lawrence Kohlberg developed a theory of
absorption. This stage begins at age 40 and personality development that focused on the
lasts till age 65. When you feel a sense of growth of moral thought. Building on a two
care and responsibility, it’s called stage process proposed by Piaget, Kohlberg
generativity. You look out for those around expanded the theory to include six different
you and feel the need to pass along what stages. While the theory has been criticized
you’ve learned to younger generations. But for a number of different reasons, including
if you don’t act as a mentor in some capacity, the possibility that it does not accommodate
you may feel bitter and unhappy. This leads different genders and cultures equally,
to restlessness and isolation from your Kohlberg’s theory remains important in our
friends, family, and society. understanding of how personality develops.

Stage 8 - Late adulthood: The final stage of Final Thoughts:

the developmental process proposed by Personality involves not only inborn traits,
Erikson centers around ego integrity and but also the cognitive and behavioral
despair. This stage begins at age 65 and lasts patterns that influence how people think and
throughout the rest of your life. If you’re act. Temperament is a key part of personality
satisfied with your life, you age with grace. that is determined by inherited traits. It is the
You often feel pride in what you’ve aspects of personality that are innate and
accomplished and want to demonstrate your have a lasting influence on behavior.
wisdom to others. If you don’t feel a sense Character is another aspect of personality
of accomplishment when you look back on influenced by experience that continues to
your life, you may fall into despair. When grow and change throughout life. While
that happens, you tend to focus more on personality continues to evolve over time
regrets. and respond to the influences and
experiences of life, much personality is
determined by inborn traits and early
4. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
childhood experiences.
Development:
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive
Concepts of learning by Dollard and
development remains one of the most
Miller:
frequently cited in psychology, despite being
According to Miller and Dollard (1941),
subject to considerable criticism. While
there are four essential factors involved in
many aspects of his theory have not stood the
learning:
test of time, the central idea remains
a. The cue,
important today. Children think differently
b. The response,
than adults. According to Piaget, children
c. Drive,
progress through a series of four stages that
d. Reward.
are marked by distinctive changes in how
In simple terms, in the presence of an
they think. How children think about
appropriate signal (the cue), the person
themselves, others, and the world around
responds with a particular behavior, if there
 172
is an adequate reward (based on learning). comparing groups of people as well as
The entire process will not take place, individuals. Do groups of people from
however, if the individual does not want a different cultural and economic backgrounds
reward (drive). The normal order, after differ when considered in the light of their
learning has taken place, would then be: particular personality attributes or traits?
drive → cue → response → reward; when How large are the group differences?
we want something, and we see a signal that
it is available, we try to get it, and are Interview:
rewarded for our actions. Another important A directed conversation in which a
aspect of social learning is that both drives researcher, therapist, clinician, employer, or
and rewards can be acquired. For example, the like (the interviewer) intends to elicit
food choices are highly cultural. Would you specific information from an individual (the
enjoy a dinner of grubs, whale blubber, and interviewee) for purposes of research,
sheep entrails, followed by a few crunchy diagnosis, treatment, or employment. For
grasshoppers for dessert? And yet, each of example, an interview is a structured
these items is commonly eaten in some conversation where one participant asks
cultures, so they must be reinforcing for questions, and the other provides answers. In
hungry people there. common parlance, the word "interview"
refers to a one-on-one conversation between
Personality Assessment: an interviewer and an interviewee. There are
The measurement of personal three types of interviews: unstructured,
characteristics. Assessment is an end result semi-structured, and structured.
of gathering information intended to Unstructured interviews are interviews
advance psychological theory and research that take place with few, if any, interview
and to increase the probability that wise questions. They often progress in the manner
decisions will be made in applied settings a normal conversation would, however it
(e.g., in selecting the most promising people concerns the research topic under review. A
from a group of job applicants). The semi-structured interview is a method of
approach taken by the specialist in research used in the social sciences. While a
personality assessment is based on the structured interview has a formalized,
assumption that much of the observable limited set questions, a semi-structured
variability in behaviour from one person to interview is flexible, allowing new questions
another results from differences in the extent to be brought up during the interview as a
to which individuals possess particular result of what the interviewee says. A
underlying personal characteristics (traits). structured interview is a quantitative
The assessment specialist seeks to define research method where the interviewer a set
these traits, to measure them objectively, and of prepared closed-ended questions in the
to relate them to socially significant aspects form of an interview schedule, which he/she
of behaviour. A distinctive feature of the reads out exactly as worded. Interviews
scientific approach to personality schedules have a standardized format which
measurement is the effort, wherever means the same questions are asked to each
possible, to describe human characteristics interviewee in the same order.
in quantitative terms. How much of a trait
manifests itself in an individual? How many Standardized assessments seek to measure
traits are present? Quantitative personality the measurable; A test administered to a
measurement is especially useful in group of subjects under exactly the same
 173
experimental conditions and scored in stress interview. Stress interviews
exactly the same way. Standardized tests are analytically evaluate the candidate's ability
used in psychology, as well as in everyday to perform under pressure in unexpected
life, to measure intelligence, aptitude, situations. an interview in which the person
achievement, personality, attitudes and being questioned is deliberately subjected to
interests. while non-standardized tests confrontational, emotionally unsettling, or
measure student skills that are noticeable and otherwise stressful conditions, such as a
maybe significant, but can't be quantified. combination of aggressive questioning and
Non standardized test also known as teacher environmental influences (e.g., harsh
made test; A non-standardized test is one lighting).
that allows for an assessment of an A personality inventory is a self-
individual's abilities or performances, but assessment method, often a standardized
doesn't allow for a fair comparison of one questionnaire, that reveals insights into an
student to another. Luckily, both forms of individual's character. These tests can help
assessment can operate alongside each other assess an individual's strengths and
in a class curriculum. weaknesses in various areas - along with
Mental exhaustion can happen when your their social characteristics, motivations and
brain receives too much stimulation or has to attitudes. A self-report inventory is a type of
maintain an intense level of activity without psychological test in which a person fills out
rest. You might notice mental exhaustion, a survey or questionnaire with or without the
sometimes called mental fatigue, if you: help of an investigator. Self-report
often work or study for long hours with few inventories often ask direct questions about
or no breaks. “Burnout” is a state of personal interests, values, symptoms,
emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion behaviors, and traits or personality types.
caused by excessive and prolonged stress. It
occurs when you feel overwhelmed, The California Psychological Inventory
emotionally drained, and unable to meet (CPI) is a psychological assessment
constant demands. questionnaire that is a self-report measure of
Common signs of burnout: behavior and personality. It consists of 434
a. Feeling tired or drained most of the time. true/false questions and identifies
b. Feeling helpless, trapped and/or personality characteristics, traits, and
defeated. thinking styles in individuals who take it.
c. Feeling detached/alone in the world. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
d. Having a cynical/negative outlook. Inventory (MMPI) is a psychological test
e. Self-doubt. that assesses personality traits and
f. Procrastinating and taking longer to get psychopathology. It is primarily intended to
things done. test people who are suspected of having
g. Feeling overwhelmed. mental health or other clinical issues. But
unlike the MMPI, which focuses on
Stress Interview: maladjustment or clinical diagnosis, the CPI
The type of experience described by Bland is was created to assess the everyday "folk-
known as a 'stress interview' – a technique to concepts" that ordinary people use to
test how applicants deal with pressure by describe the behavior of the people around
taking them out of the comfort zone of them.
expected questions and answers. One such A Projective test is a personality test
commonly practiced type of interview is the designed to let a person respond to
ambiguous stimuli, presumably revealing
 174
hidden emotions and internal conflicts
projected by the person into the test. Some
examples of projective tests are the
Rorschach Inkblot Test, the Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT), the
Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks
test, the TEMAS (Tell-Me-A-Story), and the
Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB).
The Rorschach test is a projective
psychological test in which subjects'
perceptions of inkblots are recorded and then
analyzed using psychological interpretation,
complex algorithms, or both. Some
psychologists use this test to examine a
person's personality characteristics and
emotional functioning.
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is
useful in revealing a patient's dominant
motivations, emotions, and core personality
conflicts. The TAT consists of a series of 20
cards depicting people in various
interpersonal interactions that were
intentionally created to be ambiguous.

Sentence Completion tests are a class of

semi-structured projective techniques.
Sentence completion tests typically provide
respondents with beginnings of sentences,
referred to as "stems", and respondents then
complete the sentences in ways that are
meaningful to them.
 175

Question:

1. Define personality.[June-13,Mar-12,Jul-11,Nov-10,Jul-9,Feb-14, jul 17, 2019]

2. Describe the structure of personality.[June-13,Mar-12,Jul-9, 2019]
3. Discuss Erickson's stage of development of life.[Jun-13] Describe Freud's psycho-sexual
stage of personality development.[Feb14, jul 17]
4. Discuss the stage of personality development according to Freud's theory.[Jul11,
5. Nov-10,Jan-9,Jul-8,May-08, 2019]
6. Enlist the component of personality. [Jan-09]
7. Short note: 1. Erikson's of personality. [Jan-09]
8. Erikson's Stage of life. [May8,Jan-9,Jul-11]

Reference:
1. K. Ann Renninger and Rose K. Pozos-Brewer , '15. (2015). 2nd. "Interest, Psychology Of".
International Encyclopedia Of The Social And Behavioral Sciences. 378-385. DOI: 10.1016/B978-
0-08-097086-8.26035-2.
2. Gębska M, Dalewski B, Pałka Ł, Kołodziej Ł, Sobolewska E. Type D Personality and
Stomatognathic System Disorders in Physiotherapy Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic.
Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2021 Oct 23;10(21):4892.
3. Kooijman MK, Buining EM, Swinkels IC, Koes BW, Veenhof C. Do therapist effects determine
outcome in patients with shoulder pain in a primary care physiotherapy setting?. Physiotherapy.
2020 Jun 1;107:111-7.
4. Alexanders J, Douglas C. The role of psychological skills within physiotherapy: A narrative review
of the profession and training. Physical Therapy Reviews. 2016 Nov 1;21(3-6):222-7.
5. Personality theory in a cultural context. By. Mark D. Kelland.
6. Dollard and Miller's Psychodynamic Learning Perspective - Social Sci LibreTexts.
7. https://www.iedunote.com/ability.
8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Psychological_Inventory.
9. https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-personality-and-character.html#:~:text=Key.
10. https://www.webmd.com/children/what-to-know-eriksons-8-stages-development.
11. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_test.

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 176

Chapter-14

Thinking
The mind is the idea while thinking has been stored in the mind long before
processes of the brain involved in processing the emergence of new knowledge.
information such as when we form concepts, c. Thinking can be interpreted to remember
engage in problem solving, to reason and something, and questioned whether there
make decisions. Thinking is a higher mental is a relationship between what is
process which involves verbal symbols, intended.
internal, visual & auditory images ideas, d. Thinking is processing information
concept & mathematical symbols. Thinking mentally or cognitively by rearranging
usually takes place when the individual is the information from the environment
exposed to an unfamiliar situation. People and the symbols are stored in the memory
think-that’s obvious. Human are rational of his past.
beings & our rationality consists in our e. Thinking is a symbolic representation of
ability to think & reason. It is because of our some event train of ideas in a precise and
capacity for better thinking that we are careful that began with the problem.
superior to other animals in learning & in f. Thinking is a mental process mental
making adjustment. During most of our representations newly formed through
waking hours, & even when we are asleep & the transformation of information by
dreaming, we are thinking. ‘Thinking is an interaction, attributes such as the
activity concerning ideas, symbolic in assessment of mental abstraction, logic,
character initiated by a problem or task imagination and problem-solving.
which the individual is facing, involving
some trial & error but under the directing Nature of thinking:
influence of that problem & ultimately 1. Thinking is essentially a cognitive
leading to a conclusion or solution of the activity.
problem’--Warren. ‘Thinking is the 2. It is goal directed. It is always directed
organization & reorganization of current to achieve some end or purpose.
learning in the present circumstances with 3. It is described as a problem-solving
the help of learning & past experiences’-- behavior.
Vinacke (1968). ‘Thinking is the perceptual 4. It is a process of mental explanation. It
relationship which provides for the solution is mental exploration instead of motor
of the problem’--Maier. exploration.
5. It is a symbolic activity.
Some limit in the definition of thinking is 6. It can shift very rapidly.
as follows: 7. It is internal activity.
a. Thinking is the activity of human reason
as a process of strengthening the Types/ kinds of thinking:
relationship between stimulus and 1. Perceptual or concrete thinking
response. 2. Conceptual or abstract thinking
b. Thinking is a reasonable working of 3. Creative thinking
various views with the knowledge that 4. Reasoning or logical thinking
5. Problem solving thinking.
 177
6. Convergent Vs Divergent thinking. Creative thinking involves the following
steps—
1. Perceptual or concrete thinking: a. Preparation
It’s based on perception. Perception is the b. Incubation
process of interpretation of sensation, c. Illumination
according to one experience it is also called d. Evaluation
concrete thinking as it is carried over the
perception of actual or concrete & events. It This is also a controlled thinking in which
is one-dimensional & literal thinking which the creative thinker whether artist, writer or
has limited use of metaphor without a scientist is trying to create something new.
understanding nuances of meaning. Being It involves characteristics of both reasoning
the simplest form of thinking, small children and imagination. Creative thinking is a
are mostly benefitted by this type of process in which the individual generates an
thinking. original, unusual and productive solution to
a problem. It is defined as personal,
imaginative thinking which produces a new,
2. Conceptual or Abstract thinking:
novel and useful solution. Unlike ordinary
It does not require the perception of actual
solution to problems, creative solutions are
objects or events. It is also called abstract
the new one to the effect that other people
thinking as it makes the use of concepts or
have not thought before. The product of
abstract ideas. It is superior to perceptual
creative thinking may be a new and unique
thinking's as it economizes efforts in
way of conceptualizing the world around us.
understanding & helps in discovery &
The emphasis in creative thinking is on the
invention. It is ability to appreciate nuances
word ‘new’. In human beings we find two
of meaning. It is multidimensional thinking
kinds of productive abilities – the convergent
with ability to use metaphors & hypotheses
and divergent abilities. Convergent abilities
appropriately. Language plays an important
are used to bring together otherwise
part in conceptual thinking.
divergent things. Divergent production
abilities are those which are not guided by
3. Creative thinking: rules or conventions, but capable of
Scientist’s inventors in an example of generating new solutions to a problem.
creative thinking creative thinking is aimed Divergent production abilities are
at creating something new. It refers to the particularly important in creative thinking.
ability for original thinking, to create or
discover something new. It is the ability to Description of four stages Creative
integrate the various elements of the thinking:
situation into a harmonious whole to create 1. Preparation:
something novel. In other words, cognitive In this stage the thinker formulates the
activity directed towards some creative work problem and collects the facts and materials
refers to creative thinking. Creative thinkers considered necessary for finding new
are great boons to the society as they enrich solutions. Many times the problem cannot be
the knowledge of mankind. The creative solved even after days, weeks or months of
thinker tries to achieve something new, to concentrated efforts. Failing to solve the
produce something original & something problem, the thinker turns away from it
unique initiating next stage.
 178
2. Incubation: 12. Choose truth and beauty before
During this period some of the ideas that were recognition and success
interfering with the solution will tend to fade. 13. Spontaneous and brilliant imagination
The overt activity and sometimes even
thinking about the problem is absent in this Errors in thinking:
stage. But the unconscious thought process 1. Specific abstraction
involved in creative thinking is at work during 2. Magnification
this period. Apparently the thinker will be 3. Minimization
busy in other activities like reading literature 4. International conjunction
or playing games, etc. Inspite of these 5. Errors caused emotions like fear, anxiety,
activities the contemplation about finding a stress, pain and discomfort, error in
solution to problem will be going on in the inductive thinking often occur because we
mind. do not look for disconfirming evidence.

3. Illumination: Ways to improve creative thinking ability:

Following the period of incubation, the 1. Collect as much factual information as
creative ideas occur suddenly. Consequently, possible.
the obscure thing becomes clear. This sudden 2. Beware of your own prejudices as well as
flash of solution is known as illumination and those of your patients.
is similar to ‘aha (eureka)’ experience. For 3. Define the problem clearly.
example, Archimedes found solution to the 4. Look for relationships between cause and
crown problem. effect.
5. Do not jump to hasty conclusions.
4. Verification: 6. Think about all possible solutions.
Though the solution is found in illumination 7. Listen to all solutions suggested by others.
stage, it is necessary to verify whether that 8. Keep an open mind by constant
solution is correct or not. Hence in this last questioning of self and others.
stage evaluation of the solution is done. If the
solution is not satisfactory the thinker will go Elements of thought:
back to creative process from the beginning. If i. Images
it is satisfactory, the same will be accepted and ii. Concepts
if necessary, minor modification may also be iii. Symbols & signs
made in solution. iv. Language
v. Music activities
Traits or Qualities of a Creative Thinker: vi. Brain activities
1. Sensitivity to people, events and problems
2. Broad range of knowledge and interests 4. Reasoning or logical thinking:
3. Ability to combine a wide variety of ideas Reasoning is the highest form of thinking,
easily to find out causes predicts effects. It is the
4. Verbal fluency cognitive process of looking for reasons for
5. High energy level beliefs, conclusion, actions or feelings. It is
6. Impatience with routine tasks the process of drawing conclusions based on
7. Like to take risk evidence. It is form of controlled thinking in
8. Persistence in tasks they enjoiy which the thought process is directed
9. Goods sense of humor consciously towards the solutions of a
10. Independent willing to be different, problem. Reasoning is the highest form of
courageous thinking to find out causes & predict effects.
11. Uninhibited in thinking and feeling
An individual tries to solve a problem by
 179
incorporating two or more aspects of his past attempt to bring thoughts from different
experience. directions into a union for common
It is classified into: conclusion. Divergent thinking starts from a
1. Inductive reasoning: common point & moves outward into a
This is process of reasoning from parts to variety of perspectives. Eg; teachers use the
the whole, from example to content as a vehicle to prompt diverse or
generalizations. It is carried out generally unique thinking among students rather than
within the field known as informal logic a common view.
or critical thinking.
2. Deductive reasoning: Thinking Process:
This moves from the whole to part, from The processes of thought are as follows:
generalization to underlying concepts to 1. Understanding the formation-
examples. Formal logic is described as Understanding, formed through the three
“the science of deduction.” stages as follows:
3. Abductive reasoning: a. Analysis of the characteristics of
It is cognitive process often involves both similar objects. These objects we look
inductive & deductive arguments. at the elements - elements one by one.
For example, or set up a human sense.
5. Problem solving thinking: b. Comparison
It is a tool, skill & a process. It is a tool - Compare these features to be found traits
because it can help you solve an immediate - Traits which are the same, which is not
problem or to achieve a goal. It is a skill the same, which is always there and
because once you have learnt it you can use which ones do not always exist where
it repeatedly, like the ability to ride a bicycle, the essential and which are not essential.
add numbers or speak a language. It is also a c. Abstraction, that is set aside, dispose,
process because it involves taking a number traits that are not essential, capturing
of steps. You can engage in problem solving the essential characteristics.
if you want to reach a goal & experience 2. Opinion Formation- Formation of
obstacle on the way. At the point at which opinion is to put the relationship between
you come up against a barrier you can two terms or more. The opinions
engage in a problem solving process to help expressed in the language called the
you achieve your goal. Every time you use a sentence, which consists of basic
problem solving process, you are increasing sentence or the title or subject and
your problem solving skill. predicate. Furthermore, the opinion can
be divided into three kinds:
A seven-step problem solving cycles; a. Affirmative or positive opinion, the
1. Identify the problem opinion which declares a state of
2. Explore the problem something, for example Franzol was
3. Set goals clever, and as well as Yeasin….and so
4. Look at alternatives on.
5. Select a possible solution b. Negative opinion, the repeal That
6. Implement a possible solution opinion, which clearly explains the
7. Evaluation. absence of anything thing else on the
nature of things: For example, Mijan
6. Convergent Vs Divergent thinking: is ugly and so skinny.
Convergent thinking is cognitive processing c. Modalities That opinion stating
of information around a common point, an opinion- the possibility of something
 180
on the nature of things: for example, part of psychotic disorders. They may occur
it might rain today, Miles might not along with hallucinations, which involve
come. And so on. perceiving something that isn’t really there,
3. Conclusion withdrawal or Establishment like hearing voices or feeling bugs crawling
Decision - The decision is the result of on your skin.
the act makes sense to form a new
opinion based on the opinions that Signs
already exist. There are three kinds of Delusions are characterized by an
conclusions: unshakable belief in things that are not true,
a. Inductive inference the decisions tak and often, there is a continued belief in the
en from the opinion - opinion toward delusion despite contrary evidence. Not all
a particular public opinion. delusions are the same. Some might involve
b. Deductive conclusions- Deductive non-bizarre beliefs that could theoretically
decision drawn from the general to the occur in real life. Others may be bizarre,
specific, so in contrast to inductive fantastical, or impossible. The nature of the
decision. delusional symptoms may play a central role
c. Conclusion analogical - The decision in the diagnosis. Delusional disorder, for
is a decision that analogical obtained example, is characterized by non-bizarre
by comparing or customize with delusions that often involve the
specific opinions that already exist. misinterpretation of an experience or
perception. In schizophrenia, the delusions
Alteration in thinking: may be bizarre and not rooted in reality.
1. Psychosis:
It is a mental disorder in which reality testing
Types of Delusions
is not intact; behavior may violate gross
There are several different types of delusions
social norms. It is just opposite to neurosis in
that characterize the diagnosis of delusional
which reality testing is intact & behavior
disorders. The type of disorder is determined
may not violate social norms. Many
by the theme of the delusions that are
psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia,
experienced.
mania, depression etc. come under
psychosis. It includes various disturbances in
1. Erotomanic / Delusion of influence:
thinking.
In this type of delusion, individuals believe
2. Delusion: that a person usually with a higher social
It is false, persistent, irrational belief not
standing is in love with them. An example of
shared by persons of same age, race,
this type of delusion would be someone who
education standard which cannot be altered
believes an actress loves them and that they
by logical arguments. Delusions are defined
are communicating with them via secret
as fixed, false beliefs that conflict with
hand gestures during their TV show.
reality. Despite contrary evidence, a person
in a delusional state can’t let go of these
2. Grandiose / Delusion of grandeur:
convictions. Delusions are often reinforced
In grandiose delusions, individuals believe
by the misinterpretation of events. Many
they have extraordinary talent, fame, wealth,
delusions also involve some level of
or power despite the lack of evidence. An
paranoia. For example, someone might
instance of this type of delusion would be
contend that the government is controlling
someone who believes God gave them the
our every move via radio waves despite
power to save the universe and every day
evidence to the contrary. Delusions are often
 181
they complete certain tasks that will help the beliefs about themselves because the process
planet continue on. by which they acquire self-related
information is disrupted.
3. Persecutory
Individuals with persecutory delusions 7. Hypochondriacal delusion:
believe they are being spied on, drugged, On the one hand, hypochondriacal delusions
followed, slandered, cheated on, or are based on altered body perceptions in
somehow mistreated. An example might mental illness, characterized by primary
include someone who believes their boss is local or general dysaesthesias to the point of
drugging the employees by adding a depersonalisation, or caused secondarily by
substance to the water cooler that makes the patient's increased attention to his own
people work harder. body.

4. Jealous 8. Nihilistic delusion:

With this type of delusion, individuals might Nihilistic delusions, are specific
believe their partners are unfaithful. For psychopathological entities characterized by
instance, someone with this type of delusion the delusional belief of being dead,
might believe their partner is meeting their decomposed or annihilated, having lost one's
lover every time they use the restroom in own internal organs or even not existing
public settings they also think that they are entirely as a human being.
sending their lover secret messages through
other people (like the cashier in a grocery 9. Delusion of reference:
store). A delusion of reference is the belief that un-
related occurrences in the external world
5. Somatic have a special significance for the person
Individuals with somatic delusions believe who is being diagnosed. So, for example, a
that they are experiencing physical delusion of reference might occur when
sensations or bodily dysfunctions under the someone watches a movie and believes there
skin, or that they're suffering from a general is a message in the movie that is meant
medical condition or defect. For instance, specifically for them, and that makes some
someone who believes there are parasites kind of “sense”. Delusions of reference may
living inside their body may be suffering also occur in other media.
from somatic delusions.
10. Mixed or Unspecified
6. Delusion of guilt: When delusions don’t fall into a single
Ungrounded feeling of remorse or guilt of category and no single theme dominates, the
delusional intensity. For example - may delusions are considered “mixed.” Mental
validate a feeling of guilt and confirm the health professionals may refer to the disorder
person's conviction that she has done as “unspecified" when delusions don’t fall
something wrong. People with severe into a specific category or the delusion type
depression acquire increasingly negative can’t be clearly determined.
 182
Question:
1. Define Thinking, write down the type & element of thinking, what are the developing factor
of creativity in children? [Feb 18,2019].
2. Short not: Thanking [Jul-9, Nov-10, Jul-11, June-11]

Reference:
1. Dahlgren MA, Dahlgren LO. Portraits of PBL: Students' experiences of the characteristics of
problem-based learning in physiotherapy, computer engineering and psychology.
Instructional science. 2002 Mar;30(2):111-27.
2. Process of Creative Thinking: 4 Stages | Thinking | Processes | Psychology.
3. Convergent and Divergent Thinking: Difference | Thinking | Psychology.
4. Imagination and Creative Art | Psychology.
5. Essay on Creativity: Meaning, Nature and Stimulation.
6. Setchell J, Gard M, Jones L, Watson BM. Addressing weight stigma in physiotherapy:
Development of a theory-driven approach to (re) thinking weight-related interactions.
Physiotherapy theory and practice. 2017 Aug 3;33(8):597-610.
7. Arvinen-Barrow M, Penny G, Hemmings B, Corr S. UK chartered physiotherapists' personal
experiences in using psychological interventions with injured athletes: An interpretative
phenomenological analysis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2010 Jan 1;11(1):58-66.
8. Francis SR, Andersen MB, Maley P. Physiotherapists' and male professional athletes' views
on psychological skills for rehabilitation. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 2000
Mar 1;3(1):17-29.
9. http://www.dartmouth.edu/%7Ecompose/faculty/pedagogies/thinking.html#elements.
 183
Chapter-15
Frustration
The word frustration has been derived from 22. Shame
Latin Word Frusta’ means Obstruct’ the 23. A bad relationship
term been frustration refers to the blocking 24. Poor self-image
of behaviour directed towards the goal. So, 25. A history of abuse
in other way we can say Frustration is the
reaction to the obstacle or hardship that Ways to relieve or Cope with frustration:
prevents an individual from reaching a goal. Frustration causes stress and anxiety causing
For example, frustration is a mental harm to the body. Some methods of relieving
condition of a person. Usually a person may frustration are:
face many problems, accidents and obstacles 1. Express our emotions in a healthy way to
in regular life. As frustration is a mental someone that we trust.
situation of a person a frustrated person can 2. Get active by yourself.
show different types of abnormal activities. 3. Clear our mind by going to a quiet place
According to Carter V Good; “Frustration where we can think.
means emotional tension resulting from the 4. Set realistic goals and expectations for
blocking of a desire or need”. Kolesnik our self and other.
defined “Frustration is the feeling of being 5. Keep a journal where we write down our
blocked or thwarted in satisfying a need or thoughts.
attaining a goal, the individual perceives as 6. Stop complaining about what is
important”. frustrating us and do something positive
about it.
Causes of frustration: 7. Try not to take things personally.
1. Uncontrolled anger 8. Have a good, old cry (To have a good cry
2. Bitterness means to experience catharsis/release- in
3. Excessive shame short, a sort of emotional or psychic
4. Guilt purification, brought about by
5. Arrogance experiencing strong emotions; or put
6. Jealousy even more simply, sometimes you feel
7. Greed better after you cry.)
8. Fear 9. Identify the source of your frustration.
9. Suspicious nature Can you change it or control it?
10. Inferiority complex 10. If you cannot, learning to accept the
11. Mental instability situation might be the right answer.
12. Anxiety 11. Decide important things carefully. Check
13. Poor will power everything out carefully before making a
14. Low grasping/greedy change in your job or residence.
15. Absentmindedness 12. Seek reliable help from advisors, teacher
16. Laziness and others counsellors.
17. Dawdling, dodging phobia 13. Substitute your goals by others, which
18. Distrust are equally satisfying but are different
19. Failure and attainable.
20. Loneliness 14. A student physiotherapy is likely to be
21. Betrayal frustration in the course of education:
 184
introspective for overcoming the obstacles
Source of Frustration: by putting in more efforts or bringing about
1. Physical Environmental: It presents improvement in their behavior or processes.
such obstacles as floods, typhoons, or Compromise: Repeated failure in one
ragged mountains. direction may lead the individual to lower
For example: A drought or typhoon or change the aim. A student who is able
can frustrate a farmer because it, to cope with physiotherapy course.
adversely their harvest. Submissiveness: The individual surrenders
2. Social Environment: It presents such himself and accepts his defeat as inevitable.
obstacles as restrictions imposed by
other people and the customs and laws B. Violent Reactions:
of the community. In addition to simple reactions, the
For example: Children are individual becomes emotionally tense
dissatisfied by parental denial, and the frustration cause aggression.
disapproval and rearrangement. Studies conducted by social psychologist
3. Organism- (itself)/Personal Bandura have shown the relationship
inadequacies: Within individuals between frustration and aggression
themselves are deficiencies which which are of two types.
can cause frustration. Some people a. External aggression: This aggression
are handicapped by disease, such as, may be directed towards either the
blindness, deafness or paralysis that person or persons who caused the
can limit their activities. frustration or towards softer targets as
4. Conflict- Produced frustration: It can substitutes.
be caused by the hostility For example, an employee denied
(Unfriendliness) he/she feels towards promotion may quarrel with his
others, or the hostility others have supervisor or rebuke his wife or ‗beat his
towards him/her. children. When deprived of social needs,
5. Motivational conflict: Motivational people respond with tremendous
conflict occurs when an individual frustration resulting in aggression and
has different ideologies. harmful behavior. Riots and violence
For example: An individual who may follow
values independence and needs
strong relationships with others may b. Internal aggression: Instead of relieving
experience motivational frustration. emotional tension by attacking others.
The aggression may be directed towards
Reactions Formation to Frustration: self by blaming self. Eventually the
Pent up frustrations lead to different person becomes neurotic or tries to find
reactions in people. Some have frustration escape through suicide Internal
tolerance to the extent that they bear the aggression is worse than external
consequences with no injury to themselves reactions for the individual
or to the society, while others become
violent and aggressive. C. Others Reactions to Frustration:
a. Attack or direct approach.
A. Simple Reactions: b. Reduce the level of goal.
Increasing efforts and trials: During c. Aggressiveness.
frustration, some individual become d. Withdrawal.
 185
e. Compromise. 15. Sublimation to get alternative goal
achieved instead of main one.
Signs & Symptoms of Frustration: 16. Compromise with the environment.
1. Shortness of breath.
2. Knot in the throat. Solution or Deal with Frustration:
3. Stomach cramps. 1. Do not take frustration personally and
4. Chest pains. accept that it is a way of life
5. Headache. 2. Change our thinking and lower our
6. Compulsive (irrational) eating / Anoxia. expectations for the situation
7. Excessive alcohol consumption. 3. Learn to recognize the warnings signs of
8. Increased smoking. frustration
9. Lack of patience (Tolerance). 4. Learn to ask for help
10. Desire to strike out. 5. Ask our ―What is working in this
11. Abnormal fixation (Addiction) for same situation?
work. 6. Remove the ―Noise and Simplify
12. Registration any activities specially 7. Multiple Solutions
crowed place. 8. Take Action
13. Rationalization for own purpose. 9. Stay positive
14. Repression and trying to forget past
memory of life.

Question:
1. Define Frustration [Mar-10, feb 18]
2. Describe the cause and coping strategies in frustration. [Mar-10, feb 18]
3. Short note on: Frustration (2014)

Reference:
1. Driver C, Kean B, Oprescu F, Lovell GP. Knowledge, behaviors, attitudes and beliefs of
physiotherapists towards the use of psychological interventions in physiotherapy practice:
a systematic review. Disability and rehabilitation. 2017 Oct 23;39(22):2237-49.
2. Daykin AR, Richardson B. Physiotherapists’ pain beliefs and their influence on the
management of patients with chronic low back pain. Spine. 2004 Apr 1;29(7):783-95.
3. Synnott A, O’Keeffe M, Bunzli S, Dankaerts W, O'Sullivan P, O'Sullivan K.
Physiotherapists may stigmatise or feel unprepared to treat people with low back pain and
psychosocial factors that influence recovery: a systematic review. Journal of
physiotherapy. 2015 Apr 1;61(2):68-76.
 186

Chapter- 16
Sensation, Attention & Perception

Sensation occurs when environmental stimulation the sensory organs and sensory
stimuli cause sensory receptors in the eyes, receptors are sensitive to. Mechanoreception
ears, skin, tongue, and nose, to respond and is the conversion of mechanical energy into
create a neurological impulse in the brain. In a neurological impulse. Touch, and sound
simple terms, sensation can be defined as for example are transformed by receptors in
what the sensory organs do. Sensation is the the skin and inner ear into our experience of
process that allows our brains to take in pressure and hearing. Chemoreception are
information via our five senses, which can the chemical senses of taste and smell where
then be experienced and interpreted by the receptors in the tongue and nose respond to
brain. The process of the sensory organs molecules in food and the air we breathe.
transforming physical energy into Vision is discussed separately because of the
neurological impulses the brain interprets as
the five senses of vision, smell, taste, touch,
and hearing. This process is known as
transduction, or the conversion of one form
of energy into another. Each of these systems
maintains unique neural pathways with the
brain which allows them to transfer
information from the environment to the
brain very rapidly. Without sensation, we
would not be able to enjoy the sunny spring
day at the park. Each sensory system
contains unique sensory receptors, which are
designed to detect specific environmental
stimuli. Once detected, sensory receptors
convert environmental stimulus energy into
electrochemical neural impulses. The brain
then interprets those neural messages, which
allow the brain to experience and make
decisions about the environment. Let‘s take nature of photoreceptors and light itself.
a little bit closer look at the process of Fig.-1: Primary Sensory area of the cerebral
sensation by examining each of the five cortex.
sensory systems involved.
Together, these senses provide the
Types of Sensation: information that informs an organism of the
Sensation encompasses the five sensory surrounding environment and enables them
systems of the visual system, auditory to interact, react and manipulate that
system, skin senses, gustation (taste) and environment based on evolutionary needs.
olfaction (smell). These can be broken down Human hearing has evolved to become
into categories based on what form of sensitive to consonant sounds of human
 187
speech and the cry of a human child, for The eyes focus light, control how much light
example. The animal kingdom has a range of enters the eye and the directs that light onto
hearing that far exceeds our own because visual receptors in the retina at the back of
this information beyond our hearing the eye known as rods and cones (Figure 2.).
capability is important for their survival. Cones work in bright light conditions,
Human vision is best suited to a well-lit daytime, and provide both color vision and
daytime environment with fine color vision. fine visual acuity. Rods are many more in
Animals such as cats are more in tune with number and allow us to see in low light
dark environments for hunting at night. Each conditions, but only in greyscale. Once light
has evolved differently based on different energy has been converted into a
requirements. neurological impulse, it travels along the

Vision
The visual system transfers light energy,
which occur naturally in the form of
wavelengths, into neural messages via the
eyes. This process is known as
visuoreception. The subtle qualities of the
wavelengths, such as their height, width, and
frequency, are detected by structures within
our eyes. These subtle differences result in
the experience of seeing different colors,
shapes, and textures. Thinking back to the
park, the ever-changing characteristics of
those wavelengths create an image that your
brain interprets as the setting sun. The visual
system is what converts light in the

optic nerve to the primary visual cortex

environment into what we experience as (Figure 3.) where it is processed into what
sight. The wavelengths of light provide one experiences as sight. The three qualities
color, and brightness. We also have some of light we can detect are hue (color,)
night vision capability for seeing at night, brightness, and saturation. Saturation can be
though not as well as in the daytime. The thought of as purity of color; the less white
first step in the process of vision is the eyes. that is light combined with the color, the
 188
higher the saturation. A red laser has higher bird’s song. Here the auditory system deals
saturation than a red lightbulb for example. with waves, but in this case, these waves are
The different sensory receptors explain why transmitted through the air and detected as
it is necessary to have bright enough light to frequency, amplitude and timbre (pitch,
be able to read fine print. Cones require more loudness, purity of tone). The sensory organs
light. It also explains why it is difficult to of the ear work on a process of
identify the color of an automobile at night. mechanoreception, converting mechanical
Dark or light colors are easily identified, but vibration into neurological impulses the
exact color is very difficult to determine brain assembles into our experience of
because rods, active in low light, do not hearing. The pinna is the part of the ear that
sense color. can be seen. This structure focuses
soundwaves down the auditory canal and ear
Hearing drum (tympanic membrane). From here, this
The auditory system operates similarly to vibration is transferred through the bones of
the visual system in that sounds are the middle ear to the snail-shaped organ of
the inner ear called the cochlea (Figure 4.).
This is where hair cell receptors transform
this vibration into a neural impulse we then
experience as sound.

Smell:
Olfactory sense is, in terms of evolution, one
of the oldest senses, allowing the organisms
with receptors for the odorant to identify
food, potential mating partners, dangers and
enemies. For most living creatures and for
mankind smell is one of the most important
ways of interaction with the environment.
The olfactory area in humans is about 2.5
cm2 wide and contains a number of about 50
transmitted through the environment in the million receptor cells with 8–20 cilia down
form of wavelengths. Much like wavelengths in a layer of mucus of about 60 microns
of light, the qualities of the auditory thick, produced by Bowmann glands in the
wavelength will determine the qualities of olfactory epithelium. Only volatile
the sound that is heard in the brain. Sound substances, soluble in mucus, can reach the
waves enter the ear, and once the receptors and interact with them and finally
wavelengths reach the middle ear, auditory produce sensations. The olfactory
structures convert these wavelengths into epithelium contains a variable number of
vibrations. The vibrations are transferred into basal cells, which are capable of mitotic
neural impulses, which are sent directly to division giving rise to mature receptor
the brain. This process of detecting neurons. The olfactory neuron's turnover is
vibrations is referred to as about 40 to 60 days. The axonal
mechanoreception. For example, the singing ramifications of these neurons go together in
birds in the park emit wavelengths of very groups of 10 to 100 fibers, they cross the
specific size and frequency which are picked ethmoid cribriform plate reaching the
up by the ears, and end up experiencing the olfactory bulb where they converge and form
synaptic structures called glomeruli and then
 189
they converge again to mitral cells. The total citrus lime flavor whereas a red drink was
convergence ratio is 1000:1 and has the associated more with a sweet strawberry
important role of increasing the sensibility of flavor. According to Peter Stewart and Erica
the olfactory signal that will be sent to the Goss’s research, round white plates lead to a
specialized areas in the brain. 20 percent increase in people rating the food
as sweeter and a 30 percent increase in the
Gustation (Sense of Taste) intensity of the flavors in the meal. Certain
The gustatory system comprises of three theories suggest that the reason behind this
crucial parts: the mouth, tongue and also the phenomenon is that the colors of the food
taste buds which helps us in perceiving the served on a white plate are more vibrant,
sense of taste. Both the gustatory system and leading to a perception of a more intense
the olfactory system (sense of smell) follow flavor.
chemoreception process. The sensation that
Sensation Sense Related nerve
results when taste buds in the tongue and Organ
throat convey information about the
chemical composition of a soluble stimulus. Vision Eye Optic nerve
synonyms: gustatory perception, taste, taste Hearing Ear Vestibulocochleor
perception, taste sensation. Consequent nerve
neural activity in taste nerves and taste- Taste Tongue Glossopharyngeal
related areas of the brain lead to gustatory nerve
sensation and perception. There is general Small Nose Olfactory nerve
agreement that activation of the taste system Touch Skin Merkel cell nerve
results in the perception of five unique taste endings
qualities, or basic tastes, in humans: sweet,
Cutaneous or Touch Sensation:
sour, salty, bitter, and umami. People’s
Our sense of touch is also facilitated by
mood at the time eating the dish has a large
mechanoreception. Specially designed
impact on how people perceive taste.
receptor cells under the skin are designed to
According to Corinna Noel and Robin
sense the slightest amount of pressure. We
Dando's research, when people are in a
also have thermoreceptor cells under our skin
positive mood, they are more sensitive to the
which are able to detect temperature related
taste of sweetness. If they are experiencing
to touch and temperature and convert that
negative emotions, that tends to heighten the
information into that the brain can use.
sensitivity to sour tastes. Scientists are
Merkel cell nerve endings are found in the
predicting this is due to the increase in the
basal epidermis and hair follicles; they react
chemical serotonin released in the brain
to low vibrations (5–15 Hz) and deep static
when people are experiencing positive
touch such as shapes and edges. The sense of
emotions. The flavor that is being perceived
touch is one of the central forms of
is strongly related to the color that you see.
perceptual experience, though it has often
In many studies, the color of the drink
been overshadowed by vision in both
strongly influenced the participant’s guess as
philosophy and psychology. Thought to be
to what flavor the drink was. According to
one of the first senses to develop, touch
the research by Ndom, Elegbeleye, and
occurs across the whole body using a variety
Ademoroti, even though there was no
of receptors in the skin. It has been found
association to the actual flavor of the drink,
that touch calms our nervous center and
the color of the drink was what highly
slows down our heartbeat. Human touch also
influenced participant guesses. For example,
lowers blood pressure as well as cortisol, our
a green-flavored drink was associated with a
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stress hormone. It also triggers the release of where the body exists in space. The sense of
oxytocin, a hormone known for promoting balance tells people whether they are
emotional bonding to others. standing up, falling in an elevator, or riding
a roller coaster. The sensory system involved
in balance is called the Vestibular System.
General characteristics of sensation:
The main structures in the vestibular system
a. A stimulus is any form of energy (light,
are three fluid-filled tubes called
sheet, order) that is capable of exciting
Semicircular Canals, which are located in
the nervous system.
the inner ear. As the head moves, the fluid in
b. The stimulus first excites one of the
the semicircular canals moves too,
sensory receptors cells.
stimulating receptors called hair cells, which
c. Each of sensory system is specialized to
then send impulses to the brain.
responds to different type of stimulus.
Visceral sense:
Position, Movement, Balance &
The perception of the presence of the
Equilibrium:
internal organs. These sensations are many
The psychology of human movement is a
and are not as well defined as somatic
broad ranging field that includes both how
sensations. Visceral receptors are innervated
the motor control system produces
by small myelinated and unmyelinated fibers
movements, and how the sensory system
that have cell bodies in the dorsal root
perceives these movements itself and from
ganglia of the spinal or cranial nerves. Spinal
others. Since both the structure of the body
visceral afferents are carried by
and the strategy for producing movements
thoracolumbar sympathetic and sacral
are unique they provide constraints that are
parasympathetic nerve trunks. Typical
potentially important for the sensory
examples are the feeling of appetite in the
interpretation of movement. Applied areas of
stomach, and the feeling of fullness in the
study in the psychology of human movement
rectum and in the bladder. In Psychology,
include sports psychology and social
the term 'gut feelings' indicates the overall,
psychology, particularly when it applies to
vague, unfamiliar, or affective connotations
nonverbal communication interpretation of
of abdominal sensations. Visceral sensations
visual information from movements such as
and visceral pain are often regarded as
gait is of particular interest for biometrics. In
synonymous; however, not all visceral
the domain of visual perception, the
sensations are painful.
psychology of human movement perception
is becoming an increasingly important Attention:
example of how the visual system processes Attention is the concentration of awareness
a complex signal changing over time and on some phenomenon to the exclusion of
attaches meaning and social significance to other stimuli. It is awareness of the here and
this signal. Kinesthesis is the sense of the now in a focal and perceptive way. For early
position and movement of body parts. psychologists, such as Edward Bradford
Through kinesthesis, people know where all Titchener, attention determined the content
the parts of their bodies are and how they are of consciousness and influenced the quality
moving. Receptors for kinesthesis (Muscle of conscious experience. In subsequent years
spindles, Proprioceptors, The Golgi tendon less emphasis was placed on the subjective
organ etc.) are located in the muscles, joints, element of consciousness and more on the
and tendons. The sense of balance or behaviour patterns by which attention could
equilibrium provides information about be recognized in others. Although human
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experience is determined by the way people activities demand the same type of
direct their attention, it is evident that they cognitive resources. We therefore must
do not have complete control over such change our focus from one to another, as
direction. There are, for example, times paying attention to both simultaneously
when an individual has difficulty is not possible. The focal point can be
concentrating attention on a task, a divided according to its direction:
conversation, or a set of events. At other external (stimuli that are made in the
times an individual’s attention is “captured” surroundings) or internal (stimuli that are
by an unexpected event rather than made by the individual themselves), and
voluntarily directed toward it. according to its large amplitude (it allows
Attention could be defined as the ability to various stimuli to be perceived at once)
generate, select, manage and maintain an or wide amplitude (the individual can
adequate level of stimulation to process the filter the unwanted stimuli. Meaning the
relevant information. Said in another way, individual blocks distractions to pay
attention is a process that takes place on a attention to one task).
cognitive level (cognitive process), and that d. Control: attention can be voluntary or
allows us to orientate ourselves towards the involuntary. For voluntary attention the
stimuli that are relevant, ignoring those that person must make a mental effort to
are not, in order to act in consequence. mobilise it, processing the information
coming in and maintaining it for the
Characteristics of attention: necessary amount of time to then give the
a. Amplitude: the quantity of information most appropriate answer. That is to say,
that we can pay attention to at the same the individual controls and regulates the
time and the quantity of tasks that we can cognitive processes needed to do a
do simultaneously. It is important to keep mental task. On the other hand, there are
in mind that attention is a limited stimuli that are capable of drawing our
resource and although you can pay attention towards resources themselves,
attention to more than one thing at a time, without any effort on our part, this is
there will come point where this is no called involuntary or passive attention.
longer possible. Attention acts, therefore, as a mechanism
b. Intensity: is understood as the amount of that controls how we direct resources in
attention resources which are paying daily life, acting as a filter or selective
attention to a given stimulus. That is to bottle neck that allows us to focus on the
say, the level of resources that we direct relevant part of information. This allows
to a given stimulus can fluctuate, being attention resources to be directed towards
able to carry out tasks practically without a task to maximise learning and minimise
paying attention (automatic tasks) and making errors.
others demanding high attention
resources (controlled tasks). Types of attention:
c. Alternationg/Shifting: Alternating Attention is a general concept, but variations
attention is the ability to be able to exist in its name when referring to more
change the focus of attention from one concrete and detailed aspects; these are
event to another (alternating attention). usually understood as different types of
That is to say, alternating attention attention. The most well-known types or
happens when we do more than one classes of attention are:
activity at the same time and both
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1. Internal attention: the ability to use likely you are to give attention
attention resources for your own mental resources to it.
processes and other interoceptive b. Size: The bigger a stimulus is the
aspects. more attention resources it captures.
2. External attention: gained from external c. Movement: Moving stimuli capture
stimuli and stimuli coming from the more attention that ones that remain
surroundings. static.
3. Open attention: accompanies motor d. Novelty: Newer or strange stimuli
responses that support and facilitate the attract more of our attention.
act of paying attention, for example, e. Change: If a different stimulus
turning the head towards the stimulus that appears that breaks the dynamic, our
we want to pay attention to. attention will be directed to the new
4. Hidden attention: allows you to pay stimulus.
attention to stimuli without appearing to f. Repetition: Repetition is the factor of
do so. great importance in securing
5. Selective attention or focused attention: attention. Because one may ignore a
ability to select and focus attention on a stimulus at first instance, but if it is
single stimulus, rejecting other irrelevant repeated for several times it captures
stimuli that can interfere in the process. our attention, e.g. a miss-spelled word
6. Divided attention: ability to focus is more likely to be noticed, if it
attention on two or more tasks at the same occurs twice in the same paragraph
time. For example, driving and listening than, if it occurs only once.
to music at the same time. g. Color: Colorful stimuli are more
7. Sustained attention: ability to maintain attention grabbing than black and
attention resources and respond white ones.
correctly. h. Contrast: Stimuli that contrast against
8. Visual attention: ability to pay attention a group attract more of our attention.
to stimuli that are in our field of vision. i. Emotional burden: Positive just as
This is related to spatial aspects. much as negative stimuli attract our
9. Auditory attention: ability to pay attention more than neutral ones.
attention to stimuli sensed by the ears.
This is related to temporal factors. 2. Internal factors (internal determiners):
Come from the individual and therefore,
Determining factors of attention: depend on each person. Some examples
There are determining factors that can affect are:
the functioning of attention and can define a. Interests or Curiosity: We concentrate
which stimulus you will direct your attention more on stimuli that interests us. The
to. These can be external or internal: impulse or desire to investigate,
observe, or gather information,
1. External factors (external particularly when the material is
determiners): Come from surroundings novel or interesting.
and make concentration on relevant b. Primary motives: These are
stimuli easier or more difficult. Some unlearned, physiological needs that
examples are: include hunger, thirst, sleep, sex,
a. Intensity: The more intense a stimulus avoidance of pain etc. These needs are
is (strength of stimulus) the more important for survival and are
 193
virtually universal, but they vary in Distractibility: Abrupt changes or marked
intensity from one person to another. instability in attention.
c. Emotion: Stimuli that provoke Emotional unstable attention: Inconstant
stronger emotions attract more and changing attention performance.
attention. However, it must be kept in Inhibition: Inability to mobilize attention.
mind that positive moods contribute Neglect: Neglect syndrome usually
to focusing attention resources, but manifests as lack of attention, akinesia (loss
negative moods make concentration or lack of movement) and hemispatial
more difficult. neglect (being unaware of half of the space
d. Effort required by the task: People that surrounds us).
make a prior evaluation of the effort Fatigue: Exhaustion of attention as a
required to do a task and depending consequence of cerebral factors, that is to
on this, it will attract more or less say, being caused by traumas, tumors,
attention. dementia processes, etc.
e. Organic state: Depends on the Apathy: Difficulties maintaining attention
physical state that the person is in. So, due to conditions such as extreme fatigue,
states of tiredness, discomfort, fever, malnutrition, sleepiness, etc.
etc. will make mobilizing attention Attention perplexity: Unlike the other
more difficult. If, on the other hand, a quantitative variations, this is considered
person is in a state relating to survival, qualitative and refers to the inability to
for example, thirst or hunger, stimuli achieve the synthesis of attention content,
related with the satiation of these that is to say, to not be capable of capturing
needs will attract more attention the meaning of phenomenon.
resources. Pseudoprosexia: The lack of attention
f. Trains of thought: When thoughts towards surroundings despite maintaining
follow a determined course, based on the ability in good condition.
concrete ideas, the appearance of Paraprosexia: Abnormal direction of
stimuli related to these will capture attention.
more of our attention. Hyperprosexia: Excessive and temporary
focus of attention.
Diseases are related to attention:
There are different diseases related to this Despite the range of variations related to
cognitive ability, either by the altering or attention, these are not usually considered as
inadequate functioning or by the increase or one of the main signs or symptoms in the
deficit of attention. The classic categories diagnosis of mental illnesses. When
classify the different variations of attention variations of attention happen because of
as: aprosexia, hypoprosexia, illness, they usually use cognitive
pseudoprosexia, paraprosexia and rehabilitation interventions, like they are
hyperprosexia. Here gives a brief description doing for major depression, children with
of each one of these disorders. ADHD and mild dementia for example.
Attention is a cognitive ability that allows
Aprosexia: Maximum reduction of attention you to pay attention to environmental stimuli
ability, total absence of attention. as well as personal internal states, a large
Hypoprosexia: Decrease in attention number of stimuli and events demand our
ability. Within this category the following attention resources at the same time. This
can be distinguished: cognitive ability is limited and with the
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passing of time, stress and certain other Yellow is thought to stimulate the nerves and
diseases, amongst other causes, it can also purify the body.
deteriorate. To face these difficulties and to Orange is used to heal the lungs and to
be able to pay attention to the relevant increase energy levels. Orange lifts the
stimuli in the surroundings, there are mood, acting as a welcoming color for
different strategies that allow them to be learners that helps improve neural function.
trained, for example, cognitive stimulation, Some theorists have argued that an
which nowadays forms part of the daily environment rich in orange increases oxygen
routines of a high percentage of the supply to the brain, stimulating mental
population (ample information on cognitive activity.
stimulation in children and teenagers and Blue is believed to soothe illnesses and treat
adults, older and elderly). Currently there are pain. Cool colors like blue and green can
cognitive stimulation workshops aimed at make you feel calm. Pastel colors and
professionals, in which they learn about particularly cool toned pastels like baby
different cognitive stimulation activities and blue, lilac and mint have a calming and
exercises and how to do them. relaxing effect. Neutrals like white, beige
Finally, there are different way of doing and grey can also make you feel calm.
cognitive stimulation like brain-training For more details in picture see in Index
games, stimulation exercise books or new (End of this chapter)
neurotechnologies like Elevvo, EEG-based
technologies to improve sustained attention Change:
and other abilities like working memory and Any alteration or adjustment of behavior that
processing speed. affects a patient's functioning, brought about
by psychotherapeutic or other interventions
Nature of stimulus intensity: or occurring spontaneously. According to
Stimulus intensity is the strength of the Carol Sansone, Ph. D., a psychology
sensory input to the brain. A stimulus has a professor at the University of Utah, one type
threshold, or minimum degree of intensity of reinforcement must be present for self-
needed for it to be detected and acted upon. change, two would be better than one, and
In perceptual psychology, a stimulus is an three would be best. Intrinsic reinforcement
energy change (e.g., light or sound) which is occurs when the act is reinforcing. Behavior
registered by the senses (e.g., vision, change can refer to any transformation or
hearing, taste, etc.) and constitutes the basis modification of human behavior. It may also
for perception. In behavioral psychology refer to: Behavior change (public health), a
(i.e., classical and operant conditioning), a broad range of activities and approaches
stimulus constitutes the basis for behavior. which focus on the individual, community,
and environmental influences on behavior.
Color: Warm colors like red, yellow and 5 stages of change:
orange evoke higher arousal emotions, such The five stages of change are
as love, passion, happiness, and anger. Cool 1. Precontemplation: It is the stage at which
colors, like blue, green and purple are linked there is no intention to change behavior
to calmness, sadness and indifference. in the foreseeable future.
Colors can trigger these arousal states and 2. Contemplation,
emotions. 3. Preparation,
Red is used to stimulate the body and mind 4. Action,
and to increase circulation. 5. Maintenance.
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Extensity: observer displacement, and, more generally,
That quality of sensation which permits the processes thought to be purely perceptual
perception of space or size. It is a part of may occur. Familiar size is a visual cue used
sensory perception relating to the spatial to judge an object's distance. It is a
aspect of objects. rare the condition of being monocular cue which means it can provide
extensive or extended. In Psychology, the information about depth perception even by
attribute of sensation from which the using only one eye. By knowing an object's
perception of spatial extension is developed. size, a person can discern depth perception
and how far away an object is.
Repetition: In psychology, size perception is:
Repetition compulsion is a psychological 1. The actual size of the object.
phenomenon in which a person repeats an 2. The distance the object is from the eye.
event or its circumstances over and over 3. Another factor effecting perceived size is
again. This includes re-enacting the event or size constancy. This phenomenon results
putting oneself in situations where the event in objects of known size tending to
is likely to happen again. Repetition is when appear constant in size regardless of their
a single word or phrase is used multiple distance.
times in short succession for effect. It can
help emphasize a point. For example, 'I have Curiosity:
to practice my times tables over so I can It is defined as an underlying motivation to
learn them' vs 'I have to practice my times understand what makes people tick. We
tables over and over and over again so I can found overt social curiosity to be linked to
learn them. ' On the other hand, People who healthy psychological outcomes including
are distressed by recurring, unwanted, and open-mindedness, extraversion,
uncontrollable thoughts or who feel driven to agreeableness, low negative emotionality,
repeat specific behaviors may have interpersonal competencies, and low levels
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). The of loneliness. Philosopher and psychologist
thoughts and behaviors that characterize William James (1899) called curiosity “the
OCD can interfere with daily life, but impulse towards better cognition,” meaning
treatment can help people manage their that it is the desire to understand what you
symptoms. know that you do not. He noted that, in
children, it drives them towards objects of
Movement size: novel, sensational qualities- that which is
Movement perception, process through “bright, vivid, startling”. Perhaps the most
which humans and other animals orient important attitude is curiosity. Curiosity- a
themselves to their own or others' physical state of active interest or genuinely wanting
movements. Most animals, including to know more about something- allows you
humans, move in search of food that itself to embrace unfamiliar circumstances, giving
often moves; they move to avoid predators you a greater opportunity to experience
and to mate. discovery and joy.
Psychological size is the perceived status There are two basic types of curiosity:
one person has relative to another. cognitive and sensory. Cognitive curiosity is
Psychological distance is the degree of the desire for new information, while
positive and negative emotional sensory curiosity is the desire for new
connectedness in a relationship. Thus, size sensations and thrills.
constancy is enhanced by information from
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Curiosity theory:
George Loewenstein (1994) described (2) Grouping: Group of stimuli in
curiosity as “a cognitive induced perception organization. In grouping the
deprivation that arises from the stimuli are grouped into the smallest
perception of a gap in knowledge and possible pattern that has meaning
understanding.” Lowenstein's information important principles of grouping are-
gap theory holds that curiosity functions like 1. Closure.
other drive states, such as hunger, which 2. Pragnanz.
motivates eating. 3. Proximity.
4. Similarity or Symmetry.
Primary Motive: 5. Continuity.
These needs are important for survival and 6. Inclusiveness
are virtually universal, but they vary in
intensity from one person to another. Principle # 1. Closure:
Primary motives are thought to include Gestalt psychologists claimed that when we
hunger, thirst, sex, avoidance of pain, and receive sensations that form an incomplete
perhaps aggression. One's primary or unfinished visual image or sound, we tend
motivation is that underlying value, belief or to overlook the incompleteness and perceive
perception that most of our actions true back the image or sound as a complete or finished
to; our behavior can be explained and unit. This tendency to fill in the gaps is
interpreted by our strict adherence to this referred to as closure. If we see the figure
fundamental motivator. (Law of closure) for a brief time. The partial
outlines of the figure will be filled out and
Perception: you might say that
Perception is the process by which it is a square,
discriminate among stimuli & interpret though it is not,
their meanings and appreciate their in-fact, one. But
significance. e.g. when we hear a sound we even if it is seen as
are able to identify it as being produced by an incomplete
an aeroplane or automobile perception gives square it shows
meaning to sensation. Crider & others- that you first saw
“Perception is closely related process by a square and later
which the brain settles organize and registered its incompleteness. This illustrates
interprets this sensation”. Henry L. Roediger that the principle of closure was in operation.
& Others- “Perception is the process of This shows a tendency to perceive
interpreting sensory information room the meaningful objects.
receptor organ to produce an organized
image & environment”. Principle # 2. Pragnanz:
The term pragnanz indicates fullness or
Principles of perception:
completeness. Gestalt psychologists are of
The most fundamental laws of
the view that the process of perception is
perception organization are our tendency
dynamic and goes on changing until we
to perceive stimuli as a –
reach a stage of perceiving with maximum
(1) Figure & ground: The most
meaning and completeness. Once we reach
fundamental process in form perception is
this point, the perceived gestalt remains
the recognition of a figure standing out
from a background colour also help.
 197
stable. Such a stable gestalt is called a good
gestalt.

The perceptual process according to gestalt

psychology tends to move towards a good
gestalt. This phenomenon is very obvious in
the case of children. If once they perceive
something, they keep on asking questions
about it which may appear silly to an adult.
Closure is one basic mechanism which
illustrates the principle of pragnanz. The
reader should not confuse between
perceiving a good gestalt and the accuracy of Principle # 3. Proximity:
perception. The term good gestalt means that When objects are close to each other, the
at that stage the perceptual process is stable tendency is to perceive them together rather
and that under given conditions a clear than separately. Even if the individual items
figure-ground demarcation has been arrived do not have any connection with each other
at. Apart from the above principles, other they will be grouped under a single pattern
principles which play a role in the or perceived as a meaningful picture (Fig.
organization of perception are proximity, 7.3). For instance, when the English teacher
similarity, continuity, etc. They explain how in the class questions a student, ‘What is
perception takes place in the presence of a often?’ This is completely different from the
large number of stimuli. Perceptual question, ‘What is of..ten?’Both the
organization, under such circumstances, is sentences contain the same sounds but the
determined to a great extent by the laws of way the speaker groups the sounds and
association-similarity, continuity, etc. These where he pauses will determine how the
principles are explained with the aid of sounds are perceived.
illustrations below.
Principle # 4. Similarity:
Similar elements tend to be perceived as
belonging together. Stimuli that have the
same size, shape and colour tend to be
perceived as parts of the pattern as shown in
Fig.7.4

Principle # 5. Continuity:
Anything which extends itself into space in
the same shape, size and colour without a
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break is perceived as a whole figure (Fig. influenced by our interests. Because our
7.5). For example, when several dots form a individual interests differ considerably, what
curved line, an individual may perceive the one person notices in a situation can differ
figure as two different continuous lines from what others perceive.
irrespective of the factors like proximity and
similarity of the dots. Thus, the whole figure Past experience in perception:
is organized into a continuum though the The perception involves the meaningful
dots are unconnected (Fig.7.5). interpretation of the sensory input. Both
Helmholtz and Gibson pointed to the
Principle # 6. Inclusiveness: importance of experience in explaining
The pattern which includes all the elements perception. The past experience prepares the
present in a given figure will be perceived individual to emphasize some sensory inputs
more readily than the other figures. For and ignore others.
example, in Fig.7.6 the hexagonal figure Context in perception:
formed by all the dots may be perceived A context effect is an aspect of cognitive
more readily than the square formed by the psychology that describes the influence of
four middle dots. Single dots at either end act
as a fence or enclosure within which all the
other elements are included.
Here examined some of the factors which
play a role in the organization of perception.
These principles explain how perception is
often independent of characteristics of
individual stimuli. While discussing the
phenomena of sensation it was mentioned
that often our perception bears very little
connection to the actual stimulus situation.
We now know that this is because of the fact environmental factors on one's perception of
that perception is a complex and active a stimulus. The impact of context effects is
process influenced by many factors other considered to be part of top-down design.
than stimulus characteristics. The concept is supported by the theoretical
approach to perception known as
Values and interest in perception:
constructive perception.
Values are internalized cognitive structures
that guide choices by evoking a sense of Perceived needs are the things we think that
basic principles of right and wrong, a sense people want or should do, and these are
of priorities, and a willingness to make based on our personal values and beliefs –
meaning and see patterns. Like other that is, our lens. Wants, on the other hand,
cognitive constructs, values can be studied at are the things that people are willing to
the individual level or at the group level. commit to and are ready to do. A person's
Perception of value is a major factor that wants drive their behaviour to make a
motivates users to adopt (or reject) a product. decision. Moods, according to this model,
Perception of value is composed of financial have a direct connection with perception and
and non-financial factors alike. Greater thought. Your mood will lead you to recruit
understanding of self allows us to have more the areas of your cortex needed to deal with
accurate perceptions of others. Interest: The a particular problem. If your mood is
focus of our attention appears to be
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positive, you’ll be able to choose which parts It defines the means of biological
of the brain to recruit – internal vs. external. reproduction, describes psychological and
If your mood is negative, you’ll essentially sociological representations of self, and
bypass the external for the internal. The orients a person's attraction to others.
perception of value is one of the most Further, it shapes the brain and body to be
important dimensions of religious pleasure seeking. Sex has a significant
experience, and yet the cognitive science of impact on the perception of emotional
religion has so far had little to say about it. expressions. However, it remains unclear
This neglect may be the result of a whether sex influences the perception of
widespread assumption that value is emotions in artificial faces, which are
constructed, that is, a special quality added becoming popular in emotion research.
to sensory input by the mind. If the There is now good evidence that human
perception of events would be modulated not behavioral sex differences are influenced by
only by upbringing and culture but also, or sex hormones present during prenatal
perhaps even mainly, by religious factors, it development, confirming findings from
would seem particularly important to study studies with other mammalian species.
how they affect perception. Religious belief These hormones act by “organizing” neural
may systematically bias visual attention. systems that mediate behavior later in life.
Religious experiences and the belief in
religious meanings transforms physical Susceptibility is being easily affected by
something. An example of susceptibility is
spaces into sacred spaces. These perceptions having a very weak immune system which
and imaginings influence the way such causes a person to frequently get colds. Two
spaces are used, and the personal, spiritual extant evolutionary models, biological
meanings developed in using such sacred sensitivity to context theory (BSCT) and
spaces. Religion gives people something to differential susceptibility theory (DST),
believe in, provides a sense of structure and converge on the hypothesis that some
individuals are more susceptible than others
typically offers a group of people to connect to both negative (risk-promoting) and
with over similar beliefs. These facets can positive (development-enhancing)
have a large positive impact on mental health environmental conditions. In Developmental
research suggests that religiosity reduces psychology and educational psychology.
suicide rates, alcoholism and drug use.
Seriousness is studied as it relates to how
children develop an ability to distinguish
Age and Sex in perception: levels of seriousness as it relates to
As we grow older, it can often feel like time transgressions and expenditure of time; for
goes by faster and faster. This speeding up of example, a child must learn to distinguish
subjective time with age is well documented between levels of seriousness in admonitions
by psychologists, but there is no consensus such as between "don't fidget" and "don't
forget to look both ways when crossing the
on the cause. Researchers found that, older street", which have the same linguistic and
adults perceived pictures differently than normative structure, but different levels of
younger adults. Older adults rated positive seriousness.
pictures as more arousing than negative or
neutral pictures, and more arousing than Perceived benefit refers to the perception of
the positive consequences that are caused by
younger adults. These findings are consistent a specific action. In behavioral medicine, the
with the idea that older adults focus more on term perceived benefit is frequently used to
positive affect (Carstensen, 1995). Sexuality explain an individual’s motives of
is one of the fundamental drives behind performing a behavior and adopting an
everyone's feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. intervention or treatment. Researchers and
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theorists attempt to measure positive Common usage suggests that an illusion is a
perceptions because they believe that a discrepancy between one's awareness and
behavior is driven by an individual’s
cognition in terms of acceptability, motives, some stimulus. illusion, a misrepresentation
and attitudes toward such behavior, of a “real” sensory stimulus that is, an
especially if positive. interpretation that contradicts objective
“reality” as defined by general agreement.
Socioeconomic status is the social standing For example, a child who perceives tree
or class of an individual or group. It is often branches at night as if they are goblins may
measured as a combination of education,
income and occupation. Examinations of be said to be having an illusion. An illusion
socioeconomic status often reveal inequities is distinguished from a hallucination, an
in access to resources, plus issues related to experience that seems to originate without an
privilege, power and control. A growing external source of stimulation. Neither
body of evidence has observed a relationship experience is necessarily a sign of
between personality traits and
socioeconomic status (SES). For example, psychiatric disturbance, and both are
conscientiousness positively predicts SES regularly and consistently reported by
over and above intelligence (Heckman & virtually everyone.
Kautz, 2012) and neuroticism is negatively
associated with income (Kajonius &
Carlander, 2017). Difference between Illusion &
Hallucination:
Types of perceptions: Hallucinations are a perception not based on
The four types of extrasensory perception sensory input, whereas illusions are a
include clairvoyance, psychokinesis, misinterpretation of a correct sensory input.
telepathy and precognition. Both phenomenon can be due to medication
1. Clairvoyance. Clairvoyance is the or drug, or to an altered mental status. Visual
capability to acquire information about a hallucinations can be formed (objects,
particular object, scenario, physical event people) or unformed (light, geometric
or location using extrasensory means. figures). Numerous optical illusions are
2. Psychokinesis. produced by the refraction (bending) of light
3. Precognition. as it passes through one substance to another
4. Telepathy. in which the speed of light is significantly
different. A ray of light passing from one
transparent medium (air) to another (water)
Factor influencing perception: is bent as it emerges. Thus, the pencil
1. Functioning of the sense organ standing in water seems broken at the
2. Functioning of the brain surface where the air and water meet; in the
3. Previous experience. same way, a partially submerged log in the
4. Psychological state water of a swamp gives the illusion of being
5. Interest bent.
6. Motivation
7. Behaviour of the organism
Hallucination:
According to the current edition of the
Illusion: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
The psychological concept of illusion is Disorders (DSM-5), the guide that clinicians
defined as a process involving an interaction use to diagnose and treat all manner of
of logical and empirical considerations. mental health disorders, hallucinations are
 201
“perception-like experiences that occur the wall,” so that she wouldn’t fall or be
without an external stimulus.” These pushed onto the tracks. “But at work, the
perceptions are vivid and seem very real. voice would say, ‘you’re using too much
They lie outside the voluntary control of the white-out or too much paper. You’re going
person experiencing them. Although “seeing to get fired.’ She learned to pay attention to
things” or “hearing voices” might be the the voice in the subway and disregard the
types of hallucinations you’ve heard of most, voice at work.”
vision and hearing aren’t the only senses that Visual hallucination:
may be affected by hallucinations. Aubrey The second most common type of
Moe, a psychologist with the Early hallucination is based around our sense of
Psychosis Intervention Center at The Ohio sight. Visual hallucinations can range from
State University Wexner Medical Center, shadows in the peripheral view and items
says that “we have five senses, and that aren’t fully formed to fully formed
hallucinations can occur in any of those objects and people. For some people, like
senses.” Hallucinations are often a feature of Belleview, these visual apparitions take fully
psychosis, a term used to describe a constituted shapes of people and animals and
disconnection from reality that occurs with may appear as real as an actual person or
many different kinds of mental and other puppy sitting in the room with you.
illnesses. In short, people tend to experience
one or more of five different types of
hallucinations: Tactile or Cutaneous hallucination:
These hallucinations affect the sense of
touch. Belleview relates the story of a tactile
Auditory hallucination:
hallucination he had once. “I was sitting in a
The presence of sounds or voices that aren’t meeting and there was a lovely lady sitting
being triggered by an external stimulus are across a really wide table from me. She was
the most common form of hallucination. very short, but I felt someone playing footsie
While a voice or voices might be the most with me under the table. Of course, this poor
common type of auditory hallucination, Moe lady is so far away from me and there was no
says some people may hear “other things one on the other side of me.” He says he
such as music or knocking on walls and looked under the table to find there was no
static sounds” that another person standing one anywhere near his feet. He also
in the same room can’t hear. Dr. Philip R. sometimes feels like “someone is tapping me
Muskin, a psychiatrist at New York- on the shoulder. I turn around and nobody is
Presbyterian and Columbia University there.” The sensation of bugs crawling on
Irving Medical Center and outgoing your skin or electricity running through the
secretary of the American Psychiatric body are other ways that some people
Association, says auditory hallucinations experience tactile hallucinations.
“can be coherent or mumbling or can be the
voice of someone who’s dead or a crowd or
people talking to each other over you. I had Olfactory hallucination:
a patient years ago who was schizophrenic What’s that terrible smell? For some people,
who had auditory hallucinations. She was a it could be an olfactory hallucination. Rather
lovely person who worked as a secretary, than getting an unsolicited whiff of a
and she managed it on medications. When delicious pie or a fragrant flower,
she would get on the subway platform, a “unfortunately, olfactory hallucinations are
voice would tell her stand right up against usually unpleasant for people,” Moe says.
 202
Belleview says he occasionally smells Schizophrenia:
smoke or fire that’s not there, which can be This mental illness is usually the first
concerning. “That one is very startling. I’ll condition people think of when they think
get up and look around and there’s nothing about hallucinations. Hearing voices is a
going on. The smoke detector is not going common sign of the psychosis that often
off. That’s the one that irritates me the arises from schizophrenia and a related
most.” condition called schizoaffective disorder,
Gustatory hallucination: “which is essentially schizophrenia with a
Even the sense of taste can be impacted by comorbid mood component.”
hallucinations. This happens when you have
“a taste sensation for something you have Other mental illnesses:
not ingested.” Mood disorders such as bipolar disorder and
Hallucinations are often a component of depression can trigger psychosis in some
psychosis, and to the person experiencing people and include hallucinations. “If you
them, they can be so real as to be think about postpartum depression, for
indistinguishable from the rest of their example, that’s often characterized by
reality. “Hallucinations are a sensory psychosis.”
experience that occurs in the absence of an
external stimulus,” Moe says. “I like to say
Medications and substance use:
it that way instead of saying that it’s
something that someone sees or hears that Certain medications can induce
isn’t there, because that’s invalidating. To hallucinations as a side effect. And with
the person who’s experiencing it, it’s some recreational drugs, such as LSD, PCP,
incredibly real. Just like you and I see heroin, cocaine and Ecstasy, the fact that
anything else in the world. It’s very real to these substances can cause hallucinations is
them, it’s just that another person in that part of the allure.
same situation would not have that same
experience.” Brain damage, resulting from tumors,
strokes or trauma:
Causes of Hallucinations: If trauma or damage occurs to a portion of
Hallucinations can be caused by a wide the brain that controls one of the senses, that
variety of diseases, conditions and brain can trigger hallucinations in that sense.
states. Hallucinations are a feature of
psychosis, and “psychosis is a symptom, but Delirium:
it doesn’t tell you what the illness is. It’s like The Mayo Clinic reports that “delirium is a
a fever,” which can arise from any number serious disturbance in mental ability that
of causes. “If you have a fever, you know results in confused thinking and reduced
something is wrong, but you don’t know awareness of the environment.” It usually
whether it’s the flu, a cold or something else. sets in quickly and may be connected to
Some of the diseases and conditions that can other medical conditions and chronic illness
cause psychosis and potentially trigger such as metabolic disruptions, medication
hallucinations include: side effects, infections or withdrawal from
drug and alcohol addiction. Hallucinations
can develop in cases of hyperactive delirium,
 203
which may also cause the patient to become common among narcoleptics and often
restless and agitated. appear just as they are falling asleep or as
they’re waking up, as a sort of blurring
Fever: between dreaming and wakeful states.
High fevers can cause the body’s
temperature to rise. In some cases, this Blindness and deafness:
excess heat can interfere with the normal Sometimes, people who have lost their sense
functioning of the brain, leading to of vision experience visual hallucinations.
hallucinations. The flu and other infections Similarly, people who’ve lost their hearing
are a common source of fevers that can may experience auditory hallucinations.
induce hallucinations. Dubbed Charles Bonnet syndrome for the
Swiss biologist who first described the
Neurological diseases such as Parkinson’s condition in 1760, these hallucinations result
disease, Alzheimer’s disease and other from a lack of input through that lost sense.
dementias: Essentially, the sensory circuitry in the brain
gets bored by the lack of input from the
Keith N. Fargo, director of scientific
outside world so begins to construct its own
programs and outreach at the Alzheimer’s
images and sounds. Not dissimilar from
Association, says “these conditions cause the
phantom limb syndrome in people who’ve
brain to deteriorate. They’re associated with
lost a limb to amputation, Charles Bonnet
the brain not working correctly and being
syndrome is thought to result from a
activated at the wrong time.” This can lead
misfiring of signals in the brain.
to difficulty in some cases “for a person to
differentiate between reality and nonreality.”
Degenerative neurological disorders may
trigger hallucinations in some patients.
HIV/AIDS:
Kidney failure: People with late-stage AIDS may experience
The kidneys filter wastes from the body, and delirium-induced hallucinations. The
when they fail, as occurs in advanced kidney medical literature has also described some
disease, those waste products build up in the cases of people presenting with psychosis
body and brain. This can lead to delirium and intense paranoid hallucinations as the
that may trigger hallucinations. first manifestation of HIV infection.

Epilepsy: Eating disorders:

Epilepsy is a neurological disorder that Some patients with severe anorexia nervosa
causes seizures. Certain forms of the disease may experience hallucinations and
can impact parts of the brain that control the psychosis as part of their condition. Often
senses, and therefore, some patients may appearing as voices telling them not to eat,
experience hallucinations. these hallucinations can be intense and
disturbing.
Narcolepsy:
Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder in which Grief or emotional trauma:
people fall asleep at inappropriate times. The death of a loved one and other emotional
Vivid, dream-like hallucinations are traumas can induce intense grief that can
 204
lead to hallucinations in some people. These
hallucinations can take a variety of forms Dehydration or electrolyte imbalances:
seeing, hearing, feeling or smelling the Electrolytes, such as sodium and potassium,
dearly departed and a 2016 study from the are critical to cellular function. But when
University of Milan found that 30 to 60 levels of these elements are out of balance or
percent of bereaved people experience some a person becomes dehydrated, these
form of hallucination after the loss of a situations can trigger a misfiring of signals
spouse. in the brain that lead to hallucinations,
seizures and potentially death.
Index: Color Psychology.

Question:
1. Define perception.[Jul-11,May-08]. Explain the principle of perception.[Jul11, Mar-12].
2. Short note:
a) perception. [July-9,Jan-9,Mar-11,June-13]
b) Sensation.[Nov-10,Feb-2016]
c) c. Attention.[Mar-10]

Reference:
1. Danielsson L, Hansson Scherman M, Rosberg S. To sense and make sense of anxiety: Physiotherapists'
perceptions of their treatment for patients with generalized anxiety. Physiotherapy Theory and Practice. 2013 Nov
1;29(8):604-15.
2. Attention models and attention filters by Donald Broadbent and Anne Treisman.
3. Fundamental Components of Attention of the Annual Review of Neuroscience.
4. Perception: Meaning, Definition, Principles and Factors Affecting in Perception.
5. Notes on Perception: Meaning, Organization and Factors | Psychology.
6. Impression Formation | Perception | Psychology.
7. Person Perception and Object Perception: Difference | Perception | Psychology.
 205
Chapter- 17
Democratic and Authoritarian Leadership:
ii. The policy makers
Leadership is the ability of an individual or a iii. The expert
group of individuals to influence and guide iv. The charismatic leader
followers or other members of an organization. v. The political leader
Leadership has been described as a person of
social influence in which one person can Qualities of leadership:
enlist the aid & support of others in the 1. Honesty: Leader has to be honest.
accomplishment of a common task. A pattern 2. Responsibility: They deal with
in which different individuals in society situation that arise and take
assume a position or status at a gives point of responsibility for the result & this are all
time in which they are recognized by others about.
in the society as peace or decision makers is 3. Confidence: Leader have to believe in
known as leadership. Leadership involves himself in different hopeless or, all other
making sound and sometimes difficult situation.
decisions, creating and articulating a clear 4. Reliability: Leader should be reliability in
vision, establishing achievable goals and other person.
providing followers with the knowledge and 5. Patience: Leader should be patience in
tools necessary to achieve those goals. Leaders critical situation.
are found and required in most aspects of 6. Decisive: leader must be decisive & have
society, from business to politics to region to to make important decision very quickly
community-based organizations. An effective & make sure to do this work.
leader possesses the following characteristics: 7. Determination: He also can be
self-confidence, strong communication and determinative.
management skills, creative and innovative 8. Loyalty: Loyalty must be present in
thinking, perseverance in the face of failure, leadership.
willingness to take risks, openness to change, 9. Integrity: Leader must have moral &
and levelheadedness and reactiveness in times intellectual honesty
of crisis. 10. Courage: Leader must have courage in
order to be decisive leader can’t be afraid
Types of leadership: in failure & he will continue the situation
A. On the basis of official/ unofficial: & try a new approach.
i. Formal leadership. 11. Dedication: A leader dedicates his
ii. Informal leadership. personal flow.
B. On the ability to exert the influence: 12. Creativity: Creativity is a unique subject of
i. Autocratic leadership a leader.
ii. Democratic leadership 13. Intelligent: Intelligence is present of a
C. Free region or leisure: leader to process of interpretation
This types of leader always for sensation.
independent thinking of all members of the
group & doesn’t give any kind of intestine. Characteristics of leadership:
He abides by the decision of the group. 1. Integrity. The importance of integrity
D. On the basis of predomination: should be obvious.
i. The administration
 206
2. Ability to Delegate. Delegating is one of Type of Intelligence:
the core responsibilities of a leader, but it 1. Spatial intelligence:
can be tricky to delegate effectively. The ability to think abstractly and in multiple
3. Communication. dimensions. Scoring a five means you have a
4. Self-Awareness. large capacity for spatial reasoning and
5. Gratitude. conceptualization something required for
6. Learning Agility. fields such as architecture, graphic design,
7. Influence. photography, interior design and aviation.
8. Empathy. Potential career choices:
 Pilot
Effective leadership:  Fashion designer
Effective leadership is about executing the  Architect
company’s vision (or redefining and  Surgeon
improving it, in some cases) and setting the  Artist
tone and the culture for that particular  Engineer
organization. Leadership means creating and
planning, securing resources, and looking out 2. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence:
for and improving errors. The ability to use your body in a way that
demonstrates physical and athletic prowess. If
Functions of leadership: you have this skill, you could be an athlete
1. Setting Goals: effortlessly running down a field and passing a
2. Organizing: ball, or a dancer flawlessly performing a
3. Initiating Action: complicated routine.
4. Co-Ordination: Potential career choices:
5. Direction and Motivation:  Dancer
6. Link between Management and Workers:  Physical therapist
7. It Improves Motivation and Morale:  Athlete
8. It Acts as a Motive Power to Group Efforts  Mechanic
 Builder
Physical factors of leadership:  Actor
1. High energy level.
2. Physical stamina.
3. Musical intelligence:
3. Tolerance for stress. Sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, meter, tone,
4. Not concerned about being overworked.
melody and timbre. This may entail the ability
5. Vitality.
to sing and/or play musical instruments.
Famous people with musical intelligence
Intelligence: include A R Rahman or Allah Rakha Rahman,
Intelligence is defined as the capacity to act Runa Laila, Lata Mangeshkar and Rahat Fateh
purposefully, to think rationally and to deal
Ali Khan. Potential career choices:
effectively with the environment. Different
 Singer
psychologist gives different definitions of
 Musical conductor
intelligence such as- “Intelligence is the ability
to give responses that are true”- Thorndike.  DJ
“Intelligence is the ability to carry on abstract  Music teacher
thinking”-Terman. “Intelligence is an  Songwriter
assimilation and accommodation”- Piaget.  Compose
 207

4. Linguistic intelligence: 7. Intrapersonal intelligence:

Sometimes called “language intelligence,” this Sensitivity to one’s own feelings, goals and
involves sensitivity to the meaning of words, anxieties, and the capacity to plan and act in
the order among words, and the sound, light of one’s own traits. Intrapersonal
rhythms, inflections and meter of words. intelligence is not particular to specific
Those who score high in this category are careers; rather, it is a goal for every individual
typically good at writing stories, memorizing in a complex modern society, where one has to
information and reading. make consequential decisions for oneself.
Potential career choices: Potential career choices:
 Poet  Therapist
 Novelist  Counselor
 Journalist  Psychologist
 Editor  Entrepreneur
 Lawyer  Philosopher
 English professor  Theorist

5. Logical-mathematical intelligence: 8. Naturalistic intelligence:

The ability to analyze problems logically, The ability to understand the nuances in
carry out mathematical operations and nature, including the distinction between
investigate issues scientifically. People with plants, animals, and other elements of nature
this intelligence, such as Albert Einstein and and life. Notable individuals with naturalistic
Bill Gates, are skilled at developing equations intelligence include Charles Darwin and Jane
and proofs and solving abstract problems. Goodall.
Potential career choices: Potential career choices:
 Computer programmer  Geologist
 Mathematician  Farmer
 Economist  Botanist
 Accountant  Biologist
 Scientist  Conservationist
 Engineer  Florist
Types of intelligence test:
6. Interpersonal intelligence: 1. Verbal individual intelligence test
The ability to interact effectively with others. 2. Non-verbal individual intelligence test
Sensitivity to others people’s moods, feelings, 3. Verbal group intelligence tests
temperaments and motivations. Essentially, 4. Non-verbal group intelligence tests
it’s being able to understand and relate to those
around you. Theories of intelligence:
Potential career choices:  Factors theory (structural theory):
 Team manager Factors theories focused on factors which
 Negotiator constitute intelligence as an organization.
 Politician  Multifactor theory (Thur stone & Guilford
 Publicist theory):
 Salesperson Thurstone (1936) found that general
 Psychologist intelligence could be broken take into primary
disability.
 208
4. As the IQ is the result of both heredity
Intelligence quotient (IQ): and environment, a change in
IQ means intelligence quotient. Intelligence environment may show of a difference
quotient is obtained when the mental age or up to 10 in IQ score.
this is an improvement over the concept of
mental age. It is obtained by dividing the Types of IQ:
mental age by chronological age which 1. Stanford Binet‖ test: It is an individual
multiplied by 100. verbal test
Mental age 2. Performance test
IQ = 100
Chronological age Uses of IQ:
When the mental age is the same as 1. Used IQ for predict how will be a person
chronological age. The IQ is 100. The higher learn a program of study.
the IQ. The more brilliant the child imagine a 2. Measure the unfair mental abilities.
10 years old child scores a mental age of 12, 3. To accurate to do all work have a person
his IQ will be –Thus, the bright child has an IQ with intelligence
of 120. 4. A good personality measure, how it is.
Normal distribution of IQ:
Intelligence test:
IQ range Description The most intelligence test must measure:
130 and above Very superior, out gifted
1. A variety of skills and ability.
120-129 Superior 2. Early leaned and recently leaned.
110-119 Bright, Normal 3. Timed and untimed.
8- 109 Average
70-84 Slow learner
4. Cultures free and culture bound
55-69 Medley mentally reterded Test name:
1. WISC – III – Wechsler intelligence scale
40-54 Moderated Mentally reterded for children 6-16 years.
25-39 Severely mentally reterded 2. WAIS – R – Wechsler adult intelligence
scale, revision 16 – Adult.
Below 25 Profound mentally reterded 3. WPPSI – Wechsler preschool and primary
scale of intelligence 4-5 years.
4. Stanford Binet intelligence Scale 2-3 years.
Concept of IQ:
The test scores in intelligence can give some Erikson’s stage of psychological
idea about the grade of the intelligence of a development:
person. IQ is an indication of the mental ability Erikson’s stage of life is a development by
of the individual on the basis of which he can Erik. H Erickson (1902- 1994). He challenges
be directed about his future, remembering the Freud’s theory that personality is primary
limitation as given below: established during the first six and says that,
the entire stage cycle.
1. IQ is not the quantity of a person’s
intelligence. Tab le on Er ick so n’ s stage of life cycle:

2. No person is completely devoid of

intelligence. Hence, IQ should not start
from zero.
3. IQ changes slightly at least once in three
years.
 209
unfulfilled
Stage Age Positive achievement
hopes
Trust vs. Infant Develop trust of Adolescence Identity vs. Fidelity Sense of
mistrust others to meet in's (12-19 Confusion complexity of
own needs and as a years) life; merging of
result begins to trust sensory, logical
oneself and others.
and aesthetic
Autonomy vs. Toddler Ability to act
Shame and independently is perception
doubt equated with trusting Early Intimacy vs. Love
Sense of the
oneself to be good adulthood Isolation
Initiative vs. Preschool Initiate role models complexity of
(20-25
guilt and follows rules. relationships;
years)
Experience self- value of
control in social tenderness and
interaction.
Industry v s . School age Develops ability to
loving freely
inferiority make friends and Adulthood Generativity Care
independently achieve
Caritas, caring
school tasks. (26-64 vs. for others, and
Identity vs. Adolescent Learns to know years) stagnation agape, empathy
Role confusion oneself and what one and concern
believes and develops a
career goal. Old age Integrity vs. Wisdom Exbtential
Intimacy vs Young Develop an ability to (65-death) Despair identity; a sense
Isolation adult share all aspects of life of integrity
with others.
Generatively Middle Can contribute to society strong enough
vs. self- adult in a meaningful way to withstand
absorption physical
Maintain a sense of life disintegration
achievement and
absence of deep regret.

Erickson’s stage of development of life is given below:

Tab le on Er ick so n’ s stage of life:
Birth to 1 Mother Trust vs Mistus
Age Conflict Resolution or Culmination in year
"Virtue" old age
Autonomy vs shame and
Infancy Basic trust Hope Appreciation of 2 years Parents doubt
(0-1 year) vs. interdependence 3-5 years Family Initiative vs guilt
mistrust and
relatedness 6-11 years Neighborhood and Industry vs inferiorly
School
Early Autonomy
Will Acceptance of Peer groups and
childhood vs. shame
the cycle of life, Adolescence outgroups, Models of Identity vs role
(1-3 years)
from leadership Confusion
integration to Early Partners in friendship,
disintegration Adulthood sex, Competition, Intimacy vs Isolation
CO-operation
Play age Initiative vs. Purpose Humor;
(3-6 years) guilt empathy; Divided labor &
Middle age Shared household Generativity vs
resilience Stagnation
·school age Industry vs. Competence Humility;
Old age ”Mankind” ‘My Kind’ Integrity vs Despire
(6-12 years) Inferiority acceptance of
the course of
one's life and
 210
Self-confidence: temptations in order to meet long-term
Self-confidence is an attitude about your goals”. The capacity to override an
skills and abilities. It means you accept and unwanted thought, feeling, or impulse. Free
trust yourself and have a sense of control in will is the idea that we are able to have some
your life. You know your strengths and choice in how we act and assumes that we
weakness well, and have a positive view of are free to choose our behavior, in other
yourself. You set realistic expectations and words we are self-determined. For example,
goals, communicate assertively, and can people can make a free choice as to whether
handle criticism. to commit a crime or not (unless they are a
There are three types of self-esteem. child or they are insane).
1. Inflated self-esteem,
2. Low self-esteem and Dominance:
3. High self-esteem. Dominance behavior is a common
phenomenon in animals that causes
8 Psychological Tips for Being More differential access among conspecifics to
Confident: food and other limiting resources (e.g.,
1. Face a Fear. Fear is usually at the root of Wilson, 1975). For example, dominant
a lack of self-confidence. males may strongly influence their social
2. Befriend Failure. partners by chasing and displacing them
3. Doubt Your Doubt. during normal interactions but may have
4. Affirm Your Strengths, Talents, and little influence in a more sophisticated
Accomplishments. association task, where their aggressive
5. Embody Confidence. behavior could impair their function as
6. Listen to Empowering Music. sources of social information.
7. Set a Realistic Goal and Take Action to
Achieve It. Signs of a Dominant person:
8. Make a Difference.  He / She exhibits self-control and self-
discipline.
Sociability:  He/ She knows (and uses) the power of
The tendency and accompanying skills to body language.
seek out companionship, engage in  He/ She knows he's a work in progress,
interpersonal relations, and participate in and he does the work.
social activities. A person who is friendly  He/ She doesn't waste time or energy
and who likes to go out with friends and do complaining.
fun things is an example of someone who is  He/ She knows what he wants.
sociable.  He/ She is patient but relentless.
 He / She leads by example.
Will:  He/ She takes risks.
Volition or will is the cognitive process by
which an individual decides on and commits Attitude:
to a particular course of action. It is defined Attitude refers to a set of emotions, beliefs,
as purposive striving and is one of the and behaviors toward a particular object,
primary human psychological functions. person, thing, or event. Attitudes are often
Willpower is the most important ability in the result of experience or upbringing, and
behaviour and that is define as “the ability to they can have a powerful influence over
delay gratification, resisting short-term
 211
behavior. While attitudes are enduring, they caste groups affiliation, language group
can also change. affiliation, etc.

Changes of attitude: Enforced modification by law and

Additional information or New procedures that affect personality.
information:
According to New Comb, et al (1965), Psychotherapy:
attitude change depends very much on the Psychotherapy is a general term for treating
receipt of new information- relevant to the mental health problems by talking with a
attitude holder. That is, only new psychiatrist, psychologist or other mental
information cannot bring a change, it must health provider. The goal of psychotherapy
be relevant to the person. For example, in the is to facilitate positive change in clients
case of objects like mobile phones, seeking better emotional and social
fertilizers, hybrid seeds, new types of functioning to improve their feelings of
medical equipment’s used for skilled satisfaction and the overall quality of their
operations- new information about them lives.
leads not only to a change in attitude, but A psychologist may teach you skills and
also to their utilization. strategies in order to better cope with a
Attitudes are important because they can problem; a psychotherapist will help you
guide thought, behavior, and feelings. discover what is underneath the problem in
Attitude change occurs anytime an attitude is the hope of healing or diminishing it and
modified. Thus, change occurs when a will also help you develop better coping
person goes from being positive to negative, skills to deal with life.
from slightly positive to very positive, or
from having no attitude to having one. The The process of psychotherapy:
heuristic-systematic model of information ABSTRACT - The unfolding of the
processing describes two depths in the psychotherapeutic relationship is
processing of attitude change, systematic considered to proceed in four main stages:
processing and heuristic processing. In this Commitment, Process, Change and
model information is either processed in a Termination. Each stage has its own tasks
high-involvement and high-effort systematic and sub-stages, and has to be reasonably
way, or information is processed through completed before transition to the next can
shortcuts known as heuristics. For example, take place.
emotions are affect-based heuristics, in
which feelings and gut-feeling reactions are Major forms of psychotherapy:
often used as shortcuts. To help you get familiar with the different
therapeutic approaches, here's a quick guide
Group affiliation: to four of the most widely-practiced forms.
One of the significant aspects of social 1. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
behaviour in south Asian society is the close 2. Psychodynamic Therapy.
relationship between attitudes and group 3. Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)
affiliation. It is very difficult to change the 4. Humanistic/Experiential Therapy.
attitudes of people who are having strong
affiliation with their groups. For example,
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Counselling: capacity to take rational control over
Counselling is a talking therapy that involves feelings and actions.
a trained therapist listening to you and b. To alter maladjusted behaviour.
helping you find ways to deal with emotional c. To assist students to move in the direction
issues. Sometimes the term "counselling" is of fulfilling their potential, or achieve an
used to refer to talking therapies in general, integration of conflicting elements within
but counselling is also a type of therapy in its themselves.
own right. An effort to help the client engage d. To provide students with the skills,
in those types of behavior which will lead to awareness and knowledge, which will
a resolution of the clients’ problems. enable them to confront social
Counselling is a process that can help people inadequacy.
understand better and deal with their
problem and communicative better with Principles of counseling:
whom. They are emotionally involved. It can The five bedrock principles of autonomy,
be improving and re in force motivation to justice, beneficence, non-maleficence, and
change behaviour. It helps them face up to fidelity are each vital in and of themselves to
their problems and to reduce or solve them. a healthy counseling relationship. By
Counselling psychology is a broad exploring an ethical dilemma with regard to
specialization within professional these principles, a counselor may come to a
psychology concerned with using better understanding of the conflicting
psychological principles to enhance and issues. Based on above principles a
promote the positive growth, well-being, and counselor focus on following principles
mental health of individuals, families, during providing counselling:
groups, and the broader community. 1. Principle of acceptance.
Counseling Psychology is a generalist health 2. Principle of communication.
service (HSP) specialty in professional 3. Principle of non-judgmental attitude.
psychology that uses a broad range of 4. Principle of empathy.
culturally-informed and culturally-sensitive 5. Principle of confidentiality.
practices to help people improve their well- 6. Principle of individuality.
being, prevent and alleviate distress and 7. Principle of non-emotional involvement.
maladjustment, resolve crises, and increase 8. Principle of purposeful expression of
their ability to function better in their lives. feelings.
Counselling is different from advising. It
implies choice not forced. In different Types of Counselling:
circumstances different people can Humans are complex, to say the least, as are
undertake counselling. the ways to help them with their
psychological and emotional problems, but
Aims of counselling: the different types of counseling can be
The aim of counselling is broad. They may broken down into clear categories. So, what
depend on this situation and the are the three main types of counseling?
environment, and the environment, and on Psychodynamic, humanistic, and behavioral
training. The basic aims of counselling approaches are the most common and each
include the following: support different individual therapies.
a. To help students gain an insight into the Counselors often focus on one of these
organs and development of emotional, methods, but sometimes combine different
difficulties, leading to an increased aspects from various methods to put together
the most effective therapies.
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1. Educational counselling  Lingering anger over an interpersonal
2. Personal Counselling conflict.
3. Social Counselling  Insecurities about getting older.
4. Vocational Counselling  Depressive feelings when bored with
5. Psychodynamic or Psychoanalytic. work.
6. Behavioral Counseling.  Excessive guilt about a serious mistake.
7. Humanistic Counseling.  A lake of assertion and confidence.
8. Cognitive Counseling.  Grief over the loss of a loved one.
9. Constructionist Counseling.  Disillusionment and loneliness after
10. Systemic Counseling.
parent’s divorce.
Educational counselling: Social Counselling:
The counseling specialty concerned with
The social counselling helps to find
providing advice and assistance to students individual solutions, together with the
in the development of their educational
students, to issues such as: covering the cost
plans, choice of appropriate courses, and
of living, pregnancy and childcare, as well as
choice of college or technical school. A term life planning in general. It provides
first coined by Truman Kelley in 1914
extensive information and advice about all
(Makinde, 1988), educational counseling is a
degree-related help on offer.
process of rendering services to pupils who
need assistance in making decisions about
important aspects of their education. Such as
the choice of courses and studies, decisions
Vocational psychology:
regarding interests and ability, and choices of
Also known as career counseling, is a
college and high school. Educational specialized field of counseling psychology
counseling increases a pupil’s knowledge of
that studies human behavior with regard to
educational opportunities.
work related issues. Vocational counseling
includes professional and personal
Personal Counselling: counseling, that incorporates an additional
Personal counselling involves you and a
focus on the theory and research of career
counsellor working together to achieve your development and the unique vocational
goals for change. The counselling process
needs of individuals with disabilities.
varies depending on the personalities of the Vocational counselling is defined as
counsellor and the client, and the particular individual contacts with those counselled, in
concerns you bring forward. Personal
order to facilitate career development. This
counseling deals with emotional distress and definition and category encompasses
behavioral difficulties, which arise when
counselling situation such as these:
individuals struggle to deal with
a. Helping Students become aware of the
developmental stages and tasks. Any aspect many occupations to consider.
of development can be turned into an
b. Assisting a teenager to decide what to do
adjustment problem, and it is inevitable that
after school.
everyone encounters, at some time, c. Helping a student apply to a college or
exceptional difficulty in meeting an ordinary
university.
challenge. For example:
 Anxiety over a career decision.
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Psychodynamic or Psychoanalytic: feel. In this type of counseling, the goal is to
Psychodynamic or psychoanalytic help the patient become mindful of how their
techniques have their roots in Papa responses to life events can affect them.
Psychoanalysis himself, Sigmund Freud, Humanistic counselors arm patients with the
although the method has evolved over the skills to work through their problems and
decades. The main idea is that to understand find their own solutions.
someone’s problem, a counselor must first
explore and understand that person’s mind. While these three main types of counseling
This doesn’t just include feelings and are the most well-known, there’s another
emotions, but also involves diving into type that’s often employed by counselors. In
things that might be buried in the that case, Client-centered counseling can be
subconscious and unconscious, such as past added to the list of top approaches. Client-
(and possibly forgotten) traumas and centered counseling, which is an offshoot of
discovering potentially negative associations humanistic counseling, relies on the belief
and drives that might be influencing present- that we all have the resources we need
day problems. Psychodynamic counseling already within us to cope with life’s
aims to help patients become aware of the difficulties. In this type of counseling, the
different aspects of their minds and client is the expert on their own feelings and
personalities and reach a mental balance, thoughts, not the counselor. The counselor’s
recognizing their hidden motivations. role is to clarify and reflect what the patient
is saying, not to ask questions or interpret
Behavioral Counseling: anything for the patient.
Behavioral counseling is for patients
struggling with unwanted behaviors, such as
eating disorders or anxiety attacks. With this Other Popular Counseling Methods:
method, it’s believed that a person’s In addition to these main types of
behavior is determined by their environment, counseling, there are three other methods
and that the problem will persist as long as that are commonly used as well. What are
the patient remains in the environment that the six methods of counseling? The methods
reinforces or encourages it. Examining past most used by counselors are psychoanalytic,
learning is key to behavioral counseling humanistic, and behavioral, as explained
because if the behavior was learned, it can be above, but also cognitive, constructionist,
unlearned, or so the thought goes. and systemic.
Behavioral counselors may use different
types of counseling therapy to guide patients Cognitive Counseling:
to a change in behavior, but the desired result Cognitive counseling, such as reality therapy
is the same. and acceptance therapy, is aimed at aligning
a patient’s thinking with reality. It’s believed
Humanistic Counseling: that when thinking and reality are out of
The humanistic type of counseling is based sync, it causes psychological and emotional
on the assumption that every individual is difficulties. So cognitive counselors
unique and has room to grow emotionally challenge thinking patterns and try to bring
and psychologically. Rather than focus on them in line with reality so that patients can
life events, humanistic methods examine discover accurate solutions to their
how a patient experiences those events, and problems.
in turn how those experiences make them
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Constructionist Counseling: perceptions and reactions to each other
Constructionist counseling is based on the and to the process.
belief that knowledge is simply a constructed C. Growth: The relationship is dynamic
understanding of events, rather than the D. As the client grows and changes, so does
actual events themselves. It’s in this the relationship
meaning-making process that people’s E. Privacy: During or after the counselling
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are shaped. session all client disclosure are
Constructionist counselors help clients confidential.
change these problematic constructions of F. Support: Counsellors, through
themselves, their relationships, and the counselling relationship, offer the client a
world. system of support that often provides the
necessary stability for taking risks and
Systemic Counseling: changing behavior.
Systemic counseling assumes that thinking, G. Honesty: The helping relationships is
feeling, and behavior are formed and based on honesty and open and direct
influenced by social systems. Since societal communication between the counsellor
pressures are the focus, systemic counselors and the client.
look at a person’s difficulties in relation to
their role in their families and other social A counsellor should be able:
networks. 1. To communicate information.
2. To gain the trust of the people.
While these different types of counseling 3. To listen sympathetically to people
therapy are based in some very different who are anxious, distressed.
belief systems, they all have the same goal: 4. To understand other person’s feelings
To help people overcome problems and and to respond to them.
challenges and to allow them to live more 5. To help people reduced or resolve
fulfilling lives. A counselor has the ability to their problem.
choose which method best fits their personal
view and style, as well as which best serves Importance of counselling:
their client population. 1. Counselling is an important part of
treatment of disease, prevention & health
Religious conversion in personality promotion.
changes: 2. It helps people to avoid illness.
Psychologists often focus their attention to 3. To improve personal life/lifestyle.
personality changes and this make them see 4. Counselling develops positive attitude.
conversion as religious identity change that 5. Counselling also can help to build up
affect to personal change. They stress it more good personality/carrier.
on individual change. And this is suitable to
the latest understanding that religion is Counselling in different field:
personal, so is conversion. 1. Health counselling
2. Family counselling
Characteristics of Counselling: 3. School counselling
A. Effectiveness: Helping relationships is 4. Occupational counselling
more affective (with feelings, and 5. HIV counseling etc.
emotions) than cognitive.
B. Intensity: Counsellor and client are
expected to share openly their
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Goal of counselling to help the client: Difference between Guidance &
1. To change problematic behaviour. Counseling:
2. To increase their sopping skills. Guidance Counselling
3. In decision making. Guidance is mainly counseling is
4. In improving their relationship with prestige and remedial as well as
others. development preventive
5. In developing their potentiality. and developmental.
Intellectual But emotional
Counselling Process: attitudes are the raw rather than pure
There are three stages in counselling – material intellectual
1. Building stage. Of guidance Attitude are raw
2. Working stage. materials of
3. Termination stage. counselling process.
In guidance Counselling it’s
We should remember in counseling: decision making operate at emotional
1. It is confidential dialogue between a client operable at Level.
and a counsellor. Intellectual level
2. We should follow the ethical principles of
counselling. Purposes of guidance and counselling:
3. The client will come to us with emotional According to dunsmoor and miller, the
and behavioral problem etc. purpose of guidance & counselling is:
4. A counsellor should not be based by 1. To give the student information on
his/her own emotions. matters important to success.
5. Counsellor should not seek personal 2. To get information about student this will
interest from the client etc. be of help in solving his problems.
3. To establish a feeling of mutual
understanding between student and
teacher.
4. To encourage and develop special
abilities and right attitudes.
5. To inspire successful endeavor toward
attainment.
6. To assist the student in planning for
educational and vocational choices.
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Question:
1. Define leadership. [Jul-9, Feb-14, Feb 18]
2. Mention the types of a leadership and qualities of leader. [Feb-14, Feb 18]
3. Short note: Leadership [May-8, Jul-11, June-13, Feb-16, 2019]
4. Short note on: Intelligence quotient (IQ) (Nov- 10, Jul- 11)
5. Short note on: Intelligence (May- 08, Jan- 09, Mar- 12, Feb- 14).
6. Short notes on: Counselling. (Jul- 09, Mar- 10, Mar- 12, Jun- 13)

Reference:
1. Change in Attitude of an Individual: 3 Main Reasons.
2. 8 Factors Responsible for Development of Attitudes.
3. 5 Important Determinants of Attitude.
4. Attitude: Compilation of Essays on Attitude | Human Behaviour | Psychology.
5. Worum H, Lillekroken D, Ahlsen B, Roaldsen KS, Bergland A. Otago exercise
programme—from evidence to practice: a qualitative study of physiotherapists’ perceptions
of the importance of organisational factors of leadership, context and culture for knowledge
translation in Norway. BMC health services research. 2020 Dec;20(1):1-7.
6. Manthous CA, Hollingshead AB. Team science and critical care. American journal of
respiratory and critical care medicine. 2011 Jul 1;184(1):17-25.
7. Keatlholetswe L, Malete L. Coaching efficacy, player perceptions of coaches’ leadership
styles, and team performance in premier league soccer. Research quarterly for exercise and
sport. 2019 Jan 2;90(1):71-9.
8. Borghi G, Borges PH, Menegassi VM, Rinaldi GS. Relationship between preferred
leadership style and motivation in young soccer regional players. Journal of Physical
Education and Sport. 2017 Dec 1;17(4):2599-603.
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Chapter- 18
Defense Mechanism of the Ego.

Defense mechanisms are psychological individuals who suffer from a disease such
mechanisms aimed at reducing anxiety. as cancer and are sure to die, may deny
Adjustment is the process by which an such a state of affairs to themselves and
others and they may plan their future
individual maintains a balance between his
projects as if they have many years of life
needs and circumstances that influence the before them. Such a denial of fact rids the
satisfaction of these needs. Defense individual of the agony of thinking about
mechanisms are adjustment mechanisms his impending death. A defense mechanism
Freud, in 1904, used the term defense is an unconscious psychological
mechanism to refer to the unconscious mechanism that reduces anxiety arising
process that defends a person against from unacceptable harmful stimuli.
Defense mechanisms, in psychoanalytical
anxiety. When the primitive Id drives are
theory, any of a group of mental processes
in serious conflict with the controls that enables the mind to reach compromise
imposed by the Ego or the Superego, the solutions to conflicts that it is unable to
individual suffers from tension and resolve.
anxiety. This uncomfortable situation is
Mental mechanisms are a means of
reflected in the individual’s behavior.
compromising with forbidden desires,
Some methods of developing a
feelings of guilt or an admission that one
compromise and relieving the tension and
is inadequate in facing certain problems.
anxiety is needed. The human being is
They salvage the individual’s self-respect,
usually able to relieve the conflict by
avoid an open admission of failure and
utilizing certain protective forms of
save psychic energy. With the exception of
adaptation which are called ego defense
sublimation, all defense mechanisms
mechanisms, adjustment mechanisms or
indicate an inner conflict.
mental dynamisms. The different kinds of
habits that people acquire to satisfy their 1. Sigmund Freud (1894, 1896) noted a
motives are called adjustment mechanisms. number of ego defenses which he refers
The good adjustment is one which fully to throughout his written works. His
and directly satisfies a person’s motives daughter Anna Freud (1936) developed
and forms an integrated system. these ideas and elaborated on them,
adding ten of her own. Many
Defense mechanisms enable a person to psychoanalysts have also added further
resolve the conflict and reduce the stress types of ego defenses.
and anxiety associated with it. Of course, 2. Defense mechanism are psychological
many of these strategies are self-deceptive mechanism aimed at reducing anxiety.
in nature. When more adaptive measures Adjustment is the process by which an
to resolve conflicts are not available to the individual maintains a balance between
individual, these mechanisms help him to his needs and circumstances that
live comfortably without having to face influence the satisfaction of these needs.
very difficult problems. For instance,
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Defense mechanisms are adjustment Summary of Definitions of Defense
mechanism. Mechanism:
Mechanisms Definition
3. Freud, in 1904, used the term defense 1. Repression Unconsciously
mechanism to refer to the unconscious forgetting unpleasant
process that defends a person against experiences
anxiety. When the primitive id drives 2. Reaction Strongly expressing the
formation reverse of
are in serious conflict with the controls
what one feels
imposed by the Ego or the Superego, the 3. Projection Pretending that others
individual suffers from tension and have your own
anxiety. This uncomfortable situation is failings
reflected in the individual’s behavior. 4. Rationalization Making excuses giving
Some methods of developing a a reason
compromise and relieving the tension different from the real
and anxiety is needed. The human being one for what we are
is usually able to relieve the conflict by doing
5. Intellectualization Distancing oneself
utilizing certain protective forms of from emotional
adaptation which are called ego defense situations by abstract
mechanisms, adjustment mechanisms or talking and thinking
mental dynamisms. 6. Displacement Discharging pent up
feelings on
4. The different kinds of habits that people persons less dangerous
acquire to satisfy their motives are than those who initially
called ―adjustment mechanism. aroused the emotion.
7. Regression Acting immaturely
8. Sublimation Directing unacceptable
The good adjustment is one which fully and desire into
directly satisfy a person’s motives and socially acceptable
forms an integrated system. For example: behavior
The women who Denis a lump in her breast 9. Identification Finding satisfaction
and avoids seeing a physician may be putting through what
her life in jeopardy. another person does
10. Compensation Working hard to make
Types of Defense mechanisms: up for a
weakness or deficiency
Defense mechanisms can be divided into
11. Denial Refusing to believe that
successful and unsuccessful mechanisms as something
given below: unpleasant exists
Successful Unsuccessful 12. Fantasy Withdrawal to a make
Repression Suppression belief world
Rationalization Reaction formation when faced with real
Intellectualization Displacement problems
Compensation Denial 13. Withdrawal Avoiding all close
Substitution Isolation interpersonal
Sublimation Projection relationships
Regression 14. Conversion An emotional conflict
Conversion is expressed by
Fixation a physical illness or a
Fantasy physical symptom
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without any organic Importance of Defense Mechanisms:
cause  Moderate and intellectual use of
15. Suppression Intentional pushing mental mechanisms, provides a
away from awareness temporary relief to stress and
of certain unwelcome
ideas, memories and
contributes for a healthy living.
feelings  Overuse and abuse of ego defense
mechanisms give rise to
psychological disorders.
Characteristics of Defense Mechanism:  Patient who must deal with the stress
a. They protect persons from anxiety. of serious illness may shift the blame
b. They protect persons from insult by for their condition onto the physio
boosting self-esteem or through self- (projection). They may complain of
enhancement. poor physio care to a physio who is

c. Defense mechanisms are not used actually very skillful. Physio should
deliberately; they are unconscious or not show anger and retaliate but
partly so. should encourage the patients to
d. Defense mechanisms operate by: explore the realistic aspects of their
I. Masking or disguising our true situation.
motives.
II. Denying the existence of impulses, Some examples of defenses mechanisms:
actions or memories within ourselves There are a large number of defense
that might provoke anxiety to us. mechanisms; the main ones are summarized
below.
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abuse, as the aggressor may begin to
Description of Ego defense mechanism: feel an emotional connection with the
The defense mechanism forms a portion of victim which leads to feelings of
the ego that operates unconsciously in this empathy.
way, the conscious part of the ego is Example of identification with the
shielded from threatening perceptions, aggressor: Identification with the
feelings & impulses. A defense mechanism aggressor is a version of introjection
is an unconscious psychological mechanism that focuses on the adoption, not of
that reduces anxiety arising from general or positive traits, but of
unacceptable or potentially harmful stimuli. negative or feared traits. If you are
afraid of someone, you can partially
1. The behaviour-channeling defense conquer that fear by becoming more
mechanism. like them. An extreme example of this
2. The primary reality-distorting is the Stockholm Syndrome, where
mechanism. hostages establish an emotional bond
3. The secondary reality-distorting with their captor(s) and take on their
mechanism. behaviors. Patty Hearst was abused by
4. Other defense mechanism. her captors, yet she joined their
Symbionese Liberation Army and
1. The behaviour-channeling defense even took part in one of their bank
mechanism: robberies. At her trial, she was
The mechanism is direct behaviour in ways acquitted because she was a victim
that protect the person from conflict, anxiety suffering from Stockholm Syndrome.
or harm. The components of behaviour- ii. Displacement:
channeling defense mechanism are— Displacement direct, aggressive
a) Identification behaviour away from someone or
b) Displacement something that has around anger
c) Sublimation toward someone against whom it is
d) Introjection both safe and normally
e) Regression acceptable to aggress.
Displacement is the redirection of an
i. Identification: impulse (usually aggression) onto a
Identification is first used in powerless substitute target. The target
resolving the oedipal; conflict people can be a person or an object that can
who are anxious about their serve as a symbolic substitute.
behaviour & identification resolve Displacement occurs when the Id
their conflict by identifying another wants to do something of which the
person. Identification with the Super ego does not permit. The Ego
aggressor is a defense mechanism thus finds some other way of releasing
proposed by Sandor Ferenczi and the psychic energy of the Id. Thus
later developed by Anna Freud. It there is a transfer of energy from a
involves the victim adopting the repressed object-cathexis to a more
behavior of a person who is more acceptable object. Turning against the
powerful and hostile towards them. self is a very special form of
By internalizing the behavior of the displacement, where the person
aggressor the 'victim' hopes to avoid becomes their own substitute target. It
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is normally used in reference to later lead to seeking oral pleasure as
hatred, anger, and aggression, rather an adult through sucking one's thumb,
than more positive impulses, and it is pen or cigarette. Also, fixation during
the Freudian explanation for many of the anal stage may cause a person to
our feelings of inferiority, guilt, and sublimate their desire to handle feces
depression. The idea that depression with an enjoyment of pottery.
is often the result of the anger we iv. Introjection:
refuse to acknowledge is accepted by Introjection, sometimes called
many people, Freudians and non- identification, involves taking into
Freudians alike. your own personality characteristics
Example of displacement: Someone of someone else, because doing so
who feels uncomfortable with their solves some emotional difficulty. For
sexual desire for a real person may Introjection is very important to
substitute a fetish. Someone who is Freudian theory as the mechanism by
frustrated by his or her superiors may which we develop our superegos.
go home and kick the dog, beat up a Example of introjection: A child who
family member, or engage in cross- is left alone frequently, may in some
burnings. way try to become "mom" in order to
iii. Sublimation: lessen his or her fears. You can
Sublimation is defense mechanism sometimes catch them telling their
expressing drives for pleasure by dolls or animals not to be afraid. And
aggressing in socially acceptable we find the older child or teenager
ways. Sublimation is similar to imitating his or her favorite star,
displacement, but takes place when musician, or sports hero in an effort to
we manage to displace our establish an identity.
unacceptable emotions into behaviors v. Regression:
which are constructive and socially Regression is a defense mechanism
acceptable, rather than destructive proposed by Anna Freud whereby the
activities. Sublimation is one of Anna ego reverts to an earlier stage of
Freud's original defense mechanisms. development usually in response to
Sublimation for Freud was the stressful situations. Regression
cornerstone of civilized life, as arts functions as form of retreat, enabling
and science are all sublimated a person to psychologically go back in
sexuality. (NB. this is a value-laden time to a period when the person felt
concept, based on the aspirations of a safer.
European society at the end of the Example of regression: When we are
1800 century). troubled or frightened, our behaviors
Example of sublimation: Many great often become more childish or
artists and musicians have had primitive. A child may begin to suck
unhappy lives and have used the their thumb again or wet the bed when
medium of art of music to express they need to spend some time in the
themselves. Sport is another example hospital. Teenagers may giggle
of putting our emotions (e.g., uncontrollably when introduced into a
aggression) into something social situation involving the opposite
constructive. For example, fixation at sex.
the oral stage of development may
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2. Primary reality-distorting defense: refusing to perceive it or by denying that
One of the most basic ways the ego it exists. As you might imagine, this is a
protect itself from feelings or perceptions primitive and dangerous defense - no one
that because anxiety is simply not to feel disregards reality and gets away with it
or perceive them. The two defense for long! It can operate by itself or, more
mechanism that protect the ego by commonly, in combination with other,
repression and denial. They are called subtler mechanisms that support it.
primary reality – distorting defense Example of denial: Many people use
mechanism. denial in their everyday lives to avoid
dealing with painful feelings or areas of
i. Repression: their life they don’t wish to admit. For
Repression entire blocking from example, a husband may refuse to
awareness sexual felling or impulses, recognise obvious signs of his wife’s
from the super ego. Repression is an infidelity. A student may refuse to
unconscious defense mechanism recognise their obvious lack of
employed by the ego to keep disturbing preparedness for an exam.
or threatening thoughts from becoming
conscious. Repression, which Anna 3. Secondary reality-distorting defense:
Freud also called "motivated forgetting," The three components of secondary reality
is just that: not being able to recall a distorting mechanism are-
threatening situation, person, or event. i. Projection
Thoughts that are often repressed are ii. Reaction information
those that would result in feelings of guilt iii. Rationalization
from the superego. This is not a very
successful defense in the long term since i. Projection:
it involves forcing disturbing wishes, Projection involves perceiving personal
ideas or memories into the unconscious, characteristics in other people that
where, although hidden, they will create cannot admit in himself. Projection is a
anxiety. Repressed memories may appear psychological defense mechanism
through subconscious means and in proposed by Anna Freud in which an
altered forms, such as dreams or slips of individual attributes unwanted thoughts,
the tongue ('Freudian slips'). For feelings and motives onto another person.
example, in the Oedipus complex, Projection, which Anna Freud also called
aggressive thoughts about the same sex displacement outward, is almost the
parents are repressed and pushed down complete opposite of turning against the
into the unconscious. self. It involves the tendency to see your
ii. Denial: own unacceptable desires in other people.
Denial is the defense mechanism used to In other words, the desires are still there,
keep threatening perceptions of the but they're not your desires anymore.
external world rather than internal drives Example of projection: Thoughts most
and feelings. Denial is a defense commonly projected onto another are the
mechanism proposed by Anna Freud ones that would cause guilt such as
which involves a refusal to accept reality, aggressive and sexual fantasies or
thus blocking external events from thoughts. For instance, you might hate
awareness. If a situation is just too much someone, but your superego tells you that
to handle, the person may respond by such hatred is unacceptable. You can
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'solve' the problem by believing that they iii. Rationalization:
hate you. Another example: A man might Rationalization is a very common
repress his own sexual feeling towards defense mechanism. If involves
his brothers, wife & project those feeling generating a socially acceptable
into her. explanation fort behaviour that may be
caused by unacceptable drives.
ii. Reaction information: Rationalization is a defense mechanism
Reaction information is consciously proposed by Anna Freud involving a
feeling or acting the strong opposite of cognitive distortion of "the facts" to make
one’s true feelings are threatening. an event or an impulse less threatening.
Reaction formation, which Anna Freud We do it often enough on a fairly
called "believing the opposite," is a conscious level when we provide
psychological defense mechanism in ourselves with excuses. But for many
which a person goes beyond denial and people, with sensitive egos, making
behaves in the opposite way to which he excuses comes so easy that they never are
or she thinks or feels. Conscious truly aware of it. In other words, many
behaviors are adopted to overcompensate of us are quite prepared to believe our
for the anxiety a person feels regarding lies.
their socially unacceptable unconscious Example of rationalization: When a
thoughts or emotions. Usually, a reaction person finds a situation difficult to
formation is marked by exaggerated accept, they will make up a logical reason
behavior, such as showiness and why it has happened. For example, a
compulsiveness. By using the reaction person may explain a natural disaster as
formation, the id is satisfied while 'God's will'. Another example: A person
keeping the ego in ignorance of the true may rationalization aggression by saying
motives. Therapists often observe that another person deserved to be
reaction formation in patients who claim punished or harmed.
to strongly believe in something and
become angry at everyone who disagrees. 4. Other Defense Mechanism:
Example of reaction formation: Freud Emotional insulation:
claimed that men who are prejudice A defense mechanism characterized by
against homosexuals are making a seeming indifference and detachment in
defense against their own homosexual response to frustrating situations or
feelings by adopting a harsh anti- disappointing events. The extreme of
homosexual attitude which helps emotional insulation is found in states of
convince them of their heterosexuality. complete apathy and catatonic stupor; in
Another example of reaction formation lesser forms, it appears as emotional
includes the dutiful daughter who loves isolation.
her mother is reacting to her Oedipus For example: Avoiding the experience of an
hatred of her mother. Another example: emotion associated with a person, idea, or
A girl who hates her father may repress situation. This defense mechanism may be
those feeling and consciously present in someone who describes the day
experience, strong feelings of affection their house burnt down in a factual way
for him unsteady. without displaying any emotion.
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Undoing: Depersonalization:
Undoing is a defense mechanism in which a Depersonalization appears as a kind of
person tries to cancel out or remove an “airbag” built-in the human psychological
unhealthy, destructive or otherwise structure to be employed in the threatening
threatening thought or action by engaging in situations of stress, panic or trauma.
contrary behavior. Depersonalization is a very complex defense
For example, after thinking about being system that requires a high level of mental
violent with someone, one would then be organization.
overly nice or accommodating to them.

Question:
1. Short note: Ego defense Mechanism. (Jul-09, Mar-10, 14, 2015)
2. Describe the ego defense mechanism. (Jul-11, Mar-2012)

Reference:
1. Freud A: The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence. 1937, London: Hogarth Press and
Institute of Psycho-Analysis.
2. Perry JC, Hoglend P, Shear K, Vaillant GE, Horowitz M, Kardos ME, Bille H, Kagan D:
Field trial of a diagnostic axis for defense mechanisms for DSM-IV. J Personality Disorders.
1998, 12: 56-68.
3. Flannery RB: Towards stress resistant persons: a stress management approach to the
treatment of anxiety. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 1987, 3: 25-30.
4. Andrews G: Defense style questionnaire. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1993, 181 (4): 246-56.
10.1097/00005053-199304000-00006.
5. Jacobsen AM, Beardslee W, Hauser ST, Noam GG, Powers SI, Houlihan J, Rider E:
Evaluating ego defense mechanisms using clinical interviews: an empirical study of
adolescent diabetic and psychiatric patients. J Adolesc. 1986, 9: 303-319. 10.1016/S0140-
1971(86)80038-0.
10 defense mechanisms and how to overcome them _ Tony Robbins.
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Part-2
Health Psychology
Chapter- 19
Psychological reaction of patient
During admission to hospital: spend quality time with loved ones, read
Hospitalization negatively affects patients' good books, get into creative hobbies and try
abilities to cope and adjust. Hospitalization to stay productive to ward of those
demonstrably exacerbates patients' emotions unnecessary thoughts about visiting doctors.
and increases feelings of depression and
anxiety. Understanding these factors may Shock:
help to support patients throughout their In medical terms, shock is the body's
hospital stays. Among situational factors, response to a sudden drop in blood pressure.
poor or lack of communication with hospital At first, the body responds to this life-
personnel and health care providers, as well threatening situation by constricting
as loss of autonomy and control, are (narrowing) blood vessels in the extremities
considered some of the most stressful (hands and feet). This is called
aspects of hospitalization that could lead vasoconstriction and it helps conserve blood
individuals to experience anxiety (Volcier, flow to the vital organs. A major symptom
1974). of psychological shock is when a person
Treatment anxiety refers to the anxious feels a surge of adrenaline. He may feel
response and unusual preoccupation about physically sick and find it hard to think
noxious consequences (real or not) that can straight. The chest might feel tight, and may
result from visiting hospitals or from experience a disconnection from what is
undergoing medical procedures in a hospital. actually happening- like watching a movie of
Depression and anxiety are common in events, compared to actually being there.
hospitalized patients especially those The person might feel numb, or cry, or rage.
waiting for surgery and with chronic or hard- He might just sit there, emotionally unable to
to-treat conditions. Anxiety can trigger move. He might dissociate, and feel like
flight-or-fight stress response and release a nothing around him is real, or that it's
flood of chemicals and hormones, like actually happening to someone else. Here
adrenaline, into the system. In the short term, are some things you should try and do after
this increases pulse and breathing rate, so experiencing a traumatic event:
brain can get more oxygen. This prepares a A. Give yourself time.
person to respond appropriately to an intense B. Talk about the event.
situation. Psychological disorders are not C. Speak to others that have experienced the
only related to a poor adjustment to same thing as you.
hospitalization distress, but is associated D. Ask for support.
with adverse events and unsatisfactory E. Avoid spending lots of time alone.
outcomes. To get over hospital anxiety by F. Stick to your routine.
trying to meditation or breathing exercises as G. Consider seeking professional help.
it alleviates worries instantly. Eat healthy, H. Notice how you're feeling.
 227
psychologists ask and answer important
Denial: question about numerous topics such as
Denial is a natural psychological coping behavior, how the mind functions,
mechanism, and it's completely normal, personality, the causes of prejudice,
especially in times of great stress or trauma. psychological responses to terrorism, how to
While denial gets a bad rap, it can actually teach a child to cope with loss and
be helpful in small doses, as it serves to everything in between. Inquisitive.
protect us in the initial stages of shock after adjective. asking a lot of questions about
overwhelming trauma, loss, or fear. For things, especially things that people do not
example; If you are in denial, it often means want to talk about. Interrogation techniques
that you are struggling to accept something are frequently predicated on inducing mental
that seems overwhelming or stressful. states of despair, dread, dependency, and
However, in the short term, this defense debility that weaken an individual's
mechanism can have a useful purpose. It can resistance.
allow you to have time to adjust to a sudden
change in your reality. Loneliness:
People describe thoughts and feelings of
Suspicion: loneliness with words like anxiety, fear,
Suspicion is a cognition of mistrust in which shame and helplessness. These powerful
a person doubts the honesty of another emotions can influence how we act. They
person or believes another person to be can create a downward spiral where
guilty of some type of wrongdoing or crime, loneliness causes someone to withdraw
but without sure proof. Suspicion can also be further from family and friends and so
aroused in response to objects that become lonelier. Feeling lonely can also
negatively differ from an expected idea. have a negative impact on your mental
Suspicion aroused by a specific source health, especially if these feelings have
inhibited the systematic processing of the lasted a long time. Some research suggests
message, overwhelming individual that loneliness is associated with an
differences in need for cognition. Suspicion increased risk of certain mental health
as a receptors' stable disposition had the problems, including depression, anxiety, low
opposite effect. Highly suspicious receptors self-esteem, sleep problems and increased
engaged in a more systematic processing of stress. “When you're experiencing
arguments. Practice relaxation to reduce loneliness, your levels of cortisol, a stress
stress which can be a major contributor to hormone, go up.” “Cortisol can impair
paranoid thoughts and feelings, which is cognitive performance, compromise the
why it is important to destress. If you're immune system, and increase your risk for
starting to become suspicious, take a vascular problems, inflammation and heart
moment and practice relaxation. When you disease.”
feel paranoid or suspicious, your body can
respond in an alert manner similar to fear. Regression:
Like children, adults sometimes regress,
Questioning: often as a temporary response to a traumatic
Questions help build rapport and trust. They or anxiety-provoking situation. For example,
show people you're listening to them and that a person stuck in traffic may experience road
you're genuinely interested in what they rage, the kind of tantrum they'd never have
have to say. Truthfully, though, in their everyday life but helps them cope
 228
with the stress of driving. Age regression received from others, especially during your
may be the result of a medical or psychiatric childhood. Here are the four different areas
issue. For example, some individuals of shame, according to Burgo:
experiencing significant distress or pain may 1. Unrequited love. Burgo describes this as
revert to childlike behavior as a means to the “fundamental, most basic shame
cope with anxiety or fear. Certain mental situation.”
health issues make age regression more 2. Exclusion.
likely. According to Sigmund Freud,1 3. Unwanted exposure.
regression is an unconscious defense 4. Disappointed expectation.
mechanism, which causes the temporary or
long-term reversion of the ego to an earlier Guilt:
stage of development (instead of handling Guilt is described as a self-conscious
unacceptable impulses in a more adult emotion that involves negative evaluations
manner). of the self, feelings of distress, and feelings
of failure. When one causes harm to another,
Shame: guilt is a natural emotional response. Guilt is
We feel shame when we violate the social self-focused but also highly socially
norms we believe in. At such moments we relevant: It's thought to serve important
feel humiliated, exposed and small and are interpersonal functions by, for example,
unable to look another person straight in the encouraging the repair of valuable
eye. We want to sink into the ground and relationships and discouraging acts that
disappear. Shame makes us direct our focus could damage them. The feeling of guilt is
inward and view our entire self in a negative unique from feeling sad or upset- guilt often
light. People who live with shame often feel combines feelings of shame, anxiety,
worthless, depressed, and anxious. Shame frustration, and humiliation. These emotions
can be a contributing factor in depression, can well up inside and build over time, most
anxiety, and low self-esteem. People who are especially if we never admit to ourselves that
constantly ashamed live out a difficult we were at fault. A guilt complex can also
emotional and mental battle each and every lead to feelings of anxiety, depression, and
day. Shame brings with it a subjective sense stress including difficulty sleeping, loss of
of time slowing down which serves to interest, fatigue, difficulty concentrating,
magnify anything that occurs during a state and social withdrawal. A guilt complex can
of shame. It also is accompanied by have a serious impact on a person's overall
intensified feedback from all perceptual well-being. Guilt and shame can lead to
modalities, particularly autonomic reactions depression, anxiety, and paranoia, but they
such as blushing, sweating, and increased also nudge us to behave better, says Sznycer.
heart rate. Shame is an unpleasant self- “When we act in a way we are not proud of;
conscious emotion often associated with the brain broadcasts a signal that prompts us
negative self-evaluation; motivation to quit; to alter our conduct.” There are three basic
and feelings of pain, exposure, distrust, kinds of guilt: (1) natural guilt, or remorse
powerlessness, and worthlessness. Shame over something you did or failed to do; (2)
typically comes up when you look inward free-floating, or toxic, guilt—the underlying
with a critical eye and evaluate yourself sense of not being a good person; and (3)
harshly, often for things you have little existential guilt, the negative feeling that
control over. This negative self-evaluation arises out of the injustice you perceive in the
often has its roots in messages you've world, and out of your own.
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adrenaline are released. Thus blood pressure
Rejection: and heart rate increase which causes eyes to
In the field of mental health care, rejection dilate. Fight, flight, freeze, and fawn are how
most frequently refers to the feelings of our brain keeps us safe in potentially
shame, sadness, or grief people feel when dangerous situations. Understanding the
they are not accepted by others. A person mechanisms behind these responses can help
might feel rejected after a significant other us be aware of and regulate our emotions in
ends a relationship. Social rejection an appropriate and healthy way. While
increases anger, anxiety, depression, people often think of fear as an emotional
jealousy and sadness. It reduces performance response, physical responses are also
on difficult intellectual tasks, and can also involved. During a frightening or stressful
contribute to aggression and poor impulse situation, people experience the “fight or
control. Rejections also damage our mood flight” response. The adrenal gland produces
and our self-esteem, they elicit swells of the hormones adrenaline and cortisol and
anger and aggression, and they destabilize triggers a chain reaction of physical
our need to “belong.” Unfortunately, the responses.
greatest damage rejection causes is usually Strategies to Overcome Fear and Anxiety:
self-inflicted. Step 1: Learn More About Your Fear.
Stages of rejection: Step 2: Use your Imagination in Positive
1. Denial. Ways.
2. Anger. Step 3: Use Your Brain in a Different Way
3. Bargaining. than Usual.
4. Depression. Step 4: Focus on Your Breathing.
5. Acceptance. Step 5: Practice Mindfulness.
Management of rejection: Step 6: Use Nature as Your Therapist.
1. Acknowledge the pain and grieve the
loss. Rejection is the loss of something or Withdrawal:
someone you had or hoped to have. Withdrawal is the combination of physical
2. Don't blame yourself. It's natural to want and mental effects a person experiences after
to know why you were rejected. they stop using or reduce their intake of a
3. Strengthen your resiliency. substance such as alcohol and prescription or
4. Keep putting yourself out there. recreational drugs.
Psychological Withdrawal:
Fear: 1. Extreme irritability, weepiness,
Fear can be defined as the restlessness, and anxiety.
neurophysiological processes that prepare an 2. Depression.
organism to perform innate or learned 3. Difficulty concentrating or engaging in
responses to cope with danger. In general, everyday tasks.
our understanding of the physiology of fear 4. Grieving the loss of the addiction.
is based on models of fear learning including 5. Feelings of being unfulfilled.
fear conditioning, extinction, and fear- 6. Extreme difficulty avoiding the
potentiated startle. As soon as you recognize addiction.
fear, amygdala (small organ in the middle of These symptoms include depression,
the brain) goes to work. It alerts nervous anxiety, reduced motivation, difficulties
system, which sets body's fear response into experiencing pleasure, apathy, and even
motion. Stress hormones like cortisol and more serious symptoms, such as the
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development of hallucinations and their own. For example, if a child wants very
delusions. Withdrawal may be viewed as a much for something to happen, and it does,
psychological defense mechanism it is a the child believes he or she caused it to
psychoanalytic term and refers to the happen. If your daughter is mad at her
tendency to escape from or avoid situations brother and wants him to leave, and he then
that may be experienced as emotionally or gets sick and goes to the hospital, your
psychologically challenging. daughter may think her brother's illness is
her fault.
Depression:
Depression often involves persistent sad, Concern about small matters:
anxious, or empty mood; feelings of Occasional anxiety is a normal part of life.
hopelessness or pessimism; and feelings of Many people may worry about things such
guilt, worthlessness, or helplessness. It can as health, money, or family problems. But
also involve loss of interest or pleasure in people with Generalized Anxiety Disorder
hobbies and activities that were once (GAD) feel extremely worried or nervous
enjoyed, including sex. Research suggests more frequently about these and other
that depression doesn't spring from simply things- even when there is little or no reason
having too much or too little of certain brain to worry about them. GAD can make daily
chemicals. Rather, there are many possible life feel like a constant state of worry, fear,
causes of depression, including faulty mood and dread. GAD usually involves a
regulation by the brain, genetic persistent feeling of anxiety or dread that
vulnerability, and stressful life events. interferes with how you live your life. It is
Behaviour of a person who suffers from not the same as occasionally worrying about
depression includes; Feelings of sadness, things or experiencing anxiety due to
tearfulness, emptiness or hopelessness. stressful life events. People living with GAD
Angry outbursts, irritability or frustration, experience frequent anxiety for months, if
even over small matters. Loss of interest or not years. GAD develops slowly. It often
pleasure in most or all normal activities, such starts around age 30, although it can occur in
as sex, hobbies or sports. Sleep disturbances, childhood. The disorder is more common in
including insomnia or sleeping too much. women than in men. People with GAD may:
The effects of chronic, or long-term, stress  Worry excessively about everyday
can be harmful on their own, but they also things
can contribute to depression, a mood  Have trouble controlling their worries
disorder that makes you feel sad and or feelings of nervousness
disinterested in things you usually enjoy.  Know that they worry much more
Depression can affect your appetite, your than they should
sleep habits, and your ability to concentrate.  Feel restless and have trouble relaxing
 Have a hard time concentrating
Egocentricity:  Startle easily
Egocentrism refers to someone's inability to
 Have trouble falling asleep or staying
understand that another person's view or
asleep
opinion may be different than their own. It
 Tire easily or feel tired all the time
represents a cognitive bias, in that someone
 Have headaches, muscle aches,
would assume that others share the same
stomachaches, or unexplained pains
perspective as they do, unable to imagine
that other people would have a perception of  Have a hard time swallowing
 Tremble or twitch
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 Feel irritable or "on edge" degrees, and in addition they are interested
 Sweat a lot, feel lightheaded, or feel in other people and their doings.
out of breath
 Have to go to the bathroom frequently Emotional over reaction:
When we feel stressed, angry, or hurt, we
Children and teens with GAD often worry tend to react impulsively. We are in a state
excessively about: of fight-or-flight and tend to react
 Their performance in activities such emotionally, that is, to overreact. That
as school or sports overreaction is emotional reactivity. In that
 Catastrophes, such as earthquakes or moment, our perceptions of the situation are
war altered. Over-reactivity can cause problems
 The health of others, such as family with “giving up too easily,” can have a
members negative impact of family and friend
relationships and lack of sleep, going too
Adults with GAD are often highly nervous long without food or water, lack of
about everyday circumstances, such as: recreation and play can leave your mind and
 Job security or performance body vulnerable to exaggerated responses.
For many of us (myself included), it's easy to
 Health
let our own basic self-care take a back seat
 Finances
to the noble cause of taking care of others.
 The health and well-being of their Here are a few practical action strategies to
children or other family members help you stop overreacting:
 Being late 1. The art of not reacting.
 Completing household chores and 2. Let out your emotions.
other responsibilities 3. Take time out.
Both children and adults with GAD may 4. Write it down.
experience physical symptoms such as pain, 5. Practice relaxation techniques.
fatigue, or shortness of breath that make it 6. Avoid judging.
hard to function and that interfere with daily 7. Don't sweat the small stuff- but take care
life. Symptoms may fluctuate over time and of them!
are often worse during times of stress, for
example- with a physical illness, during Perpetual change:
school exams, or during a family or Perpetual means never ending or changing,
relationship conflict. The good news is GAD meaning occurring again and again;
is treatable. Frequent as it seems endless and
uninterrupted. Perpetual change requires a
Narrow interests: new way of thinking about and managing
Narrow interests are those that fewer people change. For example, to treat OCD we need
hold, but they often do so very strongly; for to focus on slowly changing his daily routine
example, all teachers have an interest in that they are doing compulsively.
higher pay for educators. Interest is a
positive emotion that may either broaden Confusion:
attention to facilitate processing of new A mental disturbance characterized by
information, or narrow attention to preserve bewilderment, inability to think clearly or
engagement with new information. Most act decisively, and disorientation for time,
commonly, people are interested in a variety place, and person. Difficulty in
of things at the same time, but to varying
 232
understanding or in being able to tell one person, respectively. Personal orientation is
thing from a similar thing; a feeling or state rapidly restored after most types of brain
of uncertainty. There are several things that damage. Confusion is a symptom that makes
can cause confused thinking, including a you feel as if you can't think clearly. You
head injury, infection, a reaction to might feel disoriented and have a hard time
medication, and of course things like focusing or making decisions. Confusion is
recreational drugs, alcohol abuse, or not also referred to as disorientation. In its
sleeping for several days. Frequently, extreme state, it's referred to as delirium.
confusion leads to the loss of ability to
recognize people and or places, or tell time Hallucinations:
and the date. Feelings of disorientation are Hallucination, the experience of perceiving
common in confusion, and decision-making objects or events that do not have an external
ability is impaired. Confusion may arise source, such as hearing one's name called by
suddenly or develop gradually over time. a voice that no one else seems to hear. A
When someone do not understand a difficult hallucination is distinguished from an
problem, this is an example of a situation illusion, which is a misinterpretation of an
where he feels confusion. When people are actual stimulus. Hallucinations refer to the
running around in a disorganized fashion experience of hearing, seeing or smelling
with no idea of what they are supposed to be things that are not there. Often, these can be
doing, this is an example of confusion. A as intense and as real as sensory perceptions.
confusing or being confused; State of There are different types of hallucinations.
disorder. Hearing voices speaking when there is no-
Here is what you can do to overcome your one there is known as an auditory
confusion and find the joy: hallucination. There are many different
1. Accept where you are. Accept the fog, causes. It could be a mental illness called
accept the confusion and accept the schizophrenia, a nervous system problem
feelings of “stuckness.” Sometimes you like Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, or of a
get stuck because you are meant to be number of other things. A person
stuck. experiencing hallucinations may be very
2. Take a deep breath. frightened by them and needs help in
3. Focus on what you know. establishing a calm environment. Do not
4. Be patient. invade personal space or touch them without
permission. Speak slowly, calmly and
Disorientation: quietly, using simple concrete language. Be
Disorientation is an altered mental state. A patient – it may take the person longer to
person who's disoriented may not know their process information.
location and identity, or the time and date.
It's often accompanied with other symptoms Delusion:
such as: confusion, or being unable to think A delusion is a belief that is clearly false and
with your normal level of clarity. delirium, that indicates an abnormality in the affected
or being confused and having disrupted person's content of thought. The false belief
attention. Disorientation describes the is not accounted for by the person's cultural
inability to correctly acknowledge the or religious background or his or her level of
current time, place, one's role, and personal intelligence. Individuals with persecutory
identity. These dimensions are called delusions believe they are being spied on,
orientation to time, space, situation, and drugged, followed, slandered, cheated on, or
 233
somehow mistreated. An example might back of your head, this is the part of your
include someone who believes their boss is brain that directly processes the information
drugging the employees by adding a coming from your eyes. This can lead to four
substance to the water cooler that makes types of cognitive illusions: ambiguous
people work harder. An imbalance of certain illusions, distorting/geometrical-optical
chemicals in the brain, called illusions, paradox illusions, or fictions.
neurotransmitters, has been linked to the How to Step Out of the Illusions:
formation of delusional symptoms. 1. Meditate.
Environmental and psychological factors: 2. Make a list of all the limiting beliefs you
Evidence suggests that delusional disorder hold on to, which prevent you from living
can be triggered by stress. life in fullness.
Types of Delusions in Delusional Disorders: 3. Become the witness periodically
1. Erotomanic: The person believes throughout the day; observe your
someone is in love with them and might thoughts, your emotions, and your
try to contact that person. ... actions.
2. Grandiose: This person has an over- 4. Observe your breath.
inflated sense of worth, power,
knowledge, or identity. ... Anger:
3. Jealous: A person with this type believes Anger is a negative feeling state that is
their spouse or sexual partner is typically associated with hostile thoughts,
unfaithful. physiological arousal and maladaptive
4. Persecutory delusion. ... behaviors. It usually develops in response to
5. Somatic delusional disorder. ... the unwanted actions of another person who
6. Induced delusional disorder or folie a' is perceived to be disrespectful, demeaning,
deux. threatening or neglectful. Anger triggers the
body's 'fight or flight' response. Other
Illusion: emotions that trigger this response include
The psychological concept of illusion is fear, excitement and anxiety. The adrenal
defined as a process involving an interaction glands flood the body with stress hormones,
of logical and empirical considerations. such as adrenaline and cortisol. Anger is an
Common usage suggests that an illusion is a emotion characterized by antagonism
discrepancy between one's awareness and toward someone or something you feel has
some stimulus. A misrepresentation of a deliberately done you wrong. Anger can be a
“real” sensory stimulus- that is, an good thing. It can give you a way to express
interpretation that contradicts objective negative feelings, for example, or motivate
“reality” as defined by general agreement. you to find solutions to problems. But
For example, a child who perceives tree excessive anger can cause problems. As an
branches at night as if they are goblins may emotion, it has the potential to raise blood
be said to be having an illusion. An illusion pressure, cause headaches, or even increase
is a distortion of the senses, which can reveal one's body temperature. Outwardly,
how the mind normally organizes and however, anger can cause someone to raise
interprets sensory stimulation. Although their voice, tremble, clench their jaw, sweat,
illusions distort our perception of reality, or pace.
they are generally shared by most people. The four stages of anger are:
One possibility is that the illusion is 1. The buildup,
generated in the visual cortex. Located at the 2. The spark,
 234
3. The explosion, may say they feel like hitting something or
4. The aftermath. someone. Hostility isolates you from other
people. Many things can trigger anger,
Physiological symptoms of anger: including stress, family problems, and
1. A churning feeling in your stomach. financial issues. For some people, anger is
2. Tightness in your chest. caused by an underlying disorder, such as
3. An increased and rapid heartbeat. alcoholism or depression. Anger itself isn't
4. Legs go weak. considered a disorder, but anger is a known
5. Tense muscles. symptom of several mental health
6. You feel hot. conditions. Hostility is an unfriendly or
7. You have an urge to go to the toilet. warlike feeling. An example of hostility is a
8. Sweating, especially your palms. high school bully locking a classmate in their
The goal of anger management is to reduce locker. An example of hostility is a bomb
both your emotional feelings and the exploding in a crowded marketplace. Force
physiological arousal that anger causes. You yourself to be quiet and listen when other
can't get rid of, or avoid, the things or the people are talking. Distract yourself from the
people that enrage you, nor can you change anger or remove yourself from the situation
them, but you can learn to control your causing hostile feelings. Turn on some music
reactions. Start by considering these anger or pick up a magazine. Go for a walk or a
management tips: drive.
1. Think before you speak.
2. Once your calm, express your concerns. Loss of Hope:
3. Get some exercise. Hopelessness is an emotion characterized by
4. Take a timeout. a lack of hope, optimism, and passion. An
5. Identify possible solutions. individual who feels hopeless may often
6. Stick with 'I' statements. have no expectation of future improvement
7. Don't hold a grudge. or success.
8. Use humor to release tension. Cause feelings of hopelessness:
1. Depression.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): 2. Anxiety.
CBT is often the treatment of choice for 3. Bipolar disorder.
anger management, according to Engle. She 4. Schizophrenia.
says it can help you understand your triggers 5. Alcohol or drug problems.
for anger, develop and practice coping skills, 6. A history of physical emotional, or
and think, feel, and behave differently in sexual abuse, including military sexual
response to anger, so you are calmer and trauma (MST)
more in control. 7. Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
8. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Hostility:
Hostility is a personality or cognitive trait Forms of hopelessness:
characterized by a negative attitude toward 1. Alienation (attachment hopes).
others. It is one of the dimensions of the type 2. Forsakenness (attachment and survival
A personality Hostility is being ready for a hopes).
fight all the time. Hostile people are often 3. Lack of inspiration (attachment and
stubborn, impatient, hotheaded, or have an mastery hopes).
"attitude." They are frequently in fights or 4. Powerlessness (mastery hopes).
 235
5. Oppression (attachment and mastery seek divine help. When you do, your mind
hopes). will be refreshed, your problems will appear
6. Limitedness (mastery and survival lighter, and you will find hope to navigate
hopes). through until you come out of the situation.

To regain the hope, talk to someone, do

something different, look within yourself,
read biographies, relive old memories, or

Reference:
1. Johnston M. Models of disability. Physiotherapy Theory and Practice. 1996 Jan 1;12(3):131-
41.
2. Ambady N, Koo J, Rosenthal R, Winograd CH. Physical therapists' nonverbal
communication predicts geriatric patients' health outcomes. Psychology and aging. 2002
Sep;17(3):443.
3. Soundy A, Smith B, Butler M, Lowe CM, Helen D, Winward CH. A qualitative study in
neurological physiotherapy and hope: beyond physical improvement. Physiotherapy Theory
and Practice. 2010 Jan 1;26(2):79-88.
4. Van Lit A, Kayes N. A narrative review of hope after spinal cord injury: Implications for
physiotherapy. New Zealand Journal of Physiotherapy. 2014 Mar 1;42(1).
5. Silva Guerrero AV, Setchell J, Maujean A, Sterling M. “I’ve learned to look at things in a
different way”: exploring patients’ perspectives on participation in physiotherapist delivered
integrated stress inoculation training and exercise for acute whiplash. Disability and
Rehabilitation. 2022 Aug 28;44(18):5191-8.
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Chapter- 20
Reaction to loss

It's the emotional suffering you feel when example of emotional bereavement after loss.
something or someone you love is taken Sleep disturbances are an example of physical
away. Often, the pain of loss can feel bereavement after loss. Excessive crying is an
overwhelming. You may experience all kinds example of behavioral bereavement after loss.
of difficult and unexpected emotions, from
shock or anger to disbelief, guilt, and Shock:
profound sadness. shock and feelings of Psychological shock is when you experience
unreality and disconnection, particularly in a physical reaction in response to a traumatic
the days after the death. intense sadness, event. It can be from a number of traumatic
which can feel overwhelming. events, like a car accident, going through a
breakup, witnessing something scary, or any
Death: other kind of event that can lead to feelings of
The most frequent immediate response fear. While emotional trauma is a normal
following death, regardless of whether or not response to a disturbing event, it becomes
the loss was anticipated, is shock, numbness, PTSD when your nervous system gets “stuck”
and a sense of disbelief. Subjectively, and you remain in psychological shock,
survivors may feel like they are wrapped in a unable to make sense of what happened or
cocoon or blanket; to others, they may look as process your emotions. Post-traumatic stress
though they are holding up well. Profound disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition
emotional reactions may occur. An obsession that's triggered by a terrifying event- either
with the deceased is also a common reaction experiencing it or witnessing it. Symptoms
to death: may include flashbacks, nightmares and
1. Physically: Headaches, feeling tired, achy severe anxiety, as well as uncontrollable
muscles and nausea. thoughts about the event. After getting any
2. Emotionally: Sadness, anger, disbelief, kind of psychological shock, people might
despair, guilt and loneliness. feel numb, or cry, or rage. The shocked
3. Mentally: Forgetfulness, lack of person might just sit there, emotionally
concentration, confusion and poor unable to move. He / She might dissociate,
memory. and feel like nothing around them is real, or
4. Behaviorally: Changes to sleeping that it's actually happening to someone else.
patterns, dreams or nightmares, or to your In case of emergency immediately take the
appetite. following steps: Lay the person down and
elevate the legs and feet slightly, unless you
Bereavement: think this may cause pain or further injury.
Bereavement is the state of loss when Keep the person still and don't move him or
someone close to an individual has died. The her unless necessary.
death of a loved one is one of the greatest
sorrows that can occur in one's life. People's Disbelief:
responses to grief will vary depending upon Sometimes called willing suspension of
the circumstances of the death, but grief is a disbelief, is the intentional avoidance of
normal, healthy response to loss. Sorrow is an critical thinking or logic in examining
 237
something unreal or impossible in reality, shoplifter who is ordered to repay a store
such as a work of speculative fiction, in order owner for the cost of a stolen item, or an
to believe it for the sake of enjoyment. An assailant who must pay for their victim's
example would be knowing that Superman medical expenses after a violent assault. In
cannot, in reality, fly – and then pretending homicide cases, restitution can even cover
that you don't know that. The storyteller tells funeral costs.
the audience that, in this story, a man can fly.
The audience suspends its disbelief and goes Resolution:
along with that premise. A theatrical The ability to successfully resolve conflict
experience is a unique thing. depends on your ability to: Manage stress
quickly while remaining alert and calm. By
Development of awareness: staying calm, you can accurately read and
It is the ability to directly know and perceive, interpret verbal and nonverbal
to feel, or to be cognizant of events. Another communication. Control your emotions and
definition describes it as a state wherein a behavior. a measure of the ability of the eye
subject is aware of some information when or an optical device or system to detect two
that information is directly available to bring distinct objects when these are close together.
to bear in the direction of a wide range of A system with high resolution can distinguish
behavioral actions. It allows us to understand targets very close to one another as individual
things from multiple perspectives. It frees us entities; a system with low resolution can only
from our assumptions and biases. It helps us distinguish targets that are farther apart.
build better relationships. It gives us a greater Conflict resolution is the process of ending a
ability to regulate our emotions. If someone dispute and reaching an agreement that
want to cultivate or enhance self-awareness, satisfies all parties involved. Since conflict is
here's what mental health experts an essential part of being human, conflict
recommend: resolution is not designed to avoid
1. Be curious about who you are. disagreements. The reduction of discord and
2. Let your walls down. friction between individuals or groups,
3. Look in the mirror- literally. usually through the use of active strategies,
4. Keep a journal and note what triggers such as conciliation, negotiation, and
positive feelings. bargaining. See also constructive conflict
5. Substitute some screen time with people resolution.
time.
6. Ask others how they see you. kubler stages of acceptance:
A Swiss American psychiatrist and pioneer of
Restitution: studies on dying people, Kübler-Ross wrote
The act of restoring or compensating for "On Death and Dying," the 1969 book in
something lost through prior damaging which she proposed the patient-focused,
actions or events. The law of restitution is the death-adjustment pattern, the "Five Stages of
law of gains-based recovery, in which a court Grief." Those stages are denial, anger,
orders the defendant to give up their gains to bargaining, depression and acceptance.
the claimant. It should be contrasted with the
law of compensation, the law of loss-based
recovery, in which a court orders the
defendant to pay the claimant for their loss.
Examples of restitution might include a
 238

Reference:
1. Walker N, Thatcher J, Lavallee D. Psychological responses to injury in competitive sport: a
critical review. The journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health. 2007
Jul;127(4):174-80.
2. Parry RH, Lincoln NB, Vass CD. Effect of severity of arm impairment on response to
additional physiotherapy early after stroke. Clinical Rehabilitation. 1999 Jun;13(3):187-98.
3. Snelgrove S, Liossi C. Living with chronic low back pain: a metasynthesis of qualitative
research. Chronic illness. 2013 Dec;9(4):283-301.
 239
Chapter- 21

Stress
Physiological reaction to the health: disease (CHD) with a focus on health
The ability to maintain health, or recover to behaviours (eg. Diet, exercise, sleep, help
a healthy state after disease, is an active seeking, medication adherence), illness
process involving distinct adaptation beliefs, behaviour change and health
mechanisms coordinating interactions outcomes. Specifically, chronic illness
between all physiological systems of an evokes a threat to the patient's self-esteem;
organism. Physiological responses happen fear of strangers; separation anxiety; fear of
when we perceive that we're under stress or loss of love, and of the control of
danger, whether it's real or imagined. The developmentally achieved functions; fear of
fight or flight response is your body's way of loss of, or injury to body parts; guilt and fear
protecting you by producing stress of retaliation; and fear of pain, which cuts
hormones, cortisol, and adrenaline so that across all of these. Their uncertainty, anxiety
you can be ready to either fight or run. and depression, anger directly and indirectly
expressed, feelings of competence and
Psychological reaction to the health: helplessness, sociability and good feelings
Psychological health is the sum of how we were measured.
think, feel, relate, and exist in our day-to-day
lives. Our thoughts, perceptions, emotions, Psychosomatic:
motivations, interpersonal relationships, and Psychosomatic disorder is a psychological
behaviors are a product of our experiences condition involving the occurrence of
and the skills we have developed to meet physical symptoms, usually lacking a
life's challenges. Reactions can include medical explanation. People with this
changes in behavior, physical well-being, condition may have excessive thoughts,
psychological health, thinking patterns, feelings or concerns about the symptoms-
spiritual beliefs, and social interactions. which affects their ability to function well.
These signs, symptoms, and reactions are Racing heartbeat. Sweaty palms. Shortness
common psychological responses to a crisis of breath. Almost all of us have, at times,
or traumatic event. Some of them experienced these types of psychosomatic
include Anger, moodiness, and irritability. symptoms, often in reaction to stress or
Mental health includes our emotional, anxiety. These can include aches, pains,
psychological, and social well-being. It muscle spasms, and headaches, possibly
affects how we think, feel, and act. It also from unconsciously tensing your muscles for
helps determine how we handle stress, relate extended periods. This is because your body
to others, and make choices. Mental health is secretes a hormone called cortisol when you
important at every stage of life, from are under stress.
childhood and adolescence through
adulthood. Professional stress burnout:
Burnout is a psychological syndrome
Psychological reaction to the sickness: emerging as a prolonged response to chronic
Health psychology is the study of physical interpersonal stressors on the job. The three
illness and addresses problems such as key dimensions of this response are an
obesity, diabetes, cancer, coronary heart overwhelming exhaustion, feelings of
 240
cynicism and detachment from the job, and a Symptoms of burnout:
sense of ineffectiveness and lack of B. Physical signs & symptoms of burnout:
accomplishment. Professional burnout is a a) Feeling tired most of the time.
special type of work-related stress- a state of b) Feeling sick a lot.
physical or emotional exhaustion that also c) Feeling headaches; back pain.
involves a sense of reduced accomplishment d) Change in appetite or sleep habits.
and loss of personal identity. "Burnout" isn't
a medical diagnosis. Maslach (1982) later C. Emotional signs & symptoms of burnout:
defined burnout as a psychological a) Sense of failure.
syndrome involving emotional exhaustion, b) Feeling helpless.
depersonalization, and a diminished sense of c) Feeling detachment.
personal accomplishment that occurred d) Loss of motivation.
among various professionals who work with e) Decrease satisfaction.
other people in challenging situations. Burn
out is a state of emotional, mental & physical D. Behavioral signs &symptoms of burnout:
exhaustion caused by excessive & prolonged a) Using drugs or alcohol.
stress. Burn out reduces one’s productivity b) Taking out frustrations on others.
& gaps one’s energy. It occurs when feel c) Isolating yourself from others.
unable to meet constant demands. Burn out d) Withdrawing from responsibilities.
reduces productivity and sups energy e) Coming in late & leaving early.
leaving feelings.
Burnout are the three R approach:
Causes of burn out:  Recognize: Which for the warning
A. Work related causes of burnout: signs of burnout.
a. Lack of recognition or reward for  Reverse: Undo the damage by
good work. managing stress and seeking support.
b. Overly demanding job expectations.  Resilience: Build resilience to stress by
c. Doing work that’s monotonous. taking care of physical an emotional
d. Working in a high pressure health.
environment.
e. Doing unchallenging work. Prevention of burnout:
a. Withdrawing the day with relaxation.
B. Lifestyle causes of burnout: b. Adopt healthy eating habit, exercising
a. Lack of close & supportive habit & sleeping habit.
relationships. c. Learn how to manage stress.
b. Not getting enough sleep. d. Go on vacations.
c. Taking on too many responsibilities e. Try something new.
without enough help from others. f. Changing work environment.
d. Working too much, without any g. Identifying what factors are stressful
relaxations.
e. Being expected to be too many things Seven tips to help handle burnout:
to too many people. 1. Start with your body. This is cliché, but
take care of yourself.
2. Pinpoint which of six areas are causing
your problems.
3. Look to the future.
 241
4. Try to make a better match. c. Uncertainty: When we are not certain,
5. If improving your current job doesn't we are unable to predict and hence feel
work, make some big decisions. we are not in control and hence may feel
6. Delegate: Delegation is when managers fear or feel threatened by that which is
use their authority to assign causing the uncertainty.
responsibility to others in their d. Cognitive dissonance: When there is a
workplace, such as their direct reports or gap between what we do and we think,
co-workers. Delegating tasks is then we experience cognitive
important because the higher-level dissonance, which is felt as stress.
strategic planning you're responsible for
takes time and energy. 4. Life causes: There are many causes of
7. Diversify your time. stress in life including:
a. Death: of spouse, family, friend.
Stress: b. Death: of spouse, family, and friend.
The word stress is derived from the Latin c. Health: injury, illness, pregnancy.
word- ‘Stringi’ which means ―to be drawn d. Crime: sexual molestation, pick-
tight. Stress can be defined as a disruption of pocketed.
psychological and physiological challenge e. Self-abuse: drug abuse.
threatens our ability to cope adequately. In f. Family change: separation, divorce, new
medical terms stress is described as ―a baby, marriage.
physical or psychological stimulus that can g. Sexual problems: getting partner, with
produce mental tension or physiological partner.
reactions that may lead to illness. h. Argument: with spouse, family, friends,
co-workers, boss.
Causes of Stress: i. New location: Vacation, moving house.
1. Common external causes of stress j. Money: lack of it, owing it, investing it.
a. Major life change k. Environment change: in school, job,
b. Work house, town, jail.
c. Relationship difficulties l. Responsibility increase: mew
d. Financial problems Being too busy dependent, new job.
Children and family
Symptoms of stress:
2. Common internal causes of stress A. Physical symptoms:
a. Inability to accept uncertainty 1. Muscle tension
b. Pessimism (distrust) Negative self-talk 2. Colds or other illnesses
c. Unrealistic expectations 3. High blood pressure
d. Perfectionism 4. Indigestion
e. Lack of assertiveness (boldness) 5. Ulcers
6. Difficulty in sleeping
3. General Causes: 7. Fatigue
a. Threat: A perceived threat will lead a 8. Backaches
person to feel stressed. This can include 9. Being more prone to accidents
physical threats, social threats, and 10. Aches and pains
financial threats and so on. 11. Diarrhea or constipation
b. Fear: Threat can lead to fear, which 12. Increased frequency of urination
again leads to stress. 13. Indigestion
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14. Changes in blood glucose  Increase in or loss of appetite.
15. Nausea, dizziness  Muscle tension in neck, face or
16. Chest pain, rapid heartbeat shoulders.
17. Loss of sex drive irregular periods  Problems sleeping.
 Racing heart.
B. Cognitive symptoms  Cold and sweaty palms.
1. Forgetfulness  Tiredness, exhaustion.
2. Unwanted or repetitive thoughts  Trembling/shaking.
3. Difficulty in concentration  Weight gain or loss.
4. Fear of failure  Upset stomach, diarrhea.
5. Self-criticism  Sexual difficulties.
6. Memory problems
7. Poor judgment Types of stress:
8. Seeing only the negative Eustress:
9. Anxious or racing thoughts Eustress is a type of short term stress that
10. Constant worrying provides immediate strength. Eustress is a
positive stress and that arises when
C. Emotional symptoms motivation and inspiration are needed.
1. Irritability or short temper
2. Depression Distress:
3. Anger Distress is a negative stress brought
4. Fear or anxiety about by constant readjustments or
5. Feeling overwhelmed alterations in routine. Distress creates
6. Mood swings or Moodiness feelings of discomfort and unfamiliarity.
7. Agitation, inability to relax Negative stress which can cause too much
8. Sense of loneliness and isolation pressure and trauma in one’s life;
Overworked, Failing a class.
D. Behavioral Symptoms
1. Eating more or less Acute stress:
2. Sleeping too much or too little Acute stress disorder is an intense,
3. Isolating yourself from others unpleasant, and dysfunctional reaction
4. Procrastinating or neglecting beginning shortly after an overwhelming
responsibilities traumatic event and lasting less than a
5. Using alcohol, cigarettes, or drugs to month. If symptoms persist longer than a
relax month, people are diagnosed as having
posttraumatic stress disorder. Examples of
Warning signs of stress: acute stress would be any stress you suffer
Chronic stress can wear down the body’s from for a short period of time — like a
natural defenses, leading to a variety of traffic jam, an argument with your spouse,
physical symptoms, including the following: criticism from your boss or someone
 Dizziness or a general feeling of- breaking into your house when you aren't
being out of it. there.
 General aches and pains.
 Grinding teeth, clenched jaw. Chronic stress:
 Headaches. A consistent sense of feeling pressured and
 Indigestion or acid reflux symptoms. overwhelmed over a long period of time.
 243
Symptoms include aches and pains, Many health problems are caused or by
insomnia or weakness, less socialization, stress, including—
unfocused thinking. This is stress that lasts
for a longer period of time. You may have  Pain of any kind
chronic stress if you have money problems,  Heart disease
an unhappy marriage, or trouble at work.  Digestive problems
Any type of stress that goes on for weeks or  Sleeps problems
months is chronic stress.  Depression
 Autoimmune diseases
Hyper stress:  Skin conditions, such as eczema.
When a person is pushed beyond what he or
she can handle, he/she will experience what Effect of Balancing factors of stressful
we called hyper stress. Hyper stress results event:
from being overloaded or overworked. It's Unhealthy factors that effect of balancing
like being stressed out. When someone is with stressful even- These coping strategies
hyper stressed, even little things can trigger may temporarily reduce stress but they
a strong emotional response. cause more damage in the long run—
 Smoking
 Drinking too much
Hypo stress:  Overeating or under eating
People with hypo stress are demotivated,  Zoning out for hours in front of the TV
enthusiastic, lethargic and restless. It may or computer
occur due to work under load. In this, an  Withdrawing from friends, family, and
individual does not have any work to do. activities
Tips to handle hypo stress immediately:  Using pills or drugs to relax
1. Use more salt. Experts usually  Sleeping too much
recommend limiting salt (sodium)
because it can raise blood pressure,
10 most important & effective stress
sometimes dramatically.
management tips:
2. Drink more water. Fluids increase
1. Recognize the problem
blood volume and help prevent 2. Reduce exposure to stressors
dehydration, both of which are
3. Learn to adjust properly – The four
important in treating hypotension. important areas of life are: Family,
3. Wear compression stockings. work, Leisure and friends.
4. Medications.
4. Organize life a little more efficiently
5. Learn to relax body
Difference between Hyper stress and 6. Learn to relax mind
Hypo stress: 7. Exercise, eat and sleep properly
Hypo stress refers to an insufficient amount 8. Make time for Laugh and Have Fun
of stress which leads to under-stimulation
9. Express & share your feelings
and the person gets bored, restless, and
10. Learn to tackle life change events
demotivated. Hyper stress refers to high
levels of stress which may lead to panic
Source of stress:
attacks, frustration, or exaggerated reactions. Source of stress are external source stress &
change are closely related, any important
event in life require a person to make
 244
major adjustment causes stress leading to
diseases. A stressor is a chemical or 4. Others source are—
biological cause’s stress to an organism a. Conflict.
(Living being). A stressor is anything b. Pressure.
(Physical or psychological) that produces c. Unemployment.
stress (negative or positive) in an individual. d. Frustration.
 A stimulus that causes stress in an e. Divorce or separation.
individual
 Any stimulus producing mental or B. Internal source:
physical stress in an organism. 1. Disease condition of health
 An event that triggers (active) the stress 2. Sex problem
response may include-
a. Environmental stressors Reaction of stress:
b. Daily stress events Stress reaction may be physical,
c. Life changes psychological or behavioral but these
categories are not clear cut.
A. External source: A. Psychological reaction:
1. Major life stress: i. Short term reaction
Naturally occurring changes are an ii. Cognitive term reaction
unavailable part of life. We attend, college, iii. Long term reaction
succeed, fail, get, new jobs, leave home, get B. Behavioral reaction: same as- A C.
married etc. Physical reaction.
i. Short term reaction
The social readjustment causes stress life ii. Long term reaction
events are –
a. Death of close family members & friends. Coping strategies of stress or Tips for
b. Major personal illness or injury reducing stress:
c. Marriage. People can learn to manage stress and lead
d. Failing an important course happier, healthier lives. To reducing stress
e. Increased workload at school may begin with the following tips:
f. Change in sleeping social activities &  Do something that relaxes you, such
financial status. as: deep and slow breathing, yoga, a
g. Change of college. massage, meditation, listening to
music, reading.
2. Catastrophic events:  Get a hobby or do something you
Natural & Person made catastrophes enjoy. Make time for hobbies and
include such as flood, food poison, interests.
earthquakes, violent, stores fires & plane  Learn to accept things that cannot
crashes. change.
 Think positive; Keep a positive
3. Life little harmless: attitude.
Much stress arises from non-events like  Set limits appropriately and say no to
boredom continuing tension requests that would create excessive
on a family relationship lack of stress in your life.
occupational progress, loneliness, absence  Learn to say no; Accept that there are
of meaning commitment. events that you cannot control.
 245
 Get 8 hours of sleep each night; Get trained in stress management or
enough rest and sleep. Your body biofeedback techniques to learn more
needs time to recover from stressful healthy ways of dealing with the stress
events. in your life.
 Exercise regularly; Your body can
fight stress better when it is fit. Stress Levels:
 Talk to your family and friends about Maybe it’s your demanding boss, morning
your problems. gridlock, or relationship problems with a
 Be assertive instead of aggressive. friend or family member. Whatever the
Assert your feelings, opinions, or cause, it’s likely you experience some level
beliefs instead of becoming angry, of stress on a daily basis. But while some
defensive, or passive. day-to-day stress is normal (and can even be
 Eat healthy, well-balanced meals. a good thing if it motivates you), chronic,
 Learn to manage your time more overwhelming stress can have a negative
effectively. impact on your physical, mental, and
 Don’t rely on alcohol, drugs, or emotional wellbeing. Knowing how to spot
compulsive behaviors to reduce stress. the signs and symptoms that you’re under too
 Seek out social support. Spend enough much stress can help you stay aware and
time with those you love. address the issues before they harm your
 Seek treatment with a psychologist or health.
other mental health professional

Question:
1. What is stress? [June-13, Mar-12, Jan-9, jul 17]
2. Describe the reaction of stress. [June-13, Mar-12, jul 17]
3. Describe the causes of stress. [Nov-10, Jul-09]
4. Mention any five coping strategies of stress. [Nov-10, Jul-9]
5. What are the sources of stress? [Jan-09, Feb-14]
6. Discuss about professional stress. [Jan-09]
7. Short note: - 1. Stress [May-08]
8. Define stress. [Feb-14]
9. Mention the reactions of stress. [Feb-14]
10. How stress can be managed? [ jul 17 ]

Reference:
1. Sterling M, Smeets R, Keijzers G, Warren J, Kenardy J. Physiotherapist-delivered stress
inoculation training integrated with exercise versus physiotherapy exercise alone for acute
whiplash-associated disorder (StressModex): a randomised controlled trial of a combined
psychological/physical intervention. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2019 Oct
1;53(19):1240-7.
2. Abiola T, Lawal I, Habib ZG. Psychological distress due to academic stress among clinical
students in a Nigerian tertiary institution: Comparison between medical and physiotherapy
students. Nigerian Journal of Basic and Clinical Sciences. 2015 Jul 1;12(2):81.
3. Walsh JM, Feeney C, Hussey J, Donnellan C. Sources of stress and psychological morbidity
among undergraduate physiotherapy students. Physiotherapy. 2010 Sep 1;96(3):206-12.
 246

Chapter- 22
Communication

Communication is the act of transferring Channels (medium): -

information from one place or person to By channel is implied in the physical bridges
another. Learn more about this essential part of or the media of communication between
interpersonal interaction. Communication can the sender and receiver. The total
be regarded as a two process of exchanging or communication effort is based on 3 media
shaping ideas, felling and information. systems.
Broadly it refers “to the countless ways that a) Interpersonal communication
humans have keeping in touch with one b) Mass media
another. c) Traditional of folk media

Components/process/key elements of Receiver (audience): -

communication: All communicators must have an audience this
1. Sender (source) may be single or group of people.
2. Message (content) They are the consumers of the message.
3. Channel (medium)
4. Receiver (audience) Feedback(effect): -
5. Feedback (effect) It is the flow of information from the audience
to the sender. It is the reaction of the
Sender (source): - audience to the message. Feedback is generally
The sender (communication) is the originator obtained through opinion polls, attitude
of the message. To be an effective surveys and interviews.
communication. He must know: -
a) His objectives, clearly defined Types of Communication:
b) His audience its interests and needs his 1. Verbal Communication. Verbal
message. communication occurs when we engage
c) Channels of communication. in speaking with others.
2. Non-Verbal Communication. What we
Massage (content): - do while we speak often says more than
It is the information of a communication the actual words.
wishes his audience to received, understand, 3. Written Communication.
accept and act upon. A good message must be: 4. Listening.
- 5. Visual Communication.
a) In line with the objectives
b) Meaning full Verbal communication
c) Based on felt needs Verbal communication occurs when we
d) Clear and understandable engage in speaking with others. It can be face-
e) Timely and adequate to-face, over the telephone, via Skype or
f) Interesting Zoom, etc. Some verbal engagements are
informal, such as chatting with a friend over
coffee or in the office kitchen, while others are
more formal, such as a scheduled meeting.
 247
Regardless of the type, it is not just about the Listening
words, it is also about the caliber and The act of listening does not often make its
complexity of those words, how we string way onto the list of types of communication.
those words together to create an overarching Active listening, however, is perhaps one of
message, as well as the intonation (pitch, tone, the most important types of communication
cadence, etc.) used while speaking. And when because if we cannot listen to the person sitting
occurring face-to-face, while the words are across from us, we cannot effectively engage
important, they cannot be separated from non- with them. Think about a negotiation – part of
verbal communication. the process is to assess what the opposition
wants and needs. Without listening, it is
Non-verbal communication impossible to assess that, which makes it
What we do while we speak often says more difficult to achieve a win/win outcome.
than the actual words. Non-verbal
communication includes facial expressions, Visual communication
posture, eye contact, hand movements, and We are a visual society. Think about it,
touch. For example, if you’re engaged in a televisions are running 24/7, Facebook is
conversation with your boss about your cost- visual with memes, videos, images, etc.,
saving idea, it is important to pay attention to Instagram is an image-only platform, and
both their words and their non-verbal advertisers use imagery to sell products and
communication. Your boss might be in ideas. Think about from a personal
agreement with your idea verbally, but their perspective- the images we post on social
nonverbal cues: avoiding eye contact, sighing, media are meant to convey meaning- to
scrunched up face, etc. indicate something communicate a message. In some cases, that
different. message might be, look at me, I’m in Italy or I
just won an award. Others are carefully curated
Written communication to tug on our heartstrings – injured animals,
Whether it is an email, a memo, a report, a crying children, etc.
Facebook post, a Tweet, a contract, etc. all
forms of written communication have the same We communicate continually throughout each
goal to disseminate information in a clear and and every day. We do it without thinking – we
concise manner – though that objective is often operate on communication autopilot.
not achieved. In fact, poor writing skills often However, I encourage you to think about how
lead to confusion and embarrassment, and you communicate. How do you communicate
even potential legal jeopardy. One important verbally? What nonverbal cues do you use
thing to remember about written when you are disinterested? Excited?
communication, especially in the digital age, is Nervous? Are you a good listener? Can you
the message lives on, perhaps in perpetuity. write a concise, clearly articulated message?
Thus, there are two things to remember: first, Are there barriers to how you communicate
write well – poorly constructed sentences and effectively?
careless errors make you look bad; and second,
ensure the content of the message is something Barriers of communication:
you want to promote or be associated with for 1. Physiological: Difficulties in hearing
the long haul. expression.
2. Psychological: Emotional disturbances,
neurosis, levels intelligence, language
or comprehension.
 248
3. Environment: Noise, invisibility,
congestion. It involves the following steps:
4. Cultural: Illiteracy levels of knowledge 1. State program goals
and understand customs, beliefs, 2. Involve stack holders
religion, attitude economic and social 3. Identify target populations
class differences, languages variation 4. Conduct formative BCC assessments
cultural difficulties between foreigners 5. Segment target populations
and nationals, between education and 6. Define behavior change objectives
the rural population. The barriers should 7. Define SBCC strategy & monitoring and
be identified and removed for achieving evaluation plan
effective communication. 8. Develop communication products.
9. Implement and monitor.
Developing effective communication skills: 10. Evaluate.
1. Practice active listening. 11. Analyze feedback and revise.
2. Focus on nonverbal communication.
3. Manage your own emotions. Enabling factors responsible for behavioral
4. Ask for feedback. change:
5. Practice public speaking. Behavior change is influenced by motivation
6. Develop a filter. from external influence (as well as from within
oneself internal influence). Internal influence
Specific Communication skills: plays a significant creating more enjoyment of
Social and behavior change communication a behavior change, instilling a sense of
(SBCC): ownership of the new behavior, which is tills a
Social and behavior change communication sense of ownership of the changed behavior.
(SBCC) is an interactive process of any When designing SBCC strategies, cabling
intervention with individuals, group or factors that the outcome must be considered.
community to develop communication
strategies to remote positive behaviors which The following are some of the factors:
are appropriate to their settings and thereby 1. Effective communication.
sole world's most pressing health problems. 2. Enabling environment, which includes
This in tum provides a supportive environment policies, human rights community values
which will enable people to initiate, sustain and norms.
and maintain positive and desirable behavior 3. User - friendly accessible services and
outcomes. SBCC often also only behavior commodities.
change communication (BCC) or
Communication for Development (C4D) ". Behavioral communication:
Behavioral Communication is defined as a
Steps of Social and behavior change psychological construct which influences
communication (SBCC: individual differences in the expression of
SBCC is the comprehensive process in which feelings, needs, and thoughts as a substitute for
one passes through the stages: more direct and open communication.
Unaware >Aware Concerned> Specifically, it refers to people's tendency to
Knowledgeable> Motivated to change> express feelings, needs, and thoughts by means
Practicing trial behavior change Sustained of indirect messages and behavioral impacts. It
behavior change. can be argued that much of our communication
is, in fact, non - verbal. Any behavior (or its
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absence when one is expected) may be judged of authority, they may be more of a boss vs a
as communicative if it has the intent to convey leader.
a message. For example, an expressive Features of aggressive communicator with the
hairstyle, a show of a certain emotion, or following behaviors:
simply doing (or not doing) the dishes all can 1. Talks over other people.
be meant by which people may convey 2. Poor listening, interrupts frequently
messages to each other. 3. Controlling or demanding
4. Points fingers
The construct of behavioral communication is 5. Stares and glares intensely
conceived as a variable of individual 6. Frowns
differences. This means that some people more 7. Criticizes
than others tend to engage in indirect or
behavioral communication, whether Passive Communicators:
consciously doing so. unconsciously doing so, People who speak in a passive manner have
in the spite of the different alternatives of using difficulty expressing themselves and tend to
verbal communication. An individual's give in to others. Failure to express thoughts
behavioral style greatly affects their verbal and and emotions often leads to
nonverbal communication. It is rare that miscommunication and build up anger or
someone utilizes all one behavioral resentment.
communication style, all of the time. Being Features of recognize a passive communicator
able to identify one's own behavioral style with the following behaviors:
requires a high level of self-awareness. 1. Difficulty making eye contact.
2. Inability to say no.
Types of Behavioral Communication: 3. Go with the flow type attitude.
People develop verbal and nonverbal 4. Poor posture.
behavioral patterns that over time, become
pretty stable. These habits influence how we We may recognize passive communication
communicate Although it's possible to learn through phrases like
and practice different patterns, the - "It doesn't matter that much."
communication styles that most people - "I just want everyone to get along."
habitually use. There are four different types of
communication behavior: Passive - Aggressive Communicators:
1. Aggressive Passive - aggressive communication seems
2. Assertive passive on the surface but reveals a hidden
3. Passive and resentment that comes through in subtle,
4. Passive aggressive. indirect ways.
Features of passive - aggressive
Aggressive Communicators: communication with the following behaviors:
Aggressive communication takes things to the 1. Frequent sarcasm
other side of the spectrum. People who rely on 2. Words don't align with actions
this communication style in the workplace at 3. Facial expressions don't match
home or among friends tend to dominate the 4. Difficulty acknowledging emotions.
conversation. They issue commands and ask
questions rudely while failing to listen to We may recognize passive - aggressive
others. It's always "me, me, me." In positions communication through phrases like: "
- Fine, whatever. "
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- After saying something rude, sarcastic, 4. The use of statements (ex: I feel frustrated
or damaging. "I was only joking." when people show up late.)
5. Maintains good eye contact.
Assertive Communicators:
The assertive style of communication offers an We may recognize assertive communication
effective and healthy way to express yourself. through phrases like
It encourages open, honest dialogue while still - "I am responsible for my own
considering the needs of others. Features of happiness."
assertive communication with the following - "I respect the needs and opinions of
behaviors: others.
1. The ability to express desires and needs We all have the right to express ourselves
with confidence. respectfully and honestly.
2. Encourages balanced conversations in
which both people have a chance to speak. Counseling: See Democratic and
3. The ability to say no. authoritarian leadership chapter.

Question:
1. Define communication [Jan-09, jul 17]
2. Describe the barriers to good communication. [Jan-09]
3. Short note: Communication [Mar-10, 2019]
3. What is communication? Briefly mention the communication skills which are essential to deals
human in therapy session. [2016, jul 17]
4. How to development effective communication. [jul 17].

Reference:
1. Murray A, Hall AM, Williams GC, McDonough SM, Ntoumanis N, Taylor IM, Jackson B,
Matthews J, Hurley DA, Lonsdale C. Effect of a self-determination theory–based communication
skills training program on physiotherapists' psychological support for their patients with chronic
low back pain: A randomized controlled trial. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation.
2015 May 1;96(5):809-16.
2. Soundy A, Hemmings L, Gardiner L, Rosewilliam S, Heneghan NR, Cronin K, Reid K. E-
learning communication skills training for physiotherapy students: A two phased sequential
mixed methods study. Patient education and counseling. 2021 Aug 1;104(8):2045-53.
3. Doyle F, Doherty S, Morgan K, McBride O, Hickey A. Understanding communication of health
information: a lesson in health literacy for junior medical and physiotherapy students. Journal of
health psychology. 2013 Apr;18(4):497-506.
4. Hiller A, Guillemin M, Delany C. Exploring healthcare communication models in private
physiotherapy practice. Patient education and counseling. 2015 Oct 1;98(10):1222-8.
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Chapter- 23
Compliance
Compliance is a response specifically, a Nature:
submission- made in reaction to a request. The In psychology, nature is defined as the
request may be explicit or implicit. The target biological factors that influence your
may or may not recognize that they are being psychological makeup. Your genetic code is
urged to act in a particular way. In Psychology, the source of your nature. Your genes
Compliance refers to changing one's behavior determine your brain structure and brain
at the request or direction of another person. chemistry that ultimately shape your thought
Unlike obedience, in which the individual processing, emotions, and behaviors. Nature
making the request for change is in a position refers to all of the genes and hereditary factors
of authority, compliance does not rely a power that influence who we are from our physical
differential. The definition of compliance appearance to our personality characteristics.
means following a rule or order. An example From a stroll through a city park to a day spent
of compliance is when someone is told to go hiking in the wilderness, exposure to nature
outside and they listen to the order. An has been linked to a host of benefits, including
example of compliance is when a financial improved attention, lower stress, better mood,
report is prepared that adheres to standard reduced risk of psychiatric disorders and even
accounting principles. upticks in empathy and cooperation. For
example, one of the most debated topics on
Types of compliance behaviour: nature versus nurture today relates to
Compliance is a type of social influence where homosexuality. Nature proponents believe that
an individual does what someone else wants homosexuality is genetic or outside of a
them to do, following his or her request or person's control. Nurture proponents believe
suggestion. It is similar to obedience, but there that homosexuality is a choice or a behavior
is no order only a request. There are some influenced by environmental factors. Another
compliance as follows: example, if a person is obese solely because of
1. Deliberately compliant. their diet and exercise habits, then that person's
2. Accidentally non-compliant. weight is due to their own behavior rather than
3. Accidentally compliant. a genetic cause. However, if the person's
4. Deliberately non-compliant. children are raised with the same diet and
exercise habits, nurture could still result in
obesity. Nature theories assert that “The
etiology of criminal behavior is biologically
based in genetic inheritance and the structure
and functions of people's brains and other
psychological responses”.

Factors:
A circumstance, fact, or influence that
contributes to a result. It is a number or
quantity that when multiplied with another
produces a given number or expression. In
Psychology, factors refer to anything that
 252
contributes to a result or has a causal 5. Mistrust or a lack of strong patient-
relationship to a phenomenon, event, or action provider relationship.
which is an underlying influence that accounts
in part for variations in individual behavior. Factors found to be significantly associated
Psychological factors important due to with non-compliance are:
functional factors- as opposed to biological 1. Female gender.
(constitutional, hereditary) factors- that 2. Level of education (Illiteracy).
contribute to the development of personality, 3. Urban population.
the maintenance of health and well-being, and 4. Irregularity of the follow-up.
the etiology of mental and behavioral disorder. 5. Non-adherence to drug prescription.
Examples of psychosocial factors include 6. Non-adherence to exercise regimen.
social support, loneliness, marriage status, 7. Other examples of non-compliance
social disruption, bereavement, work include:
environment, social status, and social a. Failure to wear personal protective
integration. There are four psychological equipment (PPE)
factors that influence consumer behaviour: b. Insufficient administration of
Motivation, perception, learning, and attitude operations.
or belief system. c. Failure to obtain proper
certifications/illegal operations.
Contributing to non-compliance: d. Failure to follow operation
“Noncompliant behavior” is an awkward procedures.
phrase, although widely used. It conveys what e. Failure to report to relevant
the patient isn't doing, a negative concept, authorities.
rather than what the patient is doing. These are
a few of the common reasons for non- Improving compliance:
compliance and non-adherence: Strategies for achieving compliance include
1. Cost and affordability. offering rewards, threatening punishment,
2. Lack of understanding/comprehension of using flattery and convincing people that the
advice, target behavior is the right or intelligent thing
3. Whether due to language barriers, to do. The efforts behind compliance gaining
cognitive abilities, may be overt or covert, and the intention may
4. Being afraid to ask for clarification or or may not be ethical.
other reasons.

Reference:
1. Lonsdale, C., Hall, A.M., Williams, G.C., McDonough, S.M., Ntoumanis, N., Murray, A. and
Hurley, D.A., 2012. Communication style and exercise compliance in physiotherapy
(CONNECT). A cluster randomized controlled trial to test a theory-based intervention to increase
chronic low back pain patients’ adherence to physiotherapists’ recommendations: study
rationale, design, and methods. BMC musculoskeletal disorders, 13(1), pp.1-15.
2. Zhong B, Niu W, Broadbent E, McDaid A, Lee TM, Zhang M. Bringing psychological strategies
to robot-assisted physiotherapy for enhanced treatment efficacy. Frontiers in neuroscience. 2019
Sep 18;13:984.
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Chapter- 24
Emotional Needs
An emotional need is a state or condition that 2. Acceptance: Feelings, opinions and
must be fulfilled in order for us to experience ideas are valued.
happiness and peace. When our emotional 3. Importance: Feeling appreciated,
needs are met and responded to appropriately, Feeling useful.
they keep us in balance. They are essential to 4. Security: Feeling cared for, Feeling safe
a healthy lifestyle. Emotional needs are and.
feelings or conditions we need to feel happy, 5. Inclusion: Feel connected to others, Be
fulfilled, or at peace. Without them, we may part of something meaningful.
feel frustrated, hurt, or dissatisfied. Some
examples of emotional needs might include Emotional Needs and psychological factors
feeling appreciated, feeling accomplished, in relation to handicapped:
feeling safe, or feeling part of a community. A person's experience with a new form of
There are some other important emotional disability may be marked by fatigue, negative
needs are admiration, affection, intimate emotions, a sense of powerlessness, or
conversation, domestic support, family confusion. It is important to remember that
commitment, financial support, honesty and there is also the chance to experience
openness, physical attractiveness, recreational confidence and hope as they witness new
companionship and sexual fulfillment. abilities to cope with what is often a
challenging situation. emotionally
Emotional Needs and psychological factors handicapped mean an inability to build or
in relation to unconscious patient: maintain satisfactory interpersonal
Particularly challenging is meeting relationships with peers and teachers;
individuals' psychosocial needs, a term used to inappropriate types of behavior or feelings
represent patient and family's mental, social, under normal circumstances; a general
cultural, spiritual, and developmental needs pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.
arising from emotional responses to their Some ways to support people with
diagnosis, social and role limitations, loss of disabilities:
physical and/or mental abilities. Patients need 1. Ask first and follow their lead. Don't
to feel understood and recognized, so nurses assume people need help.
should create a supportive relationship with 2. Speak clearly, listen well.
them by listening to them and using language 3. Speak directly to people.
that is meaningful to them. They need to feel 4. Be aware of personal space.
safe by knowing what is happening. During 5. Be flexible to family members of people
care of unconscious patient psychological with disabilities.
need is necessary for patient’s attendance to be 6. When setting meetings, check
strong, properly maintaining patient's airway, accessibility.
protecting the patient from falling off the bed.
maintaining fluid balance and managing At work and in the community, the self-
nutritional needs. Maintaining skin integrity. esteem, performance and job satisfaction of
A summary of the five critical needs: employees with disabilities are profoundly
1. Respect: Treated with kindness, Treated impacted by the attitudes of co-workers and
with courtesy. peers. Negative attitudes in the workplace or in
social circles are often the greatest barriers to
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inclusion and career advancement for people touch, move or lean on mobility aids. This is
with disabilities (even in an environment with also important for safety.
a strong commitment to these policies.)
5. Be flexible to family members of people
Here is description of ways that we can help with disabilities:
create a more inclusive society and Many people with disabilities have family
workplace: members who care for or provide
1. Ask first and follow their lead: companionship. In many cases, the spouse of a
Don’t assume people need help. Ask if they person with disability may leave the workforce
need anything to make the process more because of their spouse’s needs. Being flexible
effective or easier for them. They are the to the needs of family members keeps British
experts on their needs and how to best meet Columbians in the workforce and reduces any
them. If they do ask for help, ask for specific compounded impact on the household and the
instructions on how you can help. province’s labour force.

2. Speak clearly, listen well: 6. When setting meetings, check

If you are working with a person who has a accessibility:
developmental disability or other cognitive Confirm a meeting place in advance of the
issues, use clear sentences, simple words and meeting and send detailed instructions on the
concrete concepts. Gauge the pace, complexity accessibility of the venue. Ask if there is
and vocabulary of your speech to match theirs. anything you can do to prepare for the meeting
Unless you are informed otherwise, remember to make sure everyone is able to participate
they can make their own decisions. Allow fully.
people with speech impairments to finish their
own sentences. Don’t talk for them or Don’t forget that mistakes happen! The
interrupt. important thing to remember is to just ask
questions and take a person’s lead. Some of
3. Speak directly to people: these tips can feel awkward the first time.
Make eye contact and speak to people directly, Especially if you’re asking someone you’ve
even if their personal care attendant or just met or is new to your company. We
interpreter is with them. When a person who is naturally try to avoid awkwardness and may
deaf has an interpreter, the user will look at the unknowingly try to avoid interacting with
interpreter as you are talking. While this is colleagues with disability, creating a real
happening, focus your interaction with the feeling of exclusion in others. Once you get
user. Also, if you will be speaking for some over that first time, it quickly gets easier.
time with a person in a wheelchair, sit down so Conversely, asking someone about their
they don’t have to strain their neck to look up disability gets more difficult and increasingly
at you. Do not lean over a person in a awkward every time you avoid them. Don’t let
wheelchair. the awkwardness get in the way.

4. Be aware of personal space: Emotional Needs and psychological factors

Some people who use a mobility aid, such as a in relation to bedridden patient:
wheelchair, walker or cane, see these aids as Forced to stay in bed by sickness or weakness
part of their personal space. Similarly, never bedridden patients. Being bedridden leads to
start to push someone’s wheelchair without many complications such as loss of muscle
first asking the occupant’s permission. Don’t strength and endurance. Contractures,
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osteoporosis from disuse, the degeneration of ingrown or infected, so keeping them
joints can occur and psychologically the trimmed properly is important.
become depressed and hopeless. Being e) Haircuts and shaving – Long and
confined to bed can add to the likelihood of unkempt hair can lead to infestations of
developing an increased heart rate, decreased lice, bedbugs, and other parasites.
cardiac output, hypotension, and Keeping hair, beards and mustaches
thromboembolism. The patients who are trimmed, brushed and clean is a good
bedridden for long time are the ones who need way to discourage such problems.
to be given rehabilitation therapy to revive In addition to staying healthy, all of these
their physical, emotional, and psychological things will go a long way towards helping your
support. Whatever the case may be, here are loved one keep up their morale and self-
some helpful tips about things we should esteem. The old adage that looking good helps
consider when caring for a bedridden patient: people feel better about themselves is very
1. Promote Good Grooming and Hygiene. true.
2. Prevent Bedsores.
3. Change Bed Linens Regularly. 2. Prevent Bedsores:
4. Ensure Good Nutrition. Bedsores (also known as pressure sores) are
5. Craft a Comfortable Environment. injuries to the skin and underlying tissues that
6. Employ Patience and Empathy. result from sitting or lying in a single position
7. Seek Help When You Need It. for long periods of time. The prolonged sitting
8. Keep them Comfortable: puts pressure on parts of the body such as the
buttocks, legs, and thighs that can cause the
Description of caring of bedridden patient: skin to breakdown and break apart. The end
1. Promote Good Grooming and Hygiene: result is that the area becomes extremely
One of the best things you can do to help any painful and uncomfortable and in the worst-
bedridden patient is to make sure that their case scenario bedsores can become infected
basic hygiene and grooming needs are being and result in major complications that can
addressed. This includes: shorten life. However, is that bedsores are very
preventable. Consider using the following tips:
a) Bathing – Some people may be able to
get up and shower or take a bath with a) If the individual spends the majority of
minor assistance, but others may be time in bed, then take a few minutes out
unable to do so. In this case giving a bed of every few hours to reposition them.
bath every day is also acceptable. If they can move on their own,
b) Dental care – Again, some individuals encourage them to readjust themselves
may be able to brush their own teeth, as well.
while others may need help doing so. b) Ask a doctor or nurse for advice on the
c) Clothing – Changing into fresh, clean best way to reposition the patient so that
clothes on a daily basis is important to you don’t cause injury to either of you
ensure that dirt, germs, and bacteria do while adjusting their position.
not have time to cause harm. c) Make sure you remain proactive and
d) Fingernails and toenails – The healing frequently check these common areas
process can be itchy, and having long for bedsores (the sooner a bedsore is
fingernails and toenails can lead to found the better the prognosis): the
inadvertent scratches and other injuries. heels, ankles, hips, and tailbone.
Long nails can also easily become
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3. Change Bed Linens Regularly: throughout the day, to ensure they stay
It may seem like a simple thing, but changing hydrated.
the linens makes a huge difference. Bedding d) Monitor eating habits and record meals
can get soiled from food, bed baths, dirt, skin in a journal for reference when speaking
particles and other debris. So for reasons of with a doctor, or in case you notice
hygiene and health, some things to keep in anything unusual after eating certain
mind when changing bed linens: foods.
Note that diet and cancer treatment may
a) Since bedridden individuals spend more interact poorly- for example, vegetables high
time in bed than most people, it is in vitamin K, such as spinach and broccoli, can
critical that bed linens (fitted sheet, top counteract the effects of some blood-thinners
sheet and pillowcases) be changed like warfarin. Therefore, it is important for
every 2 – 3 days. caregivers to understand what healthy foods
b) Make sure the new set of linens has should be avoided.
been properly cleaned and laundered As always, be sure to follow a doctor’s
before use. instructions about anything that a bedridden
c) Talk with your loved one about the patient should or shouldn’t eat.
material of the bedsheets being used. Is
the fabric soft enough for them? Does it 5. Craft a Comfortable Environment:
keep them warm enough, or perhaps too Our immediate surroundings play a huge role
warm? in our emotional well-being, so take a few
d) Don’t forget blankets and comforters – moments to make sure that the individual’s
you may not need to change and wash environment is as comfortable as possible:
these quite as often as bedsheets, but a) Ensure the room is well-lit, with natural
changing them out regularly is light if possible – sunlight is a natural
important. disinfectant!
b) Keep passage to the bathroom easy and
4. Ensure Good Nutrition: free of clutter.
Everyone knows the importance of eating a c) Place the bed within reach of a
healthy diet, and it’s even more critical in nightstand with easy access to an alarm,
patients that are ill or recovering from phone, book, food and water.
treatment, such as surgery. Speak to the d) Air the room out from time to time, to
person’s doctor, nurse, or cancer dietitian to get rid of stale air and allow fresh air to
see what types of foods they recommend (in circulate.
addition to the nutritional supplements they e) Keep distractions to a minimum,
may already be taking): especially during rest periods, to ensure
a) Try to provide a well-balanced diet, that the patient will be able to get the
keeping track of nutrients and calories sleep they need.
to ensure your loved one remains In addition to the comforts listed above, take a
healthy. few minutes each day just to sit down and chat
b) Cater to your loved-one’s physiology- with your loved one. Mental and emotional
patients may prefer to eat in small snack health is just as important as physical health.
sessions throughout the day, rather than
having large meals at specified times. 6. Employ Patience and Empathy:
c) Keep water and healthy, non-sugary Caring for a loved one can be very difficult.
drinks on hand for them to sip Even with the best of intentions, it can be easy
 257
to lose patience, not feel appreciated or ideas, tips and stories about their own
become a little overwhelmed. Here are some struggles. Sometimes, simply knowing that
ideas on how to avoid or handle those feelings others are undergoing the same struggles can
when they hit you: be enough to help him get through the days,
weeks and months. Caregiver can also learn
a) Understand that treatments and physical from others’ experiences, which can ease the
effects of cancers like mesothelioma burden of feeling like he has to learn
can really limit a person’s ability to everything on his own from scratch.
perform normal physical activities. This
can cause a great deal of anxiety, 8. Keep them Comfortable:
especially for people who have been Helping a bedridden patient whether a family
independent up until now. member, close friend, or someone else you
b) Take time to communicate your know can be physically and emotionally
feelings so you can both understand challenging, but it can also be a time to
each other’s needs and goals better. develop or strengthen bonds. The experience
c) Expect things to take longer than they gives you an opportunity to do the single thing
would normally. Everyday tasks will that any cancer sufferer will appreciate being
require more energy from both your there for them and with them.
loved and yourself, and trying to rush
things will only cause frustration and In the end, it’s all about making sure the person
could even wind up hurting the patient. is as comfortable as possible and helping them
d) Watch for signs of fatigue in yourself, receive the treatment they need, whether it’s
and understand your own limits. If you recovering from a disease like cancer and the
need to take a few moments for yourself invasive treatments required to fight it or
to avoid potential conflicts or anger, it palliative care to help them manage as best as
is better to do so than to lash out or they can during their remaining days. Being
nurse bad feelings. attentive to their needs and helping to prevent
Finding a way to remind yourself that you are or reduce pain will go a long way during this
there to help your loved one is a good way to time.
start each day. Approaching the entire
caregiving experience from a place of empathy Emotional Needs and psychological factors
and patience will help both you and your loved in relation to chronic pain:
one in the long run. Patients with underlying mental health issues
are most at risk for developing chronic pain
7. Seek Help When You Need It: syndrome. Anybody can develop chronic pain
An important part of being a caregiver is syndrome once their chronic pain impacts their
knowing when he need to seek professional mental and emotional wellbeing. The most
help to properly care for the patient. If he is common psychological treatments are:
able, hire a nurse or another medical 1. Talk therapy.
professional to help him with his caregiving 2. Relaxation training.
duties. Keep an open line of communication 3. Stress management.
with medical team too so that they can help the 4. Pain coping skills training.
caregiver to handle any complications as they
arise. Whether or not caregiver is able to afford
professional help, there are a number of
support groups where caregivers can share
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Some supporting tips to who have chronic a depressive disorder, with a higher relative
pain: risk of anxiety disorder, increased level of
1. Understanding someone with chronic anxiety, poor quality of life, and feelings of
pain. helplessness2. The effects of spinal cord injury
2. Listen to what is said and what isn't. (SCI) on emotion is that it dampens emotional
3. Believe what you hear and see. experience due to a loss of peripheral bodily
4. Learn more about pain and symptoms. feedback, with the higher the lesion on the
5. Understand the pain scale. spinal cord the greater the reduction in the
6. Respect physical limitations. intensity of emotional experience. We can
7. Continue to include them. counsel someone with a spinal cord injury by
8. Watch out for depression symptoms. applying the Mason’s tips for SCI.

For example, helpful things to say to someone Mason's tips include:

in chronic pain: 1. Understand the Injury.
 You look well today/good, but how are 2. Realize Nothing is Certain.
you feeling? 3. Help the Injured Get Stronger.
 I am going to be going to the store. 4. Help Them Set Goals.
 I can’t imagine how hard this is for you, 5. Actually Help Them Accomplish Those
but you seem to be handling it well and Goals.
I think you are so strong. 6. Don't Just Jump in and do Things for the
Injured Person.
Emotional Needs and psychological factors 7. Include the Person in Everything.
in relation to spinal cord injury (SCI) and 8. Get them Involved in Something.
Paralyses:
Emotional and behavioral problems may Emotional Needs and psychological factors
develop or worsen after a SCI. There is often a in relation to Cerebral palsy:
period of adjustment after a spinal cord injury. The emotional effects of cerebral palsy are
Sometimes feelings of sadness or anxiety may often a result of feeling misunderstood or
develop. In some cases, clinical depression alone. Adverse emotional effects like
may develop. In the immediate days following withdrawn behavior, anxiety, depression, or
a paralyzing injury, a person will deal with angry outbursts are commonly experienced as
emotions that change rapidly. They may begin a result of motor impairments. The most
to doubt if they will be able to be productive or common mental health co-conditions
wonder if their life is worth living. A person associated with cerebral palsy are anxiety and
may worry about losing independence and depression. In a recent study, 46% of children
having to depend on others for their care. with cerebral palsy self-reported anxiety. And,
Paraplegia's impact on the person has been in 2020, a mental health study on adults with
debated. There are definite psychological cerebral palsy demonstrated increased levels
effects of spinal cord injury but they are unique of anxiety and depression. Children with
to each person. Studies indicate that the sudden cerebral palsy have an increased risk of
and often severe change in the individual's developing emotional and mental health
lifestyle can lead to depression and, in some issues. They suffered brain damage in infancy
cases, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). and face physical challenges, discomfort,
A systematic review on psychological discrimination, and sometimes bullying.
morbidity revealed that up to 30% of people Complete treatment for cerebral palsy includes
with spinal cord injury are at the risk of having mental health evaluations and treatment. As
 259
soon as CP is diagnosed, a child can begin to pain control, such as hypnosis and
therapy for movement and other areas that relaxation, can be effective.
need help, such as learning, speech, hearing,
and social and emotional development. Many Emotional Needs and psychological factors
will need assistive devices like braces or in relation to amputation:
wheelchairs. Medicine helps kids who have a After suffering a traumatic amputation,
lot of muscle pain and stiffness. memories of the event can cause a person to
experience post-traumatic stress disorder
Emotional Needs and psychological factors (PTSD) or other similar psychological
in relation to burns: conditions. PTSD symptoms can include anger
The pathophysiology of the burn wound is outbursts, isolation, insomnia, depression,
characterized by an inflammatory reaction nightmares, flashbacks, and other difficult
leading to rapid edema formation, due to behaviors. About ≥30% of amputees are
increased microvascular permeability, troubled by depression. Psychological
vasodilation and increased extravascular morbidity, decreased self-esteem, distorted
osmotic activity. Greater levels of acute pain body image, increased dependency and
are associated with negative long-term significant levels of social isolation are also
psychological effects such as acute stress observed in short and long-term follow up
disorder, depression, suicidal ideation, and after amputation.
post-traumatic stress disorder for as long as 2
years after the initial burn injury. Acute stress How to cope with an amputation:
disorder (occurs in the first month) and Post- 1. Acknowledge your feelings.
traumatic stress disorder-PTSD (occurs after Acknowledging your feelings can help
one month) are more common after burns than you heal and move through the grieving
other forms of injury. Post-traumatic stress process.
disorder (PTSD) is a potential consequence of 2. Express negative emotions.
severe burn and as literature reports, it is 3. Connect with others.
experienced quite frequently. Studies reveal 4. Find a purpose.
that the prevalence of PTSD (full-blown 5. Set meaningful goals.
symptoms) among burn patients may range 6. Create a daily routine.
from 3%-58% after the burn injury. Patients 7. Embrace optimism.
with these disorders typically have larger
burns and more severe pain and express more Emotional Needs and psychological factors
guilt about the precipitating event. Along with in relation to Disfigurement:
the physical pain of burns and the treatments Facial disfigurement attracts attention and
they may require, patients also may face evokes negative emotion. The most common
psychological stressors, such as: causes of facial disfigurement - they include:
1. Changes in body image. birth related disfigurements including a cleft
2. Depression. lip, birthmark or cranio-facial condition;
3. Family problems. physical injury such as burns, accidents, car
4. Financial concerns. crash injuries, scarring or dog bites; health
5. Vivid memories of the accident. condition including eczema, acne, or vitiligo.
Supportive psychological interventions should
focus on immediate concerns, such as sleep, Deal with disfigurement:
pain control, and protecting patients' coping 1. Understand the reactions of others.
strategies. Non-pharmacological approaches When you understand what motivates
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people to stare at visible difference, it  Learn their triggers.
makes it easier to deal with.  Monitor their overstimulation.
2. Reassure yourself. Visible difference  Make home a friendlier place.
does not define you.  Help them slowly expand their comfort
3. Distract yourself. zone.
4. Explain your condition.  Assume ownership of tasks they can't
5. Be assertive. handle for now.
6. Use humour.  Support them during treatment.

Emotional Needs and psychological factors Emotional Needs and psychological factors
in relation to head injury: in relation to Degenerative disorder:
Some people feel depressed right after TBI, A Degenerative Disorder in psychology is one
but these feelings may also appear during the in which the brain and nerve cells gradually
later stages of recovery. Symptoms of anxiety deteriorate, causing declines in mental and/or
may appear before depression. If these feelings physical functioning. Neurodegenerative
become overwhelming or interfere with diseases result in neuron death. The word
recovery, the person with TBI may be neurodegenerative can be split into neuro,
experiencing depression. Common changes meaning brain, and degenerative, meaning
include excessive tiredness, indifference, breaking down, or dying. Neurodegenerative
concentration and attention disorders, diseases (Parkinsonism) are a great example
inflexibility, perseveration, inability to of the devastating effects of
anticipate, behavioral disinhibition, miscommunications between brain cells.
irritability, change in quality of relationship Degeneration disorder may often occur in any
with shallowness and obsessive-compulsive tissues of the body like brain tissue, Bone,
symptoms. Sadness, frustration, and loss are cartilage, Intervertebral disc, etc. which may
common post-TBI. These feelings usually cause acute to chronic pain. Eventually
come up in the later stages of traumatic brain chronic pain lead to depression, hopelessness.
injury recovery, when the person has Patients may experience major memory loss
processed their long-term situation. However, and changes in personality or behavior, or they
these normal feelings may turn into depression may suffer from problems with movement,
if they become overwhelming and get in the balance, speech, and muscle weakness. The
way of recovery. management involves pharmacotherapy as
A list of 'effects' that have been noticed in well as non-pharmacological measures and
the field of psychology: also to lessen the burden of the care-givers.
 Ambiguity effect. The medications available for medical
 Assembly bonus effect. treatment are: Levodopa, dopamine agonists,
 Audience effect. amantadine, anticholinergics, enzyme
 Baader–Meinhof effect. inhibitors, etc. Proper Physiotherapy may help
 Barnum effect. to maintain healthy life of degenerative
 Bezold effect. disorder patient. Also follow the instructions
 Birthday-number effect. given in chronic pain section.
 Boomerang effect.
Emotional Needs and psychological factors
Some tips to someone with traumatic brain in relation to Leprosy:
injury recovery: Leprosy, a neglected tropical disease (NTD)
 Help them break down their tasks. mainly characterized by skin lesions and
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damage to peripheral nerves, Leprosy was managed well, the person with incontinence
once feared as a highly contagious and may experience feelings of rejection, social
devastating disease, but now we know it isolation, dependency, loss of control and may
doesn't spread easily and treatment is very also develop problems with their body image.
effective. However, if left untreated, the nerve There is considerable evidence that a variety of
damage can result in crippling of hands and psychological factors such as low self-esteem,
feet, paralysis, and blindness. Depressive depression, anger, and stress often occur in
disorders and anxiety disorders were found to subjects with urinary incontinence. Whether
be very common among persons affected by psychological factors contribute to the
leprosy. Feelings such as fear, shame and low occurrence of urinary incontinence or play a
self-esteem are also experienced by those causative role has yet to be determined.
affected, and their children. They are denied Although incontinence is not a life-threatening
education, employment and often lose the disease, the loss of bladder control can affect
freedom to marry a person of their choice. social, psychological, familial, occupational,
More than men, girls and women affected by physical and sexual aspects on patients' lives.
leprosy are more discriminated against. They Urinary incontinence leads to reduce quality of
face discrimination on three counts: their life, to cause social isolation and to restriction
gender, their disabilities, and the stigma life styles.
associated with the disease. Leprosy stigma is
a type of social stigma, a strong negative Emotional Needs and psychological factors
feeling towards a person with leprosy relating in relation to Mental Illness:
to their moral status in society. It is also People who fail to fulfil their roles and carryout
referred to as leprosy-related stigma, responsibilities or whose behavior is
leprostigma, and stigma of leprosy. Depressive inappropriate to the situation are viewed as,
disorders and anxiety disorders were found to Mental illness. A clinically significant
be very common among persons affected by behavioral or psychological syndrome or
leprosy. Feelings such as fear, shame and low pattern that occurs in an individual and
self-esteem are also experienced by those associated with distress or disability or
affected, and their children. significantly increased risk of pain, disability,
lack of freedom and death.
Tips to reduce stigma:
 Know the facts. Educate yourself about Classifications of mental illness:
mental illness including substance use 1. Organic mental disorders
disorders. 2. Functional mental disorders
 Be aware of your attitudes and 3. Psychosexual disorder
behaviour. 4. Stress-related disorder
 Choose your words carefully. 5. Mental disorder due to psychoactive
 Educate others. substance abuse
 Focus on the positive. 6. Somatoform disorder
 Support people. 7. Dissociative disorder
 Include everyone. 8. Psychosomatic disorder
9. Child psychiatric disorders
Emotional Needs and psychological factors
in relation to Incontinence:
The psychological impact of incontinence
cannot be ignored. If incontinence is not
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Criteria diagnosis of mental illness:  Having constant pain and aches without
 Dissatisfaction with one’s own physical cause
characteristics, abilities and  Fear and panic without real cause
accomplishments  Feeling own decision always right and
 Ineffective or unsatisfying relationships others wrong.
 Dissatisfaction with one’s place in the
world Causes of mental illness or Factors
 Ineffective coping with life events contributing to mental illness:
 Lack or personal growth A. Physical / Physiological / Biological
factors-
Prevention of mental illness:  Genetic
The prevention of mental illness is based on  Biomechanical
public health principles and has been divided  Brain damage
into-
1. Primary prevention B. Psychological factors-
2. Secondary prevention  Early upbringing
3. Tertiary prevention  Conflicts

Characteristics of mental illness: C. Social factors-

 When a person’s behavior is causing  Loss
distress and suffering to the individual  Psychosocial stresses
and/or others around him.  Sociocultural factors
 Abnormal changes in ones thinking,  Adversity
feeling, memory perceptions and  Poverty ‗
judgment resulting in changes in talk and  Migration
behavior.  Unemployment
 Abnormal behavior causes disturbance in  Urbanization
the person’s day-to-day activities, job and
interpersonal relationships. High risk group for mental illness:
 All the above may he considered as Some people to be especially vulnerable to
characteristics of mental illness. As mental illness because of their hereditary
somebody put it. ―a person who is either background or surroundings. Following factors
sad or bad or odd can be considered are responsible for the genesis of mental
abnormal, if these qualities cause illness:
problems to him and to others‖.  Large, low income families
 Unemployment
Characteristics of Mentally Ill Person:  Lack of close friend or confident
 Worrying all the while  Single parent families
 Inability to concentrate  Prolonged serious illness
 Continually unhappy  Drug dependence
 Loses temper easily
 Regular sleep disturbance Sick & illness behaviour
 Incapacitating fluctuations of mood. Description of sick role: A leading American
 Continual disliking of peopled company sociologist. Taleott persons (1902- 1979)
 Easily upset by disturbed daily routine development the concept of sick role with a
view to analyzing illness behaviour persons
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developed the idea, that illness is a form of iv. The sick person should seek medical
deviant behaviour as the sick person is unable help and co-operate with medical
to perform his normal social roles. Both the expert.
sick person and the doctor have appropriate
roles in restoring equilibrium of the social Description of illness behaviour:
system. The term illness behaviour was first used by
―David mechanic in 1962. He defined it as the
The sick role has four components. way in which symptoms may be differentially
i. The sick person is exampled from perceived, evaluated. In other words, illness
performing normal role obligation. behaviour refers to people perception of
ii. The sick person is not held systems of illness and their decision to seek or
responsible for own illness (The not to seek medical care. A second form of
needs to be cared for). social support consists of giving care, after
iii. The sick person must be motivated them and nurturance. Finally, social support
to recover from illness as early as can provide encouragement and re-assurance
possible. Sick role is regarded as that one life will return to normal.
misfortune.

Question:
Short note:
1. Sick role and illness behaviour. (Jan- 09, Feb- 14).

Reference:
1. Frost et al. Intervening with the psychosocial needs of patients and families: perceived
importance and skill level. October 1997-Volume 20-Issue 5-p 350-358.
2. https://www.physio-pedia.com/Psychosocial_Considerations_in_Spinal_Cord_Injury.
3. Linton SJ, Shaw WS. Impact of psychological factors in the experience of pain. Physical therapy.
2011 May 1;91(5):700-11.
4. Nicholas MK, Linton SJ, Watson PJ, Main CJ, “Decade of the Flags” Working Group. Early
identification and management of psychological risk factors (“yellow flags”) in patients with low
back pain: a reappraisal. Physical therapy. 2011 May 1;91(5):737-53.
 264
Chapter- 25
Behavior Modification
Application of various conditioning and 4. Modeling Principle: To teach a child
learning principle to modify patient new ways of behaving, allow him to
behavior: observe a prestigeful person performing
the desired behavior.
Behavior Modification: 5. Cueing Principle: To teach a child to
Behavior modification developed as an remember to act at a specific time,
alternative to psychoanalytic therapy, which arrange for him to receive a cue for the
focused on unconscious fears and motives. correct performance just before the
One significant influence on behavior action is expected rather than after he
modification therapy was B.F. Skinner, who has performed it incorrectly.
tested mice and came up with the concepts of 6. Discrimination Principle: To teach a
operant conditioning and negative child to act in a particular way under
reinforcement, among others. This focus on one set of circumstances but not in
stimulus and response carried over into using another, help him to identify the cues
these concepts on human behavior; this is how that differentiate the circumstances and
behavior modification developed. Behavior is reward him only when his action is
what people do. So, what is behavior appropriate to the cue.
modification? Behavior modification means
using the principles and theories of cognition B. To strengthen a new behavior
and learning to understand and modify 1. Decreasing Reinforcement Principle:
people's behavior and emotional reactions. To encourage a child to continue
performing an established behavior
Principles for Using Behavior Modification: with few or no rewards, gradually
A. To develop a new behavior require a longer time period or more
1. Successive Approximation Principle: correct responses before a correct
To teach a child to act in a manner in behavior is rewarded.
which he has seldom or never before 2. Variable Reinforcement Principle: To
behaved, reward successive steps to the improve or increase a child's
final behavior. performance of a certain activity,
2. Continuous Reinforcement Principle: provide the child with an intermittent
To develop a new behavior that the reward.
child has not previously exhibited,
arrange for an immediate reward after C. To maintain an established behavior
each correct performance. 1. Substitution Principle: To change
3. Negative Reinforcement Principle: To reinforces when a previously effective
increase a child's performance in a reward is no longer controlling
particular way, you may arrange for him behavior, present it just before (or as
to avoid or escape a mild aversive soon as possible to) the time you present
situation by improving his behavior or the new, hopefully more effective
by allowing him to avoid the aversive reward.
situation by behaving appropriately.
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D. To stop inappropriate behavior meaning learning by association, and operant
conditioning, meaning learning through
1. Satiation Principle: To stop a child reinforcement. One of the main assumptions of
from acting in a particular way, you behavior modification is that behavior is a
may allow him to continue (or insist product of learning, conditioning, other
that he continue) performing the people's reactions to behavior, and the social
undesired act until he tires of it. environment. If something is a learned
2. Extinction Principle: To stop a child behavior, it can also be unlearned. The goal is
from acting in a particular way, you to condition people differently to demonstrate
may arrange conditions so that he more desirable and effective ways of behaving
receives no rewards following the or reacting. When appropriately used,
undesired act. behavior modification therapy will target a
3. Incompatible Alternative Principle: To particular aspect of a person's behavior to
stop a child from acting in a particular modify. Behavior modification focuses on
way, you may reward an alternative observable behaviors and on changing
action that is inconsistent with or undesirable or unconstructive behaviors into
cannot be performed at the same time more constructive ones.
as the undesired act.
4. Punishment Principle: To stop a child Behavior Modification Examples:
from acting in a certain way, deliver an Here are some examples of behavior
aversive stimulus immediately after modification strategies. Behavior modification
the action occurs. Since punishment can change undesirable behaviors in people
results in increased hostility and into more desirable behaviors (chewing gum
aggression, it should only be used instead of smoking cigarettes). Or it can help
infrequently and in conjunction with increase desirable behaviors (paying attention
reinforcement. in class) and decrease undesirable behaviors
(temper tantrums). Another example of
E. To modify emotional behavior behavior modification is children getting
1. Avoidance Principle: To teach a child to rewards for positive behavior. Such as doing
avoid a certain type of situation, chores or controlling their temper; in this way,
simultaneously present to the child the the positive behavior of doing chores would
situation to be avoided (or some continue, and the negative behavior of having
representation of it) and some aversive a hard-to-control temper would decrease or
condition (or its representation). stop happening (become extinct).
2. Fear Reduction Principle: To help a The goal of behavior modification in the
child overcome his fear of a particular educational setting is to teach the student
situation, gradually increase his different ways of behaving by making changes
exposure to the feared situation while he to the educational environment, changing
is otherwise comfortable, relaxed, emotional and cognitive processes, and
secure or rewarded. helping the child learn new skills.
Therapists/teachers using behavior
Behavior modification theory: modification use operant conditioning,
Behavior modification theory focuses on classical conditioning, and modeling for
modifying behavior. It is a systematic way to behavior problems, problematic emotional
change behavior using the principles of responses, and psychological disorders in
conditioning. The behavior modification children.
model is based on classical conditioning,
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A teacher might use behavior modification in reinforce and thus increase the behavior by
a classroom to get a student with ADHD who yelling, giving the child attention when she
has problems focusing and being disruptive to was throwing a tantrum, or even giving her
pay better attention, do his work, and reduce what she wants so that the fit stops. The way
disruptiveness. The teacher might do this by to use behavior modification is to ignore the
providing the student with positive behavior; this may cause extinction or
reinforcement. When he demonstrates the eliminate the undesirable behavior as the child
desired behaviors, she could praise him, which realizes she will not get the attention she seeks
is positive reinforcement. Hopefully, her or get what she wants by pitching a fit.
praise of him would help him to continue and
increase these desired behaviors. Behavior Modification Therapy:
Another educational example is providing a Within therapy, for example, therapists using
student who has some behavior issues with a behavior modification therapy focus on
daily report card; this would provide daily specific goals with clients, which is changing
feedback to parents on their child's behavior certain maladaptive or undesirable behaviors
(operant conditioning). They can give their in specific situations. During a first session,
child positive reinforcement (rewards) for the therapist would listen to the client's
meeting specific behavioral goals, such as concerns to see what the client needs or wants
staying in an assigned seat and not interrupting to change; this could be a phobia, overeating,
others. a problem with focus and productivity, etc.
Another example of behavior modification is The client and therapist would identify the
its use to help someone overcome a fear. With specific problem to be solved and then figure
the help of a therapist, a client might try to out what steps are necessary to change the
overcome his fear of riding on an escalator. behavior gradually. The therapist and client
The therapist could use exposure therapy, one develop a treatment plan.
type of behavior modification therapy, to help Here is an example of how behavior
the client. After learning about the client's modification therapy could work. Sally is
fears, thoughts, and reactions to escalators, the afraid of heights. To conquer this fear, she is
therapist might gradually expose the client to exposed to pictures of high places, then shown
escalators. She might first show him pictures films of high places. Then, after learning some
of escalators, gauging his emotional response relaxation techniques, she goes to areas that
and asking his thoughts. Then she might ask are gradually higher and higher until her fear
him to imagine and describe riding one. Next, is gone or significantly lessened; this is an
she might give him the assignment to visit an example of systematic desensitization, a type
escalator nearby but not ride it. And she might of behavior modification therapy.
show him videos of people riding escalators
and not getting hurt. Finally, she might ask him Behavior Modification Techniques:
to ride an escalator. The design of this gradual Behavior modification techniques vary
exposure would decrease and eliminate his widely. They include the ones explained
anxiety about riding an escalator. The goal below, along with key concepts related to
would be for the stimulus of riding an elevator behavior modification.
not to cause a negative reaction.
Parents might use behavior modification on Classical conditioning: It links a neutral
their 3-year-old child who was having frequent stimulus with an unconditioned response to
temper tantrums. One way to strengthen the modify a person's behavior. The more this
likelihood of temper tantrums would be to happens, the stimulus evokes a new
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conditioned response. A dog realizes that on the living room floor or making them go to
when his owner grabs the leash, it is time to go the bus stop extra early because they always
for a walk, so it goes and sits by the front door; miss the bus for school. In positive
this is an example of classical conditioning. punishment, a stimulus, or punishment is
Here is another example of classical added in hopes to stop negative behaviors.
conditioning. A child who trips and hurts Where positive punishment adds something,
himself when he hears a bird chirp may negative punishment takes something pleasant
become afraid of birds, which is a neutral away. Negative punishment might be taking
stimulus, for example. Behavior modification recess away from a child who forgot their
can help the child become desensitized to a homework, not allowing a teen to go to the
bird's chirp, so he understands it isn't related to mall with friends after they were caught by
falling and getting hurt. The fact that he would sneaking in after curfew last weekend, or
stop being afraid of a bird chirping and would taking away their talk radio when they listen to
no longer have a negative emotional reaction talk radio loudly. Negative punishment is
is an example of extinction. meant to encourage good behavior.

Operant conditioning: This technique uses Extinction: When the reinforcements for
rewards to develop and reinforce desirable curbing or encouraging behavior are decreased
behaviors and punishment to discourage or discontinued altogether, this is known as
undesirable behaviors. A child who does her extinction. This is most often used in terms of
chores at home may earn more money toward a parent giving attention to a child who has an
her allowance each time she completes her attention-seeking habit. If the parent reacts
chores, encouraging her to continue doing her every time the child exhibits this particular
chores. Or a child who has a temper tantrum habit, the child will most likely continue to
may be placed in time out as a punishment. perform the annoying habit to continue
receiving the attention – even though it is
Positive reinforcement: Just like it sounds, negative attention – from the parent. If, on the
positive reinforcement is rewarding good other hand, the parent begins to ignore the
behavior with some kind of motivator. This child when they do this obnoxious thing, the
might take the form of verbal praise, extending child will be to realize their actions will no
a privilege, or offering some kind of longer produce the reaction – the positive
remuneration. Examples include a student who reinforcement in the form of attention – from
receives a dollar for each A or B on their report the parent. Eventually, knowing she’ll no
car or a salesperson earning a weekend longer get the positive attention they seek, the
getaway for reaching a sales goal. obnoxious behavior will discontinue.

Negative reinforcement: Two types of Shaping: The process of shaping reinforces

negative reinforcement are positive behaviors that are similar to a new, more
punishment, where adding a consequence is desirable behavior. This usually occurs in
supposed to deter future repetition of bad steps and is often applied in cases where the
behavior, and negative punishment, which ultimate goal is to overcome irrational fears or
involves taking something away. Examples of manage anxiety disorders. Examples of
positive punishment are making your child shaping might be for someone who has
write an apology letter to someone, making arachnophobia (afraid of spiders) to look at a
your child do an extra chore or making them picture of a spider, then work their way up to
do their sibling’s chores after dumping a snack holding a stuffed animal spider, to remove the
 268
fear’s power and desensitize the individual straight A’s and making the most of their
with the phobia. education.

Fading: Also referred to as conditioning, Chaining: Behavior chains link individual

fading is the process of gradually withdrawing behaviors to form a larger behavior. By
the reinforcement until artificial motivation is breaking down a task into its simplest and most
no longer needed. After all, the ultimate goal basic steps, it minimizes the potentially
is for the habit or child’s behavior to become overwhelming factor of seeing the larger
second nature. Examples of fading would behavior by itself. A behavior chain for
include wanting your child to get A’s on every forming a habit of going to the gym might
report card, eventually without having to give include steps like sign up for gym
them money every time. Fading gradually membership, purchase or gather workout
removes the old stimulus, getting money in clothes, pack gym bag, fill water bottle, drive
exchange for good grades, when it is replaced to the gym, check in, do 15 minutes of cardio,
with a new stimulus, such as pride in getting spend 15 minutes on free weights, stay for
yoga class.

Reference:
1. Adapted from: Krumboltz, J., & Krumboltz, H. (1972). Changing children's behavior. New
York: Prentice-Hall.
2. Elvén M, Hochwälder J, Dean E, Söderlund A. A clinical reasoning model focused on clients’
behaviour change with reference to physiotherapists: its multiphase development and
validation. Physiotherapy theory and practice. 2015 May 19;31(4):231-43.
3. Harman K, MacRae M, Vallis M, Bassett R. Working with people to make changes: a
behavioural change approach used in chronic low back pain rehabilitation. Physiotherapy
Canada. 2014 Jan;66(1):82-90.
4. Heaney CA, Green AJ, Rostron CL, Walker NC. A qualitative and quantitative investigation
of the psychology content of UK physiotherapy education programs. Journal of Physical
Therapy Education. 2012 Oct 1;26(3):48-56.
5. Adams J, Kirkby R. Exercise dependence: A problem for sports physiotherapists. Australian
journal of physiotherapy. 1997 Jan 1;43(1):53-8.
6. Sandborgh M, Dean E, Denison E, Elvén M, Fritz J, von Heideken Wågert P, Moberg J,
Overmeer T, Snöljung Å, Johansson AC, Söderlund A. Integration of behavioral medicine
competencies into physiotherapy curriculum in an exemplary Swedish program: rationale,
process, and review. Physiotherapy Theory and Practice. 2018 Jun 21.
 269
Chapter- 26
Substance Abuse
Substance abuse is a pattern of abnormal 24. Loss of jobs.
substance uses that lead to impairment 25. Accidents.
physical or social functioning. 26. Loss of social value.
27. Break down of family bondage.
Classifications of substance abuse: 28. Loss of personality.
Abuse can involve any of the following 10
classes of substances: Prevention of addiction:
1. Alcohol. 1. Motivation.
2. Amphetamines. (Including crystal meth 2. Control on availability.
and amphetamine) 3. Positive rile of family & institute.
3. Cannabis. 4. Good peers.
4. Cocaine. 5. Follow up.
5. Hallucinogens. 6. Rehabilitation.
6. Inhalants. 7. Motivational enhance therapy.
7. Nicotine. 8. Social support.
8. Opioids. 9. Associated medication.
9. Phencyclidine. 10. Hospitalization.
10. Sedative, hypnotic and anxiolytic. 11. D-toxification.

Causes of drug addiction: There impairment includes may—

1. Availability of illicit drugs. (i) Psychological dependence
2. Personality. (ii) Physical dependence
3. Curiosity. (iii) Substance induced organic mental
4. Peers pressure. disorder
5. High. (iv) Impaired social functioning
6. Frustration.
7. Unemployment. Psychological dependence:
8. Lack of knowledge about effects of drugs. Prolonged use of chemical substances may
9. Break down of social and religious value. lead to psychological dependence. A
10. Rejection by parents. compelling craving for the substances and an
11. Effects of drug addiction: inability to discontinue its use the
12. Lung diseases. psychologically depended person may go
13. Sleeplessness. through repeated cycles of drug use followed
14. Sexual dysfunction. by attempts to abstain that end in failure a
15. Cardiovascular effects. renewed heavy use.
16. Hepatitis B infection.
17. Kidney damage. Physical dependence:
18. Brain diseases. (Anxiety) Prolonged use of chemical substance may lead
19. Skin infections. to physical dependence marked by tolerance
20. Syphilis and gonorrhea. and withdrawal symptoms.
21. AIDS.
22. Edema.
23. Loss of family help.
 270
Organic mental disorder: immune system, including rheumatoid
It is a disorder or psychological or behavioural arthritis.
abnormality due to known impairment of brain
functioning. Quitting smoking: (10 ways to resist tobacco
cravings)-
Impaired social function: Tobacco cravings can wear you down when
A person who is dependent on and chronically you're trying to quit. Use these tips to reduce
intoxicated by drugs and unable to carry out and resist cravings. For most people who use
normal social expectation. tobacco, tobacco cravings or smoking urges
can be strong. But you can stand up against
Physical aspects of substance abuse: these cravings. When you feel an urge to use
Substance use disorders (SUD) are usually tobacco, keep in mind that even though the
chronic diseases, due to excessive and urge may be strong, it will likely pass within 5
uncontrolled intake of licit or illicit to 10 minutes whether or not you smoke a
psychoactive substances. The main licit drugs cigarette or take a dip of chewing tobacco.
that result in substantial SUD are alcohol and Each time you resist a tobacco craving, you're
tobacco (in many countries). SUD can affect one step closer to stopping tobacco use for
several aspects of a person's physical and good.
psychological health. Certain substances may Here are 10 ways to help you resist the urge to
lead to drowsiness and slow breathing, while smoke or use tobacco when a craving strikes:
others may cause insomnia, paranoia, or
hallucinations. Chronic substance use has links B. Try nicotine replacement therapy:
to cardiovascular, kidney, and liver disease. 1. Prescription nicotine in a nasal spray or
inhaler
Smoking: 2. Nicotine patches, gum and lozenges you
Tobacco use is the most popular form of can buy without a prescription
substance abuse used by us teenagers 3. Prescription non-nicotine stop-smoking
worldwide. Nicotine in tobacco is a powerfully drugs such as bupropion (Wellbutrin
addictive substance with multiple physiologic SR, Wellbutrin XL, others) and
and psychological effects. Like many other varenicline.
drugs of addiction, it activates the same brain  Short-acting nicotine replacement
reward system involved in pleasurable therapies- such as nicotine gum,
activities such as eating and sexual activity. lozenges, nasal sprays or inhalers- can
The toxic components of tobacco smoke are help you overcome intense cravings.
found not only in the smoke that the smoker These short-acting therapies are usually
inhales but also in environmental tobacco safe to use along with long-acting
smoke, or secondhand smoke—that is, the nicotine patches or one of the non-
smoke exhaled by the smoker (mainstream nicotine stop-smoking drugs.
smoke) and the smoke that rises directly from  Electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) have
the smoldering tobacco (sidestream smoke). had a lot of interest recently as a
Smoking causes cancer, heart disease, stroke, replacement for smoking traditional
lung diseases, diabetes, and chronic cigarettes. But e-cigarettes haven't
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which proved to be safer or more effective
includes emphysema and chronic bronchitis. than nicotine-replacement medications
Smoking also increases risk for tuberculosis, in helping people stop smoking.
certain eye diseases, and problems of the
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C. Avoid triggers: writing in a journal. Or do chores for
Tobacco urges are likely to be strongest in the distraction, such as cleaning or filing papers.
places where you smoked or chewed tobacco
most often, such as at parties or bars, or at G. Try relaxation techniques:
times when you were feeling stressed or Smoking may have been your way to deal with
sipping coffee. Find out your triggers and have stress. Fighting back against a tobacco craving
a plan in place to avoid them or get through can itself be stressful. Take the edge off stress
them without using tobacco. Don't set yourself by trying ways to relax, such as deep
up for a smoking relapse. If you usually breathing, muscle relaxation, yoga,
smoked while you talked on the phone, for visualization, massage or listening to calming
instance, keep a pen and paper nearby to keep music.
busy with doodling rather than smoking.
H. Call for reinforcements:
D. Delay: Connect with a family member, friend or
If you feel like you're going to give in to your support group member for help in your effort
tobacco craving, tell yourself that you must to resist a tobacco craving. Chat on the phone,
first wait 10 more minutes. Then do something go for a walk, share a few laughs, or meet to
to distract yourself during that time. Try going talk and support each other. Counseling can be
to a public smoke-free zone. These simple helpful too.
tricks may be enough to move you past your
tobacco craving. I. Go online for support:
Join an online stop-smoking program. Or read
D. Chew on it: a quitter's blog and post encouraging thoughts
Give your mouth something to do to resist a for someone else who might be dealing with
tobacco craving. Chew on sugarless gum or tobacco cravings. Learn from how others have
hard candy. Or munch on raw carrots, nuts or handled their tobacco cravings.
sunflower seeds- something crunchy and tasty.
J. Remind yourself of the benefits:
E. Don't have 'just one': Write down or say out loud why you want to
You might be tempted to have just one stop smoking and resist tobacco cravings.
cigarette to satisfy a tobacco craving. But don't These reasons might include:
fool yourself into thinking that you can stop  Feeling better
there. More often than not, having just one  Getting healthier
leads to one more. And you may end up using  Sparing your loved ones from secondhand
tobacco again. smoke
 Saving money
F. Get physical: Keep in mind that trying something to beat the
Physical activity can help distract you from urge to use tobacco is always better than doing
tobacco cravings. Even short bursts of activity- nothing. And each time you resist a tobacco
such as running up and down the stairs a few craving, you're one step closer to being
times- can make a tobacco craving go away. tobacco-free.
Get out for a walk or jog. If you're at home or
in the office, try squats, deep knee bends, Alcoholism and drug addiction:
pushups, running in place, or walking up and Addiction may be a disease (in that it needs
down a set of stairs. If you don't like physical treatment), but it is a disease unlike any other
activity, try prayer, sewing, woodwork or in the “disease” category. Instead, says
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Psychology Today, addiction is a group of too long a period of time. For example, if
behaviors, activated by emotionally stressful patients that take benzodiazepines to manage
events or memories. Continued excessive or their panic attacks and anxiety took the
compulsive use of alcoholic drinks. a chronic, prescribed daily dosage of their medications
a progressive, potentially fatal disorder for a month straight when they were only
marked by excessive and usually compulsive supposed to take them for no more than two
drinking of alcohol leading to psychological weeks straight, it can cause those patients to
and physical dependence or addiction. develop a tolerance towards the medication.
Drinking releases endorphins which can lead This, in turn, could cause those patients to need
people to feel happy, energized, and excited. more and more of the prescription drug to feel
But alcohol is also classified as a depressant its effects. Before you know it, these patients
and can cause fatigue, restlessness, and will develop an addiction to benzodiazepines
depression. It may shift from stimulant to due to the patients taking more and more of the
sedative in line with whether blood alcohol substance to receive its effects.
content is rising or falling. Generally, drugs that are abused are separated
into three categories: stimulants, sedatives,
Any substance, other than food, that influences and narcotics. The federal government has
motor, sensory, cognitive, or other bodily strict regulations for prescribing medications
processes. Drugs generally are administered in each of these categories. The medical
for experimental, diagnostic, or treatment industry rates these medications based on their
purposes but also tend to be used potential for generating a high enough
recreationally to achieve particular effects. But tolerance in their users to lead to abuse, and
the use of illegal drugs or the use of ultimately, addiction. Once an individual
prescription or over-the-counter drugs for develops an addiction towards a prescription
purposes other than those for which they are drug, the addiction can become just as severe
meant to be used, or in excessive amounts. as an addiction to an illicit drug.
Drug abuse may lead to social, physical,
emotional, and job-related problems. Types of Drug Abuse:
Not all drugs are created equal. Therefore,
Dealing with drug and alcohol abused some drugs are more addictive than others.
person: The highly addictive drugs that are most
There are many types of drug abuse. Abuse of abused are the following:
any substance, whether it be prescription
medications or illicit drugs, can turn into an 1. Heroin
addiction. Most people that are addicted to Heroin is a highly addictive opioid. Using
prescription drugs first acquired the substance heroin can cause a person to experience
through a legal prescription from a physician. seizures, psychosis, and hallucinations.
Most people that develop an addiction to their Heroin, when it’s injected, can also spread
own prescriptions do so because they consume diseases such as human immunodeficiency
more of the medication than they are virus (HIV) and hepatitis. The reason why
prescribed. While taking the proper dosage of heroin causes such serious health issues when
a medication that your doctor prescribes to you abused is that it interferes with the brain’s
should not cause you to develop an addiction, receptors. Therefore, its users become
this is not always the case. In fact, many people physically dependent on the substance very
develop addictions to prescription medications quickly. Once heroin users develop a physical
because they simply took their medications for dependency on the drug, they need more and
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more of it to achieve the same high that they 4. Hallucinogens
initially got when they first consumed it. PCP (phencyclidine) and LSD (lysergic acid
Unfortunately, consuming too much heroin diethylamide) are hallucinogens. This means
can lead to a fatal overdose. To detox and treat that these two substances make people feel,
your body and brain from heroin addiction, see, and hear things that aren’t real. When
you must receive professional detox and people are high on hallucinogens, they lose
addiction treatment services with medical touch with reality and disconnect from their
guidance. This is because the withdrawal mental state. This creates the illusion that their
symptoms of heroin are extremely intense and minds and bodies aren’t connected or working
life-threatening, and thus, cannot be managed together. Because of how hallucinogenic PCP
on your own. and LSD are, some people that abuse these two
substances enter into violent states of
2. Cocaine psychosis. This could cause some people to
Cocaine, even when taken in small doses, is a hurt themselves and experience serious injury.
very dangerous stimulant. It induces euphoria, In fact, there are cases of repeated PCP and
increases blood pressure, and accelerates the LSD abuse that have caused people to
heart rate. Using cocaine can even cause a experience permanent neurological damage.
person to experience fatal strokes or heart Like with all of the substances that we’ve
attacks. Because of how addictive cocaine is, discussed thus far, getting sober from an
many people that are addicted to it are willing addiction to hallucinogens requires
to sacrifice any facet of their lives to get more professional addiction treatment at a treatment
of it. As a result, cocaine abuse can lead to facility.
financial, legal, and physical issues. Due to the
severe consequences that many people that use 5. Amphetamines
cocaine experience, it’s imperative that those Amphetamines are substances that are known
that suffer from cocaine addiction receive for enhancing the ability of both the body and
professional addiction treatment. mind. Unfortunately, amphetamines are also
known for causing its users to experience
3. Crack manic periods of distress. These manic periods
Crack is a potent form of cocaine that people are usually accompanied by extreme paranoia,
smoke to create a short and intense euphoric inexplicable behavior, and delusions. Some
sensation. Because of how inexpensive crack amphetamine abusers will even become
is, the abuse rates of crack are high. violent and unintentionally attack their loved
Unfortunately, though, abusing crack often ones. Others will experience permanent
leads to immediate addiction. Short-term physical changes in their appearance.
physical consequences of abusing crack can Irreversible brain and nerve damage are also
include heart attacks and strokes at every use. possible consequences of amphetamine use.
Long-term physical consequences of abusing People that are looking to treat amphetamine
crack include severe liver, kidney, and lung addiction must do so through professional
damage. Because of the severity of the addiction treatment services with medical
withdrawal symptoms of crack, it’s imperative attention.
that those that suffer from a crack addiction
receive professional addiction treatment. 6. Marijuana
Types of drug abuse that are often the most
common, are the ones that are the most
accessible. This is part of the reason why
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marijuana is the most common illegal drug person’s body. Alcohol’s severe withdrawal
abused today. On top of how accessible symptoms combined with how difficult it is for
marijuana is, many people view marijuana as an alcoholic to refrain from such an easily
not being addictive. As a result, many people accessible substance makes it necessary for
recklessly use it. Many people use marijuana alcoholics to receive professional addiction
for the first time when they are hanging out treatment to overcome their addiction.
with their friends in social settings. Although
many people view marijuana as not being 8. Inhalants
addictive, when continually abused, it can be. Inhalants are substances that people breathe in
Marijuana use can also affect your physical through their noses to get high. Types of drug
coordination, memory, and mental functions abuse that are considered inhalants include the
over time. Some people have even lost their abuse of spray paint, butane, and nitrous oxide.
relationships, homes, and jobs due to their When a person smells in inhalant, it can cause
marijuana addiction. While it’s easy to start that person to experience feelings of euphoria
abusing marijuana, it’s not that easy to stop. and numbness. Because these feelings are brief
Therefore, those that want to remain abstinent though, people must repeatedly breathe in an
from marijuana should receive professional inhalant to upkeep its euphoric effect. While it
addiction treatment. may not seem like it at first, it’s very risky to
abuse inhalants. This is because breathing in
7. Alcohol inhalants can cause permanent brain damage
Alcohol is one of the other types of drug abuse or sudden death.
that is common due to its accessibility.
Abusing alcohol can cause psychological, 9. Prescription Drugs
physical, and social problems. It can also lead Prescription medications are the second most
to the destruction of relationships, friendships, abused substance. Any medication that doctors
and marriages. A lot of alcohol abusers drink can prescribe to patients is considered a
so much that their bodies are unable to handle prescription drug. This includes everything
it. As a result, some alcohol abusers must get from depressants and anti-anxiety medication
sent to the hospital to receive treatment for to sedatives, to even ADHD medications. One
alcohol poisoning. When a person chronically category of prescription drugs that is arguably
abuses alcohol over a long period of time, it the most commonly abused is painkillers.
can cause that person to experience irreparable Examples of prescription painkillers include
heart and liver damage. Alcohol abuse can also Vicodin and Oxycodone, along with opioids.
cause people to get arrested for public Many doctors prescribe patients prescription
intoxication, driving under the influence, or painkillers to help them manage the pain from
other law-related issues. When people are an injury while they are in physical recovery.
under the influence of alcohol, they lose all of Because of how addictive prescription drugs
their inhibitions. Therefore, when alcohol are, it’s imperative that those with prescription
abuse is at its worse, it can even cause drug addictions receive professional detox and
incidents that lead to severe injury, or death. addiction treatment to get clean and sober.
Because of how addictive alcohol is, the
withdrawal symptoms of alcohol are just as Signs and Symptoms of Drug Addiction:
severe. In fact, due to it causing delirium One of the reasons why drug abuse can take
tremens, alcohol withdrawal can be fatal. This place for so many years without being
is because alcohol withdrawal delirium recognized is that every person’s struggle with
tremens can trigger heart failure or stroke in a drug addiction is different. Many times,
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addicts will abuse drugs for years on end and
feel as if it has little or no effect on them.  Physical
Unfortunately, the irreversible psychological, Physical drug addiction symptoms affect the
emotional, and physical effects will eventually way that a person’s body looks or functions.
become apparent. The symptoms of drug These symptoms are often noticeable to the
addiction will change for each person. There eye. Types of drug abuse symptoms that are
are four categories to these varying symptoms. physical include:
These four categories of drug addiction a) Chills
symptoms are described below. b) Nausea
c) Insomnia
 Emotional d) Headaches
Emotional drug addiction symptoms are ones e) Sudden weight loss
that affect an addict’s emotional state and f) Sudden weight gain
well-being. When an addict is displaying
emotional addiction symptoms, the way that  Cognitive
he or she handles emotions may appear Cognitive drug addiction symptoms affect the
different than the way that person normally way that an addict’s mind operates. This could,
does when not under the influence of drugs. in turn, affect the way that an addict perceives
Types of drug abuse symptoms that are the world. Types of drug abuse symptoms that
emotional include: are cognitive include:
a) Irritability a) Paranoia
b) Depression b) Hallucinations
c) Mood swings c) A disconnect from reality
d) Extreme sadness
e) Unexplained euphoria Use or misuse drugs:
f) Manic energy followed by an emotional Teens who experiment with drugs put their
and physical crash. health and safety at risk. Help prevent teen
drug abuse by talking to teen about the
 Behavioral consequences of using drugs and the
Behavioral drug addiction symptoms change importance of making healthy choices.
the way that person normally behaves. Various factors can contribute to teen drug use
Behavioral addiction symptoms can also and misuse. First-time use often occurs in
change a person’s habits and priorities. Types social settings with easily accessible
of drug abuse symptoms that are behavioral substances, such as alcohol and cigarettes.
include: Continued use might be a result of insecurities
a) Lying or a desire for social acceptance. Teens may
b) Stealing feel indestructible and might not consider the
c) Erratic behavior consequences of their actions, leading them to
d) Troubles sleeping take dangerous risks with drugs.
e) Excessive sleeping
f) Change in social circle Common risk factors for teen drug abuse
g) Getting in trouble with the law include:
h) Declining performance at work or school  A family history of substance abuse
i) Being secretive about one’s whereabouts  A mental or behavioral health condition,
j) No longer being excited or interested in such as depression, anxiety or attention-
things that they once were. deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
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 Impulsive or risk-taking behavior later in life associated with early and
 A history of traumatic events, such as frequent use
experiencing a car accident or being a  Methamphetamine: Risk of psychotic
victim of abuse behaviors from long-term use or high doses
 Low self-esteem or feelings of social  Opioids: Risk of respiratory distress or
rejection death from overdose
 Electronic cigarettes (vaping): Exposure to
Consequences of teen drug abuse: harmful substances similar to exposure
Negative consequences of teen drug abuse from cigarette smoking; risk of nicotine
might include: dependence
 Drug dependence. Teens who misuse drugs
are at increased risk of serious drug use Preventives measures of drug abuse:
later in life. You'll likely have multiple conversations with
 Poor judgment. Teenage drug use is your teen about drug and alcohol use. Choose
associated with poor judgment in social and times when you're unlikely to be interrupted-
personal interactions. and set aside phones. It's also important to
 Sexual activity. Drug use is associated with know when not to have a conversation, such as
high-risk sexual activity, unsafe sex and when you're angry with your child, you aren't
unplanned pregnancy. prepared to answer questions, or your child is
 Mental health disorders. Drug use can drunk or high.
complicate or increase the risk of mental
health disorders, such as depression and  To talk to your teen about drugs:
anxiety.  Ask your teen's views. Avoid lectures.
 Impaired driving. Driving under the Instead, listen to your teen's opinions
influence of any drug can impair a driver's and questions about drugs. Assure your
motor skills, putting the driver, passengers teen that he or she can be honest with
and others on the road at risk. you.
 Changes in school performance. Substance  Discuss reasons not to use drugs. Avoid
use can result in a decline in academic scare tactics. Emphasize how drug use
performance. can affect the things that are important
to your teen- such as sports, driving,
Health effects of drugs: health and appearance.
Drug use can result in drug addiction, serious  Consider media messages. Social
impairment, illness and death. Health risks of media, television programs, movies and
commonly used drugs include the following: songs can glamorize or trivialize drug
use. Talk about what your teen sees and
 Cocaine: Risk of heart attack, stroke and hears.
seizures  Discuss ways to resist peer pressure.
 Ecstasy: Risk of liver failure and heart Brainstorm with your teen about how to
failure turn down offers of drugs.
 Inhalants: Risk of damage to heart, lungs,  Be ready to discuss your own drug use.
liver and kidneys from long-term use Think about how you'll respond if your
 Marijuana: Risk of impairment in memory, teen asks about your own drug use. If
learning, problem solving and you chose not to use drugs, explain
concentration; risk of psychosis — such as why. If you did use drugs, share what
schizophrenia, hallucination or paranoia — the experience taught you.
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Seeking help for teen drug abuse:
 Other preventive strategies: Consider other If you suspect or know that your teen is
strategies to prevent teen drug abuse: experimenting with or misusing drugs:
 Know your teen's activities. Pay  Talk to him or her: You can never intervene
attention to your teen's whereabouts. too early. Casual drug use can turn into
Find out what adult-supervised excessive use or addiction and cause
activities your teen is interested in and accidents, legal trouble and health
encourage him or her to get involved. problems.
 Establish rules and consequences.  Encourage honesty: Speak calmly and
Explain your family rules, such as express that you are coming from a place of
leaving a party where drug use occurs concern. Share specific details to back up
and not riding in a car with a driver your suspicion. Verify any claims he or she
who's been using drugs. If your teen makes.
breaks the rules, consistently enforce  Focus on the behavior, not the person:
consequences. Emphasize that drug use is dangerous but
 Know your teen's friends. If your teen's that doesn't mean your teen is a bad person.
friends use drugs, your teen might feel  Check in regularly: Spend more time with
pressure to experiment, too. your teen, know your teen's whereabouts,
 Keep track of prescription drugs. Take and ask questions after he or she returns
an inventory of all prescription and home.
over-the-counter medications in your  Get professional help: If you think your
home. teen is involved in significant drug use,
 Provide support. Offer praise and contact a doctor, counselor or other health
encouragement when your teen care provider for help.
succeeds. A strong bond between you It's never too soon to start talking to your teen
and your teen might help prevent your about drug abuse. The conversations you have
teen from using drugs. today can help your teen make healthy choices
 Set a good example. If you drink, do so in the future.
in moderation. Use prescription drugs
as directed. Don't use illicit drugs. Reference:
1. Neeraj K, Maman P, Sandhu JS. Why
Recognizing the warning signs of teen drug players engage in drug abuse substances? A
abuse: Be aware of possible red flags, such survey study. The Doping Journal.
as: 2011;8(1).
 Sudden or extreme change in friends, 2. Donaghy ME. Exercise can seriously
eating habits, sleeping patterns, physical improve your mental health: Fact or
appearance, coordination or school Fiction?. Advances in physiotherapy. 2007
performance Jan 1;9(2):76-88.
 Irresponsible behavior, poor judgment and
general lack of interest.
 Breaking rules or withdrawing from the
family.
 The presence of medicine containers,
despite a lack of illness, or drug
paraphernalia in your teen's room.
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Chapter- 27
Personality Style

Different personality style of patient:

Personality is the description of an individual’s Types of personality style of patient.
tendencies when acting or reacting to others. Openness to Experience
Clinicians spontaneously form impressions of Openness to experience is defined as a general
a patient’s apparent personality yet such appreciation for varied experiences and
unstructured impressions might lead to snap involves traits such as curiosity and caution. A
judgments or unhelpful labels. Delivering contrasting example could be characters from
person-centered care means respecting that the movie “Toy Story” where Buzz Lightyear
patients have personalities. These personalities might be classified as higher than Woody in
influence commitment to preventive care, openness. Some descriptive terms could
adherence with medications, willingness to include wanderlust, curiosity, or open-
undergo surgery, reliability with follow-up, mindedness. In medicine, openness may
and clinical outcomes. Adapting to different possibly contribute to some diseases by
personalities is a core skill for a practicing increasing a patient’s propensity toward risky
clinician. General medical literature, however, activities such as engaging in extreme sports,
is relatively silent about the normal range of exposure to exotic infections, or eating toxic
personality aside from antiquated claims such mushrooms. Openness can sometimes predict
as the patient’s personality being linked to a patient’s responsiveness to behavioral
migraines or ulcers. In turn, an unstructured therapy for bulimia.8 Identifying this trait
approach to assessing personality may result in requires watching for signs that the patient
unhelpful one-dimensional labels (e.g., enjoys spontaneity, holds unconventional
“pleasant” or “difficult”) that foster biased beliefs, or sometimes behaves unpredictably.
intuitions about a patient’s temperament and
potentially undermine medical care. Conscientiousness
Psychology science outside of medicine Conscientiousness is defined as a tendency to
includes a specific branch that explores the exhibit self-discipline and involves traits such
domain of personality. The branch has many as perfectionism and carelessness. A
contradictory theories and findings that fail to contrasting example could be television
replicate; however, one paradigm that has cartoon characters from the show “The
proven reliable is a five-factor model. The Simpsons” where Marg Simpson might be
specific factors are openness, classified higher than Homer Simpson in
conscientiousness, extraversion, apparent conscientiousness. Some descriptive
agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN terms could include orderliness, self-
mnemonic). The core assumption of the discipline, and industriousness. In medicine,
OCEAN taxonomy is that a few features are conscientiousness may possibly contribute to
reproducible traits partially predicting a health outcomes by directly increasing a
person’s behavior over long intervals in patient’s attentiveness with physiotherapy,
similar situations. wound care, regular exercise, or home blood
pressure monitoring. Conscientiousness can
sometimes predict a patient’s adherence to
dietary advice. Identifying conscientiousness
requires watching for signs that the patient has
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impressive focus, high self-efficacy, and a agreeableness may possibly reduce a patient’s
degree of steadfastness. risks of injury due to fewer interpersonal
conflicts and might also increase the
Extraversion availability of family supports for care.
Extraversion is defined by the degree of Agreeableness can predict a greater
engagement with the external world and willingness toward organ donation.
involves traits such as being outgoing or being Identifying this trait requires watching for
solitary. A contrasting example could be signs the patient has a trusting view of human
Muppets from the show “Sesame Street” nature, expresses gracious willingness to
where Ernie might be classified as higher than compromise, and sometimes ascribes to
Bert in extraversion. Some descriptive terms harmful societal myths (e.g., drinking
could include assertiveness, warmth, and methanol to fight coronavirus).
social confidence. In medicine, extraversion
may possibly contribute to the risk of Neuroticism
communicable diseases by increasing a Neuroticism is defined as a tendency to
patient’s exposure to hazards spread by experience negative emotions and involves
person-to-person contact or the power of peer traits such as nervousness and confidence. A
pressure to influence recklessness. contrasting example could be android
Extraversion can sometimes predict how work characters from the movie “Star Wars” where
relationships mitigate burnout in nurses. C3P0 might be classified as higher than R2D2
Identifying extraversion requires watching for in apparent neuroticism. Some descriptive
signs that the patient likes to talk, enjoys being terms could include timidity, pessimism, and
the center of attention, and feels comfortable volatility. In medicine, this trait may possibly
interrupting to add to the conversation. contribute to a patient’s negative reaction
when learning about rare drug side-effects or
Agreeableness when reading an online medical record that
Agreeableness is defined as a general concern shows a marginally abnormal laboratory
for social harmony including traits such as result. Neuroticism can sometimes predict a
friendliness and antagonism. A contrasting patient’s tendency to seek care for vague
example could be American presidents where abdominal dyspepsia. Identifying this trait
Ronald Reagan might be higher than Donald requires watching for signs that the patient is
Trump in apparent agreeableness. Some easily irritated, generally apprehensive, and
descriptive terms could include civility, sometimes reluctant to digest negative
compassion, and tact. In medicine, information.
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Reference:
1. Donald A. Redelmeier, et al. Understanding Patient Personality in Medical Care: Five-Factor
Model. J Gen Intern Med. 2021 Jul; 36(7): 2111–2114.
2. Hsin-Bang L, Wei-Hsian Y, Wei-Kung T, et al. Impact of type D personality on clinical
outcomes in Asian patients with stable coronary artery disease. Journal of the Formosan
Medical Association. 2019; 118:721–729. doi: 10.1016/j.jfma.2018.08.021. [PubMed]
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
3. Michel W. Personality and assesment. New York: Wiley; 1968. [Google Scholar]
4. Osler W. The Principles and Practice of Medicine. New York: D Appleton & Co.; 1892.
[Google Scholar]
5. Hahn SR, Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Brody D, Williams JB, Linzer M, deGruy FV 3rd. The
difficult patient: prevalence, psychopathology, and functional impairment. J Gen Intern Med.
1996;11(1):1-8. [PubMed]
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Chapter- 28
Body Mind Relationship
Concept about body mind relationship: to decide whether the raised fist is a sign of
Psychology studies the relationship between rage, playfulness or a threat. Our emotions
mind and body. Mind and body affect each including moods such as depression and
other. The mind operates at the levels of complex feelings such as hatred and love are
thinking, emotion and action. Mind and body greatly affected by our interpretation,
cannot act independently on parallel lines. This memories and expectations. These emotions
is an integrated response, inseparable from lead to think more positively about ourselves
each other. When angry thoughts cross the and the world around us feel better.
brain, they stimulate both the halves of the
autonomic nervous system- the sympathetic How action of mind upon body and action of
which energizes us and the parasympathetic body upon mind leads to psychological
which calms us down. We may consider the disorder:
former as a car’s accelerator and the latter as its Action of Mind upon Body:
brake. The person would be having a bumping  All physical and motor activities begin by
ride, if he applies brake while accelerating. the motivation in the mind.
This is what would happen to person’s heart  Negative emotions like fear, anger and
when he is constantly being resentful. The jealousy produce illness. They make us
conflicting messages trigger jerky, ragged depressed Emotional conflicts lie at the
heart rhythms. root of peptic ulcers, coronary heart
diseases, blood pressure and neurosis
To arrest potential for physical damage,  Deep thinking and concentration can cause
researchers in the field of heart-brain physical fatigue.
communication have found that you need to  Soldiers put in superhuman effort and win
shift into a positive state of mind. As emotions, the war when their morale is high.
such as sympathy and mercy, overpower
negative feelings and thoughts, the symptoms Action of Body upon Mind:
of heart disease disappear. When you are  Rise in blood pressure leads excitement.
treated unjustly by others, resent is the natural  Fatigue retards intellectual activity.
response. If those resentful feelings are not
 Sudden emotion causes mental imbalance.
resolved, a grudge will form. Victims may
 Constipation makes people irritable.
want to hold a grudge because it gives them a
regained sense of control and superiority.  Dyspepsia (indigestion) makes people
gloomy.
However, when nursing a grudge, you are
continuing as a victim and inviting anger to  Hyperthyroidism leads to excitement and
become a companion in your everyday life and hypothyroidism causes lethargy.
a toxin to your body. Emotions depend on a  Bad throat and septic tonsils can reduce
complex combination of bodily responses and concentration.
mental processes. Body provides energy to  An understanding of the above facts is
fight, flee, cope, hug, sing or dance. Mind useful for the nurse to learn the etiology of
contributes to the understanding to offer an diseases.
explanation for one’s own actions or the
actions of others. Just as the body produces
epinephrine to fight out danger, the mind helps
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Behaving Organism:  Adjusting relationships with families of
The human being is capable of behavior and, origin and peers to include partner.
therefore, is a living organism. The individual
is in active relation with the environment and 5. Stage 5: Family with young children
his environment influences and changes him. During this Phase the main tasks are:
His behavior consists of his dealings with the  Realigning family system to make space
environment. All behavior is a function of the for children.
individual and his environment, both of which  Adopting and developing parenting roles.
undergo changes because of their interaction  Realigning relationships with families of
with one another. origin to include parenting and grand
parenting roles.
Family life cycle:  Facilitating children to develop peer
The emotional and intellectual stages you pass relationships.
through from childhood to your retirement
years as a member of a family life cycle. 6. Stage 6. Family with adolescents
During this phase the main tasks are:
The stage of family life cycle:  Adjusting parent - child relationships to
Stage 1: Family of origin experiences allow adolescents more autonomy.
During this phase the main tasks are:
 Adjusting family relationships to focus on
 Maintaining relationships with parents, midlife relationship and career issues.
siblings and peers.
 Taking on responsibility of caring for
 Completing education. families of origin.
 Developing the foundations of a model of
family life. Stage 7: Launching children:
During this phase the main tasks are:
Stage 2: Leaving home  Resolving midlife issues Negotiating adult
During this phase the main tasks are: to adult relationships with children.
 Differentiation of self from family of  Adjusting to living as a couple again.
origin and parents and developing adult to
 Adjusting to including in - laws and
adult relationships with parents grandchildren within the family circle.
 Developing intimate peer relationships.
 Dealing with disabilities and death in the
 Beginning work, developing work identity family of origin.
and financial independence.
Stage 8: Later family life:
Stage 3: Pre - marriage stage During this phase the main tasks are:
During this phase the main tasks are:
 Coping with physiological decline in self
 Selecting partners. and others.
 Developing a relationship.  Adjusting to children taking a more central
 Deciding to establish own home with role in family maintenance.
someone.  Valuing the wisdom and experience of the
elderly.
4. Stage 4: Childless couple stage  Dealing with loss of spouse and peers.
During this phase the main tasks are:
 Preparation for death, life review,
 Developing a way to live together both
reminiscence and integration.
practically and emotionally.
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Reference:
1. Nicholls DA, Gibson BE. The body and physiotherapy. Physiotherapy theory and practice.
2010 Nov 1;26(8):497-509.
2. Monaco S, Renzi A, Galluzzi B, Mariani R, Di Trani M. The Relationship between
Physiotherapist and Patient: A Qualitative Study on Physiotherapists’ Representations on
This Theme. InHealthcare 2022 Oct 25 (Vol. 10, No. 11, p. 2123). MDPI.
3. Snelgrove S, Liossi C. Living with chronic low back pain: a metasynthesis of qualitative
research. Chronic illness. 2013 Dec;9(4):283-301.

N.B.
Each question given at the end of each chapter is addressed
briefly or in detail in the text.
Please find the context and text to find the answer.

Thank you