http://thejapanesepage.

com/grammar/chapter_eight
http://www.guidetojapanese.org/learn/grammar/teform
http://www.guidetojapanese.org/learn/grammar

L1

~とき (When,that time)

Using とき toki - at the time when... If you don't know when to say something, you will never say it!

With a noun add a の

私は 学生 の ときには とても 若かったね。
watashi wa gakusei no toki ni wa totemo wakakatta ne. [looking at a photo] When I was a student, I was very young, wasn't I?

And with verbs...

フロリダに 行った ときに これを 買いました。
furorida ni itta toki ni kore wo kaimashita. When I went to Florida, I bought this.

non-past
フロリダに 行く ときは おみやげを 買います。
furorida ni iku toki wa omiyage wo kaimasu. When I go to Florida, I will buy souvenirs.

continuing
寝る とき いつも 布団で 寝ます。
neru toki itsumo futon de nemasu. When I sleep, I always sleep on a futon.

~ たばかり
This is a very useful grammar that is used to indicate that one has just finished doing something. For instance, the first time I really wished I knew how
to say something like this was when I wanted to politely decline an invitation to eat because I had just eaten. To do this, take the past tense of verb that
you want to indicate as just being completed and add 「ばかり」. This is used with only the past tense of verbs and is not to be confused with the
「ばかり」 used with nouns to express amounts.

Just like the other type of 「ばかり」 we have covered before, in slang, you can hear people use 「ばっか」 instead of 「ばかり」.
Using 「ばかり」 for actions just completed

 To indicate that an action has ended just recently, take the past tense of the verb and add 「ばかり」.
Example:　食べる → 食べた → 食べたばかり
 For casual speech, you can abbreviate 「ばかり」 to just 「ばっか」
Example:　食べたばかり →　食べたばっか

You can treat the result as you would with any noun.
Positive Negative
食べたばかり（だ） Just ate 食べたばかりじゃない Didn't just eat

Examples

1. すみません、今食べたばかりなので、お腹がいっぱいです。
Sorry, but I'm full having just eaten.
2. 10 キロを走ったばかりで、凄く疲れた。
I just ran 10 kilometers and am really tired.
 3. 今、家に帰ったばかりです。
I got back home just now.

Here are some examples of the abbreviated version.

1. 昼ご飯を食べたばっかなのに、もうお腹が空いた。
Despite the fact that I just ate lunch, I'm hungry already.
2. まさか、今起きたばっかなの？
No way, did you wake up just now?

simple past
フロリダに 行った ときに これを 買いました。
furorida ni itta toki ni kore wo kaimashita. When I went to Florida, I bought this.

non-past
フロリダに 行く ときは おみやげを 買います。
furorida ni iku toki wa omiyage wo kaimasu. When I go to Florida, I will buy souvenirs.

continuing
寝る とき いつも 布団で 寝ます。
neru toki itsumo futon de nemasu. When I sleep, I always sleep on a futon.

~ことがあります Have Done

This is a very useful construction. Simply add it after a simple past form of a verb:
Construction:
Take the simple past form of a verb
Add ことがあります
アメリカに行ったことがありますか？
amerika ni itta koto ga arimasu ka?
Have you been to America?

納豆を食べたことがあります。
nattou o tabeta koto ga arimasu.
(I) have eaten natto before.

l2

Conditionals　（たら、ば、なら、と）
How to say "if" in Japanese

This whole section is dedicated to learning how to say "if" in Japanese. Oh, if only it was as simple as English. In Japanese, there's four (count them,
four) ways to say "if"! Thankfully, the conjugations are sparse and easy especially since you don't have to deal with tenses.

~「と」Expressing natural consequence using

We'll first cover the simplest type of "if" which is the natural consequence conditional. This means that if [X] happens, [Y] will happen as a natural
consequence. No question about it. If I drop a ball, it will fall to the ground. If I turn off the lights at night, it will get dark. We can express this type of
condition in the following format.
Rules for using the conditional 「と」

1. Attach 「と」 to the condition followed by the result that would occur should the condition be satisfied
= [Condition] + と + [Result]
2. State-of-being must be made explicit
= [State-of-being] + だと + [Result]
Examples

1. ボールを落すと落ちる。
If you drop the ball, it will fall.
2. 電気を消すと暗くなる。
If you turn off the lights, it will get dark.

These examples are designed to show how 「と」 is used to express natural consequence. However, even if the statement isn't a natural
consequence in itself, the 「と」 will tell the audience that it is nevertheless expected to be a natural consequence.

1. 学校に行かないと友達と会えないよ。
If you don't go to school, you can't meet your friends.
2. たくさん食べると太るよ。
If you eat a lot, you will get fat, for sure.
3. 先生だと、きっと年上なんじゃないですか？
If he's a teacher, he must be older for sure, right?

The "for sure" part is the implied meaning supplied by the 「と」. The speaker is saying that the following condition will occur in that situation, no
matter what. As you can see from the last example, if the condition is a state-of-being, it must be expressed so explicitly using 「だ」. This applies
to all non-conjugated nouns and na-adjectives as I'm sure you're used to by now. This will also help prevent confusion with other types of 「と」.

~「なら（ば）」Contextual conditionals using

Another relatively easy to understand type of "if" is the contextual conditional. You can use this particle to express what will happen given a certain
context. For example, if you wanted to say, "Well, if everybody's going, I'm going too" you would use the 「なら」 conditional because you are
saying that you will go in the context of everybody else going. The contextual conditional always requires a context in which the conditional occurs. For
instance, you would use it for saying things like, "If that's what you are talking about..." or "If that's the case, then..."

In a sense, you are explaining what would occur if you assume a certain condition is satisfied. In other words, you are saying "if given a certain context,
here is what will happen." You will see this reflected in the English translations as the phrase "if given" in the examples.

The 「なら」 is attached to the context in which the conditional occurs. The format is the same as the 「と」 conditional, however, you must
not attach the declarative 「だ」.
Rules for using the contextual conditional 「なら」

1. Attach 「なら」 to the context in which the conditional would occur

= [Assumed Context] + なら + [Result]
2. You must not attach the declarative 「だ」.
Examples
 1. みんなが行くなら私も行く。
If given that everybody is going, then I'll go too.
2. アリスさんが言うなら問題ないよ。
If given that Alice-san says so, there's no problem.
Example Dialogue

アリス：図書館はどこですか。
Alice: Where is the library?

ボブ：図書館なら、あそこです。
Bob: If given that you're talking about the library, then it's over there.

The following is incorrect.

 図書館だならあそこです。

You can also decide to use 「ならば」 instead of just 「なら」. This means exactly the same thing except that it has a more formal nuance.

~「ば」 General conditionals using

The next type of conditional just expresses a regular "if" condition without any assumptions or embedded meanings. The conjugation rules for the
「ば」 conditional is below. Note, the conjugation rule for nouns and na-adjectives is actually using the verb 「ある」 in 「である」, a
formal expression we'll learn much later.
Conjugation Rules for 「ば」

 For verbs: Change the last /u/ vowel sound to the equivalent /e/ vowel sound and attach 「ば」
Examples
1. 食べる　→　食べれ → 食べれば
2. 待つ　→　待て → 待てば

 For i-adjectives or negatives ending in 「ない」: Drop the last 「い」 and attach 「ければ」.
Examples
1. おかしい　→　おかしければ
2. ない　→　なければ

 For nouns and na-adjectives: Attach 「であれば」

Examples :
1. 学生　→　学生であれば
2. 暇　→　暇であれば
Examples

1. 友達に会えれば、買い物に行きます。
If I can meet with my friend, we will go shopping.
2. お金があればいいね。
If I had money, it would be good, huh?
3. 楽しければ、私も行く。
 If it's fun, I'll go too.
4. 楽しくなければ、私も行かない。
If it's not fun, I'll also not go.
5. 食べなければ病気になるよ。
If you don't eat, you will become sick.

～たら（ば）
I call this next conditional the past conditional because it is produced by taking the past tense and just adding 「ら」. It is commonly called the
「たら」 conditional because all past-tense ends with 「た／だ」 and so it always becomes 「たら／だら」. Like the 「ば」
conditional, it is also a general conditional.
Conjugation Rule for 「たら（ば）」

 First change the noun, adjective, or verb to its past tense and attach 「ら」
Examples
1. 自動　→　自動だった → 自動だったら
2. 待つ　→　待った → 待ったら
3. 読む　→　読んだ　→　読んだら
4. 忙しい　→　忙しかった → 忙しかったら
Examples

1. 暇だったら、遊びに行くよ。
If I am free, I will go play.
2. 学生だったら、学生割引で買えます。
If you're a student, you can buy with a student discount.

For i-adjectives and verbs, it is very difficult to differentiate between the two types of conditionals, and you can make life easier for yourself by
considering them to be the same. However there is a small difference in that the 「たら」 conditional focuses on what happens after the condition.
This is another reason why I call this the past conditional because the condition is "in the past" (not literally) and we're interested in the result not the
condition. The 「ば」 conditional, on the other hand, focuses on the conditional part.

Let's compare the difference in nuance.

Example 1

Ａ：友達に会えれば、買い物に行きます。
A: We will go shopping, if I can meet with my friend.

Ｂ：友達に会えたら、買い物に行きます。
B: If I can meet with my friend, we will go shopping.
Example 2

Ａ：お金があればいいね。
A: It would be good, if I had money, huh?

Ｂ：お金があったらいいね。
B: If I had money, it would be good, huh?

Going by the context, the 「～たら」 form sounds more natural for both examples because it doesn't seem like we're really focusing on the
condition itself. We're probably more interested in what's going to happen once we meet the friend or how nice it would be if we had money.
The past conditional is the only type of conditional where the result can be in the past. It may seem strange to have an "if" when the result has already
taken place. Indeed, in this usage, there really is no "if", it's just a way of expressing surprise at the result of the condition. This has little to do with
conditionals but it is explained here because the grammatical structure is the same.

1. 家に帰ったら、誰もいなかった。
When I went home, there was no one there. (unexpected result)
2. アメリカに行ったら、たくさん太りました。
As a result of going to America, I got really fat. (unexpected result)

You can also use 「たらば」 instead of 「たら」. Similar to 「ならば」, this means exactly the same thing except that it has a more
formal nuance.
How does 「もし」 fit into all of this?

Some of you may be aware of the word 「もし」 which means "if" and may be wondering how it fits into all of this. Well, if you want to say a
conditional, you need to use one of the conditionals discussed above. 「もし」 is really a supplement to add a sense of uncertainty on whether the
condition is true. For instance, you might use it when you want to make an invitation and you don't want to presume like the following example.

1. もしよかったら、映画を観に行きますか？
If by any chance it's ok with you, go to watch movie?
2. もし時間がないなら、明日でもいいよ。
If given that there's no time, tomorrow is fine as well. (Not certain whether there is no time)

If II たら
A while back we found もし as the word that means 'if'. たら is added to the end of verbs to give the meaning of 'if this is done, then this will
happen'
It is formed by finding the simple past form and adding a ら
あなたが来たら、彼は帰る。　
anata ga kitara kare wa kaeru
If you are coming, he will go home.
The simple past form of 来る is 来た.The 2nd phrase is conditional on the たら phrase.
ゴジラに会ったら、どうしよう？　
gojira ni attara doushiyou.
What should I do if I meet Godzilla?
You can also use it with nouns by using the simple past form of desu: だった
お金持ちだったら、大きな家が買えるのに。　
okanemochi da tara ookina ie ga kaeru noni.
If only I were rich, I could buy a large house.

～ても
We have studied　も which means 'also'. When added after the て form of a verb or adjective it brings on the meaning of 'even if'. Let's investigate:
冗談を言っても、彼は笑いません。
joudan wo ittemo, kare wa waraimasen.
Even if you tell a joke, he won't laugh.
And an adjective:
冷たくても、食べられます。
tsumetakutemo taberaremasu.
Even if it is cold, I can eat it.
And just stick it after a noun
スーパマンでも、そんなことはできないよ。
su-paman demo　sonna koto wa dekinai yo.
Even Superman can't do that!
Even if たとえ　～ても
Sometimes you need to sound poetic. This construction fits perfectly into that mood.
Construction:　VERBS
たとえ +
Take the て form of a verb
Add ても
たとえ世界が終わっても・・・
tatoe sekai ga owattemo
Even if the world ends...
たとえ失敗してもまた頑張りましょう。
tatoe shippai shitemo mata ganbarimashou..
Even if we fail, let's keep at it.
Make the negative form of the verb with ても:
たとえ二度と会えなくても忘れません。
tatoe nido to aenaku temo wasuremasen.
Even if we shall never meet again, I won't forget.

~ なら
There are several ways to express the meaning behind 'if' in Japanese. なら is one of them. It is a conjunction that means 'if the preceding phrase is
true, then...'
It may be best to memorize example sentences.
-i Adjectives: Adjective + なら [You can also use の: -i Adj + の + なら]
高いなら、買わない。
takai nara, kawanai.
If it is expensive, I won't buy it.

面白いなら、見たい。
omoshiroi nara, mitai.
If it is interesting, I want to see it.

Verbs: Plain form + なら [You can also use の: Plain form + の + なら]

あなたが行くなら、私も行きます。
anata ga iku nara, watashi mo ikimasu.
If you are going, I'll go too.

チョコレートを食べるなら、歯をみがきなさい。
chokore-to o taberu nara, ha o migakinasai.
If you are going to eat chocolate, brush your teeth.

お金があるなら、テレビを買いなさい。
okane ga aru nara, terebi o kainasai.
If you have money, go ahead and buy a TV.

Also here are a few common usages with nouns:

あなたなら、できる。
anata nara, dekiru.
If it is you (doing it), you can do it. (it can be done)
 大人なら、そんなことはしない。
otona nara, sonna koto wa shinai.
An adult wouldn't do such a thing.
(if it is an adult, the adult wouldn't do such a thing.)

L3

~ので Because
We have looked at some 'becauses' that mainly act as a preposition. ので comes at the end of the phrase.
In English we start the phrase with `because`; in Japanese you often say the reason first and then the because...

Just add it after an adjective...

そのかばんは高いので、ずっと使うつもりです。
sono kaban wa takai node, zutto tsukau tsumori desu.
Since that bag was expensive, I plan on using it for a long time.

Just add it to the simple form of any verb

ゴジラが来るので、東京は怖いところです。
gojira ga kuru node, toukyou wa kowai tokoro desu.
Since Godzilla comes, Tokyo is a scary place.

After a noun or a -na adjective add a NA before NODE...

私はまだ学生なので、お金がない。
watashi wa mada gakusei na node, okane ga nai .
Because I am still a student, I don`t have any money.

~のに Although
A close cousin to ので (above), is のに. It is often used to show disappointment in the current situation.
Just add it after an adjective...
一生懸命勉強したのに、テストを落ちた。
isshou kenmei benkyou shita noni, tesuto o ochita.
Even though I studied really hard, I flunked the test.
な）のに

（な）のに

although, but

Examples
全部読んだのにぜんぜん分かりません。
zenbu yonda noni zenzen wakarimasen.
all-read-although-at all-don't understand.
I read the entire thing, and still don't get it.

犬なのに「ニャー」となきました。
inu nanoni nya- to nakimashita.
dog-although-meow-(question marker)-barked
Even though its a dog, it meowed.

～ので
When you omit the reason, you must include the declarative 「だ」 or 「です」.

直子：時間がなかった。
Naoko: I didn't have time.

一郎：だからパーティーに行かなかったの？
Ichiro: Is that why you didn't go to the party?

Notice that we could have also used the explanatory 「の」 to express the same thing. In other words, 山田さん could have also said, 「時
間がなかったのです」 or 「時間がなかったんです」 while 直子 could have said 「時間がなかったの」 (we'll
assume she wants to use the more feminine form). In fact, this is where 「ので」 possibly came from. Let's say you want to combine two
sentences: 「時間がなかったのだ」 and 「パーティーに行かなかった」. Remember we can treat the 「の」 just like a
noun so we can use what we just learned in the first section of this lesson.

時間がなかったのだ＋パーティーに行かなかった
becomes:
時間がなかったのでパーティーに行かなかった。

In fact, 「ので」 is almost interchangeable with 「から」 with a few subtle differences. 「から」 explicitly states that the sentence
preceding is the reason for something while 「ので」 is merely putting two sentences together, the first with an explanatory tone. This is something
I call causation where [X] happened, therefore [Y] happened. This is slightly different from 「から」 where [Y] happened explicitly because [X]
happened. This difference tends to make 「ので」 sound softer and slightly more polite and it is favoured over 「から」 when explaining a
reason for doing something that is considered discourteous.

 ちょっと忙しいので、そろそろ失礼します。
Because I'm a little busy, I'll be making my leave soon.

（「失礼します」, which literally means "I'm doing a discourtesy", is commonly used as a polite way to make your leave or disturb someone's
time.）

Reminder: Don't forget that the explanatory 「の」 requires a 「な」 for both non-conjugated nouns and na-adjectives. Review Particles 3 to see
why.

1. 私は学生なので、お金がないんです。
Because I'm a student, I have no money (lit: there is no money).
2. ここは静かなので、とても穏やかです。
It is very calm here because it is quiet.
3. なので、友達に会う時間がない。
That's why there's no time to meet friend.

Just like how the explanatory 「の」 can be shortened to 「ん」, in speech, the 「ので」 can be changed to 「んで」 simply because
it's easier to slur the sounds together rather than pronouncing the / o / syllable.

1. 時間がなかったんでパーティーに行かなかった。
Didn't go to the party because there was no time.
2. ここは静かなんで、とても穏やかです。
It is very calm here because it is quiet.
 3. なんで、友達に会う時間がない。
That's why there's no time to meet friend.

～のに
Grammatically, 「のに」 is used exactly the same way as 「ので」. When used to combine two simple sentences together, it means
"[Sentence 1] despite the fact that [Sentence 2]." However the order is reversed: [Sentence 2] のに [Sentence 1].

Examples

1. 毎日運動したのに、全然痩せなかった。
Despite exercising every day, I didn't get thinner.
2. 学生なのに、彼女は勉強しない。
Despite being a student, she does not study.

～し
When you want to list reasons for multiple states or actions you can do so by adding 「し」 to the end of each relative clause. It is very similar to
the 「や」 particle except that it lists reasons for verbs and state-of-being. Again, for states of being, 「だ」 must be used to explicitly declare
the state-of-being for any non-conjugated noun or na-adjective. Let's look at some examples.
Example 1

Ａ：どうして友達じゃないんですか？
A: Why isn't (he/she) friend [seeking explanation]?

Ｂ：先生だし、年上だし・・・。
B: Well, he's/she's the teacher, and older...
Example 2

Ａ：どうして彼が好きなの？
A: Why (do you) like him?

Ｂ：優しいし、かっこいいし、面白いから。
B: Because he's kind, attractive, and interesting (among other things).

Notice that 「優しくて、かっこよくて、面白いか ら。」 could also have worked but much like the difference between the
「と」 and 「や」 particle, 「し」 implies that there may be other reasons.

~なさい
「なさい」 is a special honorific conjugation of 「する」. It is a soft yet firm way of issuing a command. It is used, for example, when a
mother is scolding her child or when a teacher wants a delinquent student to pay attention. Unlike 「ください」, 「なさい」 only applies to
positive verbs and uses the stem of the verb instead of the te-form. It also cannot be used by itself but must be attached to another verb.

Using 「なさい」 to make firm but polite requests

 Conjugate the verb to its stem and attach 「なさい」

Examples
 1. 食べる → 食べなさい
2. 飲む → 飲み → 飲みなさい
3. する → し → しなさい

Examples

1. よく聞きなさい！
Listen well!
2. ここに座りなさい。
Sit here.

You can also drop 「さい」 portion of the 「なさい」 to make a casual version of this grammar.

1. まだいっぱいあるから、たくさん食べな。
There's still a lot, so eat a lot.
2. それでいいと思うなら、そうしなよ。
If you think that's fine, then go ahead and do it.

We will go over the command form in the interest of covering all the possible verb conjugations. In reality, the command form is rarely used as Japanese
people tend to be too polite to use imperatives. Also, this coarse type of speech is rarely, if indeed at all, used by females who tend to use 「なさ
い」 or an exasperated 「くれる」 when angry or irritated. This form is only really useful for reading or watching fictional works. You may often
see or hear 「死ね！」 ("Die!") in fiction which, of course, you'll never hear in real life. (I hope!)

Be sure to note that, in addition to the familiar 「する」, 「くる」 exception verbs, 「くれる」 is also an exception for the command
form.

Rules for creating command form

 For ru-verbs: Replace the 「る」 with 「ろ」

 For u-verbs: Change the last character from an / u / vowel to an / e / vowel
 Exceptions:
1. する → しろ
2. くる → こい
3. くれる → くれ

Sample ru-verbs Sample u-verbs Exception Verbs

Plain Command Plain Command Plain Command
食べる 食べろ 話す 話せ する しろ
着る 着ろ 聞く 聞け くる こい
信じる 信じろ 遊ぶ 遊べ くれる くれ
寝る 寝ろ 待つ 待て
起きる 起きろ 飲む 飲め
出る 出ろ 直る 直れ
掛ける 掛けろ 死ぬ 死ね
捨てる 捨てろ 買う 買え
Examples

1. 好きにしろ。
Do as you please.
2. あっち行け！
Go away!
3. 早く酒を持ってきてくれ。
Hurry up and bring me some alcohol.

Negative Command
Vocabulary

1. 行く 【い・く】 (u-verb) - to go
2. する (exception) - to do
3. それ - that
4. 食べる 【た・べる】 (ru-verb) - to eat
5. 変 【へん】 (na-adj) - strange
6. こと - event, matter
7. 言う 【い・う】 (u-verb) - to say

The negative command form is very simple: simply attach 「な」 to either ru-verbs or u-verbs. Don't confuse this with the 「な」 sentence-
ending particle we will be learning at the end of this section. The intonation is totally different.

Using the negative command form

 Attach 「な」 to the verb

Examples
1. 行く → 行くな
2. する → するな

Examples

1. それを食べるな！
Don't eat that!
2. 変なことを言うな！
Don't say such weird things!

This is not to be confused with the shortened version of 「～なさい」 we just learned in the last section. The most obvious difference (besides
the clear difference in tone) is that in 「～なさい」, the verb is first converted to the stem while the negative command has no conjugation. For
example, for 「する」, 「しな」 would be the short version of 「しなさい」 while 「するな」 would be a negative command.
L5

～がる
The 「～がる」 grammar is used when you want to make an observation about how someone is feeling. This is simply an observation based on
some type of sign(s). Therefore, you would not use it for your own emotions since guessing about your own emotions is not necessary. This grammar
can only be used with adjectives so you can use this grammar to say, "He is acting scared," but you cannot say "He acted surprised," because "to be
surprised" is a verb in Japanese and not an adjective. This grammar is also commonly used with a certain set of adjectives related to emotions such as:
「嫌」、「怖い」、「嬉しい」、or 「恥ずかしい」.

Using 「～がる」 for observing the emotions or feelings of others

 For i-adjectives: Remove the last 「い」 from the i-adjective and then attach 「がる」
 Example: 怖い → 怖がる
 For na-adjectives: Attach 「がる」 to the end of the na-adjective
 Example: 嫌 → 嫌がる

All adjectives that are conjugated with 「～がる」 become an u-

verb

Positive Negative
怖がる 怖がらない
Non-Past act scared not act scared
怖がった 怖がらなかった
Past acted scared didn't act scared
Examples

1. 早くきてよ！何を恥ずかしがっているの？
Hurry up and come here. What are you acting all embarrassed for?
2. 彼女は朝早く起こされるのを嫌がるタイプです。
My girlfriend is the type to show dislike towards getting woken up early in the morning.
3. うちの子供はプールに入るのを理由もなく怖がる。
Our child acts afraid about entering a pool without any reason.

This grammar is also used to observe very frankly on what you think someone other than yourself wants. This involves the adjective 「欲しい」
for things one wants or the 「～たい」 conjugation for actions one wants to do, which is essentially a verb conjugated to an i-adjective. This type
of grammar is more suited for things like narration in a story and is rarely used in this fashion for normal conversations because of its impersonal style of
observation. For casual conversations, it is more common to use 「でしょう」 such as in, 「カレーを食べたいでしょう。」.
For polite conversations, it is normal to not make any assumptions at all or to use the 「よね」 sentence ending such as in 「カレーを食べ
たいですか。」 or 「カレーを食べたいですよね。」

Examples

1. 家に帰ったら、すぐパソコンを使いたがる。
(He) soon acts like wanting to use computer as soon as (he) gets home.
2. みんなイタリアに行きたがってるんだけど、私の予算で行けるかどうかはとても怪しい。
Everybody is acting like they want to go to Italy but it's suspicious whether I can go or not going by my budget.
3. 妻はルイヴィトンのバッグを欲しがっているんだけど、そんなもん、買えるわけないでしょう！
My wife was showing signs of wanting a Louis Vuitton bag but there's no way I can buy something like that!

「～がる」 is also used with 「屋」 to indicate a type of person that often feels a certain way such as 「恥ずかしがり屋」 (one
who easily feels or acts embarrassed)、 「寒がり屋」 (one who easily feels cold)、or 「暑がり屋」 (one who easily feels hot).

 私は寒がり屋だから、ミネソタで暮らすのは辛かった。
I'm the type who easily gets cold and so living in Minnesota was painful.

~てほしい
In English, we employ a verb to say that we want something. In Japanese, "to want" is actually an i-adjective and not a verb. We saw something similar
with 「好き」 which is an adjective while "to like" in English is a verb. While I didn't get too much into the workings of 「好き」, I have
dedicated a whole section to 「欲しい」 because it means, "to want something done" when combined with the te-form of a verb. We will learn a
more polite and appropriate way to make requests in the "Making Requests" lesson instead of saying, "I want this done."

Though not a set rule, whenever words come attached to the te-form of a verb to serve a special grammatical function, it is customary to write it in
hiragana. This is because kanji is already used for the verb and the attached word becomes part of that verb.
Examples

1. 大きい縫いぐるみが欲しい！
I want a big stuffed doll!
2. 全部食べてほしいんだけど・・・。
I want it all eaten but...
3. 部屋をきれいにしてほしいのよ。
It is that I want the room cleaned up, you know.
Like I mentioned, there are more appropriate ways to ask for things which we won't go into until later. This grammar is not used too often but is included
for completeness.

～場合　condition, in the case of... , situation, case

This is one that should be learned by useful examples
非常の場合はボタンを押してください。
hijou no ba ai wa botan o oshite kudasai.
In case of emergency push the button.

その場合はどうすればいい？
sono ba ai wa dou sureba ii?
In that situation, what should I do?

テストがあった場合、私は病気になります。
tesuto ga atta ba ai, watashi wa byouki ni narimasu.
Should a test be given , I will get sick.

お金がない場合はアルバイトしてください。
okane ga nai baai wa arubaito shite kudasai.
money-(subject marker)-not-case-(topic marker)-part time job-please do.
If you don't have money, then get a job!
L6

~ほど （ｅｘｔｅｎｔ）
The noun 「ほど」（程） is attached to a word in a sentence to express the extent of something. It can modify nouns as well as verbs as seen
in the next example.

1. 今日の天気はそれほど暑くない。
Today's weather is not hot to that extent.
2. 寝る時間がないほど忙しい。
Busy to the extent that there's no time to sleep.

When you use this with conditionals, you can express something that translates into English as, "The more you [verb], the more..." The grammar is
always formed in the following sequence: [conditional of verb] followed immediately by [same verb+ ほど]

 韓国料理は食べれば食べるほど、おいしくなる。
About Korean food, the more you eat the tastier it becomes.

The literal translation is, "About Korean food, if you eat, to the extent that you eat, it becomes tasty." which essentially means the same thing. The
example uses the 「ば」 conditional form, but the 「たら」 conditional will work as well. Since this is a general statement, the contextual
「なら」 conditional will never work. The decided 「と」 conditional won't work very well here either since it may not always be true depending
on the extent of the action.

1. 歩いたら歩くほど、迷ってしまった。
The more I walked, the more I got lost.
2. 勉強をすればするほど、頭がよくなるよ。
The more you study, the more you will become smarter.

You can also use this grammar with i-adjectives by using the 「ば」 conditional.

1. iPod は、ハードディスクの容量が大きければ大きいほどもっとたくさんの曲が保存できます。
About iPod, the larger the hard disk capacity, the more songs you can save.
2. 航空券は安ければ安いほどいいとは限らない。
It's not necessarily the case that the cheaper the ticket, the better it is.

For na-adjectives, since you can't use the 「ば」 conditional you have to resort to the 「なら」 conditional. Because it sounds strange to use
the 「なら」 conditional in this fashion, you will hardly ever see this grammar used with na-adjectives. Since 「ほど」 is treated as a noun,
make sure you don't forget to use 「な」 to attach the noun to the na-adjective.

 文章は、短ければ短いほど、簡単なら簡単なほどよいです。
The shorter and simpler the sentences, the better it is.
~ほど About
To say 'about' as in "about a week" or to show an approximate degree of something, use ~ほど
１週間ほど
isshuu kan hodo
About a week

駅は１０キロほどさきです。
eki wa jukkiro hodo saki desu.
The train station is about 10 kilometers ahead.

これは５，０００円ほどで買えます。
kore wa go sen en hodo de kaemasu.
This can be bought for about 5000 yen.

~「すぎる」
「すぎる」 is a regular ru-verb written 「過ぎる」 meaning, "to exceed". When 「すぎる」 is attached to the end of other verbs and
adjectives, it means that it is too much or that it has exceeded the normal levels. For verbs, you must directly attach 「すぎる」 to the stem of the
verb. For example, 「食べすぎる」 means "to eat too much" and 「飲みすぎる」 means "to drink too much". For adjectives, you just
attach it to the end after you remove the last 「い」 from the i-adjectives (as usual). One more rule is that for both negative verbs and adjectives,
one must remove the 「い」 from 「ない」 and replace with 「さ」 before attaching 「すぎる」. There is no tense (past or non-past)
associated with this grammar. Since 「すぎる」 is a regular ru-verb, this grammar always results in a regular ru-verb.
Using 「すぎる」 to indicate there's too much of something

 For verbs: First change the verb to the stem and attach 「すぎる」.
Examples
1. 食べる → 食べすぎる
2. 太る → 太り → 太りすぎる

 For na-adjectives: Attach 「すぎる」. For i-adjectives, remove the last 「い」 first before attaching 「すぎる」.
Examples
1. 静か → 静かすぎる
2. 大きい → 大きすぎる

 For negative verbs and adjectives: Replace the last 「い」 from 「ない」 with 「さ」 and then attach 「すぎる」
Examples
1. 食べない → 食べなさ → 食べなさすぎる
2. 面白くない → 面白くなさ→ 面白くなさすぎる

 I-adjectives that end in 「ない」 which incorporate the negative 「無い」 such as 「もったいない」（勿体無い）
or 「情けない」（情け無い） follow the third rule.
Examples
1. もったいない → もったいなさ → もったいなさすぎる
2. 情けない → 情けなさ → 情けなさすぎる

 Most regular i-adjectives such as 「危ない」 or 「少ない」 follow the regular rule (rule 2).
Examples
1. 危ない → 危なすぎる
2. 少ない → 少なすぎる
Examples

1. 佐藤さんは料理が上手で、また食べ過ぎました。
Satou-san is good at cooking and I ate too much again.
2. お酒を飲みすぎないように気をつけてね。
Be careful to not drink too much, ok?
3. 大きすぎるからトランクに入らないぞ。
It won't fit in the trunk cause it's too big, man.
4. 静かすぎる。罠かもしれないよ。
It's too quiet. It might be a trap, you know.
5. 時間が足りなさすぎて、何もできなかった。
Due to too much of a lack of time, I couldn't do anything.
6. 彼には、彼女がもったいなさすぎるよ。
She is totally wasted on him (too good for him).

It is also common to change 「すぎる」 into its stem and use it as a noun.

Ａ：昨晩のこと、全然覚えてないな。
A: Man, I don't remember anything about last night.

Ｂ：それは飲みすぎだよ。
B: That's drinking too much.

～やすい Easy to...

It's easy to add "easy to" to verbs!  Consider the following verbs in the masu form:
たべ ます tabe masu [to eat]　 　たべ やすい tabe yasui [easy to eat]
Did you see that?  If you know the -masu form of the verb, you can easily drop the -masu and add a yasui.  
わかり ます wakari masu [to understand]　 　わかり やすい wakari yasui [easy to understand]

～にくい Hard to...

If "easy to" is easy to use (see above) then you would think that "hard to" would be hard to use.  Well, they had to go and make it easy as well.  Usage
is the same as -yasui (easy to)
たべ ます tabe masu [to eat]　 　たべ にくい tabe nikui [hard to eat]
 If you know the -masu form of the verb, you can easily drop the -masu and add a nikui.  
わかり ます wakari masu [to understand]　 　わかり にくい wakari nikui [hard to understand]

～ようになる
You may be wondering how to use 「なる」 and 「する」 with verbs since there's no way to directly modify a verb with another verb. The
simple solution is to add a generic noun such as a generic event: こと （事） or an appearance/manner: よう （様）. These nouns don't
refer to anything specific and are used to describe something else. In this case, they allow us to describe verbs in the same manner as nouns. Here are
some examples of how to use these generic nouns with 「する」 and 「なる」.
 1. 海外に行くことになった。
It's been decided that I will go abroad. (lit: It became the event of going abroad.)
2. 毎日、肉を食べるようになった。
It became so that I eat meat every day. (lit: It became the appearance of eating meat every day.)
3. 海外に行くことにした。
I decided I will go abroad. (lit: I did toward the event of going abroad.)
4. 毎日、肉を食べるようにする。
I will try to eat meat everyday. (lit: I will do toward the manner of eating meat everyday.)

You can modify a verb with 「なる」 or 「する」 by first making it into a noun clause and then treating it just like a regular noun. Pretty
clever, huh? I hope the literal translations give you a sense of why the example sentences mean what they do. For instance, in the fourth example,
「～ようにする」 translates into "to make an effort toward..." but in Japanese, it's really only a target towards acting in a certain manner.

Since potential verbs describe a state of feasibility rather than an action (remember, that's why the 「を」 particle couldn't be used), it is often used
in conjunction with 「～ようになる」 to describe a change in manner to a state of feasibility. Let's take this opportunity to get some potential
conjugation practice in.

1. 日本に来て、寿司が食べられるようになった。
After coming to Japan, I became able to eat sushi.
2. 一年間練習したから、ピアノが弾けるようになった。
Because I practiced for one year, I became able to play the piano.
3. 地下に入って、富士山が見えなくなった。
After going underground, Fuji-san became not visible.

Ｌ7

～とか
The 「や」 particle, just like the 「と」 particle, is used to list one or more nouns except that it is much vaguer than the 「と」 particle. It
implies that there may be other things that are unlisted and that not all items in the list may apply. In English, you might think of this as an "and/or, etc."
type of listing.

1. 飲み物やカップやナプキンは、いらない？
You don't need (things like) drink, cup, or napkin, etc.?
2. 靴やシャツを買う。
Buy (things like) shoes and shirt, etc...
「とか」 also has the same meaning as 「や」 but is a slightly more colloquial expression.

1. 飲み物とかカップとかナプキンは、いらない？
You don't need (things like) drink, cup, or napkin, etc.?
2. 靴とかシャツを買う。
Buy (things like) shoes and shirt, etc...

~とか , など、and... Etc...

Sometimes you have to say more than one thing. Whoever invented 'etc.' was a genius. Let's see how to do this in Japanese...
First a few ways to list multiple items:
や ya - and, and so forth
ピーマンやほうれん草が嫌いです。
pi-man ya hourensou ga kirai desu.
I don't like green peppers, spinach and the like.
　
とか toka - or, and, and so forth
熊のプーさんとかドラえもんとかキティちゃんが好きです。
kuma no pu-san toka doraemon toka kiti chan ga suki desu.
I like things like Winnie the Pooh and Doraemon and Hello Kitty.
 
And now for nado to wrap things up.
食べ物の中ではピザとかフライドポテトなどが好きです。
tabemono no naka dewa piza toka furaido poteto nado ga suki desu.
As for foods, I like things like pizza or french fries.

Ｌ8

~しまう
When 「しまう」 is used in this sense, it is normal to attach it to the te-form of another verb to express an action that is done or happened
unintentionally. As is common with this type of grammar, the tense is decided by the tense of 「しまう」.

1. そのケーキを全部食べてしまった。
Oops, I ate that whole cake.
2. 毎日ケーキを食べて、２キロ太ってしまいました。
I ate cake everyday and I (unintentionally) gained two kilograms.
3. ちゃんと食べないと、痩せてしまいますよ。
If you don't eat properly, you'll (unintentionally) lose weight you know.
4. 結局、嫌なことをさせてしまった。
In the end, I (unintentionally) made [someone] do something distasteful.
5. ごめん、待たせてしまって！
Sorry about (unintentionally) making you wait!
6. 金魚がもう死んでしまった。
The goldfish died already (oops).
Using the casual version of 「～てしまう」

In casual speech, the 「～てしまう」 is often substituted by 「～ちゃう」 while 「～でしまう」 is substituted by 「じゃ
う」. Both 「～ちゃう」 and 「～じゃう」 conjugate just like regular u-verbs.

1. 金魚がもう死んじゃった。
The goldfish died already.
2. もう帰っちゃっていい？
Is it ok if I went home already?
3. みんな、どっか行っちゃったよ。
Everybody went off somewhere.
4. そろそろ遅くなっちゃうよ。
It'll gradually become late, you know.

There is yet another very colloquial version of 「～てしまう」 and 「～でしまう」 where it is replaced by 「～ちまう」 and
「～じまう」 respectively. Unlike the cuter 「～ちゃう」 and 「～じゃう」 slang, this version conjures an image of rough and
coarse middle-aged man.

1. また遅刻しちまったよ。
Darn, I'm late again.
2. ごめん、ついお前を呼んじまった。
Sorry, I just ended up calling you unconsciously.
Another meaning of 「しまう」

You may have noticed that 「しまう」 has another definition meaning "to finish something completely". You may want to consider this a totally
separate verb from the 「しまう」 we have covered so far. Occasionally but not usually, 「しまう」 will have this meaning rather than the
unintended action.

 宿題をやってしまいなさい。
Finish your homework completely.

しまった、ちゃった
This literally means 'to complete, finish' but can (and usually does) involve a regret over having done something. Also it can be used sarcastically to
mean the speaker really wanted to do something, but gives a halfhearted apology. For example, 最後のクーキーを食べてしまった。 I
unfortunately ate the last cookie. Of course there really wasn't anything unfortunate about it.
The construction is usually after the ~te form of any verb
全部のお金を使ってしまいました。
zenbu no okane o tsukatte shimaimashita.
Unfortunately, I spent all my money.

私は完全に日本語を忘れてしまった。
watashi wa kanzen ni nihongo o wasurete shimatta.
Unfortunately, I have completely forgotten Japanese.
Another very useful variation is ~chatta. This is informal and is used by both male and female speakers. chau is made by combining te shimau -> chau
試験に落ちちゃった。
shiken ni ochichatta.
I flunked the test unfortunately.
or in the present tense
ケーキを全部食べちゃう。　
ke-ki o zenbu tabechau.
I will eat all the cake.
An important point by Mukade in the forums:
In the Kansai area, the use of ちゃった is limited to female speakers.
I learned both in the classroom, of course, since they are standard dialect. But when I moved here to Osaka, people started asking me if I was gay,
since I kept using ちゃった all the time.
If I could help prevent someone else from having to go through the same "hard knocks" learning process that I did, it would make me very happy.

So be careful if you are in the Kansai area! But in most areas it should be fine.

～ておく form as preparation for the future

While 「～てある」 carries a nuance of a completed action in preparation for something else, 「～ておく」 explicitly states that the action
is done (or will be done) with the future in mind. Imagine this: you have made a delicious pie and you're going to place it on the window sill for it to cool
so that you can eat it later. This image might help explain why the verb 「おく」 （置く）, meaning "to place", can be used to describe a
preparation for the future. (It's just too bad that pies on window sills always seem to go through some kind of mishap especially in cartoons.) While
「置く」 by itself is written in kanji, it is customary to use hiragana when it comes attached to a conjugated verb (such as the te-form).
Examples

1. 晩ご飯を作っておく。
Make dinner (in advance for the future).
2. 電池を買っておきます。
I'll buy batteries (in advance for the future).

「ておく」 is also sometimes abbreviated to 「～とく」 for convenience.

1. 晩ご飯を作っとく。
Make dinner (in advance for the future).
2. 電池を買っときます。
I'll buy batteries (in advance for the future).

～てみる
In English, we use the word, "try" to mean both "to try something out" and "to make an effort to do something". In Japanese, these are separate
grammatical expressions. For instance, "I tried the cherry flavor" and "I tried to do homework" mean quite different things and though English does not
make a distinction, Japanese does.

To try something out, you simply need to change the verb to the te-form and add 「みる」. If it helps you to remember, you can think of it as a
sequence of an action and then seeing the result. In fact 「みる」 conjugates just like 「見る」. However, just like the 「～てほし
い」 grammar we learned, this is a set phrase and 「みる」 is usually written in hiragana.

Example

1. お好み焼きを初めて食べてみたけど、とてもおいしかった！
I tried eating okonomiyaki for the first time and it was very tasty!
2. お酒を飲んでみましたが、すごく眠くなりました。
I tried drinking alcohol and I became extremely sleepy.
3. 新しいデパートに行ってみる。
I'm going to check out the new department store.
4. 広島のお好み焼きを食べてみたい！
I want to try eating Hiroshima okonomiyaki!
Ｌ9
～てある resultant states
Appropriately enough, just like there is an 「ある」 to go with 「いる」, there is a 「～てある」 form that also has a special meaning.
By replacing 「いる」 with 「ある」, instead of a continuing action, it becomes a resultant state after the action has already taken place.
Usually, this expression is used to explain that something is in a state of completion. The completed action also carries a nuance of being completed in
preparation for something else.　Since this grammar describes the state of a completed action, it is common to see the 「は」 and 「も」
particles instead of the 「を」 particle.
Example 1

Ａ：準備はどうですか。
A: How are the preparations?

Ｂ：準備は、もうしてあるよ。
B: The preparations are already done.
Example 2
Ａ：旅行の計画は終わった？
A: Are the plans for the trip complete?

Ｂ：うん、切符を買ったし、ホテルの予約もしてある。
B: Uh huh, not only did I buy the ticket, I also took care of the hotel reservations.

he reason that there are so many annoying rules to using 「～そう」 is to distinguish it from this next grammar we will learn. This is a useful
grammar for talking about things you heard that doesn't necessary have anything to do with how you yourself, think or feel. Unlike the last grammar we
learned, you can simply attach 「そうだ」 to verbs and i-adjectives. For na-adjectives and nouns, you must indicate the state-of-being by adding
「だ」 to the noun/na-adjective. Also, notice that 「そう」 itself must always end in 「だ」、「です」、or 「でございま
す」. These differences are what distinguishes this grammar from the one we learned in the last section. There are no tenses for this grammar.

1. 明日、雨が降るそうだ。
I hear that it's going to rain tomorrow.
2. 毎日会いに行ったそうです。
I heard he went to meet everyday.
3. Don't forget to add 「だ」 for nouns or na-adjectives.

 彼は、高校生だそうです。
I hear that he is a high school student.

When starting the sentence with this grammar, you also need to add 「だ」 just like you do with 「だから」

Ａ：今日、田中さんはこないの？
A: Is Tanaka-san not coming today?
Ｂ：だそうです。
B: So I hear.

Ｌ 10

~つもり, 予定 Plan to
If you plan on speaking Japanese these two words are very useful.予定 yotei and つもり tsumori
予定 yotei and つもり are very similar in meaning and usage. 予定 conveys more of a `schedule` feel whereas つもり is more of a
`conviction of doing something. All you have to do is to stick either on the end of a verb (simple form)...

To add つもり or 予定 to any verb just find the simple form...

日本に行くつもり/予定です。
nihon ni iku tsumori (or yotei) desu.
I intend to go to Japan.

[if you use tsumori, you `intend` to go one way or another; if you use yotei you already have a hard schedule set to leave at a certain time.]
Here is how you add it to a する verb
あなたと結婚するつもり/予定です。
anata to kekkon suru tsumori (or yotei) desu.
I intend to marry you.

You can also use it with nouns by sticking a の before the tsumori and after adjectives. But for now concentrate on the verb usage.

～ように Like, as...

Here is a useful tag which means 'just as...' or 'like this...'
Construction:
1) simple verb + ~you ni
私が言う　ように　して。
watashi ga iu you ni shite.
Do as I say.

2) noun + ~ no you ni
あなた　は　熊のプーさん　のように　かわいい　です。
anata wa kuma no pu-san no you ni kawaii desu.
You are as cute as Winnie the Pooh
e already learned that the volitional form was used to indicate a will to set out to do something. If you guessed that this next grammar for attempting to
do something would involve the volitional form, you were right. To say that you tried (as in attempted) to do something, you need to conjugate the verb
into the volitional, enclose it in a quotation (so that we can perform an action on the clause) and finally add the verb 「する」. Or put more simply,
you just add 「とする」 to the volitional form of the verb. This is simply an extension of the quoted relative clause from the last section. Instead of
saying the quote （言う） or treating it as a thought （思う、考える）, we are simply doing it with 「する」.
Examples

1. 毎日、勉強を避けようとする。
Everyday, she attempts to avoid study.
2. 無理矢理に部屋に入ろうとしている。
He is attempting to force his way into the room.
3. 早く寝ようとしたけど、結局は徹夜した。
I attempted to sleep early but ended up staying up all night.
 4. お酒を飲もうとしたが、奥さんが止めた。
He tried to drink alcohol but his wife stopped him.

Though we use the verb 「する」 to say, "to do attempt", we can use different verbs to do other things with the attempt. For instance, we can use
the verb 「決める」 to say, "decide to attempt to do [X]". Here are some examples of other actions carried out on the attempt.

1. 勉強をなるべく避けようと思った。
I thought I would attempt to avoid studying as much as possible.
2. 毎日ジムに行こうと決めた。
Decided to attempt to go to gym everyday.

～ことになる
～ことにする
You may be wondering how to use 「なる」 and 「する」 with verbs since there's no way to directly modify a verb with another verb. The
simple solution is to add a generic noun such as a generic event: こと （事） or an appearance/manner: よう （様）. These nouns don't
refer to anything specific and are used to describe something else. In this case, they allow us to describe verbs in the same manner as nouns. Here are
some examples of how to use these generic nouns with 「する」 and 「なる」.

1. 海外に行くことになった。
It's been decided that I will go abroad. (lit: It became the event of going abroad.)
2. 毎日、肉を食べるようになった。
It became so that I eat meat everyday. (lit: It became the appearance of eating meat everyday.)
3. 海外に行くことにした。
I decided I will go abroad. (lit: I did toward the event of going abroad.)
4. 毎日、肉を食べるようにする。
I will try to eat meat everyday. (lit: I will do toward the manner of eating meat everyday.)

You can modify a verb with 「なる」 or 「する」 by first making it into a noun clause and then treating it just like a regular noun. I hope the
literal translations give you a sense of why the example sentences mean what they do. For instance, in the fourth example, 「～ようにする」
translates into "to make an effort toward..." but in Japanese, it's really only a target towards acting in a certain manner.

Since potential verbs describe a state of feasibility rather than an action (remember, that's why the 「を」 particle couldn't be used), it is often used
in conjunction with 「～ようになる」 to describe a change in manner to a state of feasibility. Let's take this opportunity to get some potential
conjugation practice in.

1. 日本に来て、寿司が食べられるようになった。
After coming to Japan, I became able to eat sushi.
2. 一年間練習したから、ピアノが弾けるようになった。
Because I practiced for one year, I became able to play the piano.
3. 地下に入って、富士山が見えなくなった。
After going underground, Fuji-san became not visible.

Ｌ 11

～「あげる」、「くれる」、and 「もらう」
One thing about Japanese culture is that they're big on giving gifts. There are many different customs involving giving and receiving gifts (お歳暮、
お中元、etc.) and when Japanese people go traveling, you can be sure that they're going to be picking up souvenirs to take back as gifts. Even
when attending marriages or funerals, people are expected to give a certain amount of money as a gift to help fund the ceremony. You can see why
properly learning how to express the giving and receiving of favors and items is a very important and useful skill. For some reason, the proper use of
「あげる」、「くれる」、and 「もらう」 has always haunted people studying Japanese as being horribly complex and intractable.
I hope to prove in this section that it is conceptually quite straightforward and simple.
When to use 「あげる」

「あげる」 is the Japanese word for "to give" seen from the speaker's point of view. You must use this verb when you are giving something or
doing something for someone else.

Examples

1. 私が友達にプレゼントをあげた。
I gave present to friend.
2. これは先生にあげる。
I'll give this to teacher.

In order to express the giving of a favor (verb) you must use the ever useful te-form and then attach 「あげる」. This applies to all the other
sections in this lesson as well.

1. 車を買ってあげるよ。
I'll give you the favor of buying a car.
2. 代わりに行ってあげる。
I'll give you the favor of going in your place.

For third-person, this verb is used when the speaker is looking at it from the giver's point of view. We'll see the significance of this when we examine the
verb 「くれる」 next.

1. 学生がこれを先生にあげる。
The student give this to teacher. (looking at it from the student's point of view)
2. 友達が父にいいことを教えてあげた。
Friend gave the favor of teaching something good to my dad. (looking at it from the friend's point of view)

Using 「やる」 to mean 「あげる」

Usually used for pets, animals, and such, you can substitute 「やる」, which normally means "to do", for 「あげる」. You shouldn't use this
type of 「やる」 for people because it is used when looking down on someone and can be offensive.

 犬に餌をやった？
Did you give the dog food?

Here, 「やる」 does not mean "to do" but "to give". You can tell because "doing food to dog" doesn't make any sense.

When to use 「くれる」

「くれる」 is also a verb meaning "to give" but unlike 「あげる」, it is from the receiver's point of view. You must use this verb when
someone else is giving something or doing something for you (effectively the opposite of 「あげる」).
Examples

1. 友達が私にプレゼントをくれた。
Friend gave present to me.
2. これは、先生がくれた。
Teacher gave this to me.
3. 車を買ってくれるの？
You'll give me the favor of buying a car for me?
4. 代わりに行ってくれる？
Will you give me the favor of going in my place?

Similarly, when used in the third-person, the speaker is speaking from the receiver's point of view and not the giver.

1. 先生がこれを学生にくれる。
The teacher give this to student. (looking at it from the student's point of view)
2. 友達が父にいいことを教えてくれた。
Friend gave favor of teaching something good to my dad. (looking at it from the dad's point of view)

The following diagram illustrates the direction of giving from the point of view of the speaker.

From the speaker's point of view, all the giving done to others "go up" to everybody else while the giving done by everybody else "goes down" to the
speaker. This is probably related to the fact that there is an identical verb 「上げる」 meaning "to raise" that contains the character for "above"
（上） and that the honorific version of 「くれる」 is 「下さる」 with the character for down （下）. This restriction allows us to
make certain deductions from vague sentences like the following:

 先生が教えてあげるんですか。
Teacher, will you be the one to give favor of teaching to... [anybody other than the speaker]?

Because all giving done to the speaker must always use 「くれる」, we know that the teacher must be doing it for someone else and not the
speaker. The speaker is also looking at it from the teacher's point of view as doing a favor for someone else.

 先生が教えてくれるんですか。
Teacher, will you be the one to give favor of teaching to... [anybody including the speaker]?

Because the giver is not the speaker, the teacher is either giving to the speaker or anyone else. The speaker is viewing it from the receiver's point of
view as receiving a favor done by the teacher.
Let's see some mistakes to watch out for.

 私が全部食べてくれました。
「くれる」 is being used as giving done by the speaker. (Wrong)
 私が全部食べてあげました。
I gave favor of eating it all. (Correct)

 友達がプレゼントを私にあげた。
「あげる」 is being used as giving to the speaker. (Wrong)
 友達がプレゼントを私にくれた。- Friend gave present to me. (Correct)

When to use 「もらう」

「もらう」 meaning, "to receive" has only one version unlike 「あげる／くれる」 so there's very little to explain. One thing to point out
is that since you receive from someone, 「から」 is also appropriate in addition to the 「に」 target particle.

Examples

1. 私が友達にプレゼントをもらった。
I received present from friend.
2. 友達からプレゼントをもらった。
I received present from friend.
3. これは友達に買ってもらった。
About this, received the favor of buying it from friend.
4. 宿題をチェックしてもらいたかったけど、時間がなくて無理だった。
I wanted to receive the favor of checking homework but there was no time and it was impossible.

「もらう」 is seen from the perspective of the receiver, so in the case of first-person, others usually don't receive things from you. However, you
might want to use 「私からもらう」 when you want to emphasive that fact that the other person received it from you. For instance, if you
wanted to say, "Hey, I gave you that!" you would use 「あげる」. However, you would use 「もらう」 if you wanted to say, "Hey, you got
that from me!"

 その時計は私からもらったのよ。
(He) received that watch from me.

Asking favors with 「くれる」 or 「もらえる」

You can make requests by using 「くれる」 and the potential form of 「もらう」 (can I receive the favor of...). We've already seen an
example of this in example 4 of the 「くれる」 section. Because requests are favors done for the speaker, you cannot use 「あげる」 in
this situation.

Examples

1. 千円を貸してくれる？
Will you give me the favor of lending 1000 yen?
2. 千円を貸してもらえる？
Can I receive the favor of you lending 1000 yen?

Notice that the two sentences essentially mean the same thing. This is because the giver and receiver has been omitted because it is obvious from the
context. If we were to write out the full sentence, it would look like this:
 1. あなたが、私に千円を貸してくれる？
Will you give me the favor of lending 1000 yen?
2. 私が、あなたに千円を貸してもらえる？
Can I receive the favor of you lending 1000 yen?

It is not normal to explicitly include the subject and target like this when directly addressing someone but is provided here to illustrate the change of
subject and target depending on the verb 「くれる」 and 「もらえる」.

You can use the negative to make the request a little softer. You'll see that this is true in many other types of grammar.

1. ちょっと静かにしてくれない？
Won't you be a little quieter?
2. 漢字で書いてもらえませんか。
Can you write this in kanji for me?

Asking someone to not do something

In order to request that someone not do something, you simply attach 「で」 to the negative form of the verb and proceed as before.

1. 全部食べないでくれますか。
Can you not eat it all?
2. 高い物を買わないでくれる？
Can you not buy expensive thing(s)?

Ｌ 12

~そうだ
The problem with English is that the expression, "seems like" has too many meanings. It can mean similarity in appearance, similarity in behavior or
even that current evidence points to a likely outcome. We will now learn how to say the third meaning: how to indicate a likely outcome given the
situation.

Just like the grammar we have learned so far in this lesson, we can use this grammar by simply attaching 「そう」 to the end of verbs, and
adjectives. However, there are four important different cases. Actually, I just noticed this but the conjugation rules are exactly the same as the 「～す
ぎる」 grammar we learned in the last section. The only difference is that for the adjective 「いい」, you need to change it to 「よさ」
before attaching 「そう」 to create 「よさそう」.
Rules for conjugation

1. Verbs must be changed to the stem.

2. The 「い」 in i-adjectives must be dropped except for 「いい」.
3. 「いい」 must first be conjugated to 「よさ」.
4. For all negatives, the 「い」 must be replaced with 「さ」.
5. This grammar does not work with plain nouns.
1. Verb must be changed to the stem.

For ru-verbs, remove the 「る」

  バランスが崩れて、一瞬倒れそうだった。
Losing my balance, I seemed likely to fall for a moment.

For u-verbs, change the / u / vowel sound to an / i / vowel sound

 この辺りにありそうだけどな。
It seems likely that it would be around here but...
2. The 「い」 in i-adjectives must be dropped.

In the next example, the 「い」 has been dropped from 「おいしい」.

 この漬物はおいしそう！
I bet this pickled vegetable is tasty! (This pickled vegetable looks good!)

Exception: The only exception to this rule is the adjective 「いい」. When using this grammar with 「いい」, you must first change it to 「よ
さ」.

 これも結構よさそうだけど、やっぱり高いよね。
This one also seems to be good but, as expected, it's expensive, huh?

Nothing needs to be done for na-adjectives.

 お前なら、金髪の女が好きそうだな。
Knowing you, I bet you like blond-haired girls.
3. For all negatives, the 「い」 must be replaced with 「さ」.

The negative of 「来る」 is 「こない」 so when used with 「～そう」, it becomes 「こなさそう」.

1. もう 10 時になったから、来なさそうだね。
Since it already became 10:00, it's likely that (person) won't come.
2. これはただの試合じゃなさそうだ。
This isn't likely to be an ordinary match.

Identical to the 「～すぎる」 grammar, i-adjectives that are derived from the negative 「～ない」
like 「もったいない」 or 「情けない」 also follow this rule as well (which would be 「もったいなさそう」 and 「情け
なさそう」 in this case).
4. This grammar does not work with plain nouns.

 その人は学生そう。

There are other grammar we have already covered that can be used to indicate that something is likely to be something else.

1. その人は学生でしょう。
That person is probably student.
2. その人は学生だろう。
That person is probably student.

Be careful never to use 「かわいい」 with this grammar. 「かわいそう」 is a completely different word used when you feel sorry for
something or someone. 「かわいい」 means, "to look cute" already so you never need to use any of the grammar in this lesson to say
something looks cute.
 1. この犬はかわいそう。
Oh, this poor dog.
2. この犬はかわいい。
This dog is cute.

~といいました said
Meet the wonderful 'と to.' Mr. と can act as a quotation marker ("). Don't confuse this with the と that means 'and.' Very often if you are quoting
someone or some source. This is best shown with examples:
「俺はスーパマン」と言いました。
ore wa su-paman to iimashita.
He said, "I am Superman."

あの絵は十世紀に作ったと書いてあります。
ano e wa juu seiki ni tsukutta to kaite arimasu.
The book says (it is written) that this painting was made in the 10th century.

It can also be used to mark sound effects of things or animals:

あの犬は「ワン」と言いました。
ano inu wa 'wan' to iimashita.
That dog barked, "bark"

~んです The Explanatory

You may have heard this quite a lot and wondered what it's all about! It is most often used, informally, when:
1) To explain something
2) To show emphasis

んです is short for のです; Informal usage;

plain form verb + んです
何をしているんですか。
nani o shite iru n desu ka .
Whatcha doing?
テレビを見ているんです。
terebi o mite iru n desu.
Watching TV.

-i Adjective + んです
この映画は面白いんです。
kono eiga wa omoshiroi n desu.
This movie was great!

And it can be used as a way to stress a point

パーティに行かないでしょう。
pa-ti ni ikanai deshou
You won't be able to make it to the party, right?

いいえ、僕は行くんです。
iie, boku wa iku n desu.
No, I'm going!
いったい、どうしたんですか？
ittai, doushita n desu ka.
Just what exactly happened (to you)!!!?

The 「の」 particle attached at the end of the last clause of a sentence can also convey an explanatory tone to your sentence. For example, if
someone asked you if you have time, you might respond, "The thing is I'm kind of busy right now." The abstract generic noun of "the thing is..." can also
be expressed with the 「の」 particle. This type of sentence has an embedded meaning that explains the reason(s) for something else.

The sentence would be expressed like so:

 今は忙しいの。
The thing is that (I'm) busy now.

This sounds very soft and feminine. In fact, adult males will almost always add a declarative 「だ」 unless they want to sound cute for some reason.

 今は忙しいのだ。
The thing is that (I'm) busy now.

However, since the declarative 「だ」 cannot be used in a question, the same 「の」 in questions do not carry a feminine tone at all and is used
by both males and females.

 今は忙しいの？
Is it that (you) are busy now? (gender-neutral)

To express state-of-being, when the 「の」 particle is used to convey this explanatory tone, we need to add 「な」 to distinguish it from the
「の」 particle that simply means "of".

1. ジムのだ。
It is of Jim. (It is Jim's.)
2. ジムなのだ。
It is Jim (with explanatory tone).

Besides this one case, everything else remains the same as before.

In actuality, while this type of explanatory tone is used all the time, 「のだ」 is usually substituted by 「んだ」. This is probably due to the fact
that 「んだ」 is easier to say than 「のだ」. This grammar can have what seems like many different meaning because not only can it be used
with all forms of adjectives, nouns, and verbs it itself can also be conjugated just like the state-of-being. A conjugation chart will show you what this
means.

There's really nothing new here. The first chart is just adding 「んだ」 (or 「なんだ」) to a conjugated verb, noun, or adjective. The second
chart adds 「んだ」 (or 「なんだ」) to a non-conjugated verb, noun, adjective and then conjugates the 「だ」 part of 「んだ」 just
like a regular state-of-being for nouns and na-adjectives. Just don't forget to attach the 「な」 for nouns as well as na-adjectives.

「んだ」 attached to different conjugations (Substitute 「の」 or 「のだ」 for 「ん

「んだ」 is conjugated (Substitute 「の」 for 「ん」 and 「の」 or 「のだ」 for 「ん
だ」)
だ」)
Noun/Na-Adj Verb/I-Adj
Noun/Na-Adj Verb/I-Adj
Plain 学生なんだ 飲むんだ
Plain 学生なんだ 飲むんだ
Negative 学生じゃないんだ 飲まないんだ
Negative 学生なんじゃない 飲むんじゃない
Past 学生だったんだ 飲んだんだ
Past-Neg 学生じゃなかったんだ 飲まなかったんだ
 Past 学生なんだった 飲むんだった
Past-Neg 学生なんじゃなかった 飲むんじゃなかった

I would say that the past and past-negative forms for noun/na-adjective in the second chart are almost never used (especially with 「の」) but they
are presented for completeness.

The crucial difference between using the explanatory 「の」 and not using anything at all is that you are telling the listener, "Look, here's the reason"
as opposed to simply imparting new information. For example, if someone asked you, "Are you busy now?" you can simply answer, 「今は忙し
い」. However, if someone asked you, "How come you can't talk to me?" since you obviously have some explaining to do, you would answer, 「今
は忙しいの」 or 「今は忙しいん だ」. This grammar is indispensable for seeking explanations in questions. For instance, if you want
to ask, "Hey, isn't it late?" you can't just ask, 「遅くない？」 because that means, "It's not late?" You need to indicate that you are seeking
explanation in the form of 「遅いんじゃない？」.

Let's see some examples of the types of situations where this grammar is used. The examples will have literal translation to make it easier to see how
the meaning stays the same and carries over into what would be very different types of sentences in normal English. A more natural English translation
is provided as well because the literal translations can get a bit convoluted.
Example 1

アリス：どこに行くの？
Alice: Where is it that (you) are going?

ボブ：授業に行くんだ。
Bob: It is that (I) go to class.

Alice: Where are you going? (Seeking explanation)

Bob: I'm going to class. (Explanatory)
Example 2

アリス：今、授業があるんじゃない？
Alice: Isn't it that there is class now?

ボブ：今は、ないんだ。
Bob: Now it is that there is no class.

Alice: Don't you have class now? (Expecting that there is class)
Bob: No, there is no class now. (Explanatory)
Example 3

アリス：今、授業がないんじゃない？
Alice: Isn't it that there isn't class now?

ボブ：ううん、ある。
Bob: No, there is.

Alice: Don't you having no class now? (Expecting that there is no class)
Bob: No, I do have class.
Example 4

アリス：その人が買うんじゃなかったの？
Alice: Wasn't it that that person was the one to buy?

ボブ：ううん、先生が買うんだ。
Bob: No, it is that teacher is the one to buy.

Alice: Wasn't that person going to buy? (Expecting that the person would buy)
Bob: No, the teacher is going to. (Explanatory)
Example 5

アリス：朝ご飯を食べるんじゃなかった。
Alice: It is that breakfast wasn't to eat.

ボブ：どうして？
Bob: Why?

Alice: Should not have eaten breakfast, you know. (Explaining that breakfast wasn't to be eaten)
Bob: How come?

Don't worry if you are thoroughly confused by now, we will see many more examples along the way. Once you get the sense of how everything works,
it's better to forget the English because the double and triple negatives can get quite confusing such as Example 3. However, in Japanese it is a
perfectly normal expression, as you will begin to realize once you get accustomed to Japanese.

Ｌ 13

~ようだ
We've already briefly gone over 「よう」 and learned that 「よう」 means an appearance or manner. We can use this definition to say that
something has an appearance or manner of a certain state. This word can be used in many ways to express similarity. The simplest example is by
directly modifying the relative clause. When the sentence ends in 「よう」, you must explicitly express the state-of-being by adding 「だ」,
「です」, or 「でございます」.

1. ここには、誰もいないようだ。
Looks like no one is here.
2. 映画を観たようです。
Looks like (he) watched the movie.

When directly modifying nouns or na-adjectives, you must use the 「の」 particle for nouns or attach 「な」 to na-adjectives.

1. 学生のようだ。
Looks like it's a student.
2. ここは静かなようだ。
Looks like it's quiet.

Notice that example 1 does not say that the person looks like a student. Rather, the declarative 「だ」 states that the person appears to be a
student. On a side note, you can't say 「おいしいようだ」 to say that something looks tasty. This is like saying, "This dish apparently is
tasty," which can actually be kind of rude.
You can also use it as a na-adjective to describe something that appears to be something else.

1. あの人を見たような気がした。
Had a feeling like I saw that person before.
2. 彼は学生のような雰囲気ですね。
He has a student-like atmosphere.

Finally, we can attach the target particle to say things like, "I heard it like that" or "I said it like...".

1. ちょっと怒ったように聞こえた。
Was able to hear it like (she) was a little mad.
2. 何も起こらなかったように言った。
Said (it) like nothing happened.

~らしい like, as if, apparently

This is similar to ~sou where the speaker is repeating info heard from another source. The only difference may be ~rashii may be based on more
reliable information.

Construction:
1) simple verb + ~rashii
山田さん　は　帰った　らしい　です。
yamada san wa kaetta rashii desu.
It sounds like Mr. Yamada has come home.
2) noun + ~rashii
There are a few nouns with rashii that you can remember as a word in itself. This meaning is slighly different from the above verb construction. Instead
of meaning info heard elsewhere, when added to a noun it means the speaker thinks something looks like something. Here are a few:
男らしい otokorashii - manly (like a man)
女らしい onnarashii - girly (but perhaps 女っぽい onnappoi is used more)
犬らしい inurashii - like a dog (substitute any animal here. This is useful when you see an animal at night and are not sure what it is, but it looks
like...)
アメリカらしい amerikarashii - American-ish (substitute any country)
Another similar construction with nouns is ~ppoi - as seen above with onnappoi. When added to nouns to mean 'looks like...' ~ppoi is the same as
~rashii

～ように Like, as...

Here is a useful tag which means 'just as...' or 'like this...'
Construction:
1) simple verb + ~you ni
私が言う　ように　して。
watashi ga iu you ni shite.
Do as I say.
2) noun + ~ no you ni
あなた　は　熊のプーさん　のように　かわいい　です。
anata wa kuma no pu-san no you ni kawaii desu.
You are as cute as Winnie the Pooh
Ｌ 14
~でしょう use to express a fair amount of certainty (polite)
「でしょう」 is used to express a level of some certainty and is close in meaning to 「多分」. Just like 「～です／～ます」, it
must come at the end of a complete sentence. It does not have any other conjugations. You can also replace 「～ですか」 with 「～で
しょうか」 to make the question sound slightly more polite and less assuming by adding a slight level of uncertainty.
Examples

1. 明日も雨でしょう。
Probably rain tomorrow too.
2. 学生さんでしょうか。
Are (you) student?
3. これからどこへ行くんでしょうか？
Where (are you) going from here?

If you want to sound really, really polite, you can even add 「～でしょうか」 to the end of a 「～ます」 ending.

 休ませていただけますでしょうか。- May I receive the favor of resting, possibly?

Using 「でしょう」 and 「だろう」 to express strong amount of certainty (casual)

The casual equivalent of 「でしょう」 is surprisingly enough 「でしょう」. However, when you are speaking in a polite manner, the
「でしょう」 is enunciated flatly while in casual speech, it has a rising intonation and can be shortened to 「でしょ」. In addition, since
people tend to be more assertive in casual situations, the casual version has a much stronger flavor often sounding more like, "See, I told you so!"
Example 1

Ａ：あっ！遅刻しちゃう！
A: Ah! We're going to be late!

Ｂ：だから、時間がないって言ったでしょう！
B: That's why I told you there was no time!
Example 2

Ａ：これから食べに行くんでしょ。
A: You're going to eat from now aren't you?

Ｂ：だったら？
B: So what if I am?
Example 3

Ａ：掃除、手伝ってくれるでしょう。
A: You're going to help me clean, right?
Ｂ：え？そうなの？
B: Huh? Is that so?

「だろう」 means essentially the same thing as 「でしょう」 except that it sounds more masculine and is used mostly by males.
Example 4

Ａ：アリスはどこだ？
A: Where is Alice?

Ｂ：もう寝ているだろう。
B: Probably sleeping already.
Example 5

Ａ：もう家に帰るんだろう。
A: You're going home already, right?

Ｂ：そうよ。
B: That's right.

Isn't it? でしょう

If you want to state your opinion and then encourage someone to agree, use deshou. 
フィリピンは暑いでしょう?
firipin wa atsui deshou? 
The Philippines is hot, isn't it?
[You are expecting a 'yes' answer]
痛いでしょう？
itai deshou?
It hurts, doesn't it?
[You see someone who has just slammed their head in the low doorway]  
But usually でしょう is used to mean 'probably':
雨が降るでしょうね。
Ame ga furu deshou ne. 
It will probably rain, don't you think?
And another common usage is どうでしょう meaning 'how about...' or 'what do you think about'
うどんはどうでしょう？
udon wa dou deshou? 
How about some Udon?

~かもしれない use to express uncertainty

In general, Japanese people don't assert themselves of something unless they are absolutely sure that it is correct. This accounts for the incredibly
frequent use of 「～と思う」 and the various grammatical expressions used to express specific levels of certainty. We will go over these
expressions starting from the less certain to the most certain.

「かもしれない」 is used to mean "maybe" or "possibly" and is less certain than the word 「多分」. It attaches to the end of a complete
clause. For noun and na-adjective clauses, the declarative 「だ」 must be removed. It can also be written in kanji as 「かも知れない」
and you can treat it the same as a negative ru-verb (there is no positive equivalent) so the masu-form would become 「かもしれません」. In
casual speech, it can be abbreviated to just 「かも」. There is also a very masculine version 「かもしれん」, which is simply a different
type of negative verb.
Expressing uncertainty with 「かもしれない」

 Simply attach 「かもしれない」 or 「かも知れない」 to the clause

Examples
1. 映画を観たかもしれない
2. 彼は学生かもしれない
3. それは面白いかもしれない

 Noun and na-adjective clauses must not use the declarative 「だ」
Examples
1. 先生だかもしれない → 先生かもしれない
2. 退屈だかもしれない → 退屈かもしれない

 It can be abbreviated to just 「かも」 in casual speech

Example
1. 面白いかもしれない → 面白いかも
Examples

1. スミスさんは食堂に行ったかもしれません。
Smith-san may have gone to the cafeteria.
2. 雨で試合は中止になるかもしれないね。
The game may become canceled by rain, huh?
3. この映画は一回観たことあるかも！
I might have already seen this movie once.
4. あそこが代々木公園かもしれない。
That might be Yoyogi park over there.
5. もう逃げられないかもしれんぞ。
Might not be able to escape anymore, you know.

~はず Should/Must
You should know はず. It is easy and useful, therefore you have no excuse :)
Hazu shows an expectation that something should happen. In other words, you are pretty sure something is true. Let`s see how it works...
To add はず to any adjective just add it...
そのかばんは、高いはずです。
sono kaban wa, takai hazu desu.
That bag must be expensive.
[It is expected to be expensive]
Just add it to the simple form of any verb
あなたは、ゴジラを知っているはずです。
anata wa, gojira o shitteiru hazu desu.
You should/must know Godzilla.

~らしい like, as if, apparently

This is similar to ~sou where the speaker is repeating info heard from another source. The only difference may be ~rashii may be based on more
reliable information.
Construction:
1) simple verb + ~rashii
山田さん　は　帰った　らしい　です。
yamada san wa kaetta rashii desu.
It sounds like Mr. Yamada has come home.
2) noun + ~rashii
There are a few nouns with rashii that you can remember as a word in itself. This meaning is slighly different from the above verb construction. Instead
of meaning info heard elsewhere, when added to a noun it means the speaker thinks something looks like something. Here are a few:
男らしい otokorashii - manly (like a man)
女らしい onnarashii - girly (but perhaps 女っぽい onnappoi is used more)
犬らしい inurashii - like a dog (substitute any animal here. This is useful when you see an animal at night and are not sure what it is, but it looks
like...)
アメリカらしい amerikarashii - American-ish (substitute any country)
Another similar construction with nouns is ~ppoi - as seen above with onnappoi. When added to nouns to mean 'looks like...' ~ppoi is the same as
~rashii

Ｌ 15

～（ら）れる　ＰＡＳＳＩＶＥ
Passive verbs are verbs that are done to the (passive) subject. Unlike English style of writing which discourages the use of the passive form, passive
verbs in Japanese are often used in essays and articles.
Examples

1. ポリッジが誰かに食べられた！
The porridge was eaten by somebody!
2. みんなに変だと言われます。
I am told by everybody that (I'm) strange.
3. 光の速さを超えるのは、不可能だと思われる。
Exceeding the speed of light is thought to be impossible.
 4. この教科書は多くの人に読まれている。
This textbook is being read by a large number of people.
5. 外国人に質問を聞かれたが、答えられなかった。
I was asked a question by a foreigner but I couldn't answer.
6. このパッケージには、あらゆるものが含まれている。
Everything is included in this package.

～（さ）せる　ＣＡＵＳＡＴＩＶＥ
Ｖ erbs conjugated into the causative form are used to indicate an action that someone makes happen. Like Captain Picard so succinctly puts it, the
causative verb means to "make it so". This verb is usually used in the context of making somebody do something. The really confusing thing about the
causative verb is that it can also mean to let someone do something. Or maybe this is a different type of verb with the exact same conjugation rules.
Whichever the case may be, a verb in the causative form can mean either making or letting someone do something. The only good news is that when
the causative form is used with 「あげる」 and 「くれる」, it almost always means to "let someone do". Once you get used to it,
surprisingly, it becomes quite clear which meaning is being used when.

1. 全部食べさせた。
Made/Let (someone) eat it all.
2. 全部食べさせてくれた。
Let (someone) eat it all.
Examples

Here are some examples using the causative verb. Context will usually tell you which is being meant, but for our purposes we will assume that when the
verb is used with 「あげる」 and 「くれる」（ください） it means "to let someone do" while it means, "to make someone do" when
used without it.

1. 先生が学生に宿題をたくさんさせた。
Teacher made students do lots of homework.
2. 先生が質問をたくさん聞かせてくれた。
Teacher let (someone) ask lots of questions.
3. 今日は仕事を休ませてください。
Please let me rest from work today. (Please let me take the day off today.)
4. その部長は、よく長時間働かせる。
That manager often makes (people) work long hours.

When asking for permission to let someone do something, it is more common to use the 「～てもいい」 grammar.

1. トイレに行かせてくれますか。
Can you let me go to the bathroom? (Sounds like a prisoner, even in English)
2. トイレに行ってもいいですか。
Is it ok to go to the bathroom? (No problem here)
A Shorter Alternative

There is a shorter version of the causative conjugation, which I will go over for completeness. However, since this version is mostly used in very rough
slang, you are free to skip this section until you've had time to get used to the regular form. Also, textbooks usually don't cover this version of the
causative verb.

The key difference in this version is that all verbs become an u-verbs with a 「す」 ending. Therefore, the resulting verb would conjugate just like
any other u-verb ending in 「す」 such as 「話す」 or 「指す」. The first part of the conjugation is the same as the original causative
form. However, for ru-verbs, instead of attaching 「させる」, you attach 「さす」 and for u-verbs, you attach 「す」 instead of 「せ
る」. As a result, all the verbs become an u-verb ending in 「す」.
Shortened Causative Form

 This form is rarely used so you may just want to stick with the more traditional version of the causative form.
o For ru-verbs: Replace the last 「る」 with 「さす」.
Example
食べる → 食べさす
o For u-verbs: Change the last character as you would for negative verbs but attach 「す」 instead of 「ない」.
Example
行く → 行か → 行かす
o Exception Verbs:
1. 「する」 becomes 「さす」
2. 「くる」 becomes 「こさす」

~さ（ら）れる　Causative-Passive Forms
The causative-passive form is simply the combination of causative and passive conjugations to mean that the action of making someone do something
was done to that person. This would effectively translate into, "[someone] is made to do [something]". The important thing to remember is the order of
conjugation. The verb is first conjugated to the causative and then passive, never the other way around.
Causative-Passive Conjugation Form
The causative-passive verb is formed by first conjugating to the causative form and then by conjugating the result to the passive form.
Examples

1. 食べる → 食べさせる → 食べさせられる

2. 行く → 行かせる → 行かせられる
Examples

1. 朝ご飯は食べたくなかったのに、食べさせられた。
Despite not wanting to eat breakfast, I was made to eat it.
2. 日本では、お酒を飲ませられることが多い。
In Japan, the event of being made to drink is numerous.
3. あいつに二時間も待たせられた。
I was made to wait 2 hours by that guy.
4. 親に毎日宿題をさせられる。
I am made to do homework everyday by my parent(s).
A Shorter Alternative

Going along with the shorter causative alternative, you can also use the same conjugation for the causative-passive form. I won't cover it in too much
detail because the usefulness of this form is rather limited just like the shorter causative form itself. The idea is to simply used the shortened causative
form instead of using the regular causative conjugation. The rest is the same as before.
Shortened causative-passive form examples
First conjugate to the shortened causative form. Then conjugate to the passive form.
Examples

1. 行く → 行か → 行かす → 行かされる
2. 立つ → 立た → 立たす → 立たされる

This form cannot be used in cases where the shorter causative form ends in 「さす」, in other words, you can't have a 「さされる」
ending.
Verbs that cannot be used in this form
Examples of verbs you can't use in this form.

1. 食べる → 食べさす → 食べさされる

2. 話す → 話さす → 話さされる
Examples

1. 学生が廊下に立たされた。
The student was made to stand in the hall.
2. 日本では、お酒を飲まされることが多い。
In Japan, the event of being made to drink is numerous.
3. あいつに二時間も待たされた。
I was made to wait 2 hours by that guy.

Ｌ 16

敬語. 謙譲語

Japanese can be roughly separated into three levels of politeness: casual, polite, and honorific/humble. So far, we have already gone over the polite
forms using 「～です」 and 「～ます」. We will now cover the next level of politeness using honorific and humble forms. You will often hear
this type of language in any customer/consumer type situations such as fast food counters, restaurants, etc. For now, the first thing to remember is that
the speaker always considers himself/herself to be at the lowest level. So any actions performed by oneself are in humble form while actions performed
by anyone else seen from the view of the speaker uses the honorific form.
The difficult part of learning honorific and humble language is that there are a number of words that have separate verbs for honorific and humble forms.
Anything that does not have its own special expression fall under the general rules of humble and honorific conjugations that we will cover next.

Honorific Humble
する なさる 致す
行く いらっしゃる／おいでになる 参る
来る いらっしゃる／おいでになる 参る
いる いらっしゃる／おいでになる おる
見る ご覧になる 拝見する
聞く － 伺う
言う おっしゃる 申す／申し上げる
あげる － 差し上げる
 くれる 下さる －
もらう － いただく
食べる 召し上がる いただく
飲む 召し上がる いただく
知っている ご存知（です） 存じる

Honorific verbs with special conjugations

A number of these verbs do not follow the normal masu-conjugation rules and they include: 「なさる」、「いらっしゃる」、
「おっしゃる」、「下さる」、 and 「ござる」 (which we will soon cover). For all masu-form tenses of these verbs, instead of
the 「る」 becoming a 「り」 as it does with normal u-verbs, it instead becomes an 「い」. All other conjugations besides the masu-form do
not change from regular u-verbs.
ます-conjugations
Plain ます-form Past ます-form Negative ます-form Past-negative ます-form
なさる なさいます なさいました なさいません なさいませんでした
いらっしゃ いらっしゃいま いらっしゃいまし いらっしゃいませ いらっしゃいませんでし
る す た ん た
おっしゃる おっしゃいます おっしゃいました おっしゃいません おっしゃいませんでした
下さる 下さいます 下さいました 下さいません 下さいませんでした
ござる ございます ございました ございません ございませんでした

Examples of honorific form

We can now begin to see that 「ください」 is just a special conjugation of 「下さる」 which is the honorific version of 「くれる」.
Let's look at some actual examples. Since these examples are all questions directed directly to someone (second person), they all use the honorific
form.

1. アリスさん、もう召し上がりましたか。
Alice-san, did (you) eat already?
2. 仕事で何をなさっているんですか。
What are you doing at work?
3. 推薦状を書いてくださるんですか。
You're going to give me the favor of writing a recommendation letter?
4. どちらからいらっしゃいましたか。
Where did you come from?
5. 今日は、どちらへいらっしゃいますか。
Where are you going today?
Examples of humble form

The following examples are all actions done by the speaker so they all use the humble form.

1. 私はキムと申します。
As for me, (people) say Kim. (I am called Kim.)
2. 私が書いたレポートを見ていただけますか。
Will I be able to receive the favor of getting my report looked at?
 3. 失礼致します。
Excuse me. (lit: I am doing a discourtesy.)

Ｉ n addition to these set expressions, there are some words that also have more polite counterparts. Probably the most important is the politer version
of 「ある」, which is 「ござる」. This verb can be used for both inanimate and animate objects. It is neither honorific nor humble but it is a
step above 「ある」 in politeness. However, unless you want to sound like a samurai, 「ござる」 is always used in the polite form: 「ご
ざいます」.

By extension, the politer version of 「です」 is 「でございます」. This is essentially the masu-form conjugation of 「でござる」,
which comes from 「である」 literally meaning, "to exist as" (to be covered much later).
Examples

1. こちらは、私の部屋です。
Over here is my room.
2. こちらは、私の部屋でございます。
This way is my room.

1. お手洗いはこのビルの二階にあります。
The bathroom is on the second floor of this building.
2. お手洗いはこのビルの二階にございます。
The bathroom is on the second floor of this building.

Other examples include 「いい」, which is more formally expressed as 「よろしい」. There are also six different ways to say, "I'm sorry"
(not counting 「悪いね」 or slight inflection changes like 「すいません」).

Successively politer expressions for apologizing:

1. ごめん。
2. ごめんなさい。
3. すみません。
4. 申し訳ありません。 (申し訳 is the humble form of 言い訳)
5. 恐れ入ります。
6. 恐縮です。

In addition, the politest suffix for names is 「様」, one level above 「さん」. You won't be using this suffix too often in actual speech even if
you speak to that person in honorific/humble speech. However, expect to use it when writing letters even to people you are somewhat familiar with. Also,
service people such as cashiers or waitresses/waiters will normally refer to the customer as 「お客様」. Of course, royalty and deities are always
accompanied by 「様」 such as 「神様」.
Honorific and Humble Conjugations

For all other verbs without set expressions, there are conjugation rules to change them into honorific and humble forms. They both involve a common
practice of attaching a polite prefix 「御」. In Japanese, there is an practice of attaching an honorific prefix 「御」 to certain (not all) nouns to
show politeness. In fact, some words like 「お酒」、 「お茶」、or 「お金」 come with this prefix so often that it's become practically
the word itself. In general, 「御」 is written in hiragana as either 「ご」 for words read as 音読み （e.g. ご意見、ご飯） or
「お」 for words read as 訓読み （e.g. お金、 お仕事）. In fact, you may have been using this prefix already without realizing it like
「お好み焼き」 or 「お土産」. There are some exceptions to this rule such as 「お返事」. Luckily since 「御」 is rarely written
in kanji, identifying the exceptions should not really be a problem.
Honorific Form

The honorific form of verbs that are not among the set honorific expressions given above can be formed in two different ways.
Honorific Conjugation 1: お + stem + に + なる

This kind of makes sense if you think of it as a person becoming the honorific state of a verb. All subsequent conjugations follow the normal rules of
conjugating the u-verb 「なる」. To be honest, this type of sentence formulation is rarely used.

 先生はお見えになりますか。
Have you seen the teacher?
Honorific Conjugation 2: お + stem + です

1. もうお帰りですか。
You're going home already?
2. 店内でお召し上がりですか。
Will you be dining in?

Service people want to be extra polite so they will often use this type of "double honorific" conjugation or 二重敬語 (in this case, the honorific
「召し上がる」 combined with the honorific conjugation). Whether it's necessary or grammatically proper is another story.
Using 「ください」 with honorifics

You can also use 「下さい」 with a honorific verb by replacing 「になる」 with 「ください」. This is useful for when you want to
ask somebody to do something but still use a honorific verb.

Yet another often-used expression.

 少々お待ちください。- Please wait a moment.

Similarly, with 「ご覧になる」, you simply replace 「になる」 with 「ください」.

 こちらにご覧下さい。
Please look this way.

This works for other nouns as well. For example, riding the trains...

 閉まるドアにご注意下さい。
Please be careful of the closing doors.
Humble Form

Humble verbs are formed in the following fashion.

Humble Conjugation: お + stem + する

You've probably already heard the first example many times before but now you know exactly where it comes from.

1. よろしくお願いします。
I properly make request.
2. 先生、お聞きしたいことがありますが。
Teacher, there's something I want to ask you.
 3. すみません、お待たせしました。
Sorry, I made you wait (causative form).
4. 千円からお預かりいたします。
We'll be holding on [from?] your 1000 yen.

You'll hear something like example 4 when, for example, you need to get change after paying 1000 yen. Again, the 二重敬語 where 「する」
has been converted to the humble 「致す」 form when it's already in the お+stem+する humble form. Some Japanese people complain that this
makes no sense and that 「から」 should really be 「を」.
Making honorific requests

We learned how to make polite requests using 「～ください」 in a previous section and we just looked at how to use honorific verbs with
requests as well. However, there is yet another way to make requests using honorific verbs. This grammar only applies to the honorific verbs with
special 「～ます」 conjugations that we just covered. This includes 「下さる」、「いらっしゃる」、「なさる」、and
「おっしゃる」.　I've never actually seen this used with 「おっしゃる」, but it is grammatically possible.
Making requests for honorific actions

 Conjugate the honorific verb to the special masu-conjugation and replace the last 「す」 with 「せ」
Examples
1. 下さる → 下さいます → 下さいませ
2. いらっしゃる → いらっしゃいます → いらっしゃいませ

 An abbreviated and less formal version of this is to simply remove the 「ます」 after conjugating to the special masu-form
Examples
1. 下さる → 下さいます → 下さい
2. いらっしゃる → いらっしゃいます → いらっしゃい

Now you finally know where grammar such as 「しなさい」 and 「してください」 actually came from. Let's look at a few quick
examples.
Examples

You'll probably hear this one a million times every time you enter some kind of store in Japan.

 いらっしゃいませ。
Please come in!

However, a middle-aged sushi chef will probably use the abbreviated version.

 いらっしゃい！
Please come in!

Some more examples...

1. ありがとうございました。またお越しくださいませ。
Thank you very much. Please come again.
2. どうぞ、ごゆっくりなさいませ。
Please take your time and relax.

Polite Japanese 敬語
There are three basic types of honorifics for verbs. It depends on your social rank as to which form to use.
A) Humble (謙譲語 kenjougo) - This is when referring to oneself or one's family members and (usually) speaking to someone higher up in social
rank, position or some other criteria for determining status. However even some people with high positions may choose to use the humble form with
those under him/her.
B) ~masu - As mentioned above ~masu / desu is actually 丁寧語 teineigo or polite language, but I'm using the familiar ~masu form for an easy
comparison to the the kenjougo and sonkeigo forms.
C) Respectful (尊敬語 sonkeigo) - This is what you say to your boss or those higher up when speaking to them. If you are speaking about yourself,
you will use the humble form.
Humble Normal Respectful
(speaking to your boss about yourself) (speaking to your friends) (speaking to your boss about your boss)
拝見します 見ます ご覧になります
haiken shimasu mimasu goran ni narimasu　
to see
申します
moushimasu 言います
iimasu おっしゃいます
You know this from "name to moushimasu" osshaimasu
to say
頂きます 食べます 召し上がります
itadakimasu tabemasu meshi agarimasu
to eat
来ます
kimasu いらっしゃいます
参ります irasshaimasu
mairimasu to come This is the respectful form for both to come and
This is the humble form for both to come and go! 行きます
go!
ikimasu
to go
致します します
itashimasu shimasu なさいます
nasaimasu
to do

Polite Part II
お + stem + になる This makes a 'normal' verb honorific (exalted) [You are speaking to or about someone with a higher status than you (your
boss)]
社長と話しましたか？
shachou to hanashimashita ka? 社長とお話になりましたか？
shachou to o hanashi ni narimashita ka?
Company president - with - talk - ?
Did you speak with the boss? (polite)
Did you speak with the boss? (normal)
何か飲みませんか？
nanika nomimasen ka? 何かお飲みになりませんか？
nanika o nomi ni narimasen ka?
something - won't drink - question
Won't you drink something? (polite)
Won't you drink something? (normal)
お + stem + ください This also makes a 'normal' verb exalted; it is used when asking things - 'please give me'
売ってください。 お売りください。
utte kudasai. o uri kudasai.
Please sell (me this). (normal) Please sell (me this) (honorific)
食べてください。 お食べください
tabete kudasai, o tabe kudasai.
Please eat. (normal) Please eat. (polit
 
Japanese has a complex system of honorific speech to show respect and an understanding of social rank.
When using "desu" instead of "da" or "~masu" instead of the dictionary form of verbs, you are actually using polite (teineigo) language already. Knowing
honorifics beyond masu / desu will help you fit in better when talking with Japanese.
Take a deep breath and let's go through some honorifics.
1) Prefixes - お or ご (for kanji kings, both are written with this kanji 御):
 お + noun (Usually the noun is of Japanese origin - This is the kun reading of 御)
 ご + noun (Usually the noun is of foreign (Chinese) origin - This is the on reading of 御)
Examples:
ご飯 (gohan - rice/meal)
ご主人 (go shujin - your husband)
お茶 (ocha - tea)
お酒 (osake - sake/alcohol)
お金 (okane - money)
お土産 (omiyage - souvenir)
You may know set phrases using this such as:
よろしくお願いします
yoroshiku onegaishimasu
Nice to meet you.
　
2) Suffixes for names
 様 sama - use in place of さん. To be polite to someone you don't really know well or who has a higher social rank than you, use 様
after their name: 田中様 (tanaka sama - Mr. Tanaka)

You will also hear this at any store: お客様 okyakusama (notice the honorific お and 様)
Common usages that have really become words in their own right are: 神様 (kami sama - God), 王様 (ou sama - King)
As with さん you don't use this with yourself unless you are wanting to be sarcastic - 俺様 (ore sama - I (something like Mr.
Number one (meaning myself)))
　
3) Pronouns / Question Words
When on the phone, you shouldn't ask "who is this" with "dare." Instead use the more honorific "donata" when refering to the person on the other side of
the line:
誰　dare どなた donata or on the phone you can also say どちら様ですか？ dochira sama desu ka?
Use "kata" instead of "hito" when referring to someone else. You can also use the humble "mono" instead of "hito" when referring to oneself.
あの人 　ano hito あの方 ano kata
　
　
4) Verbs
There are three basic types of honorifics for verbs. It depends on your social rank as to which form to use.
A) Humble (謙譲語 kenjougo) - This is when referring to oneself or one's family members and (usually) speaking to someone higher up in social
rank, position or some other criteria for determining status. However even some people with high positions may choose to use the humble form with
those under him/her.
B) ~masu - As mentioned above ~masu / desu is actually 丁寧語 teineigo or polite language, but I'm using the familiar ~masu form for an easy
comparison to the the kenjougo and sonkeigo forms.
C) Respectful (尊敬語 sonkeigo) - This is what you say to your boss or those higher up when speaking to them. If you are speaking about yourself,
you will use the humble form.
　Here is an example which should make things clear as mud:　Red is humble and Blue is Respectful (black is normal)
A dialog at a company that makes Cakes

Employee: ただいま、参(まい)りました。社長（しゃちょう）がもうすぐこちらへいらっしゃ
います。
｛The boss arrives｝
Boss:　おはよう。この書類（しょるい）を見（み）てくれますか？
Employee:　はい、拝見（はいけん）します。こちらの書類（しょるい）もご覧（らん）に
なってください。
{A cake is brought out for the boss}
Boss:　このケーキは会社（かいしゃ）で一番（いちばん）おいしいな。
Employee: おっしゃたとおりでございます。みんなもそう申（もう）しております。ケーキを
どうぞ召（め）し上（あ）がってください。
Boss: 頂（いただ）きます。

When the boss is spoken of or to, it is BLUE (respectful)

When the employee and even the boss speaks of himself and wants to use keigo, he uses the humble RED form
On the last Employee statement, we use おります. This is actually the teineigo (polite) form of いる / います.
　
5) Special Conjugations
お + stem + になる (humble)

社長と話しましたか？ 社長とお話になりましたか？
shachou to hanashimashita ka? shachou to o hanashi ni narimashita ka?
Did you speak with the boss? (normal) Did you speak with the boss? (humble)

何か飲みませんか？ 何かお飲みになりませんか？
nanika nomimasen ka? nanika o nomi ni narimasen ka?
Won't you drink something? (normal) Won't you drink something? (humble)
お + stem + ください This also makes a normal verb polite; it is used when asking things - "please give me..."

売ってください。 お売りください。
utte kudasai. o uri kudasai.
Please sell (me this). (normal) Please sell (me this) (humble)

食べてください。 お食べください
tabete kudasai, o tabe kudasai.
Please eat. (normal) Please eat. (humble)

～（ら）れる　ＰＡＳＳＩＶＥ
Using passive form to show politeness

While we will go over various types of grammar that express a politeness level above the normal -masu/-desu forms in the next lesson, it is useful to
know that using passive form is another more polite way to express an action. In Japanese, a sentence is usually more polite when it is less direct. For
example, it is more polite to refer to someone by his or her name and not by the direct pronoun "you". It is also more polite to ask a negative question
than a positive one. (For example, 「しますか？」 vs. 「 しませんか？」) In a similar sense, using the passive form makes the
sentence less direct because the subject does not directly perform the action. This makes it sound more polite. Here is the same sentence in increasing
degrees of politeness.
 1. どうする？ - What will you do? (lit: How do?)
2. どうしますか？ - Regular polite.
3. どうされますか？- Passive polite.
4. どうなさいますか？- Honorific (to be covered next lesson)
5. どうなさいますでしょうか？- Honorific + a lesser degree of certainty.

Notice how the same sentence grows longer and longer as you get more and more indirect.
Examples

1. 領収証はどうされますか？
What about your receipt? (lit: How will you do receipt?)
2. 明日の会議に行かれるんですか？
Are you going to tomorrow's meeting?