Chapter Two : Theory 6
Chapter Two
Theory
2.1. Centrifugation and centrifuge definition:
Centrifugation is the technique of separating components where the
centrifugal force/ acceleration causes the denser molecules to move
towards the periphery while the less dense particles move to the center.
The process of centrifugation relies on the perpendicular force created
when a sample is rotated about a fixed point. The rate of centrifugation is
dependent on the size and density of the particles present in the solution.
Centrifuge can refer to a machine that houses a rapidly rotating container
to separate its contents by density or to the act of using the machine or A
centrifuge is a piece of equipment that puts an object in rotation around a
fixed axis (spins it in a circle), applying a potentially strong force
perpendicular to the axis of spin (outward). The centrifuge works using
the sedimentation principle, where the centripetal acceleration causes
denser substances and particles to move outward in the radial direction. At
the same time, objects that are less dense are displaced and move to the
center. Hence, a centrifuge uses centrifugal force to separate two or more
substances of different densities or masses from each other. [9]
Effective separation of mixtures is a common challenge experienced in
many industrial processes. These mixtures could be two immiscible
liquids or solid suspension in liquid. The oldest and easiest way of
separating such mixture is by allowing it to settle into two distinct layers
with the denser liquid/solid at the bottom while the lighter liquid stays on
top (sedimentation) before decanting. Unfortunately, this sedimentation
process for most mixtures is time consuming (consuming several hours
and in some cases, may run into days) causing a consequent stagnation in
production. To achieve continuous production for such systems and
Chapter Two : Theory 7
reduce overall production time,there is need for a faster means of
separating such mixtures.
Centrifuges achieve separation by means of accelerated gravitational force
achieved by a rapid rotation. [10]
This replaces the normal gravitational force required for settling. Hence,
sedimentation can be achieved in less time by replacing the sedimentation
tank/vessel with a centrifuge. Centrifuges are used in a variety of medical
and industrial applications. [11]
Although different centrifuge designs and capacities are already in
existence, most of these centrifuges are complex to operate and costly to
maintain by small and medium scale producers, especially in developing
countries. Hence, the need to develop a simple and cost effective
centrifuge for small and medium scaled industries using locally sourced
materials.
2.2. Theory of Centrifuge Operation :-
An example of a fixed angle centrifuge is the Neuation iFuge M12 device.
This is illustrated in figure 2.1 which shows the device with the lid raised
and twelve micro centrifuge tubes placed in the rotor.
The theory of centrifuge operation can be developed as follows. Let a
centrifuge tube of length l0 metres and cross sectional area A m2 be filled
to a height of l metres with fluid of density ρs. Let the fluid contains a
suspension of spherical particles of radius r metres and density ρp kg/m3.
See figure 2.2.
The tube is inserted into the centrifuge and the device operated. In
practice a centrifuge must always be loaded with an even number of tubes,
diametrically opposed containing the same mass of liquid so that the rotor
is balanced. Running a centrifuge with a single tube would certainly make
the centrifuge vibrate and could quite easily break the device. However
Chapter Two : Theory 8
for the point of developing theory, only the forces acting on a single tube
will be considered. As the rotor spins, an apparent centrifugal force acts
on the sample of fluid and the particles inside it, pushing both radially
outwards towards the side of the centrifuge tube.
Fig:2.1 High Speed Centrifuge with Fixed Angle (NTPL, Gandhinagar)
The magnitude of the centrifugal force, FC can be show to be [12] given
by equation (1.1).
FC = mω2R (1.1)
where
FC :-Magnitude of the centrifugal force (units Newton)
ω:- Angular Velocity of the Centrifuge (units radian/second)
R:- Radius of the circular motion of the centrifuge (unit metre)
Chapter Two : Theory 9
M :-Mass of the particle being spun.
This could be either the mass of the total solution, or the mass of a particle
depending on the context of the discussion.
The linear velocity v of the tube as it moves in a circle is given by
equation (2.2).
υ = ωR (2.2)
The force FC acts on the particles in the fluid sample, pushing them
towards the outside of the centrifuge tube and thence causing them to
slide down the tube to form a pellet at the bottom. This force plays the
same role as that played by gravity in the sedimentation. Again there is a
force of Buoyancy FB played a role. However, in this case the buoyancy
force acts in the opposite direction to the centrifugal force rather than
towards the fluid surface. Also there is again a drag force FD, as the
solution resists the flow of particles and again this acts to oppose the
motion of the particles. Equating all forces, we find that when the
suspended particles attain terminal velocity, they behave as predicted by
equation (2.3).
(2.3)
The time for all particles to collect into the pellet in the centrifuge tube.
T is thus given by dividing l, the depth of fluid in the centrifuge tube by
υT, the terminal velocity, and see equation (2.4).
(2.4)
where
T :-Time taken to precipitate all suspended particles (unit seconds)
ω :-Angular velocity of the centrifuge (units radian/second)
Chapter Two : Theory 10
r :-Radius of suspended particles (m)
η :-Viscosity of the solution (units Pa.s)
ρp :-Density of suspended particles (kg / m3)
ρs :-Density of solution (kg / m3)
R :-Radius of the circular motion of the centrifuge (unit metres).[13]
2.3. Types of Centrifuges:-
1.There are two fundamental types of rotors:
Fixed Angle Rotor:
These hold the tubes in the centrifuge at a fixed inclination (typically
about 35 degrees) to the vertical. The most common devices hold eight
tubes and they have the advantage of not having moving parts on the
rotor. This arrangement means that the solute is forced against the side of
the tube. This leads to a faster separation of the solute from fluid, but risks
abrasion of the particles as they are forced down the wall of the centrifuge
tube. Also the end result is a smear along the side of the tube rather than
the precipitate forming a neat pellet.
Advantage:
Sedimenting particles have only short distance to travel before pelleting.
Shorter run time
This is the most widely used rotor type.
Swinging Bucket Rotor:
This form of rotor allows the centrifuge tubes to freely swing out towards
the horizontal as the device operates. This gives the longest path of
particle movement as the centrifugation proceeds and has the advantage
that the solid forms in a clear pellet at the bottom of the centrifuge tube.
Advantage:
Longer distance of travel may allow better separation eg. Density gradient
centrifugation.
Chapter Two : Theory 11
Easier to withdraw supernatant without disturbing pellet.
Fig:2.2 Types of Rotors
2.centrifuge operating speed classifications are:
* Low speed < 8000 rpm.
* Medium speed 8000 ~ 30000 rpm.
* High speed 30000 ~ 80000 rpm.
* Ultracentrifuge > 80000 rpm.
2.4.Application of Centrifuges:-
Production of bulk drugs: In the bulk drug industry, whenever a
crystalline material is to be separated from a suspension, e.g.,
aspirin is separated from its mother liquor by centrifugation.
Production of biological products:
Chapter Two : Theory 12
a. Separation of blood cells.
b. Purification of insulin by selectively precipitating other fraction
of proteins.
c. Separation of most of the proteinaceous drugs and
macromolecules.
Biopharmaceutical analysis of drugs: Drugs present in the blood,
tissue fluids and urine are normally present in the form of colloidal
dispersion. Centrifugation is used for separating the drugs which is
essential for the evaluation of pharmacokinetic parameters and
bioequivalence studies.
Evaluation of suspension and emulsion: Centrifugation method is
used as a rapid empirical test parameter for the evaluation of
suspension and emulsion.
e.g., A stable emulsion should not show any signs of separation
even after centrifuging at 2000-3000 rpm at room temperature.
Ultracentrifugation are used for determination of molecular weight
of serum albumin, insulin etc.
Isolation of bacterial cells, fungal and actinomycete mycelium and
spores from liquid growth and fermentation media is facilitated by
laboratory centrifuge.
Removal of finely suspended solid matter (clarification) from
aqueous or oily materials can be carried out by centrifuging at high
speeds without the necessity of a filter.
Ultracentrifuge can be used for separation of virus particles which
has potential industrial applications.[13]
Chapter Two : Theory 13
2.5.Solar cell:-
A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is defined as an
electrical device that converts light energy into electrical energy through
the photovoltaic effect. A solar cell is basically a p-n junction diode. Solar
cells are a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical
characteristics such as current, voltage, or resistance vary when exposed
to light.
Individual solar cells can be combined to form modules commonly known
as solar panels. The common single junction silicon solar cell can produce
a maximum open-circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts. By
itself this isn’t much but remember these solar cells are tiny. When
combined into a large solar panel, considerable amounts of renewable
energy can be generated.[13]
2.5.1.Construction of Solar Cell:-
A solar cell is basically a junction diode, although its construction it is
little bit different from conventional p-n junction diodes. A very thin layer
of p-type semiconductor is grown on a relatively thicker n-type
semiconductor. We then apply a few finer electrodes on the top of the p-
type semiconductor layer.
These electrodes do not obstruct light to reach the thin p-type layer. Just
below the p-type layer there is a p-n junction. We also provide a current
collecting electrode at the bottom of the n-type layer. We encapsulate the
entire assembly by thin glass to protect the solar cell from any mechanical
shock.[14]
Chapter Two : Theory 14
Fig:2.3 Construction of Solar Cell
2.5.2.Working Principle of Solar Cell:-
When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter in
the junction, through very thin p-type layer. The light energy, in the form
of photons, supplies sufficient energy to the junction to create a number of
electron-hole pairs. The incident light breaks the thermal equilibrium
condition of the junction. The free electrons in the depletion region can
quickly come to the n-type side of the junction.
Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side of
the junction. Once, the newly created free electrons come to the n-type
side, cannot further cross the junction because of barrier potential of the
junction.[16]
Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side cannot
further cross the junction became of same barrier potential of the junction.
As the concentration of electrons becomes higher in one side, i.e. n-type
side of the junction and concentration of holes becomes more in another
side, i.e. the p-type side of the junction, the p-n junction will behave like a
small battery cell. A voltage is set up which is known as photo voltage. If
we connect a small load across the junction, there will be a tiny current
flowing through it.[17]
Chapter Two : Theory 15
2.5.3.V-I Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Cell:-
Fig:2.4 V-I Characteristics of Solar Cell[18]
2.5.4.Advantages of Solar Cell:-
1. No pollution associated with it.
2. It must last for a long time.
3. No maintenance cost.[19]
2.5.5.Disadvantages of Solar Cell:-
1. It has high cost of installation.
2. It has low efficiency.
3. During cloudy day, the energy cannot be produced and also at night
we will not get solar energy.[19]
2.5.6.Uses of Solar Generation Systems:-
1. It may be used to charge batteries.
2. Used in light meters.
3. It is used to power calculators and wrist watches.
4. It can be used in spacecraft to provide electrical energy.[19]
