5 Ion Exchange

Applications and Design

In this chapter, we cover a myriad of conventional and novel ion exchange processes
developed through the years and explain how these ideas can be used today. Ion
exchange applications, showing process flow diagrams and example design prob-
lems, take the reader from problem conception to final design.
We design ion exchange systems using a few basic “rules of thumb,” experience
the resin manufacturer’s design recommendations, common sense, and the question,
“What do we want to do with this water?” We often use bar charts of the raw water
and draw bar charts of the finished water.
In the applications sections, we provide the basic configurations (ion exchange
processes) used today. These flow sheets are general in nature and, when combined
with the information provided in the detailed design problems, offer the reader the
ability to solve most of the ion exchange problems one might encounter.

BASIC FLOW SHEETS

If you look into the ion exchange section of most textbooks and introductory articles
on ion exchange, or in the class notes generated by most professors (except the pres-
ent authors), you will find about ten classic flow sheets. These flow sheets, originated
by Applebaum in 1968, are probably the most referenced flow sheets in the world
today. The basic flow sheets present many of the basic principles of ion exchange.
They are also an excellent guide for designing ion exchange systems to produce
high-quality industrial and potable waters. In all cases, the species being removed
are ionized and can effectively be removed by ion exchange. The feedwaters are pre-
treated so they are free of suspended solids, oil and grease, and high concentrations
of organics. The level of dissolved solids is well within the economics of efficient
ion exchange. No consideration is given to minimizing regenerant or to regenerant
disposal. Figure 5.1 is a key showing the basic building blocks.

DEMINERALIZATION
Flow Scheme conFigurationS
A number of demineralizer flow schemes are available using the following building
blocks: strong-acid cation and weak-acid cation exchangers, strong-base anion and
weak-base anion exchangers, and a decarbonator or vacuum deaerator (degassifier).
Factors that influence the selection of a demineralizer’s flow scheme are raw
water composition, effluent water composition (more specifically the necessity of
silica removal and alkalinity reduction), plant size, and regenerant cost.

87
88 Environmental Ion Exchange

Strong-acid Weak-acid
Weak-base
SA cation WA cation WB
anion
(*) exchanger (*) exchanger (*)
exchanger
(H+) form (H+) form

Degassifier
Strong-base Mixed-bed
SB or
anion MB exchanger D
(*) Vacuum
exchanger
deaerator

FIGURE 5.1 Key of basic building blocks. *, Exchange form, H+, for example. If not
indicated, assume (H+) for SA and WA and (OH–) for SB and WB.

Silica removal
Waters with a high concentration of silica cause silica leakage and require high caus-
tic soda levels; therefore, strong-base anion resins in both the primary and second-
ary stages are recommended to save caustic soda. If silica removal is not required
for a particular application, then a weak-base resin can be employed. Recall that
a weak-base resin has about twice the capacity for removing total mineral acidity
(sulfates and chlorides) of a strong-base resin, given equal caustic soda regenerant
levels. Moreover, it can be regenerated with soda ash, which is less expensive than
caustic soda. Conversely, if the demineralized water is used for boiler feedwater
or some other industrial purpose in which the silica tolerance is low, a strong-base
anion resin must be used. These systems are often followed by mixed-bed systems or
electrodeionization to polish the effluent less than 20 ppb silica.
Several materials (that are not ionized) “must” be removed from boiler water.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide (CO2) must be removed to reduce corrosion.
By using the second flow scheme, the alkalinity will be “boiled out” in the vacuum
degassifier. Thus, the anion unit can be a weak-base anion unit. Chemical regenerant
costs are minimized because the alkalinity does not have to be exchanged. It is also
easier to get the CO2 out in this configuration because the cation effluent is in the acid
range. Strong-base anion resin costs more than weak-base resin, and the strong-base
resin requires a higher concentration of caustic soda for regeneration. This system
does not require salt-splitting ability.
As a rule of thumb, mechanical reduction of CO2 is usually more economical than
its chemical removal by the strong-base anion exchanger when the influent alkalinity
exceeds 50–100 mg/L (as CaCO3) and the demineralizer capacity exceeds 100 gpm.

raw water compoSition

A raw water analysis is used to calculate the proportion of sodium and alkalin-
ity (expressed in percent of total cations and anions), and the proportion of total
mineral acidity (sulfates and chlorides) and silica, expressed in percent of total
Ion Exchange Applications and Design 89

exchangeable anions. Higher percentages of sodium and lower percentages of

alkalinity increase cation leakage and require higher acid levels to keep this leak-
age within the limits set for total dissolved solids (TDS). If the acid levels become
excessive, four-bed or combined two-bed and mixed-bed demineralizers are rec-
ommended. Waters that have high percentages of alkalinity make use of weak-acid
cation resins’ economy because it saves acid; for such waters, a decarbonator or
vacuum deaerator becomes advisable (see Figure 5.2). If the percentage of total
mineral acidity is high enough, a weak-base anion resin in a three-bed or double-
layer system is justified to reduce the caustic soda requirements.

plant Size
The larger the plant, the greater the importance of reducing the operating cost, even
though the capital investment is greater. In large plants, it is possible to justify the
selection of four-bed instead of two-bed demineralizers and the inclusion of both weak-
acid cation resin and weak-base anion resin by the savings in regenerant cost. In small
plants, the small capital investment is usually the controlling factor, and for this reason
mixed beds alone are often preferred, even though the cost of the regenerant is high.

coStS oF regenerantS
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) as a regenerant enhances the capacity of the cation exchanger
in comparison with other acids and prevents fouling of the resin by calcium sulfate

Feedwater
make-up

CO2
O2

Strong Strong
cation anion Vac.
(H+) (OH−) degas.

(a) To boiler

CO2
O2
HCO3

Strong Weak
Vac.
cation anion
degas.

(b)

FIGURE 5.2 Degassification process options in demineralization.

90 Environmental Ion Exchange

during regeneration (see Chapter 3). Therefore despite its higher cost (show table
with regenerant cost), HCL is often the preferred regenerant for small demineral-
ization applications (see Wachinski (2004)—Ion Exchange for an example design
problem in which regeneration with sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is presented).

eFFluent water compoSition

Table 5.1 gives the range of effluent TDS and silica normally obtainable, with the
major silica-removing demineralizer systems treating raw waters of moderate salin-
ity (less than 500 mg/L TDS).
From this table, it is evident that “pure” demineralized water (up to 105 ohms) is
readily obtained from two-bed systems, but that if “very pure” water (up to 106 ohms)
is required, the use of four-bed or mixed-bed systems is indicated, and if “ultra-
pure” water (up to 107 ohms) is required, the combination of two-bed or three-bed
plus mixed-bed system must be used. Similarly, when effluent silica is considered,
two beds may be expected to reduce the silica to about 0.22–0.1 mg/L. If, however,
greater silica removals are required, one of the other contacting systems must be
employed. High-pressure boilers require silica levels less than 5 ppb. In many cases,
mixed-bed systems or electrodeionization (EDI) systems are used to meet the low
levels of silica.

TABLE 5.1
Range of Electrolyte Content (as Total Dissolved Solids) and Silica in
Effluents of Some Major Silica-Removing Demineralizer Systems
Two- or Two- or Three-Bed
Three-Bed Four-Bed Mixed-Bed plus Mixed-Bed
Electrolyte (as TDS), 2.0–3.0 0.2–1.0 0.2–0.5 0.04–0.10
ppm
Silica (as SiO2),a ppm 0.02–0.1 (a) 0.02–0.1 0.02–0.1 (a) 0.02–0.1
(b) 0.01–0.05 (b) 0.01–0.05
Conductivity, μmho 10.0–15.0 1.0–5.0 0.5–1.25 0.10–0.25
Specific resistance, 67,000– 200,000– 800,000– 4,000,000–
ohms-cm 100,000 1,000,000 2,000,000 10,000,000

Source: Adapted from Applebaum, Samuel, B. Demineralization by Ion Exchange in Water Treatment
and Chemical Processing of Other Liquids, Academic Press, New York, p. 165, 1968. With
permission.
Note: This table is based on the demineralization of waters of moderate salinity less than about 500 ppm
TDS. Condensate high-rate mixed-bed demineralizers produce effluent TDS of less than 0.04 ppm,
or 0.1 μmho (10,000,000 ohms), and SiO2 less than 0.005 ppm.
a The two ranges given signify (a) with primary weak-base anion resin and (b) with primary strong-base

anion resin.
Ion Exchange Applications and Design 91

FLOW SCHEMES
• Flow Scheme: Two-Bed, Strong Acid, Weak Base

Raw water

SA WB

(a)

Silica and carbon dioxide not objectionable; quality: 10–30  μmho/cm3;

silica unchanged.
• Flow Scheme: Two-Bed, Strong Acid, Weak Base, Degassifier

SA WB D

(b)

Silica unchanged; carbon dioxide removed; 10–20 μmho/cm3.

• Flow Scheme: Two-Bed, Silica Removal

High alkalinity
raw water with
silica

SA D SB

This scheme will reduce silica to 0.02–0.10  ppm; water quality 5–15
μmho/cm3.
92 Environmental Ion Exchange

• Flow Scheme: Three-Bed (Optional Decarbonator/Degassifier)

High alkalinity
sulfates, and
chlorides

SA WB D SB

This system saves sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) regenerant with waters high
in total mineral acidity (sulfates and chlorides). It also allows omission of the
carbonator. The caustic soda is passed counterflow through the strong-base and
weak-base beds, when the effluent conductivity of the weak-base resin rises.
The strong-base bed will be only partially exhausted at that time; therefore, it
has sufficient excess capacity to remove the carbonic acid economically even if
the decarbonator is omitted. This scheme also avoids early silica breakthrough.
• Flow Scheme: Four-Bed with Primary Weak-Base and Secondary Strong-
Base Resins

SA WB D SA SB

This system reduces the electrolyte concentration to 0.2–1.0 mg/L and the

silica to 0.02–0.1 mg/L. The use of primary and secondary cation resins
saves acid regenerant. The system is suited to waters with high percentages
of sodium and low percentages of alkalinity, which cause greater sodium
leakage. Weak-base resin also saves caustic soda with waters high in per-
centage of total mineral acidity. The secondary units, used only for polish-
ing, can be smaller than the primary units.
• Flow Scheme: Four-Bed with Primary and Secondary Strong-Base Resins

SA D SB SA SB
Ion Exchange Applications and Design 93

This system saves as much acid as does the previous system, but the strong-
base resins in both the primary and secondary stages reduce the silica to
0.01–0.05 mg/L. The system also avoids organic fouling of the secondary
resins.
• Flow Scheme: Two-Bed/Four-Bed

SA D SB SA SB

This system design is used when the output of demineralized make-

up water must be increased for a short period. Then the primary and
secondary stages of the four-bed are run in parallel as a large two-bed
system. The secondary units are made the same size as the primary
units, because during regeneration of the primary pair the secondary
pair handles the full load. Some two-bed or four-bed plants have been so
designed that the freshly regenerated primary pair is always switched to
the secondary position by opening certain valves in the piping intercon-
nections. This is intended to improve the effluent quality, but because
organic fouling of the secondary units has interfered with obtaining this
objective, it is best to keep the primary units always in a primary position,
so as to protect the secondary anion resin from such fouling. This scheme
treats high alkalinity, high sodium raw water to high purity (1–5 μmhos,
0.01–0.05 mg/L silica).
• Flow Scheme: Mixed-Bed

MB

This system is used in smaller plants to treat low-TDS waters requiring high
purity (1–5 μmhos, 0.01–0.05 mg/L silica) and to save investment cost, but
the practice entails higher operating costs. The resin capacity in mixed beds
is usually assumed to be 80%–85% of the same resins in two-bed systems,
so more acid and caustic soda are required for regeneration.
94 Environmental Ion Exchange

• Flow Scheme: Cation Bed, Decarbonator, Mixed-Bed

SA D MB

This system reduces the amount of acid and caustic soda needed, compared
with mixed-bed alone for waters high in alkalinity.
• Flow Scheme: Two-Bed with Weak-Base and Mixed-Bed Exchangers

SA WB D MB

This scheme produces an effluent quality of 0.04–0.10  mg/L. It saves as

much acid as the SA-D-MB system and is applicable to waters high in total
mineral acidity.
• Flow Scheme: Two-Bed with Strong-Base Exchanger and Mixed-Bed

SA D SB MB

This scheme treats high-alkalinity, high-TDS water to less than 1 μmho/cm3,

silica to 0.01–0.05 ppm. The strong base exchanger protects the mixed-bed
from organic fouling. The mixed-bed is regenerated infrequently.
Ion Exchange Applications and Design 95

• Flow Scheme: Two-Bed with Weak-Acid Polishing

SA SB WA

This system is used for high sodium waters. The weak-acid exchanger has
a high affinity for NaOH, and thus any sodium that leaks from the strong-
base exchanger. The spent acid from regenerating the strong-acid exchanger
is used to regenerate the weak-acid exchanger.

alkalinity reduction Flow SchemeS

Bicarbonate alkalinity decomposes under heat, releasing CO2, which causes corro-
sion problems. The following flow schemes show how ion exchange can be used to
dealkalize waters. The cation exchangers in the schemes are operated in the hydro-
gen form to convert the bicarbonate salts to carbonic acid.
The second flow scheme uses a split-stream approach in which one exchanger is
operated in the hydrogen cycle only, and the other in the hydrogen cycle, and then
blended. Either HCl or H2SO4 is used to regenerate the hydrogen cycle. Sodium
chloride (NaCl) is used to regenerate the sodium cycle exchanger. In most cases, a
deaerator is used to remove CO2.
In the fourth flow scheme, all sulfates and bicarbonate alkalinity are replaced by
chloride, providing an expensive way to alkalize water when high chlorides are not
a problem.

• Flow Scheme: Weak-Acid Exchanger and Decarbonator

WA D
96 Environmental Ion Exchange

• Flow Scheme: Two Strong-Acid Exchangers and Decarbonator

SA SA D

• Flow Scheme: Strong-Acid Exchanger and Decarbonator with Sodium

Hydroxide Addition

NaOH

SA D

High-alkalinity, low-FMA (free mineral acidity) waters.

• Flow Scheme: Dealkalizing

SB
(Cl−)

DESIGN
This section restates the obvious and may be the not-so-obvious thinking process
involved in designing an ion exchange system.
Simply stated to design an ion exchange system, we need to know what’s in the water
to be treated and what is to be in the treated water, that is, formulate what you want the
ion exchanger to do. The designer must determine the constituents in the water that are
to be exchanged, which depends on the water source, for example ground water, surface
water, industrial process water, and the end use for which the treated water is intended,
for example boiler feedwater, potable water, industrial process water, or water for reuse.
We of course need to know the design flow rate, and whether we size the pro-
cess for the existing water flow, or whether we must deliver a specified quantity of
Ion Exchange Applications and Design 97

water at a specified water quality. The difference in design is the ion exchange sys-
tem recovery that is influenced by backwash and regeneration requirements and that
determines the water flow required to meet capacity.

determine FiniShed water Quality

Three examples of treated water quality are as follows:

1. Softening water for potable use. The finished water must meet federal and
state drinking water standards. The raw water hardness is to be reduced
usually to 75–150 mg/L as CaCO3. TDS must not exceed 500 mg/L. The
engineer will determine the maximum sodium and chloride concentration—
tied to salt taste. Production flow rate must be met. All other parameters are
stated in the state and federal regulations.
2. Demineralized water must usually meet hardness to a not-to-exceed level,
in some cases individual calcium and magnesium conductivity and silica
concentrations must be met.
3. Produced water is treated for either hydraulic fracturing or agricultural
reuse. In the hydraulic fracturing scenario, the produced water must meet
strict boron limits set by the chemist who determines the water quality
needed for hydraulic fracturing. Other unit operations, for example Water
Planet Inc. (WPI), CMS, and IMS technologies, are used in the oil field to
pretreat water for boron removal.

determine raw water Quality

Resin manufacturer engineering data required to select a resin and design the
equipment are available online. The resin specification sheets allow the user to
specify the analyses required to complete the design. Knowing the chemical qual-
ity requirements of the treated water, the next step is to generate a complete water
analysis of the water to include pH, temperature, TDS, oil and grease, total suspended
solids, total organic carbon (TOC), and a complete cation–anion analysis. If you are
producing demineralized water, you will need to know the CO2 and silica concentra-
tions. For industrial wastewaters and recovery operations, suspended solids, oil and
grease (solvent extractables), organics, and a total cation–anion balance should be
performed. A complete listing of required parameters is given in Table 5.2.
In the majority of situations, TDS are not a design concern. With ion exchange,
for example, boron selective ion exchange plays a larger role in treating produced
water, which is high in TDS (2,500–150,000 mg/L). The TDS concentration of the
raw water is a major concern. A good rule of thumb is that when the TDS levels of
water to be deionized by exchange exceed 1000 mg/L, the economics of regeneration
may be questionable. Use the 1000 mg/L level as a flag. Remember, the entire picture
must be considered. High TDS solutions greater than 3000  mg/L can cause self-
regeneration problems. The decision to use ion exchange in high TDS applications
is usually an economic one; for example, in a paper titled, “A New Ion Exchange
Process for Softening High TDS Produced Water,” weak acid membranes are speci-
fied for high TDS waters used in steam assisted gravity drainage water treatment for
98 Environmental Ion Exchange

TABLE 5.2
Comprehensive Water Quality Analysis for Ion Exchange Design
Parameter Units
Carbon dioxide (CO2) ppm
M-alkalinity mg/L
P-alkalinity mg/L
pH pH units
Fluoride (F) mg/L
Nitrate (NO3) mg/L
Chloride mg/L
Ortho-Phosphate (OP) mg/L
Conductivity umhos
Potassium (K) mg/L
Aluminum (Al) mg/L
Barium (Ba) mg/L
Copper (Cu) mg/L
Calcium (Ca) mg/L
Magnesium (Mg) mg/L
Hardness-total mg/L as CaCO3
Iron (Fe)-total mg/L
Iron (Fe)–dissolved (0.45u) mg/L
Manganese (Mn) mg/L
Sodium (Na) mg/L
Lead (Pb) mg/L
Sulfate (SO4) mg/L
Silica (SiO2) total mg/L
Silica (SiO2) Reactive mg/L
Strontium (Sr) mg/L
Ammonia (NH3) total ppm
Total organic carbon (TOC) mg/L
Turbidity-clean waters NTU
Total suspended solids (TSS) mg/L
Total dissolved solids (TDS) mg/L
Temperature—taken on site °C and °F
Hexane extractables-also known as fats, oils, and greases mg/L

once through steam generator (OTSG) but require a two-stage regeneration process,
that is, HCl followed by NaOH. This impacts both capital cost-materials of con-
struction and dual regeneration, equipment and higher operating cost in chemicals,
and regeneration time and lower recovery. In some cases, it may be the only option.
Again, bench-scale studies coupled with modeling provides the designer with the
information required to specify Purolite’s FerrIX™.
Gather operational data: Pressure drop across the resin bed is a function of flow
rate and water temperature. Graphs are provided by the resin manufacturer that
Ion Exchange Applications and Design 99

allow computation of pressure drop as a function of flow rate and water temperature
(i.e., psi/ft of bed). Design of the system must also include the pressure drop from
friction losses in the piping to size pumps. A least-cost design incorporates the low-
est level of regeneration and the highest service flow rate (see Figure 3.6).
Bed expansion is a function of flow rate, temperature, viscosity, and density of the
resin. Typical bed expansion values for a particular resin at various water tempera-
tures are provided by the resin manufacturer. To ensure proper cleaning of the bed,
allow volume in the ion exchange vessel to accommodate 50%–75% bed expansion.
The effect of temperature on bed expansion is important. Design for the lowest water
temperature expected (see Figure 3.13).
The effect of flow rate versus exchange capacity is also provided by the resin
manufacturer. Expect breakthrough capacity to drop as service flow rates increase.
Operational exchange capacity and leakage are a function of flow rate and temperature.
The hardness-to-alkalinity ratio, total cations, and percent sodium must be considered.
Select the resin(s) to be used and the form in which you are to operate (a review of
Chapter 3 and the flow sheets provided here will prove helpful). In selecting the resin,
other considerations are breakthrough capacity for a particular operation, resistance
to fracture, resistance to oxidation, and temperature operating range (see Chapter 4).

determine pretreatment reQuirementS

Ion exchange resins have a high affinity for solids and, therefore, act as an excellent
filtration medium. But, using an exchange resin as a suspended solid, filter is “not”
recommended (resin prices vary between $60.00 and $400.00 per cubic foot).
The resin manufacturing data sheets address a resin’s resistance to a particular
insult, for example, oxidants, iron, temperature, and organics. For example, ferric iron
forms insoluble hydroxides that can coat the resin. Ferrous iron will foul the resin as
it oxidizes to the ferric state. However, if the water contains no dissolved oxygen, and
if iron or manganese is in the divalent state, then ion exchange is an excellent way to
remove iron and manganese effectively. If the iron and manganese are in the insoluble
state, or if the water contains dissolved oxygen or oxidants, or if oxygen cannot be
completely excluded from the system, both iron and manganese must be removed
prior to softening. Pretreatment—if any—usually included settling, followed by mul-
timedia filtration, or multimedia filtration alone, and in some cases cartridge filtra-
tion. Earlier thinking was to eliminate as much pretreatment as possible to cut capital
cost and rely on frequent backwashing using the ion exchange resin as a filter. The
author’s thinking is to provide particle free water to the ion exchanger and only use the
exchanger to remove dissolved ionic species. Reducing backwash frequency increases
system recovery. Clarifiers and multimedia filters are often replaced or supplemented
by hollow fiber microfiltration systems capable of treating source water of any quality
to turbidity levels less than 0.1 nephlometric turbidity units (ntu).
Hollow fiber microfiltration permeate is high quality water with a turbidity less
than 0.1 ntu, nonmeasurable suspended solids, iron less than 0.05 mg/L and manga-
nese less than 0.02 mg/L. Microfiltration removes practically all inorganic foulants.
Microorganisms are removed, reducing resin fouling and allowing for infrequent
regeneration that support the brine reduction discussions underway, less frequent
100 Environmental Ion Exchange

backwash, and more efficient regeneration. Oxidants should be neutralized prior to

contacting the resin with the appropriate reducing agent (see Wachinski 2004).
Anion exchangers, for example, DowexTM MarathonTM 11, a porous gel, strong
base anion resin, are often used to remove organics. These resins are referred to as
organic scavengers. Organics are usually measured as TOC. The reader is directed to
chapter 2 of Wachinski (2013) for an excellent description of TOC; also see page 70
and other water-quality parameters.
If organic removal is not in your design, pretreat for organics with either granular
activated carbon (GAC), or use an organic scavenger that can either be a weak-base
resin, or a strong-base anion resin as part of the pretreatment to adsorb organics.
Oil and grease are often encountered when treating rinse waters from plating
operations, when softening produced water, or hydraulic fracturing flow back, or
when removing boron from produced water for reuse. Oil coats the resin, thereby
reducing its exchange capacity. Again see WPI and CMS technology for oil removal
and produced water pretreatment.
Select the regenerant: Use the resin manufacturer’s literature to balance regenera-
tion level (lb of regenerant/ft3) against capacity (Kgr/ft3). Efficiency of regeneration
and leakage are important considerations (Table 3.6).
Select regeneration contact time: Consult the manufacturer’s literature. For most
resins, a maximum flow rate of 1 gpm/ft3 is recommended for most industrial soften-
ing applications. Lower rates are typically used in domestic softening. Manufacturers
provide curves to select optimum regenerant levels. Bench-scale studies can be used
to confirm design parameters.
Select rinse requirements: Following regeneration, the excess salt or acid must be
removed (rinsed) before the service cycle can begin. In softening applications, rins-
ing is usually accomplished with raw water. In deionization applications, rinsing is
completed with decationized water. Rinsing is usually performed in two steps; the
first step is at the same rate as regeneration to displace the regenerant from the resin’s
void spaces. After two bed volumes of rinse water have passed through the bed, the
flow rate is increased to 1.5  gpm/ft3. Rinsing is terminated at some set point—in
softening, usually when the chloride content of the regenerant is 25 ppm greater than
the chloride level of the raw water.
Designing an ion exchange unit: See the example problem below, and the exam-
ple problem on page 149 of Ion Exchange Treatment for Water, to get a feel for back
of the envelope type calculations, vessel sizing, and chemical requirements.

• Compute grains per gallon as CaCO3

• Compute kilograins of ions as CaCO3 to be removed each day
• Select resin and calculate capacity, or determine capacity in the lab
• Calculate resin volume
• Compute regeneration requirements; select regenerant
• Calculate regeneration time
• Calculate flow rates—backwash, regeneration, rinse, service
• Determine unit dimensions
• Recheck flow rates
• Select number of units
Ion Exchange Applications and Design 101

Example

Problem 1: Design of Deionization Unit

Produce 100,000 gal/day of deionized water with a concentration of 10 μmhos.

The 10 μmhos is equal to the leakage through the deionization units. No blending
is possible. Experience has shown that for this particular manufacturer’s resin, the
breakthrough capacity of the cation resin is 18 Kgr/ft 3 and that for the anion resin
the breakthrough capacity is 16  Kgr/ft3. The manufacturer’s literature specifies
70 gallons (gal) of rinse water per cubic foot of resin. Analysis of the feedwater
has shown no suspended solids or oil and grease. A bar graph of the feedwater
has shown the following species present in the water:

CO2 = 8 mg/L as CO2

Ca(HCO3)2 = 240 mg/L as CaCO3

Mg(HCO3)2 = 60 mg/L as CaCO3

MgSO4 = 75 mg/L as CaCO3

Na2SO4 = 15 mg/L as CaCO3

NaCl = 110 mg/L as CaCO3

Total = 500 mg/L as CaCO3

• Compute gr/gal as CaCO3:

1gr gal
500 mg L total solids × = 29.21 gr gal
17.12 mg L

• Compute Kgr/gal as CaCO3 to be removed each day:

1Kgr
29.21 gr gal × 100,000 gal × = 2921Kgr
1000 gr

2921Kgr ÷ 18 Kgr ft 3 = 162.3 ft 3 of cation resin

2921 Kgr ÷ 16 Kgr/ft 3 = 182.6 ft 3 of anion resin

• Compute regeneration needs:

182.6 ft 3 × 70 gal for rinsing = 12,780 gal for rinsing of anion resin

12,780 gal × 29.21 gr/gal × Kgr/1000 gr = 373.3 Kgr of additional cations as

CaCO3 to be removed

373.3 Kgr ÷ 18 Kgr = 20.7 ft 3 of cation resin

102 Environmental Ion Exchange

Total cation resin required = 162.3 + 20.7 = 183 ft 3

With three units:

Cation units: 183 ft 3 ÷ 3 units = 61 ft 3

Anion units: 182.6 ft 3 ÷ 3units = 60.9 ft 3

• Compute service flow rates:

100, 000 gal + 12,780 gal = 112,780 gal

With two units on line, one unit being regenerated:

112, 780 gal 2 = 56,390 gal

day ⋅ unit

56, 390 gal 1day 39.16 gal

× =
day ⋅ unit 1440 min min ⋅ unit

39.16 gal 1ft 2 ⋅ min

× = 7.83ft 2 unit
min ⋅ unit 5 gal

A 42ʺ-Diameter tank with a 9.62 ft 2 is okay.

Resin Depth

61.0 ft 3 ÷ 9.62 ft 2 = 6.34 ft deep

60.9 ft 2 ÷ 9.62 ft 2 = 6.33 ft deep

Plating Wastewater Example Problem

RESIN SELECTION
Strong-Acid Cation Exchanger (sodium form)
Density g/cc, 1.32
Shipping wt., 54 lb/ft3
Effective size, 0.54
Moisture, 42%
pH range, 0–14
Swelling Na+ –H+, 3%–7%
High capacity
High physical stability
Excellent bead integrity
Cations to be removed as CaCO3
Ca++ = 1.0 mg/L as CaCO3
Mg++ = 1.25
Ion Exchange Applications and Design 103

Ni++ = 11.0
K+ = 25.0
Sn++ = 1.0
Pb++ = 6.0
Cu++ = 6.0
Solids
Total suspended solids 200 mg/L
Total cations, 50 mg/L as CaCO3

mg 1 gr gal
50 × = 3 gr gal
L 17.12 mg L

3 gr gal × 50, 400 gal day = 151, 200 gr day = 151.2 Kgr day

Max. capacity = 2.1 eq L = 45.8 Kgr ft 3

Operating capacity at 15 lb NaCl/ft3 = 32 Kgr/ft3

Resin required for 1-day regeneration = 5 ft3, 151.2 Kgr/day ÷ 32 Kgr/ft3
Check hydraulics, use 30″ bed depth (2.5 ft)

5 ft 3
= 2.0 ft 2 of resin bed area
2.5 ft

35 gpm
2 ft 2
(
= 17.5 gpm ft 2  high 4 −10 gpm ft 2 )

Use 6 gpm/ft 2

35 gpm/6 gpm/ft 2 = 6 ft 2

πD2
=6
4
4×6
D2 =
π
D = 3 ft 2

Area = 7.07 ft 2
Resin volume = (2.5) (7.07) = 17.67 → 18 ft3
Check space velocity 2 gpm/ft3

35 gpm
= 2 gpm ft 3 OK
18 ft 3
35 gpm
= 5 gpm ft 2 OK
7.07 ft 2
104 Environmental Ion Exchange

Allow for 75% bed expansion during backwash

2.5 × 1.75 = 4.4 ft → 5 ft, to include 6 in. of under bedding
Use a 5-ft-high, 3-ft-diameter straight-wall vessel.
Regeneration frequency: 32 Kgr/ft3 × 18 ft3 resin = 576,000 gr

576, 000 gr
= 3.8 days
151,200 gr day

Increase resin volume to allow 4 days = 19 ft3 of resin

Use same tank—19 ft3 resin

Use the following scheme:

Monitor breakthrough in vessel 1, breakthrough—off-line

Send flow to two during regeneration and after regeneration—in series
Use No. 2 as polish unit—have to regenerate very infrequently
Regenerate with NaCl (10%) at 15 lb/ft3
Regeneration flow rate = 1 gpm/ft3 = 19–20 gpm
Regeneration level—15 lb/ft3 × 19 ft3 = 285 lb NaCl

285 lb
at 10% NaCl = 320 gal
0.897 lb gal

320 gal
= 17 min
19 gpm

Need contact time of 30 min.

320 gal
=Q = 10 gpm
30 min

Check

10 gpm × 30 min × 0.897 lb gal = 269 lb  short

Use 11 gpm = 296 OK

0 200 300 480 500

Ca++ Mg++ Na+ K+

HCO3− SO4= Cl−

0 240 350 500

All above are as CaCO3.

1. Draw a diagram of the ion exchange system.

2. Show flows through unit.
3. Show cycle in which each unit operates.
Ion Exchange Applications and Design 105

Example

Problem

Starting with the following water, you are to produce a finished water that has no
hardness, only chlorides as anions, and an acidity as CaCO3 that is 10% of the
TDS. You may use two strong-acid cation units and one weak-base anion unit to
produce 10,000 gal/day of water.
Solution

Ca(HCO3)2 = 200 mg L as CaCO3

Mg(HCO3)2 = 40 mg L as CaCO3

MgSO4 = 60 mg L as CaCO3

Na2 SO4 = 50 mg L as CaCO3

NaCl = 130 mg L as CaCO3

KCl = 20 mg L as CaCO3

α
B

H+ Cl− Na+

10,000-α 10,000 gal.

A acidity = 0.1 ×
TDS anions all Cl −

Must use this scheme because weak-base unit will only work when pH is below 7.

10, 000 x = 2, 600, 000 + 240 α

10 × (−1000) x = −2, 600, 000 + 500 α
23, 400, 000 = 4760α
α = 4916 gal
10, 000 − α = 5084 gal

TDS

10,000 x = 2,600,000 – 240 × 4916

x = 142 mg/L
106 Environmental Ion Exchange

Alkalinity-acidity

4,916 gal × 240 mg/L – 5,084 gal × 260 mg/L = 10,000 gal × β

β = 14.2 mg/L acidity

Example

Problem: Industrial Water Treatment

Starting with the following water, produce a water that has 40 mg/L of acidity as
CaCO3, no hardness, and only chlorides as the anions. Bicarbonate cannot replace
chloride on the resin. The TDS in the finished water may not be less than 260 mg/L
as CaCO3. Water flow, if needed for the problem, can be 10,000 gal/day.

0 200 300 480 500

Ca++ Mg++ Na+ K+

HCO3− SO4= Cl−

0 240 350 500

Ca(HCO3 )2 = 200 mg L as CaCO3

Mg(HCO3 )2 = 40 mg L as CaCO3

MgSO4 = 60 mg L as CaCO3

Na2SO4 = 50 mg L as CaCO3

NaCl = 130 mg L as CaCO3

KCl = 20 mg L as CaCO3

10,000 gal/day

Na Cl− H+

A B α C
(10,000–x)
x

D
Ion Exchange Applications and Design 107

A
240 mg/L NaHCO3 as CaCO3
110 mg/L Na2SO4 as CaCO3
150 mg/L NaCl as CaCO3

B
240 mg/L NaHCO3 as CaCO3
260 mg/L NaCl as CaCO3

C
260 mg/L HCl as CaCO3
240 mg/L H2CO3 as CaCO3

D
0 hardness; only Cl–
40 mg/L acidity as CaCO3
260 mg/L TDS as CaCO3  min.

Alkalinity

240 mg/L × x + (–260 mg/L) × (10,000 – x) = 10,000 × –40 mg/L

x = 4,400 gal/day

NaCl

500 mg/L × 4,400 gal/day = α × 10,000 gal/day

α = 220 mg/L NaCl as CaCO3

TDS

40 mg/L HCl as CaCO3 + 220 mg/L NaCl as CaCO3

= 260 mg/L TDS as CaCO3

INDUSTRIAL FLOW SCHEMES

arSenic removal
Conventional strong-base acid ion exchange technology for arsenic reduction is
applicable for low-TDS, low-sulfate source waters. Arsenic selective resins that uti-
lize zero-valent iron infused into the resin are available for those waters high in
sulfate and with higher TDS.
Soluble arsenic is problematic when present in industrial and mining dis-
charges to a surface water. It is also found in water sources used from drinking
108 Environmental Ion Exchange

water, usually groundwater wells. Arsenic exists in two oxidation states: As (III)
and As (V). Soluble form of arsenic, As (V), can be removed by strongly basic
ion exchange resins or by activated alumina—see Chapter 3. Strong-base anion
exchange resins operated in the chloride cycle, for example, Ionac ASB-1 and
ASB-2, Dowex SBR-1 and SBR-11 are effective over a larger pH range than weak-
base resins—see Chapter 3—and effectively exchange the pentavalent arsenate
ion. The process works best when arsenic is in the arsenate form. Proper oxidation
to the pentavalent state and confirmation testing is required to ensure all arsenic
is oxidized to the arsenate form for removal. Strong-base resins have a relatively
high affinity for arsenic in the arsenate form (HAsO42−), but high TDS and sulfate
levels compete with arsenate and can reduce removal efficiency (see Figure 5.3).
Regenerant disposal is often problematic. Clifford (2003) devised a scheme to
recover the regenerant.
Arsenic selective resins that utilize zero-valent iron infused into the resin are
available for those waters that are high in sulfate and with higher TDS; Purolite’s
FerrIX™ A33E is a highly porous hybrid anion ion exchange resin infused with
iron oxide. Purolite claims that the porous beads enable maximum utilization of
the infused iron and that bead strength prevents the creation of fines during loading

Pretreated water with

Arsenic (III) oxidized to
Arsenic (V) using sodium
hypochlorite with Cl−,
SO42, HCO3−, and NO3−

Type 2
SBA
( Cl−)

Regenerate with
NaCl

Arsenic
free water
Regenerant
containing NaCl,
Na2SO4, NaNO3,
and As (V)

FIGURE 5.3 Process flow diagram for arsenic removal using a Type 2 SBA resin in the
chloride form.
Ion Exchange Applications and Design 109

and the service cycle. Pressure drop is claimed to remain low, and backwash is
minimized, reducing water loss and preventing arsenic-laden fine discharge into the
sewer or waste water treatment facility. FerrIX A33E can be used in most exist-
ing lead-lag, that is, flip-flop, or parallel configurations. Arsenic selective resins are
regenerated with NaOH and NaCl (see Figure 5.4).
Another arsenic selective resin is manufactured by the company Lewatit.
LewatitTM FO 36 is a macroporous polystyrene based, weakly basic ion exchange
resin designed for the selective removal of both arsenate and arsenite ions in the
presence of high concentrations of neutral salts. It also incorporates zero-valent iron.

Barium removal
Barium is problematic for diffusive membrane operation. With proper pretreatment,
a simple sodium cycle unit using either a strong-acid cation or weak-acid cation resin
in the sodium, hydrogen, or calcium form effectively removes barium from industrial
waters. Barium is preferentially removed with the hardness during traditional soften-
ing. Strong-acid cation resins have a high affinity for barium. Bench-scale column
studies (see Chapter 4) should be considered to select the optimum regenerant and
concentration. Bench-scale studies should also be performed to determine the extent
of barium removal by pretreatment, especially because hollow fiber microfiltration
or any low pressure membrane is effective in removing colloids and can reduce
the regeneration requirements. The calcium form of the resins is used to remove

Pretreated ground water or

arsenic-laden process water, pH
6–9, with As (III) oxidized to As (V)

Arsenic
Regenerant selective
with NaOH resin
and NaCl Regenerant with
NaOH, NaCl, and
arsenic may require
special processing

Arsenic-free
water

FIGURE 5.4 Process flow diagram for arsenic removal using an arsenic selective resin with
zero valent iron embedded.
110 Environmental Ion Exchange

Pretreated water with

calcium, magnesium, and
sodium salts, e.g.,
bicarbonate, sulfate,
chloride, and nitrate
Ba(HCO3)2
BaSO4
BaCl2
Strong-acid Ca(HCO3)2
cation Mg(HCO3)2
(Na+) NaHCO3
CaSO4
MgSO4
Na2SO4
CaCl2
MgCl
NaCl
Regenerate with
NaCl

NaHCO3
Na2SO4
NaCl Regenerant
NaNO3

FIGURE 5.5 Process flow diagram for barium removal.

barium without affecting calcium, that is, calcium ions are not retained by the resin.
Regeneration is accomplished using either sodium chloride, hydrochloric acid, or
calcium chloride. Remember that chlorides are soluble (see Figure 5.5).

Boron removal
Boron can be reduced using conventional strong-base resins in the hydroxide form
but is not usually considered, because boron removal operating capacity is relatively
low, that is, only about 18% compared to more strongly ionized ions, such as chloride,
and is desorbed by the more strongly adsorbed anions.
Boron selective ion exchange resins were first developed to remove boron
from sea water. Today, these resins are the process of choice to remove boron from
produced water generated during hydraulic fracturing, and to recover boron from
wastewaters. Macroporous boron selective resins with both amine (anionic) and
polyhydroxyl groups are commercially available from several manufacturers.
Rohm and Haas was one of the earliest suppliers of these resins with IRA-743,
also known as XE-243. Today, Rohm and Haas through Lenntech offers PWA 10.
Purolite offers a similar resin, Purolite S-108. Dow Chemical developed a resin,
XUS43594.00, that was not commercialized. Lenntech also offers a selective
resin (see Figure 5.6).
Column studies must be performed to establish operating capacity and removal,
especially for the variable TDS produced water.
Ion Exchange Applications and Design 111

Pretreated produced water with

oil and solids removed or Sea
water RO permeate with boron

Boron
selective
Regenerant
ion
with HCl
exchanger Regenerant with
and NaOH
HCl, NaOH, and
boron

Boron free water

FIGURE 5.6 Process flow diagram for boron removal using a boron selective resin.

ION EXCHANGE AS A CHEMICAL FEEDER

The principle of ion exchange can be used to feed chemicals to a water rather than
remove them. An ion exchanger operated in a given ionic form and operated in a
column mode will exchange ions until the resin is exhausted and breakthrough is
reached. This principle allows us to feed ions in direct proportion to the ion content
of the water fed into the unit.
One example would be to feed a small amount of nitrogen and phosphorus to a
wastewater stream entering biological treatment. How? Operate an ammonium cycle
cation exchanger and a phosphate cycle anion exchanger set to feed, based on the ion
content of the water.
Another use? To fine-tune pH using a hydrogen cycle exchanger.
If a smaller amount of material is to be fed in relation to the total ions present,
bypass part of the flow (see Figure 5.7). Dr. Etzel developed a process to feed potas-
sium dichloroisocyanurate using ion exchange. This compound breaks down into
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and chlorine, thus acting as free chlorine. This reaction

Raw water
Throttle
valves Bypass

Anion

FIGURE 5.7 Ion exchange to feed a disinfectant.

112 Environmental Ion Exchange

takes place only in the presence of organics and is otherwise stable, even in the pres-
ence of ultraviolet light. Figure 3.4 shows the process. The potassium dichloroiso-
cyanurate is exchanged onto the anion resin, where it is exchanged for the ions in a
water, thus feeding chlorine for disinfection. The system has application in underde-
veloped areas where chemical handling is not possible.

chromium removal
Chromium plating is inefficient, that is, 15% is plated onto the parts and the remain-
ing 85% is discharged into the rinse waters. A convention flow scheme to recover
chromium is shown in Figure 5.8. Schemes similar to this are used extensively to
recover chromium. One problem is that chlorides are concentrated and put back
into the bath. Dr. Etzel has developed a novel way to recover chromium and remove
chlorides (see Figure 5.9). Dr. Etzel uses the law that divalent ions displace mon-
ovalent ions. Any chlorides in the plating waste will be pushed to the second anion
unit, allowing the first unit to be regenerated without chlorides. During the next
cycle, the second anion unit follows the cation unit and all chlorides are pushed onto
the first anion unit. Flip-flop five times. On the fifth regenerate to waste. This is an
inexpensive way of removing chlorides (Note: Never load a resin higher than 0.10 lb

H2Cr2O7
H2SO4
Plating waste Na2Cr2O7
Cr2(SO4)3
Na2SO4

Regen. Na2SO4
waste Na2Cr2O7
NaOH

Cation Anion
(H+ cycle) (OH− cycle)
Cation
H+ OH− (H+)
Cr+++ Cr2O7−
Na+ SO4=

⎛ 2 H2Cr2O7⎛
⎝ 3 H2SO4 ⎝
Boost this step Regen. H2SO4
pH to ≈ 11 to (NaOH) H2Cr2O7
precip. Cr+++ water
D.I. water
(To process rinse)

Evaporation

To plating bath

FIGURE 5.8 Chromium recovery scheme.

Ion Exchange Applications and Design 113

H2Cr2O7
H2SO4
Plating waste Na2Cr2O7
Cr2(SO4)3
Na2SO4

Regen. Na2SO4
waste Na2Cr2O7
NaOH

Cation Anion Anion

(H+ cycle) (OH− cycle) (OH+ cycle)
Cation
H+ OH− (H+)
Cr+++ Cr2O7−
Na+ SO4=

⎛2 H2Cr2O7⎛
⎝ 3 H2SO4 ⎝
Boost this step Regen. H2SO4
pH to ≈ 11 to (NaOH) H2Cr2O7
precip. Cr+++ water
D.I. water
(To process rinse)

Evaporation

To plating bath

FIGURE 5.9 Dr. Etzel’s flip-flop. Chromium recovery scheme.

chromium per cubic foot of resin. Any higher amount and you may dissolve the resin.
At 0.1 lb/ft3 expect a resin life of 1 year; at 0.5 lb/ft3 expect 3 months; at 1.0 lb/ft3
expect a liquid.).

lead removal
A national debate is ongoing about lead in drinking water and the infrastructure
changes that may be required. The U.S. EPA has set a primary drinking water stan-
dard of 0.015 ppm (15 ppb).
Lead is generally found in water from distribution piping. A strong-acid cation
resin in the sodium form will remove lead ions from water (Figure 5.10). Lead is
difficult to remove from the resin and will eventually foul, but the low concentra-
tions of lead in the µg/L (ppb) levels means that the fouling will occur over a several
year period.

nickel removal
A simple sodium cycle cation exchanger will easily remove the nickel from metal
plating rinse waters. However, the process itself consists of a bath at pH 4.5–5.5
114 Environmental Ion Exchange

Pretreated water including

pH if required with lead,
calcium, magnesium, and
sodium salts, e.g.,
bicarbonate, sulfate,
chloride, and nitrate
Pa(HCO3)2
PbSO4
PbCl2
Strong-acid
Ca(HCO3)2
cation
Mg(HCO3)2
(Na+)
NaHCO3
CaSO4
MgSO4
Na2SO4
CaCl2
MgCl2
Regenerate with
NaCl

NaHCO3
Na2SO4
NaCl Regenerant –
NaNO3 special disposal
may be required

FIGURE 5.10 Process flow diagram for lead removal.

containing nickel chloride and nickel sulfate salts, plus some organic brighteners
and boric acid. If we were to use a hydrogen cycle system rather than a sodium
cycle, we could use a mixture of H2SO4 and HCl such that the regenerant wastewa-
ter had the same percentages of nickel chloride and nickel sulfate. Nickel can be
added back to the bath as nickel carbonate, which will also neutralize the excess
acids in the regenerant waste. The nickel carbonate enriched regenerant wastewater
thus becomes the feed to the plating bath, thus recycling the expensive and toxic
nickel. This mixture is passed through an evaporator to concentrate it before return-
ing to the bath, at which point the bicarbonate formed from the carbonate addition
goes off as CO2 into the air. Follow the hydrogen cycle unit with a hydroxyl unit and
reuse the rinse water.

RADIUM
Wachinski summarized radium removal in Ion Exchange Treatment for Water
(2004). Natural ion exchangers, such as activated alumina, and commercially avail-
able, strong-acid cation resins, operated in the sodium or calcium form, are used to
remove radium from water. Barium and radium are often removed simultaneously. In
general, the selectivity of commercially available ion exchanger resins for radium is
Ra2+ > Ba2+ > Sr2+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+. Sodium ion exchange softening using commer-
cial strong-acid cation resins efficiently removes radium and hardness in the range
of 80%–98%. Specialized nonregenerable resins are currently under development.
Ion Exchange Applications and Design 115

Pretreated water with

radium, calcium,
magnesium, and sodium
salts, e.g., bicarbonate,
sulfate, chloride, and
nitrate.
Ra(HCO3)2
RaSO4
RaCl2
Strong-acid
Ca(HCO3)2
cation
Mg(HCO3)2
(Na+)
NaHCO3
CaSO4
MgSO4
Na2SO4
CaCl2
MgCl2
Regenerate with
NaCl

NaHCO3
Na2SO4
NaCl Regenerant –
NaNO3 special disposal
may be required

FIGURE 5.11 Process flow diagram for radium removal using a strong-acid cation resin in
the sodium form.

A process flow diagram showing radium removal by sodium ion exchange soft-
ening is shown in Figure 5.11. A process flow diagram showing radium removal by
calcium ion exchange softening is shown in Figure 5.12.

URANIUM
Frank Desilva provides an excellent review of the ion exchange options available
to remove uranium from water. Uranium in water can be removed using either a
cation resin in the hydrogen form, a cation resin in the sodium form, or a strong
base anion resin in the chloride form, depending on the solution pH, as uranium is
a divalent cation at pH values <5 and a divalent anion between pH 6.5 and 7.6–see
Figure 2 in Botha’s article (2009). The hydrogen-form treated effluent will be of low
pH and require pH adjustment. Using a cation resin in the sodium form is problem-
atic with removal rates linked to pH. Commercial macroporous strong base anion
resins operated in the chloride form offer the best option to remove uranium from
water. Removal of uranium by strong base resins in the chloride form is, as expected,
affected by sulfate and nitrate concentration. Pretreatment when using a strong base
resin requires pH adjustment if pH is less than 5.6. The water’s pH plays a significant
role in resin performance. At pH values of 4.6 or lower, resin capacity is reduced by
50%. Values of 5.6 and higher have been shown to be extremely effective when treat-
ing a sulfate free water.
116 Environmental Ion Exchange

Pretreated water with

radium, calcium,
magnesium, and sodium
salts, e.g., bicarbonate,
sulfate, chloride, and
nitrate.
Ra(HCO3)2
RaSO4
RaCl2
Ca(HCO3)2
Strong-acid Mg(HCO3)2
cation NaHCO3
(Ca+) CaSO4
MgSO4
Na2SO4
CaCl2
MgCl2
NaCl
Regenerate with
CaCl2

Ca(HCO3)2
Mg(HCO3)2
NaHCO3 Regenerant –
CaSO4 special disposal
MgSO4 may be required

FIGURE 5.12 Process flow diagram for radium removal using a strong-acid cation resin in
the calcium form.

Bench-scale testing and modeling is used to predict breakthrough and regenera-

tion frequency.
Selectivity is: uranium/perchlorate >> sulfate/chromium > selenium/arsenate >
nitrate > chloride > bicarbonate > fluoride.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Amberlite PWA 10 Boron Selective Ion Exchange Resin. Product Data Sheet., www.lenntech.
com.
Applebaum, S. B., Demineralization by Ion Exchange in Water Treatment and Chemical
Processing of Other Liquids, Academic Press, New York, 1968, p. 165.
Berdal, A. et al., Removal of Arsenic from potable Water by Ion Exchange, Ion Exchange
at the Millenium, Proceedings of IEX, Imperial College Press, London and Society
of Chemical Industry SCI, London, UK, 2000.
Botha, M. et al., Removal of Uranium from Mine Water using Ion Exchange at Driefontein
Mine, www.goldfields.co.za.
Brown, C. J. and Sheedy, M., A New Ion Exchange process for Softening High TDS Produced
Water, SPE/Petroleum Society of CIM/CHOA Paper number 78941, Calgary Alberta,
2002.