CHAPTER 4

MATHEMATICS AS A TOOL
Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the students should be
able to:
1. Use variety of statistical tools to process and
manage numerical data;
2. Calculate the mean, median and mode of a
distribution;
3. Differentiate the measures of central tendency
and measures of dispersion; and
4. Advocate the use of statistical data in making
important decisions.
MEASURES OF RELATIVE POSITION
 Measures of Relative Position are conversions of values,
usually standardized test scores, to show where a given value
stands in relation to other values of the same grouping. The most
common example in education is the conversion of scores on
standardized tests to show where a given student stands in
relation to other students of the same age, grade level, etc.
Converted scores are based on the standard deviation or distance
of a raw score from the mean for a normal curve or distribution.
 where:
QUARTILES Q n = the score corresponding to
The quartiles are points that divide a the ith quartile rank
distribution into four equal parts, each part XLB = the lower limit of the quartile
representing 1/4th of the sample or population. class interval
Consider that Q1 = P25, Q2 = P50, Q3 = P75, Q4 = f = the frequency of the quartile
P100. The lower quartile is Q1 and the upper
quartile is Q3. interval
F = the cumulative frequency of
To compute for the quartiles, the following the interval before the quartile interval
formula is used: i = the class size
4 = stands for the quartile division
Q n = XLB + [i (N/4 – F)/f]
N = the total frequency
Percentiles

One way of assessing performance is using percent. The percentiles are

the score-points that divide a distribution onto 100 equal parts. For example, the 10th
percentile (P10) separates the lowest 10% from the other 90%; the 25th percentile
(P25) separates the lowest 25% from the other 75% while the 80th percentile (P80)
separates the lowest 80% from the other 20%.

For example, if Juan got a score of 60 and ranked ninth (9th) in a class of 150
students. It means that 150 – 9 = 141 students below his rank. If we get the
percentage, 141/150 = 0.94 = 94 %. This means that 94% of the class ranked below
or got scores below Juan. Then we can say that the percentile rank of Juan in the
class is 94 which also implies that 94 out of 100 students got scores below his
score. And 5 % of the class obtained scores higher than Juan.
 The percentile rank tells how many percent of the cases got below rank or
position. The score of Juan is 60, so we can say that 94th percentile point is 60. The
percentile point is the score or value that corresponds to the given percentile rank.
It is denoted by the symbol, P n, where n is the percentile rank. Thus, in the
example, P94 = 60.

To compute for the percentile of grouped data, the formula to be used is

Pn = XLB + [i (nN – F)/f]
where: Pn = the score corresponding to the ith percentile rank
XLB = the lower limit of the percentile class interval
f = the frequency of the percentile interval
F = the cumulative frequency of the interval before the percentile interval
i = the class size
n = the rank in decimals
N = the total frequency
Deciles

The deciles are points that divide a distribution into ten equal parts, each part
representing 1/10th of the sample or population. Each part is called deciles. So, D 1 = P10, D2
= P20, …D10 = P100.
To compute for the deciles, the following formula is used:
D n = XLB + [i (N/10 – F)/f]
where:
D n = the score corresponding to the ith decile rank
XLB = the lower limit of the decile class interval
f = the frequency of the decile interval
F = the cumulative frequency of the interval before the decile interval
i = the class size
4 = stands for the decile division
N = the total frequency
Relationship between Percentile, Decile and Quartile:
• 50th percentile = 5th decile = 2nd quartile = median
• 1st quartile = 25th percentile
• 3rd quartile = 75th percentile
• 10th percentile = 1st decile

Example:
Given the frequency distribution below, calculate Q1, P10 and D2.
Class Frequency f <cf
60 – 62 2 40
57 – 59 2 38
54 – 56 4 36
51 – 53 5 32
48 – 50 11 27
45 – 47 8 16
42 – 44 4 8
39 – 41 2 4
36 – 38 1 2
33 – 35 1 1
N= 40
 Class f <cf
Solution:
Frequency
60 – 62 2 40 Q1 = XLB + [i (N/4 – F)/f]
57 – 59 2 38
54 – 56 4 36 we can use Q1 = P25
51 – 53 5 32 n = 25% = 0.25 and 0.25 x 40 = 10
48 – 50 11 27 XLB = 44.5, f = 8, F = 8, i = 3, N = 40
0.25 x 40 = 10
45 – 47 8 found in
16 = percentile
Q1 = P25 = XLB + [i (nN – F)/f]
interval = 44. 5 + [3{(0.25) (40) – 8}/8]
= 44. 5 + [ 3{10 – 8)/8]
42 – 44 4 8 = 44. 5 + [ 6/8]
39 – 41 2 4 = 44.5 + 0.75
36 – 38 1 2 Q1 = 45.25
33 – 35 1 1
N= 40
 Class f <cf Solution:
Frequency
60 – 62 2 40
P10 = XLB + [i (nN – F)/f]
57 – 59 2 38
54 – 56 4 36
n = 10% = 0.10 and 0.10 x 40 = 4
51 – 53 5 32
XLB = 38.5, f = 2, F = 2, i = 3, N = 40
48 – 50 11 27
45 – 47 8 16
P10 = P25 = XLB + [i (nN – F)/f]
42 – 44 4 8
= 38. 5 + [3{(0.10) (40) – 2}/2]
0.10 x 40 = 4 is
39 – 41 2 found in = 38. 5 + [ 3{4 – 2)/2]
4 = percentile = 38. 5 + [ 6/2]
interval = 38.5 + 3
36 – 38 1 2 P10 = 41. 5
33 – 35 1 1
N= 40
 Class f <cf Solution:
Frequency
60 – 62 2 40
D2 = P20 = XLB + [i (nN – F)/f]
57 – 59 2 38

54 – 56 4 36
n = 20% = 0.20 and 0.20 x 40 = 8
51 – 53 5 32
XLB = 41.5, f = 4, F = 4, i = 3, N = 40
48 – 50 11 27

45 – 47 8 16
D2 = P20 = XLB + [i (nN – F)/f]
0.20 x 40 = 8 is
42 – 44 4 found in
= 41.5 + [3{(0.20) (40) – 4}/4]
8 = percentile = 41. 5 + [ 3{8 – 4)/4]
interval = 41. 5 + [ 12/4]
39 – 41 2 4
= 41.5 + 3
36 – 38 1 2
D2 = 44. 5
33 – 35 1 1

N= 40
Z-scores

Z-score also known as standard score measures how many

standard deviations an observation is above or below mean. A
positive z-score measures the number of standard deviations a
score is above the mean, and a negative z score means the
number of standard deviations a score is below the mean. Z-score
ca be computed using the formula:

𝒙− 𝝁
Z=
𝝈
Example:
1. John got 76 marks in his Statistics test. If the marks of the whole class had
a mean of 52 and a standard deviation of 8, what was John’s standard score?

Solution:
𝑥− 𝜇
Z=
𝜎

76− 52
=
8

Z=3
2. Given the following data, in which subject Solution:
did Joan perform poor?
90− 85
ZMath = = 3.33
Subject Joan’s Mean Standard 1.5
Score deviation 95− 97
ZEnglish = 2 = -1
Math 90 85 1.5 94− 92
ZMAPEH = 1.75 = 1.14

English 95 97 2.0
Therefore, Joan performed poor in
English because it is the subject with
MAPEH 94 92 1.75
the smallest value of z-score.
NORMAL DISTRIBUTIONS
 Normal distribution, also called Gaussian distribution, the most
common distribution function for independent, randomly generated
variables. Its familiar bell-shaped curve is common or occurs naturally in
statistical reports, from survey analysis and quality control to resource
allocation. Standard normal distributions is a distribution of a normal
random variable with mean zero and standard deviation equal to 1.

1. In statistics, the normal distribution is called the normal curve.

2. In the social sciences, it is called the bell curve.
3. In physics, it is called the Gaussian distribution.
 The graph of the normal distribution
is characterized by two parameters: the
mean, or average, which is the maximum of
the graph and about which the graph is
always symmetric; and the standard
deviation, which determines the amount of
dispersion away from the mean. A small
standard deviation (compared with the
mean) produces a steep graph, whereas a
large standard deviation (again compared
with the mean) produces a flat graph.
Properties of a normal distribution:
1. It is a bell-shaped curve.
2. The mean, mode and median are all equal.
3. The curve is symmetric at the center (i.e., around the mean, µ).
4. It is determined by the population mean µ and population standard
deviation 𝜎. The mean controls the center, and the standard deviation
controls the spread of the distribution.
5. Exactly half of the values are to the left of center and exactly half the
values are to the right.
6. The total area under the curve is 1.
Probability and the Normal Curve

According to Harvey Berman (2019), the normal distribution is a

continuous probability distribution. This has several implications for probability.

1. The probability that a normal random variable X equals any value is 0.

2. The probability that X is greater than A equals the area under the normal
curve bounded by A and plus infinity (as indicated by the non-shaded area
in the figure).
3. The probability that X is less than A equals the area under the normal curve
bounded by A and minus infinity (as indicated by the shaded area in the
figure).
1.

a
A
How can we use the standard normal distribution in solving
problems on probability?
Example:
1. Given a normal distribution with mean 50 and standard deviation 10, find the
probability that X assumes a value between 45 and 62.
Solution:
Transform the values, x1 = 45 and x2 = 62 to z values.

45− 50 62− 50
Z1 = = -0.5 Z2 = = 1.2
10 10

-0.5 1.2
LINEAR REGRESSION AND CORRELATION
 Correlation (Diane Keirnan, 2014) refers to the statistical
association between two variables. A correlation exists between two
variables when one of them is related to the other in some way. A
scatterplot or scatter diagram is the best place to start. A scatterplot is a
graph of the paired (x,y) sample data with a horizontal x-axis and a
vertical y-axis. Each (x, y) pair is plotted as a single point.
A scatterplot can identify several different types of relationships
between two variables.
A relationship has no correlation when the points on scatterplot
do not show any direction or pattern.
A relationship is non-linear when the points on a scatterplot follow
a pattern but not a straight line.
 A relationship is linear when the points on the scatterplot follow a
somewhat straight-line pattern. This is the relationship that we will
examine.
Linear relationships can be either positive or negative. Positive
relationships have points that incline upwards to the right. As x values
increase, y values increase. As x values decrease, y values decrease.
For example, when studying plants, height typically increases as diameter
increases.
The most widely used measure of correlation is the Pearson Product
Moment Correlation Coefficient or simply Pearson r.
n(∑xy)−(∑x)(∑y)
r= √ [n∑x2−(∑x)2][n∑y2−(∑y)2]
where:
r = Pearson correlation coefficient
x = the observed data for the independent variable
y = the observed data for the dependent variable
n = the sample size
The graphical representation of positive, negative and no correlation is
shown below:
Example: Marks obtained by 5 students in algebra and trigonometry as given below.
Calculate the Pearson correlation coefficient.

Algebra 15 16 12 10 8
Trigonometry 18 11 10 20 17

Solution:
Construct the following table:
x y x2 y2 xy

15 18 225 324 270

16 11 256 121 176

12 10 144 100 120

10 20 100 400 200

8 17 64 289 136

∑x = 61 ∑y = 76 ∑x2 = 789 ∑y2 = 1234 ∑xy = 902

 r= n(∑xy) − (∑x)(∑y)_______
√ [n∑x2−(∑x)2][n∑y2−(∑y)2]
r= 5×902–61×76____________
√ [5×789–(61)2][5×1234–(76)2]
r = -0.424

Therefore, there exist a negative low degree of relationship

between the performance of the students in Algebra and
Trigonometry.
Maricris dlP. Tapar
Instructor