WAY

for Scientists and Engineers

THIRD EDITION
Some Fundamental Constants"

Quantity
Solar System Data

Body
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2010

http://www.archive.org/details/physicsforscientOOserw
 PHYSICS
For Scientists & Engineers
Third edition

Updated Version
 Ik
'

^
r

Zsaac Newton's manuscripts on fh« aberration of light and the prism he used for his experiments. (Erich Lessing/MAGNUM)
 PHYSICS
For Scientists & Engineers
Third edition

Updated Version

Raymond A. Serway
James Madison University

^^"
SAUNDERS GOLDEN SUNBURST SERIES
Saunders College Publishing
Philadelphia Fort Worth Chicago
San Francisco Montreal Toronto
London Sydney Tokyo
Copyright© 1990 by Raymond A. Serway. Copyright 1986, 1982 by Raymond A. Serway.
1992 Updated Printing

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any informa-
tion storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to Permis-
sions Department. Harcourt. Brace, Jovanovich, Publishers, 8th Floor. Orlando, Florida 32887.

Text Typeface: Caledonia

Compositor: Progressive Typographers. Inc.
Acquisitions Editor: John Vondeling
Developmental Editor: Ellen Newman
Managing Editor: Carol Field
Senior Project Manager: Sally Kusch
Copy Editor: Will Eaton
Manager of Art and Design: Carol Bleistine
Art and Design Coordinator: Caroline McGowan
Text Designer: Edward A. Butler
Cover Designer: Lawrence R. Didona
Text Artwork: Rolin Graphics
Production Manager: Jay Lichty
Layout Artist: Tracy Baldwin
Director of EDP: Tim Frelick
Marketing Manager: Marjorie Waldron

Cover Credit: Beams of red, green, and blue light strike a D-shaped plastic lens and are bent
toward a focus. Photography by S. Schwartzenberg/© The Exploratorium.

Printed in the United States of America

Physics for Scientists & Engineers. 3rd edition. Updated Printing

0-03-096026-6

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 89-043325

345 032 98765432

 Preface

This textbook is intended for a course in introductory physics for students majoring in
science or engineering. The entire contents of the text could be covered in a three-
semester course, but it is possible to use the material in shorter sequences with
the omission of selected chapters and sections. The mathematical background of the
student taking this course should ideally include one semester of calculus. If that is
not possible, the student should be enrolled in a concurrent course in introduction
to calculus.

OBJECTIVES
The main objectives of this introductory physics textbook are twofold: to provide the
student with a clear and logical presentation of the basic concepts and principles of
physics, and to strengthen an understanding of the concepts and principles through a
broad range of interesting applications to the real world. In order to meet these objec-
tives, emphasis is placed on sound physical arguments. At the same time, I have at-
tempted to moth ate the student through practical examples that demonstrate the role
of physics in other disciplines.

COVERAGE
The book is concerned with fundamental topics in classical
material covered in this
Star trails around the south
physics and an introduction to modern physics. The book is divided into six parts. In the
celestial pole. (© Anglo-
first volume, Part I (Chapters 1-15) deals with the fundamentals of Newtonian me-
Australian Telescope Board
chanics and the physics of fluids; Part II (Chapters 16-18) covers wave motion and
1980)
sound; Part HI (Chapters 19-22) is concerned with heat and thermodynamics. In the
second volume, Part IV (Chapters 23-34) treats electricity and magnetism, Part V
(Chapters 35-38) covers light and optics, and Part VI (Chapters 39-40) deals with
relativity and an introduction to quantum physics.

Features Most instructors would agree that the textbook selected for a course
should be the student's major "guide" for understanding and learning the subject
matter. Furthermore, a textbook should be easily accessible and should be styled and
written for ease in instruction. With these points in mind, I have included many peda-
gogic features in the textbook which are intended to enhance its usefulness to both the
student and instructor. These are as follows;

Organization The book is divided into six parts: mechanics, wave motion and
sound, heat and thermodynamics, electricity and magnetism, light and optics, and
modern physics. Each part includes an overview of the subject matter to be covered in
that part and some historical perspectives.

Style As an aid comprehension, I have attempted to write the book in a style

for rapid
that is and succinct. The writing style is somewhat informal and relaxed,
clear, logical,
which I hope students will find appealing and enjoyable to read. New terms are care-
fully defined, and I have tried to avoid jargon.

Previews Most chapters begin with a chapter preview, which includes a brief dis-
cussion of chapter objectives and content.

Important Statements and Equations Most important statements and definitions

are set in blue print for added emphasis and ease of review. Important equations are
highlighted with a tan screen for review or reference.

Marginal Notes Comments and marginal notes set in blue print are used to locate
important statements, equations, and concepts in the text.
vi PREFACE

Illustrations The readability and effectiveness of the text material and worked ex-
amples are enhanced by the large number of figures, diagrams, photographs, and
tables. Full color is used to add clarity to the artwork and to make it as realistic as
possible. For example, vectors are color-coded, and curves in xt/-plots are drawn in
color. Three-dimensional effects are produced with the use of color airbrushed areas,
where appropriate. The color photographs have been carefully selected, and their
accompanying captions have been written to serve as an added instructional tool.
Several chapter-opening photographs, particularly in the chapters on mechanics, in-
clude color-coded vector overlays that illustrate and present physical principles more
clearly and apply them to real-world situations. A complete description of the pedagog-
ical use of color appears on p. xvii.

Mathematical Level introduced gradually, keeping in mind that a

Calculus is

course in calculus is shown when basic equa-

often taken concurrently. Most steps are
tions are developed, and reference is often made to mathematical appendices at the
end of the text. Vector products are introduced later in the text where they are needed
in physical applications. The dot product is introduced in Chapter 7, "Work and
Energy." The cross product is introduced in Chapter 11, which deals with rotational
dynamics.

Worked Examples A total of 355 worked examples of varying difficulty are pre-
sented as an aid in understanding concepts. This represents an increase of 1 0% over the
Experiencing circular 2nd edition. In many cases, these examples will serve as models for solving the end-of-
motion on a roller coaster. the-chapter problems. The examples are set off in a blue box, and the solution answers
(© Zerschling, Photo are highlighted with a tan screen. Most examples are given titles to describe their
Researchers)
content.

Worked Example Exercises Many of the worked examples are followed immedi-
ately by exercises with answers. These exercises are intended to make the textbook
more interactive with the student, and to test immediately the student's understanding
of problem-solving techniques. The exercises represent extensions of the worked ex-
amples and are numbered in case the instructor wishes to assign them.

Units The international system of units (SI) is used throughout the text. The British
engineering system of units (conventional system) is used only to a limited extent in the
chapters on mechanics, heat, and thermodynamics.

Biographical Sketches Throughout the text I have added short biographies of im-
portant scientists to give the third edition a more historical emphasis.

Problem-Solving Strategies and Hints As an added feature of the third edition, I

have included general strategies for solving the types of problems featured in both the
examples and in the end-of-chapter problems. It is my hope that this feature will help
the students identify the steps in solving a problem and eliminate any uncertainty they
might have. This feature is highlighted by a light blue screen for emphasis and ease of
location.

Summaries Each chapter contains a summary which reviews the important con-
cepts and equations discussed in that chapter. The summaries are highlighted with a
gold screen.

Thought Questions A list of 922 questions requiring verbal answers (an increase of
4 1 % over the 2nd edition) is given at the end of each chapter. Some questions provide
the student with a means of self-testing the concepts presented in the chapter. Others
could serve as a basis for initiating classroom discussions. Answers to most questions are
included in the Student Study Guide With Computer Exercises that accompanies the
text.
 PREFACE Vll

Problems An extensive set of problems is included at the end of each chapter, with a
total of 2910 problems. This represents an increase of 42.5% of new or revised prob-
lems over the 2nd edition. This Updated Version contains approximately 700 new
problems, most of which are at the intermediate level. Some of these are laboratory
problems, marked with a A, that allow the student to write solutions based on real data.
Answers to odd-numbered problems are given at the end of the book; these pages have
colored edges for ease of location. For the convenience of both the student and the
instructor, about two thirds of the problems are keyed to specific sections of the
chapter. The remaining problems, labeled "Additional Problems," are not keyed to
specific sections. Inmy opinion, assignments should consist mainly of the keyed prob-
lems help build self-confidence in students.
to
In general, the problems within a given section are presented so that the straight-
forward problems are first, followed by problems of increasing difficulty. For ease in
identifying the intermediate-level problems, the problem number is printed in blue. I
have also included a small number of challenging problems, which are indicated by a
problem number printed in magenta.

Laboratory Problems Selected problems throughout the text use real data to chal-
lenge students' problem-solving skills. These problems are marked with a A for
identification.

Spreadsheet Problems and Examples Selected problems and examples through-

out the text have been keyed with a color box to indicate that there are spreadsheets on
a separate disk that accompany these problems. This is an option; that is, these prob-
lems can also be solved analytically without using the software. The spreadsheets will
help the student work some of the difficult problems; instructions for use of the spread-
sheets are found in Appendix F. The data disk is available free to instructors who adopt
the text and can be used with a variety of programs (e.g., Lotus 1-2-3) that the instruc-
tor may already have.

Calculator/Computer Problems Numerical problems that can best be solved

with the use of programmable calculators or a computer are given in a selected number
of chapters. These will be useful in those courses where the instructor wishes to put
programming skills to practice.

Guest Essays have included 8 essays, written by guest authors, on topics of current
I

and engineers. Three of the essays in the Updated Version are

interest to scientists
entirely new. The essays are intended as supplemental readings for the student and are
marked with a blue bar at the edge of the page so they can be located easily.

Special Topics Many chapters include special topic sections which are intended to
expose the student to various practical and interesting applications of physical princi-
ples. Most of these are considered optional, and as such are labeled with an asterisk (°).

Appendices and Endpapers Several appendices are provided at the end of the
text, including the new appendix with instructions for problem-solving with spread-
sheets. Most of the appendix material represents a review of mathematical techniques
used in the text,
including scientific notation, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, differ-
ential calculus, and integral calculus. Reference to these appendices is made through-
out the text. Most mathematical review sections include worked examples and exer-
cises with answers. In addition to the mathematical reviews, the appendices contain Hurricane Elena photographed
tables of physical data, conversion factors, atomic masses, and the SI units of physical from space. (NASA)
quantities, as well as a periodic chart. Other useful information, including fundamental
constants and physical data, planetary data, a list of standard prefixes, mathematical
symbols, the Greek alphabet, and standard abbreviation of units appears on the end-
papers.
viii PREFACE

CHANGES IN THE UPDATED VERSION

A number of changes and improvements have been made in preparing the Updated
Version of the third edition of this text. Many of these changes are in response to
comments and suggestions offered by users of the text and reviewers of the manuscript.
The following represent the major changes in the Updated Version:
1. Approximately 700 new problems, including many at the intermediate level. Some
of these are Laboratory Problems, marked with a A, which allow students to write
solutions based on actual laboratory data. All of the problems have been thoroughly
reviewed for accuracy.
2. Some of the photographs in the mechanics section include color-coded vector over-
lays to illustrate and present physical principles more clearly.
3. Three entirely new guest essays on dark matter, chaos, and the third law of thermo-
dynamics.
4. New expanded ancillary package featuring a new Instructor's Manual with solutions
to problems, including the 700 new problems in the Updated Version. All solu-
all

tionshave been reviewed for accuracy. Other items in the expanded package include
Physics Videodisc, Demonstration Videotape, Selected Solutions Transparency
Masters, and Serway Physics Problem Set for Interactive Physics. The package is
described in more detail below.
5. Careful attention to accuracy, as always, marks the Updated Version. The text,
artwork, and problems have all been rigorously reviewed, and we believe the book
is as close to error-free as possible. If you believe you have found an error, please

send your comments to Chiara Puffer, Editorial Assistant, Physics, Saunders College
Publishing, Public Ledger Building, 620 Chestnut St., Suite 560, Philadelphia, PA
19106-3399. We will make every effort to correct the error in the next printing.

ANCILLARIES
The Updated Version has a new expanded package:

Instructor's Manual with Solutions This manual consists of complete, worked-

out solutions to all the problems in the text and answers to even-numbered problems.
The solutions to the 700 new problems in the Updated Version are included; they
are marked so the instructor can identify the new problems. All solutions have been
Computer simulation of the carefully reviewed for accuracy.
pattern of air flow around a
space shuttle. (NASA) Saunders Physics Videodisc contains 70 physics demonstrations and 500 still
images, 200 that correlate directly with illustrations from Serway 's Physics for Scien-
tists and Engineers, third edition and a wide variety of other sources.

Physics Demonstration Videotape by J. C. Sprott of the University of Wisconsin,

Madison, is a unique two-hour video-cassette divided into 12 primary topics. Each
topic contains between four and nine demonstrations for a total of 70 physics demon-
strations.

Selected Solutions Transparency Masters include selected worked-out solutions

that can be used in the classroom when transferred to acetates.

Printed Test Bank This printed test bank contains 2300 multiple choice questions
from the software disk. It is provided as another source of test questions and is helpful
for the instructor who does not have access to a computer.

Computerized Test Bank Available for the IBM PC, Apple II, and Macintosh
computers, this test bank contains over 2300 multiple choice questions, representing
every chapter of the text. The IBM and Macintosh versions have been revised in the
Updated Version. The Macintosh Test Bank includes a new, user-friendly program.
 PREFACE IX

The test bank enables the instructor to create many unique tests and permits the
editing of questions as well as addition of new questions. The software program solves
problems and prints each answer on a separate grading key.
all All questions have been
reviewed for accuracy.

Serway Physics Problem Set for Interactive Physics contains approximately 100
problems from the text on disk for use with Interactive Physics 2.0 for the Macintosh by
Knowledge Revolution.

So You Want to Learn Physics: A Preparation for Scientists and Engineers, by

Rodney Cole, University of California, Davis, is a preparatory physics text or supple-
ment that offers content material, worked examples, and a review of techniques
learned in class to students who need additional preparation for calculus-based phys-
ics. The friendly, straight-forward tone encourages students to experiment with mathe-
matics as it is used in physics.

The following ancillaries accompanied the third edition and are still available:

Student Study Guide The Study Guide contains chapter objectives, a skills section
that reviews mathematical techniques, and suggested approaches to problem-solving
methodology; notes from selected chapter sections, which include a glossary of impor-
tant terms, theorems, and concepts; answers to selected end-of-chapter questions; and
solutions to selected end-of-chapter problems.

Student Study Guide with Computer Exercises (IBM or Macintosh) The

Study Guide also includes the option of using a select group of computer programs
(presented in special computer modules) that are interactive in nature. The student's
input will have direct and immediate effect on the output. This feature will enable
students to work through many challenging numerical problems and experience the
power of the computer in scientific computations. The courseware disk is available for
the IBM or Macintosh computers and is packaged with the Study Guide.

Spreadsheet Data Disk The Spreadsheet Data Disk (IBM) contains problems and
examples keyed to the text. The Spreadsheet Disk is a data disk that can be used with a
variety of spreadsheet programs (e.g., Lotus 1-2-3) that the instructor may already
have. Use of the Spreadsheet Disk is optional.

Overhead Transparency Acetates This collection of transparencies consists of

300 full-color figures from the text and features large print for easy viewing in the
classroom.

Physics Laboratory Manual To supplement the learning of basic physical princi-

ples while introducing laboratory procedures and equipment, each chapter of the
laboratory manual includes a pre-laboratory assignment, objectives, an equipment list,
the theory behind the experiment, experimental procedure, calculations, graphs, and
questions. In addition, a laboratory report is provided for each experiment so the
student can record data, calculations, and experimental results.

Instructor's Manual for Physics Laboratory Manual Each chapter contains a

discussion of the experiment, teaching hints, answers to selected questions, and a
post-laboratory quiz with short answer and essay questions. We
have also included a
list of the suppliers of scientific equipment and a summary of the equipment needed for
all the laboratory experiments in the manual.

TEACHING OPTIONS
This book is structured in the following sequence of topics: classical mechanics, matter
waves, heat and thermodynamics, electricity and magnetism, light waves, optics, rela-
X PREFACE

tivity,and an introduction to quantum physics. This presentation is a more traditional

sequence, with the subject of matter waves presented before electricity and magne-
tism. Some instructors may prefer to cover this material after completing electricity
and magnetism (after Chapter 34). The chapter on relativity was placed near the end of
the text because this topic is often treated as an introduction to the era of "modern
physics." If time permits, instructors may choose to cover Chapter 39 after completing
Chapter 14, which concludes the material on Newtonian mechanics.
For those instructors teaching a two-semester sequence, some sections and chap-
ters could be deleted without any loss in continuity. I have labeled these with asterisks
(°) in the Table of Contents and in the appropriate sections of the text. For student

enrichment, some of these sections or chapters could be given as extra reading assign-
ments. The guest essays could also serve the same purpose.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Ithank the following people for their suggestions and assistance during the preparation
of the Updated Version of the third edition: Stephen Baker, Rice University; Kenneth
Brownstein, University of Maine; C.H. Chan, The University of Alabama in Huntsville;
Clifton Bob Clark, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Walter C. Connolly,
Appalachian State University; James L. DuBard, Binghamton- Southern College; Joe
L. Ferguson, Mississippi State University; R.H. Garstang, University of Colorado at
Boulder; Jerome W. Hosken, City College of San Francisco; Francis A. Liuima, Boston
College; Ralph V. McGrevv, Broome Community College; David Murdock, Tennessee
Technological University; C.W. Scherr, University of Texas at Austin; Eric Sheldon,
University of Massachusetts -Lowell; Richard R. Sommerfield, Foothill College; Her-
man Trivilino, San Jacinto College North; Steve van Wyk, Chapman College; Joseph
Veit, Western Washington University; T.S. Venkataraman, Drexel University; and
Noboru Wada, Colorado School of Mines.
The third edition of this textbook was prepared with the guidance and assistance of
many professors who reviewed part or all of the manuscript. I wish to acknowledge the
following scholars and express my sincere appreciation for their suggestions, criti-

cisms, and encouragement;

George Alexandrakis, University of Miami; Bo Casserberg, University of Minne-
sota; Soumya Chakravarti, California State Polytechnic University; Edward Chang,
University of Massachusetts, Amherst; Hans Courant, University of Minnesota; F. Paul
Esposito, University of Cincinnati; Clark D. Hamilton, National Bureau of Standards;
Mark Heald, Swarthmore College; Paul Holoday, Henry Ford Community College;
Larry Kirkpatrick, Montana State University; Barry Kunz, Michigan Technological
University; Douglas A. Kurtze, Clarkson University; Robert Long, Worcester Poly-
technic Institute; Nolen G. Massey, University of Texas at Arlington; Charles E.
McFarland, University of Missouri at Rolla; James Monroe, The Pennsylvania State
University, Beaver Campus; Fred A. Otter, University of Connecticut; Eric Peterson,
Vertical-axis wind generator. Highland Community College; Jill Rugare, DeVry Institute of Technology; Charles
(U.S. Department of Energy) Scherr, University of Texas at Austin; John Shelton, College of Lake County; Kervork
Spartalian, University of Vermont; Robert W. Stewart, University of Victoria; James
Stith, United States Military Academy; Carl T. Tomizuka, University of Arizona; Som
Tyagi, Drexel University; James Walker, Washington State University; George Wil-
liams, University of Utah; and Edward Zimmerman, University of Nebraska, Lincoln.
Special thanks go to the many people who provided me with useful comments and
suggestions for improvement during the development of this third edition. These
include Albert A. Bartlett, David R. Currot, Chelcie Liu, Howard C. McAllister, A. J.
Slavin, J. C. Sprott, and William W. Wood.
I would also like to thank the following professors for their suggestions during the

development of the prior editions of this textbook:

 PREFACE XI

Elmer E. Anderson, University of Alabama; Wallace Arthur, Fairleigh Dickinson

University; Duane Aston, California State University at Sacramento; Richard Barnes,
Iowa State University; Marvin Blecher, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Uni-
versity; William A. Butler, Eastern Illinois University; Don Chodrow, James Madison
University; Clifton Bob Clark, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Lance E.
De Long, University of Kentucky; Jerry S. Faughn, Eastern Kentucky University;
James B. Gerhart, University of Washington; John R. Gordon, James Madison Univer-
sity; Herb Helbig, Clarkson University; Howard Herzog, Broome Community College;

Larry Hmurcik, University of Bridgeport; William Ingham, James Madison University;

Mario Iona, University of Denver; Karen L. Johnston, North Carolina State University;
Brij M. Khorana, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology; Carl Kocher, Oregon State
University; Robert E. Kribel, Jacksonville State University; Fred Lipschultz, Univer-
sity of Connecticut; Francis A. Liuima, Boston College; Charles E. McFarland, Univer-
sityof Missouri, Rolla; Clem Moses, Utica College; Curt Moyer, Clarkson University;
Bruce Morgan, U.S. Naval Academy; A. Wilson Nolle, The University of Texas at
Austin; Thomas L. O'Kuma, San Jacinto College North; George Parker, North Carolina
State University; William F. Parks, University of Missouri, Rolla; Philip B. Peters,
Virginia Military Institute; Joseph W. Rudmin, James Madison University; James H. A surfer "riding the pipe" on a
Smith, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Edward W. Thomas, Georgia Insti- wave. (© Doug Peebles/Index
tute of Technology; Gary Williams, University of California, Los Angeles; George A. Stock International)
Williams, University of Utah; and Earl Zwicker, Illinois Institute of Technology.
I would like to thank the following people for contributing many interesting new

problems and questions to the text: Ron Canterna, University of Wyoming; Paul
Feldker, Florissant Valley Community College; Roger Ludin, California Polytechnic
State University; Richard Reimann, Boise State University; Jill Rugare, DeVry Institute
of Technology; Stan Shepard, The Pennsylvania State University; Som Tyagi, Drexel
University; Steve Van Wyk, Chapman College; and James Walker, Washington State
University.
Special thanks go to the following people for writing guest essays; Isaac D. Abella,
University of Chicago; Albert A. Bartlett, University of Colorado at Boulder; Gordon
Batson, Clarkson University; Leon Blitzer, University of Arizona; Roger A. Freedman
and Paul K. Hansma, University of California, Santa Barbara; Robert G. Fuller, Univer-
sity of Nebraska; Clark D. Hamilton, National Bureau of Standards; Edward Lacy;
Samson A. Marshall, Michigan Technological Institute; John D. Meakin, University of
Delaware; Philip Morrison, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Brian B. Schwartz,
Brooklyn College, C.U.N.Y., and the American Physical Society; J. Clint Sprott, Uni-
versity of Wisconsin; Virginia Trimble, University of California, Irvine, and University
of Maryland, College Park; Hans Christian von Baeyer, College of William and Mary;
Clifford Will, Washington University; Dean A. Zollman, Kansas State University; and
Alma C. Zook, Pomona College. I appreciate the assistance of Carl T. Tomizuka in
coordinating the essays.
I am especially grateful to the following people for their careful accuracy reviews
of the problems and examples in the text; Stanley Bashkin, University of Arizona;
all

Jeffrey J. Braun, University of Evansville; Louis H. Cadwell, Providence College,

Ralph V. McGrew, Broome Community College; Charles D. Teague, Eastern Kentucky
University; and Steve van Wyk, Chapman College.
I appreciate the assistance of Jeffrey J. Braun, Charles Teague and Steve vanWyk
in reorganizing the problem sets. My grateful thanks also go to Steve van Wyk and
Louis H. Cadwell for the preparation of the Instructor's Manual that accompanies the
text. I am indebted to my colleague and friend John R. Gordon for his many contribu-
tions during the development of this text, his continued encouragement and support,
and for his expertise in revising the I am grateful to David Oliver
Student Study Guide.
for developing the computer software
accompanies the Student Study Guide and
that
to David Stetser for developing the Spreadsheet Data Disks that accompany the text
and the Spreadsheet Appendix in the back of this text. Support for David Stetser's work
has been provided by Miami University —
Middletown and the Department of Physics
and Astronomy, Center for Advanced Studies. University of New Mexico, Albuquer-
que, New Mexico. I thank David Loyd for preparing the Physics Laboratory Manual
and accompanying Instructor's Manual that can be used with this text. I appreciate the
assistance of Louis H. Cadwell in preparing the answers that appear at the end of the
text, and in preparing some of the test questions for the Computerized Test Bank and
Printed Test Bank. I also thank the staff of the Physics Department at Georgia Tech for
providing many of the questions for this test bank. I am grateful to Mario Iona for
making many excellent suggestions for improving the figures in the text. I thank Sarah
Evans, Ellen Newman, Henry Leap, and Jim Lehman for locating and/or providing
mam- excellent photographs. I thank my son Mark for writing many of the biographical
sketches included in this edition. I thank Agatha Brabon, Linda Delosh, Mary Thomas,
Georgina Valverde, and Linda Miller for an excellent job in typing various stages of the
original manuscript. During the development of this textbook, I have benefited from
valuable discussions with many people including Subash Antani, Gabe Anton, Randall
Caton, Don Chodrow, Jerry Faughn. John R. Gordon, Herb Helbig, Lawrence Hmur-
cik. William Ingham, David Kaup, Len Ketelsen. Henry Leap, H. Kent Moore, Charles
McFarland. Frank Moore, Clem Moses, Curt Mover, William Parks, Dorn Peterson,
Joe Rudmin, Joe Scaturro, Alex Serway. John Serway, Georgio Vianson, and Harold
Zimmerman. Special recognition is due to my mentor and friend, Sam Marshall, a gifted
teacher and scientist who helped me sharpen my writing skills while I was a graduate
student.
Special thanks and recognition go to the professional staff at Saunders College
Publishing for their fine work during the development and production of this text,
especially Ellen Newman, Senior Developmental Editor; Sally Kusch, Senior Project
Manager; and Carol Bleistine, Manager of Art and Design. I thank John Vondeling,
Associate Publisher, for his great enthusiasm for the project, his friendship, and his
confidence in me as an author. I am most appreciative of the intelligent copyediting by
Will Eaton, the excellent artwork by Tom Mallon and Rolin Graphics, and the excellent
design work by Edward A. Butler.
A special note of appreciation goes to the hundreds of students at Clarkson Univer-
sity who used the first edition of this text in manuscript form during its development. I
am most grateful for the supportive environment provided by James Madison Univer-
wish to thank the many users of the second edition who submitted sugges-
sity. I also

tions and pointed out errors. With the help of such cooperative efforts, I hope to have
achieved my main objective; that is, to provide an effective textbook for the student.
And last, I thank my wonderful family for their continued patience and under-
standing. The completion of this enormous task would not have been possible without
their endless love and faith in me.

Raymond A. Serway
James Madison University
Harrisonburg, Virginia
 To the Student

I feel it is appropriate to offer

some words of advice which should be of benefit to you
the student. Before doing so, I will assume
that you have read the preface which
describes the various features of the text that will
help you through the course.

HOW TO STUDY
Very often instructors are asked "How should I study
physics and prepare for examina-
tions.' There is no simple answer to this question, but I
would like to offer some
suggestions based on my own experiences in learning
and teaching over the years
First and foremost, maintain a positive
attitude towards the subject matter keep-
ing in mind that physics is the most
fundamental of all natural sciences Other science
courses that follow will use the same physical
principles, so it is important that you
understand and be able to apply the various concepts
and theories discussed in the text.

CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES

It is you understand the basic concepts and principles
essential that
before attempting
to solve assigned problems. This is best accomplished through
a careful reading of the
textbook before attending your lecture on that Computer simulation of
material. In the process it is useful to
jot down certain points which are not gaseous flow around a post in
clear to you. Take careful notes in class
and then a rocket engine. (U.S. Depart-
ask questions pertaining to those ideas that require clarification. Keep in mind that
few ment of Energy)
people are able to absorb the full meaning of
scientific material after one reading
Several readings of the text and notes may be
necessary. Your lectures and laboratory
work should supplement the text and clarify some of
the more difficult material You
should reduce memorization of material to a
minimum. Memorizing passages from a
text, equations, and derivations
does not necessarily mean you understand the
mate-
rial. Your understanding of the
material will be enhanced through a combination
of
efficient study habits, discussions with
other students and instructors, and your abilitv
to solve the problems in the text. Ask
questions whenever you feel it is necessary.
'

STUDY SCHEDULE
important to set up a regular study schedule,
It is
preferably on a daily basis. Make sure
to read the syllabus for the course
and adhere to the schedule set by your instructor
The lectures will be much more meaningful if you
read the corresponding textual
matenal before attending the lecture. As a general
rule, you should devote about two
hours of study time for every hour in class. If
you are having trouble with the course
seek the advice of the instructor or students
who have taken the course. You may find it
necessary to seek further instruction from
experienced students. Very often instruc-
tors will.offer review sessions in
addition to regular class periods. It isimportant that
you avoid the practice of delaying study until a
day or two before an exam. More often
than not, this will lead to disastrous results.
Rather than an all-night study session, it is
better to briefly rev.evv the basic concepts
and equations, followed by a good nights
rest. If you feel in need of additional
help in understanding the concepts, preparing
for
exams, or in problem-solving, we suggest that
you acquire a copy of the Student Studv
Guide which accompanies the text, which should
be available at your college book-
store. °
XIV TO THE STUDENT

USE THE FEATURES

You should make full use of the various features of the text discussed in the preface. For
example, marginal notes are useful for locating and describing important equations and
concepts, while important statements and definitions are highlighted in color. Many
useful tables are contained in appendices, but most are incorporated in the text where
they are used most often. Appendix B is a convenient review of mathematical tech-
niques. Answers to odd-numbered problems are given at the end of the text, and
answers to most end-of-chapter questions are provided in the study guide. Exercises
(with answers), which follow some worked examples, represent extensions of those
examples, and in most cases you are expected to perform a simple calculation. Their
purpose is to test your problem-solving skills as you read through the text. Problem-
Solving Strategies and Hints are included in selected chapters throughout the text to
give you additional information to help you solve problems. An overview of the entire
text is given in the table of contents, while the index will enable you to locate specific
material quickly. Footnotes are sometimes used to supplement the discussion or to cite
other references on the subject. Many chapters include problems that require the use
of programmable calculators or computers. Problems and examples with boxes can be
solved either analytically or with the use of spreadsheets available from your instruc-
tor. These are intended for those courses that place some emphasis on numerical
methods. You may want to develop appropriate programs for some of these problems
even if they are not assigned by your instructor.
After reading a chapter, you should be able to define any new quantities intro-
duced in that chapter, and discuss the principles and assumptions that were used to
arrive at certain key relations. The chapter summaries and the review sections of the
study guide should help you in this regard. In some cases, it will be necessary to refer to
the index of the text to locate certain topics. You should be able to correctly associate
with each physical quantity a symbol used to represent that quantity and the unit in
which the quantity is specified. Furthermore, you should be able to express each
important relation in a concise and accurate prose statement.

A model steam engine.

(Courtesy ofCENCO) THE IMPORTANCE OF PROBLEM SOLVING
R.P. Feynman, Nobel laureate in physics, once said, "You do not know anything until
you have practiced." In keeping with this statement, I strongly advise that you develop
the skills necessary to solve a wide range of problems. Your ability to solve problems
will be one of the main tests of your knowledge of physics, and therefore you should try
to solve as many problems as possible. It is essential that you understand basic concepts
and principles before attempting to solve problems. It is good practice to try to find
alternate solutions to the same problem. For example, problems in mechanics can be
solved using Newton's laws, but very often an alternative method using energy consid-
erations is more direct. You should not deceive yourself into thinking you understand
the problem after seeing its solution in class. You must be able to solve the problem and
similar problems on your own.
The method of solving problems should be carefully planned. A systematic plan is
especially important when a problem involves several concepts. First, read the prob-
lem several times until you are confident you understand what is being asked. Look for
any key words that will help you interpret the problem, and perhaps allow you to make
certain assumptions. Your ability to interpret the question properly is an integral part
of problem solving. You should acquire the habit of writing down the information given
in a problem, and decide what quantities need to be found. You might want to construct
a table listing quantities given, and quantities to be found. This procedure is sometimes
used in the worked examples of the text. After you have decided on the method you
feel is appropriate for the situation, proceed with your solution. General problem-
solving strategies of this type are included in the text and are highlighted by a light blue
screen.
 TO THE STUDENT XV

I often find that students fail to recognize the limitations of certain formulas or
physical laws in a particular situation. It is very important that you understand and
remember the assumptions which underlie For exam-
a particular theory or formalism.
ple, certain equations in kinematics apply only to a particle moving with constant
acceleration. These equations are not valid for situations in which the acceleration is
not constant, such as the motion of an object connected to a spring, or the motion of an
object through a fluid.

GENERAL PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY

Most courses in general physics require the student to learn the skills of problem
solving, and examinations are largely composed of problems that test such skills. This
brief section describes some useful ideas which will enable you to increase your accu-
racy in solving problems, enhance your understanding of physical concepts, eliminate
initial panic or lack of direction in approaching a problem, and organize your work.

One way to help accomplish these goals is to adopt a problem-solving strategy. Many
chapters in this text will include a section labeled "Problem-Solving Strategies and
Hints" which should help you through the "rough spots."
In developing problem-solving strategies, five basic steps are commonly used.
Diagram
1. Draw a suitable diagram with appropriate labels and coordinate axes if needed.
2. As you examine what is being asked in the problem, identify the basic physical
Given Data
principle (or principles) that are involved, listing the knowns and unknowns.
3. Select a basic relationship or derive an equation that can be used to find the un-
known, and solve the equation for the unknown symbolically. Basic Equation
4. Substitute the given values along with the appropriate units into the equation.
5. Obtain a numerical value for the unknown. The problem is verified and receives a Working Equation
check mark if the following questions can be properly answered: Do the units
match? Is the answer reasonable? Is the plus or minus sign proper or meaningful?
Evaluation and Check
One of the purposes of this strategy promote accuracy. Properly drawn
is to
diagrams can eliminate many sign errors. Diagrams also help to isolate the physical
A menu for problem solving.
principles of the problem. Symbolic solutions and carefully labeled knowns and un-
knowns will help eliminate other careless errors. The use of symbolic solutions should
help you think in terms of the physics of the problem. A check of units at the end of the
problem can indicate a possible algebraic error. The physical layout and organization
of your problem will make the final product more understandable and easier to follow.
Once you have developed an organized system for examining problems and extracting
relevant information, you will become a more confident problem solver.

EXAMPLE A person driving in a car at a speed of 20 m/s applies the brakes and stops
in a distance of 100 m. What was the acceleration of the car?

a
XVI TO THE STUDENT

v2 = v 2
+ 2a(x - x -
)
(0 m/s)
2
(20 m/s) 2
= -2 m/s 2
v2 - v 2 = 2a(x - x 2(100 m)
)

v2 -v 2 m 2
/s
2
_ m
2(x -x )

EXPERIMENTS
Physics is a science based upon experimental observations.
In view of this fact, I
recommend that you try to through various type of "hands-on"
supplement the text
experiments, either at home or in the laboratory. These can be used to test ideas and
models discussed in class or in the text. For example, the common "Slinky" toy is
excellent for studying traveling waves; a ball swinging on the end of a long string can be
used to investigate pendulum motion; various masses attached to the end of a vertical
spring or rubber band can be used to determine their elastic nature; an old pair of
Polaroid sunglasses and some discarded lenses and magnifying glass are the compo-
nents of various experiments in optics; you can get an approximate measure of the
acceleration of gravity by dropping a ball from a known height by simply measuring the
time of its fall with a stopwatch. The list is endless. When physical models are not
available, be imaginative and try to develop models of your own.

AN INVITATION TO PHYSICS
my sincere hope that you too will find physics an exciting and enjoyable experi-
It is

ence, and that you will profit from this experience, regardless of your chosen profes-
sion. Welcome to the exciting world of physics.

The does not study nature because it is useful; he studies it because he delights in it, and
scientist
he delights in it because it is beautiful. If nature were not beautiful, it would not be worth
knowing, and if nature were not worth knowing, life would not be worth living.

Henri Poincare
 Pedagogical Use of C olor

The various colors that you will see in the illustrations of this text are used to improve
clarity and understanding. Many figures with three-dimensional representations are
air-brushed in various colors to make them as realistic as possible.
Color coding has been used in various parts of the book to identify specific physical
quantities. The following schemes should be noted.

Part I (Chapters 1-15): Mechanics

Displacement and Torque (t) and an-

position vectors gular momentum
(L) vectors
Velocity vectors (v)

Linear or rotational
Force vectors (F) motion directions

Acceleration Springs
vectors (a)
Pulleys

Part IV (Chapters 23-34): Electricity and Magnetism

Electric fields Capacitors

Magnetic fields Inductors (coils) ->Tnnp—

Positive charges Voltmeters

Negative charges Ammeters

Resistors Galvanometers

Batteries and other ac generators

dc power supplies
Ground symbol
Switches

Part V (Chapters 35-38): Light and Optics

Light rays *
Objects
!
Images
Lenses and prisms

Mirrors
xviii PEDAGOGICAL USE OF COLOR

Most graphs are presented with curves plotted in either red or blue, and coordi-
nate axes are in black. Several colors are used in those graphs where many physical
quantities are plotted simultaneously, or in those cases where different processes may
be occurring and need be distinguished.
to
Finally, motional shading effects have been incorporated in many figures to re-
mind the readers that they are dealing with a dynamic system rather than a static
system. These figures will appear to be somewhat like a "multiflash" photograph of a
moving system, with faint images of the "past history" of the system's path. In some
figures, a broad, colored arrow is used to indicate the direction of motion of the system.
In addition to the use of color in the figures, the pedagogy in the text has been
enhanced with color as well. We have used the following color-coded system:

Important equations tan screen

Important statements blue type

Marginal notes blue type
Problem-Solving Strategy and Hints light blue screen
Examples blue box
Summaries gold screen
Intermediate-level problems problem number in blue type
Challenging problems problem number in magenta type
Spreadsheet problems black or color box around problem number
Laboratory problems black triangle next to problem number
The Guest Essays are marked with a blue bar on the edge of the page so they can be
located easily.

The publisher and author have gone to extreme measures in attempting to en-
sure the publication of an error-free text. The manuscript, galleys, and page
proofs have been carefully checked by the author, the editors, and a battery
of reviewers. While we realize that a 100% error-free text may not be hu-
manly possible, Serway's Physics for Scientists and Engineers is very close.
Confirmed in this belief, we are offering S5.00 for any first-time error you
may find. (Note that we will only pay for each error the first time it is brought

to our attention.) Please write to John Vondeling, Publisher. Saunders College

Publishing, The Public Ledger Building, 620 Chestnut Street, Suite 560, Phil-
adelphia, PA, 19106-3477.
Introducing the Book
 »

XX INTRODUCING THE BOOK

106 CHAPTERS THE LAWS OF MOTION

In this situation, there i > acceleration in the y direction. Applying

IF, = ma v with o = gives
(

- W-0 =
n
That the normal force is equal to and opposite the « eight
is.

If T is a constant force, then the acceleration, a t = Tim, is also a constant

Hence, the equations of kinematics from Chapter 3 can be used to obtain the
displacement. Ax. and velocity, D, as functions of rime. Since a, = T m
=
constant, these expressions can be written

Aj = tV + i 3*
COLOR-CODED LINE
ART •-*(!)
where the velocity at t = 0.
i is

Color is used to add clarity Figure S.b When one pushes In the example just presented, we found that the normal force v s equal \
downward on an ob;ect with a in magnitude and opposite the weight W. This is not always the t
and three-dimensional effects. force F. the normal force N is
example, suppose vou were to push down on a book with a force Fas in Figure
erealer than the weight That
A complete description of the
is
IF, =
5.8. Id this case. gives \ - W-F= 0. or X =
+ F Other examples W
inwhich X = W
will be presented later
color system used appears on Consider a lamp of weight \*" suspended from a chain of negligible weight
fastened to the ceiling, as in Figure 5.9a. The free-body diagram for the lamp is
page xvii.
shown in Figure 5.9b. where the forces on it are the weight. W, acting down-
ward, and the force of the chain on the lamp. T, acting upward. The force T is
the constraint force in this case (If we cut the chain. T= and the body
executes free fall.
If we applv the first law to the lamp, noting that a = 0. we see that since

there are no forces in the i direction, the equation SF, = provides no helpful
X information The condition ZF„ = gives

SV W=
Note that T and VT are not action -reaction pairs The reaction to T is 7", the
force exerted on the chain by the lamp, as in Figure 5.9c. The force acts T
<b) downward and is transmitted to the ceiling That is. the force of the chain on
the ceiling, V. is doumward and equal to Win magnitude The ceiling exerts an
Figure 5.9 [) A lamp of weight W equal and opposite force. V= T. on the chain, as in Figure 5.9c.

ceiling h The forces acting on

> the
lamp are the force of gravity. W,
and the tension in the chain T
PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY
tc) The forces acting on the
chain
are Tthat eierted by the lamp
,
The following procedure is recommended when dealing with problems involving
and T" that eieYted by the ceiling
.
the application of Newton's laws

1. Draw a simple, neat diagram of the system

2. Isolate the object of interest whose motion is being analyzed Draw a free-
bodS diagram for this object, that is. a diagram showing all external force*
acting on the object For systems containing more than one object, draw sepa-
rate diagrams for each object Do not include forces that the object exerts on
its surroundings

PROBLEM-SOLVING
STRATEGIES AND
HINTS

Outlines general strategies for

solving the types of problems
featured in both the examples
and the end-of-chapter
problems. These steps are
highlighted with a light blue
screen so they can be easily
located.
 INTRODUCING THE BOOK xxi

58 SOME AMPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS 107

. Establish c coordinate a sfor each body and find the components

of the forces along these a apply Newton's second law, ZF= ma, in
component form Check 1 take sure that all terms have
units offeree
. Solve the component equations for the unknowns Remember that you must
have as many independent equations as you ha\e unknowns in order to obtain
a complete solution
. It is a good idea to check the predictions of your solutions for extreme values

of the variables You can often detect errors in your results by doing so.

EXAMPLE 5.2 A Traffic Light at Rest (1) £ F = Ti cos 53* - T, cos 37° =
»
A traffic light weighing 1 00 N hangs from a cable tied to
two other cables fastened to a support, as in Figure
(2) £ Fr = Tj sin 37* + T sin 53° - 100 N =
2

5 10a The upper cables make angles of 37 * and 53° with From (1) we see that the horizontal components of
the horizontal Find the tension in the three cables Ti and T2 must be equal in magnitude, and from (2) we
see that the sum of the vertical components of T^ and T2
Solution First we construct a free -bod \ diagram for the must balance the weight of the light. We
can solve (1) for
traffic light, as in Figure 5 10b The tension in the verti- T2 in terms of ^ to give
cal cable, T3 supports
, the light, and so we see that T3 =
U'= 100 N Now we construct a free-body diagram for ' 1 337,
the knot that holds the three cables together, as in Figure s53°
5. 10c. This is a convenient point to choose because all This \alue for T2 can be substituted into (2) to give
forces in question act at this point We choose the coordi-
nate axes as shown in Figure 5 1 0c and resolve the forces T sin37°+(1 33T,)(sin53°)-100N
1
=
into their i and y components

WORKED EXAMPLE
EXERCISES
In what situation will T, = T2 ?
upporting cables make equal angle:
•
with the horizontal support
The condition for equilibri i 1F= gives us the Many of the worked examples
equations
are followed immediately by
exercises with answers to
make the textbook more
interactive and to test the
student's understanding of
problem-solving techniques.

Figure 5.!0 (Example 5.2) (4 A traffic

light suspended bv tables (b) Free-body
diagram for the traffic light (c) Free-body
diagram for the knot

WORKED EXAMPLES
Presented as an aid in
understanding concepts, these
examples serve as models for
solving the end-of-chapter
problems. The examples are
set off in a blue box, and the
solution answer is highlighted
with a tan screen.
XXii INTRODUCING THE BOOK

CHAPTERS Till LAWS DEMOTION

SUMMARY SUMMARY
Newton's firsl l» Newton's firsl law states that a body at rest will remain at rest or a body in
uniform motion in a straight line will maintain that motion unless an exter-
Reviews important eoncepts
nal resultant force acts on the body. and equations discussed in the
Newton's second law states that the time rate of change of momentum
of abody is equal to the resultant force acting on the body. If the mass of the chapter.
body is constant, the net force equals the product of the mass and its acceler-
ation, or 1F= nut.
Newton's first and second laws are valid in an inertial frame of refer-
ence An inertial frame is one in which an object, subject to nonet external
force, moves with constant velocity including the special case of v = 0.
Mass is a scalar quantity. The mass that appears in Newton's second law
is called inertial mass.
Weight is equal to the product of its mass and the acceler-
The weight of a body
ation of gravity, or W=
mg.
Newton') third la Newton's third law states that if two bodies interact, the force exerted
on bodv 1 by body is equal to and opposite the force exerted on body 2 by
'2

U-

1 20 CHAPTER 5 THE LAWS OF MOTION

speed increases to 7.0 X 10 5 m/s in a distance of

5.0 Assuming its acceleration is constant, (a) de-
(ermine thefoi on the electron and (b) compare this
force with the *ight of the electron, which we ne-
glected.
A15-lb block rests on the floor, (a) What force does
the floor exert on the block?(b) If a rope is tied to the
block and run vertically over a pulley and the other
end attached to a free hanging 10 -lb weight, what is
the force of the floor on the 15-lb block? (c) If we
replace the 1 0-lb weight in (b) by a 20-lb weight, what
29. A 50 kg mass hangs from a rope 5 m in length, whit
What horizontal force app
fastened to the ceiling
is the force of the floor on the 15-lb block?
mass will deflect it 1 m sideways from the \t
to the

Section 5.8 Some Applications of Neuton's Laws and maintain it in that position?
cal
30. The systems shown in Figure 5 25 are in equilibri
26. Find the tension in each cord for the systems de- If the spring scales are calibrated in N. what do t
scribed in Figure 5.22. (Neglect the mass of the read in each case? (Neglect the mass of the pulleys
strings, and assume the incline is smooth )

Figure 5.22 (Probi

27. Three 10-kg objects are suspended as shown (Fig

5.23). Determine each of the labeled tension forces.

Comments and notes in blue

print are used to locate Figure 5.25 (Problem 30)

important statements,
31. A bag of cement hangs from three wires as shown (Fig
equations, and concepts in 5.26). Two of the wires make angles 0, and 8 Z with the
horizontal. If the system is in equilibrium, (a) show
the chapter. Figure 5.23 (Problem 27).

PROBLEMS KEYED
=
weight is tied to the middle of a strong rope, Ti
28. A 200-N
and two people pull at opposite ends of the rope in an
TO SECTIONS attempt to lift the weight, (a) What force F must each (b) Given that W = 200 N.
Ta and T3
0, = 10° and 82
the wires.
'

person apply to suspend the weight as shown in Fig- find the tensions T, . . in

ure 5.24? (b) Can they pull in such a way as to make 32, A woman at an airport is pulling her 20-kg smti
the rope horizontal? Explain constant speed by pulling on a strap at an ai
Allows students to refer back
to the sections to look at a
worked example for help in
solving problems.
 INTRODUCING THE BOOK XXU1

LI AH Mo III >N \M)u[||[.H \H1 K \l|(i\s m \FW1iinsI\Us

write a as dv/dt. separate the variable

the equation )

SPREADSHEET
CALCULATOR/COMPUTER PROBLEMS PROBLEMS
5JT| a hailstone of mass 4.8 X 10"< kg and
through the atmosphere and experiences
radius 5 cm
a net
^
falls

force given by Equation 6.9 This expression can be

Spreadsheets on a separate
written in the form
disk available from your
instructor accompany these
where K = ±CpA. 0-1.29 kg/m 3 and C= 0.5. problems. These problems
Figure 6.24 (Problem 50)
(a) What is the terminal velocity of the hailstone?
(b) Use a method of numerical integration to find the can also be solved analytically
velocity and position of the hailstone at 1-s intervals,
through its center, as shown in Figure 6 25 The pe-
taking v = Continue your calculation until termi-
without using the software.
riod of revolution of the hoop is T The bead has mass
nal velocity is reached.
m and is at rest relative to the hoop at the angle 8. ,

A0.5-kgblockslidesdowna30 'inclineoflengthl m.
Answer the following in terms nl the given parameters
.

The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block

and the acceleration due to gravity g. (a) Find the
and the incline varies with the block's velocity ac-
normal force N exerted on the bead by the wire.
cording to the expression
(b) Find the angle between the normal force and the

axis of rotation (c) Find the centripetal force exerted ,i = 0.3+ 1.2-Jo
on the bead
where o is in m/s. (a) Use a numerical method to find
the velocity of the block at intervals of 10 cm during
its motion (b) If the length of the plane is extended to
several km, will the block reach terminal velocity? If
so, what is itstermin.il velocitx and at what point does
.

it occur on the incline?

Figure 6.25 (Problem 51).

52. An amusement park ride consists of a rotating circular

platform 8 m in diameter from which "bucket seats"
are suspended at the end of 2.5-m chains (For sim-
plicity only one chain is shown |Figure 6.26), though
two would be used ) When the
for stability at least
system rotates the chains holding the seats make an
angle 0=28° with the vertical (a) What is the speed
of the seat? (b) If a child of mass 40 kg sits in the 1 0-kg
seat, what is the tension in the chain?
53. The following experiment is performed in a spacecraft

that is at rest where the net gravitational 6eld is zero

A small sphere is injected into a viscous medium with
initial velocity p The sphere experiences a resistive
force R = -bv Find the velocity of the sphere as a
function of time (Hint Apply Newton's second law. Figure 6.26 (Problem 52)

PROBLEMS GRADED
BY LEVEL OF
DIFFICULTY

Intermediate-level problems
are indicated by printing the
problem number in blue
problems
print; challenging
have a magenta problem
number.
 —
XXiv INTRODUCING THE BOOK

ESSAY SCALING— THE PHYSICS OF ULLIPIT 19

The fictional traveler Lemuel Gulliver spent a busy rime in a kingdom called Lilliput.
GUEST ESSAYS
where all living things —
men. cattle, trees, grass —
were exactly similar to our world,
ESSAy
except that they were all built on the scale of one inch to the foot Lilliputians were a
i
under 6 inches high, on the average, and built proportionately just as we are
little
Scaling
Intended as supplemental
Gulliver also visited Brobdingnag. the country of the giants, who were exactly like
men but 12 times as tallAs Swift described it. daily life in both kingdoms was about the Physics readings for the student. The
like ours (in the 18th century) His commentary on human behavior is still worth °
of Lilliput blue bar at the edges of the
reading, but we shall see that people of such sizes just could not have been as he
described them Philip Morrison pages help students locate
Long before Swift lived. Galileo understood why very small or very large models Massachusetts Institute
i of man could not be like us. but apparently Dean Swift had never read what Galileo Technology them easily. The essays have
wTOte One character in Galileo's Two New Sciences" says, "Now since in
|

mere size cuts no figure. I do not see that the properties of circles.
been placed at the ends of
i
geometry,
triangles, cylinders, cones, and other solid figures will change with their size. . -
chapters to avoid interrupting
But his physicist friend replies, "The common opinion is here absolutely wrong." Let
the main textual material.
We start with the strength of arope It is easy to see that if one man who pulls with
a certain strength can almost break a certain rope, two such ropes will just withstand
the pull of two men- A single large rope with the same total area of cross-section as the
two smaller ropes combined will contain just double the number of fibers of one of the
small ropes, and it will also do the job In ^*-
or rope is proportional to its area o
Experience and theory agree in th
holds, not only for ropes or cables supp.
ESSAY SCALING— THE PHYSICS OF LTLUPtT 23
supporting a thrust The thrust which
a eiven material, is also proportional to t

Now the body of a man or an animal very biggest things *e can make which have some roundness, which are fully three-
skeleton —
supported by various braces dimensional, are buildings and great ships. These lack a good deal of being a thousand
But the weight of the body which must b< times larger than men in their linear dimensions.
flesh and bone present, that is. to ti Within our present technology our scaling arguments are important If we design
Let us now compare Gulliver with th a new large object on the basis of a small one. we are w arned that new effects too small
Since the giant is exactly like Gullive to detect on our scale may enter and even become the most important things to
sions is 1 2 times the corresponding consider We cannot just scale up and down blindly, geometrically, but by scaling in
columns and braces is proportional to the light of physical reasoning, we can sometimes foresee what changes will occur In
of their linear dimension (strength « this way we can employ scaling in intelligent airplane design, for example, and not
as Gulliver's. Because his weight is propo arrive at a jet transport that looks like a bee and won't fly. —
12 J or 1728 times as great as Gulliv
ratio a dozen times smaller than ours. Just Suggested Readings
much trouble as we should have in cany "Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences." trans bv Henry Crew
Galilei. Galileo,
In reality, of course, Lilliput and Bn and Alphonso De Salvia, Evanston. Northwestern University Press. 1946. pp
effects of a difference in scale if we 1-6. 125-128.
The smaller ones are not scale models ol Haldane.J B S ."On Being the Right Size World of Mathematics, Xo\ II. edited by
'

sponding leg bones of two closely relal James R Newman New York. Simon 6r Schuster. 1956.
gazelle, the other a bison. Notice that tht Holcomb. Donald F and Philip Morrison. My Fathers Watch Aspects of the Physi- —
geometrically to that of the smaller cal H'dtW, Englewood Cliffs. NJ, Prentice Hall. 1974. pp 68-83.
ing the scale change, which would make Smith. Cyril S ."The Shape of Things." Scientific;American. January. 1954, p 5b
Galileo WTOte very clearly on tl Thompson. D Arcv W"On Magnitude," in On Growth and Form. Cambridge Uni-
dingnag. or of any normal -looking giant; versity Press, 1952 and 1961.
giant the same proportion of limb as
a harder and stronger material for making Essay Questions
strength in comparison with men c 1. The leg bones of ne animal are twice as strong as those of another closely related
animal of simila shape, (a) What would you expect to be the ratio of these
animals' heights' b What would you expect to be the ratio of their weights?
|

2. A hummingbird nust eat very frequently and even then must have a highlv
concentrated for i of food such as sugar What does the concept of scaling tell you
about the size of i hummingbird'
3. About how mat Lilliputians would it take to equal the mass of one citizen of
Brobdingnag

a of a rectangular solid is the sum of the areas of the su faces.

a given rectangular solid is doubled, what effect does this
f

have on the total surface area?

A hollow metal sphere has a wall thickness of 2 cm If you increase both the
diameter and thickness of this sphere so that the overall v olume is three times the
original overall volume, how thick will the shell of the new sphere be?

SUGGESTED If v our height and all your other dimensions were doubled, by what factor would

this change (a) your weight? (b) the ability of your leg bones to support your
READINGS, ESSAY weight?
QUESTIONS, AND According to the zoo. an elephant of mass 4.0 X KPkg consumes 3.4 X 10*
times as much food as a guinea pig of mass 0.70 kg. They are both warm-blooded,
PROBLEMS plant-eating, similarly shaped animals Find the ratio of their surface areas, which
is approximately the ratio of their heat losses, and compare it with the known

ratio of food consumed.

Most of the essays contain A rectangular water tank is supported above the ground by four pillars 5 m long
whose diameters are 20 cm If the tank were made 10 times longer, wider, and
suggested readings, questions, deeper, what diameter pillars would be needed? How much more water would
the tank hold?
and problems for added How many state maps of scale 1 : 1 000 000 would you need to cover the state
with those maps?
flexibility in covering these
topics.
 Contents Overview

PART I MECHANICS 1

1. Introduction: Physics and Measurement 2

2. Vectors 24
3. Motion in One Dimension 39
4. Motion in Two Dimensions 65
5. The Laws of Motion 95
6. Circular Motion and Other Applications of
Newton's Laws 128
7. Work and Energy 152
8. Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy 180
9. Linear Momentum and Collisions 210
10. Rotation of a Rigid Body About a Fixed Axis 245
11. Rolling Motion, Angular Momentum,
and Torque 273
12. Static Equilibrium and Elasticity 300
13. Oscillatory Motion 324
14. The Law of Universal Gravitation 358
15. Fluid Mechanics 392

PART II MECHANICAL WAVES 429

16. Wave Motion 430
17. Soundwaves 455
18. Superposition and Standing Waves 478

PART III THERMODYNAMICS 505

19. Temperature, Thermal Expansion, and Ideal
Gases 506 Thermogram produced with an infrared scanner.
20. Heat and the First Law of Thermodynamics 526 (VANSCAN* Thermogram by Daedalus Enterprises, Inc.)
2 1 The Kinetic Theory of Gases
. 560
22. Heat Engines, Entropy, and the Second Law
of Thermodynamics 587
PART V LIGHT AND OPTICS 983
PART IV ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 625
35. The Nature of Light and the Laws of Geometric
23. Electric Fields 626
Optics 984
24. Gauss' Law 658
36. Geometric Optics 1014
25. Electric Potential 679
37. Interference of Light Waves 1048
26. Capacitance and Dielectrics 710
38. Diffraction and Polarization 1072
27. Current and Resistance 740
28. Direct Current Circuits 765
PART VI MODERN PHYSICS 1101
29. Magnetic Fields 804
39. Relativity 1102
30. Sources of the Magnetic Field 835
40. Introduction to Quantum Physics 1146
31. Faraday's Law 874
32. Inductance 903 Appendices A.l
33. Alternating Current Circuits 927 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A. 49
34. Electromagnetic Waves 955 Index 1.1
 Contents
'
These sections are optional.

PART I MECHANICS 1 Chapter 6 Circular Motion and Other Applications of

Newton's Laws 128
Chapter 1 Measurement
Introduction: Physics and 2 6.1 Newton's Second Law Applied to Uniform Circular
1.1 Standards of Length, Mass, and Time 4 Motion 128
1.2 Density and Atomic Mass 7 6.2 Nonuniform Circular Motion 133
1.3 Dimensional Analysis 8 '
6.3 Motion in Accelerated Frames 135
1.4 Conversion of Units 10 '
6.4 Motion in the Presence of Resistive Forces 137
1.5 Order-of-Magnitude Calculations 11 6.5 The Fundamental Forces of Nature 141
1.6 Significant Figures 12 Summary 142
1.7 Mathematical Notation 14
ESSAY Dynamics of Satellite Orbits,
Summary 15 Leon Blitzer 149
ESSAY Scaling — The Physics of Lilliput,
Philip Morrison 19
Chapter 7 Work and Energy 152

Chapter 2 Vectors 24 7.1 Introduction 153

2.1 Coordinate Systems and Frames of Reference 25 7.2 Work Done by a Constant Force 153
2.2 Vectors and Scalars 26 7.3 The Scalar Product of Two Vectors 155
2.3 Some Properties of Vectors 27 7.4 Work Done by a Varying Force: The One-
Dimensional Case 157
2.4 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors 30
7.5 Work and Kinetic Energy 161
Summary 34
7.6 Power 166
Chapter 3 Motion in One Dimension 39
1
7.7 Energy and the Automobile 168
3.1 Average Velocity 40 '7.8 Relativistic Kinetic Energy 171
3.2 Instantaneous Velocity 41 Summary 172
3.3 Acceleration 44
3.4 One-Dimensional Motion With Constant
Acceleration 46 Chapter 8 Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy 180
Freely Falling Bodies 50 8.1 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces 181
3.5
3.6 Kinematic Equations Derived From Calculus 53 8.2 Potential Energy 183
Summary 56 8.3 Conservation of Mechanical Energy 184
8.4 Gravitational Potential Energy Near the Earth's
Chapter 4 Motion in Two Dimensions 65 Surface 185
4.1 The Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration 8.5 Nonconservative Forces and the Work-Energy
Vectors 65 Theorem 188
4.2 Motion in Two Dimensions With Constant 8.6 PotentialEnergy Stored in a Spring 190
Acceleration 68 Relationship Between Conservative Forces and
4.3 Projectile Motion 70 Potential Energy 194
4.4 Uniform Circular Motion 77 Energy Diagrams and Stability of Equilibrium 195
4.5 Tangential and Radial Acceleration in Curvilinear 8.9 Conservation of Energy in General 196
Motion 79 8.10 Mass-Energy Equivalence 197
4.6 Relative Velocity and Relative Acceleration 81 8.11 Quantization of Energy 198
"
4.7 Relative Motion at High Speeds 84 Summary 200
Summary 85

Chapter 5 The Laws of Motion 95 Chapter 9 Momentum and Collisions

Linear 210
5.1 Introduction to Classical Mechanics 95 9.1 Linear Momentum and Impulse 210
5.2 The Concept of Force 96 9.2 Conservation of Linear Momentum for a Two-
5.3 Newton's First Law and Inertial Frames 98 Particle System 214
5.4 Inertial Mass 100 9.3 Collisions 216
5.5 Newton's Second Law 101 9.4 Collisions in One Dimension 217
5.6 Weight 103 9.5 Two-Dimensional Collisions 222
5.7 Newton's Third Law 104 9.6 The Center of Mass 225
5.8 Some Applications of Newton's Laws 105 9.7 Motion of a System of Particles 229
5.9 Forces of Friction 112 '
9.8 Rocket Propulsion 232
Summary 116 Summary 234
 CONTENTS XXVU

Chapter 10 Rotation of a Rigid Body About a Fixed Axis 245 ESSAY Dark Matter, Virginia Trimble 386
10.1 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration 245
10.2 Rotational Kinematics: Rotational Motion With 'Chapter 15 Fluid Mechanics 392
Constant Angular Acceleration 247 15.1 States of Matter 393
10.3 Relationships Between Angular and Linear 15.2 Density and Pressure 394
Quantities 249 15.3 Variation of Pressure With Depth 396
10.4 Rotational Kinetic Energy 250 15.4 Pressure Measurements 398
10.5 Calculations of Moments of Inertia 252 15.5Buoyant Forces and Archimedes' Principle 399
10.6 Torque 256 15.6Fluid Dynamics 402
10.7 Relationship Between Torque and Angular 15.7 Streamlines and the Equation of Continuity 404
Acceleration 257 15.8 Bernoulli's Equation 405
10.8 Work and Energy in Rotational Motion 261 "15.9 Other Applications of Bernoulli's Equation 407
Summary 264 * 15.10 Energy From the Wind 408
"15.11 Viscosity 410
Chapter 1 1 Rolling Motion, Angular Momentum, * 412
15.12 Turbulence
and Torque 273
Summary 413
11.1 Body
Rolling Motion of a Rigid 274
11.2 The Vector Product and Torque 276 ESSAY Chaos, J. Clint Sprott 423
11.3 Angular Momentum of a Particle 279
11.4 Rotation of a Rigid Body About a Fixed Axis 282
11.5 Conservation of Angular Momentum 284
PART II MECHANICAL WAVES 429
°
1 1 .6 The Motion of Gyroscopes and Tops 287
Chapter 16 Wave Motion 430
°11.7 Angular Momentum as a Fundamental Quantity 290
16.1 Introduction 431
Summary 291
16.2 Types of Waves 432
'Chapter 12 Static Equilibrium and Elasticity 300 16.3 One-Dimensional Traveling Waves 433
The Conditions of Equilibrium of a Rigid Object 301 16.4 Superposition and Interference of Waves 435
12.1
12.2 The Center of Gravity 303 16.5 The Velocity of Waves on Strings 437
304 16.6 Reflection and Transmission of Waves 439
12.3 Examples of Rigid Objects in Static Equilibrium
12.4 Elastic Properties of Solids 308 16.7 Harmonic Waves 441
Summary 312 16.8 Energy Transmitted by Harmonic Waves on Strings 445
"16.9 The Linear Wave Equation 447
ESSAY Arch Structures, Gordon Batson 322 Summary 448

Chapter 13 Oscillatory Motion 324

13.1 Simple Harmonic Motion 325 Coronet formed by a drop of milk.
13.2 Mass Attached to a Spring 328 (© Harold E. Edgerton. Courtesy of Palm Press, Inc.)
13.3 Energy of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator 333
13.4 The Pendulum 335
'
13.5 Comparing Simple Harmonic Motion With
Uniform Circular Motion 339
'13.6 Damped Oscillations 341
'13.7 Forced Oscillations 342
Summary 344
ESSAY Galloping Gertie: The Tacoma Narrows
Bridge, Robert G. Fuller and Dean A. Zollman 352

'Chapter 14 The Law of Universal Gravitation 358

14.1 Newton's Universal Law of Gravity 359
14.2 Measurement of the Gravitational Constant 360
14.3 Weight and Gravitational Force 361
14.4 Kepler's Laws 362
14.5 The Law of Universal Gravitation and the Motion
of Planets 364
14.6 The Gravitational Field 367
14.7 Energy
Gravitational Potential 369
14.8 Energy Considerations in Planetary and Satellite
Motion 371
°
14.9 The Gravitational Force Between an Extended
Body and a Particle 374
*
14.10 Gravitational Force Between a Particle and a
Spherical Mass 376
Summary 378
 19.3 The Constant-Volume Gas Thermometer and the
Kelvin Scale 509
19.4 The Celsius and Fahrenheit Temperature Scales 511
19.5 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids 513
19.6 Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas 516
Summary 519

Chapter 2(1 Heat and the First Law of Thermodynamics 526

20.1 Heat and Thermal Energy 527
20.2 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat 530
20.3 Latent Heat 533
20.4 Work and Heat in Thermodynamic Processes 536
20.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics 538
20.6 Some Applications of the First Law of
Thermodynamics 540
20.7 Heat Transfer 543
Summary 550

Chapter 21 The Kinetic Theory of Cases 560

21.1 Molecular Model for the Pressure of an Ideal Gas 561
21.2 Molecular Interpretation of Temperature 563
21.3 Heat Capacity of an Ideal Gas 565
21.4 Adiabatic Process for an Ideal Gas 568
21.5 Sound Waves in a Gas 569
21.6 The Equipartition of Energy 571
'21.7 Distribution of Molecular Speeds 574
'21.8 Mean Free Path 577
Supersonic candlelight (Bullet through Flame, 1973. '21.9 Van der Waals' Equation of State 578
© Harold E. Edgerton. Courtesy of Palm Press, Inc.) Summary 580

Chapter 22 Heat Engines. Entropy, and the Second

Law of Thermodynamics .is:

Chapter 17 Soundwaves 455 22.1 Heat Engines and the Second Law of
17.1 Velocity of Sound Waves 456 Thermodynamics 588
17.2 Harmonic Sound Waves 457 22.2 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 591
17.3 Energy and Intensity of Harmonic Sound Waves 459 22.3 The Carnot Engine 592
17.4 Spherical and Plane Waves 461 22.4 The Absolute Temperature Scale 596
'17.5 The Doppler Effect 464
Summary 469

ESSAY The Physics of Woodwinds

Alma C. Zook 475

Chapter 18 Superposition and Standing Waves 47S

18.1 Superposition and Interference of Harmonic
Waves 479
18.2 Standing Waves 482
18.3 Standing Waves in a String Fixed at Both Ends 484
18.4 Resonance 487
18.5 Standing Waves in AirColumns 489
'18.6 Standing Waves in Rods and Plates 491
°18.7 Beats: Interference in Time 492
"18.8 Complex Waves 495
Summary 497

PART III THERMODYNAMICS 505

Chapter 19 Temperature, Thermal Expansion, and

Ideal Cases 506
19.1 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics 507 Grand Prismatic Spring, Yellowstone National Park.
1 9.2 Thermometers and Temperature Scales 508 (© Paul Chesley/ Photographers Aspen)
 CONTENTS XXIX

22.5 The Gasoline Engine 596

22.6 Heat Pumps and Refrigerators 598
22.7 Entropy 599
22.8 Entropy Changes in Irreversible Processes 602
'
22.9 Entropy and Disorder 606
'
22.10 Energy Conversion and Thermal Pollution 608
Summary 610
ESSAY The Riddle of the Third Law,
Hans Christian von Baeyer 618

PART IV ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 625

Chapter 23 Electric Fields 626

23.1 Properties of Electric Charges 626
23.2 and Conductors
Insulators 629
23.3 Coulomb's Law 630
23.4 The Electric Field 634 The first integrated circuit. (Courtesy of Texas Instru-
23.5 Electric Field of a Continuous Charge Distribution 637 ments)
23.6 Electric Field Lines 641
23.7 Motion of Charged Particles in a Uniform Electric
Field 643
'
23.8 The Oscilloscope 646 21 A The Resistivity of Different Conductors 749
Summary 647
27.5 Superconductors 751
Chapter 24 Gauss' Law 658
27.6 A Model for Electrical Conduction 752
27.7 Energy and Power
Electrical 755
24.1 Electric Flux 658 '
27.8 Energy Conversion in Household Circuits 757
24.2 Gauss' Law 661
Summary 758
24.3 Application of Gauss' Law to Charged Insulators 663
24.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium 667 Chapter 2S Direct Current Circuits 765
'
24.5 Experimental Proof of Gauss' Law and Coulomb's
28.1 Electromotive Force 766
Law 669
28.2 Resistors in Series and Parallel 767
'
24.6 Derivation of Gauss' Law 670
28.3 Kirchhoff's Rules 771
Summary 671
28.4 RC Circuits 775
Chapter 25
'
28.5 Electrical Instruments 780
Electric Potential 679
"28.6 The Wheatstone Bridge 782
25.1 Potential Difference and Electric Potential 680
25.2 Potential Differences in a Uniform Electric Field 681
"
28.7 The Potentiometer 783
25.3 Electric Potential and Potential Energy Due to
'
28.8 Household Wiring and Electrical Safety 784
Point Charges 684 Summary 786
25.4 Electric Potential Due to Continuous Charge ESSAY Exponential Growth, Albert A. Bartlett 797
Distributions 686
'
25.5 Obtaining E from the Electric Potential 690 Chapter 29 Magnetic Fields 804
25.6 Potential of a Charged Conductor 692 29.1 Introduction 805
'
25.7 The Millikan Oil-drop Experiment 694 29.2 Definition and Properties of the Magnetic Field 806
'25.8 Applications of Electrostatics 696 29.3 Magnetic Force on a Current-carrying Conductor 809
Summary 699 29.4 Torque on a Current Loop in a Uniform Magnetic
Field 812
Chapter 26 Capacitance and Dielectrics 710 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field
29.5 815
26.1 Definition of Capacitance 710 '
29.6 Applications of the Motion of Charged Particles
26.2 Calculation of Capacitance 711 in a Magnetic Field 819
26.3 Combinations of Capacitors 715 '29.7 The Hall Effect 822
26.4 Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor 718 '
29.8 The Quantum Hall Effect 825
26.5 Capacitors with Dielectrics 720 Summary 826
'
26.6 Electric Dipole in an External Electric Field 725
'26.7 An Atomic Description of Dielectrics 726 Chapter 30 Sources of the Magnetic Field 835
Summary 729 30.1 The Biot-Savart Law 836
30.2 The Magnetic Force Between Two Parallel
Chapter 27 Current and Resistance 740 Conductors 840
27.1 The Battery 741 30.3 Ampere's Law 841
27.2 Electric Current 742 30.4 The Magnetic Field of a Solenoid 845
27.3 Resistance and Ohm's Law 744 '30.5 The Magnetic Field Along the Axis of a Solenoid 847
 XXX CONTENTS

Chapter 34 Electromagnetic Waves 955

34.1 Maxwell's Equations and Hertz's Discoveries 957
34.2 Plane Electromagnetic Waves 959
34.3 Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves 963
34.4 Momentum and Radiation Presure 966
'34.5 Radiation from an Infinite Current Sheet 968
'
34.6 The Production of Electromagnetic Waves by an
Antenna 970
34.7 The Spectrum of Electromagnetic Waves 973
Summary 975

PART V LIGHT AND OPTICS

Chapter 35 The Nature of Light and the Laws of

Geometric Optics 984
35. 1 The Nature of Light 984
35.2 Measurements of the Speed of Light 986
Aurora Borealis seen from inside a dome on the western
35.3 The Ray Approximation in Geometric Optics 988
shore of Hudson Bay, (© David Hiser/ Photographers
35.4 Reflection and Refraction 989
Aspen) 1
35.5 Dispersion and Prisms 994
35.6 Huygens' Principle 997
35.7 Total Internal Reflection 999
30.6 Magnetic Flux 848 '
35.8 Fermat's Principle 1001
30.7 Gauss' Law
Magnetism
in 849
Summary 1002
30.8 Displacement Current and the Generalized
Ampere's Law 850 ESSA] Fiber Optics: The Ultimate in
30.9 Magnetism in Matter 852 Telecommunication, Edward A. Lacy 1009
'30.10 Magnetic Field of the Earth 860
Summary 862 Chapter 36 Geometric Optics 1014
36.1 Images Formed by Plane Mirrors 1015
Chapter 31 Faraday's Law 874 36.2 Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors 1016
31.1 Faraday 's Law of Induction 875 36.3 Images Formed by Refraction 1022
31.2 Motional EMF 879 36.4 Thin Lenses 1024
31.3 Lenz's Law 881 '
36.5 Lens Aberrations 1030
31.4 Induced EMFs and Electric Fields 884 *
36.6 The Camera 1032
°31.5 Generators and Motors "
36.7 The Eye 1034
° 3 1 .6 Eddy Currents *
36.8 The Simple Magnifier 1036
31.7 Maxwell's Wonderful Equations 890 *
36.9 The Compound Microscope 1038
Summary 891 °
36.10 The Telescope 1040
Summary 1041
Chapter 32 Inductance 903
32.1 Self-inductance 904 Chapter :>7 Interference of Light Waves 1048
32.2 RL Circuits 905 37.1 Conditions for Interference 1048
32.3 Energy in a Magnetic Field 908 37.2 Young's Double-slit Experiment 1049
°32.4 Mutual Inductance 911 37.3 Intensity Distribution of the Double-slit
32.5 Oscillations in an LC Circuit 912 Interference Pattern 1053
"32.6 The RLC Circuit 916 37.4 Phasor Addition of Waves 1055
Summary 918 37.5 Change of Phase Due to Reflection 1059
37.6 Interference in Thin Films 1060
Chapter 33 Alternating Current Circuits 927 °
37.7 The Michelson Interferometer 1064
33.1 AC Sources and Phasors 927 Summary 1065
33.2 Resistors in anAC Circuit 928
33.3 Inductors in an AC Circuit 931 Chapter 38 Diffraction and Polarization 1072
33.4 Capacitors in an AC Circuit 933 38.1 Introduction to Diffraction 1073
33.5 The RLC Series Circuit 924 38.2 Single-slit Diffraction 1074
33.6 Power in an AC Circuit 938 38.3 Resolution of Single-slit and Circular Apertures 1079
33.7 Resonance in a Series RLC Circuit 939 38.4 The Diffraction Grating 1083
"33.8 Filter Circuits 942 °
38.5 Diffraction of X-rays by Crystals 1085
* 33.9 The Transformer and Power Transmission 943 38.6 Polarization of Light Waves 1087
Summary 946 Summary 1093
 4
2

CONTENTS XXXI

PART VI MODERN PHYSICS 1101 40.5 Quantum Model

Bohr's of the Atom 1159
Summary 1164
Chapter 39 Relativity 1 102
39.1 Introduction 1102 Appendix A Tables A.l
39.2 The Principle of Relativity 1104 Table A. 1 Conversion Factors A.l
39.3 The Michelson-Morley Experiment 1107 Table A. 2 Symbols, Dimensions, and Units of Physical
Quantities A.
39.4 Einstein's Principle of Relativity 1109
Table A. 3 Table of Selected Atomic Masses A.
39.5 Describing Events in Relativity 1111
39.6 Simultaneity 1112 Appendix B Mathematics Review A.8
39.7 The Relativity of Time 1113 B.l Scientific Notation A.8
39.8 The Relativity of Length 1117 B.2 Algebra A.9
39.9 The Lorentz Transformation Equations 1119 B.3 Geometry A. 15
39.10 Lorentz Velocity Transformation 1121 B.4 Trigonometry A. 16
39.11 Relativistic Momentum 1123 B.5 Series Expansions A. 18
39.12 Relativistic Energy 1125 B.6 Differential Calculus A.19
39.13 Confirmations and Consequences B.7 Integral Calculus A.21
of Relativity Theory 1129
Summary 1130
Appendix C The Periodic Table A.26

ESSAY The Renaissance of General Relativity, Appendix D SI Units A.28

Clifford M. Will 1136
Appendix E Nobel Prize Winners A. 29

Chapter 40 Introduction to Quantum Physics 1146

Appendix F Spreadsheets A.34
40.1 Blackbody Radiation and Planck's Hypothesis 1147
40.2 The Photoelectric Effect 1150 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A.49
40.3 The Compton Effect 1153
40.4 Atomic Spectra 1157 Index M
Cutting the card quickly: A bullet traveling at about 900 m/s collides with the king of
diamonds. The photograph was taken using a microflash stroboscope at an exposure
time of less than 1 (is. The velocity of the bullet is a vector to the right as indicated by
the red arrow. (© Harold E Edgerton. Courtesy of Palm Press, Inc.)
 PART I

Mechanics

Physics, the most fundamental physical science, is concerned with the basic- Facts which at first seem
principles of the universe. It is upon which the other phvsical
the foundation improbable will, even in
sciences — astronomy, chemistry, and geology —
are based. The beauty of scant explanation, drop
physics lies in the simplicity of the fundamental physical theories and in the the cloak which has
manner in which just a small number of fundamental concepts, equations, and hidden them and stand
assumptions can alter and expand our view of the world around us. forth in naked and
The myriad physical phenomena in our world are a part of one or more of simple beauty.
the following five areas of physics: GALILEO GALILEI
1. Mechanics, which is concerned with the motion of material objects
2. Thermodynamics, which deals with heat, temperature, and the behavior of
a large number of particles Nature and Nature's
3. Electromagnetism. which involves the theory of electricity, magnetism, laws lay hid in night:
and electromagnetic fields God said. Let Newton be!
4. Relativity, which is a theory describing particles moving at any speed less and all was liglit.
than the speed of light ALEXANDER POPE
5. Quantum mechanics, a theory dealing with the behavior of particles at the
submicroscopic level as well as the macroscopic world

The first part

of this textbook deals with mechanics, sometimes referred to
as classicalmechanics or newtonian mechanics. This is an appropriate place to
begin an introductory text since many of the basic principles used to under-
stand mechanical systems can later be used to describe such natural phenom-
ena as waves and heat transfer. Furthermore, the laws of conservation of
energy and momentum introduced in mechanics retain their importance in the
fundamental theories that follow, including the theories of modern physics.
The first serious attempts to develop a theory of motion were provided by
the Greek astronomers and philosophers. Although they devised a complex
model to describe the motions of heavenly bodies, their model lacked correla-
tion between such motions and the motions of objects on earth. The study of
mechanics was enhanced by a number of careful astronomical investigations
by Copernicus. Brahe. and Kepler in the 16th century. In the 16th and 17th
centuries, Galileo attempted to relate the motion of falling bodies and projec-
tiles to the motion of planetary bodies, and Sevin and Hooke were studying
forces and their relation to motion. A major development in the theory of
mechanics was prov ided by Newton in 1687 when he published his Principia
Newton's elegant theory, which remained unchallenged for more than 200
years, was based on Newton's hypothesis of universal gravitation and contri-
butions made by Galileo and others.
Today, mechanics is of vital importance to students from all disciplines. It
is highly successful in describing the motions of material bodies, such as the

planets, rockets, and baseballs. In the first part of the text, we shall describe
the laws of mechanics and examine a wide range of phenomena that can be
understood with these fundamental ideas.
 1
Introduction: Physics and
Measurement

Quantitative measurement is

one of the tools of physicists.

Here gold is shown being
measured on a scale. (© R.
Pleasant, F.P G International.)

a fundamental science concerned with understanding the

Physics is

natural phenomena that occur in our universe. It isa science based on

experimental observations and quantitative measurements. The main
objective of the scientific approach is to develop physical theories
based on fundamental laws that will predict the results of some experiments.
Fortunately, it is possible to explain the behavior of many physical systems
with a limited number of fundamental laws. These fundamental laws are ex-
pressed in the language of mathematics, the tool that provides a bridge be-
tween theory and experiment.
Whenever a discrepancy arises between theory and experiment, new
theories and experiments must be formulated to remove the discrepancy.
 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: PHYSICS AND MEASUREMENT

Many times a theory is satisfactory under limited conditions; a more general

theory might be satisfactory without such limitations. A classic example is
Newton's laws of motion, which accurately describe the motion of bodies at
normal speeds but do not apply to objects moving at speeds comparable to the
speed of light. The special theory of relativity developed by Albert Einstein
(1879-1955) successfully predicts the motion of objects at speeds approach-
ing the speed of light and hence is a more general theory of motion.
Classical physics,developed prior to 1900, includes the theories, con-
cepts, laws, and experiments in three major disciplines: (1) classical me-
chanics, (2) thermodynamics (heat transfer, temperature, and the behavior of
a large number of identical particles), and (3) electromagnetism (the study of
electric and magnetic phenomena, optics and radiation).
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) made significant contributions to classical
mechanics through his work on the laws of motion with constant acceleration.
In the same era, Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) used astronomical observa-
tions to develop empirical laws for the motion of planetary bodies.
The most important contributions to classical mechanics were provided
by Isaac Newton (1642-1727), who developed classical mechanics as a sys-
tematic theory and was one of the originators of the calculus as a mathematical
tool. Major developments in classical physics continued in the 18th century.
However, thermodynamics and electricity and magnetism were not devel-
oped until the latter part of the 19th century, principally because the appa-
ratus for controlled experiments was either too crude or unavailable until
then. Although many electric and magnetic phenomena had been studied
earlier, it was the work of James Clerk Maxwell (1831 - 1879) that provided a
unified theory of electromagnetism. In this text we shall treat the various
disciplines of classical physics in separate sections; however, we will see that
the disciplines of mechanics and electromagnetism are basic to all the
branches of classical and modern physics.
A new era in physics, usually referred to as modern physics, began near the
end of the 19th century. Modern physics developed mainly because of the
discovery that many physical phenomena could not be explained by classical
physics. The two most important developments in this modern era were the
theories of relativity and quantum mechanics. Einstein's theory of relativity
completely revolutionized the traditional concepts of space, time, and energy.
Among other things, Einstein's theory corrected Newton's laws of motion for
describing the motion of objects moving at speeds comparable to the speed of
light. The theory of relativity also assumes that the speed of light is the upper
limit of the speed of an object or signal and shows the equivalence of mass and
energy. The formulation of quantum mechanics by a number of distinguished
scientists provided a description of physical phenomena at the atomic
level.
Scientists are constantly working at improving our understanding of fun-
damental laws, and new discoveries are being made every day. In many re-
search areas, there is a great deal of overlap between physics, chemistry, and
biology. The many technological advances in recent times are the result of the
efforts of many scientists, engineers, and technicians. Some of the most nota-
ble recent developments are (1) unmanned space missions and manned moon
landings, (2) microcircuitry and high-speed computers, and (3) sophisticated
imaging techniques used in scientific research and medicine. The impact of
such developments and discoveries on our society has indeed been great, and
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION PHYSICS AND MEASUREMENT

it is very likely that future discoveries and developments will be exciting,

challenging, and of great benefit to humanity.

1.1 STANDARDS OF LENGTH. MASS. AND TIME

The laws of physics are expressed in terms of basic quantities that require a
clear definition. For example, such physical quantities as force, velocity, vol-
ume, and acceleration can be described in terms of more fundamental quanti-
ties that in themselves are defined in terms of measurements or comparison
with established standards. In mechanics, the three fundamental quantities
are length (L). time (T), and mass (M). All other physical quantities in me-
chanics can be expressed in terms of these.
Obviously, if we are to report the results of a measurement to someone
who wishes to reproduce this measurement, a standard must be defined. It
would be meaningless if a visitor from another planet were to talk to us about a
length of S "glitches" if we do not know the meaning of the unit "glitch." On

the other hand, if someone familiar with our system of measurement reports
that a wall is 2 meters high and our unit of length is defined as 1 meter, we then
know that the height of the wall is twice our fundamental unit of length.
Likewise, if we are told that a person has a mass of 75 kilograms and our unit of
mass is defined as 1.0 kilogram, then that person is 75 times as massive as our
fundamental unit of mass. 1
In 1 960. an international committee established rules to decide on a set of
standards for these fundamental quantities. The system that was established is
an adaptation of the metric system, and it is called the International System
(SI) of units. The abbreviation SI comes from its French name "Systeme Inter-
nationale." In this system, the units of mass, length, and time are the kilogram,
meter, and second, respectively. Other standard SI units established by the
committee are those for temperature (the kehin), electric current (the am-
pere), luminous intensity (the candela) and for the amount of substance (the
mole, see Sec. 1 .2). These seven fundamental units are the basic SI units. In the
studv of mechanics, however, we will be concerned only with the units of
mass, length, and time. Definitions of units are under constant review and are
changed from time to time.

Mass
The SI unit of mass, the kilogram, is defined as the mass of a specific
platinum-indium alloy cylinder kept at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures at Sevres. France.

This mass standard was established in 1887, and there has been no change
since that time because platinum-iridium is an unusually stable alloy. The
Sevres cylinder is 3.9 centimeters in diameter and 3.9 centimeters in height. A
duplicate is kept at the National Bureau of Standards in Gaithersburg, Md.

1
The need for assigning numerical values to various physical quantities through experimentation
was expressed by Lord Kelvin (William Thomson) as follows: "I often say that when you can
measure what vou are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you should know something
about it. but when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfac-
tory kind. It may be the beginning of knowledge but you have scarcely in your thoughts advanced
to the state of science."
 1.1 STANDARDS OF LENGTH, MASS. AND TIME 5

(Left) The National Standard Kilogram No. 20, an accurate copy of the International Standard
Kilogram kept at housed under a double bell jar in a vault at the National Bureau
Sevres, France, is

of Standards. (Rig/if) The primary frequency standard (an atomic clock) at the National Bureau of
Standards. This device keeps time with an accuracy of about 3 millionths of a second per year.
(Photos courtesy of National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce)

Time
Before 1960, the standard of time was defined in terms of the mean solar day
for the year 1 900. 2 Thus, the mean solar second, representing the basic unit of
time, was originally defined as (^) (^) (^) of a mean solar day. Time that is
referenced to the rotation of the earth about its axis is called universal time.
The rotation of the earth is now known to vary substantially with time.
In 1967, the second was redefined to take advantage of the high precision
that could be obtained using a device known as an atomic clock. In this device,
the frequencies associated with certain atomic transitions (which are ex-
tremely stable and insensitive to the clock's environment) can be measured to
a precision of one part in 1 12 This is equivalent to an uncertainty of less than
.

one second every 30 000 years. Such frequencies are highly insensitive to
changes in the clock's environment. Thus, in 1967 the SI unit of time, the
second, was redefined using the characteristic frequency of a particular kind of
cesium atom as the "reference clock":

One second — the time required for a cesium- 133 atom to undergo
9 192 631 77(i vibrations.

This new standard has the distinct advantage of being "indestructible" and
reproducible.

2
A solar day is the time interval between successive appearances of the sun at the highest point it

reaches in the sky each day.

6 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: PHYSICS AND MEASUREMENT

TABLE 1.1
 1.2 DENSITY AND ATOMIC MASS

Interval (s)

5X 10 17
S CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: PHYSICS AND MEASUREMENT

measured relative to the mass of an atom of the carbon- 1 2 isotope (this isotope
of carbon has six protons and six neutrons).
The mass of 12 C is defined to be exactly 12 atomic mass units (u). where
1 u1.660 540 2 X 10 -27 kg. In these units, the proton and neutron have
=
masses of about 1 u. More precisely,

mass of proton = 1.0073 u

mass of neutron = 1.0087 u

The mass of the nucleus of 27 Al

approximately 27 u. In fact, a more precise
is

measurement shows that the nuclear mass is always slightly less than the
combined mass of the protons and neutrons making up the nucleus. The pro-
cesses of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion are based on this mass difference.
One mole of any element (or compound) consists of Avogadro's number.
-\
A . number is defined so that one
of molecules of the substance. Avogadro's
mole of carbon- 12 atoms has a mass of exactly 12 g. Its value has been found to
be \A = 6.02 X 1 23
molecules/mole. For example, one mole of aluminum has
a mass of 27 g, and one mole of lead has a mass of 207 g. Although the two have
different masses, one mole of aluminum contains the same number of atoms as
one mole of lead. Since there are 6.02 X 10 23 atoms in one mole of any ele-
ment, the mass per atom is given by

atomic weight
Atomic mass m= - (1-2)

For example, the mass of an aluminum atom is

27 g/mole
= 4.5X 10- 23 g/atom
6.02 X 10 23 atoms/mole

\ote that 1 u is equal to \A-1 g.

EXAMPLE 1.1 How Man\ Atoms in the Cube? To find the number of atoms. \, we can set up a propor-
A solid cube of aluminum (density 2.7 g/cm 3 has a vol- ) tion using the fact that one mole of aluminum (27 gj
ume of 0.2 cm 3 How many aluminum atoms are con-
. contains 6.02 X 10 23
atoms:
tained in the cube'3 cmvin23 v
6.02 X 10-" atoms »
.\

Solution Since the density equals mass per unit volume, 8 U.o4 g

the mass of the cube X 10 23 atoms)

is
_ (0.54 g)(6.02
= 1.2 X 10 22 atoms
pV = (2.7 g/cm 3 )(0.2 cm 3 ) = 0.54 g. 27 g

1.3 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

The word dimension has a special meaning in physics. It usually denotes the
physical nature of a quantity Whether a distance is measured in units of feet or
.

meters or furlongs, it is a distance. We say its dimension is length.

The symbols that will be used to specify length, mass, and time are L. M.
and T. respectively. We will often use brackets to denote the dimensions [ ]

of a physical quantity. For example, in this notation the dimensions of velocity.

 1.3 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

TABLE 1.6 Dimensions of Area, Volume, Velocity, and Acceleration

Acceleration
System Area (L 2 ) Volume (L 3 ) Velocity (L/T) (L/T 2 )

SI
] CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION PHYSICS AND MEASUREMENT

Since the dimensions of acceleration are L/T 2 and the dimension of time is T.

(
L /T 2)nTm = L
or

L n Tm-2n = L
Since the exponents of L and T must be the same on both sides, we see that
n = 1 and m= 2. Therefore, we conclude that
2
x oc at

This result differs by a factor of 2 from the correct expression, which is given
bv.v = iaf 2 .

EXAMPLE 1.2 Analysis of an Equation Solution Let us take a to be

Show that the expression v = v + at is dimensionally
a = kr n v m
correct, where v and t represent velocities, a is acceler-
ation, and t is a time interval. where k is a dimensionless constant. With the known

dimensions of a, r, and t, we see that the dimensional

Solution Since equation must be

|t-] = [v ]
= L/T L/T 2 = L"(L/T) m = L n+m /V"
and the dimensions of acceleration are L/T 2 the dimen- , This dimensional equation is balanced under the condi-
sions of at are tions

M = (L/T 2 )(T) = L/T n +m= 1 and m= 2

and the expression is dimensionally correct. On the other Therefore, n =—1 and we can write the acceleration
hand, if the expression were given as t' = t + at'2 , it

would he dimensionallv incorrect Trv it and see!

a = kr-h 2 = k —
r

EXAMPLE 1.3 Analysis of a Power Law

When we discuss uniform circular motion later, we shall
Suppose we are told that the acceleration of a particle
see that k =1
compatible units are used. Note that k
if
moving in a circle of radius r with uniform velocity v is
would not equal 1 if. for example, v were in km/h and you
proportional to some power of r, say r n and some power ,
2
wanted a in m/s
of v, say r m How can we determine the powers of r
.

and t?

1.4 CONVERSION OF UNITS

Sometimes it is necessary to convert units from one system to another.

Conversion factors between the SI and conventional units of length are as

follows:

1 mile= 1609 m= 1.609 km 1 ft = 0.3048 m = 30.48 cm

1 m = 39.37 in. = 3.281 ft 1 in. =0.0254 m = 2.54 cm
A more complete list of conversion factors can be found in Appendix A.
Units can be treated as algebraic quantities that can cancel each other. For
 1.5 ORDER-OF-MAGNITUDE CALCULATIONS 11

Conversion of miles to kilometers.

example, suppose we wish to convert 15.0 in. to centimeters. Since 1 in.

2.54 cm (exactly), we find that

15.0 = cm
in. (15.0 in:)
HIf)- 38.1

EXAMPLE 1.4 The Density of a Cube V = L3 = (5.35 cm X 1(T 2 m/cm) 3

The mass of 856 g and each edge has a
a solid cube is

length of 5.35 cm. Determine the density p of the cube in

= (5.35) 3 X 10- 6 m3 = 1.53 X 1(T 4 :

SI units. Therefore

-3 0.856 kg
Solution Since 1 g = 10 kg and 1 cm = 10 -z m, the P = = 5.60 X 10 3 kg/m 3
mass, m, and volume, V, in SI units are given by V 1.53X10- 4 m 3
m = 856 g X lfr 3 kg/g = 0.856 kg

1.5 ORDER-OF MAGNITUDE CALCULATIONS

It isoften useful to compute an approximate answer to a given physical prob-
lem even where little information is available. Such results can then be used to
determine whether or not a more precise calculation is necessary. These
approximations are usually based on certain assumptions, which must be mod-
ified if more precision is needed. Thus, we will sometimes refer to an order
of
magnitude of a certain quantity as the power of ten of the number that de-
scribes that quantity. Usually, when an order-of-magnitude calculation is
made, the results are reliable to within a factor of 10. If a quantity increases in
value by three orders of magnitude, this means that its value is increased by a
factor of 10 3 = 1000.
1 2 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: PHYSICS AND MEASUREMENT

The spirit of attempting order-of-magnitude calculations, sometimes re-

ferred to as "guesstimates" or "ball-park figures," is given in the following

quotation: "Make an estimate before every calculation, try a simple physical

argument . . . before every derivation, guess the answer to every puzzle.
4
Courage: no one else needs to know what the guess is."

EXAMPLE 1.5 The Number of Atoms in a Solid EXAMPLE 1.6 How Much Gas Do We Use?
Estimate the number of atoms in 1 cm 3 of a solid. Estimate the number of gallons of gasoline used by all

U.S. ears each year.

Solution From Table 1 .2 we note that the diameter of an
atom is about 10 -10 m. Thus, if in our model we Solution Since there are about 200 million people in the
assume that the atoms in the solid are solid spheres of United States, an estimate of the number of cars in the
this diameter, then the volume of each sphere is about country is 40 million (assuming one car and five people
10~ 30 m 3 (more precisely, volume = 47rr 3 /3 = nd 3 /6, per family). We must also estimate that the average dis-
where r = d/2). Therefore, since 1 cm 3 = 10 -6 m 3 ,
tance traveled per year is 10 000 miles. If we assume a
the number of atoms in the solid is of the order of gasoline consumption of 0.05 gal/mi, each car uses about
-6 -30 =
10 /10 10 24 atoms. 500 gal/year. Multiplying this by the total number of cars
A more would require knowl-
precise calculation in the United States gives an estimated total consumption
edge of the density of the solid and the mass of each of 2 X 10 10 gal. This corresponds to a yearly consumer
atom. However, our estimate agrees with the more pre- expenditure of over 20 billion dollars! This is probably a
cise calculation to within a factor of 10. (This approach low estimate since we haven't accounted for commercial
should be used for Problem 38.) consumption and for such factors as two-car families.

1.6 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

When one performs measurements on certain quantities, the measured values
are only known to within the limits of the experimental uncertainty. The value
of the uncertainty can depend on various factors such as the quality of the
apparatus, the skill of the experimenter, and the number of measurements
performed. Suppose that in a laboratory experiment we are asked to measure
the area of a rectangular plate using a meter stick as a measuring instrument.
Let us assume that the accuracy to which we can measure a particular dimen-
sion of the plate is ±0.1 cm. If the length of the plate is measured to be
16.3 cm, we can only claim that its length lies somewhere between 16.2 cm
and 16.4 cm. In this case, we say that the measured value has three significant
figures. Likewise, if its width is measured to be 4.5 cm, the actual value lies
between 4.4 cm and 4.6 cm. (This measured value has only two significant
figures.) Note that the significant figures include the first estimated digit.
Thus, we could write the measured values as 16.3 ±0.1 cm and 4.5 ±0.1 cm.
Suppose now that we would like to find the area of the plate by multiply-
ing the two measured values together. If we were to claim that the area is
(16.3 em)(4.5 cm) = 73.35 cm 2 our answer would be unjustifiable since it
,

contains four significant figures, which is greater than the number of signifi-
cant figures in either of the measured lengths. A good "rule of thumb" to use
as a guide in determining the number of significant figures that can be claimed
is as follows: When multiplying several quantities, the number of significant
figures in the final answer is the same as the number of significant figures in

4 E. Taylor and J. A. Wheeler, Spacetime Physics, San Francisco, W.H. Freeman, 1966, p. 60.
 1.6 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 13

the least accurate of the quantities being multiplied, where "least accurate"
means "having the lowest number of significant figures." The same rule
applies to division.
Applying this rule to the multiplication example above, we see that the
answer for the area can have only two significant figures since the dimension of
4.5 cm has only two significant figures. Thus, we can only claim the area to be
73 cm 2 realizing that the value can range between (16.2 cm)(4.4 cm) =
,

71 cm 2 and (16.4 cm)(4.6 cm) = 75 cm 2 .

The presence of zeros in an answer may be misinterpreted. For example,

suppose the mass of an object is measured to be 1500 g. This value is ambigu-
ous because it is not known whether the last two zeros are being used to locate
the decimal point or whether they represent significant figures in the mea-
surement. In order to remove this ambiguity, it is common to use scientific
notation to indicate the number of significant figures. In this case, we would
express the mass as 1.5 X 10 3 g if there are two significant figures in the
measured value and 1.50 X 10 3 g if there are three significant figures. Like-
wise, a number such 0.00015 should be expressed in scientific notation as
as
-4
1.5 X 10 if it has two significant figures or as 1.50 X 10~
4
if it has three

significant figures. The three zeros between the decimal point and the digit 1
in the number 0.00015 are not counted as significant figures because they are
present only to locate the decimal point. In general, a significant figure is a
reliably known digit (other than a zero used to locate the decimal point).
For addition and subtraction, the number of decimal places must be con-
sidered. When numbers are added (or subtracted), the number of decimal

Could this be the result of poor data analysis? (Photo Roger Viollet, Mill Valley, CA, University
Science Books, 1982)
14 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: PHYSICS AND MEASUREMENT

number of decimal places of any

places in the result should equal the smallest
term in the sum. For example, if we wish to compute 123 + 5.35. the answer
would be 128 and not 12S.35. As another example, if we compute the sum
1.0001+0.0003=1.0004. the result has five significant figures, even
though one of the terms in the sum. 0.0003. only has one significant figure.
Likewise, if we perform the subtraction 1.002 — 0.998 = 0.004, the result
has three decimal places in accordance with the rule, but only one significant
figure.
Throughout book, we shall generally assume that the given data are
this
precise enough to yield an answer having three significant figures Thus, if we
state that a jogger runs a distance of 5 m. it is to be understood that the distance
covered is 5.00 m. Likewise, if the speed of a car is given as 23 m/s. its value is
understood to be 23.0 m/s.

EXAMPLE 1.7 The Area of a Rectangle EXAMPLE Installing a Carpet

l.S

A rectangular plate has alength of (21.3 ± 0.2^ cm and a A carpet be installed in a room whose length is
is to
width of (9.80 ± 0.10) cm. Find the area of the plate and measured to be 12.71 m (four significant figures) and
the uncertainty in the calculated area. whose width is measured to be 3.46 m (three significant
figures). Find the area of the room.
Solution

= = Solution If you multiply 12.71 m by 3.46 m on your cal-

Area tvo (21.3 ± 0.2) cm X (9.80 ± 0.10) cm culator, you an answer of 43.9766 m 2 How
will get .

= (21.3 X 9.80 ± 21.3 X 0.10 ± 9.80 X 0.2) cm 2 many of these numbers should you claim? Our rule of
thumb for multiplication tells us that you can only claim
= (209 ± 4) cm 2 the number of significant figures in the least accurate of
the quantities being measured. In this example, we have
Note were given only to three signifi-
that the input data only three significant figures in our least accurate mea-
cant figures, so we cannot claim any more in our result. surement, so we should express our final answer as
Furthermore, you should realize that the uncertainty in 44.0 m 2 Note that in the answer given, we used a gen-
.

the product ^2<£) isapproximately equal to the sum of the eral rule for rounding off numbers which states that the
uncertainties in the length and width i,each uncertainty is last digit retained is to be increased by 1 if the first digit

about 1%). dropped was equal to 5 or greater.

1.7 MATHEMATICAL NOTATION

Many mathematical symbols will be used throughout this book, some of which
vou are surelv aware of. such as the symbol = to denote the equality of two
quantities.
The symbol * is used to denote a proportionality. For example, y « r2
means that y is proportional to the square of x.

The symbol < means less than, and > means greater than. For example.
x> y means x is greater than y
The symbol <§ means much less than, and > means much greater than.
The symbol = is used to indicate that two quantities are approximately
equal to each other.
The symbol — means is defined as. This is a stronger statement than a
simple =.
It is convenient to use a symbol to indicate the change in a quantity. For

example. A.v iread delta x) means the c/jange in the quantity x. (It does not mean
 QUESTIONS 15

the product of A and.v). For example, it x {

is the initial position of a particle and
Xf is its final position, then the change in position is written

Ax = xf — ij

We will often have occasion to sum several quantities. A useful abbrevia-

tion for representing such a sum is the Greek letter 1 (capital sigma). Suppose
we wish to sum a set of five numbers represented by tj x 2 t 3 x 4 and x s In the . . , . .

abbreviated notation, we would write the sum

Jtj + r2 + .v
3 + x4 + x5 =2 x{

where the subscript on a particular represents any one of the numbers in the
i .v

set.For example, if there are five masses in a system, nij m 2 m 3 m4 and m5 . . . , ,

the total mass of the system M

= n^ + m 2 + »*3 + »U + »i 5 could be expressed

i=l

Finally, themagnitude of a quantity x, written |x|, is simply the absolute

value of that quantity. The magnitude of x is always positive, regardless of the
sign of x. For example, if x = — 5. |x|= 5; ifx = 8, |x| = 8.
A list of these symbols and their meanings is given on the back endsheet.

SUMMARY
Mechanical quantities can be expressed in terms of three fundamental
quantities, riiass, length, and time, which have the units kilograms (kg).
meters (m). and seconds (s), respectively, in the SI system. It is often useful
to use the method of dimensional analysis to check equations and to assist in
deriving expressions.
The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume. Differ-
ent substances have different densities mainly because of differences in
and atomic arrangements.
their atomic masses
in one mole of any element or compound is called
The number of atoms
Avogadro's number, XA which has the value 6.02 X 10 23 atoms/mole.
.

QUESTIONS

1. What types of natural phenomena could serve as al- 5. Suppose that two quantities A and B have different
tentative time standards? dimensions. Determine which of the following arith-
2. The height of a horse is sometimes given in units of metic operations could be physically meaningful:
•hands." Why is this a poor standard of length (a) A+ B. (b) A/B. (c) B- A. (d) AS.
3. Express the following quantities using the prefixes 6. What accuracy is implied in an order-of-magnitude
-4 m, (b) 5 X 1(T 5 s.
given in Table 1.4: (a) 3 X lO calculation?
(c) 72 X 10 2 g. 7. Apply an order-of-magnitude calculation to an every-
4. Does a dimensional analysis give any information on day situation you might encounter. For example, how
constants of proportionality that may appear in an al- far do you walk or drive each day?

gebraic expression? Explain. 8. Estimate your age in seconds.

16 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: PHYSICS AND MEASUREMENT

Estimate the masses of various objects around you in 10. Is it possible to use length, density, and time as three

grams or in kilograms. If a scale is available, check fundamental units rather than length, mass, and time?
your estimates. If so, what could be used as a standard of density?

PROBLEMS

Section 1.2 Density and Atomic Mass f2 = ka m s". where k is a dimensionless constant. Show-
by dimensional analysis that this expression is satisfied
1. Calculate the density of a solid cube that measures
5 cm on each and has a mass of 350 g.
side
only if m=n= 1.

12. Show that the equation t 2 =i 2 +

lax is dimension-
2. A solid sphere is to be made out of copper, which has a
ally correct, where c and t represent velocities, a is
density of 8.93 g/cm 3 If the mass of the sphere is to be
.

acceleration, and i is a distance.

475 g, what radius must it have?
13. Which of the equations below are dimensionallv
3. How many grams of copper are required to make a
correct?
hollow spherical shell with an inner radius of 5.70 cm
(a) v = v + ax
and an outer radius of 5.75 cm? The density of copper
3
(b) y = (2 m)cos(fcx), where k = 2 m _1 .

is 8.93 g/cm .

14. The period T of a simple pendulum is measured in

4. The planet Jupiter has an average radius 10.95 times
time units and is given bv
that of the average radius of the earth and a mass
317.4 times that of the earth. Calculate the ratio of
Jupiter's mass density to the mass density of the earth.
5. Calc 'ate the mass of an atom of (a) helium, (b) iron,
and (c) lead. Give your answers in atomic mass units where £ is the length of the pendulum and g is the
and in grams. The atomic weights are 4. 56, and 207. acceleration due to gravity in units of length divided
respectively, for the atoms given. by the square of time. Show that this equation is di-
6. A small particle of iron in the shape of a cube is ob- mensionallv consistent.
served under a microscope. The edge of the cube is 15. Suppose that the displacement of a particle is related
5 X 10 -6 cm long. Find (a) the mass of the cube and to time according to the expression s = ct3 . What are
(b) the number of iron atoms in the particle. The the dimensions of the constant c?
atomic weight of iron is 56. and its density is 7.86 16. The consumption of natural gas by a company satisfies
g/cm 3 . the empirical equation V=
1.5?+ O.OOSf 2 where , V
7. Assume that it takes 7 minutes to fill a 30-gal gasoline is the volume in millions of cubic feet and t the time in
tank, (a) Calculate the rate at which the tank is filled in months. Express this equation in units of cubic feet
gallons per second, (b) Calculate the rate at which the and seconds. Put the proper units on the coefficients.
tank is filled in units of cubic meters per second. Assume a month is 30 days.
(c) Determine the time in hours required to fill a one- 17. Newton's law of universal gravitation is given by
cubic meter volume at the same rate.
8. A flat circular plate of copper has a radius of 0.243 m F=G Mm r2
and a mass of 62 kg. What is the thickness of the plate?

Here F is the force of gravity. M

and m are masses, and
ris a length. Force has the units kg- m,s 2 What are the .

Section 1.3 Dimensional Analysis

SI units of the proportionality constant G?
9. Show that the expression x = vt + 2
dimension-
{ at is

ally correct, where x is a coordinate and has units of

length, d is velocity, a is acceleration, and t is time.
Section 1.4 Conversion of Units
10. The displacement of a particle when moving under
uniform acceleration is some function of the time and 18. Convert the volume 8.50 in. 3 to m 3 recalling that ,

the acceleration. Suppose we write this displacement 1 in. = 2.54 cm and 1 cm = 10

-2 m.
s = ka mt", where k is a dimensionless constant. Show 19. A rectangular building lot is 100.0 ft by 150.0 ft. De-
by dimensional analysis that this expression is satisfied termine the area of this lot in m 2 .

if m = 1 and n = 2. Can this analvsis give the value of 20. An object in the shape of a rectangular parallelepiped
measures 2.0 in. X 3.5 in. X 6.5 in. Determine the
11. The square of the speed of an object undergoing a volume of the object in m 3 .

uniform acceleration a is some function of a and the 21 A creature moves at a speed of 5 furlongs per fortnight
displacement s, according to the expression given by (not a very common unit of speed). Given that 1
 7

PROBLEMS 1

furlong= 220 yards and 1 fortnight =14 days, deter- 35. The diameter of our disk-shaped galaxy is about 10 5
mine the speed of the creature in m/s. (The creature is lightyears. Andromeda, our nearest galactic neigh-
probably a snail.) bor, is about 2 million lightyears away. If we represent

22. A section of land has an area ofsquare mile and 1 our galaxy by a dinner plate 25 cm in diameter, deter-
contains 640 acres. Determine the number of square mine the distance to the next dinner plate.
meters there are in 1 acre. 36. The mean radius of the earth is 6.37 X 10 6 m, and that
23. A solid piece of lead has a mass of 23.94 g and a vol- of the moon is 1.74 X 10* cm. From these data calcu-
ume of 2.10 cm 3 From these data, calculate the den-
.
late (a) the ratio of the earth's surface area to that of
sity of lead in SI units (kg/m 3 ). the moon and (b) the ratio of the earth's volume to that
24. A quart container of ice cream is to be made in of the moon. Recall that the surface area of a sphere is
the form of a cube. What should be the length of a 47rr 2 and the volume of a sphere is %nr 3 .

side in era? (Use the conversion 1 gallon = 3.786 37. From the fact that the average density of the earth is
liter.) 5.5 g/cm 3 and its mean radius is 6.37 X 10 6 m, com-
25. Estimate the age of the earth in years using the data in pute the mass of the earth.
Table 1.3 and the appropriate conversion factors. 38. Assume that an oil slick consists of a single layer of
26. The mass of the sun about 1.99 X 10 30 kg, and the
is molecules and that each molecule occupies a cube
mass of a hydrogen atom, of which the sun is mostly 1.0 /<m on a side. Determine the area of an oil slick
composed, is 1.67 X 10 -27 kg. How many atoms are formed by 1 .0 m 3 of oil.
there in the sun? 39. One cubic meter (1.0 m3
) of aluminum has a mass of

27. Using the fact that the speed of light in free space is 2.70 10 3 kg, and 1.0 m 3 of iron has a mass of
X
about 3.00 X 10 8 m/s, determine how many miles a 7.86 X
10 3 kg. Find the radius of a solid aluminum
pulse from a laser will travel in one hour. sphere that will balance a solid iron sphere of radius
28. A painter is to cover the walls in a room 8 ft high and 2.0 cm on an equal-arm balance.
12 ft along each side. What surface area in square
meters must he cover?
29. (a) Find a conversion factor to convert from mi/h to
Section 1.5 Order-of-Magnitude Calculations
km/h. (b) Until recently, federal law mandated that
highway speeds would be 55 mi/h. Use the conver- 40. Assuming 60 heartbeats a minute, estimate the total
sion factor of part (a) to find the speed in km/h. (c) The number of times human beats in an
the heart of a
maximum highway speed has been raised to 65 mi/h average lifetime of 70 years.
in some places. In km/h, how much increase is this 41. Estimate the number of Ping -Pong balls that would
over the 55 mi/h limit? fit into an average-size room (without crushing them).

30. (a) How many seconds are there in a year? (b) If one 42. Estimate the amount of motor oil used by all cars in
micrometeorite (a sphere with a diameter of 10 -6 m) the United States each year and its cost to the con-
strikes moon each second,
each square meter of the sumers.
how many years would it moon to a
take to cover the 43. Soft drinks are commonly sold in aluminum contain-
depth of 1 m? (Hint: Consider a cubic box on the moon ers. Estimate the number of such containers thrown
1 m on a side, and find how long it will take to fill the away each year by U.S. consumers. Approximately
box.) how many tons of aluminum does this represent?
31. One gallon of paint (volume = 3.78 X 10" 3 m 3
) 44. Approximately how many raindrops fall on a 1-acre
covers an area of 25 m 2 What
. is the thickness of the during a 1-in. rainfall?
lot
paint on the wall? 45. Army engineers in 1946 determined the distance
32. The base of a pyramid covers an area of 13 acres from the earth to the moon by using radar. If the time
(1 acre =
43 560 ft 2 ) and has a height of 481 ft. If from which a signal was sent out from their radar to
the volume of a pyramid is given by the expression the time at which it was received back was 2.56 s,
V= (l/3)B/j, where B is the area of the base and h is what is the distance from the earth to the moon? (The
the height, find the volume of this pyramid in cubic speed of radar waves is 3 X 10 8 m/s).
meters. 46. The United States consumes petroleum at a rate of
33. The pyramid described in Problem 32 contains ap- about 6 X 1 9 barrels per year. Assuming a barrel has
proximately two million stone blocks that average a length of 1 m, compare the length of 6 billion
2.50 tons each. Find the weight of this pyramid in barrels, laid end-to-end, with the coast-to-coast dis-
pounds. tance of the United States (about 4000 km).
34. The nearest star about 4 X 10 13 km away. If oursun
is 47. A high fountain of water is located at the center of a
(diameter = 1.4 X
10 9 m) were represented by a circular pool as in Figure 1 1 A student walks around
. .

cherry pit 7 mm
in diameter, determine the distance the pool and estimates its circumference to be 150 m.
to the next cherry pit. Next, the student stands at the edge of the pool and
 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: PHYSICS AND MEASUREMENT

uses a protractor to gauge the angle of elevation of the If the sidewalk measure (1.00 ± 0.01) m wide by
is to
top of the fountain to be 55°. How high is the foun- (9.0 ±0.1) cm what volume of concrete is
thick,
tain? needed, and what is the approximate uncertainty of
this volume?

Section 1.7 Mathematical Notation

4

|
58. |
Compute the value of ^x, if i, = (2i + 1).

I
59. j
Determine whether the expression Vi' 2 is equal to

(!'>
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
60. In physics it is important to use mathematical approxi-

mations. Demonstrate for yourself that for small

angles (<20°)
not
tan a~ sin a=
Figure 1.1 (Problem 47) 180°
Use a calculator to find the largest angle for which
48. Assume that you watch even- pitch of every game of a tan a may be approximated by sin a if the error is to be
162 game major league baseball season. Approxi- less than 10%.
mately how many pitches would you see thrown? 61. A useful fact is nX 10 7 s in one
that there are about
49. Estimate the number of piano tuners living in New year. Use percentage error in
a calculator to find the
York City. This problem was posed by the physicist this approximation. Note: "Percentage error" is de-
Enrico Fermi, who was well known for making order- fined as (difference/true value) X 100%.
of-magnitude calculations. 62. Assume that there are 50 million passenger cars in the
United States and that the average fuel consumption is
Section 1.6 Significant Figures 20 mi/gal of gasoline. If the average distance travelled
by each car is 10 000 miles/year, how much gasoline
50. Determine the number of significant figures in the
would be saved per year if average fuel consumption
following numbers: (a) 23 cm (b) 3.589 s (c) 4.67 X
could be increased to 25 mi/gal?
10 3 m/s(d) 0.0032 m.
63. One cubic centimeter (1.0 cm 3 ) of water has a mass of
51. Calculate (a) the circumference of a circle of radius -3 kg.
1.0 X 10 (a) Determine the mass of 1.0 m 3 of
3.5 cm and (b) the area of a circle of radius 4.65 cm.
water, (b) Assuming biological substances are 98%
52. Carry out the following arithmetic operations: (a) the
water, estimate the mass of a cell with a 1.0-/UD diame-
sum of the numbers 756. 37.2, 0.83, and 2.5; (b) the
ter, ahuman kidney, and a fly. Assume a kidney is
product 3.2 X 3.563; (c) the product 5.6 X n.
roughly a sphere with a radius of 4.0 cm, and a fly is
53. If the length and width of a rectangular plate are mea-
sured to be (15.30 ±0.05) cm and (12.80 ±0.05)
roughly a cylinder 4.0 mm
long and 2.0 in diam- mm
eter.
cm, respectively, find the area of the plate and the
A 64. The data in the following table represent measure-
approximate uncertainty in the calculated area.
ments of the masses and dimensions of solid cylinders
54. The radius of a solid sphere is measured to be (6.50 ±
of aluminum, copper, brass, tin, and iron. Use these
0.20) cm, and its mass is measured to be (1.85 ± 0.02)
data to calculate the densities of these substances.
kg. Determine the density of the sphere in kg/m 3 and
Compare your results for aluminum, copper, and iron
the uncertainty in the density.
with those given for aluminum in Table 1.5.
55. How manv significant figures are there in (a) 78.9 ±
0.2, (b) 3.788 X 10 9 , (c) 2.46 X 10" 6 , (d) 0.0053?
56. A farmer measures the distance around a rectangular
field. The length of the long sides of the rectangle is

found to be 38.44 m, and the length of the short sides

is found to be 19.5 m. What is the total distance

around the field?

57. A sidewalk is to be constructed around a swimming
pool that measures (10.0 ± 0.1) m X (17.0 ± 0.1) m.
 —
ESSAY SCALING— THE PHYSICS OF LILLIPUT 19

The fictional traveler Lemuel Gulliver spent a busy time in a kingdom called Lilliput,
where all living things —
men, cattle, trees, grass —
were exactly similar to our world,
ESSAY
except that they were all built on the scale of one inch to the foot. Lilliputians were a
littleunder 6 inches high, on the average, and built proportionately just as we are.
Gulliver also visited Brobdingnag, the country of the giants, who were exactly like Scaling
men but 12 times as tall. As Swift described it, daily life in both kingdoms was about the Physics
like ours (in the 18th century). His commentary on human behavior is still worth
reading, but we shall see that people of such sizes just could not have been as he
of Lilliput
described them.
Philip Morrison
Long before Swift lived, Galileo understood why very small or very large models Massachusetts Institute of
of man could not be like us, but apparently Dean Swift had never read what Galileo Technology
wrote. One character in Galileo's "Two New Sciences" says, "Now since ... in
geometry, .mere size cuts no figure, I do not see that the properties of circles,
. .

triangles, cylinders, cones, and other solid figures will change with their size. ." . .

But his physicist friend replies, "The common opinion ishere absolutely wrong." Let
us see why.
We start with the strength of a rope. It is easy to see that if one man who pulls with
a certain strength can almost break a certain rope, two such ropes will just withstand
the pull of two men. A single large rope with the same total area of cross-section as the
two smaller ropes combined will contain just double the number of fibers of one of the
small ropes, and it will also do the job. In other words, the breaking strength of a wire
or rope is proportional to its area of cross-section, or to the square of its diameter.
Experience and theory agree in this conclusion. Furthermore, the same relation
holds, not only for ropes or cables supporting a pull, but also for columns or struts
supporting a thrust. The thrust which a column will support, comparing only those of
a given material, is also proportional to the cross-sectional area of the column.
Now the body of a man or an animal is held up by a set of columns or struts — the
skeleton — supported by various braces and cables, which are muscles and tendons.
But the weight of the body which must be supported is proportional to the amount of
flesh and bone present, that is, to the volume.
Let us now compare Gulliver with the Brobdingnagian giant, 1 2 times his height.
Since the giant is exactly like Gulliver in construction, every one of his linear dimen-
sions is 12 times the corresponding one of Gulliver's. Because the strength of his
columns and braces is proportional to their cross-sectional area and thus to the square
of their linear dimension (strength <* L 2 ), his bones will be 12 2 or 144 times as strong
as Gulliver's. Because his weight is proportional to his volume and thus to L 3 it will be ,

12 3 or 1728 times as great as Gulliver's. So the giant will have a strength-to-weight

ratio a dozen times smaller than ours. Just to support his own weight, he would have as
much trouble as we should have in carrying 1 1 men on our back.
In reality, of course, Lilliput and Brobdingnag do not exist. But we can see real
effects of a difference in scale if we compare similar animals of very different sizes.
The smaller ones are not scale models of the larger ones. Figure 1 shows the corre-
sponding leg bones of two closely related animals of the deer family: one a tiny
gazelle, the other a bison. Notice that the bone of the large animal is not at all similar
geometrically to that of the smaller. It is much thicker for its length, thus counteract-
ing the scale change, which would make a strictly similar bone too weak.
Galileo wrote very clearly on this very point, disproving the possibility of Brob-
dingnag, or of any normal-looking giants: ". if one wishes to maintain in a great
. .

giant the same proportion of limb as that found in an ordinary man he must either use
a harder and stronger material for making the bones, or he must admit a diminution of
strength in comparison with men of medium stature; for if his height be increased (Continued on next page)

"Adapted from PSSC PHYSICS, 2nd edition, 1965; DC. Heath and Company with Education
Development Center, Inc., Newton, MA.
20 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: PHYSICS AND MEASUREMENT

Figure la The front leg bones of a bison and a gazelle. The animals are related, but the gazelle
is much smaller. The photos show the approximate relative sizes of the bones.

Figure lb The leg bone of a gazelle enlarged to the same length as the bison bone. Note that
the bone of the larger animal is much thicker in comparison to its length than that of the gazelle.
The small deer is generally more lightly and gracefully built. Can you visualize how much
different Lilliputians must have been from men of normal size?

inordinately he will fall and be crushed under his own weight. Whereas, if the size of a

body be diminished, the strength of that body is not diminished in the same propor-
tion; indeed, the smaller the body the greater its relative strength. Thus a small dog
could probably carry on his back two or three dogs of his own size: but I believe that a
horse could not carry even one of his own size." The sketch of Figure 2 is taken from
Galileo, who drew it to illustrate the paragraph just quoted.
An elephant is already so large that his limbs are clumsily thickened. However, a
whale, the largest of all animals, may weigh 40 times as much as an elephant: yet the
whale's bones are not proportionately thickened. They are strong enough because
the whale is supported by water. What is the fate of a stranded whale? His ribs break.
Some of the dinosaurs of old were animals of whalelike size; how did they get along?
Following Galileo, we have investigated the problems of scaling up to giants.
Now let's take a look at some of the problems that arise when we scale down.
 ESSAY SCALING— THE PHYSICS OF LILLIPUT 21

Figure 2 Galileo's drawing illustrating scaling. Over 300 years ago, Galileo wrote concerning
the fact that a bone of greater length must be increased in thickness in greater proportion in
order to be comparably strong.

When you climb dripping wet out of a pool there is a thin film of water on your
skin. Your no less wet than your forearm; the thickness of the water film is
fingers are
much the same over most of your body. Roughly, at least, the amount of water you
bring out is proportional to the surface area of your body. You can express this by the
relation

amount of water <* L2 ,

where L your height. The original load on your frame is as before, proportional to
is

your volume. So, the ratio extra load/origitial load is proportional to L 2 /L 3 or to 1/L.
,

Perhaps you carry out of the pool a glassful or so, which amounts to about a 1%
increase in what you have to move about. But a Lilliputian will bring out about 1 2% of
his weight, which would be equivalent to a heavy winter suit of clothing with an
overcoat. Getting out of the pool would be no fun! If a fly gets wet, his body load
doubles, and he is all but imprisoned by the drop of water.
There is a still more important effect of the scale of a living body. Your body loses
heat mainly through the skin (and some through breathing out warm air). It is easy to
believe —and it can be checked by experiment —
that the heat loss is proportional to
the surface area, so that

heat loss « L2 ,

keeping other factors, like the temperature, nature of skin, and so on, constant. The
food taken in must supply this heat, as well as the surplus energy we use in moving
about. So minimum food needs go as L 2 If a man like Gulliver can live off a leg of lamb
.

and a loaf of bread for a day or two, a Lilliputian with the same body temperature will
require a volume of food only (-fa) 2 as large. But his leg of lamb, scaled down to his
world, will be smaller in volume by a factor of (^) 3 Therefore, he would need a dozen
.

of his roasts and loaves to feel as well fed as Gulliver did after one. Lilliputians must be
a hungry lot, restless, active, graceful, but easily waterlogged. You can recognize
these qualities in many small mammals, like a mouse.
We can see why there are no warm-blooded animals much smaller than the
mouse. Fish and frogs and insects can be very much smaller because their tempera-
ture is not higher than their surroundings. In accord with the scaling laws of area and
volume, small, warm-blooded animals need relatively a great deal of food; really small
ones could not gather or even digest such an enormous amount. Certainly the agricul-
ture of the Lilliputians could not have supported a kingdom like the one Gulliver
described. (Continued on next page)
22 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION PHYSICS AND MEASUREMENT

Now we see that neither Brobdingnag nor Lilliput can really be a scale model of
our world. But what have these conclusions to do with physics?
Let*s start again with the very large. As we scale up any system, the load will
eventually be greater than the strength of the structure. This effect applies to every
physical system, not just to animals, of course. Buildings can be very large because
their materials are stronger than bone, their shapes are different, and they do not
move. These facts determine the constants like K in the equation

strength = KL 2
but the same laws hold. No building can be made which will look like the Empire State
but be as high as a mountain, say 10 000 m. Mountains are solid structures, for the
most part, without interior cavities. Just as the bones of a giant must be thick, an
object of mountainous size on the earth must be all but solid, or else built of new
materials yet unknown.
Our argumentsare not restricted to the surface of the earth. We
can imagine
building a tremendous structure far out in space away from the gravitational pull of
the earth. The load then is not given by the earth's gravitational pull, but as the
structure is built larger and larger each part pulls gravitationally on even- other and

soon the outside of the structure is pulled in with great force. The inside, built of
ordinary materials, is crushed, and large protuberances on the surface break off or
sink in. As a result any large structure like a planet has a simple shape, and if it is large
enough, the shape is close to a sphere. Any other shape will be unable to support
itself. Here is the essential reason why the planets and the sun tend to be spherical.

The pull of gravity is important for us on earth, but as we extend the range of
dimensions which we study, it becomes absolutely dominant in the very large. Only
motion can change this result. The great masses of gas which are nebulae, for exam-
ple, arechanging in time, and hence the law that large objects must be simple in shape
is modified.
When we go from our size to the very small, gravitational effects cease to be
important. But as we saw in investigating Lilliput, surface effects become significant.
If we go enough toward the very small, surfaces no longer appear smooth, but are
far
so rough that we have difficulty in defining a surface. Other descriptions must be
used. In any case, it will not come as a complete surprise that in the domain of the
atom, the very small, scale factors demonstrate that the dominant pull is one which is
not easily observed in everyday experience.
Such arguments as these run through all of physics. Like order-of-magnitude
measurements, they are extremely valuable when we begin the study of any physical
system. How the behavior of a system will change with changes in the scale of its
dimensions, its motion, and so on, is often the best guide to a detailed analysis.
Even more, it is by the study of systems built on many unusual scales that physi-
cists have been able to uncover unsuspected physical relations. When changing scale,
one aspect of the physical world may be much emphasized and another one may be
minimized. In this way we may discover, or at least get a clearer view of, things which
are less obvious on our normal scale of experience. It is largely for this reason that
physicists examine, in and out of their laboratories, the very large and the very small,
all the other unusual circumstances
the slow and the rapid, the hot and the cold, and
thev can contrive. In examining what happens in these circumstances we use instru-
ments both to produce the unusual circumstances and to extend our senses in making
measurements.
It is hard to resist pointing out how much the scale of man's own size affects the

way he sees the world. It has been largely the task of physics to try to form a picture of
the world which does not depend upon the way we happen to be built. But it is hard to
get rid of these effects of our own scale. We can build big roads and bridges which are
long and thin, but are essentially not three-dimensional, complex structures. The
 ESSAY SCALING — THE PHYSICS OF LILLIPUT 23

very biggest things we can make which have some roundness, which are fully three-
dimensional, are buildings and great ships. These lack a good deal of being a thousand
times larger than men in their linear dimensions.
Within our present technology our scaling arguments are important. If we design
a new large object on the basis of a small one, we are warned that new effects too small
to detect on our scale may enter and even become the most important things to
consider. We cannot just scale up and down blindly, geometrically, but by scaling in
the light of phvsical reasoning, we can sometimes foresee what changes will occur. In
this way we can employ scaling in intelligent airplane design, for example, and not
arrive at a jet transport that looks like a bee —
and won't fly.

Suggested Readings
Galilei, Galileo, "Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences," trans, by Henry Crew
and Alphonso De Salvio, Evanston, Northwestern University Press, 1946, pp.
1-6, 125-128.
Haldane, J. B. S., "On Being the Right Size." World of Mathematics, Vol. II, edited by-
James B. Newman. New York, Simon & Schuster, 1956.
Holcomb, Donald F. and Philip Morrison, My Father's Watch —
Aspects of the Physi-
cal World, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall, 1974, pp. 68-83.
Smith, Cyril S., "The Shape of Things," Scientific American, January. 1954, p. 58.
Thompson, D'Arcy W., "On Magnitude," in On Growth and Form, Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1952 and 1961.

Essay Questions
1. The leg bones of one animal are twice as strong as those of another closely related
animal of similar shape, (a) What would you expect to be the ratio of these
animals' heights? (b) What would you expect to be the ratio of their weights?
2. A hummingbird must eat very frequently and even then must have a highly-
concentrated form of food such as sugar. What does the concept of scaling tell you
about the size of a hummingbird?
3. About how many Lilliputians would it take to equal the mass of one citizen of
Brobdingnag?

Essay Problems
1. The total surface area of a rectangular solid is the sum of the areas of the six faces.

If each dimension of a given rectangular solid is doubled, what effect does this
have on the total surface area?
2. A hollow metal sphere has a wall thickness of 2 cm. If you increase both the
diameter and thickness of this sphere so that the overall volume is three times the
original overall volume, how thick will the shell of the new sphere be?
3. If your height and all your other dimensions were doubled, by what factor would
this change (a) your weight? (b) the ability of your leg bones to support your
weight?
4. According to the zoo, an elephant of mass 4.0 X 10 3 kg consumes 3.4 X 10 2
times as much food as a guinea pig of mass 0.70 kg. They are both warm-blooded,
plant-eating, similarly shaped animals. Find the ratio of their surface areas, which
is approximately the ratio of their heat losses, and compare it with the known

ratio of food consumed.

5. A rectangular water tank is supported above the ground by four pillars 5 m long
whose diameters are 20 cm. If the tank were made 10 times longer, wider, and
deeper, what diameter pillars would be needed? How much more water would
the tank hold?
6. How many state maps of scale 1 : 1 000 000 would you need to cover the state
with those maps?
 Vectors

Weathervanes can be used to

determine the direction of the
wind velocity vector at any
instant. (© Pat Le Croix, The
IMAGE Bank)

Mathematics is the basic tool used by scientists and engineers to

describe the behavior of physical systems. Physical quantities

that have both numerical and directional properties are repre-
sented by vectors. Some examples of vector quantities are force.
velocity, and acceleration. This chapter is primarily concerned with vector
algebra and with some general properties of vectors. The addition and sub-
traction of vectors will be discussed, together with some common applications
to physical situations. Discussion of the products of vectors will be delayed
1
until these operations are needed.
Vectors will this text, and it
be used throughout is imperative that you
master both their graphical and algebraic properties.

1
The dot, or scalar, product is discussed in Section 7.3. and the cross, or vector, product is

introduced in Section 112.

24
 2.1 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND FRAMES OF REFERENCE 25

2.1 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND FRAMES

OF REFERENCE
Many aspects of physics deal in some form or other with locations in space. For
example, the mathematical description of the motion of an object requires a
method for describing the position of the object. Thus, it is perhaps fitting that
we first discuss how one describes the position of a point in space. This is
accomplished by means of coordinates. A point on a line can be described with
one coordinate. A point in a plane is located with two coordinates, and three
coordinates are required to locate a point in space.
A coordinate system used to specify locations in space consists of ,„ m
1. A fixed reference point O, called the origin
2. A set of specified axes or directions with an appropriate scale and labels on
the axes
3. Instructions that tell us how to label a point in space relative to the origin
and axes.

One convenient coordinate system that we will use frequently is the

cartesian coordinate system, sometimes called the rectangular coordinate sys-
tem. Such a system in two dimensions is illustrated in Figure 2.1. An arbitrary-
point in this system is labeled with the coordinates (x, </). Positive x is taken to

the right of the origin, and positive y is upward from the origin. Negative x is to
the left of the origin, and negative y is downward from the origin. For example,
the point P, which has coordinates (5, 3), may be reached by first going 5
meters to the right of the origin and 3 meters above the origin. Similarly, the
point O has coordinates (— 3, 4), corresponding to going 3 meters to the left of
the origin and 4 meters above the origin.
Sometimes it is more convenient to represent a point in a plane by its plane
polar coordinates, (r, 8), as in Figure 2.2a. In this coordinate system, r is the
distance from the origin to the point having cartesian coordinates (x, y) and 8 is
the angle between r and a fixed axis, usually measured counterclockwise from
the positive x axis. From the right triangle in Figure 2.2b, we find sin 8 = y/r
and cos 8 = x/r. (A review of trigonometric functions is given in Appendix
B.4.) Therefore, starting with plane polar coordinates, one can obtain the
cartesian coordinates through the equations

x = r cos 8 (2.1)

y = r sin 8 (2.2)

Furthermore, it follows that

ta.n8=y/x (2.3)

and

r = Vx 2 + y
2
(2.4)

You should note that these expressions relating the coordinates (x, y) to
the coordinates apply only when 8 is defined as in Figure 2.2a, where
(r, 8)

positive 8 is an angle measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis. If the

reference axis for the polar angle 8 is chosen to be other than the positive x axis,
or the sense of increasing 8 is chosen differently, then the corresponding
expressions relating the two sets of coordinates will change.
26 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS

EXAMPLE 2.1 Polar Coordinates Solution

 2.3 SOME PROPERTIES OF VECTORS 27

be specified. In other words, the displacement is independent of the path, if the

end points of the path are fixed.
It is important to note that the distance traveled by a particle is distinctly

different from its displacement. This distance traveled (a scalar quantity) is the
length of the path, which in general can be much greater than the magnitude of o
the displacement (see Fig. 2.4). Also, the magnitude of the displacement is the
Figure 2.5 A particle moving
shortest distance between the end points.
along the x axis from x, to x f under-
If the particle moves along the x axis from position x, to position x ( as in , goes a displacement Ax = x t — x .
t

Figure 2.5, its displacement is given by xf — x As mentioned in Chapter 1, we

;
.

use the Greek letter delta (A) to denote the change in a quantity. Therefore, we
write the change in the position of the particle (the displacement)

Definition of displacement
Ax = xf — Xj (2.5) along a line

From this definition, we see that Ax is positive if x f is greater than x, and

negative if x { is less than x (
. For example, if a particle changes its position from
Xj = —3 units to x f = 5 units, its displacement is 8 units.
There are many physical quantities in addition to displacement that are
vectors. These include velocity, acceleration, force, and momentum, all of
which will be defined in later chapters. In this text, we will use boldface
letters, such as A, to represent an arbitrary vector. Another common method
for vector notation that you should be aware of is to use an arrow over the
letter: A. The magnitude of the vector A is written A or, alternatively, \A\. The
magnitude of a vector has physical units, such as m for displacement or m/s for
velocity, as discussed in Chapter 1. Vectors combine according to special
rules, which will be discussed in Sections 2.3 and 2.4.

2.3 SOME PROPERTIES OF VECTORS

Equality of Two Vectors Two vectors A and B are defined to be equal if they
have the same magnitude and point in the same direction. That A = B only if is,

A = B and they act along parallel direction. For example, all the vectors in
Figure 2.6 are equal even though they have different starting points. This
property allows us to translate a vector parallel to itself in a diagram without
affecting the vector. In fact, any true vector can be moved parallel to itself
without affecting the vector.

Addition When two or more vectors are added together, all vectors involved
Figure 2.6 Four representations
must have the same units. For example, it would be meaningless to add a
of the same vector.
velocity vector to a displacement vector since they are different physical
quantities. Scalars also obey the same rule. For example, it would be meaning-
less to add time intervals and temperatures.
The rules for vector sums are conveniently described by geometric
methods. To add vector B to vector A, first draw vector A, with its magnitude
represented by a convenient scale, on graph paper and then draw vector B to
the same scale with its tail starting from the tip of A, as in Figure 2.7. The
resultant vector R = A + B is the blue vector drawn from the tail of A to the tip
of B. This is known as the triangle method of addition. An alternative graphical
procedure for adding two vectors, known as the parallelogram rule of addi-
tion, is shown in Figure 2.8a. In this construction, the tails of the two vectors A Figure 2.7 When vector A is
added to vector B, the resultant R is
and B are together and the resultant vector R is the diagonal of a parallelogram
the blue vector that runs from the
formed with A and B as its sides. tail of A to the tip of B.
28 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS

(b)

Figure 2.8 R is the diagonal

(a) In this construction, the resultant of a parallelogram with sides
A and B. (b) This construction shows that A + B = B + A.

When two vectors are added, the sum is independent of the order of the
addition. This can be seen from the geometric construction in Figure 2.8b and
is known as the commutative law of addition:

Commutative law A+B=B+A (2.6)

If three or more vectors are added, their sum is independent of the way in
which the individual vectors are grouped together. A geometric proof of this
for three vectors is given in Figure 2.9. This is called the associative law of
addition:

Associative law A+ (B + C) = (A + B) + C (2.7)

Geometric constructions can also be used to add more than three vectors.
This is shown in Figure 2. 10 for the case of four vectors. The resultant vector

sum B = A + B + C+ D is the vector that completes the polygon. In other

words, R is the vector drawn from the tail of the first vector to the tip of the last
vector. Again, the order of the summation is unimportant.
Thus we conclude that a vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and
direction and also obeys the laws of vector addition as described in Figures 2.7
to 2.10.

Figure 2.9 Geometric construc-

tions for verifying the associative
law of addition.

Figure 2.10 Geometric construction for summing four vectors. The resultant vector R in blue
completes the polygon.
 Q
2.3 SOME PROPERTIES OF VECTORS 29

Negative of a Vector The negative of the vector A is defined as the vector that
when added to A gives zero for the vector sum. That is, A + (— A) = 0. The

vectors A and —A have the same magnitude but point in opposite directions.

Subtraction of Vectors The operation of vector subtraction makes use of the

definition of the negative of a vector. We define the operation A — B as vector
— B added to vector A:
A-B
A-B = A + (-B) (2.8)

The geometric construction for subtracting two vectors is shown in Figure

2.11. Figure 2.11 This construction
shows how to subtract vector B
Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar If a vector A is multiplied by a positive
from vector A. The vector — B is
equal in magnitude and opposite
scalar quantity m, the mA is a vector that has the same direction as A
product the vector B.
and magnitude mA. If is a negative scalar quantity, the vector mA is directed
;?j

opposite A. For example, the vector 5A is five times as long as A and points in
the same direction as A. On the other hand, the vector — $A is one third the
length of A and points in the direction opposite A (because of the negative
sign).

EXAMPLE 2.2 A Vacation Trip Solution The problem can be solved geometrically
A car travels 20.0 km due
north and then 35.0 km in a using graph paper and a protractor, as shown in Figure
direction 60° west of north, as in Figure 2.12. Find the 2.12. The resultant displacement Ris the sum of the two
magnitude and direction of the car's resultant displace- individual displacements A and B.
ment. An algebraic solution for the magnitude of R can be
obtained using the law of cosines from trigonometry as
applied to the obtuse triangle (Appendix B.4). Since 8 =
180° - 60° = 120° and R 2 = A 2 + B 2 - 2AB cos 6. we
find that

W— R = VA2 + B 2 - 2AB cos 6

= V(20 km) 2 + (35 km) 2 - 2(20 km)(35 km)cos 120°

= 48.2 km

The direction of R measured from the northerly direc-

tion can be obtained from the law of sines from trigonom-
etry:

sin )
sin

~B~ R
x(km) 35.0 km
sin 120° =0.629

Figure 2.12 (Example 2.2) Gra-

phical method for finding the re-
sultant displacement B = A + B. P= 38.9°

Therefore, the resultant displacement of the car is

48.2 km in a direction 38.9° west of north.

30 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS
 2.4 COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR AND UNIT VECTORS 31

perpendicular to each other. Suppose a vector B makes an angle 6 with the x'
axis defined in Figure 2.15. The rectangular components of B along these axes
are given by B x = B cos 8 and B y = B sin 6, as in Equation 2.9. The magnitude
and direction of B are obtained from expressions equivalent to Equations 2.10
and 2.11. Thus, we can express the components of a vector in any coordinate
system that is convenient for a particular situation.
The components of a vector, such as a displacement, are different when
viewed from different coordinate systems. Furthermore, the components of a
vector can change with respect to a fixed coordinate system if the vector
changes in magnitude, orientation, or both.
Figure 2.15 The vector compo-
Vector quantities are often expressed in terms of unit vectors. A unit nents of a vector B in a coordinate
vector is a dimensionless vector one unit in length used to specify a given system that is tilted.
direction. Unit vectors have no other physical significance. They are used
simply as a convenience in describing a direction in space. We will use the
symbols i,j, and k to represent unit vectors pointing in the x, y, and z direc-
tions, respectively. Thus, the unit vectors i, j, and k form a set of mutually
perpendicular vectors as shown in Figure 2.16a, where the magnitude of the
unit vectors equals unity; that is, \i\ = \j\
= \k\ = 1.

Consider a vector A lying in the xy plane, as in Figure 2.16b. The product

of the component A x and the unit vector i is the vector A x i parallel to the x axis
with magnitude A x Likewise, A y j is a vector of magnitude A y parallel to the y
.

axis. Thus, the unit-vector notation for the vector A is written

A = Ax + A i j (2.12)

The vectors AJ and A yj are the component vectors of A. These should not be
confused with A x and Ay which we shall alwavs refer to as the components
,

of A.
Now suppose we wish to add vector B to vector A, where B has compo-
nentsB z and B y The procedure for performing this sum is to simply add the x
.

and y components separately. The resultant vector R = A + B is therefore

given by

R= (A x + Bx )i + (A y + B y )j (2.13)

Thus, the rectangular components of the resultant vector are given by

RZ = A X + Bt
Rv = \+B y (2.14)

The magnitude of R and the angle it makes with the x axis can then be obtained
from its components using the relationships

R = JRI 2 + Ry 2 = V(AX + B x )
2
+ (A y + By )
2
(2.15)
(b)
and
Figure 2. 16 (a) The unit vectors
= Ry _\ + By
i,

j,and k are directed along the i, y,

tan 6 (2.16) and z axes, respectively, (b) A vec-
A + B„ r
tor A lying in the xy plane has com-
ponent vectors A x » and A y j where
The procedure just described for adding two vectors A and B using the
A, and A y are the rectangular com-
component method can be checked using a geometric construction, as in ponents of A.
32 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS

Figure 2.17. Again, you must take note of the signs of the components when
using either the algebraic or the geometric method.
The extension of these methods to three-dimensional vectors is straight-
forward. If A and B both have x, y, and 2 components, we express them in the
form

A = A,i + A y
j + Az k (2.17)

B = B x i + By j + B z k (2.18)

The sum of A and B is given by

R = A + B = (A x + B x )i
+ (A y + B y )j + (A, + Bz )k (2.19)
Figure 2.17 Geometric construc-
tion showing the relation between
Thus, the resultant vector also has a z component given by R z = A + Bz The
z .

the components of the resultant R

of two vectors and the individual same procedure can be used to sum up three or more vectors.
vector components.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY
When two or more vectors are to be added, the following step-by-step procedure
is recommended:

1. Select a coordinate system.

2. Draw a sketch of the vectors to be added (or subtracted), with a label on each
vector.
3. Find the x and y components of all vectors.
4. Find the resultant components (the algebraic sum of the components) in both
the x and y directions.
5. Use the Pythagorean theorem to find the magnitude of the resultant vector.
6. Use a suitable trigonometric function to find the angle the resultant vector
makes with the x axis.

EXAMPLE 2.3 The Sum of Two Vectors example. Answers to these exercises will be provided at
Find the sum of two vectors A and B lying in the xy plane the end of the exercise, when appropriate. Here is your
and given by first exercise, related to Example 2.3.

A= 2t + 2j and B=2i~ 4j
Exercise 1 Find the angle that the resultant vector R
makes with the positive x axis.
Solution Note that Ax = 2, Ay = 2, Bx = and B y
2, =
Answer 333°.
— A. Therefore, the resultant vector R is given by

R=A+B= (2 + 2)i + (2 - 4)j = 4i - 2j EXAMPLE 2.4 The Resultant Displacement

A particleundergoes three consecutive displacements
given by = ^(i + 3j - k) cm, d2 = (2i —j — 3k) cm,
Rx = 4, R„ = -2 and d 3 = (— f + j) cm. Find the resultant displacement of
the particle.
The magnitude of R is given by

Solution
R= v^ 2 + Ry 2 = V(4) 2 + (- 2) 2 = 20 4.47
R = d +d 2 + d3
t

Many examples be followed by an

in this text will = (1 + 2 - l)i + (3 - 1 + l)j + (- 1 - 3 + 0)k
exercise. The purpose of these exercises is to test your
understanding of the example by asking you to do a cal- = (2i+3j-4Jt)cm
culation or answer some other question related to the
 2.4 COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR AND UNIT VECTORS 33

That is, the resultant displacement has components R x =

2 cm, Ry = 3 cm, and R z = — 4 cm. Its magnitude is

R = JRX 2 + Ry 2 + R z 2 = V(2 cm) 2 + (3 cm) 2 + (- 4 cm) 2

= 5.39 cm

EXAMPLE 2.5 Taking a Hike

A first walking 25 km due south-
hiker begins a trip by
eastfrom her base camp. On the second day, she walks
40 km in a direction 60° north of east, at which point she
discovers a forest ranger's tower.
(a) Determine the rectangular components of the hiker's
displacements for the first and second days.

Solution If we denote the displacement vectors on the

first and second days by A and B, respectively, and use
the camp as the origin of coordinates, we get the vectors
shown in Figure 2.18. Displacement A has a magnitude
of 25.0 km and is 45° southeast. Its rectangular compo-
nents are

AX = A cos(-45°) = (25 km)(0.707) = 17.7 km

A=A sin(-45°) = -(25 km)(0.707) = - 17.7 km

34 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS

b = fcsin(110°) = (150km)(0.940)= 141 km Ry = ay + by + c

y
= 87.5 km + 141 km +
!)

whose magnitude
Finally, the third displacement c
is 190 km has rectangular components = 228 km

cx = c cos(180°) = (190 km)(- 1) = - 190 km In unit vector notation.R = (-89. li + 228j) km. That
cy = csin(180
o
)
= is, city C
can be reached from the starting point by first
traveling 89.7 km due west followed by a trip 228 km
Therefore, the components of the position vector R from due north.
the starting point to city C are
Exercise 3 Find the magnitude and direction of the
Rr = ax + bI + cI = 152 km - 51.3 km - 190 km
final position vector R.
= -89.7 km Answer 245 km, 21.4° west of north

SUMMARY
Vectors are quantities that have both magnitude and direction and obey the
vector law of addition. Scalars are quantities that have only magnitude.
Two vectors A and B can be added using either the triangle method or
the parallelogram rule. In the triangle method (Figure 2.20a), the vector
C = A + B runs from the tail of A to the tip of B. In the parallelogram
method (Figure 2.20b), C is the diagonal of a parallelogram having A and B
as its sides.
The x component, AI of the vector A is equal to its projection along the
,

x axis of a coordinate system as in Figure 2.21, where A^ = A cos 8. Like-

wise, the y component, Ay, of A is its projection along the y axis, where
A, = A sin 6. The resultant of two or more vectors can be found by resolving
allvectors into their x and y components, adding their resultant x and y
components, and then using the Pythagorean theorem to find the magni-
tude of the resultant vector. The angle that the resultant vector makes with
respect to the x axis can be found by use of a suitable trigonometric function.
If a vector A has an x component equal to A x and a y component equal to
Ay, the vector can be expressed in unit-vector form as A = AI i + A,,;. In this
notation, i is a unit vector pointing in the positive x direction and./' is a unit
vector in the positive y direction. Since i andj are unit vectors, \i\ = \j\ = 1.

C= \ +B

Figure 2.20 (a) Vector addition using the triangle method, (b) Vector addition Figure 2.21 The x and y compo-
using the parallelogram rule. nents of a vector A are A, and A,.
 PROBLEMS 35

QUESTIONS

1. A book is moved once around the perimeter of a table 12. Which of the following are vectors and which are not:
of dimensions 1 mX 2 m. If the book ends up at its force, temperature, the volume of water in a can, the
initial position, what is its displacement? What is the ratings of a TV
show, the height of a building, the
distance traveled? velocity of a sports car, the age of the universe?
2. If B is added to A, under what condition does the 13. Under what circumstances would a nonzero vector
resultant vector have a magnitude equal to A + B? lying in the xy plane have components that are equal
Under what conditions is the resultant vector equal to in magnitude?

zero? 14. Is it possible to add a vector quantity to a scalar quan-

3. Can the magnitude of a particle's displacement be tity? Explain.
greater than the distance traveled? Explain. 15. Two vectors have unequal magnitudes. Can their sum
4. The magnitudes of two vectors A and B are A = 5 units be zero? Explain.
and B = 2 units. Find the largest and smallest values 16. (a) What is the resultant displacement of a walk of
possible for the resultant vector R = A + B. 80 mfollowed by a walk of 125 m when both dis-
5. A vector A lies in the xy plane. For what orientations placements are in the eastward direction? (b) What is
of A will both of its rectangular components be nega- the resultant displacement in a situation in which the
tive? For what orientations will its components have 125-m walk is in the direction opposite the 80-m
opposite signs? walk?
6. Can a vector have a component equal to zero and still 17. While traveling along a straight interstate highway
have a nonzero magnitude? Explain. you notice that the mile marker reads 260. You travel
7. If one of the components of a vector is not zero, can its until you reach the 150-mile marker and then retrace
magnitude be zero? Explain. your path to the 175-mile marker. What is the magni-
8. If the component of vector A along the direction of tude of your resultant displacement from the 260-
vector B is zero, what can you conclude about the two mile marker?
vectors? 18. A submarine dives at an angle of 30° with the horizon-
9. If A = B, what can you conclude about the compo- tal and follows a straight-line path for a total distance

nents of A and B? of 50 m. How far is the submarine below the surface

10. Can the magnitude of a vector have a negative value? of the water?
Explain. 19. A roller coaster travels 135 ft at an angle of 40° above
11. If A+B= 0, what can you say about the components the horizontal. How far does it move horizontally and
of the two vectors? vertically?

PROBLEMS
Section 2.1 Coordinate Systems and Frames of Reference 1.0), where the units are in meters, what is the dis-
tance of the fly from the corner of the room?
1. Two points in the xy plane have cartesian coordinates 6. Express the location of the fly in Problem 5 in polar
(2.0, — 4.0) and (— 3.0, where the units are in m.
3.0),
oordinates.
Determine (a) the distance between these points and
7. A point is located in a polar coordinate system by the
(b) their polar coordinates.
coordinates r = 2.5 m and = 35°. Find the x and y
2. A point in the xy plane has cartesian coordinates
coordinates of this point, assuming the two coordinate
(—3.0, 5.0) m. What are the polar coordinates of this
systems have the same origin.
point?
3. The polar coordinates of a point are r 5.50 m and =
Section 2.2 Vectors and Scalars and Section 2.3 Some
6 = 240°. What are the cartesian coordinates of this
Properties of Vectors
point?
4. Two points in a plane have polar coordinates 8. A shopper pushing a cart through a store moves 40 m
(2.50 m, 30°) and (3.80 m, 120°). Determine (a) the down one then makes a 90° turn and moves
aisle
cartesian coordinates of these points and (b) the dis- 15 m. He then makes another 90° turn and moves
tance between them. 20 m. How far is the shopper away from his original
5. A certain corner of a room is selected as the origin of a position in magnitude and direction? The direction
rectangular coordinate system. If a crawling on
fly is moved in any of the 90° turns is not given. As a result,
an adjacent wall at a point having coordinates (2.0, could there be more than one answer?
 36 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS

9. A surveyor estimates the distance across a river by the km southeast (45° east of south). Where does
then 3
following method: standing directly across from a tree he end up relative to his starting point? Work out your
on the opposite bank, the surveyor walks 1 00 m along answer graphically. Check by using components.
the riverbank, then sights across to the tree. The angle (The car is not near the North Pole or the South Pole.)
from his baseline to the tree is 35°. How wide is the 19. Find the horizontal and vertical components of the
river? 100-m displacement of a superhero who flies from the
10. A pedestrian moves 6 km east and 13 km north. Find top of a tall building following the path shown in Fig-
the magnitude and direction of the resultant displace- ure 2.23.
ment vector using the graphical method.
11. Vector A 3 units in length and points along the posi-
is

Vector B is 4 units in length and points

tive x axis.
along the negative y axis. Use graphical methods to
find the magnitude and direction of the vectors
(a) A + B, (b) A - B
12. Vector A has a magnitude of 8 units and makes an
angle of 45° with the positive x
axis. Vector B also has
a magnitude of 8 units but points in the — x direction.
Using graphical methods, find (a) the vector sum
A + B and (b) the vector difference A — B.
13. A person walks along a circular path of radius 5 m.
around one half of the circle, (a) Find the magnitude
of the displacement vector, (b) How far did the person
walk? (c) What is the magnitude of the displacement if Figure 2.23 (Problem 19).
completed?
the circle is

14. A force vector F 1 of magnitude 6 N acts at the origin in

20. Walking along streets laid out in a square grid pattern,
a direction 30° above the positive x axis. A second
a child walks 2 blocks west, 3 blocks north, then 2
force vector F2 of magnitude 5 N acts at the origin in
blocks west, (a) Find the total distance traveled,
the direction of the positive y axis. Find graphically
(b) Find the net displacement (magnitude and direc-
the magnitude and direction of the resultant force
tion) from the starting point.
vector Fj + F2 .

15. Each of the displacement vectors A and B shown in

21. Ajoggerruns 100 mdue west, then changes direction
for thesecond leg of the run. At the end of the run, she
Figure 2.22 has a magnitude of 3 m. Find graphically
is 175 m away from the starting point at an angle of
(a) A + B, (b) A - B, (c) B - A, (d) A - IB 15° north of west. What was the direction and length
y
of her second displacement? Use graphical tech-
niques.
22. While exploring a cave, a spelunker starts at the en-
trance and moves the following distances. She goes
75 m north, 250 m east, 125 m at an angle 30° north
of east, and 150 m south. Find the resultant displace-
ment from the cave entrance.

Section 2.4 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors

23. A vector has an x component of —25 units and a y

Figure 2.22 (Problems 15 and 37). component of 40 units. Find the magnitude and direc-
16. A dog searching for a bone walks 3.5 m south, then tion of this vector.
8.2 an angle 30° north of east, and finally 15 m
m at 24. Vector B has x, y, and z components of 4, 6, and 3,
west. Find the dog's resultant displacement vector respectively. Calculate the magnitude of B and the
using graphical techniques. angles that B makes with the coordinate axes.
|
17. A roller coaster moves 200 ft horizontally, then rises
|
25. Vector A lies in the xy plane. Construct a table of the
135 ft at an angle of 30° above the horizontal. It then signs of the x and y components of A when the vector
travels 135 ft at an angle of 40° downward. What is its lies in the first, second, third, and fourth quadrants.
displacement from its starting point at the end of this 26. A displacement vector lying in the xy plane has a mag-
movement? Use graphical techniques. nitude of 50 m and is directed at an angle of 120° to
18. The driver of a car, obviously lost, drives 3 km north, the positive x axis. What are the rectangular compo-
2 km northeast (45° east of north), 4 km west, and nents of this vector?
 PROBLEMS 37

27. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of 40. Given the displacement vectors (in SI units) A=
three displacements having components (3, 2) m, 2« + 3j -
4k and B = - 2« - 2j + 2Jk, find the dis-
(—5, 3) m, and (6, 1) m. placement vectors (a) C = A + B and (b) D = A — B,
28. Vector A
has x and y components of —8.7 cm and expressing each in terms of its Cartesian components
15 cm, respectively; vector B has x and (/components and also its magnitude.
of 13.2 cm and —6.6 cm, respectively. If A—B+ 41. Given the displacement vectors (in SI units) A =
3C= 0, what are the components of C? 3t - 4j + 4Jt and B = 2t + 3j - 7ik, find the magni-
^29. Two =— —
vectors are given by A = 3i —2j and B s 4;'. tudes of the vectors (a) C = A + B and (b) D =
"~
Calculate A + B, (b) A - B, (c) \A + B\, (d) \A - B\,
(a) 2A — B, also expressing each in terms of its

(e) the direction of A + B and A — B. rectangular components.

30. Three vectors are given by A = + 3j, B = 2« —j, and i 42. A vector A has a positive x component of 4 units and a
C= 3i + Find (a) the sum of the three vectors and
5/'. negative y component of 2 units. What second vector
(b) the magnitude and direction of the resultant vec- B when added to A will produce a resultant vector
tor. three times the magnitude of A directed in the posi-
31. Obtain expressions for the position vectors with po- tive y direction?
lar coordinates (a) 12.8 m, 150°; (b) 3.3 cm, 60°; 43. A vector A has a negative x component 3 units in
(c) 22 in., 215°. length and a positive y component 2 units in length,
32. Consider the displacement vectors (in SI units) A= (a) Determine an expression for A in unit-vector nota-
3i + 3j , B=i— 4j, and C = — 2i + oj. (a) Find, ana- Determine the magnitude and direction of A.
tion, (b)
lytically, the magnitude and direction of the vector (c) vector B when added to A gives a resultant
What
D = A + B + C. (b) Find the vector E = -A~B + C vector with no x component and a negative y compo-
33. A undergoes the following consecutive
particle nent 4 units in length?
displacements: 3.5 m south, 8.2 m northeast, and 44. An airplane starting from airport A flies 300 km east,
15.0 m west. What is the resultant displacement? then 350 km 30° west of north, and then 150 km
34. A quarterback takes the ball from the line of scrim- north to arrive finally at airport B. There is no wind on
mage, runs backward for 10 yards, then sideways par- this day. (a) In what direction should the pilot fly to
allel to the line of scrimmage for 15 yards. At this travel directly from A to B? (b) How far will the pilot
point, he throws a 50-yard forward pass straight travel in this direct flight?
downfield perpendicular to the line of scrimmage. 45. Find the magnitude and direction of a displacement
What is the magnitude of the football's resultant dis- ~ vector having x and y components of — 5 and 3 m, m
placement? respectively.
35. A jet airliner moving initially at 300 mph due east 46. If A= 6i -8j, B = -8i+ 3j, and C= 26* + 19j, de-
moves into a region where the wind is blowing at 100 termine a and b so that aA + bB + C= 0.
mph in a direction 30° north of east. What are the new 47. Three vectors are oriented as shown in Figure 2.24
velocity and direction of the aircraft? where |A| = 20, |B| = 40, and |C| = 30 units. Find
36. A novice golfer on the green takes three strokes to (a) the x and y components of the resultant vector and
The successive displacements are 4
sink the ball. m (b) the magnitude and direction of the resultant
due north, 2 m
northeast, and 1 m 30° west of south. vector.
Starting at the same an expert golfer
initial point,

could make the hole in what single vector displace-

ment?
37. Find the x and y components of the vectors A and B
shown Figure 2.22. Derive an expression for the
in
resultant vector A + B in unit-vector notation.
38. A particle undergoes two displacements. The first has
a magnitude of 150 cm and makes an angle of 120°
with the positive x axis. The resultant displacement
has a magnitude of 40 cm and is directed at an angle
1

of 35° to the positive x axis. Find the magnitude and

direction of the second displacement.
39. The vector A has x, y, and z components of 8, 12, and
— 4 units, respectively, (a) Write a vector expression
for A in unit-vector notation, (b) Obtain a unit-vector
expression for a vector B one fourth the length of A
pointing in the same direction as A. (c) Obtain a unit-
vector expression for a vector C three times the length
of A pointing in the direction opposite A. Figure 2.24 (Problem 47).
38 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS ordinates (— 1, 8) m. (a) Write vector expressions for

the position vectors in unit-vector form for these two
48. A vector is given by R = 2i+j+ Find
3Jk. (a) the
magnitudes of the I, y, and z components,
(b) the
points, (b) What is the displacement vector? (See
Problem 54 for definition.)
magnitude of R. and (c) the angles between R and the
x. y, and z axes.
A rectangular parallelepiped has dimensions a. b. and
c. Figure 2.27. (a) Obtain a vector expression for
as in
49. A person going for a walk follows the path shown in
the face diagonal vector R l What is the magnitude of
Figure 2.25. The total trip consists of four straight-
.

this vector? (b) Obtain a vector expression for the

line paths. At the end of the walk, what is the person's
resultant displacement measured from the starting
body diagonal vector R 2 What is the magnitude of
.

this vector?
point?

Figure 2.27 (Problem 52).

A point P is described by the coordinates (x, y) with

Figure 2.25 (Problem 49). _ respect to the normal cartesian coordinate system
shown in Figure 2.28. Show that (x', y'), the coordi-

50. Two people on a stubborn mule as seen from the

pull nates of this point in the rotated x'y' coordinate sys-
helicopter view shown in Figure 2.26. Find (a) the tem, are related to (x, y) and the rotation angle a by
single force which is equivalent to the two forces the expressions
shown, and (b) the force that a third person would x cos a+ q
y sin
have to exert on the mule to make the net force equal and
to zero. -x sin q+y cos a

• P

'll.

Figure 2.28 (Problem 53).

54. (a) Show that a point lying in the xy plane and having
coordinates (x, y) can be described by the position
vector r = xi + yj. (b) Show that the magnitude of this
vector is r = Vx 2 + y 2 (c) Show that the displacement
.

Figure 2.26 (Problem 50). vector for a particle moving from (x 2 i/j) to (i 2 y 2 is , . )

given by d = (x 2 — ii)«* + (y 2 — y{)j. (d) Plot the posi-

5 1 . A particle moves from a point in the xy plane having tion vectors fj and r 2 and the displacement vector d.
cartesian coordinates (—3. — 5) m to a point with co- and verify by the graphical method that d = r2 — r t .
 3
Motion in One Dimension

An apple and a feather,

released from rest in a 4-ft
vacuum chamber, fall at the
same rate, regardless of their
mass Neglecting air resistance,
all objects fall to the earth
with the same acceleration of
magnitude 9.8 m/s2 as
indicated by the violet arrows
in this multiflash photograph.
The velocity of the two objects
increases linearly with time as
indicated by the series of red
arrows.

Dynamics concerned with the study of the motion of an object and

the relation of
is

motion to such physical

this concepts as force and
mass. convenient to describe motion using the concepts of
It is

space and time, without regard to the causes of the motion. This
portion of mechanics is called kinematics. In this chapter we shall consider
motion along a straight line, that is, one-dimensional motion. In the next
chapter we shall extend our discussion to two-dimensional motion. Starting
with the concept of displacement discussed in the previous chapter, we shall
define velocity and acceleration. Using these concepts, we shall proceed to
study the motion of objects undergoing constant acceleration. The subject of
dynamics, which is concerned with the causes of motion and relationships

39
40 CHAPTER 3 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

between motion, forces, and the properties of moving objects, will be dis-
cussed Chapters 5 and 6.
in
From everyday experience we recognize that motion represents the con-
tinuous change in the position of an object. The movement of an object
through space may be accompanied by the rotation or vibration of the object.
Such motions can be quite complex. However, it is sometimes possible to
simplify matters by temporarily neglecting the internal motions of the moving
object. In many situations, an object can be treated as a particle if the only
motion being considered is one of translation through space. An idealized
particle is a mathematical point with no size. For example, if we wish to
describe the motion of the earth around the sun, we can treat the earth as a
particle and obtain reasonable accuracy in a prediction of the earth's orbit.
This approximation is justified because the radius of the earth's orbit is large
compared with the dimensions of the earth and sun. On the other hand, we
could not use the particle description to explain the internal structure of the
earth and such phenomena as tides, earthquakes, and volcanic activity. On a
much smaller scale, it is possible to explain the pressure exerted by a gas on the
walls of a container by treating the gas molecules as particles. However, the
particle description of the gas molecules is generally inadequate for under-

Slope standing those properties of the gas that depend on the internal motions of the
gas molecules, namely, rotations and vibrations.

3.1 AVERAGE VELOCITY

The motion of a particle completely known if its position in space is known at
is

all times. Consider a particlemoving along the x axis from point Pto point O.
Let its position at point PbeXjat some time t and let its position at point Qbe
{
,

x { at time t { (The indices and f refer to the initial and final values.) At times
. i

Figure 3.1 Position-time graph

other than t and t { the position of the particle between these two points may
t
,

for a particle moving along the x

axis. The average velocity v in the vary as in Figure 3.1. Such a plot is often called a position-time graph. In the
interval At= tf — t, is the slope of time interval At = t f — t the displacement of the particle is Ax = x ( — x (Re-
{ , s
.

the straight line connecting the call that the displacement is defined as the change in the position of the
points P and Q.
particle, which equals its final minus its initial position value.)

The x-component of the average velocity of the particle, v, is defined as

the ratio of its displacement, Ax, and the time interval, At:

Average velocity _ _ Ax _ x{ —x i

(3.1)
At tf -t

From this definition, we see that the average velocity has the dimensions of
length divided by time, or m/s in SI units and ft/s in conventional units. The
average velocity is independent of the path taken between the points P and O.
This is true because the average velocity is proportional to the displacement,
Ax, which in turn depends only on the initial and final coordinates of the
particle. It therefore follows that if a particle starts at some point and returns to
the same point via any path, its average velocity for this trip is zero, since its
displacement along such a path is zero. The displacement should not be con-
fused with the distance traveled, since the distance traveled for any motion is
clearly nonzero. Thus, average velocity gives us no details of the motion
between points P and Q. (How we evaluate the velocity at some instant in time
 .

3.2 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY 41

is discussed in the next section.) Finally, note that the average velocity in one

dimension can be positive or negative, depending on the sign of the displace-

ment. (The time interval, At, is always positive.) If the coordinate of the
particle increases in time (that is, if x f > x ), then Ax is positive and v is positive.
t

This corresponds to a velocity in the positive x direction. On the other hand, if

the coordinate decreases in time (x f < x ). Ax is negative; hence v is negative.
{

This corresponds to a velocity in the negative x direction.

The average velocity can also be interpreted geometrically by drawing a
straight line between the points P and Q in Figure 3.1. This line forms the
hypotenuse of a triangle of height Ax and base Ar. The slope of this line is the
ratio Ax/ At. Therefore, we see that the average velocity of the particle during
the time interval t to t f is equal to the "slope" of the straight line joining the
f

initial and final points on the space-time graph. (The word slope will often be

used when referring to the graphs of physical data. Regardless of what data are
plotted, the word slope will represent the ratio of the change in the quantity
represented on the vertical axis to the change in the quantity represented on
the horizontal axis.)

EXAMPLE 3.1 Calculate the Average Velocity The average velocity is

A particle moving along the x axis is located at x = 12 m

= 1 s and at xf = 4 m at t( = 3 s. Find its displacement
{
Ax Xf — Xj _ 4 m 12 m 8 m
at (j
~27 —4 m/s
and average velocity during this time interval. At t; 3 s — 1 s

Since the displacement and average velocity are nega-

Solution The displacement is given by
tive for this time interval, we conclude that the par-
ticle has moved to the left, toward decreasing values
Ax = xf — Xj = 4m— 12m= — 8m
of x.

3.2 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY

We would like to be able to define the velocity of a particle at a particular
instant of time, rather than just over a finite interval of time. The velocity of a
particle at any instant of time, or at some point on a space-time graph, is called
the instantaneous velocity. This concept is especially important when the
average velocity in different time intervals is not constant.
Consider the motion of a particle between the two points Pand Q on the
space-time graph shown in Figure 3.2. As the point O is brought closer and
closer to the point P, the time intervals (A^ Ar 2 At 3 .) get progressively , , , . .

smaller. The average velocity for each time interval is the slope of the appro-
priate dotted line in Figure 3.2.As the point Q approaches P, the time interval
approaches zero, but the same time the slope of the dotted line approaches
at
that of the blue line tangent to the curve at the point P. The slope of the line
tangent to the curve at Pis defined to be the instantaneous velocity at the time
Figure 3.2 Position-time graph
tj
. In other words,
for a particle moving along the x
axis.As the time intervals starting
the instantaneous velocity, v, equals the limiting value of the ratio Ax/At as at f get smaller and smaller, the
(

Af approaches zero 1
: average velocity for that interval
approaches the slope of the line
1
Note that the displacement, Ax, also approaches zero as Af approaches zero. However, as Ax and tangent at P. The instantaneous ve-
Af become smaller and smaller, the ratio Ax/At approaches a value equal to the frue slope of the locity atP is defined as the slope of
line tangent to the x versus f curve. the blue tangent line at the time f>
42 CHAPTER 3 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION
 3.2 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY 43

In the first time interval, Af = f f — f = 1 f

s. There-
fore, using Equation 3.1 and the results from (a) gives

= Ax n -2 m
«>oi
= — 2m/s
Af 1 s

Likewise, in the second time interval, At = 2 s; therefore

= = = 4m/s
t,13
^T T7
These values agree with the slopes of the lines joining
these points in Figure 3.4.
(c) Find the instantaneous velocity of the particle at

t = 2.5s.
By measuring the slope of the position-time graph at
s, we find that o = 6 m/s. (You should show that
= Figure 3.5 (Example 3.3) Posi-
f 2.5
tion-time graph for a particle hav-
the velocity is — 4 m/s at t = and zero at f = Is.) Do you ing an x coordinate that varies in
see any symmetry in the motion? For example, does the time according to i = 3f 2 Note.

speed ever repeat itself? 2 that the instantaneous velocity at

t = 3 s equals the slope of the blue

line tangent to the curve at this

point.
EXAMPLE 3.3 The Limiting Process
The position of a particle moving along the x axis varies in
time according to the expression x = 3f 2 where x is in m, ,

Notice that this expression gives us the velocity at any

3 is in m/s 2 and t is in s. Find the velocity at any time.
,

general time f. It tells us that v is increasing linearly in

Solution The position-time graph for this motion time. It is then a straightforward matter to find the veloc-
is
ity at some specific time from the expression o = 6f. For
shown in Figure 3.5. We can compute the velocity at any
time t by using the definition of the instantaneous veloc- example, at f = 3 s, the velocity is t> = 6(3) =18 m/s.
the coordinate of the particle Again, this can be checked from the slope of the graph
ity. If initial at time t is

= 3f2 (the blue line) at t = 3 s.

x( , then the coordinate at a later time t + At is
The limiting process can also be examined numeri-
x{ = 3(t + At) 2 = 3[f 2 + It At + (Ar) 2 ] cally. For example, we can compute the displacement
= 3f 2 + 6f Af + 3(Af) 2 and average velocity for various time intervals beginning
at f = 3 s, using the expressions for Ax and v. The results
Therefore, the displacement in the time interval Af is of such calculations are given in Table 3.1. Notice that as
= Xf- Xi = 3f 2 + + 3(Af) 2 - the time intervals get smaller and smaller, the average
Ax 6f Af 3f 2
velocity more nearly approaches the value of the instan-
= 6f Af + 3(Af) 2 taneous velocity at f = 3 s, namely, 18 m/s.
The average velocity in this time interval is

_
u = —
Ax
Af
= 6f +3 Af

TABLE 3.1 Displacement and Average Velocity

To find the instantaneous velocity, we take the limit of for Various Time Intervals for the Function x = 3f 2
Af approaches zero. In doing so,
this expression as we see (the intervals begin at f = 3 s)
that the term 3 Af goes to zero, therefore
Af(s)
v = hm —Ax— =
i.
6f m/s
At— o Af

2 We could also use the rules of differential calculus to find

the velocity from the displacement. That is, v = —=—

dt dt
(-4f + 2f 2 ) = 4(-l + t) m/s. Therefore, at f = 2.5 s, d =
4(— 1 + 2.5) = 6 m/s. A review of basic operations in the cal-
culus is provided in Appendix B.6.
44 CHAPTER 3 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

3.3 ACCELERATION
When the velocity of a particle changes with time, the particle
is said to be

accelerating. For example, the speed of a car will increase when you "step on
the gas." The car will slow down when you apply the brakes. However, we
need a more precise definition of acceleration than this.
Suppose a particle moving along the x axis has a velocity v at time t and a { {

velocity v f at time t { as in Figure 3.6.

,

The average acceleration of the particle in the time interval At = t ( — f f

is

defined as the ratio Av/At, where At = v f — v is the change in velocity {

in

Figure 3.6 Velocity-time graph this time interval:

for a particle moving in a straight
line. The
slope of the line connect-
At:
ing the points P and Q is defined as
(3.4)
the average acceleration in the
time interval At = ff — t,
u-u At

Acceleration is a vector quantity having dimensions of length divided by

(time) 2 , or L/T2 Some of the common
. units of acceleration are meters per
second per second (m/s 2 ) and feet per second per second (ft/s 2 ).
In some situations, the value of the average acceleration may be different
over different time intervals. It is therefore useful to define the instantaneous
acceleration as the limit of the average acceleration as At approaches zero.
This concept is analogous to the definition of instantaneous velocity discussed
in the previous section. If we imagine that the point Q is brought closer and
closer to the point P in Figure 3.6 and take the limit of the ratio Av/At as At
approaches zero, we get the instantaneous acceleration:

a = ,

lim
m— o
—
Av
At
= dv
-=-
at
(3.5)

That is, the instantaneous acceleration equals the derivative of the velocity
with respect to time, which by definition is the slope of the velocity-time
graph. One can interpret the derivative of the velocity with respect to time as
the time rate of change of velocity. Again you should note that if a is positive,
the acceleration is in the positive i direction, whereas negative a implies
acceleration in the negative x direction. From now on ice sliall use the term
acceleration to mean instantaneous acceleration. Average acceleration is sel-
dom used in physics.
Since o = dx/dt, the acceleration can also be written

dv d_(dx d^x
(3.6)
dt dt\dt dt2

That is. the acceleration equals the second derivative of the coordinate with
respect to time.
A multiflash photograph of a freely Figure 3.7 shows how the acceleration-time curve can be derived from
falling baseball (mass 0.23 kg) and the velocity-time curve. In these sketches, the acceleration at any time is
shotput (mass 5.4 kg) taken at a
flash rate of 1/15 s. The spacing be-
simply the slope of the velocity-time graph at that time. Positive values of the
tween markers is 10 cm. Note that acceleration correspond to those points where the velocity is increasing in the
the two objects fall at the same positive x direction. The acceleration reaches a maximum at time fj , when the
rate. Why is view of the
this so, in
fact that they have different
slope of the velocity-time graph is a maximum. The acceleration then goes to
masses? (Courtesy of Henry Leap) zero at time t2 . when the velocity is a maximum (that is. when the velocity is
 3.3 ACCELERATION 45

Figure 3.7 The instantaneous acceleration can be obtained from the velocity-time graph (a). At
each instant, the acceleration in the a versus t graph (b) equals the slope of the line tangent to the v
versus t curve.

momentarily not changing and the slope of the v versus t graph is zero).
Finally, the acceleration is negative when the velocity in the positive .r direc-
tion is decreasing in time.

EXAMPLE 3.4 Average and Instantaneous vf = (40 - 5t f 2 ) m/s = [40 - 5(2)

2
] m/s = 20 m/s
Acceleration
TI he velocity ol a particle
i .. r ..i .1 . . Therefore, the average acceleration in the specified
v time
i
moving along the x axis varies in
i
°_
.
— .
'

. j. /.r. — .,«
.

interval At = tc t = 2 s is given bv
time according to the expression v = (40
.i .

at z ) m/s,
,
'

where t is in s. (a) Find the average acceleration in the _ if — ij (20 — 40) m/s
46 CHAPTER 3 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

So far we have evaluated the derivatives of a function by starting with the

definition of the function and then taking the
limit of a specific ratio. Those of
you familiar with the calculus should recognize that there are specific rules for
taking the derivatives of various functions. These rules, which are listed in
Appendix B.6, enable us to evaluate derivatives quickly.
Suppose x is proportional to some power off, such as

x = At"
where A and n are constants. (This is a very common functional form.) The
derivative of x with respect to t is given by

'
-r—
dt
nAt"

Applying this rule to Example 3.3, where x = 3f2 we see that v = dx/dt = 6t, ,

in agreement with our result of taking the limit explicitly. Likewise, in Exam-
ple 3.4, where v = 40 - 5f 2 we find that a = dv/dt = - lOf. (Note that the
,

rate of change of any constant quantity is zero.)

3.4 ONE-DIMENSIONAL MOTION WITH CONSTANT

ACCELERATION
If the acceleration of a particle varies in time, the motion can be complex and
difficult to analyze. A very common and simple type of one-dimensional mo-
tion occurs when the acceleration is constant, or uniform. Because the acceler-
ation is constant, the average acceleration equals the instantaneous accelera-
tion. Consequently, the velocity increases or decreases at the same rate
throughout the motion.
If we replace a by a in Equation 3.4, we find that

t(~ U

For convenience, let tt = and ff be any arbitrary time f. Also, let v = v (the {

initial velocity at t = 0) and v f = v (the velocity at any arbitrary time f). With
this notation, we can express the acceleration as

Velocity as a function of time v = v + at (for constant a) (3.7)

This expression enables us to predict the velocity at any time t if the initial
velocity acceleration, and elapsed time are known. A graph of velocity versus
-

time for this motion is shown in Figure 3.9a. The graph is a straight line the
slope of which is the acceleration, a, consistent with the fact that a = dv/dt is a
constant. graph and from Equation 3.7, we see that the velocity at
From this
any time f is the sum of the initial velocity, v and the change in velocity, at. ,

The graph of acceleration versus time (Fig. 3.9b) is a straight line with a slope
of zero, since the acceleration is constant. Note that if the acceleration were
negative (the particle is slowing down), the slope of Figure 3.9a would be
negative.
 3.4 ONE-DIMENSIONAL MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION 47

Slope =

i-4-i

Figure 3.9 A particle moving along the x axis with constant acceleration a, (a) the velocity-time
graph, (b) the acceleration-time graph, and (c) the space-time graph.

Because the velocity varies linearly in time according to Equation 3.7. we

can express the average velocity in any time interval as the arithmetic mean of
the initial velocity, v and the final velocity, v.
,

- v
—
+ v
v (tor constant a) (3.8)

Note that this expression is only useful when the acceleration is constant, that
is. when the velocity varies linearly with time.
We can now use Equations 3.1 and 3.8 to obtain the displacement as a
function of time. Again, we choose f = 0. at which time the initial position is
;

Xj =x . This gives

Ax = v At
-{*?)

x — x = %(v + v )t (for constant a) (3.9)

We can obtain another useful expression for the displacement by substi-

tuting Equation 3.7 into Equation 3.9:

* — *o = K»o+ f + at)t

x -x = v t + ±af2 (for constant a) (3.10)

The validity of this expression can be checked by differentiating it with re-

spect to time, to give

dx d 1 ,
o = -J7 = ~T. (*o + t-V + g at) = "o + at

Finally, we can obtain an expression that does not contain the time by
substituting the value off from Equation 3.7 into Equation 3.9. This gives

x ~ xo = 2^0 + o)
2a
48 CHAPTER 3 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

Velocity as a (unction of
v2 = v Q2 + 2a(x —x ) (for constant a) (3.11)
displacement

A position-time graph for motion under constant acceleration assuming

positive a is shown inFigure 3.9c. Note that the curve representing Equation
3.10 is a parabola. The slope of the tangent to this curve at f = equals the
initial velocity, l , and the slope of the tangent line at any time t equals the
velocity at that time.
If motion occurs in which the acceleration is zero, then we see that

, ,
when a =
vt]

That is. when the acceleration is zero, the velocity is a constant and the
displacement changes linearly with time.
Equations 3.7 through 3.11 are five kinematic expressions that may be
used to solve any problem in one-dimensional motion with constant accelera-
tion. Keep in mind that these relationships were derived from the definition of
velocity and acceleration, together with some simple algebraic manipulations
and the requirement that the acceleration be constant. It is often convenient to
choose the initial position of the particle as the origin of the motion, so that
x = at t = 0. In such a case, the displacement is simply x.
The four kinematic equations that are used most often are listed in Table
3.2 for convenience.
The choice of which kinematic equation or equations you should use
in a given situation depends on what is known beforehand. Sometimes it is
necessary to use two of these equations to solve for two unknowns, such
as the displacement and velocity at some instant. For example, suppose the
initial velocity, t and acceleration, a, are given. You can then find (1) the
.

velocity after a time t has elapsed, using v = v + at, and (2) the displacement
after a time f has elapsed, using .t — x = v t + $at
2
You should recognize that .

the quantities that vary during the motion are velocity, displacement, and
time.
You will get a great deal of practice in the use of these equations by solving
anumber of exercises and problems. Many times you will discover that there is
more than one method for obtaining a solution.

TABLE 3.2 Kinematic Equations for Motion in a Straight Line Under Constant
Acceleration

Information
Equation Given by Equation

t
= t + at Velocity as a function of time
x — x = \(v + v )t Displacement as a function of velocity and time
x — x = v + \at 2 t Displacement time
as a function of
v 2 = v 2 + 2a(x — x )
Velocity as a function of displacement

Note: Motion is along the x axis. At t = 0, the position of the particle is x and its velocity is v .
 3 4 ONE-DIMENSIONAL MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION 49

EXAMPLE 3.5 The Supercharged Sportscar

A certain automobile manufacturer claims that its super-
= 6.25 X 10 14 m/s 2
deluxe sportscar will accelerate uniformly from rest to a
speed of 87 mi/h in 8 s. (a) Determine the acceleration of We also could have used Equation 3.11 to obtain the
the car. acceleration, since the velocities and displacement are

First note that d = and the velocity after 8 s is 87 known. Try it! Although a is very large in this example,
mi/h =
128 ft/s. (It is useful to note that 60 mi/h = 88 ft/s the acceleration occurs over a very short time interval
exactly.) Because we are given v v, and t, we can use ,
and is a typical value for such charged particles in accel-

v = v + at to find the acceleration: eration.

v-v _ 128 ft/s

= 16 ft/s
2
EXAMPLE 3.7 Watch out for the Speed Limit
t 8s
A car traveling at a constant speed of 30 m/s (—67 mi/h)
(b) Find the distance the car travels in the first 8 s. passes a trooper hidden behind a billboard. One second
Let the origin be at the original position of the car, so after the speeding car passes the billboard, the trooper
that x = 0. Using Equation 3.9 we find that sets inchase after the car with a constant acceleration of
3.0 m/s 2 How long does it take the trooper to overtake
.

x = K»o + »)' = i(128 ft/s)(8 s) = 512 ft the speeding car?

(c) What is the velocity of the car 10 s after it begins Solution To solve this problem algebraically, let us write
its motion, assuming it continues to accelerate at the rate expressions for the position of each vehicle as functions
of 16 2
ft/s ? of time. It is convenient to choose the origin at the posi-
Again, we can use v = v + at, with v = 0, f = 10 s,
tion of the billboard and take t = as the time the

and a = 16 ft/s 2 This gives

.
trooper begins his motion. At that instant, the speeding
car has already traveled a distance of 30 m since it travels

v = v + at = + (16 ft/s
2
)(10 s) = 160 ft/s
at a constant speed of 30 m/s. Thus, the initial position of
the speeding car is given by x =
30 m. Since the car
which corresponds to 109 mi/h. moves with constant speed, its acceleration is zero, and
applying Equation 3.10 gives

EXAMPLE 3.6 Accelerating an Electron xc = 30 m+ (30 m/s)*

An electron in a cathode ray tube of a TV set enters a Note that at t = 0, this expression does give the car's
region where it accelerates uniformly from a speed of correct initial position x c = x = 30 m. Likewise, for the
3 10 4 m/s to a speed of 5 X 10 6 m/s in a distance of
X trooper who starts from the origin at t = 0, we have
2 cm. (a) How long is the electron in this region where it x = 0, v = 0, and a = 3.0 m/s 2 Hence, the position of
.

accelerates? the trooper versus time is given by

Taking the direction of motion to be along the x axis,
xT = $at 2 = |(3.0 m/s 2 )f 2
we can use Equation 3.9 to find t, since the displacement
and velocities are known: The trooper overtakes the car at the instant that xT = xc ,

or
x~x = £(»o + v)t
2(x- x X 10- 2 m)
2(2
£(3.0 m/s 2 )f 2 = 30 m+ (30 m/s)r
) _
v + v (3X 10 4 + 5X 10 6 ) m/s This gives the quadratic equation

1.5f 2 -30r-30 =
= 7.95X10- 9 s
whose positive solution is t = 21 s. Note that in this time

What interval, the trooper travels a distance of about 660 m.

(b) is the acceleration of the electron in this
region?
= Exercise This problem can also be easily solved
To find the acceleration, we can use v v + at and
1

the results from (a):

graphically. On
the same graph, plot the position versus
time for each vehicle, and from the intersection of the two
_ (5X10 -3X
6 10 4 ) m/s
_ u-t)o curves determine the time at which the trooper over-
t 7.95X10- 9 s takes the speeding car.
50 CHAPTER 3 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

.3.5 FREELY FALLING BODIES

It is well known that all objects, when dropped, will fall toward the earth with
nearly constant acceleration. There is a legendary story that Galileo Galilei
first discovered this fact by observing that two different weights dropped
simultaneously from the Leaning Tower of Pisa hit the ground at approxi-
mately the same time. Although there is some doubt that this particular exper-
iment was carried out, it is well established that Galileo did perform many
systematic experiments on objects moving on inclined planes. Through care-
ful measurements of distances and time intervals, he was able to show that the
displacement of an object starting from rest is proportional to the square of the
time the object is in motion. This observation is consistent with one of the
kinematic equations we derived for motion under constant acceleration (Eq.
3.10). Galileo's achievements in the science of mechanics paved the way for
Newton in his development of the laws of motion.
You might want to try the following experiment. Drop a coin and a crum-
pled-up piece of paper simultaneously from the same height. In the absence of
air resistance, both will experience the same motion and hit the floor at the
same time. (In a real experiment, air resistance cannot be neglected.) In the
idealized case, where air resistance is neglected, such motion is referred to as
A multiflash photograph of a freely free fall. If this same experiment could be conducted in a good vacuum, where
falling ball. The time
interval be- air friction is truly negligible, the paper and coin would fall with the same
tween flashes 5 s. and the sep-
is 1 / 1
acceleration, regardless of the shape of the paper. On August 2, 1971, such an
aration between the horizontal
markers is 1 cm. Can you estimate experiment was conducted on the moon by astronaut David Scott. He simulta-
g from these data? (Courtesy of neously released a geologist's hammer and a falcon's feather, and in unison
Henry Leap) thev fell to the lunar surface. This demonstration would have surelv pleased
Galileo!
We shall denote the acceleration due to gravity by the symbol g. The
magnitude of g decreases with increasing altitude. Furthermore, there are
Acceleration due to gravity slight variations in g with latitude. The vector g is directed downward toward
g=9.80m/s 2 the center of the earth. At the earth's surface, the magnitude of g is approxi-

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), an

Italian physicist and astronomer,
investigated the motion of objects
in free fall (including projectiles)
and the motion of an object on an
inclined plane, established the
concept of relative motion, and
noted that a swinging pendulum
could be used to measure time in-
tenals. Following the invention of
the telescope, he said, "I now have
visual proof of what I already knew
through my intellect." Galileo
made several major discoveries in
astronomy, he discosered four
moons of Jupiter and many new
stars, investigated the nature of the
moon's surface, discovered sun
spots and the phases of Venus, and
proved that the Milky Way consists
of an enormous number of stars.
(Courtesy of AIP Niels Bohr Li-
brary)
 3.5 FREELY FALLING BODIES 51

mately 9.80 m/s 2 or 980 cm/s 2 or 32 ft/s 2 Unless stated otherwise, we shall
, , .

use this value for g when doing calculations.

When we use the expression freely falling object, we do not necessarily
refer to an object dropped from rest. A freely falling object is any object
moving freely under the influence of gravity, regardless of its initial motion.
Objects thrown upward or downward and those released from rest are all
falling freely once they are released. Furthermore, it is important to recognize
that any freely falling object experiences an acceleration directed downward.
This is true regardless of the initial motion of the object.

An object thrown upward (or downward) will experience the same accel-
eration as an object released from rest. Once they are in free fall, all

objects will have an acceleration downward, equal to the acceleration due

to gravity.

If we neglect air resistance and assume that the gravitational acceleration

does not vary with altitude, then the motion of a freely falling body is equiva-
lent to motion in one dimension under constant acceleration. Therefore our
kinematic equations for constant acceleration can be applied. We shall take
the vertical direction to be the y axis and call y positive upward. With this
choice of coordinates, we can replace x by y in Equations 3.7, 3.9, 3.10, and
3.11. Furthermore, since positive y is upward, the acceleration is negative
(downward) and given by a = — g. The negative sign simply indicates that the
acceleration is downward. With these substitutions, we get the following
expressions: 3

v = v - gt
52 CHAPTER 3 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

velocity is but decreases in time and goes to zero at the peak

initially positive,

of the path. From Equation we see that this occurs at the time t = v /g.
3.12. t

At this time, the displacement has its largest positive value, which can be
calculated from Equation 3.14 with t = fj = g- This gives y m3I = c
2
/2g.
i"

At the time f 2 = 2f = 2c /g. we see from Equation 3.14 that the displace-
x

ment is again zero, that is. the particle has returned to its starting point.
Furthermore, at time f 2 the velocity is given by d — c (This follows directly = .

from Equation 3.12.) Hence, there is symmetry in the motion. In other words,
both the displacement and the magnitude of the velocity repeat themselves in
the time interval t = to t = 2c /g.
In the examples that follow, we shall, for convenience, assume that y =
at f = 0. Notice that this does not affect the solution to the problem. If y is
nonzero, then the graph of y versus f (Fig. 3.10a) is simply shifted upward or
downward by an amount y while the graph of c versus f (Fig. 3.10b) remains
,

unchanged.

EXAMPLE 3.S Look Out Below fj = 2.04 s

A golf ball is released from rest from the top of a very tall
building. Neglecting air resistance, calculate the posi-
tion and velocity of the ball after 1. 2. and 3 s.

Solution We choose our coordinates such that the start-

ing point of the ball the origin y =
is at at t = and ( )

remember that we have

defined y to be positive upward.
Since t = 0, Equations 3.12 and 3.14 become

v = -gf = -(9.S0m/s 2 )f
y = ~igt2 = -i(9.80 m/s 2 )f2

where t is in s. c is in m
s, and y is in m. These expressions

give the velocity and displacement at any time t after the

ball is released. Therefore, at t = 1 s,

c = -(9.80m/s 2 )(l s)= -9.80 m/s

y = 2
-i(9.80 m/s )(ls)
2 = -4.90 m

Likewise, at t = 2 s. we find that d = — 19.6 m/s and

y = — 19.6 m. Finally, at t = 3 s. c = —29.4 m/s and y =
— 44.1 m. The minus signs fort indicate that the velocity
Figure 3.1 1 (Example 3.9) Position and velocity versus time
vector is directed downward, and the minus signs for y
for a freely falling particle thrown initially upward with a veloc-
indicate displacement in the negative y direction. ity r = 20 m s.

way down, as in Figure 3.11. Determine (a) the time

Exerc ise 2 Calculate the position and velocity of the
needed for the stone to reach its maximum height, (b the
I

ball after 4 s.
maximum the time needed for the stone to
height, (c)
Answer -78.4 m. -39.2 m/s.
return to the level of the thrower, id) the velocity of the
stone at this instant, and (e) the velocity and position of
the stone at t =5 s.
EX \MPLE 3.9 Not a Bad Throw for a Rookie
A stone is thrown from the top ofabuilding with an initial Solution (a) To find the time necessary to reach the max-
velocity of 20 m/s straight upward. The building is 50 m imum height, use Equation 3. 1 2. v = v — gt. noting that
high, and the stone just misses the edge of the roof on its v = at maximum height:
 3.6 KINEMATIC EQUATIONS DERIVED FROM CALCULUS 53

20 m/s - (9.80 m/s% (d) The value for t found in (c) can be inserted into
v = v — gf (Eq. 3. 1 2) to give
20 m/s
2.04 s
9.80 m/s 2 -
o = 20 m/s (9.80 m/s 2 )(4.08 s) = -20.0 m/s
(b) This value of time can be substituted into Equa-
tion 3.14, y = v t — £gt 2 , to give the maximum height as Note that the velocity of the stone when it arrives
measured from the position of the thrower: back at its original height is equal in magnitude to its

- 1(9.80 initial velocity but opposite in direction. This indicates

!/„ (20 m/s)(2.04 s) m/s 2 )(2.04 s)
2
that the motion is symmetric.

20.4 m (e) From c = v — gt (Eq. 3.12), the velocity after 5 s

(c) When the stone is back at the height of the

thrower, the y coordinate is zero. From the expression u = 20 m/s - (9.80 m/s 2 )(5 s) = -29.0 m/s
y = v t — £gf (Eq. 3.14), with y = 0, we obtain the ex-
2

pression We can use y = v — \gt2 (Eq. t 3.14) to find the position

20f-4.9f 2 = of the particle at f =5 s:

This is a quadratic equation and has two solutions for

- £(9.80
t.
y = (20 m/s)(5 s) m/s 2 )(5 s)
2 = - 22.5 m
(For some assistance in solving quadratic equations, see
Appendix B.2.) The equation can be factored to give

r(20 - 4.9f) =
Exercise 3 Find (a) the velocity of the stone just before
One solution is t =
corresponding to the time the
0, it hits the ground and (b) the total time the stone is in

stone starts its motion. The other solution is f = 4.08 s, the air.

which is the solution we are after. Answer (a) -37.1 m/s (b) 5.83 s.

°3.6 KINEMATIC EQUATIONS DERIVED FROM

CALCULUS
This is an optional section that assumes that the reader is familiar with the

techniques of integral calculus. If you have not studied integration in your

calculus course as yet, this section should be skipped or covered at some later
time after you become familiar with integration.
The velocity of a particle moving in a straight line can be obtained from a
knowledge of its position as a function of time. Mathematically, the velocity
equals the derivative of the coordinate with respect to time. It is also possible
to find the displacement of a particle if its velocity is known as a function of
time. In the calculus, this procedure is referred to as integration, or finding the
antiderivative. Graphically, it is equivalent to finding the area under a curve.
Suppose the velocity versus time plot for a particle moving along the x axis
is as shown in Figure 3.12. Let us divide the time interval f f — t into many small {

intervals of duration Af„. From the definition of average velocity, we see that
the displacement during any small interval such as the shaded one in Figure
3.12 is given by Ax n = v„ Af„, where o„ is the average velocity in that interval.
Therefore, the displacement during this small interval is simply the area of the

shaded rectangle. The total displacement for the interval t( — f is the sum of f

the areas of all the rectangles:

Ax = 2) o„ Af„

where the sum is taken over all the rectangles from f to f f Now, as each s
.

interval is made smaller and smaller, the number of terms in the sum increases
and the sum approaches a value equal to the area under the velocity-time
54 CHAPTER 3 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

Figure 3.12 Velocity versus time curve for a particle moving along the i axis. The area of the
shaded rectangle is equal to the displacement Ax in the time interval Af n while the total area ,

under the curve is the total displacement of the particle.

graph. Therefore, in the limit n — »

> or At n —» 0, we see that the displacement
is given by

Ax = lim
At*— o
V v„ Atn (3.16)
_

Displacement = area under the velocity-time graph

Note that we have

replaced the average velocity v n by the instantaneous
velocity v„ in the sum. As you can see from Figure 3.12, this approximation is
clearly valid in the limit of very small intervals. We conclude that if the
velocity-time graph for motion along a straight line is known, the displacement
during any time interval can be obtained by measuring the area under the
curve.
The limit of the sum in Equation 3.16 is called a definite integral and is

written

ft
Definite integral im V o_ At. = I v(t) dt (3.17)
.-°r k
where v (t) denotes the velocity at any time t. If the explicit functional form of
v(t) known, the specific integral can be evaluated.
is

If a particle moves with a constant velocity v as in Figure 3.13, its dis-

placement during the time interval At is simply the area of the shaded rectan-
gle, that is,

Ax = v At (when v = v = constant)

As another example, consider a particle moving with a velocity that is

proportional to t, as in Figure 3.14. Taking t; = at, where a is the constant of
proportionality (the acceleration), we find that the displacement of the parti-
cle during the time interval f = to f = f, is the area of the shaded triangle in
Figure 3.14:

Ax = i(f 1
)(af 1 ) - iflfj 2
 3.6 KINEMATIC EQUATIONS DERIVED FROM CALCULUS 55

Figure 3.13 The velocity versus time curve for a particle moving with constant velocity v .

Kinematic Equations

We will now make use of the defining equations for acceleration and velocity
to derive the kinematic equations.
The defining equation for acceleration.

dv
a =
Tt
may also be written in terms of an integral (or antiderivative) as

i> = I adt + C 1

where C x
is a constant of integration. For the special case where the accelera-
tion a is a constant, this reduces to

= at + Q
The value of C depends on the initial conditions of the motion. If we take
x

v = v when f = 0, and substitute these into the last equation, we have

v = a(0) + C,

or

Cj = L"

Figure 3.14 The velocity versus time curve for a particle moving with a velocity that is propor-
tional to the time.
56 CHAPTER 3 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

Hence, we obtain the first kinematic equation:

v = v + at (for constant a)

Now let us consider the defining equation for velocity:

dx
=
dt

We can also write this in integral form as

x = vdt + C2

where C2 is another constant of integration. Since v =v + at, this becomes

x= I (v + at) dt + C2

x = I v dt+ I at dt + C2

x = v t + \at
2
+ C2
To find C2 we make use of the initial
,
condition that x = x when = t 0. This
gives C2 = x Therefore, we have
.

x = .v + v t + \at2 (for constant a)

This is the second equation of kinematics. Recall that x — x is equal to the

displacement of the object, where x is its initial position.

SUMMARY
The average velocity of a particle during some time interval is equal to the
ratio of the displacement, Ax, and the time interval, At:

_ Ax
Average velocity v = Tt (3.1)

The instantaneous velocity of a particle is defined as the limit of the

ratioAx/Af as At approaches zero. By definition, this equals the derivative of
x with respect to r, or the time rate of change of the position:

Ax dx
Instantaneous velocity hm — (3.3)
\«— o Af dt

The speed of a particle equals the absolute value of the velocity.

The average acceleration of a particle during some time interval is

defined as the ratio of the change in its velocity, Av, and the time interval,

Af:

_ Av
Average acceleration a =— (3.4)
At
 QUESTIONS 57

The instantaneous acceleration is equal to the limit of the ratio Av/At as

At —* 0. By definition, this equals the derivative oft; with respect to r, or the
time rate of change of the velocity:

. Au
hm —— =
a«— o At
—
dv
at
(3.5) Instantaneous acceleration

The slope of the tangent to the x versus t curve at any instant equals the
instantaneous velocity of the particle.
The slope of the tangent to the v versus t curve equals the instantaneous
acceleration of the particle.
The area under the v versus t curve in any time interval equals the
displacement of the particle in that interval.
The equations of kinematics for a particle moving along the x axis with
uniform acceleration a (constant in magnitude and direction) are

v = v + at (3.7)

x~x = i(o + v)t (3.9)

(constant a only) Equations of kinematics
x — x = v t + \at*- (3.10)

v2 = V + 2a(x - x ) (3.11)

A body presence of the earth's gravity experiences

falling freely in the Freely falling body
a gravitational acceleration directed toward the center of the earth. If air
friction is neglected, and if the altitude of the motion is small compared with
the earth's radius, then one can assume that the acceleration of gravity, g, is
constant over the range of motion, where g is equal to 9.80 m/s 2 or 32 ft/s 2 , .

Assuming ij positive upward, the acceleration is given by — g, and the equa-

tions of kinematics for a body in free fall are the same as those given above,
with the substitutions x —* y and a —* — g.

QUESTIONS

1. Average velocity and instantaneous velocity are gen- 7. Can the equations of kinematics (Eqs. 3.7 through
erally different quantities. Can they ever be equal for 3.11) be used in a situation where the acceleration
a specific type of motion? Explain. varies in time? Can they be used when the accelera-
2. If the average velocity is nonzero for some time inter- tion is zero?
val, does this mean that the instantaneous velocity is 8. A ball thrown vertically upward. What are its veloc-
is

never zero during this interval? Explain. ity and acceleration when it reaches its maximum alti-
3. If the average velocity equals zero for some time in- tude? What is its acceleration just before it strikes the
terval At andifu(f) is a continuous function, show that ground?
the instantaneous velocity must go to zero some time 9. A stone is thrown upward from the top of a building.
in this interval. (A sketch of x versus t might be useful Does the stone's displacement depend on the location
in your proof.) of the origin of the coordinate system? Does the
4. Is it possible to have a situation in which the velocity stone's velocity depend on the origin? (Assume that
and acceleration have opposite signs? If so, sketch a the coordinate system is stationary with respect to the
velocity-time graph to prove your point. building.) Explain.
5. If the velocity of a particle is nonzero, can its accelera- 10. A child throws a marble in the air with an initial veloc-
tion ever be zero? Explain. ity v . Another child drops a ball at the same instant.
6. If the velocity of a particle is zero, can its acceleration Compare the accelerations of the two objects while
ever be nonzero? Explain. they are in flight.
58 CHAPTER 3 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

11. A student at the top of a building of height h throws

one ball upward with an initial speed c ar, d then
throws a second ball downward with the same initial

speed. How do the final velocities of the balls com-

pare when they reach the ground?
12. Can the instantaneous velocity of an object ever be
greater in magnitude than the average velocity? Can
it ever be less?
13. If a car is traveling eastward, can its acceleration be
westward? Explain.
14. If the average velocity of an object is zero in some
time interval, what can you say about the displace-
ment of the object for that interval?
15. A rapidly growing plant doubles in height each week.
At the end of the 25th day, the plant reaches the
height of a building. At what time was the plant one-
fourth the height of the building?
16. Two cars are moving in the same direction in parallel
lanes along a highway. At some instant, the velocity of
car A exceeds the velocity of car B. Does this mean
that the acceleration of A is greater than that of B?
Explain.
17. A ball is thrown upward. While the ball is in the air,
(a) does its acceleration increase, decrease, or remain
constant? (b) Describe what happens to its velocity.
(Question 19)
18. Car A traveling south from New York to Miami has a
speed of 25 m/s. Car B traveling west from New York 20. An object released from rest falls freely with a con-
to Chicago also has a speed of 25 m/s. Are their veloci- stant downward acceleration of 9.8 m/s 2 After . it has
ties equal? Explain. dropped for 3 seconds, (a) how far has it traveled?
19. An apple is dropped from some height above the (b) what is its velocity? (c) what is its acceleration?

earth's surface as in the photograph to the right. Ne- 21. A pebble is dropped in a water well, and the "splash"
glecting air resistance, how much does its speed in- is heard 2 s later. What is the approximate depth of
crease each second during its fall? the well?

PROBLEMS
Section 3.1 Average Velocity

1 . The position of a pine wood derby car was observed at

various times and the results are summarized in the
table below. Find the average velocity of the car for
(a) the first second, (b) the last 3 seconds, and (c) the
entire period of observation.

x(m) 2.3 9.2 20.7 36.8 57.5

r(s) 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

2. A motorist drives north for 35 minutes at 85 km/h and

then stops for 15 minutes. He then continues north,
traveling 1 30 km in 2 h. (a) What is his total displace-
ment? (b) What is his average velocity?
3. The displacement versus time for a certain particle
moving along the x axis is shown in Figure 3.15. Find
the average velocity in the time intervals (a) to 2 s,

(b) to 4 s, (c) 2 s to 4 s, (d) 4 s to 7 s, (e) to 8 s. Figure 3.15 (Problem 3).

 PROBLEMS 59

4. A jogger runs in a straight line with an average veloc-

ity of 5 m/s for 4 min, and then with an average veloc-
ity of 4 m/s for 3 min. (a) What is her total displace-
ment? (b) What is her average velocity during this
time?
5. An athlete swims the length of a 50-m pool in 20 s and
makes the return trip to the starting position in 22 s.
Determine his average velocity in (a) the first half of
the swim, (b) the second half of the swim, and (c) the
round trip.
6. A particle moves according to the equation x = 10f 2
where x is in meters and f is in seconds, (a) Find the
average velocity for the time interval from 2 s to 3 s.
(b) Find the average velocity for the time interval
from 2.0 s to 2.1 s.
7. A car makes a 200-km trip at an average speed of
40 km/h. A second car starting 1 h later arrives at
their mutual destination at the same time. What was
the average speed of the second car for the period that
it was in motion?

Section 3.2 Instantaneous Velocity

8. Using Figure 3. 16. determine (a) the average velocity

between t = 2.0 s and t = 5.0 s, and (b) the instanta-
neous velocity at t = 3.0 s.
60 CHAPTER 3 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

is its average acceleration in this time interval?

(b) Can the average velocity be obtained from the in-
formation presented? Explain.
19 The velocity-time graph for an object moving along
the i axis is as shown in Figure 3. 1 9. (a) Plot a graph of
the acceleration versus time, (b) Determine the aver-
age acceleration of the object in the time intervals
r = 5 s to t = 15 s and f = to r = 20 s.
 PROBLEMS 61

(a) What is the acceleration of this body? (b) How

long does it take to come to rest?
38. A go-cart travels the first half of a 100-m track with a
constant speed of 5 m/s. In the second half of the
track, it experiences a mechanical problem and slows
down at 0. 2 m/s 2 How long does it take the go-cart to
.

travel the 100-m distance?

39. A car moving at a constant speed of 30 m/s suddenly
stalls at the bottom of a hill. The car undergoes a con-

stant acceleration of —2 m/s 2 (opposite its motion)

10 20 30 40 50 while ascending the hill, (a) Write equations for the
position and the velocity as functions of time, taking
Figure 3.22 (Problem 28).
x = at the bottom of the hill where v = 30 m/s.

30. A hockey puck sliding on a frozen lake comes to rest (b) Determine the maximum distance traveled by the
after traveling 200 m. If its initial velocity is 3.0 m/s, car up the hill after stalling.
(a) What is its acceleration if it is assumed constant? 40. An electron has an initial velocity of 3.0 X 10 5 m/s.
(b) How long is it in motion? (c) What is its speed after If it undergoes an acceleration of 8.0 X 10 14 m/s 2 ,

traveling 150 m? (a) how long will it take to reach a velocity of 5.4 X
31. A jet plane lands with a velocity of 100 m/s and can 10 5 m/s and (b) how far has it traveled in this time?
accelerate at a maximum rate of — 5.0 m/s 2 as it comes 41. A railroad car is released from a locomotive on an
to rest, (a) From the instant it touches the runway, incline. When the car reaches the bottom of the in-
what is theminimum time needed before it comes to cline, it has a speed of 30 mi/h, at which point it passes
rest? (b) Can this plane land on a small tropical island through a retarder track that slows it down. If the

airport 0.80 km long?

where the runway is retarder track is 30 ft long, what negative acceleration
32. A car and train move together along parallel paths at must it produce to bring the car to rest?

25 m/s. The car then undergoes a uniform accelera- 42. An indestructible bullet, 2 cm long, is fired straight

tion of — 2.5 m/s 2 because of a red light and comes to through a board which is 10.0 cm thick. The bullet
rest. It remains at rest for 45 s, then accelerates back strikes the board with a speed of 420 m/s and emerges

to a speed of 25 m/s at a rate of 2.5 m/s 2 How far .

with a speed of 280 m/s. (a) What is the average accel-
behind the train is the car when it reaches the speed of eration of the bullet through the board? (b) What is
25 m/s, assuming that the train speed has remained at the total time that the bullet is in contact with the
25 m/s? board? (c) How many thicknesses of board (calculated
33. A drag racer starts her car from rest and accelerates at to the nearest tenth cm) would it take to completely

10 m/s 2 for the entire distance of 400 m (\ mile). stop the bullet?
(a) How long did it take the race car to travel this 43. Until recently, the world's land speed record was held
distance? (b) What is the speed of the race car at the by Colonel John P. Stapp, USAF. On March 19, 1954,
end of the run? he rode a rocket-propelled sled that moved down the
34. A locomotive slows from 26 m/s to zero in 18 s. What track at 632 mi/h. He and the sled were safely brought
distance does it travel? to rest in 1.4 s. Determine (a) the negative accelera-

35. A particle starts from rest from the top of an inclined tion he experienced and (b) the distance he traveled
plane and slides down with constant acceleration. The during this negative acceleration.
inclined plane is 2.0 m long, and it takes 3.0 s for the 44. A hockey player is standing on his skates on a frozen
particle to reach the bottom. Find (a) the acceleration pond when an opposing player skates by with the
of the particle, (b) its speed at the bottom of the in- puck, moving with a uniform speed of 12 m/s. After
cline, (c) the time it takes the particle to reach the 3 s, the first player makes up his mind to chase his
middle of the incline, and (d) its speed at the mid- opponent. If he accelerates uniformly at 4 m/s 2 ,

point. (a) how long does it take him to catch the opponent?

36. Two express trains started 5 minutes apart. Starting (b) How far has he traveled in this time? (Assume the

from rest, each is capable of a maximum speed of 160 player with the puck remains in motion at constant
km/h after uniformly accelerating over a distance of speed.)
2.0 km. (a) What is the acceleration of each train?
How far ahead is the first train when the second
(b)
Section 3.5 Freely Falling Bodies
one starts? (c) How far apart are they when they are
both traveling at maximum speed? 45. A woman is reported to have fallen 144 ft from the
37. A body is traveling at 16 m/s and comes to rest after 17th floor of a building, landing on a metal ventilator
undergoing a uniform negative acceleration for 40 m. box, which she crushed to a depth of 18 in. She suf-
62 CHAPTER 3 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

fered only minor injuries. Neglecting air resistance, zontal distance between the saddle and limb when the
calculate (a) the speed of the woman just before she cowboy makes hismove? (b) How long is the cowboy
collided with the ventilator, (b) her average accelera- in the air?
tion while in contact with the box, and (c) the time it
°3.6 Kinematic Equations Derived from Calculus
took to crush the box.
46. A ball thrown directly downward with an initial
is 56. The is given by v = at + b, where
velocity of an object
velocity of 8 m/s from a height of 30 m. When does a = 2.4 m/s 2 and h =
30 m/s. Plot this velocity versus
the ball strike the ground? time on graph paper from f = to f = 10 s, and calcu-
47. A student throws a set of keys vertically upward to her late the distance cov ered during that time interval by

sorority sister in a window 4.0 m above. The keys are determining the area under the curve.
caught 1.5 s later by the sister's outstretched hand. 57. The position of a Softball tossed vertically upward is
(a) With what initial velocity were the keys thrown? described by the equation y = ~t — 4.9f 2 where y is ,

(b) What was the velocity of the keys just before they in meters and f in seconds. Find (a) the initial speed v

were caught? at t = 0, (b) the velocity at t = 1.26 s, and (c) the

4S. A hot air balloon is traveling vertically upward at a acceleration of the ball.
constant speed of 5.0 m/s. When it is 21.0 m above 5S. A rocket sled for testing equipment under large accel-
the ground, a package is released from the balloon, erations starts at rest and accelerates according to
(a) How long after being released is the package in the a = 3f + 5 (in SI units)
What is the velocity of the package just before
air? (b)
impact with the ground? (c) Repeat (a) and (b) for the How far does the object move in the time interval
case of the balloon descending at 5.0 m/s. f= to t = 2 s?
49. A ball is thrown vertically upward from the ground 59. A particlemoving along the x axis. Its velocity as a
is

with an initial speed of 15 m/s. (a) How long does it function of timeis given by f = 5 + lOf, where v is in

take the ball to reach its maximum altitude? (b) What m/s. The position of the particle at t = is 20 m. Find

is its maximum altitude? (c) Determine the velocity (a) the acceleration as a function of time, (b) the posi-
and acceleration of the ball at f = 2 s. tion as a function of time, and (c) the velocity of the
50. A ball thrown vertically upward is caught by the particle at f = 0.

thrower after 20 s. Find (a) the initial velocity of the 60. The acceleration of a marble in a certain fluid is pro-

ball and (b) the maximum height it reaches. portional to its velocity squared, and is given (in m/s 2 )
51. A is hit such that it travels straight upward
baseball by a = — 3r 2 for t > 0. If the marble enters this fluid
being struck by the bat. A fan observes that it
after with a speed of 1 .50 m/s, how long will it take before
requires 3 s for the ball to reach its maximum height. the marble's speed is reduced to half of its initial
Find (a) its initial velocity and (b) the height reached value?
by the ball. Ignore the effects of air resistance.
52. An astronaut standing on the moon drops a hammer,
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
letting it fall 1 m to the surface. The lunar gravity 61. Given the position function
produces a constant acceleration of 1.62 m/s 2 Upon
=
.

returning to earth, the astronaut again drops the ham-

x(t) \at 2 + 2bt

mer, letting it fall to the ground from a height of 1 m where a =

m/s 2 and b = 1 m/s, evaluate the average
1

with an acceleration of 9.80 m/s 2 Compare the times .

velocity v during elapsed time intervals starting at
of fall in the two situations. t
a
= 2 s for which At = 1 s, 0.5 s, 0.1 s, 0.01 s, and
53. A stone is thrown upwards from the edge of a cliff 0.001 s.
18 m high. It just misses the cliff on the way down and 62. A motorist is traveling at 18.0 m/s when he sees a deer
hits the ground below with a speed of 18.8 m/s. in the road 38.0 m ahead, (a) If the maximum negative
(a) With what velocity was it released? (b) What is its acceleration of the vehicle is —4.5 m/s 2 what is the ,

maximum distance from the ground during its flight? maximum reaction time Af of the motorist that will
54. A stone falls from rest from the top of a high cliff. A allow him to avoid hitting the deer? (b) If his reaction
second stone is thrown downward from the same time is 0.30 s, how fast will he be traveling when he
height 2.0 s later with an initial speed of 30 m/s. If hits the deer?
both stones hit the ground below simultaneously, how- 63. An inquisitive physics student and mountain climber
high is the cliff? climbs a 50-m cliff that overhangs a calm pool of
55. A daring cowboy on a tree limb wishes to drop
sitting water. He throws two stones vertically downward 1 s
vertically onto a horse galloping under the tree. The apart and observes that they cause a single splash. The
speed of the horse is 10 m/s, and the distance from the first stone has an initial velocity of 2 m/s. (a) At what

limb to the saddle is 3 m. (a) What must be the hori- time after release of the first stone will the two stones
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 63

hit the water? (b) What

initial velocity must the sec- total time the puck is in motion, neglecting contact
ond stone have they are to hit simultaneously?
if time?
(c) What will the velocity of each stone be at the in- 71. By matching geological formations on either side of
stant they hit the water? the San Andreas fault in California, geologists find a
64. The velocity of a rocket during the launch stage is net displacement of 325 km occurring over a period
given by v = bt — kt 2 , where b = 30 m/s 2 and k = of about 20 million years. Find the average rate of
0.50 m/s 3 Determine the average acceleration of the
. displacement in centimeters per year. Note: In 1987
rocket from (a) t = s to tf= 1 s, (b) t = 5 s to
{ {
the rate of slippage near the Hollister area was 6
t = 6 s. cm/yr, about the rate of growth of your fingernails.
f
65. A "superball" is dropped from a height of 2 m above 72. A motorist drives along a straight road at a constant
the ground. On the first bounce the ball reaches a speed of 15 m/s. Just as she passes a parked motorcy-
height of 1 .85 m, where it is caught. Find the velocity cle police officer, the officer starts to accelerate at
of the ball (a) just as it makes contact with the ground 2 m/s 2 to overtake her. Maintaining this constant
and (b) just as it leaves the ground on the bounce, value of acceleration, (a) determine the time it will
(c) Neglecting the time the ball spends in contact with take the police officer to reach the motorist. Find
the ground, find the total time required for the ball to (b) the speed and (c) the total displacement of the
go from the dropping point to the point where it is police officer as he overtakes the motorist.
caught. 73. In 1987, Art Boileau won the Los Angeles Marathon.
66. A Cessna 150 aircraft has a lift-off speed of about 26 mi and 385 yds, in 2 h, 13 min, and 9 s. (a) Find his
125 km/h. (a) What minimum constant acceleration average speed in meters per second and in miles per
does this require if the aircraft is to be airborne after a hour, (b) At the 21 -mi marker, Boileauhada2.50-min
take-off run of 250 m? (b) What is the corresponding lead on the second-place winner, who later crossed
take-off time? (c) If the aircraft continues to acceler- the finish line 30 s after Boileau. Assume that Boileau
ate at this rate, what speed will it reach 25 s after it maintained his constant average speed and that both
begins to roll? runners had been running at the same speed when
67. One runner covered 100-m dash in 10.3 s. An-
the Boileau passed the 21 -mi marker. Find the average
other runner came
second at a time of 10.8 s. As-
in acceleration (in meters per second squared) that the
suming that the runners traveled at their average second-place contestant had during the remaining
speeds for the entire distance, determine the separa- race after Boileau passed the 21 -mi marker.
tion between the two runners when the winner 74. A rock is dropped from rest into a well, (a) If the sound
crossed the finish line. of the splash heard 2.40 s later, how far below the
is

68. A falling objectrequires 1.50 s to travel the last 30 m top of the well is the water located? The speed of
before hitting the ground. From what height above sound in air (for the existing temperature) is 336 m/s.
the ground did it fall? (b) If the travel time for the sound is neglected, what
69. A young woman named Kathy Kool buys a superde- percentage error is introduced when the depth of the
luxe sports car that can accelerate at the rate of well is calculated?
16 ft/s 2 She decides to test the car by dragging with
. 75. A ball is released from rest from a height of 2 m. and
another speedster. Stan Speedy. Both start from rest, the time it measured with a
takes to reach the floor is

but experienced Stan leaves 1 s before Kathy. If Stan stopwatch. The height of the
measured to an ball is

moves with a constant acceleration of 12 ft/s and 2

accuracy of 2 cm and the experiment is repeated 25
Kathy maintains an acceleration of 16 ft/s 2 find , times to give an average time of fall of 0.63 s, with a
(a) the time it takes Kathy to overtake Stan, (h) the standard deviation of 0.03 What value of g do you
s.

distance she travels before she catches him, and obtain from these data? Compare your value with the
(c) the velocities of both cars at the instant she over- accepted value of 9.80 m/s 2 .

takes him. 76. A rocket is upward with an initial ve-

fired vertically
70. A hockey player takes a slap shot at a puck at rest on locity of 80 m/s. It accelerates upward at 4 m/s 2 until it
the ice. The puck glides over the ice for 10 ft without reaches an altitude of 1000 m. At that point, its en-
friction, at which point it runs over rough ice. The gines fail and the rocket goes into free flight, with
puck then accelerates opposite its motion at a uniform acceleration — 9. 80 m/s 2 (a) How long is the rocket in
.

rate of -20 ft/s 2 If the velocity of the puck is 40 ft/s

. motion? (b) What is its maximum altitude? (c) What is
after traveling 100 ft from the point of impact, its velocity just before it collides with the earth? (Hint:
(a) what is the average acceleration imparted to the Consider the motion while the engine is operating
puck as it is struck by the hockey stick? (Assume that separate from the free-flight motion.)
the time of contact is 0.01 s.) (b) How far in all does 77. In a 100-m race, Maggie and Judy cross the finish line
the puck travel before coming to rest? (c) What is the in a dead heat, both taking 10.2 s. Accelerating uni-
64 CHAPTER 3 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

formly, Maggie takes 2.0 s and Judy 3.0 s to attain 8 1 . Two objects A and B are connected by a rigid rod that
maximum speed, which they maintain for the rest of has a length L. The objects slide along perpendicular
the race, What is the acceleration of each sprinter?
(a) guide rails, as shown in Figure 3.24. If A slides to the
(b) What are their respective maximum speeds? left with a constant speed v, find the velocity of B

(c) Which sprinter is ahead at the 6-s mark, and by when a = 60°.
how much?
78, A train travels in time in the following manner. In the
first hour, it travels with a speed v, in the next half
hour it has a speed 3v, in the next 90 min it travels
with a speed v/2, and in the final 2 h it travels with a
speed v/3. (a) Plot the speed-time graph for this trip.
(b) How far does the train travel in this trip? (c) What
is the average speed of the train over the entire trip?
79. A commuter train can minimize the time r between
two by accelerating (a x = 0.1 m/s 2 ) for a time
stations
t
l
then undergoing a negative acceleration (a 2 =
— 0.5 m/s 2 by using his brakes for a time f 2 Since the
) .
Figure 3.24 (Problem 81).
stations are only 1 km apart, the train never reaches its
maximum velocity. Find the minimum time of travel f,
and the time fj CALCULATOR/COMPUTER PROBLEMS
SO. In order to protect his food from hungry bears, a boy
scout raises his food pack, mass m, with a rope that is
82. In Problem 80 let the height h equal 6 m and the
velocity v equal 2 m/s. Assume that the food pack
thrown over a tree limb of height h above his hands.
He walks away from the vertical rope with constant starts on a ledge over a cliff 6 m below the
from rest
boy (a) Tabulate and graph the veloc-
scout's hands,
velocity v holding the free end of the rope in his
ity-time graph, (b) Tabulate and graph the accelera-
hands (see Fig. 3.23). (a) Show that the velocity v of
tion-time graph. (Let the range of time be from s to
the food pack is x(x 2 + h 2 )~ 1 ^ 2 v where x is the dis-
tance he has walked away from the vertical rope, 6 s and the time intervals be 0.5 s.)

(b) Show that the acceleration a of the food pack is I

83. A particle undergoes a varying acceleration. The ve-
locity is measured at 0.5 s intervals and is tabulated
h 2 (x 2 + h 2 )~ 3 / 2 v 2 (c) What values do the accelera-
.

below, (a) Determine the average acceleration in

tion and velocity v have shortly after the boy scout
leaves the vertical rope? (d) What values do the veloc-
each interval, (b) Use a numerical integration proce-
ity and acceleration approach as the distance x contin-
dure to determine the position of the particle at the
ues to increase?
end of each time interval. Assume the initial position
of the particle is zero.

t(s)
v (m

Figure 3.23 (Problem 80).

 Motion in Two Dimensions

A multiflash photograph of a
popular lecture demonstration
in which a projectile is fired at
a falling target. The conditions
of the experiment are that the
gun is aimed at the target and

the projectile leaves the gun at

the same instant that the target
is released from rest. Under
these conditions the projectile
will hit the target, independent
of the initial velocity
of the
projectile. The reason is that
they both experience the same
downward acceleration and
hence fall through the same
vertical distance in the same
time interval. Note that the
velocity of the projectile (red
arrows) changes in direction
and magnitude, while the
downward acceleration (violet
arrows) remains constant.

this chapter we deal with the kinematics of a particle moving in

a plane,
In or two-dimensional motion. Some common examples of motion in a plane
are the motion of projectiles and satellites and the motion of charged
particles in uniform electric fields. We
begin by showing that velocity
and acceleration are vector quantities. As in the case of
one-dimensional mo-
tion, we shall derive the kinematic equations for two-dimensional
motion from
the fundamental definitions of displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
As
special cases of motion in two dimensions, we shall treat motion in
a plane with
constant acceleration and uniform circular motion.

4.1 THE DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND

ACCELERATION VECTORS
In the previous chapter we found that the motion of a particle moving
along a
straight line is completely known if its coordinate is known
as a function of
time. Now let us extend this idea to the motion of a particle in the
xy plane.We
65
66 CHAPTER 4 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

Figure 4.1 A particle moving inthe xy plane is located with the position vector r drawn from the
origin to the particle. The displacement of the particle as it moves from Fto Oin the time interval
Af = ff — f, is equal to the vector Ar = rf — r,

begin by describing the position of a particle with a position vector r, drawn

from the origin of some reference frame to the particle located in the xy plane,
as in Figure 4. 1 At time f the particle is at the point P, and at some later time
.
(
,

t(.the particle is at Q. As the particle moves from P to Q in the time interval

At = t f — t the position vector changes from r to rf where the indices and f
{
.
{
, i

refer to initial and final values. Because rf = r + Ar, the displacement vector f

for the particle is given by

Definition of the displace- Af — rf — r{

(4.1)
ment vector
The direction of Ar is indicated in Figure 4.1. Note that the displacement
vector equals the difference between the final position vector and the initial
position vector. As we see from Figure 4.1, the magnitude of the displacement
vector is less than the distance traveled along the curved path.

We now define the average velocity of the particle during the time inter-
valAf as the ratio of the displacement to the time interval for this displace-
ment:

Average velocity t>

= (4.2)

Since the displacement is a vector and the time interval is a scalar, we

conclude that the average velocity is a vector quantity directed along Ar. Note
that the average velocity between points P and Q is independent of the path
between the two points. This is because the average velocity is proportional to
the displacement, which in turn depends only on the initial and final position
vectors. As we did in the case of one-dimensional motion, we conclude that if a
particle starts its motion at some point and returns to this point via any path, its
average velocity is zero for this trip since its displacement is zero.
Consider again the motion of a particle between two points in the xy
plane, as in Figure 4.2. As the time intervals become smaller and smaller, the
displacements, Ar, Ar2 Ar3 .... get progressively smaller and the direc-
, , ,

tion of the displacement approaches that of the line tangent to the path at the
point P.

The instantaneous velocity, c, is defined as the limit of the average veloc-

ity, Ar/Af, as Af approaches zero:
 4.1 THE DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION VECTORS 67

y Direction of t at P

Figure 4.2 As a particle moves between two points, its average velocity is in the direction of the
displacement vector Ar. As the point Q moves closer to P, the direction of Ar approaches that of
the line tangent to the curve at P. By definition, the instantaneous velocity at Pis in the direction of
this tangent line.

Ar dr
= km —— = -r-
..
v (4.3) Instantaneous velocity
a/— o At at

That is, the instantaneous velocity equals the derivative of the position vector
with respect to time. The direction of the velocity vector is along a line that is
tangent to the path of the particle and in the direction of motion. This is
illustrated in Figure 4.3 for two points along the path. The magnitude of the
instantaneous velocity vector is called the speed. Note that Equation 4.3 is a
logical generalization of differentiation as developed in the study of calculus.
As the particle moves from P to Q along some path, its instantaneous
velocity vector changes from v at time t to v f at time t f (Figure 4.3).
{ t

The average acceleration of the particle as it moves from P to Q is defined

as the ratio of the change in the instantaneous velocity vector, A©, to the
elapsed time, At:

-
a ——
vf —
t( -
v,

t,
- —
= Av
At
(4.4) Average acceleration

Figure 4.3 The average acceleration vector, o, for a particle moving from P to Q is in the
direction of the change in the velocity, At> = Vf — c^
68 CHAPTER 4 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

Since the average acceleration is the ratio of a vector, Av, and a scalar, Af, we
conclude that a is a vector quantity directed along Av. As is indicated in Figure
4.3, the direction of At? is found by adding the vector — », (the negative oft;,)
to the vector v { since by definition Av = v f — v
,
t
.

The instantaneous acceleration, a, is defined as the limiting value of the

ratio Av/At as At approaches zero:

Av dv
= \\m —— = -j-
.

Instantaneous acceleration a (4.5)

a«— o At at

In other words, the instantaneous acceleration equals the first derivative of the
velocity vector with respect to time.
It is important to recognize that a particle can accelerate for several
reasons. First, the magnitude of the velocity vector (the speed) may change
with time as in one-dimensional motion. Second, a particle accelerates when
the direction of the velocity vector changes with time (a curved path) even
though its speed is constant. Finally, the acceleration may be due to a change
in both the magnitude and the direction of the velocity vector.

4.2 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS WITH

CONSTANT ACCELERATION
Let us consider the motion of a particle in two dimensions with constant
acceleration. That is, we assume that the magnitude and direction of the
acceleration remain unchanged during the motion.
A particle in motion can be described by its position vector r. The position
vector for a particle moving in the xy plane can be written

r = xi + yj (4.6)

where x, y, and rchange with time as the particle moves. If the position vector
is known, the velocity of the particle can be obtained from Equations 4.3 and

4.6, which give

dr dx dy
»= tdt
= t' + i~J
dt
,

dt
J
,

v = vx i + vy j (4.7)

Because a is a constant, its components a, and a y are also constants. Therefore,

we can apply the equations of kinematics to both the x and y components of the
velocity vector. Substituting^ = vz0 + a x t and v y = v y0 + a y t into Equation 4.7
gives

f = («x0 + "J)* + V y0 + a y )J ( f

= (Vrfi + Vyoj) + (ax i + a y j)t

Velocity vector as a function

v = vn + at (4.8)
of time
 4.2 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION 69

This result states that the velocity of a particle at some time t equals the vector
sum of its initial velocity, v Q and the additional velocity at acquired in the time
,

t as a result of its constant acceleration.

from kinematics we know that the x and y coordinates of a
Similarly,
particle moving with constant acceleration are given by
x = x + v z0 t + \a x t 2 and y = y + v^t + \a y t
2

Substituting these expressions into Equation 4.6 gives

r=(x + Vx0 t + \a x t 2 )i + (y + Vy0 t + \a yt 2 )j

= (*o* + yj) + («xo* + VyoJ)t + Ua x + a y j)t 2
i

or

r =r + v t + \at 2 (4.9)

This equation says that the displacement vector r — r is the vector sum of a
displacement v t, arising from the initial velocity of the particle, and a dis-
placement $at 2 resulting from the uniform acceleration of the particle.
,

Graphical representations of Equations 4.6 and 4.7 are shown in Figures 4.4a
and 4.4b. For simplicity in drawing the figure, we have taken r = in Figure
4.4b. That is, we assume that the particle is at the origin at t = 0. Note from
Figure 4.4b that r is generally not along the direction of v or a, since the
relation between these quantities is a vector expression. For the same reason,

from Figure 4.4a we see that v is generally not along the direction of v Q or a.
Finally, if we compare Figures 4.4a and 4.4b we see that v and r are not in the
same direction. Thisbecause t; is linear in r, while r is quadratic in t. It is also
is

important to recognize that since Equations 4.8 and 4.9 are vector expressions
having one or more components (in general, three components), we may write
the component forms of these expressions along the x and y axes with r =
Multiflash exposure of a tennis

+ axt player executing a backhand

t? + at swing. Note the parabolic path of
+ a.,t the ball. Such photographs can be
used to study the quality of sports
equipment and the performance of
an athlete. (© Zimmerman, FPG
International)

Figure 4.4 Vector representations and rectangular components of (a) the velocity and (b) the
displacement of a particle moving with a uniform acceleration a.
70 CHAPTER 4 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

=v t+ U = «w + K< 2

r hat 2
+ W 2

These components are illustrated in Figure 4.4. In other words, two-dimen-

sional motion with constant acceleration is equivalent to two independent
motions in the x and y directions with constant accelerations a x and a y .

EXAMPLE 4.1 Motion in a Plane The angle 6 that v makes with the x axis can be calcu-
A particle moves in the xy plane with an x component of lated using the fact that tan 6 = vy /vx or,

acceleration only, given by a x = 4 m/s 2 . The particle

starts from the origin at t = with an initial velocity hav- . = tan- 1
(^)
= tan-(^)= -20.6*
ing an i component of 20 m/s and a y component of
— 15 m/s. (a) Determine the components of velocity as a (c) Determine the x and y coordinates at any time t

function of time and the total velocity vector at any time. and the displacement vector at this time.
Since v^ = 20 m/s and a, = 4 m/s 2 the equations of , Since at t = 0, x = = 0, the expressions for the x
y
kinematics give and y coordinates, the equations of kinematics give
= »xO + a xt = 20 + 4 m /s
vx (

x = v z0 t + \_a x t
2 = (20f + 2f 2 ) m
Also, since =
o^ — 15 m/s and a y = 0,

y
= v yO t= (~l5t)m
Therefore, using the above results and noting that the
Therefore, the displacement vector at any time t is given
velocity vector v has two components, we get
by

v = vx i + v yj = [(20 + 4f)i - I5j] m/s

r=xi + yj= [(20r+2r 2 )i-15tf]m

We could also obtain this result using Equation 4.8 di-

Alternatively, we could obtain r by applying Equation
rectly, noting that a = 4i m/s 2 and t> = (20i — 15j) m/s.
4.9 directly, with v = (20» — 15;) m/s and a = 4i m/s 2 .

Try it!
Try it!

(b) Calculate the velocity and speed of the particle Thus, for example, at t = 5 s, x = 150 m and y=
at t — 5 s. -75 m, or r = (150i - 75./') m. It follows that the dis-
With (=5s, the result from (a) gives tance of the particle from the origin to this point is the
magnitude of the displacement, or
c = {[20 + 4(5)]i - 15j} m/s = (40i - 15j) m/s |r| =r= V(150) 2 + (-75) 2 m= 168 m
That is, at r = 5 s, vx = 40 m/s and vy = — 15 m/s. The Note not the distance that the particle travels
that this is

in this time! Can you determine this distance from the

speed is defined as the magnitude of p, or
available data?
v = |c| = Vt;, 2 + vf = V(40) 2 + (-15) 2 m/s

= 42.7 m/s

(Note: v is larger than v . Why?)

4.3 PROJECTILE MOTION

Anyone who has observed a baseball in motion (or, for that matter, any object
thrown observed projectile motion. For an arbitrary direction
into the air) has
of the moves in a curved path. This very common form
initial velocity, the ball
Assumptions of projectile of motion is surprisingly simple to analyze if the following two assumptions are
motion made: (1) the acceleration due to gravity, g, is constant over the range of
 4.3 PROJECTILE MOTION 71

motion and is directed downward, and (2) the effect of air resistance is negligi-
'

ble. 2 With these assumptions, we shall find that the path of a projectile, which
we call its trajectory, is always a parabola. We shall use these assumptions
throughout this chapter.
If wechoose our reference frame such that the y direction is vertical and
positive upward, then a
y
= — g (as in one-dimensional free fall) and a x =
(since air friction is neglected). Furthermore, let us assume that at t — 0, the
projectile leaves the origin (x = y = 0) with a velocity u as in Figure 4.5. If ,

the vector v makes an angle 6 with the horizontal, where 6 is the projection
angle as in Figure 4.5, then from the definitions of the cosine and sine func-
tions we have

cos 6 = v^/vq and sin d = v^/vq

Therefore, the initial x and y components of velocity are given by

v xo = vo cos 0o and v^ = v sin 6

Substituting these expressions into Equations 4.8 and 4.9 with a = and
x
a y = ~~ g gives the velocity components and coordinates for the projectile at
any time t:

Horizontal velocity
vx — v x0 = v cos 9 = constant (4.10) component

vy = VyO ~ gt = V Sin 6 - gt (4.11) Vertical velocity component

Horizontal position
x = v x0 t = (v cos 6 )t
.

^4.1Z;
.

component

y = Vyot- ig' = (»o Sin 0(>)' ~ kgt

2 2
(4.13) Vertical position component

Figure 4.5 The parabolic trajectory of a projectile that leaves the origin with a velocity t> Note .

that the velocity vector, v, changes with time. However, the x component of velocity, v^, remains
constant in time while v changes with time. Also, v = at the peak.
y

1
This approximation is reasonable as long as the range of motion is small compared with the radius
of the earth (6.4 X 10 6 m). In effect, this approximation is equivalent to assuming that the earth is
flat over the range of motion considered.

2
This approximation is generally no? justified, especially at high velocities. In addition, the spin of
a projectile, such as a baseball, can give rise to some very interesting effects associated with
aerodynamic forces (for example, a curve thrown by a pitcher).
 CHAPTER 4 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

From Equation 4.10 we see that v x remains constant in time and is equal to
the initial x component of velocity, since there is no horizontal component of
acceleration. Also, for the y motion we note that v y and y are identical to the
expressions for the freely falling body discussed in Chapter 3. In fact, all of the
equations of kinematics developed in Chapter 3 are applicable to projectile
motion.
If we solve for t in Equation 4.12 and substitute this expression for f into
Equation 4.13. we find that

A bouncing off a hard sur- y = (tan 8 )x - I (4.14)

golfball ( )
face. Note the parabolic path of
the ball following each bounce.
H.irold E. Edgerton. Courtesy
which is valid for the angles in the range < 6 < a/2. This is of the form
of Palm Press Inc.) y = ax — fox 2 the equation of a parabola that passes through the
, which is

origin. Thus, we have proved that the trajectory of a projectile is a parabola.

Note that the trajectory is completely specified if r and 8 are known.
One can obtain the speed, o, as a function of time for the projectile by
noting that Equations 4. 10 and 4.11 give the x and y components of velocity at
am instant. Therefore, by definition, since c is equal to the magnitude of c.

+ v. (4.15)

Also, since the velocity vector is tangent to the path at any instant, as shown in

Figure 4.5. the angle 6 that c makes with the horizontal can be obtained from
ox and D_ through the expression

Angle of trajectory tan 6 = -= (4.16)

The vector expression for the position vector as a function of time for the
projectile follows directly from Equation 4.9. with a — g.
r=r + +gf 2f

This expression is equivalent to Equations 4.12 and 4.13 and is plotted in

Figure 4.6. Note that this equation is consistent with Equation 4.13. since the

Figure 4.6 The displacement vector, r. of a projectile having an initial velocity at the origin of e .

The vector c t would be the displacement of the projectile if gravity were absent, and the vector
2 is its
igf vertical displacement due to gravity in the time t.
 4.3 PROJECTILE MOTION 73

expression for ris a vector equation and a = g = — gj when the upward direc-

tion taken to be positive. It is interesting to note that the motion can be

is

considered the superposition of the term v t, which is the displacement if no

acceleration were present, and the term {gt 2 which arises from the accelera- ,

tion due to gravity. In other words, if there were no gravitational acceleration,

the particle would continue to move along a straight path in the direction of v .

Therefore, the vertical distance, \gt 2 through which the particle "falls" mea-
,

sured from the straight line is that of a freely falling body. We conclude that
projectile motion is the superposition of two motions: (1) the motion of a freely
falling body in the vertical direction with constant acceleration and (2) uniform
motion in the horizontal direction with constant velocity.

Horizontal Range and Maximum Height of a Projectile Let us assume that a

projectile is fired from the origin at t = with a positive v y component, as in
Figure 4.7. There are two special points that are interesting to analyze: the
peak with cartesian coordinates labeled (R/2, h) and the point with coordi-
nates (R, 0). The distance R is called the horizontal range of the projectile, and
h is its maximum height. Let us find h and R in terms of v 6 and g. , ,

We can determine the maximum height, h, reached by the projectile by

noting that at the peak, v = 0. Therefore, Equation 4.11 can be used to
y
determine the time t x it takes to reach the peak:

v sin 8
h=

Substituting this expression for f! into Equation 4.13 gives h in terms of u

and 8 :

oxUosin^o /u sin0o \ 2
i
h = ,
(v sin 6 )
,

|g -?o ^ Maximum height of projectile

g \ g /

(4.17)
2g
The the horizontal distance traveled in twice the time it takes
range, R, is

to reach the peak, thatis, in a time 2t x (This can be seen by setting y =

. in
Equation 4.13 and solving the quadratic for t. One solution of this quadratic is
74 CHAPTER 4 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

t = 0. and the second is f = 2t 1 .) Using Equation 4.12 and noting that x = R at

t=2t 1
. we find that

= 2v sin 8
R= (c cos 8 )2t 1 (t-"o cos 6 )

2
2v sin 9 cos 8
R

Since sin 28 = 2 sin 8 cos 8, R can be written in the more compact form

2
f sin 28
Range of projectile R= (4.18)

Keep in mind that Equations 4.17 and 4.18 are useful only for calculating and /i

R if v and 8 are known and only for a symmetric path, as shown in Figure 4.7
(which means that only v has to be specified). The general expressions given
by Equations 4.10 through 4.13 are the most important results, since they give
the coordinates and velocity components of the projectile at any time t.
You should note that the maximum value of R from Equation 4.18 is
R,,^ = D */g. This result follows from the fact that the maximum value of
sin 28 is unity, which occurs when 28 = 90
c
Therefore, we see that R is a .

maximum when 8 = 45 as you would expect if air friction is neglected.

c
.

Figure 4.8 illustrates various trajectories for a projectile of a given initial

speed. As you can see, the range is a maximum for 8 = c
45 In addition, for
.

c
any 8 other than 45 . a point with coordinates (R. 0) can be reached with two
c
complementary values of 8 such as 75° and 15 Of course, the maximum
, .

height and time of flight will be different for these two values of 8 .

y(m)

i = 50 m/s

Figure 4.S A projectile fired from the origin at an initial speed of 50 m/s at various angles of
projection. Note that a point along the i axis can be reached at anv two complementary values
of0o .
 4.3 PROJECTILE MOTION 75

EXAMPLE 4.2 The Long-jump

Target
A long-jumper leaves the ground at an angle of 20°
to the ( = Q
horizontal and at a speed of does he 1 1 m/s. (a) How far
jump? (Assume that the motion of the long-jumper is
equivalent to that of a particle.)

Solution His horizontal motion is described by using

Equation 4.12:

x = (v cos o )f
= (1 1 m/s)(cos 20°)f

The value of x can be found iff, the total time of the

jump, is known. We are able to find t using the expres-
sion v
y
= v sin 6 — by noting that at the top of the
gt
jump the vertical component of velocity goes to zero:
vy = v sin O
- gt
= (1 1 m/s) sin 20° - (9.80 m/s 2 )*!

fj = 0.384 s
Figure 4.9 (Example 4.3) Schematic diagram of the projectile-
and-target demonstration. If the gun is aimed directly at the
Note that t 1 is the time interval to reach the top of target and is fired at the same instant the target begins to fall, the

the jump. Because of the symmetry of the vertical mo- projectile will hit the target. Both fall through the same vertical
distance in a time t, since both experience the same accelera-
tion, an identical time interval passes before the jumper
tion, a =-e.
returns to the ground. Therefore, the total time in the air
is t = 2fj = 0.768 s. Substituting this into the expression
for x gives initially aimed at the target, the projectile will hit the
target. 3

i = (11 m/s)(cos 20°)(0.768 s) = 7.94 m

Solution We can argue that a collision will result under
the conditions stated by noting that both the projectile
(b) What is the maximum height reached?
and the experience the same acceleration,
target

Solution The maximum height reached is found using

a
y
= — g, as soon
they are released. First, note from
as

= = Figure 4.9 that the initial y coordinate of the target is

Equation 4.13, with t tx 0.384 s:
x T tan O and that it falls through a distance £gf 2 in a time

y m ax = (i'osin6' )f 1 -igr 1 2 t. Therefore, the y coordinate of the target as a function

of time is
y max = (1 1 m/s)(sin 20°)(0.384 s)

yT = xT tan 8 - \gt 2
- 1(9.80 m/s 2 )(0.384 s)
2

Now we
write equations for x and y for the projectile
if

= path over time, using Equations 4.12 and 4.13 simulta-

0.722 m
neously, we get

The assumption that the motion of the long-jumper yP = x P tan 8 - |gr 2

is that of a projectile
an oversimplification of the situa-
is

tion. Nevertheless, the values obtained are reasonable.

Thus, when xP = xT , we see by comparing the two equa-

Note that we also could have used Equations 4.17 and

tions above that yP = y T and a collision results.
4.18 to find the maximum height and horizontal range.
The result could also be arrived at with vector
methods, using expressions for the position vectors for
However, the method used in our solution is more in-
the projectile and target.
structive.
You should also note that a collision will not always
take place. There is the further restriction that a collision

EXAMPLE 4.3 It's A Bull's Eye Even, Time

3 In one variation of the demonstration, the target is a tin can
In a very popular lecture demonstration, a projectile is
held by an electromagnet energized with a small battery. At the
such a way that the projectile
fired at a falling target in
instant the projectile leaves the gun, a small switch at the top of
leaves the gun at the same time the target is dropped
the gun is opened by the moving projectile. This opens the
from rest, as in Figure 4.9. Let us show that if the gun is circuit containing the electromagnet, allowing the target to fall.
76 CHAPTER 4 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

will result only when v sin 6 s •Jgd/2, where d is the ure 4.1 1. If the plane is traveling horizontally at 40 m/s

initial elevation of the target above the floor, as in Figure at a height of 100 mabove the ground, where does the
4.9. If u sin is less than this value, the projectile will package strike the ground relative to the point at which it
strike the floor before reaching the target. was released?

EXAMPLE 4.4 That's Quite an Arm

A stone is thrown from the top of a building upward at an
angle of 30 ° to the horizontal and with an initial speed of
20 m/s, as in Figure 4. 1 0. If the height of the building is
45 m, (a) how long is the stone "in flight"?

20 m/s

Figure 4.10 (Example 4.4).

Figure 4.11 (Example 4.5) To an observer on the ground, a

Solution The initial x and y components of the velocity
package released from the rescue plane travels along the path
are shown.

Vrf = (20 m/s)(cos 30°) = 17.3 m/s

= v cos 6

Vyo = (20 m/s)(sin 30°) = 10 m/s

= v sin 6 Solution The coordinate system for this problem is se-
To find we can use y = v^t — |gr 2 (Equation 4.13)
t, lected as shown in Figure 4.11, with the positive x direc-
with y = — 45 m and u^ = 10 m/s (we have chosen the tion to the rightand the positive y direction upward.
top of the building as the origin, as shown as in Figure Consider first the horizontal motion of the package.
4.10): The only equation available to us is x = v^t
-45 m = (10 m/s)t - |(9.80 m/s 2 )* 2 The initial x component of the package velocity is
the same as the velocity of the plane when the package
Solving the quadratic equation for t gives, for the posi-
was released, 40 m/s. Thus, we have
tive root, t= 4.22 s. Does the negative root have any
physical meaning? (Can you think of another way of find- x= (40 m/s)f

ing from the information given?)

t we know t the length of time the package is in the
If ,

(b) What is the speed of the stone just before it

air, we can determine I, the distance traveled by the

strikes the ground? package along the horizontal. To find f, we move to the
equations, for the vertical motion of the package. We
Solution The
component of the velocity just before
y know that at the instant the package hits the ground its y
the stone strikes the ground can be obtained using the coordinate — 100 m. We also know that the initial ve-
is

equation v
y
= v^ — gf (Equation 4.11) with f = 4.22 s: package in the vertical direction, tv,, is zero
locity of the

v y = 10 m/s - (9.80 m/s 2 )(4.22 s) = -31.4 m/s because the package was released with only a horizontal
component of velocity. From Equation 4.13, we have
Since v z = v^ = 17.3 m/s, the required speed is given by
y = -igt
2

v = Vty 8
+ vy 2 = n/(17.3) 2 + (-31.4) 2
m/s = 35.9 m/s - 100 m = -£(9.80 m/s 2 )f 2
2 =
Exercise Where does t 20.4 s 2
l the stone strike the ground?
Answer 73 m from the base of the building. * = 4.51 s

The value for the time of flight substituted into the

equation for the x coordinate gives
EXAMPLE 4.5 The Stranded Explorers
An Alaskan rescue plane drops a package of emergency =
x (40m/s)(4.51 s) 180 m
rations to a stranded party of explorers, as shown in Fig-
 4.4 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 77

Exercise 2 What are the horizontal and vertical compo- 4.12, we see that his x and y coordinates at the point of
nents of the velocity of the package just before it hits the landing are given by x = d cos 35° and y = —d sin 35°.
ground? Substituting these relations into (1) and (2) gives
Answer ox = 40 m/s; v = — 44.1 m/s.
=
y (3) d cos 35° (25 m/s)f

(4) -dsin 35°= -£(9.80 m/s 2 )r 2

EXAMPLE 4.6 The End of the Ski Jump
A ski jumper travels down a slope and leaves the ski track Eliminating t from these equations gives (i = 109m.
moving in the horizontal direction with a speed of 25 m/s Hence, the x and y coordinates of the point at which he
as in Figure 4.12. The landing incline below him falls off lands are
with a slope of 35°. (a) Where does he land on the in-
cline? x = d cos 35° = (109 m) cos 35°= 89.3 m
Solution It is convenient to select the origin (x = y = 0) = —d 35° = —(109 35° = —62.5 m
y sin m) sin
at the beginning of the jump. Since v^ = 25 m/s, and
VyQ = in this case, Equations 4.12 and 4.13 give
Exercise 3 Determine how long the ski jumper is air-
(1) j = cl0 (=(25m/s)( borne, and his vertical component of velocity just before
(2) y = Zy0 t-igt* = -U9-80™/s*)t* he lands on the slope.
Answer 3.57 s; t>„ = —35.0 m/s
Taking d to be the distance he travels along the incline
before landing, then from the right triangle in Figure

Figure 4.12 (Example 4.6).

4.4 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

Figure 4.13a shows an object moving in a circular path with constant linear
speed v. It is often surprising to students to find that even though the object
moves at a constant speed, it still has an acceleration. To see why this occurs,
consider the defining equation for average acceleration, a = Av/At.
Note that the acceleration depends on the change in the velocity vector.
Because velocity is a vector, there are two ways in which an acceleration can
be produced: by a change in the magnitude of the velocity and by a change in
the direction of the velocity. It is the latter situation that is occurring for an
object moving in a circular path with constant speed. The velocity vector is
always tangent to the path of the particle and in this case is perpendicular to r.
 CHAPTER 4 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

Figure 4.13 (a) Circular motion of an object moving with a constant speed, (b! As the particle
moves from Pto Q. the direction of its velocity vector changes from C; toc f (c) The construction
.

for determining the direction of the change in velocity. Ac. which is toward the center of the
circle.

We shall show that the acceleration vector in this case is perpendicular to the
path and always points toward the center of the circle. An acceleration of this
nature is called a centripetal acceleration (center-seeking) and its magnitude
is given by

Centripetal acceleration (4.19)

To derive Equation 4.19. consider Figure 4.13b. Here an object is seen

first at point Pwith velocity time f and then at point Q with velocity c f at a
t"j at s

later time f f Let us also assume here that i\ and r f differ only in direction: their
.

magnitudes are the same (that is. Dj = r f = r). In order to calculate the acceler-
ation, let us begin with the defining equation for average acceleration:

ff — Cj Ac
a = = ——
tf— t, Af

This equation indicates that we must vectorially subtract c from c f where f

.

Ac = f f — fj is the change in the velocity. That is. Ac is obtained by adding to c f

the vector — c This can be accomplished graphically as shown by the vector
;
.

triangle in Figure 4.13c. Note that when Af is very small. As and A6 are also
very small. In this case. c f will be almost parallel to v and the vector Ac will be
i

approximately perpendicular to them, pointing toward the center of the

circle.
Now consider the triangle in Figure 4. 1 3b. which has sides As and r. This
triangle and the one with sides Ac and c Figure 4.13c are similar. (Two
in
triangles are similar if the angle between any two sidesis the same for both

triangles and if the ratio of lengths of these sides is the same.) This enables us to
write a relationship between the lengths of the sides:

Ar As

This equation can be solved for Ac and the expression so obtained can be
substituted into a = Ac /Af to give a At = v As/r, or

c As
a =
r Af
 4.5 TANGENTIAL AND RADIAL ACCELERATION IN CURVILINEAR MOTION 79

Now imagine that points P and O in Figure 4. 1 3b become extremely close

together. In this case Av would point toward the center of the circular path,
and because the acceleration is in the direction of Av, it too is toward the
center. Furthermore, as the two points P and Q approach each other. At
approaches zero, and the ratio As/ At approaches the speed v. Hence, in the
limit At — » 0, the magnitude of the acceleration is

Thus we conclude that in uniform circular motion, the acceleration is directed

inward toward the center of the circle and has a magnitude given by v 2 /r. You
should show that the dimensions of a T are [L]/[T 2 ], as required because this is a
true acceleration. We shall return to the discussion of circular motion in
Section 6.1.

4.5 TANGENTIAL AND RADIAL ACCELERATION IN

CURVILINEAR MOTION
Let us consider the motion of a particle along a curved path where the velocity
changes both in direction and in magnitude, as described in Figure 4.14. In
this situation, the velocity of the particle is always tangent to the path; how-
ever, the acceleration vector a is now at some angle to the path. As the particle
moves along the curved path in Figure 4.14, we see that the direction of the
changes from point to point. This vector can be
total acceleration vector, a,
resolved into two component vectors: a radial component vector, a T and a ,

tangential component vector, a,. That is, the total acceleration vector, a, can
be written as the vector sum of these component vectors:

a =a +a
T t (4.20) Total acceleration

The tangential acceleration arises from the change in the speed of the particle,
and its projection along the direction of the velocity, or to the tangent of the
orbit, is

djv\
(4.21) Tangential acceleration
dt

Path of
~ particle
v

Figure 4.14 The motion of a particle along an arbitrary curved path lying in the xy plane. If the
velocity vector v (always tangent to the path) changes in direction and magnitude, the component
vectors of the acceleration of the particle are a tangential vector, a,, and a radial vector, a,.
80 CHAPTER 4 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

The radial acceleration is due to the time rate of change in direction of the
velocity vectorand has an absolute magnitude given by

Centripetal acceleration (4.22)

where r is the radius of curvature of the path at the point in question Since a r
.

and a, are perpendicular component vectors of a. it follows that a = \ a r 2 + a t 2 .

As in the case of uniform circular motion. aT always points toward the center of
curvature, as shown in Figure 4.14. Also, at a given speed. a r is large when the
radius of curvature is small (as at points P and Q in Fig. 4.14) and small when r is
large (such as at point R). The direction of a, is either in the same direction as v
(iff is increasing) or opposite v (iff is decreasing).
Note that in the case of uniform circular motion, where f is constant,
a, = and the acceleration is always radial, as we described in Section 4.4.
Furthermore, if the direction of c doesn't change, then there is no radial
acceleration and the motion is one-dimensional (a r = 0, a, ¥= 0).
It is convenient to write the acceleration of a particle moving in a circular

path in terms of unit vectors. We can do this by defining the unit vectors f
and 0. where r is a unit vector directed radially outward along the radius vector.
from the center of curvature, and 8 is a unit vector tangent to the circular path.
as in Figure 4.15a. The direction of 6 is in the direction of increasing 8. where 6
is measured counterclockwise from the positive axis in the direction of the
.r

moving particle. Note that both r and 6 "move along with the particle" and so
vary in time relative to a stationary observer. Using this notation, we can
express the total acceleration as

d\v\ -

a =a +a =—
t r
=— a (4.23)
dt

These vectors are described in Figure 4. 1 5b. The negative sign for a r indicates
that it is always directed radially inward, opposite the unit vector f.

a b

Figure 4.15 (a) Description of the unit vectors r and 6. (b) The total acceleration a of a particle
rotating in a circle consists of a radial component vector, a,, directed toward the center of
rotation, and a tangential component vector, a,. The component vector a, is zero if the speed is
constant.
 .

4.6 RELATIVE VELOCITY AND RELATIVE ACCELERATION 81

EXAMPLE The Swinging Ball

4.7
A ball end of a string 0.5 m in length swings in
tied to the
a vertical circle under the influence of gravity, as in Fig-
ure 4.16. When the string makes an angle of 6 = 20°
with the vertical, the ball has a speed of 1 .5 m/s. (a) Find
the radial component of acceleration at this instant.
Since = 1.5 m/s and r = 0.5 m, we find that
t>

v2 _ (1.5 m/s) 2
4.5 m/s 2
0.5 m
(b) When the ball is at an angle 8 to the vertical, it has
a tangential acceleration of magnitude g sin 6 (the com-
ponent of g tangent to the circle). Therefore, at 6 = 20°,
we find that a t = g sin 20° = 3.36 m/s 2 Find the magni- .

tude and direction of the total acceleration at 6 = 20°.

Since a = a r + a t the magnitude of a at 6 = 20° is
,

given by

a = Va r 2 +a2= t
V(4.5) 2 + (3.36) 2 m/s 2 = 5.62 m/s 2 Figure 4.16 (Example 4.7) Circular motion of a ball tied on a
string of length r. The ball swings in a vertical plane, and its
acceleration, a, has a radial component vector, a T and a tangen-
,

If is the angle between a and the string, then tial component vector, a,

/ 36 m/s 2 \
3.36m/s
tan ' — = tan 36.7° angle, and a t is a maximum, since v is a maximum. If the
.5 m/s 2 )
V 4.5
:

ball has enough speed to reach its highest position

Note that all of the vectors a, a,, anda r— change — (9 = 180°), a, is again zero but a T is a minimum, since v is

in direction and magnitude as the ball swings through the a minimum. Finally, in the two horizontal positions,
circle. When the ball is at its lowest elevation (6 = 0), (8 = 90° and 270°),|a,| = g and a r is somewhere between
at = 0, since there is no tangential component of gat this its minimum and maximum values.

4.6 RELATIVE VELOCITY AND RELATIVE

ACCELERATION
In this section, we describe how observations made by different observers in
different frames of reference are related to each other. We shall find that
observers in different frames of reference may measure different displace-
ments, velocities, and accelerations for a particle in motion. That is, two
observers moving with respect to each other will generally not agree on the
outcome of a measurement.
For example, if two cars are moving in the same direction with speeds of
50 mi/h and 60 mi/h, a passenger in the slower car will claim that the speed of
the faster car relative to that of the slower car is 10 mi/h. Of course, a station-
ary observer will measure the speed of the faster car to be 60 mi/h. This simple
example demonstrates that velocity measurements differ in different frames of
reference.
Next, suppose a person riding on a moving vehicle (observer A) throws a
up in the air according to his frame of reference, as in Figure
ball straight
4.17a. According to observer A, the ball will move in a vertical path. On the
other hand, a stationary observer (B) will see the path of the ball as a parabola,
as illustrated in Figure 4.17b.
82 CHAPTER 4 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

I \
Path seen
O Path bv observer B
seen by u
observer A

— c — ^r^r
Figure 4.17 (a) Observer A in a moving vehicle throws a ball upward and sees a straight-line path
for the ball, (b) A stationary observer B sees a parabolic path for the same ball.

Another simple example imagine a package being dropped from an

is to
airplane flying parallel to the earth with a constant velocity. An observer on
the airplane would describe the motion of the package as a straight line toward
the earth. On the other hand, an observer on the ground would view the
trajectory of the package as a parabola. Relative to the ground, the package has
a vertical component of velocity (resulting from the acceleration of gravity and
equal to the velocity measured by the observer in the airplane) and a horizon-
tal component of velocity (given to it by the airplane's motion). If the airplane
continues to move horizontally with the same velocity, the package will hit the
ground directly beneath the airplane (assuming that friction is neglected)!
In a more general situation, consider a particle located at the point P in
Figure 4.18. Imagine that the motion of this particle is being described by two
observers, one in reference frame S, fixed with respect to the earth, and
another in reference frame S ', moving to the right relative to S with a constant
velocity u. (Relative to an observer in S', S moves to the left with a velocity
— u.) The location of an observer in his own frame of reference is irrelevant in
this discussion, but to be definite the observer can be placed at the origin.
We label the position of the particle with respect to the S frame with the
position vector r and label its position relative to the S frame with the vector
'

r', at some time t. If the origins of the two reference frames coincide at f = 0,

Figure 4.18 A particle located at the point P is described by two observers, one in the fixed frame
of reference, S, the other in the frame S', which moves with a constant velocity u to the right. The
vector r is the particle's position vector relative to S, and r' is the position vector relative to S'.
 E

4.6 RELATIVE VELOCITY AND RELATIVE ACCELERATION 83

then the vectors r and r' are related to each other through the expression
r=r' + ut, or

— ut Galilean coordinate
r (4.24)
transformation

That is, in a time r the S' frame is displaced to the right by an amount ut.
If we differentiate Equation 4.24 with respect to time and note that u is

constant, we get

dr' dr
—r- =-= U
dt dt

Galilean velocity
v' = v-u (4.25)
transformation

where the velocity of the particle observed in the S' frame and v is the
v' is

velocity observed in the S frame. Equations 4.24 and 4.25 are known as
Galilean transformation equations.
Although observers in the two different reference frames will measure
different velocities for the particles, they will measure the same acceleration
when u is constant. This can be seen by taking the time derivative of Equation
4.25, which gives

dv' _ dv _ du
dt dt dt

But du/dt = 0, since u is constant. Therefore, we conclude that a' — a since

a' = dv'/dt and a = dv/dt. That is, the acceleration of the particle measured by
an observer in the earth 's frame of reference will be the same as that measured
by any other observer moving with constant velocity with respect to the first
observer.

EXAMPLE 4.8 A Boat Crossing a River

A boat heading due north crosses a wide river with a
speed of 10 km/h relative to the water. The river has a *1 W —()—
uniform speed of 5 km/h due east. Determine the veloc-
ity of the boat with respect to a stationary ground ob-

Solution The moving reference frame, S', is attached to

a cork floating on the river, and the observer is in the

stationary reference frame, S (the earth). The vectors u,

v, and v' are defined as follows:

m = velocity of the water with respect to the earth Figure 4.19 (Examples 4.8 and 4.9) (a) If the boat heads north,
the motion of the boat relative to the earth is northeast along v
v = velocity of the boat with respect to the earth when the river flows eastward, (b) If the boat is to travel north, it
must have a northwest heading as shown. In both cases, v =
v' = velocity of the boat with respect to the water
v' + u and the heading of the boat is parallel to v'.

In this example,w is to the right, v' is straight up, and v is

atthe angle #,, as defined in Figure 4.19a. Since these v = V(i>') 2 + «2 = V(io)« + (5)
2 km/h = 11.2 km/h
three vectors form a right triangle, the speed of the boat
with respect to the earth is and the direction of v is
S4 CHAPTER 4 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

magnitude and direction of the airplane's velocity rela-

*x = tan-i(^) = tan-i(A)= 26 6
.
-

tive to the earth.

Therefore, the boat will be traveling 63.4° north of east Solution The airplane's velocity, c relative to the
with respect to the earth. earth is the vector sum of the two velocities given in the
problem, and as indicated in the vector diagram in Fig-
ure 4.20. Since the airplane's velocity relative to the air
EXAMPLE 4.9 Which Way Should We Head? is c
pa = (400 km/h)i, while the wind's velocity relative to
boat in Example 4.8 travels with the same speed of
If the
the earth is v^ = (75 km/h).;, we find
10 km/h relative to the water and is to travel due north,
as in Figure 4.19b, what should be its heading? |c ^1 = v'(400 km/h) 2 + (75 km/h) 2 = 407 km/h
Solution Intuitively, we know that the boat must head
The angle 6 that v^ makes with the horizontal is
upstream. For this example, the vectors u, c, and v' are
oriented as shown in Figure 4.19b. where v' is now the 75 km/h
= 0.1875 10.6°
hypotenuse of the right triangle. Therefore, the boat's 400 km/h
speed relative to the earth is
Hence, the airplane's velocity relative to the earth is

= 407 km/h in the direction 10.6° north of east.

v V(u') 2 -ti 2 = V(10) 2 -(5) 2 km/h = 8.66 km/h
Exercise 4 If the airplane moves at the same airspeed of

02 = taa-(f)=tan-1 (^)= 30° 400 km/h, in what direction must it head in order to
move due east relative to the earth?
Answer 10.8° south of east.
where 9, is west of north.

EXAMPLE Airplane Flying in a Crosswind

4.10 75 km/h
An airplane headed due east at an airspeed of 400
is
= 400 km/h
i-p,
km/h. At the same time, a wind blows northward with a
speed of 75 km/h with respect to the earth. Find the Figure 4.20 (Example 4.10).

"4.7 RELATIVE MOTION AT HIGH SPEEDS

As we mentioned in the previous section, the Galilean transformation equa-
tions given by Equations 4.24 and 4.25 relate the coordinates and velocity of a
particle as measured in the earth's reference frame to those measured in a
frame moving with uniform motion with respect to the earth. However, it is
important to note that these transformations are valid only at particle speeds
(relative to both observers) that are small compared with the speed of light, c
(where c ~ 3 X 10 8 m/s). When the particle speed according to either ob-
server approaches the speed of light, these transformation equations must be
replaced by the equations used by Einstein in his special theory of relativity.
Although we shall discuss the theory of relativity in Chapter 40, a forecast of
some of its predictions is in order. As it turns out, the relativistic transforma-
tion equations reduce to the Galilean transformation equations when the par-
ticle speed is small compared with the speed of light. This is in keeping with
the correspondence principle first proposed by Niels Bohr, which in effect
states that if an old theory accurately describes a number of physical phenom-
ena, then any new theory must account for the same phenomena over the
range of validity of the old theory.
You might wonder how one can test the validity of the transformation
equations. The Galilean transformation equations are used in Newtonian me-
chanics, while Einstein's theory uses relativistic transformations. From exper-
iments on high-speed particles such as electrons and protons in particle accel-
 SUMMARY 85

eiators, one finds that Newtonian mechanics fails at particle speeds

approaching the speed of light. On the other hand, Einstein's theory of special
relativity is in agreement with experiment at all speeds. Finally, Newtonian
mechanics places no upper limit on speed of a particle. In contrast, the relativ-
istic velocity transformation equations predict particle speeds that can never

exceed the speed of light. Electrons and protons accelerated through very high
voltages can acquire speeds close to the speed of light, but never reach this
value. Hence, experimental results are in complete agreement with the theory
of relativity.

SUMMARY
If a particle moves with constant acceleration a and has a velocity r and
position r at f = 0, its velocity and position at some later time r are given by

Velocity vector as a function

v = vn + at (4.8)
of time

Position vector as a function

r= r + v t + |ar
2
(4.9)
of time
For two-dimensional motion in the xy plane under constant acceleration,
these vector expressions are equivalent to two component expressions, one
for the motion along x with an acceleration a x and one for the motion along y
with an acceleration ay .

Projectile motion is two-dimensional motion under constant accelera-

tion, where a z = and a y = —g. In this case, if x = y — 0, the components
of Equations 4.8 and 4.9 reduce to

vz = v M = constant (4.10)

Vy = VyO-gt (4.H)
Projectile motion equations
x = v z0 t (4.12)

y = v y0 t-ut 2 (4.13)

where u^ =v cos 6 , v y0 =v speed of the projectile,

sin 6 is the initial

and 8 is the angle v makes with the positive x axis. Note that these expres-
sions give the velocity components (and hence the velocity vector) and the
coordinates (and hence the position vector) at any time t that the projectile
is in motion.
As you can see from Equations 4.10 through 4.13, it is useful to think of
projectile motion as the superposition of two motions: (1) uniform motion
in the x direction, where v x remains constant, and (2) motion in the vertical
direction, subject to a constant downward acceleration of magnitude g =
9.80 m/s 2 Hence, one can analyze the motion in terms of separate horizon-
.

tal and vertical components of velocity, as in Figure 4.21.

A particle moving in a circle of radius r with constant speed v undergoes

a centripetal (or radial) acceleration, a T because the direction oft? changes
,

in time. The magnitude of a, is given by

(4.19) Centripetal acceleration

and its direction is always toward the center of the circle.

86 CHAPTER 4 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

If a particle moves along a curved path in such a way that the magnitude
and direction of v change in time, the particle has an acceleration vector
that can be described by two component vectors: (1) a radial component
vector, a r arising from the change in direction of v, and (2) a tangential
,

component vector, at arising from the change in magnitude of c. The

,

magnitude of aT is v 2 /r, and the magnitude of a, is d\v\/dt.

The velocity of a particle, v, measured in a fixed frame of reference, S, is
related to the velocity of the same particle, v ', measured in a moving frame
of reference, S', by

Galilean velocity transforma- v =v — u (4.25)

tion
where u is the velocity of S ' relative to S.

tyo = o sin

n ^
v x = v xO = to c°s 0o

Projectile motion Horizontal Vertical

is equivalent to component component

Figure 4.21 Analyzing motion in terms of the horizontal and vertical components of velocity.

QUESTIONS

1. If the average velocity of a particle is zero in some 8. A student argues that as a satellite orbits the earth in a
time interval, what can you say about the displace- circular path, it moves with a constant velocity and
ment of the particle for that interval? therefore has no acceleration. The professor claims
2. If you know the position vectors of a particle at two that the student is wrong since the satellite must have
points along its path and also know the time it took to a centripetal acceleration as it moves in its circular
get from one point to the other, can you determine the orbit. What is wrong with the student's argument?
particle's instantaneous velocity? its average veloc- 9. What is the fundamental difference between the unit
ity? Explain. vectors f and 6 defined in Figure 4.15 and the unit
3. Describe a situation in which the velocity of a particle vectors i andj?
isperpendicular to the position vector. 10. At the end of its arc, the velocity of a pendulum is

4. Can a particle accelerate if its speed is constant? Can it zero. Is its acceleration also zero at this point?
accelerate if its velocity is constant? Explain. 11. If a rock is dropped from the top of a sailboat's mast,
5. Explain whether or not the following particles have an will it hit the deck at the same point whether the boat
acceleration: (a) a particle moving in a straight line is at rest or in motion at constant velocity?
with constant speed and (b) a particle moving around 12. A stone is thrown upward from the top of the building.
a curve with constant speed. Does the stone's displacement depend on the location
6. Correct the following statement: "The racing car of the origin of the coordinate system? Does the
rounds the turn at a constant velocity of 90 miles per stone's velocity depend on the location of the origin?
hour." 13. Inspect the multiple image photograph (Fig. 4.22) of
7. Determine which of the following moving objects two golf balls released simultaneously under the con-
would exhibit an approximate parabolic trajectory: ditions indicated. Explain why both balls hit the floor
(a) a ball thrown in an arbitrary direction, (b) a jet simultaneously.
airplane, (c) a rocket leaving the launching pad, (d) a 14. Is it possible for a vehicle to travel around a curve
rocket a few minutes after launch with failed engines, without accelerating? Explain.
(e) a tossed stone moving to the bottom of a pond.
 PROBLEMS 87

its acceleration in the vertical direction? What is its

acceleration in the horizontal direction?

19. A projectile is fired at an angle of 30° with the hori-
zontal with some initial speed. If a second projectile is
fired with the same initial speed, what other projec-
tile angle would give the same range? Neglect air re-

sistance.
20. A projectile is fired on the earth with some initial

velocity. Another projectile is fired on the moon with

the same initial velocity. Neglecting air resistance,
which projectile has the greater range? Which
Figure 4.22 This multiple image photograph of two golf balls
reaches the greater altitude? (Note that the accelera-
released simultaneously illustrates both free fall and projectile
motion. The right ball was projected horizontally with an initial tion due to gravity on the moon is about 1 .6 m/s 2 .)
velocity of 2.0 m/s. The light flashes were 1/30 s apart, and the 21. As a projectile moves through its parabolic trajectory,
white parallel lines (actually strings) were placed 15J cm apart. which of the quantities, if any, remain constant?
(a) speed, (b) acceleration, (c) horizontal component

of velocity, (d) vertical component of velocity.

15. A baseball is thrown with an initial velocity of 22. The maximum range of a projectile occurs when it is
(lOi + 15/) m/s. When it reaches the top of its trajec- launched at an angle of 45° with the horizontal if air
tory, what is (a) its velocity and (b) its acceleration. resistance is neglected. If air resistance is not ne-
Neglect air resistance. glected, will this optimum angle be greater or less
16. An object moves in a circular path with constant speed than 45°? Explain.
v. (a) Is the velocity of the object constant? (b) Is its 23. A ball is tossed upwards in the air by a passenger on a
acceleration constant? Explain. train moving with a constant velocity. Describe the
17. As a projectile moves in its parabolic path, is there any path of the ball as seen by the passenger. Describe its
point along its path where the velocity and accelera- path as seen by a stationary observer outside the train.
tion are (a) perpendicular to each other? (b) parallel How would these observations change if the train
to each other? were accelerating along the track?
18. A projectile is fired at some angle to the horizontal 24. A person drops a spoon on a train moving with con-
with some initial speed v , and air resistance is ne- stant velocity. What is the acceleration of the spoon
glected. Is the projectile a freely falling body? What is relative to (a) the train, and (b) the earth?

PROBLEMS

Section 4.1 The Displacement, Velocity, 4. A golf ball is hit off a tee at the edge of a cliff. Its x
Acceleration Vectors and y coordinates versus time are given by the follow-
ing expressions:
1. Suppose that the trajectory of a particle is given by
r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j with x(t) = at 2 + bt and y(t) = x = (18m/s)f and y = (4 m/s)* - (4.9 m/s 2 )r 2
ct + d, where and d are constants that have
o, b, c,
(a) Write a vector expressionfor the position r vs. time
appropriate dimensions. What displacement does the
using the unit vectors andj. By taking derivatives,
particle undergo between t = 1 s and ( = 3s?
t i

repeat for (b) the velocity vector v vs. time and (c) the
2. Suppose that the position vector function for a parti-
acceleration vector a vs. time, (d) Find the x and y
cle is given as r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j, with x(t) = at + b
coordinates of the golf ball at r = 3 s. Using the unit
and y{t) = ct 2 + d, where a = 1 m/s, b = 1 m, c = 1/8
vectors andj, write expressions for (e) the velocity v
m/s 2 and d = 1 m. (a) Calculate the average velocity
,
i

and (f) the acceleration a at the instant t = 3 s.

during the time interval from ( = 2s to f = 4 s.
(b) Determine the velocity and the speed at t = 2 s.
3. A motorist drives south at 20 m/s for 3 min, then turns
west and travels at 25 m/s for 2 min, and finally travels
Section 4.2 Motion in Two Dimensions with Constant
Acceleration
northwest at 30 m/s for 1 min. For this 6-min trip, find
(a) the net vector displacement of the motorist, (b) the 5. At t = 0, a particle moving in the xy plane with con-
motorist's average speed, and (c) the average velocity stant acceleration has a velocity of c = (3i — 2j) m/s
of the motorist. at the origin. At t = 3 s, its velocity is v = (9i + ~ij)
88 CHAPTER 4 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

m/s. Find (a) the acceleration of the particle and (b) its of the counter. If the height of the counter is 0.86 m,
coordinates any time t. at (a) with what velocity did the mug leave the counter,
6. A particle starts from rest at f = at the origin and and (b) what was the direction of the mugs velocity
moves in the xy plane with a constant acceleration of just before it hit the floor?

a = (2i + 4j) m/s 2

. After a time t has elapsed, deter- 12. A student decides to measure the muzzle velocity of
mine the x and y components of velocity, (b) the
(a) the pellets from his BB gun. He points the gun horizon-
coordinates of the particle, and (c) the speed of the tals. On a vertical wall a distance x away from the
particle. gun, a target is placed. The shots hit the target a verti-
7. A fish swimming in a horizontal plane has velocity cal distance y below the gun. (a) Show that the posi-
v =+j) m/s at a point in the ocean whose dis-
(4i tion of the pellet when traveling through the air is

placement from a certain rock is r = (lOi — 4/') m. given by y = Ax 2 where A is a constant, (b) Express
,

After swimming with constant acceleration for 20.0 s, the constant A in terms of the initial velocity and the
its v = (20i — 5/') m/s. (a) What are the
velocity is acceleration due to gravity, (c) If x = 3.0 m and y =
components of the acceleration? (b) What is the direc- 0.21 m, what is the speed of the BB 3
tion of the acceleration with respect to unit vector i? 1 3. Superman is flying at treetop level near Paris when he
(c) Where is the fish at t = 25 s and in what direction sees the Eiffel Tower elevator start to fall (the cable
is it moving? snapped). His x-ray vision him Lois Lane is inside.
tells

8. The vector position of a particle varies in time accord- If Superman is 1 km away

from the tower, and the
ing to the expression r = (3i — 6f 2j) m. (a) Find ex- elevator falls from a height of 240 m. how long does
pressions for the velocity and acceleration as func- Superman have to "save" Lois, and what must his
tions of time, (b) Determine the particles position average velocity be?
and velocity at t = 1 s. 14. A golfer wants to drive a golf ball a distance of 310
9. A particle initially located at the origin has an accelera- yards (283 m). If the 4-wood launches the ball at 15°
tion of a = 3j m/s 2 and an initial velocity of c = above the horizontal, what must be the initial speed of
5i m/s. Find (a) the vector position and velocity at any the ball to achieve the required distance? (Ignore air
time t and (b) the coordinates and speed of the particle friction and use g = 9.80 m/s 2 .)
at t = 2 s. 1 5. A ball is thrown horizontally from the top of abuilding
35 m high. The ball strikes the ground at a point 80 m
Section 4.3 Projectile Motion from the base of the building. Find (a) the time the ball
(Neglect air resistance in all problems.) is in flight, (b) its initial velocity, and (c) the x and y

components of velocity just before the ball strikes the

10. A student stands at the edge of a cliff and throws a
ground.
stone horizontally over the edge with a speed of
16. During the 1968 Olympics in Mexico City. Bob Bea-
18 m/s. The cliff is 50 m above a flat horizontal beach,
mon executed a record long jump. The horizontal dis-
as shown in Figure 4.23. How long after being re-
tance he achieved was 8.90 m. His center of gravity
leased does the stone strike the beach below the cliff?
started at an elevation of 1 .0 m. reached a maximum
With what speed and angle of impact does it land?
height of 1 .90 m. and finished at 0. 1 5 m. From these
data determine (a) his time of flight, (b) his horizontal
and vertical velocity components at the takeoff time.
d = 18 m/s (c) his takeoff angle.
1 7. A place kicker must kick a football from a point 36 m
(about 40 yards) from the goal and the ball must clear
the crossbar, which is 3.05 high. When kicked, them
ball leaves the ground with a speed of 20.0 m/s at an
angle of 53° to the horizontal, (a) By how much does
the ball clear or fall short of clearing the crossbar?
(b) Does the ball approach the crossbar while still ris-
ing or while falling?
18. A fireman. 50 m away from a burning building, directs
Figure 4.23 (Problem 10). a stream of water from a firehose at an angle of 30°
above the horizontal. If the velocity of the stream is
11. In a local bar, a customer slides an empty beer mug on 40 m/s. at what height will the stream of water strike
the counter for a refill. The bartender is momentarily the building?
distracted and does not see the mug. which slides off 19. Ithas been said that in his youth George Washington
the counter and strikes the floor 1.4 m from the base threw a silver dollar across a river. Assuming that the
 PROBLEMS 89

river was 75 m wide, (a) what minimum initial speed 29. An athlete rotates a 1 -kg discus along a circular path of
was necessary to get the coin across the river and radius 1.06 m. The maximum speed of the discus is

(b) how long was the coin in flight? 20 m/s. Determine the magnitude of the maximum
20. A rifle is aimed horizontally through its bore at the radial acceleration of the discus.
center of a large target 200 m away. The initial veloc- 30. From information in the front cover of this book, com-
ity of the bullet is 500 m/s. (a) Where does the bullet pute the radial acceleration of a point on the surface of
strike the target? (b) To hit the center of the target, the earth at the equator.
the barrel must be at an angle above the line of sight. 31. The orbit of the moon about the earth is approxi-
Find the angle of elevation of the barrel. mately circular, with a mean radius of 3.84 X 10 8 m.
21. During World War I, the Germans had a gun called It takes 27.3 days for the moon to complete one revo-

Big Bertha that was used to shell Paris. The shell had lution about the earth. Find (a) the mean orbital speed
an initial speed of 1700 m/s (approximately 5 times of the moon and (b) its centripetal acceleration.
the speed of sound) at an initial inclination of 55° to 32. In the spin cycle of a washing machine, the tub of
the horizontal. In order to hit the target, adjustments radius 0.30 m develops a speed of 630 rpm. What is
were made for air resistance and other effects. If we the maximum linear speed with which water leaves
ignore those effects, (a) how far away did the shell hit? the machine?
(b) How long was it in the air? 33. A particle moves in a circular path 0.4 m in radius
22. The maximum horizontal distance a certain baseball with constant speed. If the particle makes five revolu-
player is able to hit the ball is 150 m. On one pitch, tions in each second of its motion, find (a) the speed of
this player hits the ball in such a way that it has the the particle and (b) its acceleration.
same initial speed as his maximum-distance hit, but 34. A tire 0.5 m in radius rotates at a constant rate of 200
makes an angle of 20° with the horizontal. Where will revolutions per minute. Find the speed and accelera-
this ball strike the ground with respect to home plate? tion of a small stone lodged in the tread of the tire (on
23. A projectile such a way that its horizontal
is fired in its outer edge).
range is equal to three times its maximum height.
What is the angle of projection? Section 4.5 Tangential and Radial Acceleration in
24. A flea can jump a vertical height What is the h. (a) Curvilinear Motion
maximum horizontal distance it can jump? (b) What is
35. Figure 4.24 represents the total acceleration of a par-
the time in the air in both cases?
25. An astronaut on a strange planet finds that she can
ticle moving clockwise in a circle of radius 2.5 m at a
given instant of time. At this instant of time, find
jump a maximum horizontal distance of 30 m if her
(a) the centripetal acceleration, (b) the speed of the
initial speed is 9 m/s. What is the acceleration of grav-
particle, and (c) its tangential acceleration.
ity on the planet?
26. A ball is tossed from an upper-story window of a build-
_a = 15 m/s 2
ing. The ball is given an initial velocity of 8 m/s at an
angle of 20° below the horizontal. It strikes the
ground 3 s later, (a) How from the
far horizontally
base of the building does the ball strike the ground? /Vp-
(b) Find the height from which the ball was thrown.
(c) How long does it take the ball to reach a point 10m

below the level of launching? Ignore air friction.

Section 4.4 Uniform Circular Motion

27. Find the acceleration of a particle moving with a con- Figure 4.24 (Problem 35).
speed of 8 m/s in a circle 2 m in radius.
stant
28. Young David who slew Goliath experimented with 36. An automobile whose speed is increasing at a rate of

slings before tackling the giant. He found that with a 0.6 m/s 2 travels along a circular road of radius r =
sling of length 0.6 m, he could revolve the sling at the 20 m. When the instantaneous speed of the automo-
rate of 8 rev/s. If he increased the length to 0.9 m, he bile is 4 m/s, find (a) the tangential acceleration com-
could revolve the sling only 6 times per second. ponent, (b) the centripetal acceleration component,
(a) Which rate of rotation gives the larger linear and (c) the magnitude and direction of the total accel-
speed? (b) What is the centripetal acceleration at eration.
8 rev/s? (c) What is the centripetal acceleration at 37. A train slows down as it rounds a sharp horizontal
6 rev/s? turn, slowing from 90 km/h to 50 km/h in the 15 s
90 CHAPTER 4 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

thatit takes to round the bend. The radius of the curve stream (and moves upstream), whereas the other pad-
is 150 m. Compute the acceleration at the moment dles directly downstream. An observer on the
the train speed reaches 50 km/h. riverbank reckons their speeds to be 1.2 m/s and
3S. A pendulum of length 1 m swings in a vertical plane 2.9 m/s. How fast is the river flowing?
(Figure 4.16). When the pendulum is in the two hori- 45. When the sun is directly overhead, a hawk dives
zontal positions (6 = 90° and 6 = 270°), its speed is toward the ground at a speed of 5 m/s. If the direction
5 m/s. (a) Find the magnitude of the centripetal accel- of his motion is at an angle of 60° below the horizon-
eration and tangential acceleration for these posi- tal, calculate the speed of his shadow moving along

tions, (b) Draw vector diagrams to determine the di- the ground.
rection of the total acceleration for these two 46. A boat crosses a river with a width 160 m in w=
positions, (c) Calculate the magnitude and direction which the current flows with a uniform speed of
of the total acceleration. 1.5 m/s. The steersman maintains a bearing (i.e., the
39. A student swings a ball attached to the end of a string direction in which his boat points) perpendicular to
0.6 m in length in a vertical circle. The speed of the the river and a throttle setting to give a constant speed
ball is 4.3 m/s at its highest point and 6.5 m/s at its of 2 m/s with respect to the water, (a) What is the
lowest point. Find the acceleration of the ball at (a) its velocity of the boat relative to a stationary shore
highest point and (b) its lowest point. observer? (b) How far downstream from the initial

40. At some instant of time, a particle moving counter- position is the boat when it reaches the opposite
clockwise in a circle of radius 2 m has a speed of 8 m/s shore?
and its total acceleration is directed as shown in Fig- 47. The pilot of an airplane notes that the compass indi-
ure 4.25. At this instant, determine (a) the centripetal due west. The airplane's speed rela-
cates a heading
acceleration of the particle, (b) the tangential acceler- is 150 km/h. If there is a wind of
tive to the air

ation, and (c) the magnitude of the total acceleration. 30 km/h toward the north, find the velocity of the
airplane relative to the ground.
4S. The wishes to fly due west in a wind
pilot of an aircraft
blowing 50 km/h toward the south. If the speed of
at

the aircraft in the absence of a wind is 200 km/h, (a) in

what direction should the aircraft head and (b) what
should its speed be relative to the ground?
49. A car travels due east with a speed of 50 km/h. Rain is
with respect to the earth. The traces
falling vertically
of the rain on the side windows of the car make an
angle of 60° with the vertical. Find the velocity of the
rain with respect to (a) the car and (b) the earth.
Figure 4.25 (Problem 40). 50. A child in danger of drowning in a river is being
carried downstream by a current that flows uniformly
with a speed of 2.5 km/h. The child is 0.6 km from
Section 4.6 Relative Velocity and Relative Acceleration
shore and 0.8 km upstream of a boat landing when a
41. A car travels north with a speed of 60 km/h on a rescue boat sets out. (a) If the boat proceeds at its
straight highway. A truck travels in the opposite direc- maximum speed of 20 km/h with respect to the water,
tion with a speed of 50 km/h. (a) What is the velocity what heading relative to the shore should the boatman
of the car relative to the truck? (b) What is the velocity take? (b) What angle does the boat velocity v make
of the truck relative to the car? with the shore? (c) How long will it take the boat to
42. A motorist traveling west on Interstate Route 80 at reach the child?
80 km/h is being chased by a police car traveling at 51. A bolt drops from the ceiling of a train car which is

95 km/h. (a) What is the velocity of the motorist rela- accelerating northward at a rate of 2.5 m/s 2 . What is

tive to the police car? (b) What is the velocity of the the acceleration of the bolt with respect to (a) the
police car relative to the motorist? train car? (b) the stationary train station?

43. A river has a steady speed of 0.5 m/s. A student swims 52. A science student is riding on a flatcar of a train travel-
upstream a distance of 1 km and returns to the starting ing along a straight horizontal track at a constant
point. If the student can swim at a speed of 1.2 m/s in speed of 1 m/s. The student throw s a ball into the air
still water, how long does the trip take? Compare this along a path that he judges to make an initial angle of
with the time the trip would take if the water were 60° with the horizontal and to be in line with the
still. track. The student's professor, who is standing on the
44. Two canoeists in identical canoes exert the same ef- ground nearby, observes the ball to rise vertically.

fort paddling in a river. One paddles directly up- How high does the ball rise?
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 91

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS from the ground. What is the range of the stone if it is

released when the sling is inclined at 30° with the

53. At = a particle leaves the
t origin with a velocity of
horizontal (a) at A? (b) at B? What is the acceleration
6 m/s in the positive y direction. Its acceleration is
of the stone (c) just before it is released at A? (d) just
given by a = (2i — 3;') m/s 2 When the particle .

after it is released at A?
reaches its maximum y coordinate, its y component of
velocity is zero. At this instant, find (a) the velocity of
the particle and (b) and y coordinates.
its x
54. A boy throws a hard as he can and
ball into the air as
then runs as fast as he can under the ball in order to
catch it. If his maximum speed in throwing the ball is
20 m/s and his best time for a 20-m dash is 3 s, how
high does the ball rise?
55. A car is parked on a steep incline overlooking the
ocean, where the incline makes an angle of 37° with
the horizontal. The negligent driver leaves the car in
neutral, and the parking brakes are defective. The car
rolls from rest down the incline with a constant accel-
eration of 4 m/s 2 and travels 50 m to the edge of the
cliff. The cliff is 30 m above the ocean. Find (a) the Figure 4.26 (Problem 61).
speed of the car when it reaches the cliff and the time
it takes to get there, (b) the velocity of the car when it
62. A truck is moving due north with a constant velocity of
lands in the ocean, (c) the total time the car is in mo-
10 m/s on a horizontal stretch of road. A boy riding on
tion, and (d) the position of the car relative to the base
the back of the truck wishes to throw a ball while the
of the cliff when the car lands in the ocean.
truck is moving and to catch the ball after the truck has
56. A cannon is fired at an angle of 30° above the horizon-
what angle
gone 20 m. (a) Neglecting air resistance, at
tal from a cliff that is 20 m above a flat river bottom.
to the vertical should the ball be thrown? (b) What
What is the initial speed of the projectile if it is found
should be the initial speed of the ball? (c) What is the
to land 40 m from the base of the cliff?
shape of the path of the ball as seen by the boy? (d) An
57. A batter hits a pitched baseball 1 m above the ground,
observer on the ground watches the boy throw the
imparting to the ball a speed of 40 m/s. The resulting
ball up and catch it. In this observer's fixed frame of
line drive caught on the fly by the left fielder 60 m
is
reference, determine the general shape of the ball's
from home plate with his glove 1 m above the ground.
path and the initial velocity of the ball.
If the shortstop, 45 m from home plate and in line
63. A dart gun is fired while being held horizontally at a
with the drive, were to jump straight up to make the
catch, instead of allowing the left fielder to make the
height of 1 m above ground level. With the gun at rest
relative to the ground, the dart from the gun travels a
plav, how high above the ground would his glove have
horizontal distance of 5 m. A child holds the same gun
to be?
in a horizontal position while sliding down a 45° in-
58. The initial speed of a cannonball is 200 m/s. If it is
cline at a constant speed of 2 m/s. How far will the
fired at a target that is at a horizontal distance of 2 km
dart travel if the gun is fired when it is 1 m above the
from the cannon, find (a) the two projected angles
ground?
that will result in a hit and (b) the total time of flight
64. A rocket is launched at an angle of 53° to the horizon-
for each of the two trajectories found in (a).
tal with an speed of 100 m/s. It moves along its
initial
59. A particle has velocity components 2
initial line of motion with an acceleration of 30 m/s

vx = +4 m/s o
y
= — (6 m/s 2 )t + 4 m/s for 3 s. At this time its engines fail and the rocket
proceeds to move as a free body. Find (a) the maxi-
Calculate the speed of the particle and the direction mum altitude reached by the rocket, (b) its total time
8 = tan -1 (v y /v z ) of the velocity vector at f = 2 s. of flight, and (c) its horizontal range.
60. The x and y coordinates of a particle are given by 65. A boat requires 2 min to cross a river that is 150 m

x = 2 m+ (3 m/s)f = x - (5 m/s 2 )f 2
wide. The boat's speed relative to the water is 3 m/s
y
and the river current flows at a speed of 2 m/s. At
How far from the origin is the particle at (a) r = 0; what possible upstream or downstream points does
(b) r = 2 s? the boat reach the opposite shore?
61. A stone at the end of a sling whirled in a vertical is 66. A home run in a baseball game is hit in such away that
circle of radius 1.2 m at a constant speed v = 1.5 m/s the ball just clears a wall 21m high, located 130 m
as in Figure 4.26. The center of the string is 1.5 m from home plate. The ball is hit at an angle of 35° to
92 CHAPTER 4 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

the horizontal, and air resistance is negligible. Find this trip take? (b) If she heads due east, how long will it

(a) the speed of the ball, (b) the time it takes the
initial take to cross the river? (Note: The student travels far-
ball to reach the wall, and (c) the velocity components ther than 50 m in this case.)

and the speed of the ball when it reaches the wall. 73. A rifle has a maximum range of 500 m. (a) For what

(Assume the ball is hit at a height of 1 m above the angles of elevation would the range be 350 m? What
ground.) is the range when the bullet leaves the rifle (b) at 14"?
67. A daredevil is shot out of a cannon at 45° to the hori- (c) at 76"?
zontal with an initial speed of 25 m/s. A net is located 74. Ariver flows with a uniform velocity v. A person in a
at a horizontal distance of 50from the cannon. At m motorboat travels 1 km upstream, at which time a log
what height above the cannon should the net be is seen floating by. The person continues to travel

placed in order to catch the daredevil? upstream for one more hour at the same speed and
6S. The position of a particle as a function of time t is then returns downstream to the starting point, where
described by the same log is seen again. Find the velocity of the
river. (Hint: The time of travel of the boat after it
r = (bt)i +(c- dt 2 )j b = 2 m/s meets the log equals the time of travel of the log.)
c = 5 m d = 1 m/s 2 75. A sailboat sails for 1 hour at 4 km/h on a steady com-
pass heading of 40° east of north. The sailboat is simul-
(a) Express y in terms of x and sketch the trajectory of taneously carried along by a current. At the end of the
the particle. What is the shape of the trajectory? hour the boat is 6.12 km from its starting point. The
(b)Derive a vector relation for the velocity, (c) At line from the starting point to its location lies 60° east
what time (t > 0) is the velocity vector perpendicular of north. Find the components of the velocity of the
to the position vector? water.
69. A bomber is flown horizontally with a ground speed of 76. A sailor aims his rowboat toward an island located
275 m/s an altitude of 3000 m over level terrain.
at 2 km east and 3 km north of his starting position. After
Neglect the effects of air resistance, (a) How far from an hour of rowing he sees the island due west. He then
the point vertically under the point of release will a aims the boat in the opposite direction from which he
bomb hit the ground? (b) If the plane maintains its was rowing, rows for another hour, and ends up 4 km
original course and speed, where will it be when the east of his starting position. He correctly deduces that
bomb hits the ground? (c) For the above conditions, at the current is from west to east, (a) What is the speed
what angle from the vertical at the point of release of the current? (b) Show that the boat's velocity rela-
must the telescopic bomb sight be set so that the bomb first hour can be expressed as
tive to the shore for the
will hit the target seen in the sight at the time of re- u = (4 km/h)» + (3 km/h)j, where i is directed east
lease? and j is directed north.
70. Afootball is thrown toward a receiver with an initial 77. Two soccer players, Mary and Jane, begin running
speed of 20 m/s at an angle of 30° above the horizon- from approximately the same point at the same time.
tal. At that instant, the receiver is 20 m from the quar- Mary runs in an easterly direction at 4.0 m/s, while
terback. In what direction and with what constant Jane takes off in a direction 60° N of E at 5.4 m/s.

speed should the receiver run in order to catch the (a) How long is it before they are 25 apart? m
football at the level at which it was thrown? (b) What is the velocity of Jane relative to Mary?
71. A flea is at point A on a turntable 10 cm from the (c) How far apart are they after 4.0 s?

center. The turntable is rotating at 33 j rev/min in the 78. After delivering his toys in the usual manner, Santa
clockwise direction. The flea jumps vertically upward decides to have some fun and slide down an icy roof, as
to a height of 5 cm and lands on the turntable at point in Figure 4.27. He starts from rest at the top of the
B. Place the coordinate origin at the center of the
turntable with the positive x axis fixed in space
through the position from which the flea jumped.
(a) Find the linear displacement of the flea, (b) Find
the position of point A when the flea lands, (c) Find
the position of point B when the flea lands.
72. A student who is able to swim at a speed of 1 .5 m/s in

water wishes to cross a river that has a current of

still

velocity 1.2 m/s toward the south. The width of the

river is 50 m. (a) If the student starts from the west
bank of the river, in what direction should she head in
order to swim directly across the river? How long will Figure 4.27 (Problem 78).
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 93

roof, which is 8 m in length, and accelerates at the rate jumpers lean forward in the shape of an airfoil with
of 5 m/s 2 . The edge of the roof is 6 m above a soft their hands at their sides to increase their distance.
snowbank, which Santa lands on. Find (a) Santa's Why does this work?)
velocity components when he reaches the snowbank, SO. A golf ball leaves the ground at an angle 9 and hits a
(b) the total time he is in motion, and (c) the distance d tree while moving horizontally at height h above the
between the house and the point where he lands in ground. If the tree is a horizontal distance of b from
the snow. the point of projection, show that (a) tan 6=2 h/b.
79. A skier leaves the ramp of a ski jump with a velocity of (b) What is the initial velocity of the ball in terms of b
10 m/s, 15° above the horizontal, as in Figure 4.28. and h?
81. A
truck loaded with cannonball watermelons stops
suddenly to avoid running over the edge of a washed-
out bridge (see Figure 4.29). The quick stop causes a
number of melons to fly offthe truck. One melon rolls
over the edge with an initial speed c = 10 m/s in the
horizontal direction. What are the x and y coordinates
of the melon when it splatters on the bank, if a cross-
section of the bank has the shape of a parabola (y 2 =
16i where x and y are measured in meters) with its
vertex at the edge of the road?
82. An enemy ship is on the east side of a mountain island
J

as shown in Figure 4.30. The enemy ship can maneu-

ver to within 2500 m of the 1800-m-high mountain
Figure 4.28 (Problem 79). peak and can shoot projectiles with an initial speed of
250 m/s. If the western shoreline is horizontally
The slope is inclined at 50°, and air resistance is negli- 300 m from the peak, what are the distances from the
gible. Find (a) the distance that the jumper lands western shore at which a ship can be safe from the
down the slope and (b) the velocity components just bombardment of the enemy ship?
before landing. (How do you think the results might S3. A hawk is flying horizontally at 10.0 m/s in a straight
be affected if air resistance were included? Note that line 200 m above the ground. A mouse it was carrying

Figure4.29 (Problem 81).

Figure 4.30 (Problem 82).

94 CHAPTER 4 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

is released from its grasp. The hawk continues on its ponents just before he lands in the canyon. (As usual,
path at the same speed for two seconds before at- the road runner is saved bv making a sudden turn at
tempting to retrieve its prey. To accomplish the re- the cliff.)

trieval, it dives in a straight line at constant speed and S5. A U.S. Olympic decathlon star, who happens to be a
recaptures the mouse 3.0 m above the ground. Assum- bright physics student, trapped on the roof of a
is

ing no air resistance (a) find the diving speed of the burning building with a pencil, paper, pocket calcula-
hawk, (b) What angle did the hawk make with the tor, and his favorite physics textbook. He has about

horizontal during its descent? (c) For how long did 15 min to decide whether to jump to the next build-
the mouse "enjoy" free flight? ing by either running at top speed horizontally off the
S4. The determined coyote is out once more to try to edge or by using the long-jump technique. The next
capture the elusive road runner. The coyote wears a building is horizontally 30 ft away and vertically 1 ft

pair of Acme jet-powered roller skates, which pro- below. His 100-m dash time is 10.3 s. and his long-
vide a constant horizontal acceleration of 15 m/s 2 jump distance is 25.5 ft. (Assume he long-jumps at an
(Fig. 4.31). The coyote starts off at rest 70 m from the angle of 45° above the horizontal.) Perform calcula-
edge of a cliff at the instant the road runner zips by in tions to decide which method (if any) he can use to
the direction of the road runner moves
cliff, (a) If the reach the other building safely.
with constant speed, determine the minimum speed
he must have in order to reach the cliff before the CALCULATOR/COMPUTER PROBLEM
coyote, (b) If the cliff is 100 m above the base of a
86. A projectile is fired from the origin with an initial
canyon, determine where the coyote lands in the can-
speed of t at an angle 6 to the horizontal. Write
yon (assume his skates are still in operation when he is
programs that will enable you to tabulate the projec-
in "flight"), (c) Determine the coyote's velocity com-
tile's x and y coordinates, displacement, i and y com-

ponents of velocity, and its speed as functions of time.

Coyote Chicken Tabulate the above values for the following inputs of
Stupidus Delightus i'o
= 50 m/s, 8 = 60° at time intervals of 0.2 s until a
total time of 4.4 s is reached.
87. A ball bearing is dropped from the point x = 4 m, y =
2 m. At the same moment, a second bearing is
launched from x = 0. y = at an angle of 20° above
the positive x axis at a speed of 6 m/s. Determine
(a) the minimum distance between the bearings, and

(b) the time at which this minimum occurs. Sugges-

tions: If you are unable to solve this problem analyti-
cally, you may wish to write and run a short computer
program that locates the minimum of the square of the
Figure 4.31 (Problem 84). distance between the bearings.
 The Laws of Motion

An athlete running in the sun-

set.The external forces acting
on the runner as described by
the blue vectors are (a) the
force of the earth on the run-
ner, W; (b) the force of the
ground on the runner, F; and
(c) the force of air resistance,
R (© 1989 Dennis Hallinan,
FPG International)

we described the motion of

the previous two chapters on kinematics,

In based on the definition of displacement, velocity, and accelera-

particles
tion. However, we would like to be able to answer specific questions
related to the causes of motion, such as "What mechanism causes mo-
tion?" and "Why do some objects accelerate at a higher rate than others?" In
this chapter, we shall describe the change in motion of particles using the
concepts of force and mass. We shall then discuss the three basic laws of
motion, which are based on experimental observations and were formulated
nearly three centuries ago by Sir Isaac Newton.

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL MECHANICS

The purpose of classical mechanics is to provide a connection between the mo-
tionof a body and the forces acting on Keep in mind that classical mechanics
it.

deals with objects that are large compared with the dimensions of atoms
-10
(=10 m) and move at speeds that are much less than the speed of light
(3 X 10 8 m/s).
We shall see that it is possible to describe the acceleration of an object in
terms of the resultant force acting on it and the mass of the object. This force
95
96 CHAPTERS THE LAWS OF MOTION

represents the interaction of the object with its environment. The mass of an
object is a measure of the object's inertia, that is, the tendency of the object to
resist an acceleration when on it.
a force acts
We shall which describe the quantitative method
also discuss force laws,
of calculating the force on an object if its environment is known. We shall see
that although the force laws are rather simple in form, they successfully ex-
plain a wide variety of phenomena and experimental observations. These
force laws, together with the laws of motion, are the foundations of classical
mechanics.

5.2 THE CONCEPT OF FORCE

Everyone has a basic understanding of the concept of force from everyday
experiences. When you push or pull an object, you exert a force on it. You
exert a force when you throw or kick a ball. In these examples, the word force is
associated with the result of muscular activity and some change in the state of
motion of an object. Forces do not always cause an object to move. For
example, as you sit reading this book, the force of gravity acts on your body,
and yet you remain stationary. You can push on a block of stone and not
move it.
What force (if any) causes a distant star to drift freely through space?
Newton answered such questions by stating that the change in velocity of an
object caused by forces. Therefore, if an object moves with uniform motion
is

(constant velocity), no force is required to maintain the motion. Since only a

A body accelerates due to an force can cause a change in velocity, we can think of force as that which causes
external force a body to accelerate.
Now consider a situation in which several forces act simultaneously on an
object. In this case, the object will accelerate only if the net force acting on it is

not equal to zero. We shall often refer to the net force as the resultant force, or
the unbalanced force If the net force
. is zero, the acceleration is zero and the
velocity of the object remains constant. That is, if the net force acting on the
object is zero, either the object will be at rest or it will move with constant
Definition of equilibrium velocity. When the velocity of a body is constant or if the body is at rest, it is said
to be in equilibrium.
Whenever a force is exerted on an object, its shape can change. For
example, when you squeeze a soft rubber ball or strike a punching bag with
your fist, the objects will be deformed to some extent. Even more rigid objects
such as an automobile are deformed under the action of external forces. The
deformations can be permanent if the forces are large enough, as in the case of
a collision between vehicles.
In this chapter, we shall be concerned with the relation between the force
on an object and the acceleration of that object. If you pull on a coiled spring,
as in Figure 5.1a, the spring stretches. If the spring is calibrated, the distance
that it stretches can be used to measure the strength of the force. If you pull
hard enough on a cart to overcome friction, as in Figure 5.1b, it will move.
Finally, when a football is kicked, as in Figure 5.1c, the football is both de-
formed and set in motion. These are all examples of a class of forces called
contact forces. That is, they represent the result of physical contact between
two objects. Other examples of contact forces include the force of a gas on the
walls of a container (the result of the collisions of molecules with the walls) and
the force of our feet on the floor.
 5.2 THE CONCEPT OF FORCE 97

(d)

(e)

Iron I
1
MN S

Figure 5. 1 Some examples of forces applied to various objects. In each case a force is exerted on
the particle or object within the boxed area. The environment external to the boxed area provides
the force on the object.

Another class of forces, which do not involve physical contact between

two objects but act through empty space, are known us field forces. The force
of gravitational attraction between two objects is an example of this class of
keeps objects bound to the earth
force, illustrated in Figure 5. Id. This force
and gives rise to what we commonly call the weight of an object. The planets of
our solar system are bound under the action of gravitational forces. Another
common example of a field force is the electric force that one electric charge
exerts on another electric charge, as in Figure 5.1e. These might be an elec-
tron and proton forming the hydrogen atom. A third example of a field force is
the force that a bar magnet exerts on a piece of iron, as shown in Figure 5. If.
The forces between atomic nuclei are also field forces but are usually very
short-range. They are the dominating interaction for particle separations of
the order of 10~ 15 m.
Early scientists, including Newton himself, were uneasy with the concept
of a force acting between two disconnected objects. To overcome this con-
ceptual problem, Michael Faraday (1791 - 1867) introduced the concept of a
field.According to this approach, when a mass Hij is placed at some point F
near a mass m 2 one can say that nij interacts with m 2 by virtue of the gravita-
, ,

tional field that exists at P. The field at P is produced by mass m 2 In Chapter .

Compression of football as player's
kick sets it in motion (© Harold E.
23, we shall see that the field concept is also useful in describing electrical Edgerton. Courtesv of Palm Press
interactions between charged particles. We should mention that the distinc- Inc.)
98 CHAPTER 5 THE LAWS OF MOTION

3 nj-

Figure 5.2 The vector nature of a force is tested with a spring scale, (a) The downward ver-
tical force F t elongates the spring 1 unit, (b) The horizont al force F2 _elongates the
spring 2 units, (c) The combination Fi and F2 elongates the spring \l 2 + 2 2 = >5 units.

tion between contact forces and field forces is not as sharp as you may have
been led to believe by the above discussion. At the atomic level, the so-called
contact forces are actually due to repulsive forces between charges, which
themselves are field forces. Nevertheless, in developing models for macro-
scopic phenomena, it is convenient to use both classifications of forces. How-
Fundamental forces in nature ever, the only known fundamental forces in nature are (1) gravitational attrac-
tion between objects because of their masses. (2) electromagnetic forces
between charges at rest or in motion. (3) strong nuclear forces between sub-
atomic particles, and (4) weak nuclear forces (the so-called weak interaction),
which arise in certain radioactive decay processes. In classical physics, we
shall be concerned only with gravitational and electromagnetic forces.
It is convenient to use the deformation of a spring to measure force.

Suppose a force is applied vertically to a spring with a fixed upper end. as in

Figure 5.2a. We can calibrate the spring by defining the unit force. F as the 1
.

force that produces an elongation of 1 cm. If a force F2 . applied horizontally as

inFigure 5.2b. produces an elongation of 2 cm. the magnitude of F2 is 2 units.
If thetwo forces Fj and F2 are applied simultaneously, as in Figure 5.2c, the
elongation of the spring is found to be \ 5 = 2.24 cm. The single force. F. that
would produce this same elongation is the ve ctor sum of Fj and F2 as de- .

scribed in Figure 5.2c. That is. \F\ = v F, 2 + F2 2 = \ 5 units, and its direction is
8 = arctan (—0.5) = —26.6°. Because forces are vectors, you must use the rules
of vector addition to get the resultant force on a body Springs that elongate in
proportion to an applied force are said to obey Hooke's law. Such springs can
be constructed and calibrated to measure unknown forces.

5.3 NEWTON'S FIRST LAW AND INERTIAL FRAMES

Before we state Newton's first law. consider the following simple experiment.
Suppose a book is lying on a table. Obviously, the book will remain at rest in
the absence of any influences. Now imagine that you push the book with a
 5.3 NEWTON S FIRST LAW AND INERTIAL FRAMES 99

horizontal force large enough to overcome the force of friction, which is

usually present, between the book and table. The book can then be kept in
motion with constant velocity if the applied force is equal in magnitude to the
force of friction and in the direction opposite the friction force. If the applied
force exceeds the force of friction, the book accelerates. If the book is re-
leased, it stops sliding after moving a short distance since the force of friction
retards its motion (or causes a negative acceleration). Now imagine that the

book pushed across a smooth, highly waxed floor. The book will again come
is

to rest, but not as quickly as before. If you could imagine the possibility of a
floor so highly polished that friction is completely absent, the book, once set in
motion, will slide until it hits the wall.
Before about 1600, scientists felt that the natural state of matter was the
state of rest. Galileo was the first approach to motion
to take quite a different
and the natural state of matter. He devised thought experiments, such as an
object moving on a frictionless surface, and concluded that it is not the nature Isaac Newton (1642-1727), an
English physicist and mathemati-
of an object to stop once set in motion: rather, it is its nature to resist decelera-
cian, was one of the most brilliant
tion and acceleration. scientists in history. Before the
This new approach to motion was later formalized by Newton in a form age of 30, he formulated the basic
that has come to be known as Newton's first law of motion: concepts and laws of mechanics,
discovered the law of universal
gravitation, and invented the
An object at rest will remain at rest and an object in motion will continue mathematical methods of calculus.
As a consequence of his theories,
in motion with a constant velocity (that is, constant speed in a straight line)
Newton was able to explain the
unless it experiences a net external force (or resultant force). motion of the planets, the ebb and
flow of the tides, and many special
features of the motion of the moon
In simpler terms, we
can say that when the net force on a body is zero, its and earth. He also interpreted
acceleration is zero. That is, when IF = 0, then a = 0. From the first law, we many fundamental observations
conclude that an isolated body (a body that does not interact with its environ- concerning the nature of light. His
contributions to physical theories
ment) is either at rest or moving with constant velocity. Actually, Newton was dominated scientific thought for
not the first to state this law. Several decades earlier Galileo wrote, "Any two centuries and remain impor-
velocity once imparted to a moving body will be rigidly maintained as long as tant today. (Courtesy ATP Niels
Bohr Library)
the external causes of retardation are removed."
Another example of uniform motion on a nearly frictionless plane is the
motion of a light disk on a column of air (the lubricant), as in Figure 5.3. If the
disk given an initial velocity, it will coast a great distance before coming to
is
r = constant

rest. This idea is used in the game of air hockey, where the disk makes many-
collisions with the walls before coming to rest.
Finally, consider a spaceship traveling in space and far removed from any
planets or other matter. The spaceship requires some propulsion system to
change its velocity. However, if the propulsion system is turned off when the ® ) Electric blower

spaceship reaches a velocity v, the spaceship will "coast" in space with the
same velocity, and the astronauts get a "free ride" (that is, no propulsion Figure 5.3 A disk moving on a
system is required to keep them moving at the velocity v). column of airis an example of uni-

form motion, that is, motion in

which the acceleration is zero.

Inertial Frames
Newton's first law, sometimes called the fati' of inertia, defines a special set of
reference frames called inertial frames.

An inertial frame of reference is one in which New ton's first law is valid. Inertial fr
1 00 CHAPTER 5 THE LAWS OF MOTION

A reference frame that moves with constant velocity relative to the distant
stars is the best approximation of an inertial frame. The earth is not an inertial

frame because of its orbital motion about the sun and rotational motion about
itsown axis. As the earth travels in its nearly circular orbit about the sun, it
experiences a centripetal acceleration of about 4.4 X 10~ 3 m/s 2 toward the
sun. In addition, since the earth rotates about its own axis once every 24 h, a
point on the equator experiences an additional centripetal acceleration of
3.37 X 10~ 2 m/s 2 toward the center of the earth. However, these are small
compared with g and can often be neglected. In most situations we shall
assume that the earth is an inertial frame.
Thus, if an object is in uniform motion (v = constant) an observer in one
inertial frame (say, one at rest with respect to the object) will claim that the
acceleration and the resultant force on the object are zero. An observer in any
other inertial frame will also find that a = and F = for the object. Accord-
ing to the first law, a body at rest and one moving with constant velocity are
equivalent. Unless stated otherwise, we shall usually write the laws of motion
with respect to an observer "at rest" in an inertial frame.

5.4 INERTIAL MASS

If you attempt
to change the state of motion of any body, the body will resist
Inertia this change. Inertia is the property of matter that relates to the tendency of an
object to remain at rest or in uniform motion. For instance, consider two large,
solid cylinders of equal size, one being balsa wood and the other steel. If you
were to push the cylinders along a horizontal, rough surface, it would certainly
take more effort to get the steel cylinder rolling. Likewise, once they are in
motion, it would require more effort to bring the steel cylinder to rest. There-
fore, we say that the steel cylinder has more inertia than the balsa wood
cylinder.
Mass is a term used to measure inertia, and the SI unit of mass is the
kilogram. The greater the mass of a body, the less it (change its
will accelerate
state of motion) under the action of an applied force. For example, if a given
force acting on a 3-kg mass produces an acceleration of 4 m/s 2 the same force ,

when applied to a 6-kg mass will produce an acceleration of 2 m/s 2 This idea .

will be used to obtain a quantitative description of the concept of mass.

It is important to point out that mass should not be confused with weight.

Mass and weight are different Mass and weight are two different quantities. The weight of a body is equal to
quantities the force of gravity acting on the body and varies with location. For example, a
person who weighs 180 lb on earth weighs only about 30 lb on the moon. On
the other hand, the mass of a body is the same everywhere, regardless of
location. An object having a mass of 2 kg on earth will also have a mass of 2 kg
on the moon.
A quantitative measurement of mass can be made by comparing the accel-
erations that a given force will produce on different bodies. Suppose a force
acting on a body of mass m
1
produces an acceleration a l and the same force
,

acting on a body of mass m 2 produces an acceleration a 2 The ratio of the two

masses is defined as the inverse ratio of the magnitudes of the accelerations
produced by the same force:

(5.1)
 5.5 NEWTON'S SECOND LAW 101

If one of these is a standard known mass of, say, 1 kg, the mass of an unknown
can be obtained from acceleration measurements. For example, if the standard
2
1-kg mass undergoes an acceleration of 3 m/s under the influence of some
2
force, a 2-kg mass will undergo an acceleration of 1 .5 m/s under the action of
the same force.
Mass is an inherent property of a body and is independent of the body's
surroundings and of the method used to measure the mass. It is an experimental
fact that mass is a scalar quantity. Finally, mass is a quantity that obeys the rules
of ordinary arithmetic. That is, several masses can be combined in a simple
numerical fashion. For example, if you combine a 3-kg mass with a 5-kg mass,
their total mass would be 8 kg. This can be verified experimentally by compar-
ing the acceleration of each object produced by a known force with the accel-
eration of the combined system using the same force.

5.5 NEWTON'S SECOND LAW

Newton's first law explains what happens to an object when the resultant of all
external forces on it is zero. In such instances, the object either remains at rest
or moves in a straight line with constant speed. Newton's second law answers
the question of what happens to an object that has a nonzero resultant force
acting on it.
Imagine a situation in which you are pushing a block of ice across a smooth
horizontal surface, such that frictional forces can be neglected. When you
exert some horizontal force F, the block moves with some acceleration a. If
you apply a force twice as large, the acceleration doubles. Likewise, if the
applied force is increased to 3F, the acceleration is tripled, and so on. From
such observations, we can conclude that the acceleration ofan object is directly
proportional to the resultant force acting on it. The acceleration of an object
also depends on its mass. This can be understood by considering the following
set of experiments. If you apply a force F to a block of ice on a frictionless
surface, it will undergo some acceleration a. If the mass of the block is doubled,
the same applied force will produce an acceleration a/2. If the mass is tripled,
the same applied force will produce an acceleration a/3, and so on. According
to this observation, we conclude that the acceleration of an object is inversely
proportional to its 7nass.

These observations are summarized in Newton's second law, which states

that

the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the resultant force

acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass.

Note that if the resultant force is zero, then a = 0, which corresponds to the
equilibrium situation where v is equal to a constant. Thus we can relate mass
and force through the following mathematical statement of Newton's second
law: 1

^F = ma (5.2) Newton's second law

You should note that Equation 5.2 is a vector expression and hence is

equivalent to the following three component equations:

1
Equation 5.2 is valid only when the speed of the particle is much less than the speed of light. We
will treat the relativistic situation in Chapter 39.
102 CHAPTER 5 THE LAWS OF MOTION

TABLE 5.1 Units of Force, Mass, and Acceleration*

System of Units Mass Acceleration Force

SI kg m/s 2 N= kg -m/s 2
cgs g cm/s 2 dyne = g cm/s 2
British engineering slug ft/s
2
lb = slug -ft/s 2
(conventional)

1 N= 10 5 dyne = 0.225 lb

Newton's second law- 2F z

= ma z ^F y
= ma y £F,= ma z (5.3)
component form

Units of Force and Mass

The SI unit of force is the newton, which is defined as the force that, when
acting on a 1 -kg mass, produces an acceleration of 1 m/s 2 .

From this definition and Newton's second law, we see that the newton can be
expressed in terms of the following fundamental units of mass, length, and
time:

Definition of newton lN^l kg-m/s 2 (5.4)

The unit of force in the cgs system is called the dyne and is defined as that force
2
that, when acting on a 1-g mass, produces an acceleration of 1 cm/s :

Definition of dyne 1 dyne — 1 g-cm/s 2 (5.5)

In the British engineering system, the unit of force is the pound, defined
as the force that, when acting on a 1-slug mass, 2 produces an acceleration of
2
1 ft/s :

Definition of pound 1 lb = 1 slug -ft/s 2 (5.6)

Since kg = 10 gand 1 m = 10 cm, it follows that 1 N = 10 5 dynes. It is

1
3 2

left as a problem to show that 1 N = 0.225 lb. The units of force, mass, and

acceleration are summarized in Table 5.1.

2
The slug is the unit of mass in the British engineering system and is that system's counterpart of
the SI kilogram. When we speak of going on a diet to lose a few pounds, we really mean that we
want to lose a few slugs, that is, we want to reduce our mass. When we lose those few slugs, the
force of gravity (pounds) on our reduced mass decreases (since W
= mg) and that is how we "lose a
few pounds." Since most of the calculations we shall carry out in our study of classical mechanics
will be in SI units, the slug will seldom be used in this text.

EXAMPLE 5.1 An Accelerating Hockey Puck Solution The resultant force in the x direction is

A hockey puck with a mass of 0.3 kg slides on the hori-

= Flx + F2x =
2)FX Fj cos 20° + F2 cos 60°
zontal frictionless surface of an ice rink. Two forces act
on the puck as shown in Figure 5.4. The force Fj has a = (5 N)(0.940) + (8 N)(0.500) = 8.70 N
magnitude of 5 N, and F2 has a magnitude of 8 N. Deter-
mine the acceleration of the puck.
 5.6 WEIGHT 103

Now we can use Newton's second law in component

form to find the x and y components of acceleration:

2F„ 8.70 N
29.0 m/s 2
in 0.3 kg

5.22 N
17.4 m/s 2
" m 0.3 kg

The acceleration has a magnitude of

a = n/(29.0) 2 + (17. 4) 2 m/s 2 = 33.8 m/s 2

and its direction is

Figure 5.4 (Example 5.1) An object moving on a frictionless

surface will accelerate in the direction of the resultant force 6 = tair^ajaj = tarr^n. 4/29.0) = 31.0°
F +F2
Y
.

relative to the positive x axis.

The resultant force in the y direction is Exercise 1 Determine the components of a third force
that when applied to the puck will cause
it to be in equi-
2F„ = Fly + F2y = -Fj sin 20° + F2 sin 60°
librium.
= -(5 N)(0.342) + (8 N)(0.866) = 5.22 N Answer F = -8.70 N, F„ = -5.22 N.

5.6 WEIGHT
We are well aware of the fact that bodies are attracted to the earth. The force
exerted by the earth on a body is called the weight of the body W. This force is
directed toward the center of the earth. 3 More precisely, the weight of an
object is defined as the resultant gravitational force on the object due to all
other bodies in the universe!
We have seen that a freely falling body experiences an acceleration g
acting toward the center of the earth. Applying Newton's second law to the
freely falling body, with a = g and F=W, gives

W= mg (5.7)

Since the weight depends on g, it varies with geographic location. Bodies

weigh less at higher altitudes than at sea level. This is because g decreases with
increasing distance from the center of the earth. Hence, weight, unlike mass, is
not an inherent property of a body. Therefore, you should not confuse mass
with weight. For example, if a body has a mass of 70 kg, then the magnitude of
its weight where g = 9.80 m/s 2 is mg = 686 N (about 154 lb). At
in a location
the top of a mountain where g = 9.76 m/s 2 this weight would be 683 N. This
,

Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr.,

corresponds to a decrease in weight of about 0.4 lb. Therefore, if you want to
walking on the moon after the
lose weight without going on a diet, climb a mountain or weigh yourself at Apollo 11 lunar landing. The
30 000 ft during a flight on a jet airplane. weight of this astronaut on the
Since W
= mg, we can compare the masses of two bodies by measuring moon is less than it is on earth, but
his mass remains the same. (Cour-
their weights using a spring scale or a chemical balance. That is, the ratio of the tesy of NASA)
weights of two bodies equals the ratio of their masses at a given location.

3
This ignores the fact that the mass distribution of the earth is not perfectly spherical.
104 CHAPTER 5 THE LAWS OF MOTION

5.7 NEWTON'S THIRD LAW

Newton's third law states that if two bodies interact, the force exerted on
body 1 by body 2 is equal to and opposite the force exerted on body 2 by

body 1 That is,

.

Fi2 — — *2i (5.8)

This law, which is illustrated in Figure 5.5a, is equivalent to stating that forces

3 1
Fi2 = -F2

F12

*®
i
always occur
body
body
1
in pairs,

exerts on body 2
or that a single isolated force cannot
sometimes called the action force, while the force of
is

2 on body 1 is called the reaction force. Either force can be labeled the
action or reaction force. The action force is equal in magnitude to the reaction
force and opposite in direction. In all cases, the action and reaction forces act on
exist. The force that

different objects. For example, the force acting on a freely falling projectile is
its weight, W=mg. This equals the force of the earth on the projectile. The
reaction to this force is the force of the projectile on the earth, = — W. The W
reaction force, W, must accelerate the earth toward the projectile just as the
action force, W, accelerates the projectile toward the earth. However, since
the earth has such a large mass, the acceleration of the earth due to this
reaction force is negligibly small.
Another example is shown in Figure 5.5b. The force of the hammer on the

cz^F 1

^ nail (the action)

(the reaction). You
is equal to and opposite the force of the nail on the hammer
directly experience Newton's third law if you slam your fist
against a wall or if you kick a football with your bare foot. You should be able to
(b) identify the action and reaction forces in these cases.
The weight of a body, W, has been defined as the force the earth exerts on
Figure 5.5 Newton's third law. the body. If the body is a block at rest on a table, as in Figure 5.6a, the reaction
(a) The force of body 1 on body 2 is
force to Wis the force the block exerts on the earth, W. The block does not
equal to and opposite the force of
body 2 on body 1 (b) The force of
.
accelerate since it is held up by the table. The table, therefore, exerts an
the hammer on the nail is equal to upward action force, N, on the block, called the normal force. 4 The normal
and opposite the force of the nail
on the hammer. 4
The word normal is used because the direction of A? is always perpendicular to the surface.

^
W
N't A W w

(a) (b)

Figure 5.6 When a block is lying on a table, the forces acting on the block are the normal force,
N, and the force of gravity, W, as illustrated in (b). The reaction to Nis the force of the block on the
table AT. The reaction to W
is the force of the block on the earth. W.
 5.8 SOME APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS 105

force is the force that prevents the block from falling through the table, and
can have any value needed, up to the point of breaking the table. The normal
force balances the weight and provides equilibrium. The reaction to N is the
force of the block on the table, N'. Therefore, we conclude that

W=-W and N = -N'

Note that the forces acting on the block are W and N,
as in Figure 5.6b. We
shall be interested only such external forces when treating the motion of a
in
body. From the first law, we see that since the block is in equilibrium (a = 0), it
follows that W
= N = mg.

5.8 SOME APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS

In this section we present some simple applications of Newton's laws to bodies
that are either in equilibrium (a = 0) or moving linearly under the action of
constant external forces. As our model, we shall assume that the bodies behave
as particles so that we need not worry about rotational motions. In this section, Figure 5.7 (a) A block being
we shall also neglect the effects of friction for those problems involving mo- pulled to the right on a smooth sur-
tion. This is equivalent to stating that the surfaces are smooth. Finally, we shall face, (b) The free-body diagram
that represents the external forces
usually neglect the mass of any ropes involved in a particular problem. In this
on the block.
approximation, the magnitude of the force exerted at any point along the rope
is the same at all points along the rope.

When we apply Newton's laws to a body, we shall be interested only in

those external forces that act on the body. For example, in Figure 5.6 the only
external forces acting on the block are N
and W. The reactions to these forces,
N' and W, act on the table and on the earth, respectively, and do not appear in
Newton's second law as applied to the block.
When an object such as a block is being pulled by a rope attached to it, the
rope exerts a force on the object. The tension in the rope is defined as the force Tension
that the rope exerts on the object. In general, tension in a rope is the force that
the rope exerts on what is attached to it.
Consider a block being pulled to the right on the smooth, horizontal
surface of a table, as in Figure 5.7a. Suppose you are asked to find the accelera-
tion of the block and the force of the table on the block. First, note that the
horizontal force being applied to the block acts through the string. The force
that the string exerts on the block is denoted by the symbol T. The magnitude
of Tis equal to the tension in the string. A dotted circle is drawn around the
block in Figure 5.7a to remind you to isolate the block from its surroundings.
Since we are interested only in the motion of the block, we must be able to
identify all external forces acting on it. These are illustrated in Figure 5.7b. In
addition to the force T, the force diagram for the block includes the weight, W,
and the normal force, N. As before, W
corresponds to the force of gravity
pulling down on the block and N is the upward force of the table on the block.
Such a force diagram is referred to as a free-body diagram. The construction of Free-body diagrams are
such a diagram is an important step in applying Newton's laws. The reactions to important when applying
the forces we have listed, namely, the force of the string on the hand, the force Newton's laws
of the block on the earth, and the force of the block on the table, are not
included in the free-body diagram since they act on ot her bodies and not on the
block.
We are now in a position to apply Newton's second law in component
form to the system. The only force acting in the x direction is T. Applying
SFT = ma x to the horizontal motion gives
106 CHAPTERS THE LAWS OF MOTION

YF =T=ma r or a =

In this situation, there is no acceleration in the y direction. Applying

EF = ma with a = gives

X- W= N= W
That is. the normal force
equal to and opposite the weight.
is

If Tis a constant force, then the acceleration. a x = T/tn, is also a constant.

Hence, the equations of kinematics from Chapter 3 can be used to obtain the
displacement. Ax, and velocity, r, as functions of time. Since a z = T/m =
constant, these expressions can be written

Ax = vn t +I

D = +
° (l)
where o is the velocity at t = 0.
Figure 5.8 When one pushes In the example just presented, we found that the normal force N was equal
downward on an object with a in magnitude and opposite the weight W. This is not always the case. For
force F. the normal force is N
greater than the weight. That is.
example, suppose you were to push down on a book with a force Fas in Figure
N = W+ F. 5.8. In this case. 1Fy = gives \ — W
— F = 0, orN = + F. Other examples W
in which X = W
will be presented later.
Consider a lamp of weight W
suspended from a chain of negligible weight
fastened to the ceiling, as in Figure 5.9a. The free-body diagram for the lamp is
shown in Figure 5.9b. where the forces on it are the weight. W. acting down-
ward, and the force of the chain on the lamp, T. acting upward. The force Tis
—T™ the constraint force in this case. (If we cut the chain, T= and the body
executes free fall.)

If we first law to the lamp, noting that a = 0. we see that since

apply the
there are no forces in the x direction, the equation 1FX = provides no helpful
information. The condition SFy = gives

IC,
^F =T-\Y=0
y
or T=\Y
Note that Tand Ware nor action-reaction pairs. The reaction to Tis T'. the
force exerted on the chain by the lamp, as in Figure 5.9c. The force T' acts
downward and is transmitted to the ceiling. That is. the force of the chain on
the ceiling, 2", is downward and equal to Win magnitude. The ceiling exerts an
Figure 5.9 (a) A lamp of weight W equal and opposite force. T" = T. on the chain, as in Figure 5.9c.
suspended by a light chain from a
ceiling, (b) The forces acting on the
lamp are the force of gravity. W.
and the tension in the chain. T. PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY
(c) The
forces acting on the chain
are I", that exerted by the lamp, The following procedure is recommended when dealing with problems involving
and T". that exerted by the ceiling. the application of Newton's laws:

1. Draw diagram of the system.

a simple, neat
2. Isolate whose morion is being analyzed. Draw a free-
the object of interest
body diagram for this object, that is. a diagram showing all external forces
acting on the object For systems containing more than one object, draw sepa-
rate diagrams for each object. Do not include forces that the object exerts on
its surroundings.
 5.8 SOME APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS 107

3. Establish convenient coordinate axes for each body and find the components
Now, apply Newton's second law, SF= ma, in
of the forces along these axes.
component form. Check your dimensions to make sure that all terms have
units of force.
4. Solve the component equations for the unknowns. Remember that you must
have as many independent equations as you have unknowns in order to obtain
a complete solution.
5. It is a good idea to check the predictions of your solutions for extreme values

of the variables. You can often detect errors in your results by doing so.

EXAMPLE 5.2 A Traffic Light at Rest (1) 2F = T2

*
cos 53 ° ~T i
cos 37 ° =°
A traffic light weighing 100 N
hangs from a cable tied to
- 100 N =
two other cables fastened to a support, as in Figure (2) ^Fy = T L
sin 37° + T2 sin 53°

5.10a. The upper cables make angles of 37° and 53° with From (1) we see that the horizontal components of
the horizontal. Find the tension in the three cables. 7\ and T2 must be equal in magnitude, and from (2) we
see that the sum of the vertical components of Tj and T2
» First we construct a free-body diagram for the must balance the weight of the light. We can solve (1) for
traffic light, as in Figure 5.10b. The tension in the verti- T2 in terms of Tx to give
cal cable, T3 , supports the light, and so we see that T3 =
W= 100 N. Now we construct a free-body diagram for =T / cos37° \
1 1.33TJ
the knot that holds the three cables together, as in Figure \ cos 53°/

5.10c. This is a convenient point to choose because all This value for T2 can be substituted into (2) to give
forces in question act at this point. We choose the coordi-
nate axes as shown in Figure 5. 1 0c and resolve the forces T, sin 37° + (1.33T 1 )(sin 53°) - 100 N=
into their x and y components:
T =
x
60.0 N
Force x component y component
72=1.337!= 79.8 N
Tl
cos 37° Tj sin 37°
T2 cos 53° T2 sin 53°
- In what situation will Tj = T2 ?
-100N When the supporting cables make equal angles
with the horizontal support.
The condition for equilibrium IF = gives us the
equations

Figure 5.10 (Example 5.2) (a) A traffic

light suspended by cables, (b) Free-body
diagram for the traffic light, (c) Free-body
(c) diagram for the knot.
108 CHAPTER 5 THE LAWS OF MOTION

Figure 5.11 (Example 5.3) (a) "A block mg cos 6

sliding down a smooth incline, (b) The free-
body diagram for the block. Note that its
acceleration along the incline is g sin 6.

EXAMPLE 5.3 Block on a Smooth Incline

A block of mass m is placed on a smooth, inclined plane of
2d
(4)
angle Figure 5.11a. (a) Determine the accelera-
6, as in g sin 6

tion of the block after it is released.

The free-body diagram for the block is shown in Also, since oxa = t^ 2 + 2a z (x —x ) and c^ = 0, we find
Figure 5.1 lb. The only forces on the block are the nor- that
mal force. N, acting perpendicular to the plane and the
laJ
weight. W. acting vertically downward. It is convenient to
cfioose the coordinate axes uith x along the incline arid y
perpendicular to it. Then, we replace the weight vector
- la A .It

by a component of magnitude mg sin 6 along the positive

x axis and another of magnitude mg cos 6 in the negative y Again, t and v z are independent of the mass of the block.
direction. Applying Newton's second law in component This suggests a simple method of measuring g using an
form while noting that a = gives inclined air track or some other smooth incline. Simply
measure the angle of inclination, the distance traveled by
(1) ^F = mg sin 8 = maz
r the block, and the time it takes to reach the bottom. The
(2)
JF i y
= X - mg cos 8 = value of g can then be calculated from (4) and (5).

From (1) we see that the acceleration along the incline is

provided by the component of weight down the incline: EXAMPLE 5.4 Arwood's Machine
When two unequal masses are hung vertically over a
(3) az = g sin light, frictionless pulley as in Figure 5.12a. the arrange-

T
From (2) we conclude that the component
of weight per-
pendicular to the incline balanced by the normal force,
is

or X" = mg cos 6. The acceleration given by (3) is found to

be independent of the mass of the block! It depends only
on the angle of inclination and on g!

Special Case* We see that when 6 = 90°, a = g and N =

0. This corresponds to the block in free fall. Also, when
6 = 0, a x = and X* = mg (its maximum value).

Suppose the block is released from rest at the

(b)
top. and the distance from the block to the bottom is d.
How long does it take the block to reach the bottom, and
what is its speed just as it gets there?
Since a z = constant, we can apply the kinematic
equation i — i == v^t + \a x t 2 to the block. Since the dis-
placement x — x =d and r^ = 0. we get

d = kU* Figure 5.12 (Example 5.4) Atwood's machine, (a) Two masses
connected by a light string over a frictionless pulley, (b) Free-
body diagrams for m, and m 2
 5.8 SOME APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS 109

merit is called Atwood's machine. The device is some- EXAMPLE 5.5 Two Connected Objects
times used in the laboratory to measure the acceleration Two unequal masses are attached by a light string that
of gravity. Determine the acceleration of the two masses passes over alight, frictionless pulley as in Figure 5.13a.
and the tension in the string. The block of mass m 2 lies on a smooth incline of angle 6.
Find the acceleration of the two masses and the tension
Solution The free-body diagrams for the two masses are in the string.
shown Figure 5.12b, where we assume that m 2 > m 1
in .

When Newton's second law is applied to m 1 with a up- , Solution Since the two masses are connected by a string
wards for this mass, we find (which we assume doesn't stretch), they both have accel-
same magnitude. The free-body diagrams
erations of the
for thetwo masses are shown in Figures 5. 1 3b and 5. 1 3c.
Similarly, for m 2 we find Applying Newton's second law in component form to m Y
= T ~ m 2g = while assuming that a is upward for this mass gives
(2) 2F !/
~~
m 2a
The negative sign on the right-hand side of (2) indicates
Equations of motion for m x
:

that m2 accelerates downwards, in the negative y direc- (1) 1^ =

When (2) '%F =T-m g =m a
(2) is subtracted from (1), Tdrops out and we y l l

get Note that in order for a to be positive, it is necessary that

m l g + m 2g = m^a + m 2 a r>m g. 1
Now, for m 2 it is convenient to choose the positive x'
axis along the incline as in Figure 5.13c. Applying New-
ton's second law in component form to m 2 gives

(3) — (a^y
+m Vnij 2/
Equations of motion for m2 :

(3) 2*V = m 2g sin0-T= m 2 a

If (3) is substituted into (1), we get
(4) '£Fy = N -m 2 gcos0 = O
,

Expressions (1) and (4) provide no information regarding

r _(jMi:y the acceleration. However, if we solve (2) and (3) simul-
\m + m 2 j
l
taneously for the unknowns a and T, we get

Note that when m = m 2 a = and T =

Special Cases x ,

a = m 2 gsm6/-m 1 g
m,g = m 2 g, as we would expect for the balanced case. ni] + m 2
Also, if m 2 >m a~g (a freely falling body) and
,
l

T = 2m1 g. When this is substituted into we find

(2),

Exercise 3 Find the acceleration and tension of an At-

wood's machine in which m 1 = 2 kg and m 2 = 4 kg. T
_ m^gjl +sinfl)
Answer a = 3.27 m/s 2 T= 26.1 N. ,
m x + m2

Figure 5.13 (Example 5.5)

(a) Two
masses connected by a
light string over a frictionless
pulley, (b) The free-body dia-
gram for m, (c) The free-body .

diagram for m 2 (the incline is

smooth).
110 CHAPTER 5 THE LAWS OF MOTION

Note that m 2 accelerates down the incline if m 2 sin 6 (the force of m, acting on m2 ) which is to the right. Ap-
m
exceeds t (that is, if a is positive as we assumed). If m
x
plying Newton's second law to m 2 gives
exceeds m 2 sin 0, the acceleration of m 2 is up the incline
and downward for x
m
You should also note that the
.
(2) ^ Fl = P=m 2a

result for the acceleration, (5), can be interpreted as the Substituting the value of the acceleration a from (1) into
resultant unbalanced force on the system divided by the (2) gives
total mass of the system.

= m*
Exercise 4 If m = 10 kg. m2 = 5 kg, and 6 = 45°, find (3) P= m<,a ( )
J
Vrnj + m2/
the acceleration.
r a = —4.22 m/s 2 , where the negative sign indi-
From note that the contact force Pis less than
this result,
cates that m 2 accelerates up the incline.
the applied force F. This is consistent with the fact that

the force required to accelerate m 2 alone must be less

EXAMPLE than the force required to produce the same acceleration

5.6 One Block Pushes Another
Two for the system of two blocks.
blocks of masses
x
m
and m 2 are placed in contact
with each other on a smooth, horizontal surface as in It is instructive to check this expression for P by
Figure 5.14a. A constant horizontal force F is applied to considering the forces acting onm,, shown in Figure
m shown, 15.14b. In this case, the horizontal forces acting on m l
x as (a) Find the acceleration of the system.
are the applied force F to the right, and the contact force
P' to the left (the force of m2 on ni|). From Newton's
third law, P' the reaction to P, so thatJP'l
is = |P|. Apply-

Sk ing Newton's second law to m l gives

(4) ^F Z
= F-P' = F-P=m ia
Substituting the value of a from (1) into (4) gives

P = F-m 1 a = F-

This agrees with

mjF
MM
\m, + m 2 )
(3), as it must.

If m, = 4 kg,
(b) (c)
Exercise 5 2
= 3 kg, and m
9 N, find F=
the acceleration of the system and the magnitude of the
Figure 5.14 Example 5.6.
contact force.
Answer a = 1.29 m/s 2 ; P= 3.86 N
Both blocks must experience the same acceler-
in

ation since they are in contact with each other. Since the
force F is the only horizontal force on the system (the two
blocks), we have
EXAMPLE 5.7 Weighing a Fish in an Elevator
A person weighs a fish on a spring scale attached to the
2 ^(system) = F=(m l
+ m 2 )a ceiling of an elevator, as shown in Figure 5.1 5. Show that
if the elevator accelerates or decelerates, the spring
scale reads a weight different from the true weight of the
fish.

(1)
m + m2 l Solution The external forces acting on the fish are its
true weight, W, and the upward constraint force, T, ex-
(b)Determine the magnitude of the contact force be- erted on it by the scale. By Newton's third law, Tis also
tween the two blocks. the reading of the spring scale. If the elevator is at rest or
moving at constant velocity, then the fish is not acceler-
To solve this part of the problem, it is necessary ating and T= \V= mg (where g= 9.80 m/s 2 ). If the ele-
to first construct free-body diagrams for each block vator accelerates upward with an acceleration a relative
shown Figures 5.14b and 5.14c, where the contact
in to an observer outside the elevator in an inertial frame
force is P. From Figure 5. 1 4c, we see that the
denoted by (Fig. 5.15a), then the second law applied to the fish of
only horizontal force acting on m 2 is the contact force P mass in gives the total force F on the fish:
 5.8 SOME APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS 111

kT

mg = \V

(b)

Observer in
inertial frame

Figure 5.15 (Example 5.7) Apparent weight versus true weight, (a) When the elevator
accelerates upward the spring scale reads a value greater than the true weight, (b) When
the elevator accelerates downward the spring scale reads a value less than the true
weight. The spring scale reads the apparent weight.

(1) ^F = T — W = ma (if a is upward) ma + mg = mg I 1

g)
Likewise, if the elevator accelerates downward as in Fig-
ure 5.15b, Newton's second law applied to the fish be- W[ 1

comes '""(-nSfr)
(2) ^F=T-W=-ma (if a is downward) 31.8 N
Thus, we conclude from (1) that the scale reading, T, is
Hence, if you buy a fish in an elevator, make sure the
greater than the true weight, W, if a is upward. From (2)
fish is weighed while the elevator is at rest or accelerat-
we see that Tis less than Wif a is downward.
ing downward! Furthermore, note that from the infor-
For example, if the true weight of the fish is 40 N,
mation given here, one cannot determine the direction of
and a is 2 m/s 2 upward, then the scale reading is
motion of the elevator.

T = ma + mg = mg
(H Special Cases If the elevator cable breaks, then the ele-
vator falls freely and a = g. Since W = mg, we see from
\v (1) that the apparent weight, T, is zero, that is, the fish

(H-«»»>(*§^H appears to be weightless. If the elevator accelerates

downward with an acceleration greater than g, the fish
= 48.2 N (along with the person in the elevator) will eventually hit
the ceiling since its acceleration will still be that of a
If a is 2 m/s 2 downward, then freely falling body relative to an outside observer.
1 1 2 CHAPTER 5 THE LAWS OF MOTION

5.9 FORCES OF FRICTION

When a bodymotion on a rough surface, or through a viscous medium
is in
such is resistance to motion because of the interaction of
as air or water, there
the body with its surroundings. We call such resistance a force of friction.
Forces of friction are very important in our everyday lives. Forces of friction
allow us to walk or run and are necessary for the motion of wheeled vehicles.
Consider a block on a horizontal table, as in Figure 5.16a. If we apply an
external horizontal force F to the block, acting to the right, the block will
remain stationary if F is not too large. The force that keeps the block from
moving acts to the left and is called the frictional force,/. As long as the block is
in equilibrium. /= F. Since the block is stationary, we call this frictional force
the force of static friction. ft Experiments show that this force arises from the
.

roughness of the two surfaces, so that contact is made only at a few points, as
shown in the "magnified" view of the surfaces in Figure 5.16a. Actually, the
is much more complicated than presented here since it ulti-
frictional force
mately involves the electrostatic forces between atoms or molecules where
the surfaces are in contact.
If we increase the magnitude of F, as in Figure 5.16b, the block will
eventually slip. When the block is on the verge of slipping,/, is a maximum.
When F exceeds ft m „ the block moves and accelerates to the right. When the

Kinetic region

(c)

Figure 5.16 The force of friction,/, between ablock and a rough surface is opposite the applied
force. F. (a) The force of static friction equals the applied force, (b) When the applied force
exceeds the force of kinetic friction, the block accelerates to the right, (cl A graph of the magni-
tude of the frictional force versus the applied force. Note that/smal >f±-
 5.9 FORCES OF FRICTION 113

block is in motion, the retarding frictional force becomes less thanfsmax (Fig.
5.16c). When the block is in motion, we call the retarding force the force of
kinetic friction, fv The unbalanced force in the x direction, F —fv
.
,
produces an
acceleration to the right. If F=/ k the block moves to the right with constant
speed. If the applied force is removed, then the frictional force acting to the
left decelerates the block and eventually brings it to rest.
In a simplified model, we
can imagine that the force of kinetic friction is
less thanf max because of the reduction in roughness of the two surfaces when
the object is in motion.
Experimentally, one finds that both/smax and/i are proportional to the
normal force acting on the block. The experimental observations can be summa-
rized by the following laws of friction:

1. The force of static friction between any two surfaces in contact is opposite
the applied force and can have values given by

/.^.N (5.9) Force of static friction

where the dimensionless constant // s is called the coefficient of static fric-

tion and N is the normal force. The equality in Equation 5.9 holds when the
block is on the verge of slipping, that is, when^ = fsmax = fi s N. The inequal-
ity holds when the applied force is less than this value.
The force of kinetic friction acting on an object is opposite to the direction
of motion of the object and is given by

fv=M*N (5.10) Force of kinetic friction

where /z k is the coefficient of kinetic friction.

The values of // k and /z depend on the nature of the surfaces, but /i k is
s

generally less than n Typical values of n range from around 0.05 for
s
.

smooth surfaces to 1.5 for rough surfaces. Table 5.2 lists some reported
values.

TABLE 5.2 Coefficients of Friction 8

114 CHAPTER 5 THE LAWS OF MOTION

Finally, the coefficients of friction are nearly independent of the area of

contact between the surfaces. Although the coefficient of kinetic friction
varies with speed, we shall neglect any such variations.

EXAMPLE 5.8 Experimental Determination of fi s starts to move at 6 s C , it will accelerate down the in-
and n v cline and the force of friction is/k = /i k N. However, if 6
example we describe a simple method of measur-
In this is reduced below 6
C
an angle 8 C can be found such that
,
'

between an object and a

ing the coefficients of friction the block moves down the incline with constant speed
rough surface. Suppose the object is a small block placed (a x = 0). In this case, using (1) and (2) with/s replaced by
on a surface inclined with respect to the horizontal, as in A g jves
Figure 5.17. The angle of the inclined plane is increased
until the block slips. By measuring the angle 6C at which Kinetic case: = '
// k tan 6C
this slipping just occurs, we obtain fi s directly. We note
that the only forces acting on the block are its weight, where 6C < 8C
'
.

mg, the normal force, N, and the force of static friction,

You should try this simple experiment using a coin as
fs Taking x parallel to the plane and y perpendicular to
.

the block and a notebook as the inclined plane. Also, you

the plane, Newton's second law applied to the block
can try taping two coins together to prove that you still
gives
get the same critical angles as with one coin.
Static case: (1) ^F = mg sin 6 — f =
x s

(2) £F y
= N - mg cos B =
We can eliminate mg by substituting mg = N/cos 6
EXAMPLE 5.9 The Sliding Hockey Puc k
A hockey puck on a frozen pond is hit and given an initial
from (2) into (1) to get
speed of 20 m/s. If the puck always remains on the ice
/ K \ and slides a distance of 120 m before coming to rest,
(3) /, = mg sin = - sin 6 = N tan 6
determine the coefficient of kinetic friction between the
puck and the ice.
When the inclined plane is at the critical angle, 6C
(called the angle of repose), f =/smM
s
=/i s N, and so at
this angle, (3) becomes Solution The forces acting on the puck after it is in mo-
tion are shown in Figure 5.18. If we assume that the force
H N = N tan
5
6C
of friction, fa, remains constant, then this force produces
a uniform negative acceleration of the puck. Applying
Static case: Ms = tan C Newton's second law to the puck in component form
gives
For example, if we find that the block just slips at

C
= 2O°, then ns = tan 20° =0.364. Once the block (1) 2F = -fv = ma
x

(2) ^Fy = N-mg = (a

y
= 0)

Motion

Figure 5.17 (Example 5.8) The external forces acting on a mg

block lying on a rough incline are the weight, mg, the normal
force, N, and the force of friction,/ Note that the weight vector Figure 5.18 (Example 5.9) After the puck is given an initial
is resolved into a component along the incline, mg sin 6, and a on it are the weight, mg, the
velocity, the externa] forces acting
component perpendicular to the incline, mg cos 8. normal force, N, and the force of kinetic friction,/;.
 5.9 FORCES OF FRICTION 115

But fk = fiy.N, and from (2) we see that N :

mg. There- Solution First we draw the free-body diagrams of m l

fore, (1) becomes and m 2 as in Figures 5. 1 9b and 5. 1 9c. Note that the force
-// k N = = ma F has components Fx = F cos 8 and Fy = F sin 0. There-
-flymg
fore, in this case N is not equal to nijg. Applying New-
a = --"kg ton's second law to both masses and assuming the motion

The negative sign means that the acceleration is to the

of m 1
is to the right, we get

left,corresponding to a negative acceleration of the Motion of 771} : 8 — fy — T= m^a

VF, = Fcos
puck. Also, the acceleration is independent of the mass of
the puck and is constant since we are assuming that fiy (1) ^Fy = N+Fsm6-m g = l

remains constant. Motion of rn2 : ^F, =

Since the acceleration is constant, we can use the
kinematic equation u 2 = o 2 + lax, with the final speed (2) ^Fy = T- m 2g = m 2 a
f = 0. This gives But fy = //N, and from (1), N = m,g — Fsin 6; therefore

v 2
+ lax =v 2 - 2n v gx = (3) fk =n(m1g-Fsin0)
That is, the frictional force is reduced because of the
positive y component of F. Substituting (3) and the value
* 2gx of T from (2) into (1) gives

In our example, v = 20 m/s and x = 120 m: F cos 8 — //(m,g — F sin 6) — m 2 (a + g) = mjO

(20 m/s) 2 Solving for a, we get

/k
2(9.80 m/s 2 )(120m)
_ F(cos 8 +n sin 0) — g(m 2 + //mj)
Note that n v has no dimensions. (4)
m + m2
1

We can find Tby substituting this value of a into (2). Note

that the acceleration for m can be either to the right or
EXAMPLE Connected Objects with Friction
5.10 1

left, 5
depending on the sign of the numerator in (4). If the
A block of mass /n 1 on a rough, horizontal surface is con-
motion of nij is to the left, we must reverse the sign of/j^
nected to a second mass m 2 by a light cord over a light,
since the frictional force opposes the motion. In this case,
frictionless pulley as in Figure 5.19a. A force of magni-
the value of a is the same as in (4) with fi replaced by —fi.
tude Fis applied to mass tn 1 as shown. The coefficient of
kinetic friction between m l and the surface is/;. Deter- 5
A close examination of (4) shows that when^/m! > 2 there m ,

mine the acceleration of the masses and the tension in the is a range of values of F for which no motion occurs at a given
cord. angle 0.

(a)

Figure 5.19 (Example 5.10) (a) The external force, F, applied as shown can cause nij to accelerate to
the right, (b) and (c) The free-body diagrams assuming that m 1 accelerates to the right while m 2 acceler-
ates upward. Note that the force of kinetic friction in this case is given by^ = /i k N — Mv( m \S ~ F j nd).
116 CHAPTER 5 THE LAWS OF MOTION

SUMMARY
Newton's first law Newton's first law states that a body at rest will remain at rest and a body in
uniform motion in a straight line will maintain that motion unless an exter-
nal resultant force acts on the body.
Newton's second law Newton's second law states that the acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the resultant force acting on it and inversely proportional to
its mass. If the mass of the body is constant, the net force equals the product

of the mass and its acceleration, or 1F= ma.

Newton's first and second laws are valid in an inertial frame of refer-
Inertial frame ence. An inertial frame is one in which Newton's first law is valid.
Mass is a scalar quantity. The mass that appears in Newton's second law-
is called inertial mass.
The weight of a body is equal to the product of its mass and the accelera-
Weight tion of gravity, or W=
mg.
Newton's third law states that if two bodies interact, the force exerted
Newton's third law on body 1 by body 2 is equal to and opposite the force exerted on body 2 by
body 1 Thus, an isolated force cannot exist in nature.
.

The maximum force of static friction, fsmax between a body and a

.

Forces of friction rough surface is proportional to the normal force acting on the bod} This -
.

maximum force occurs when the body is on the verge of slipping. In general,
W
f s u where/^ s is the coefficient ofstatic friction andNis the normal force.
s

When a body slides over a rough surface, the force of kinetic friction, fv is ,

opposite the motion and is also proportional to the normal force. The mag-
nitude of this force is given by^ = (ttfi, where /i k is the coefficient of kinetic
friction. Usually. // k < /i 5 .

More on Free-Body Diagrams

In order to be successful in applying Newton's second law to a mechanical
system, you must first be able to recognize all the forces acting on the

system. That you must be able to construct the correct free-body dia-
is.

gram. The importance of constructing the free-body diagram cannot be

overemphasized. In Figure 5.20 a number of mechanical systems are
presented together with their corresponding free-body diagrams. You
should examine these carefully and then proceed to construct free-body
diagrams for other systems described in the problems. When a system
contains more than one element, it is important that you construct a free-
body diagram for each element.
As usual, F denotes some applied force. W=mg is the weight. de- N
notes a normal force, /is frictional force, and Tis the force of tension.
 SUMMABY 117

A block pulled to the right i

a rough, horizontal surface

A block being pulled up

a rough incline

A
L

Two blocks in contact, pushed to

the right on a smooth surface

Note: P = —Q since they are an

action-reaction pair

FK ¥\ /-«-

©
Two blocks connected by a light
cord. The surface is rough and Figure 5.20 Various mechani-
the pulley is smooth cal configurations (left) and the
corresponding free-body dia-
?W, grams (right).
118 CHAPTER 5 THE LAWS OF MOTION

QUESTIONS

1. Ifan object is at rest, can we conclude that there are forward, the crate remains at rest relative to the truck.
no external forces acting on it? What force causes the crate to accelerate? (b) If the
2. If gold were sold by weight, would you rather buy truck driver slams on the brakes, what could happen
it in Denver or in Death Valley? If sold by mass, at to the crate?
which of the two locations would you prefer to buy 16. A child pulls a wagon with some force, causing it to
it? Why? accelerate.Newton's third law says that the wagon
3. A passenger sitting in the rear of a bus claims that he exerts an equal and opposite reaction force on the
was injured when the driver slammed on the brakes, child. How can the wagon accelerate?
causing a suitcase to come flying toward the passenger 17. A rubber ball is dropped onto the floor. What force
from the front of the bus. If you were the judge in this causes the ball to bounce back into the air?
case, what disposition would you make? Why? 18. What is wrong with the statement, "Since the car is at
4. A space explorer is in a spaceship moving through rest, there are no forces acting on it"? How would you
space far from any planet or star. She notices a large correct this sentence?
rock, taken as a specimen from an alien planet, float- 19. Suppose you are driving a car along a highway at a
ing around the cabin of the spaceship. Should she high speed. Why should you avoid slamming on your
push it gently toward a storage compartment or kick it brakes if you want to stop in the shortest distance?
toward the compartment? Why? 20. If you have ever taken a ride in an elevator of a high-
5. How much does an astronaut weigh out in space, far rise building, you may have experienced the nauseat-
from any planet? ing sensation of "heaviness" and "lightness" depend-
6. Although the frictional force between two surfaces ing on the direction of a. Explain these sensations. Are
may decrease as the surfaces are smoothed, the force we truly weightless in free fall?
will again increase if the surfaces are made extremely 21. A 0.15-kg baseballis thrown upward with an initial

smooth and flat. How do you explain this? speed of 20 m/s. If air resistance is neglected, what is
7. Why is it that the frictional force involved in the roll- the net force on the ball when it reaches half its maxi-
ing of one body over another is less than for a sliding mum height?
motion? 22. The driver of a speeding empty truck slams on the
8. A massive metal object on a rough metal surface may brakes and skids to a stop through a distance d. (a) If
undergo contact welding to that surface. Discuss how the truck carried a heavy load such that its mass were
this affects the frictional forces between the object doubled, what would be its "skidding distance"?
and the surface. (b) If the initial speed of the truck is halved, what
9. The observer in the elevator of Example 5.7 would would be its "skidding distance"?
claim that the "weight" of the fish is T, the scale read- 23. Does it make sense to say that an object possesses
ing. This isobviously wrong. Why does this observa- force? Explain.
tion differ from that of a person outside the elevator at 24. In an attempt to define Newton's third law, a student
rest with respect to the elevator? states that the action and reaction forces are equal and
1 0. Identify the action-reaction pairs in the following situ- opposite each other. If this is the case, how can there
ations: a man takes a step; a snowball hits a girl in the ever be a net force on an object?
back; a baseball player catches a ball; a gust of wind 25. In a tug-of-war between two athletes, each athlete
strikes a window. pulls on the rope with a force of 200 N. What is the
1 1 While a football is in flight, what forces act on it? What tension in the rope? What force does each athlete
are the action-reaction pairs while the football is exert against the ground?
being kicked and while it is in flight? 26. If you push on a heavy box which is at rest, it requires
12. A ball is held in a person's hand, (a) Identify all the some force F to motion. However, once it is
start its
external forces acting on the ball and the reaction to sliding, it requires a smaller force to maintain that
each, (b) If the ball is dropped, what force is exerted motion. Why is this so?
while it is falling? Identify the reaction force in
on it 27. What causes a rotary lawn sprinkler to turn?
(Neglect air resistance.)
this case. 28. The force of gravity is twice as great on a 20-N rock as
13. Identify all the action-reaction pairs that exist for a it is on a 10-N rock. Why doesn't the 20-N rock have a

horse pulling a cart. Include the earth in your exami- greater free-fall acceleration?
nation. 29. Is it possible to have motion in the absence of a force?
14. If a car is westward with a constant speed of
traveling Explain.
20 m/s, what is the resultant force acting on it? 30. Isthere any relation between the net force acting on
15. A large crate is placed on the bed of a truck without an object and the direction in which it moves? Ex-
being tied to the truck, (a) As the truck accelerates plain.
 .

PROBLEMS 119

PROBLEMS
Section 5.1 through Section 5.7 15 A brick of weight Wrests on top of a vertical spring of

1 A force, F, applied to an object of mass m^ produces an

weight s
W The spring rests on a table, (a) Draw a
.

free-body diagram of the brick and label all forces

acceleration of 3 m/s 2 . The same force applied to a
acting on it. (b) Bepeat (a) for the spring, (c) Identify
second object of mass m 2 produces an acceleration of
all action-reaction pairs of forces in this brick-spring-
1 m/s
2 (a) What is the value of the ratio
. mjm 2 ? (b) If table-earth system.
m l and m 2 are combined, find their acceleration
16. Forces of 10 N north, 20 N east, and 15 N south are
under the action of the force F.
simultaneously applied to a 4-kg mass. Obtain its ac-
2. A 6-kg object undergoes an acceleration of 2 m/s 2 .

celeration.
(a) What is the magnitude of the resultant force acting
17 A net force applied to a 2-kg mass gives it an accelera-
on it? (b) If this same force is applied to a 4-kg object,
tion of 3 m/s 2 east. The same net force results in an
what acceleration will it produce?
acceleration of 1 m/s 2 east when applied to a different
3. A force of 10 N acts on a body of mass 2 kg. What is
mass m. Determine m and the net force.
(a) the acceleration of the body, (b) its weight in N,

and (c) its acceleration if the force is doubled?

Two forces F1 and F2 act on a 5-kg mass. If Fl = 20 N
Jand F2 = 15 N, find the acceleration in (a) and (b) of
4. A 3-kg particle starts from rest and moves a distance of
Figure 5.21.
4 m in 2 s under the action of a single, constant force.
Find the magnitude of the force.
5. A 5.0-g bullet leaves the muzzle of a rifle with a speed
of 320 m/s. What average force is exerted on the bul-
let while it is traveling down the 0. 82-m-long barrel of
the rifle? Assume the bullet's acceleration is constant.
6. A pitcher releases a baseball of weight 1.4N with a
speed of 32 m/s by uniformly accelerating his arm for
0.09 s. If the ball starts from rest, (a) through what -F,
distance does the ball accelerate before release? (a) (b)

(b) What average force is exerted on the ball to pro-

duce this acceleration? Figure 5.21 (Problem 18).

7. A 3-kg mass undergoes an acceleration given by a =

(2i + 5j) m/s 2 Find the resultant force, F, and its
.
19. A constant force changes the speed of an 80-kg
magnitude. sprinter from 3 m/s to 4 m/s in 0.5 s. (a) Calculate the
8. Verify the following conversions: (a) 1 N = 10 5 dynes, magnitude of the acceleration of the sprinter, (b) Ob-
(b) 1 N = 0.225 lb. tain the magnitude of the force, (c) Determine the
9. A person weighs 120 lb. Determine (a) her weight in magnitude of the acceleration of a 50-kg sprinter ex-
N and (b) her mass in kg. periencing the same force. (Assume linear motion.)
10. On a hypothetical planet, the acceleration due to A 9-kg object undergoes an acceleration of 2 m/s 2
gravity at its surface is 0.072 g. If an object weighs to the right under the action of two forces, F and F
1 2 .

25 N on the earth, what will it weigh on the surface of Fj acts to the right and has a magnitude of 25 N.
the hypothetical planet? What are the magnitude and direction of F2 ?
11. What is the mass of an astronaut whose weight on the 21. A 4-kg object has a velocity of 3» m/s at one instant.
moon is 1 1 5 N? The acceleration due to gravity on the Eight seconds later, its velocity is (8i + 10;) m/s. As-
moon is 1.63 m/s 2 .
suming the object was subject to a constant net force,
12. If a man weighs 900 N on earth, what would he weigh find (a) the components of the force and (b) its magni-
on Jupiter, where the acceleration due to gravity is tude.
25.9 m/s 2 ? 22. A barefoot field-goal kicker imparts a speed of 30 m/s
13. On planet X, an object weighs 10 N. On planet B to a football initially at rest. If the football has a mass of
where the acceleration due to gravity is 1.6g, the ob- 0.5 kg and time-of-contact with the football is
ject weighs 27 N. What is the mass of the object and 0.025 s, what is the force exerted on the foot?
what is the acceleration due to gravity (in m/s 2 on ) 23. A 2-ton truck provides an acceleration of 3 ft/s 2 to a
planet X? 5-ton trailer. If the truck exerts the same force on the
14. One or more external forces are exerted on each ob- road while pulling a 15-ton trailer, what acceleration
ject shown in Figure 5.1. Clearly identify the reaction ,' \ will result?
to all of these forces. (Note: The reaction forces act on 24.\An electron of mass 9.1 X 10 -31 kg has an initial
other objects.) speed of3.0 X 10 5 m/s. It travels in a straight line, and
120 CHAPTERS THE LAWS OF MOTION

its speed increases to 7.0 X 10 5 m/s in a distance of |Fil = |F2 = F

l

5.0 cm. Assuming its acceleration is constant, (a) de-

termine the force on the electron and (b) compare this
F»/^-^^
force with the weight of the electron, which we ne-
glected.
25. A 15-lb block rests on the floor, (a) What force does
the floor exert on the block?(b) If a ropetied to the is

block and run vertically over a pulley and the other

end attached to a free-hanging 10-lb weight, what is Figure 5.24 (Problem 28).
the force of the floor on the 15-lb block? (c) If we
replace the 1 0-lb weight in (b) by a 20-lb weight, what 29. The distance between two telephone poles is 50 m.
is the force of the floor on the 15-lb block? When a 1 -kg bird lands on the telephone wire midway
between the poles, the wire sags 0.2 m. How much
Section 5.8 Some Applications of Newton's Laws tension in the wire does the bird produce Ignore the
26. Find the tension in each cord for the systems de- weight of the wire.
scribed in Figure 5.22. (Neglect the mass of the 30. The systems shown in Figure 5.25 are in equilibrium.

cords.) If the spring scales are calibrated in N, what do they

read in each case? (Neglect the mass of the pulleys and
strings, and assume the inpline is smooth.)

Figure 5.22 (Problem 26).

27. A 1-kg mass

direction 30
is
c
observed to accelerate
north of east (Fig. 5.23).
forces acting on the mass has a magnitude of 5
directed north. Determine the magnitude and direc-
tion of the second force acting
at

on the mass.
10 m/s 2
One of the two
in a

N and is
I
5 k2 l II 1.5 ke

(b)

^\l Figure 5.25 (Problem 30).

31. A bag of cement hangs from three wires as shown (Fig.

1 5.26). Two of the wires make angles 8 and 6 2 with the X

horizontal. If the system is in equilibrium, (a) show

Figure 5.23 (Problem 27).
that

28. A 200-N weight is tied to the middle of a strong rope,

W cos(0,)
and two people pull opposite ends of the rope in an
at
attempt to lift the weight, (a) What force of magnitude (b) Given that W= 200 N, 6l = 10° and 6 2 25°
F must each person apply to suspend the weight as find the tensions T,, T2 and T3
, in the wires.
shown in Figure 5.24? (b) Can they pull in such a way 32. A woman at an airport is pulling her 20-kg suitcase at
as to make the rope horizontal? Explain. constant speed by pulling on a strap at an angle 6
 .

PROBLEMS 121

36. The wind on the sails of a sailboat is 390 N

force of the
north. The waterexerts a force of 180 N east. If the
boat including crew has a mass of 270 kg, what are the
magnitude and direction of the acceleration of the
sailboat?
37. In the system shown (Fig. 5.28), a horizontal force Fz
acts on the 8-kg mass, (a) For what values of Fx will the
2-kg mass accelerate upward? (b) For what values of
Fx will the tension in the cord be zero? (c) Plot the
acceleration of the 8-kg mass versus Fx Include values
.

ofFr from -100 N to + lOON.

Figure 5.26 (Problem 31).

above the horizontal (Fig. 5.27). She pulls on the strap 8 kg

with a 35-N force and the friction force on the suitcase
is 20 N. (a) What angle does the strap make with the

horizontal? (b) What normal force does the ground

exert on the suitcase?

Figure 5.28 (Problem 37).

38. Two masses, l

m
and 2 m
situated on a frictionless,
,

horizontal surface are connected by a light string. A

force, F, is exerted on one of the masses to the right
(Fig. 5.29). Determine the acceleration of the system
and the tension, T, in the string.

Figure 5.29 (Problems 38 and 55).

Figure 5.27 (Problem 32).

39.\Two masses of 3 kg and 5 kg are connected by alight
33^ The parachute on a race car of weight 8820 N opens
I
-^string that passes over a smooth pulley as in Figure
at the end of a quarter-mile run when the car is travel- 5.12. Determine (a) the tension in the string, (b) the
ing at 55 m/s What is the total retarding force re- acceleration of each mass, and (c) the distance each
quired to stop the car in a distance of 1000 m in the mass moves in the first second of motion if they start
event of a brake failure? from rest.
34. A rifle bullet with a mass of 12 g, traveling with a 40. A block slides down a smooth plane having an inclina-
speed of 400 m/s, strikes a large wooden block, which tion of = 15° (Fig. 5.30). If the block starts from rest

it penetrates to a depth of 1 5 cm. Determine the mag-

nitude of the frictional force (assumed constant) that

acts on the bullet.
35. A 1000-kg car moving at 20 m/s is brought to rest in a
distance of 80 m by a constant net force, F, directed
opposite to the velocity of the car. Determine the
(a) magnitude of the acceleration of the car, and

(b) the magnitude of F. Figure 5.30 (Problems 40 and 4 1 )

122 CHAPTERS THE LAWS OF MOTION

at the top and the length of the incline is2 m, find If the coefficient of sliding friction is 0.2, find the
(a) the acceleration of the block and (b) its speed when tension in the string.
it reaches the bottom of the incline.
5 kg
41. A block is given an initial velocity of 5 m/s up a smooth
20° incline (Fig. 5.30). How far up the incline does

42.
the block slide before coming to rest?
Two masses are connected by a light string that passes
over a smooth pulley as in Figure 5.13. the incline is
If
f
frictionless and if m = 1
2 kg, m2 = 6 kg, and = 55°,
find (a) the acceleration of the masses, (b) the tension
in the string, and (c) the speed of each mass 2 s after
they are released from rest. 9 kg
43. A 72-kg man stands on a spring scale in an elevator.
Starting from rest, the elevator ascends, attaining its Figure 5.32 (Problem 47).
maximum velocity of 1.2 m/s in 0.8 s. It travels with
this constant velocity for the next 5.0 s. The elevator 48. A 25-kg block is initially at rest on a rough, horizontal
then undergoes a uniform acceleration in the negative surface. A horizontal force of 75 N is required to set
y direction for 1 .5 s and comes to rest. What does the the block in motion. After it is in motion, a horizontal

spring scale register (a) before the elevator starts to force of 60 N is required to keep the block moving
move?(b) during the first 0.8 s? (c) while the elevator with constant speed. Find the coefficients of static and
is traveling at constant velocity? (d) during the time it kinetic friction from this information.
is slowing down J 49. Assume the coefficient of friction between the wheels
44. A 3.0-kg mass moving in a plane with its x and y
is of a race car and the track is 1 from
. If the car starts
coordinates given by x = 5t 2 — 1 and y = 3f 3 + 2, restand accelerates at a constant rate for 400 m
where i and y are given in meters while t is in seconds. {\ mile), what is its velocity at the end of the race?
Find the magnitude of the net force acting on this 50. A racing car accelerates uniformly from to 80 mi/h
mass at t = 2.0 s.
J in 8 s. The external force that accelerates the car is the
45. A net horizontal force F = A + Bt 3 acts on a 2-kg ob- frictional force between the
tires and the road. If the
ject, where A= 5.0 N and B = 2.0 N/s 3 What is the .
do not spin, determine the minimum coefficient
tires
horizontal velocity of this object 4 seconds after it of friction between the tires and the road.
from rest?
starts 51. An ice skater moving at 10 m/s coasts to a halt in
46. Mass m Y on a smooth horizontal table is connected to 100 m on an ice surface. What is the coefficient of
mass m 2 through a very light pulley Pj and a light fixed friction between the ice and the skates?
pulley P 2 as shown (Fig. 5.31). (a) If a! and a 2 are trle 52. A car is traveling at 50 mi/h on a horizontal highway,
accelerations of m x and m 2 respectively, what is the
, (a) If the coefficient of friction between the road and
relation between these accelerations? Express the tires on a rainy day is 0.1. what is the minimum dis-
(b) tensions in the strings, and (c) the accelerations aj tance in which the car will stop? (b) What is the stop-
and a 2 in terms of the masses m 1 m 2 and g. , , ping distance when the surface is dry and fi = 0.6?
(c) Why should you avoid "slamming on" your brakes

if you want to stop in the shortest distance?

53. A boy drags his 60-N sled at constant speed up a 15°

r r^-- hill. He does so by pulling with a 25-N force on a rope

attached to the sled. If the rope is inclined at 35° to

the horizontal, (a) what is the coefficient of kinetic
friction between the sled and the snow? (b) At the top
of the hill, he jumps on the sled and slides down the
hill.What is his acceleration down the slope?
54. A block moves up a 45° incline with constant speed
i under the action of a force of 15 N applied parallel to
the incline. If the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.3,
Figure 5.31 (Problem 46). determine (a) the weight of the block and (b) the mini-
mum force required to allow the block to move down
the incline at constant speed.
Section 5.9 Forces of Friction
55. Two blocks connected by a light rope are being
47. A 9-kg hanging weight is connected by a string o\ er a dragged by a horizontal force F (Fig. 5.29). Suppose
pulley to a 5-kg block sliding on a flat table (Fig. 5.32). thatF= 50 N. n^ = Kike.. "i 2 = 20 kg, and thecoeffi-
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 123

cient of kinetic friction between each block and the ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
surface is 0.1. (a) Draw a free-body diagram for each
64. A car moving at 20 m/s brakes to a stop without skid-
block, (b) Determine the tension, T, and the accelera-
ding. The driver in the car behind the first, moving at
tion of the system.
30 m/s, sees the brake lights, applies his brakes after a
56. Achild stands on the surface of a frozen pond, 12 m
and brakes to a stop without skid-
0.1 -s delay to react,
from the shore. If the coefficient of static friction be-
ding. Assume that // s = 0.75 for both cars. Calculate
tween her boots and the ice is 0.05, determine the
the minimum distance between the cars at the instant
minimum time required for the child to walk to the
the driver of the lead car applies the brakes if a rear-
shore without slipping.
end collision is to be avoided. (Assume constant accel-
A 3-kg block starts from rest at the top of a 30° incline
erations.)
and slides a distance of 2 m down the incline in 1.5 s.
Find (a) the acceleration of the block, (b) the coeffi-
65. A mass M is held in FA and a
place by an applied force
pulley system as shown
Figure 5.33. The pulleys
in
cient of kinetic friction between the block and the
are massless and frictionless. Find (a) the tension in
plane, (c) the frictional force acting on the block, and
each section of rope, T, T2 T3 T4 and T5 and (b) the
, , , ,

(d) the speed of the block after it has slid 2 m.

applied force FA .

58. A block slides on a rough incline. The coefficient of

kinetic friction betw een the block and the plane is Hy .

(a) If the block accelerates down the incline, show

that the acceleration of the block is given by a =
g(sin 6 — /ij. cos 6). (b) If the block is projected up the
incline, show that its acceleration is a = — g(sin +
fly. COS 9).

59, In order to determine the coefficients of friction be-

tween rubber and various surfaces, a student uses a
rubber eraser and an incline. In one experiment the
eraser slipsdown the incline when the angle of inclina-
tion 36° and then moves down the incline with con-
is

stant speed when the angle is reduced to 30°. From

these data, determine the coefficients of static and
kinetic friction for this experiment.
60. A crate of weight Wis pushed by a force Fon a rough
horizontal floor. If the coefficient of static friction is/i s

and F is directed at angle </> below the horizontal

(a) show that the minimum value of F that will move
the crate is given by

ft s W sec <j)

1 — fi s tan

(b) Find the minimum value of F which can produce

motion when /i s = 0.4, W
= 100 N, and<£ = 0\ 15°,
30°, 45°, and 60°.
61. A block is placed on a plane inclined at 60° with re-
spect to the horizontal. If the block slidesdown the
plane with an acceleration of g/2, determine the
Figure 5.33 (Problem 65).
coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and
plane.
62. A crate is carried in a truck traveling horizontally at 66. "Big" Al remembered from high school physics that
15 m/s. If the coefficient of static friction between the pulleys can be used to aid in lifting heavy objects. Al
crate and the truckis 0.40, determine the minimum designed the frictionless pulley system, shown in Fig-
stopping distance for the truck such that the crate will ure 5.34, to lift a safe to a second-floor office. The safe
not slide on the truck. weighs 400 lb, and Al can pull with a force of 240 lb.
63. An Olympic skier moving at 20 m/s down a 30° slope (a)Will Big Al be able to raise the safe? (b) What is the
encounters a region of wet snow of coefficient of fric- maximum weight Big Al can lift using his pulley sys-
tionfly = 0.74. How far down the slope does she go tem? (Note: The large pulley is fastened by a yoke to
before coming to a halt? the rope that Big Al is pulling.)
 124 CHAPTER 5 THE LAWS OF MOTION

of the blocks, (b) the resultant force on each block,

and (c) the magnitude of the contact forces between
the blocks.

Figure 5.36 (Problems 69 and 70).

ro. Repeat Problem 69 given that the coefficient of ki-

netic friction between the blocks and the surface is
0.1. Use the data given in Problem 69.
Figure 5.34 (Problem 66). 71. Three baggage carts of masses m 1 m 2 and m 3 are . ,

towed by a tractor of mass Af along an airport apron.

67. The largest caliber antiaircraft gun operatec 1 kV,
e
The wheels of the tractor exert a total frictional force
Luftwaffe during World War II was the 12.8
Fon the ground as shown (Fig. 5.37). In the following,
express your answers in terms of F, Af, m 1 m 2 to 3
40. This weapon fired a 25.8-kg shell with , , ,

and g. (a) What are the magnitude and direction of the

velocity of 880 m/s. What propulsive force was nec-
horizontal force exerted on the tractor by the ground?
essary to attain the muzzle velocity within the 6.0-m
barrel? (Assume constant acceleration and neglect the
(b) What is the smallest value of the coefficient of
static friction, /i
s
, that will prevent the wheels from
earth's gravitational effect.)
slipping? Assume that each of the two drive wheels on
6S. About 200 years ago Coulomb invented the tribo-
the tractor bears 1/3 of the tractor's weight, (c) What
meter, a device employed to investigate static fric-
is the acceleration, a, of the system (tractor plus bag-
tion. The instrument is represented schematically in
gage carts)? (d) What are the tensions T l ,T2 and T3 in ,

Figure 5.35. To determine the coefficient of static

the connecting cables? (e) What is the net force on the
friction, the hanging mass Mis increased or decreased
cart of mass m 2 ?
as necessary until m is on the verge of sliding. Prove
In Figure 5.38, the man and the platform together
that fi s = M/tn. r2.
weigh 750 N. Determine how hard the man would

Figure 5.35 The Tribometer (Problem 68).

\ 69\T
69\ Three blocks are in contact with each other on a fric-

\ \ionless, horizontal surface as in Figure 5.36. A hori-

zontal force F is applied to m 1
. If m = t
2 kg, m2 = 3
kg, to 3 = 4 kg, and F— 18 N, find (a) the acceleration Figure 5.38 (Problem 72).

°V?) (pf^<P) (5f^(o)

Figure 5.37 (Problem 71).
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 125

have to pull to raise the platform. (Or is it impossible?

f \ If so, explain why.)
73\ A 2-kg block is placed on top of a 5-kg block as in
V ^Figure 5.39. The coefficient of kinetic friction be-
tween the 5-kg block and the surface is 0.2. A horizon-
tal force F is applied to the 5-kg block, (a) Draw a

free-body diagram for each block. What force acceler-

ates the 2-kg block? (b) Calculate the force necessary
to pull both blocks to the right with an acceleration of
3 m/s 2 (c) Find the minimum coefficient of static fric-
.

tion between the blocks such that the 2-kg block does
not slip under an acceleration of 3 m/s 2 .

j!y,w:JW^

Figure 5.41 (Problem 75).

76. In Figure 5.42, a 500-kg horse pulls a sledge of mass

Figure 5.39 (Problem 73). 100 kg, shown. The combination has a forward ac-
as
celeration of 1 m/s 2 when the friction force on the
sledge is 500 N. Find (a) the tension in the connecting

74\A rope and (b) the force of friction on the horse.

5-kg block placed on top of a 10-kg block (Fig.
is
(c) Verify that the total forces of friction the earth
\5.40). A horizontal force of 45N is applied to the
exerts will give to the total system an acceleration of
10-kg block, while the 5-kg block is tied to the wall.
1 m/s 2
The coefficient of kinetic friction between the moving .

surfaces is 0.2. (a) Draw a free-body diagram for each

block and identify the action-reaction forces between
the blocks, (b) Determine the tension in the string and
the acceleration of the 10-kg block.

-ffl Figure 5.42 (Problem 76).

10 kg -F= 45 N T. A block is released from rest at the top of a plane

inclined at an angle of 45°. The coefficient of kinetic
friction varies along the plane according to the rela-
Figure 5.40 (Problem 74). tion n k = ax, where x is the distance along the plane
measured in meters from the top and where a =
0.50 m -1 Determine (a) how far the block slides be-
.

r5.\ An inventive child named Pat wants to reach an apple fore coming to rest and (b) the maximum speed it

\> \in a treewithout climbing the tree. Sitting in a chair

connected to a rope that passes over a frictionless pul- 78.
attains.
Two masses m and M are attached with strings as
ley (Fig. 5.41), Pat pulls on the loose end of the rope shown in Figure 5.43. If the system is in equilibrium,
with such a force that the spring scale reads 250 N. 2M
show that tan 6 = 1 H .

Pat's true weight is 320 N and the chair weighs m

160 N. (a) Draw free-body diagrams for Pat and the 79. A wire ABC supports a body of weight W as shown
chair considered as separate systems, and another dia- (Fig. 5.44). The wire passes over a fixed pulley at B
gram and the chair considered as one system.
for Pat and is firmly attached to a vertical wall at A. AB makes
(b) Show that the acceleration of the system is upward an angle </> with the vertical while the pulley at B
and find its magnitude, (c) Find the force that Pat exerts a force of magnitude F inclined at angle 6 with
exerts on the chair. the horizontal on the wire, (a) Show that if the system
126 CHAPTER 5 THE LAWS OF MOTION

between the outside butterflies and the inside butter-

fliesform with the horizontal, (c) Show that the dis-
tance D between the end points of the string is

L
D = - (2 cos 0, + 2 cos (tan" 1 (I tan 0,)| + 1)
5

81. Two forces F =

x
(- 6i - 4j) N and F2 = (- 3» + Ij) N
act on a particle of mass 2 kg initially at rest at coordi-
nates (— 2 m, +4 m). (a) What are the components of
the particle's velocity at t = 10 s? (b) In what direc-
tion is the particle moving at t — 10 s? (c) What dis-

placement does the particle undergo during the first

10 seconds? (d) What are the coordinates of the parti-
cle at t = 10 s?
AS; A student is asked to measure the acceleration of a
Figure 5.43 (Problem 78). cart on a "frictionless" inclined plane as in Figure
5.11 using an air track, a stopwatch, and a meter stick.
is in equilibrium. = (1/2)$. (b) Show that F= 2W The height of the incline is measured to be 1.774 cm,
sin(<£/2). (c) Sketch a graph of Fas c6 increases from 0° and the total length of the incline is measured to be
to 180°. d = 127.1 cm. Hence, the angle of inclination 0is de-
termined from the relation sin 0= 1.774/127.1. The
cart is released from rest from the top of the incline,
and its displacement along the incline, x, is measured
versus time, where x = refers to the initial position
Forx values of 10.0 cm, 20.0 cm, 35.0 cm,
of the cart.
50.0 cm, 7.5.0 cm, and 100 cm, the measured times to
undergo these displacements (averaged over five
runs) are 1.02 s, 1.53 s, 2.01s, 2.64 s, 3.30 s, and
3.75 s, respectively. Construct a graph of x versus f 2 ,

and perform a linear least squares fit to the data. De-

termine the acceleration of the cart from the slope of
this graph, and compare it with the value you would
get using a' = g sin 0, where g = 9.80 m/s 2 .

Figure 5.44 (Problem 79). What horizontal force must be applied to the cart
shown in Figure 5.46 in order that the blocks remain
80. A butterfly mobile formed by supporting four metal
is
stationary relative to the cart? Assume all surfaces,

butterflies of equal mass m from a string of length L. wheels, and pulley are frictionless. (Hint: Note that
The points of support are evenly spaced a distance t the tension in the string accelerates m 1
.)

apart as shown Figure 5.45. The string forms an

in
angle 6 X with the ceiling at each end point. The center
section of string is horizontal, (a) Find the tension in
each section of string in terms of 0j, m, andg. (b) Find
the angle 2 in terms of 6 1 that the sections of string
, ,

"21 T5

Figure 5.46 (Problems 83 and 84).

S4. Initially the system of masses shown in Figure 5.46 is

held motionless. All surfaces, pulley, and wheels are
frictionless. In this case let the force F be zero and
assume that m 2 can only move vertically. At the in-
stant after the system of masses is released find:
Figure 5.45 (Problem 80). (a) the tension T in the string, (b) the acceleration of
 .

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 127

m2 , (c) the acceleration of M, and (d) the acceleration 5.49). The inclines are smooth. Find (a) the accelera-
of m 1
. (Note: The pulley accelerates along with the tion of each block and (b) the tension in the string.
cart.) 88. The system described in Figure 5.49 is observed to
85. The three blocks Figure 5.47 are connected by
in have an acceleration of 1 .5 m/s 2 when the inclines are
light strings that pass over frictionless pulleys. The rough. Assume the coefficients of kinetic friction be-
acceleration of the system is 2 m/s 2 to the left and the tween each block and the inclines are the same. Find
surfaces are rough. Find (a) the tensions in the strings (a) the coefficient of kinetic friction and (b) the ten-
and (b) the coefficient of kinetic friction between sion in the string.
blocks and surfaces. (Assume the same \i for both 89. A van acceleratesdown a hill (Fig. 5.50), going from
blocks.) rest to 30 m/s in 6 s. During the acceleration, a toy
(m = 100 grams) hangs by a string from the ceiling.
The acceleration is such that the string remains per-
pendicular to the ceiling. Determine (a) the angle 6
and (b) the tension in the string.

Figure 5.47 (Problem 85).

86. In Figure 5.48, the coefficient of kinetic friction be-

tween the 2-kg and 3-kg blocks is 0.3. The horizontal
surface and the pulleys are frictionless and the masses
Figure 5.50 (Problem 89).
are released from the rest, (a) Draw free-body dia-
grams for each block, (b) Determine the acceleration
of each block, (c) Find the tension in the strings. 90. Before 1 960 it was commonly believed that the maxi-
mum attainable coefficient of static friction of an au-
tomobile tire was less than 1. Then about 1962, three
companies independently developed racing tires with
coefficients of 1 .6. Since then, tires have improved, as
illustrated in the following problem. According to the
1990 Guinness Book of Records, the fastest \ mile
covered by a piston-engine car from a standing start is
4.96 s. This record elapsed time was set by Shirley
Muldowney in September 1989. (a) Assuming that
the torque applied by the rear wheels nearly lifted the
front wheels off the pavement, what is the lowest

Figure 5.48 value of /J. of the tires to achieve the record time?
(Problem 86).
(b)Suppose Muldowney were able to double her en-
gine power, keeping other things equal. How would
\ 87. \ Two blocks of mass 2 kg and 7 kg are connected by a
this affect the elapsed time?
llight string that passes over a frictionless pulley (Fig.
91 A magician attempts to pull a tablecloth from under a
200-g mug. The mug is located 30 cm from the edge
of the cloth. If there is a small frictional force of 0.1 N
exerted on the mug by the cloth, and the cloth is
pulled with a constant acceleration of 3.0 m/s 2 how ,

far will the mug move on the tabletop before the cloth
is completely out from under it? (Hint: The cloth
moves more than 30 cm before it is out from under the
Figure 5.49 (Problems 87 and !
mug!)
 Circular Motion and Other
Applications of Newton's Laws

Passengers on a roller coaster

at the Texas State Fair experi-
ence the thrill of circular mo-
tion.The external forces acting
on a passenger car are (a) the
force of gravity, \Y, (h) the
force of the track, X. acting
toward the center of rotation,
and (c) a drag force. R ( £
.

Zerschling, Photo Researchers I

the previous chapter we introduced Newton's laws of motion and ap-

we
In plied them to situations involving linear motion. In this chapter
apply Newton's laws of motion to the dynamics of circular motion. We
shall

shall also discuss the motion of an object when observed in an accelerated

or noninertial frame of reference and the motion of an object through a \iseous
medium. Finally, we conclude this chapter with a brief discussion of the
fundamental forces in nature.

6.1 NEWTON'S SECOND LAW APPLIED TO

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
we found that a particle moving in a circular path of radius r with
In Section 4 4.

uniform speed D experiences an acceleration that has a magnitude

Because the velocity vector, c, changes its direction continuously during the

motion, the acceleration vector. a r is directed toward the center of the circle
,

and. hence, is called centripetal acceleration. Furthermore. a r is always per-

pendicular to the velocity vector, c.

128
 6.1 NEWTON'S SECOND LAW APPLIED TO UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 129

Consider a ball of mass m tied to a string of length rand being whirled in a

horizontal circular path on a table top as in Figure 6. 1 . Let us assume that the
ball moves with constant speed. The inertia of the ball tends to maintain the
motion however, the string prevents this motion along a
in a straight-line path;
straight lineby exerting a force on the ball to make it follow its circular path.
This force is directed along the length of the string toward the center of the
circle, as shown in Figure 6.1, and is an example of a class of forces called
centripetal forces. If we apply Newton's second law along the radial direction,
we find that the required centripetal force is

Fr = ma = m
r (6.1) Uniform circular motion

Like the centripetal acceleration, the centripetal force acts toward the center
of the circular path followed by the particle. Because they act toward the
center of rotation, centripetal forces cause a change in the direction of the
velocity. Centripetal forces are no different from any other forces we have
encountered. The term centripetal is used simply to indicate that the force is
directed toward the center of a circle. In the case of a ball rotating at the end of a
string, the tension force is the centripetal force. For a satellite in a circular

orbit around the earth, the force of gravity is the centripetal force. The cen-
tripetal force acting on a car rounding a curve on a flat road is the force of
friction between the tires and the pavement, and so forth.
Regardless of the example used, if the centripetal force acting on an
object should vanish, the object would no longer move in its circular path;
instead would move along a straight-line path tangent to the circle. This idea
it

is end
illustrated in Figure 6.2 for the case of the ball whirling in a circle at the
of a string. If the string breaks at some instant, the ball will move along the
straight-line path tangent to the circle at the point where the string broke.
In general, a body can move in a circular path under the influence of such
forces as friction, the gravitational force, or a combination of forces. Let us
consider some examples of uniform circular motion. In each case, be sure to A ten-hour exposure showing cir-
cular star trails around the south
recognize the external force (or forces) that causes the body to move in its celestial pole. (© Anglo-Australian
circular path. Telescope Hoard 1980)

Figure 6.1 A ball moving in a cir-

cular path. A force F directed
r

toward the center of the circle Figure 6.2 When the string
keeps the ball moving in the circle breaks, the ball moves in the direc-
with a constant speed. tion tangent to the circular path.
130 CHAPTER 6 CIRCULAR MOTION AND OTHER APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS

EXAMPLE 6.1 How

Can It Spin?
East Tsin acting toward the center of rotation. Since the
A ball of mass 0.5 kg attached to the end of a cord
is body does not accelerate in the vertical direction, the
whose length is 1 .5 m. The ball is whirled in a horizontal vertical component of the tension must balance the

circle as in Figure 6.2. If the cord can withstand a maxi- weight. Therefore,
mum tension of 50 N, what is the maximum speed the
( 1 T cos = mg
ball can have before the cord breaks?
Since the centripetal force in this example is provided by

Solution Because the centripetal force in this case is the the component T sin 0, from Newton's second law we get
tension Tin the cord. Equation 6.1 gives
/.-»
(2)
t
I sin
n
(J = ma r = mv2
r

By dividing (2) by (1), we eliminate Tand find that

Solving for v, we have

tan =—

But from the geometry, we note that r =L sin 0, there-

The maximum speed that the ball can have will corre- fore
spond to the maximum value of the tension. Hence, we
find t> = \lrg tan = VLg sin 8 tan 8
(5 0N)(1.5 m)
12.2 m/s
-V 0.5 kg The period
with the tension T),
of revolution,
is given by
TP (not to be confused

Exercise 1 Calculate the tension in the cord if the

speed of the ball is 5 m/s. 2nr 2nr L cos
TP = 2
Answer 8.33 N.
(3)
v Vrg tan *V
The intermediate algebraic steps used in obtaining
EXAMPLE 6.2 The Conical Pendulum (3) are left to the reader. Note that TP is independent of
A body of mass m is suspended from a
small string of m! If we take L= 1.00 m and =20°, we find using
length L. The body revolves in a horizontal circle of
(3) that
radius r with constant speed Figure 6.3. Since the
o, as in

string sweeps out the surface of a cone, the system is Tf = 2n -J ———

(1.00m)(cos20°)
T-:
_ 1-95 s
known as a conical pendulum. Find the speed of the body V 9.80 m/s^
and the period of revolution, Tp .

Is it physically possible to have a conical pendulum

with 0=90°?
Solution The free-body diagram for the mass m is shown
in Figure 6.3, where the tension, T, has been resolved
into a vertical component, T cos 0, and a component
EXAMPLE 6.3 What is the Maximum Speed of
the Car?
A 1500-kg car moving on a flat road negotiates a curve
whose radius is 35 m as in Figure 6.4. If the coefficient of

Figure 6.4 (Example 6.3) The force of static friction directed

Figure 6.3 (Example 6.2) The conical pendulum and its free- towards the center of the circular arc keeps the car moving in a
body diagram. circle.
 6.1 NEWTON'S SECOND LAW APPLIED TO UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 131

static friction between the tires and the dry pavement is N cos
0.50, find the maximum speed the car can have in order
to make the turn successfully.

Solution In this case, the centripetal force which en-

ables the car to remain inits circular path is the force of

static friction. Hence, from Equation 6.1 we have

v2
(1) /,-»7
Figure 6.5 (Example 6.4) End view of a car rounding a curve
on a road banked at an angle to the horizontal. The centripetal
The maximum speed that the car can have around the
force is provided by the horizontal component of the normal
curve corresponds to the speed at which it is on the verge force when friction is neglected. Note that N is the sum of the
of skidding outwards. At this point, the friction force has forces which the road exerts on the wheels of the car.
its maximum value given by

The car is in equilibrium in the vertical direction.

Because the normal force equals the weight in this case,
Thus, from 2F„ = 0, we have
we find

= ;"™g = (0.5)(1500 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 ) = 7350 N (2) N cos 6 '

mg
/smax
Dividing (1) by (2) gives
Substituting this value into (1), we find that the maxi-
mum speed is
—
tan 6 =
(7350 N)(35~m) rg
/ /smax'" _ /
13.1 m/s
1500 kg (13.4 m/s) 2
^tan" 1 20.1'
(50 m)(9.80 m/s 2 )
Exercise 2 On a wet day, the car described in this exam-
ple begins to skid on the curve when its speed reaches If a car rounds the curve at a speed lower than
8 m/s. What is the coefficient of static friction in this 13.4 m/s, the driver will have to rely on friction to keep
case? from sliding down the incline. A driver who attempts to
Answer 0.187. negotiate the curve at a speed higher than 13.4 m/s will
have to depend on friction to keep from sliding up the
ramp.

EXAMPLE 6.4 The Banked Exit Ramp

Exercise 3 Write Newton's second law applied to the
An engineer wishes to design a curved exit ramp for a
which a fric-
radial direction for the car in a situation in
tollroad in such a way that a car will not have to rely on
tional force /is directed down the slope of the banked
friction toround the curve without skidding. Suppose
road.
that a typical carrounds the curve with a speed of 30
Answer N sin 6 + /cos 6 = mv 2/r.
mi/h (13.4 m/s) and that the radius of the curve is 50 m.
At what angle should the curve be banked?

Solution On a level road, the centripetal force must be

EXAMPLE 6.5 Satellite Motion
This example treats the problem of a satellite moving in a
provided by a force of friction between car and road.
circular orbit about the earth. In order to understand this
However, if the road is banked at an angle 6, as in Figure
problem, we must first note that the gravitational force
6.5, the normal force, N, has a horizontal component
between two particles having masses rrij and m 2 sepa-
N sin 8 pointing toward the center of the circular path ,

rated by a distance r, is attractive and has a magnitude

followed by the car. We assume that only the component
given by
Nsin 9 furnishes the centripetal force. Therefore, the
banking angle we calculate will be one for which nofric-
tional force is required. In other words, a car moving at
F=G (6.2)

the correct speed (13.4 m/s) can negotiate the curve

even on an icy surface. Newton's second law written for where G= 6.672 X 10" 11 N m 2 /kg 2 . This is Newton's
the radial direction gives universal law of gravity, which we shall discuss in detail
in Chapter 14.
(1) N sin 6
Now consider a satellite of mass m moving in a circu-
lar orbit about the earth at a constant speed i; and at an
132 CHAPTER 6 CIRCULAR MOTION AND OTHER APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS

Exercise 4 A satellite is in a circular orbit at an altitude

of 1000 km. The radius of the earth is 6.37 X 10 6 m.
Find the speed of the satellite and the period of its orbit.
Answer 7.35 X 10 3 m/s; 6.31 X 10 3 s = 105 min.

EXAMPLE 6.6 Let's Go

Loop-thc-loop
A pilot of mass m in a jet aircraft executes a "loop-the-
loop" maneuver as illustrated in Figure 6.7a. In this fly-
ing pattern, the aircraft moves in a vertical circle of
radius 2.70 km at a constant speed of 225 m/s. Deter-
Figure 6.6 (Example 6.5) A satellite of mass m moving in a mine the force of the seat on the pilot at (a) the bottom of
circular orbit of radius r and with constant speed o around the the loop and (b) the top of the loop. Express the answers
earth. The centripetal force is provided by the gravitational
in terms of the weight of the pilot, mg.
force between the satellite and the earth.

Solution (a) The free-body diagram for the pilot at the

altitude h above the earth's surface as in Figure 6.6. bottom of the loop is shown in Figure 6.7b. The only
(a) Determine the speed of the satellite in terms of G, h. forces acting on the pilot are the downward force of grav-
Re (the radius of the earth), and M
e (the mass of the ity, nig, and the upward force N^, exerted by the seat.
earth). Since the net force upwards which provides the centrip-
etal acceleration has a magnitude .V^, — mg, Newton's
Solution Because the only external force on the satellite second law for the radial direction gives
is the force of gravity, which acts toward the center of the
earth, we have bo,
- mg = m

= Re +
From Newton's second law. and the
we get
fact that r h, vbot =
- ">g +m --[ 1+ $
Substituting the values given for the speed and radius.
G— ~=m— c = 225 m/s and r = 2.70 X 10 3 m, gives

(225 m/s) 2
= mg 1 +
(2.70 X 10 3 m)(9.80 m/s 2 )

(6.3) = 2.9 lmg

(b) Determine the satellite's period of revolution. T_ Hence, the force of the seat on the pilot isgrazfprthanhis

(the time for one revolution about the earth). true weight, mg. by a factor of 2.91. In such situations,
the pilot experiences an "apparent weight"' which is

Solution Since the satellite travels a distance of 2nr (the greater than his true weight by the factor 2.91. This is

circumference of the circle) in a time T we find using discussed further in Section 6.4. (b) The free-body dia-
Equation 6.3 that gram for the pilot at the top of the loop is shown in Figure
6.7c. At this point, both the weight and the force of the
seat on the pilot. N to _, act downwards, so the net force
P downwards which provides the centripetal acceleration
c vCAL> \JGmJ has a magnitude \top + mg. Applying Newton's second
law gives
The planets move around the sun in approximately
=m —
» 2
circular orbits. The radii of these orbits can be calculated + "K
-\op J

M
from Equation 6.4 with e replaced by the mass of the
sun. The fact that the square of the period is proportional
to the cube of the radius of the orbit was first recognized
as an empirical relation based on planetary data. We shall
return to this topic in Chapter 14.
m mg = mg
EH
 6.2 NONUNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 133

Figure 6.7 Example 6.6.

(225 m/s) 2 Exercise 5 Calculate the centripetal force on the pilot

W.op mg the aircraft is at point A in Figure 6.7a, midway up the
^ 2 7Q x 1Q3 m)(g 8Q m/s2) if

loop.
= 0.91mg Answer NA = 1.91mg directed to the right.

In this case, the force of the seat on the pilot is less than
the true weight by a factor of 0.91. Hence, the pilot will
feel lighter at the top of the loop.

6.2 NONUNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

In Chapter 4 we found that if a particle moves with varying speed in a circular
path, there is, in addition to the centripetal component of acceleration, a
tangential component of magnitude on the
dv/dt. Therefore, the force acting
particle must have a tangential and a radial component. That is, since the
also
total acceleration is given by a = a t + a, the total force is given by F = Fr + F
,
t ,

as shown in Figure 6.8. The vector component, Fr is directed toward the ,

center of the circle and is responsible for the centripetal acceleration. The

Figure 6.8 When the force acting

on a particle has a tangential com-
ponent F its speed changes. The
t
,

total force on the particle in this

case the vector sum of the tan-
is

gential force and the centripetal

force. That is, F= F, +F
r
.
134 CHAPTER 6 CIRCULAR MOTION AND OTHER APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS

vector component, F t
, tangent to the circle is responsible for the tangential
acceleration,which causes the speed of the particle to change with time. The
following example demonstrates this type of motion.

EXAMPLE 6.7 Follow the Rotating Ball

A small sphere of mass m is attached to the end of a cord = m + g cos
(2)
'
( ^- 6j
of length R, which rotates in a vertical circle about a fixed
point O, as in Figure 6.9a. Let us determine the tension
in the cord at any instant that the speed of the sphere is v

when the cord makes an angle 8 with the vertical. Limiting Cases At the top of the path, where 8 :
180°
we see from (2) that since cos 180° = — 1,
Solution First we note that the speed is not uniform
since there is a tangential component of acceleration
arisingfrom the weight of the sphere. From the free- -(*-.)
body diagram in Figure 6.9a, we see that the only forces
This isminimum value of T. Note that at this point
the
acting on the sphere are the weight, mg, and the con-
«, = and therefore the acceleration is radial and di-
0,
straint force (or tension), T. Now we resolve mg into a
rected downward, as in Figure 6.9b.
tangential component, mg sin 8, and a radial component,
At the bottom of the path, where 8 = 0, again from
mg cos 8. Applying Newton's second law to the forces in
the tangential direction gives
(2) we see that since cos 0=1,

YF = mg sin 8 = ma
t t (* + «)
= g sin This is the maximum value of T. Again, at this point
(1) a,
a, = 0, and the acceleration is radial and directed up-
This component causes v to change in time, since a t = ward.
dv/dt. Applying Newton's second law to the forces in the
radial direction and noting that both Tand a r are directed
toward O, we get Exercise 6 At what orientation of the system would the
cord most likely break if the average speed increased?
mv 2
Vl7
2,Fr T - mg cos
= rp Q
8 = —— Answer At the bottom of the path, where T has its maxi-
mum value.

Figure 6.9 (Example 6.7) (a) Forces

acting on a mass m connected to a string
of length R and rotating in a vertical cir-
cle centered at O. (b) Forces acting on m
when it is at the top and bottom of the
circle. Note that the tension at the bot-
tom is a maximum and the tension at the
top is a minimum.
 MOTION IN ACCELERATED FRAMES 135

°6.3 MOTION IN ACCELERATED FRAMES

When Newton's laws of motion were introduced in Chapter 5, we emphasized
that the laws are valid when observations are made in an inertial frame of
reference. In this section, we shall analyze how an observer in a noninertial
frame of reference (one that is accelerating) would attempt to apply Newton's
second law.
moves with an acceleration a relative to an observer in an
If a particle
inertial frame, then the inertial observer may use Newton's second law and
correctly claim that SF = ma. If an observer in an accelerated frame (the
noninertial observer) tries to apply Newton's second law to the motion of the
particle, the noninertial observer must introduce fictitious forces to make
Newton's second law work in that frame. Sometimes, these fictitious forces are Fictitious or inertial forces
referred to as inertial forces. These forces "invented" by the noninertial
observer appear to be real forces in the accelerating frame. However, we
emphasize that these fictitious forces do not exist when the motion is observed
in The fictitious forces are used only in an accelerating frame
an inertial frame.
but do not represent "real" forces on the body. (By "real" forces, we mean the
interaction of the body with its environment.) If the fictitious forces are prop-
erly defined in the accelerating frame, then the description of motion in this
frame will be equivalent to the description observer who con-
by an inertial
siders only real forces. Usually, motions are analyzed using inertial reference
frames, but there are cases in which an accelerating frame is more convenient.
In order to understand better the motion of a rotating system, consider a
car traveling along a highway at a high speed and approaching a curved exit
ramp, as in Figure 6.10. As the car takes the sharp left turn onto the ramp, a
person sitting in the passenger seat slides to the right across the seat and hits
the door. At that point, the force of the door keeps him from being ejected
from the car. What causes the passenger to move toward the door? A popular,
but improper, explanation is that some mysterious force pushes him outward.
(This is often called the "centrifugal" force, but we shall not use this term since
it The passenger invents this fictitious force in order
often creates confusion.)
to explain what
going on in his accelerated frame of reference.
is

The phenomenon is correctly explained as follows. Before the car enters

the ramp, the passenger is moving in a straight-line path. As the car enters the
ramp and travels a curved path, the passenger, because of inertia, tends to
move along the original straight-line path. This is in accordance with Newton's Figure 6.10 A car approaching a
first law: the natural tendency of a body is to continue moving in a straight line. curved exit ramp.
However, if a sufficiently large centripetal force (toward the center of curva-
ture) acts on the passenger, he move
in a curved path along with the car.
will
The origin of this the force of friction between the passen-
centripetal force is

ger and the car seat. If this frictional force is not large enough, the passenger
will slide across the seat as the car turns under him. Eventually, the passenger
encounters the door, which provides a large enough centripetal force to en-
able the passenger to follow the same curved path as the car. The passenger
slides toward the door not because of some mysterious outward force but
because there is no centripetal force large enough to allow him to travel along
the circular path followed by the car.
In summary, one must be very careful to distinguish real forces from
fictitious ones in describing motion in an accelerating frame. An observer in a
car rounding a curve is in an accelerating frame and invents a fictitious out-
ward force to explain why he or she is thrown outward. A stationary observer
136 CHAPTER 6 CIRCULAR MOTION AND OTHER APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON S LAWS

outside the car. however, considers only real forces on the passenger. To this
observer, the mysterious outward force does not exist! The only real external
force on the passenger is the centripetal (inward) force due to friction or the
normal force of the door.

EXAMPLE 6.S Linear Accelerometer (1) ^F X

= T sin 6 = ma
A small sphere of mass m is hung from the ceiling of an Inertial observer
accelerating boxcar, as in Figure 6.1 1. According to the (2) 2)F,= Tcos0-mg = O
inertial observer at rest (Figure 6.1 la), the forces on the
Thus, by solving (1) and (2) simultaneously, the inertial
sphere are the tension Tand the weight mg. The inertial
observer can determine the acceleration of the car
observer concludes that the acceleration of the sphere of
through the relation
mass m is the same as that of the boxcar and that this
acceleration is provided by the horizontal component of a = g tan 6
T. Also, the vertical component of Tbalances the weight.
Therefore, since the deflection of the string from the
Therefore, the inertial observer writes Newton's second
vertical serves as a measure of the acceleration of the car,
law as T + mg = ma. which in component form becomes
a simple pendulum can be used as an accelerometer.

Inertial
>server

Figure 6.1 1 (Example 6.8) (a) A ball suspended from the ceiling of a boxcar accelerating to the
right deflected as shown. The inertial observer at rest outside the car claims that the accelera-
is

tion of the ball is provided by the horizontal component of T. (b) A noninertial observer riding in
the car savs that the net force on the ball is zero and that the deflection of the string from
the vertical is due to a fictitious force. — ma, which balances the horizontal component of T.
 6.4 MOTION IN THE PRESENCE OF RESISTIVE FORCES 137

According to the noninertial observer riding in the noninertial observer. Suppose a block of mass m lying on
car, described in Figure 6.1 lb, the sphere is at rest and a horizontal, frictionless turntable is connected to a

the acceleration is zero. Therefore, the noninertial ob- string as in Figure 6.12. According to an inertial ob-
server introduces fictitious force, -ma, to balance the
a. server, if the block rotates uniformly, it undergoes an
horizontal component of T and claims that the net force acceleration of magnitude v 2 /r, where v is its tangential
on the sphere is zero! In this noninertial frame of refer- speed. The inertial observer concludes that this centripe-
ence, Newton's second law in component form gives tal accelerationis provided by the force of tension in the

string, r, and writes Newton's second law T = mv 2 /r.

^F;' = T sin -ma =
Noninertial observer According to a noninertial observer attached to the
^F y
' = T cos 8 — mg = turntable, the block is at rest. Therefore, in applying
Newton's second law, this observer introduces a ficti-
These expressions are equivalent and (2); there-
to (1)
tious outward force called the centrifugal force, of mag-
fore the noninertial observer gets the same mathematical nitude mv 2 /r. According to the noninertial observer, this
results as the inertial observer. However, the physical
"centrifugal" force balances the force of tension and
interpretation of the deflection of the string differs in the
therefore T — mv 2 /r = 0.
two frames of reference. Note that even though a pendu- You should be careful when using fictitious forces to
lum is used, it does not oscillate in this application. describe physical phenomena. Remember that fictitious
forces, such as centrifugal force, are used only in nonin-
EXAMPLE 6.9 Fictitious Force in a Rotating System ertial, or accelerated, frames of reference. When solving
An observer in a rotating system is another example of a problems, it is generally best to use an inertial frame.

Noninertial observer

Inertial observer

(a) (1,1

Figure 6.12 (Example 6.9) A block of mass m

connected to a string tied to the center of a rotating
turntable, (a) The inertial observer claims that the centripetal force is provided by the force of tension, T.
(b) The noninertial observer claims that the block is not accelerating and therefore he introduces a fictitious
centrifugal force mv 2 /r, which acts outward and balances the tension.

=6.4 MOTION IN THE PRESENCE OF

RESISTIVE FORCES
In the previous chapter we discussed the force of sliding friction, that is, the
resistive forceon an object moving along a rough, solid surface. Such forces
are nearly independent of velocity, and matters are simplified by assuming
them to be constant in magnitude. Now let us consider what happens when an
object moves through a liquid or gas. In such situations, the medium exerts a
138 CHAPTER 6 CIRCrLAR MOTION AND OTHER APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON S LWS
resistive force R on the object. The magnitude of
this force depends on the
velocity of the object, and its always opposite the direction of
direction is

motion of the object relative to the medium. The magnitude of the resistive
force is generally found to increase with increasing velocity. Some examples of
such resistive forces are the air resistance to flying airplanes and moving cars
and the viscous forces on objects moving through a liquid.
In general, the resistive force can have a complicated velocity depen-
dence. In the following discussions, we will consider two situations. First, we
will assume that the resistive force is proportional to the velocity. Objects
falling through a fluid and very small objects, such as particles of dust moving
through air. experience such a force. Second, we will treat situations for which
the resistive force is assumed to be proportional to the square of the speed of
the object. Large objects, such as a skydiv er mov ing through air in free fall in
the presence of gravity, experience such a force.

Resistive Force Proportional to Velocity

When an object moves at low speeds through a v iscous medium, it experiences

a resistive drag force that is proportional to the velocity of the object. Let us
assume that the resistive force. R. has the form

R = -bv (6.5)

where c is the velocity of the object and b is a constant that depends on the
properties of the medium and on the shape and dimensions of the object. If the
object is a sphere of radius r. then b is found to be proportional to r.

Consider a sphere of mass »i released from rest in a fluid, as in Figure

6.13a. Assuming the only forces acting on the sphere are the resistive force.
— bv. and the weight, mg. let us describe its motion. 1
Applying Newton's second law to the vertical motion, choosing the
downward direction to be positiv e. and noting that 2F, = mg — bv. we get
civ
mg — bv =m -j-

where the acceleration is downward. Simplifying the abov e expression gives

dv b
. =g- -
t (6.6)
dt

Equation 6.6 is called a differeirtial equation, and the methods of solving such
an equation may not be familiar to you as yet. How ever, note that initially,
when v = 0. the resistive force is zero and the acceleration, dv dt. is simply g.
As f increases, the resistive force increases and the acceleration decreases.
Eventually, the acceleration becomes zero when the resistiv e force equals the
b weight. At this point, the body continues to move with zero acceleration, and
it reaches its terminal velocity. v The terminal velocity can be obtained from
t
.

Figure 6.13 (al A small sphere Equation 6.6 by setting a = dv/dt = 0. This gives
falling through a viscous fluid.
b The velocity-time graph for an mg — bv t
=0 or d, = mgjb
object falling through a viscous
medium. The object reaches a
maximum, or terminal, velocity, O,
1
There is also a buoyant force, which is constant and equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
and t is the time it takes to reach This will only change the weight of the sphere by a constant factor. W'e shall discuss such buoyant
0.63r,. forces in Chapter 15.
 6.4 MOTION IN THE PRESENCE OF RESISTIVE FORCES 139

The expression for v that satisfies Equation 6.6 with v = at t = is

?d-^ ut (l - «"*) (6.

This function is plotted in Figure 6.13b. The time t = m/b is the time it takes
the object to reach 63% of its terminal velocity. We can check that Equation
6.7 is a solution to Equation 6.6 by direct differentiation:

dv
= d_ (mg _ mg _ bt/ \ _ _ mg d ,-bt/m = ge -fc(/i
C
dt dt\b b J b dt
The high cost of fuel has prompted
Substituting this expression and Equation 6.7 into Equation 6.6 shows that our
many truck owners to install wind
solution satisfies the differential equation. deflectors on their cabs to reduce
drag. (Courtesy of Henry Leap)

EXAMPLE 6.10 Sphere Falling in Oil t it takes the sphere to reach a velocity of 0.90 v t , we set
A small sphere of mass 2 g is released from rest in a large v = 0.90 v t into this expression and solve for t:
vessel filled with oil. The sphere reaches a terminal ve-
0.90ut = ot (l -e"'/1 )
locity of 5 cm/s. Determine the time constant r and the
time it takes the sphere to reach 90 percent of its termi- 1 - e-« r = 0.90
nal velocity.
e-'/ T = 0.10

Solution Since the terminal velocity has a magnitude

given by v t = mg/b, the coefficient b is
— = -2.30
T

t = 2.30 t = 2.30(5.10 X lO" 3 s)

fc
= 2ng= (2g)(980cm/s^) = 39 6/
o, 5 cm/s = 11.7X10- 3 s= 11.7 ms
Therefore, the time r is given by
Exercise 7 Calculate the speed that the sphere would
_ _m_ 2 g
= 5 X 10- 3 =
s have at r ms if air resistance were not present and
11.7
b 392 g/s
compare it to the true speed at that instant.
The velocity of the sphere as a function of time is Answer 11.5 cm/s compared to the true speed of
given by Equation 6.7, v = v t (l — e~'/ r ). To find the time 4.50 cm/s.

Air Drag

We have seen that an object moving through a fluid experiences a resistive

drag force. If the object is small and moves at low speeds, the drag force is
proportional to the velocity, as we have already discussed. However, for larger
objects moving at high speeds through air, such as airplanes, skydivers, and
baseballs, the drag force is approximately proportional to the square of the
speed. In these situations, the magnitude of the drag force can be expressed as
Figure 6.14 By spreading their
R = \CpAv 2 (6.8) arms and legs out from the sides of
their bodies and by keeping the
where p is the density of air, A is the cross-sectional area of the falling object plane of their bodies parallel to the
measured in a plane perpendicular motion, and C is a dimensionless to its ground, skydivers experience max-
empirical quantity called the drag coefficient. The drag coefficient has a value imum air drag resulting in a specific
terminal speed. (U.S. Air Force
of about 0.5 for spherical objects but can be as high as about 2 for irregularly
Academy photo by SSgt. West C.
shaped objects. Jacobs, 94ATS)
140 CHAPTER 6 CIRCULAR MOTION AND OTHER APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS

Consider an airplane in flight experiencing such a drag force. Equation

6.8 shows that the drag force is proportional to the density of air and hence
decreases with decreasing air density. Since air density decreases with in-
creasing altitude, the drag force on a jet airplane flying at a given speed must
also decrease with increasing altitude. Furthermore, if the plane's speed is
doubled, the drag force increases by a factor of 4. In order to maintain this
increased speed, the propulsive force also increases by a factor of 4 and the
power required (force times speed) must increase by a factor of 8.
Now let us analyze the motion of a mass in free fall subject to an upward air
drag force given by R = \CpAv 2 Suppose a mass m is released from rest from
.

the position y = as in Figure 6.15. The mass experiences two external forces:
Figure 6.15 An object falling the weight, mg, downward and the drag force, R, upward. There is also an
through air experiences a drag upward buoyant force which we will neglect. Hence, the magnitude of the net
force. R, and the force of grus it\
nig. The object reaches terminal force is given by
velocity (on the right) when the net _
force is zero, that is. when R = mg. fnet = '"g {CpAv- (6.9)
Before this occurs, the acceleration
varies with speed according to Substituting Fnet = ma into Equation 6.9. we find that the mass has a downward
Equation 6.10. acceleration of magnitude

Again, we can calculate the terminal

m velocity, c, , using the fact that
(6.10)

when
the weight balanced by the drag force, the net force is zero and therefore the
is

acceleration is zero. Setting a = in Equation 6.10 gives

B =
V 2m

Terminal velocity (6.11)

Using this expression, we can determine how the terminal speed depends on
the dimensions of the object. Suppose the object is a sphere of radius r. In this
case, A* r 2 and m * r (since the mass is proportional to the volume). There-
3

fore, f, a Vr. That is, as r increases, the terminal speed increases with the
square root of the radius.
Table 6. 1 lists the terminal speeds for several objects falling through air.

TABLE 6.1 Terminal Speed for Various Objects Falling Through Air

Object
 6 5 THE FUNDAMENTAL FORCES OF NATURE 141

6.5 THE FUNDAMENTAL FORCES OF NATURE

In the previous chapter, we described a variety of forces that are experienced
in our everyday activities, such as the force of gravity which acts on all bodies
at or near the earth's surface, and the force of friction as one surface slides over
another. Other forces we have encountered are the force of tension in a rope,
the normal force acting on an object that is in contact with the floor or some
other object, and the drag force as an object moves through air or some other
medium. Other forces that we shall encounter include the restoring force in a
deformed spring, the electrostatic force between two charged objects, and the
magnetic force between a magnet and a piece of iron.
Forces also act in the atomic and subatomic world. For example, atomic
forces within the atom are responsible for holding its constituents together,
and nuclear forces act on different parts of the nucleus to keep its parts from
separating.
Until recently, physicists believed that there were four fundamental
forces in nature: the gravitational force, the electromagnetic force, the strong
nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force.
The gravitational force is the mutual force of attraction between all

masses. We have already encountered the gravitational force when describing

the weight of an object. Although gravitational forces can be very significant
between macroscopic objects, the gravitational force is actually the weakest of
the four fundamental forces. This statement is based on the relative strengths
of the four forces when considering the interaction between elementary parti-
cles. For example, the gravitational force between the electron and proton in
the hydrogen atom is only about 10 -47 N, whereas the electrostatic force
between the two particles is about 10 -7 N. Thus, we see that the strength of
the gravitational force is insignificant in comparison to that of the electrostatic
force. We shall learn more about the nature of the gravitational force in
Chapter 14.
The electromagnetic force is an attraction or repulsion between two
charged particles that are in relative motion. Later in this text we shall see that
electric and magnetic forces are closely related. In fact, the magnetic force can
be viewed as an additional electric force that acts whenever the interacting
charges are in motion. Although the electric force between two charged ele-
mentary particles is much stronger than the gravitational force between them,
the electric force is of medium strength. The force that causes a rubbed comb
to attract bits of paper, and the force that a magnet exerts on an iron nail are
examples of electromagnetic forces. It is interesting to note that essentially all
forces in our macroscopic world (apart from the gravitational force) are mani-
festations of the electromagnetic force when examined very closely. For ex-
ample, friction forces, contact forces, tension forces, and forces in stretched
springs or other deformed bodies are essentially the consequence of electro-
magnetic forces between charged particles in close proximity.
The strong nuclear force is responsible for the stability of nuclei. This
force represents the "glue" that holds the nuclear constituents (called nu-
cleons) together. It is the strongest of all the fundamental forces. For separa-
tions of about 10~ 15 m (a typical nuclear dimension), the strong nuclear force
isone to two orders of magnitude stronger than the electromagnetic force.
However, the strong nuclear force decreases rapidly with increasing separa-
tion and is negligible for separations greater than about 10 -14 m.
142 CHAPTER 6 CIRCULAR MOTION AND OTHER APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON S LAWS

Finally, the weak nuclear force is a short range nuclear force that tends to
produce instability in certain nuclei. Most radioactive decay reactions are
caused by the weak nuclear force. The weak nuclear force is about 1 2 orders of
magnitude weaker than the electric force.
In 1979, physicists predicted that the electromagnetic force and the weak
force are manifestations of one and the same force called the electroweak
force. This prediction was confirmed experimentally in 1984. Thus, the cur-
rent view is that there are only three fundamental forces in nature.
Physicists and cosmologists believe that the fundamental forces of nature
are closely related to the origin of the universe. The big bang theory of the
creation of the universe states that the universe erupted from a pointlike
singularity on the order of 15 to 20 billion years ago. According to this theory,
the first moments (== 10~ 10 s) after the big bang saw such extremes of energy
that all four fundamental forces were unified. Scientists continue in their
search for a possible connection among the three fundamental forces, as Ein-
stein himself dreamed.

SUMMARY
Newton's second law applied to a particle moving in uniform circular
motion states that the net force in the radial direction must equal the
product of the mass and the centripetal acceleration:

Uniform circular motion F. = ma. — (6.1)

The force that provides the centripetal acceleration could be, for example,
the force of gravity (as in satellite motion), the force of friction, or the force
of tension (as in a string). A particle moving in nonuniform circular motion
has both a centripetal (or radial) acceleration and a nonzero tangential
component of acceleration. In the case of a particle rotating in a vertical
circle, the force of gravity provides the tangential acceleration and part or
all of the centripetal acceleration.
An observer in a noninertial (accelerated) frame of reference must
Fictitious forces introduce fictitious forces when applying Newton's second law in that
frame. If these fictitious forces are properly defined, the description of
motion in the noninertial frame will be equivalent to that made by an
observer in an inertial frame. However, the observers in the two different
frames will not agree on the causes of the motion.
A body moving through a liquid or gas experiences a resistive force that
is velocity dependent. This resistive force, which opposes the motion, gen-
erally increases with velocity. The force depends on the shape of the body
and the properties of the medium through which the body is moving. In the
limiting case for a falling body, when the resistive force equals the weight
(a = 0), the body reaches its terminal velocity. There are only three funda-
mental forces in nature: the gravitational force, the strong nuclear force,
and electroweak force.
 .

PROBLEMS 143

QUESTIONS

1. Because the earth rotates about its axis and about the tion is to simulate gravity for the inhabitants. Explain
sun, it is a noninertial frame of reference. Assuming concept for producing an effective gravity.
this

the earth is a uniform sphere, why would the apparent 1 1 Why does a pilot tend to black out when pulling out of
weight of an object be greater at the poles than at the a steep dive?
equator? 1 2. Cite an example ofasituationin which an automobile
2. Explain why the earth is not spherical in shape and driver can have a centripetal acceleration but no tan-
bulges at the equator. gential acceleration.
3. How would you explain the force that pushes a rider 13. Is it possible for a car to move in a circular path in such
toward the side of a car as the car rounds a corner? a way that it has a tangential acceleration but no cen-
4. When an airplane does an inside "loop-the-loop" in a tripetal acceleration?
vertical plane, at what point would the pilot appear to 14. Analyze the motion of a rock dropped into water in
be heaviest? What is the constraint force acting on the terms of its speed and acceleration as it falls. Assume
pilot? that there is a resistive force acting on the rock that
5. A skydiver in free fall reaches terminal velocity. After increases as the velocity increases.
the parachute is opened, what parameters change to 15. Consider a skydiver falling through air before reach-
decrease this terminal velocity? ing terminal velocity. As the velocity of the skydiver
6. Why is it that an astronaut in a space capsule orbiting increases, what happens to her acceleration.
the earth experiences a feeling of weightlessness? 16. Centrifuges are often used in dairies to separate the
7. Why does mud fly off a rapidly turning wheel? cream from the milk. Which remains on the bottom?
8. A water can be whirled in a vertical path such
pail of 17. We often think of the brakes and the gas pedal on a car
that none is spilled. Why does the water stay in, even as the devices which accelerate the car. Could a steer-
when the pail is above your head? ing wheel also fall into this category? Explain.
9. Imagine that you attach a heavy object to one end of a 18. Suppose that a baseball and a Softball are dropped
spring and then whirl the spring and object in a hori- from an airplane. Which has the higher terminal ve-
zontal circle (by holding the free end of the spring). Which experiences the greater acceleration
locity?
Does the spring stretch? If so, why? Discuss this in before reaching terminal velocity, say one second
terms of centripetal force. after they are released?
10. It has been suggested that rotating cylinders about 19. Consider a small raindrop and a large raindrop falling
10 mi in length and 5 mi in diameter be placed in through the atmosphere. Compare their terminal ve-
space and used as colonies. The purpose of the rota- locities. What are their accelerations when they reach
terminal velocitv?

PROBLEMS
Section 6.1 Newton's Second Law Applied to Uniform frequency in revolutions per second? See the front
Circular Motion cover for additional data.
5. A 3-kg mass attached to a light string rotates in circu-
1. A toy car completes one lap around a circular track (a lar motion on a horizontal, frictionless table. The

distance of 200 m) in 25 s. (a) What is the average radius of the circle is 0.8 m, and the string can support
speed? (b) If the mass of the car is 1.5 kg, what is the a mass of 25 kg before breaking. What range of speeds
magnitude of the centripetal force that keeps it in a can the mass have before the string breaks?
circle? 6. A satellite of mass 300 kg is in a circular orbit about
2. In a cyclotron (one type of particle accelerator), a the earth at an altitude equal to the earth's mean
deuteron (of atomic mass 2 u) reaches a final velocity radius (see Example 6.5). Find (a) the satellite's or-
of 10% of the speed of light while moving in a circular bital speed, (b) the period of its revolution, and (c) the
path of radius 0.48 m. The deuteron is maintained in gravitational force acting on it.

the circular path by a magnetic force. What magni- 7. While two astronauts were on the surface of the
tude of force is required? moon, a third astronaut orbited the moon. Assume the
3. What centripetal force is required to keep a 1.5 kg orbit to be circular and 100 km above the surface of
mass moving in a circle of radius 0.4 m at a speed of the moon. If the mass and radius of the moon are
4 m/s? 7.4 X 10 22 kg and 1.7 X 10 6 m, respectively, deter-
4. In a hydrogen atom, the electron in orbit about the mine (a) the orbiting astronaut's acceleration, (b) the
proton feels an attraction of about 8.20 X 10 -8 N. If astronaut's orbital speed, and (c) the period (time for
the radius of the orbit is 5.3 X 10 -11 m, what is the one revolution) of the orbit.
144 CHAPTER 6 CIRCLlAR MOTION AND OTHER APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS

8. An automobile moves at constant speed over a hill. 17. A 40-kg child sits in a conventional swing of length
The driver moves in a vertical circle of radius 1 8 m At 3 m. supported by two chains. If the tension in each
the top of the hill, the driver notices that she barely chain at the lowest point is 350 N. find (a) the child's
remains in contact with the seat. Find the speed of the speed at the lowest point, and (b) the force of the seat
vehicle. on the child at the lowest point. (Neglect the mass of
9. A crate of eggs is located in the middle of the flat bed the seat.)
of a pickup truck as the truck negotiates a curve in the IS. A 0. 40-kg object is swung in a circular path and in a
road. The curve may be regarded as an arc of a circle \ ertical plane on a string 0.5 m long. If a constant
of radius 35 m. If the coefficient of static friction be- speed of 4.0 m/s is maintained, what is the tension in
tween the crate and the flat bed of the truck is 0.6, the string when the object is at the top of the circle?
what must be the maximum speed of the truck if the 19. A Ferris wheel with radius 20 m makes 1 revolution
crate is not to slide during the maneuver? e\er\' 9.0 seconds. What force does a 55-kg passenger
10. A 1500-kg car rounds an unbanked curve with a exert on the seat when she is at the top of the Ferris
radius of 52 m at a speed of 12 m/s. What minimum wheel?
coefficient of friction must exist between the road and 20. A roller-coaster vehicle has a mass of 500 kg when
tires to prevent the car from slipping? fully loaded with passengers (Fig. 6.16). (a) If the ve-
11. An air puck of mass 0.25 kg is tied to a string and hicle has a speed of 20 m/s at point A. what is the force
allowed to revoke in a circle of radius 1.0 m on a of the track on the vehicle at this point? (b) What is the
horizontal frictionless table. The other end of the maximum speed the vehicle can have at B in order that
string passes through a hole in the center of the table it remain on the track?
and a mass of 1 .0 kg is tied to it. The suspended mass
remains in equilibrium while the puck on the table top
revolves, (a) What is the tension in the string?
(b) What is the centripetal force acting on the puck?
(c) What is the speed of the puck?
12. The speed of the tip of the minute hand of a town
clock is 1.75 X 10 -3 m/s. (a) What is the speed of the
tip of the second hand of the same length? (b) What is
Figure 6.16 (Problem 20).
the centripetal acceleration of the tip of the second
hand?
13. A coin is placed 30 cm from the center of a rotating,
horizontal turntable. The coin is observed to slip
21. Tarzan (m = 85 kg) tries to cross a river by swinging
when its speed is 50 cm/s. (a) What provides the cen- from a vine. The vine is 1 m long, and his speed at the
tripetal force when the coin is stationary relative to bottom of the swing (as he just clears the water) is
the turntable? (b) What is the coefficient of static fric- S m/s. Tarzan doesn't know that the vine has a break-

tion between the coin and the turntable? ing strength of 1000 N. Does he make it safely across
the river?
22. At the Six Flags Great America amusement park in
Gurnee. Illinois, there is a roller coaster that incorpo-
rates some of the latest design technology and some
Section 6.2 Nonuniform Circular Motion
basic physics. The vertical loop, instead of being cir-
14. A car traveling on a straight road at 9.0 m/s goes over a cular, is shaped like a teardrop (Fig. 6.17). The cars
hump in the road. The hump may be regarded as an ride on the inside of the loop at the top. and the speeds
arc of a circle of radius 11.0 m. (a) What is the appar- are highenough to ensure that the cars remain on the
ent weight of a 600-N woman in the car as she rides track.The biggest loop is 40 m high (about 130 ft),
over the hump? (b) What must be the speed of the car with a maximum speed of 31 m/s (nearly 70 mph) at
over the hump if she is to experience weightlessness? the bottom. (Sew York Times, Aug. 2. 1988.) Suppose
(The apparent weight must be zero.) the speed at the top is 13.0 m/s and the corresponding
15. A pail of water is rotated in a vertical circle of radius centripetal acceleration is 2g. (a) What is the radius of
1 m. What is the minimum speed of the pail at the top the arc of the teardrop at the top? (b) If the total mass
of the circle if no water is to spill out? of the roller coaster at the top of the loop what
is St.

16. A hawk flies in a horizontal arc of radius 12 m at a force does the rail exert on it at the top? (c) Suppose
constant speed of 4 m/s. (a) Find the centripetal accel- instead, the roller coaster had a circular loop of radius
eration of the hawk, (b) The hawk continues to fly 20 m. If the cars have the same speed, 13 m/s at the
along the same horizontal arc but increases its speed top, what is the centripetal acceleration at the top?
atthe rate of 1.2 m/s 2 Find the hawk's acceleration
. (d) Comment on the normal force at the top in this
(magnitude and direction) under these conditions. situation.
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 145

the same during starting and stopping, and determine

(a) the weight of the person, (b) the person's mass, and
(c) the acceleration of the elevator.
28. A plumb bob does not hang exactly along a line di-
rected to the center of the earth's rotation. How much
does the plumb bob deviate from a radial line at 35°
north latitude?

"Section 6.4 Motion in the Presence of Resistive Forces

29. A skydiver of mass 80 kg jumps from a slow-moving

aircraft and reaches a terminal speed of 50 m/s.
(a) What is the acceleration of the skydiver when her
Figure 6.17 (Problem 22). speed30 m/s? What is the drag force
is on the diver
when her speed is (b) 50 m/s and (c) 30 m/s?
30. A small piece of Styrofoam packing material is
"Section 6.3 Motion in Accelerated Frames
dropped from a height of 2.0 m above the ground.
23. Amerry-go-round turns completely each 12 s. If a Until the terminal velocity is reached, the accelera-
45-kg child sits on the horizontal floor of the merry- tion of the piece of Styrofoam is given by a = g — bv,
go-round 3 m from the center, find (a) the child's ac- where g is the acceleration due to gravity, v the 'eloc-

celeration and (b) the horizontal force of friction that ity, and h a constant. When it has fallen 0.5 in the

acts on the child, (c) What minimum coefficient of terminal velocity is reached, and it takes an extra 5 s

static friction would be necessary to keep the child to reach the ground, What is the numerical value of
(a)

from slipping? the constant b? (b) What is the acceleration at t = 0?

24. A ball is suspended from the ceiling of a moving car by (c) What is the acceleration when the velocity is

a string 25 cm in length. An observer in the car notes 0.15 m/s?

31. A motor boat cuts its engine when its speed is 10 m/s
that the ball deflects 6 cm from the vertical toward
the rear of the car. What is the acceleration of the ear? and coasts to rest. The equation governing the motion
25. A 0.5-kg object suspended from the ceiling of an
is
of the motorboat during this period is v = t) p _c',
accelerating boxcar as in Figure 6.1 1. If a = 3 m/s
2
,
where v is the speed at time t, v is the initial speed,
find (a) the angle that the string makes with the verti- and c is a constant. At t = 20 s the speed is 5 m/s.
cal and (b) the tension in the string. (a) Find the constant c. (b) What is the speed at t =

26. A 5-kg mass attached to a spring scale rests on a 40 s? (c) Differentiate the expression above for v(t)
smooth, horizontal surface as in Figure 6.18. The and thus show that the acceleration of the boat is pro-
spring scale, attached to the front end of a boxcar, portional to the velocity at any time.

reads 18 N when the car is in motion, (a) If the spring 32. (a) Estimate the terminal velocity of a wooden sphere
scale reads zero when the car is at rest, determine the (density 0.83 g/em 3 moving in air
) if its radius is

acceleration of the car. (b) What will the spring scale 8.0 cm. (b) From what height would a freely-falling

read if moves with constant velocity? (c) De-

the car object reach this speed in the absence of air resist-
scribe the forces on the mass as observed by someone ance?
in the car and by someone at rest outside the car. 33. A small, spherical bead of mass 3 g is released from
rest at t= in a bottle of liquid shampoo. The termi-
nal velocity, v t observed to be 2 cm/s. Find (a) the
, is

value of the constant b in Equation 6.7, (b) the time, t,

it takes to reach 0.63u
t
and (c) the value of the
,

retarding force when the bead reaches terminal

velocity.

n -L.
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
34. A spinning ball of radius 5.0 cm slows uniformly from
30 rev/min to rest in 0.3 s. Compute the radial, tan-
Figure 6.18 (Problem 26). gential, and net acceleration of a point on the equator
of the ball at the beginning of this time period.
A person stands on a scale in an elevator. The maxi- 35. In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom the velocity
mum and minimum scale readings are 591 N and of the electron is approximately 2.2 X 10 6 m/s. Find
391 N. Assume the magnitude of the acceleration is (a) the centripetal force acting on the electron as it
146 CHAPTER 6 CIRCULAR MOTION AND OTHER APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LWVS

revolves in a circular orbit of radius 0.53 10-10 m. X and returns to A the instant the wheel com-
tically
(b) the centripetal acceleration of the electron, and pletesone revolution. ia> Find the velocity of a point
he number of revolutions per second made by the on the rim of the wheel in terms of the acceleration
electron. due to gravity and the radius R of the wheel, (bi If the
A 'i.-IO-kg pendulum bob passes through the lowest mass of the putty is m. what is the magnitude of the
part of its path with a speed of S.2 m s. What is the force that held it to the wheel'
tension in the pendulum cable if the pendulum is 41. A railroad track has a curve of 400 m radius. The
SO cm long' tracks are banked toward the inside at an angle of 6 =
.

: pendulum is a bob moving in a horizontal

onical For trains of what speed was this track designed' !s-
circle at the end of a long wire (Figure 6.19). The sume that the correct speed requires only the normal
angle between the wire and the vertical does not force to keep the train on the track.
change. Consider a conical pendulum with an SO-kg \ car rounds a banked curve as in Figure 6.5. The
bob on a 10-m wire making an angle of 5" with the radius of curvature of the road is R. the banking angle
vertical. Determine (a) the tension in the wire and its and the coefficient of static friction is fi. ia) Deter-
is 6,

horizontal and vertical components, and b the radial |

i
mine the range of speeds the car can have without
acceleration of the bob. slipping up or down the road, (bi Find the minimum
A small turtle, appropriately named "Dizzy," is value for u such that the minimum speed is zero.
placed on a horizontal, rotating turntable at a distance (c)What is the range of speeds possible if R = 1 00 m.
of 20 cm from its center. Dizzy's mass is 50 g. and the 0= 10% and// = 0.1 slippery conditions '
>

coefficient of static friction between his feet and the A model airplane of a mass 0.75 kg flies in a horizontal
turntable is 0.3. Find ia' the maximum number of rev- circle at theend of a 60-m control wire, with a speed
olutions per second the turntable can have Dizzy is if of 35 m s. Compute the tension in the wire if it makes
to remain stationary relative to the turntable and a constant angle of 20" with the horizontal. The air-
Dizzy's speed and radial acceleration when he is plane is acted upon by the tension in the control line,
;
on the verge of slipping. its weight, and the aerodynamic lift, which acts at 20
39. Because of the earth's rotation about its axis, a point inward from the vertical as shown in Fig. 6.20.
on the equator experiences a centripetal acceleration \ child's toy consists of a small wedge that has an
of 0.034 m s 2 while a point at the poles experiences
. acute angle 6 (Figure 6.21 The sloping side of the
1.

no centripetal acceleration, (a) Show that at the equa- wedge is smooth and a mass m on it remains at the
tor the gravitational force on an object ithe true same height the wedge is spun at a constant speed.
if
weight) must exceed the object's apparent weight. The wedge spun by rotating a rod which is firmly
is

What is the apparent weight at the equator and attached to the wedge at one end. Show that w hen the
at the poles of a person having a mass of 75 kg? !s- mass rises up the wedge a distance L the speed of the
sume the earth is a uniform sphere and take g = mass m is given by
9.S00m s 2 .

r = VgL sin
A piece of putty is initially located at point A on the

rim of a grinding wheel rotating about a horizontal i " The of an airplane executes a constant-speed
pilot
axis. The putty is dislodged from point A when the loop-the-loop maneuver in a vertical plane. The speed
diameter through A is horizontal. The putty rises ver- of the airplane is 300 mi/h, and the radius of the circle

Figure 6.19 iProbl- J Figure 6.20 Prob:-

 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 147

49. An amusement park ride consists of a large vertical

cylinder that spins about its axis fast enough that any

person inside is held up against the wall when the

floor drops away (Figure 6.23). The coefficient of
static friction between the person and the wall is// s ,

and the radius of the cylinder is R. (a) Show that the

maximum period of revolution necessary to keep the
person from falling is T= (4^ 2 R/z s/g) 1 / 2 (b) Obtain a
.

numerical value for T if R = 4 m and ji s = 0.4. How

many revolutions per minute does the cylinder make?

Figure 6.21 (Problem 44).

is 1200 ft. (a) What is the pilot's apparent weight at

the lowest point if his true weight is 160 lb? (b) What
is apparent weight at the highest point? (c) De-
his
scribe how the pilot could experience weightlessness
if both the radius and velocity can be varied. (Note:

His apparent weight is equal to the force that the seat

exerts on his body.)
46. A 4-kg mass is attached to a horizontal rod by two

strings, as inFigure 6.22. The strings are under ten-

sion when the rod rotates about its axis. If the speed of
the mass is 4 m/s when observed at the following posi-
tions, find the tension in the string when the mass is

(a) at its lowest point, (b) in the horizontal position,

and (c) at its highest point.

^4 kg
Figure 6.23 (Problem 49).
Figure 6.22 (Problems 46 and 47).
50. A penny of mass 3.1 g rests on a small 20-g block

47. Suppose the rod in the system shown in Figure 6.22 is supported by a spinning disk (Figure 6.24). If the coef-
made vertical and rotates about this axis. If the mass ficient of friction between the block and the disk is

rotates at a constant speed of 6 m/s in a horizontal

plane, determine the tensions in the upper and lower
strings.
48. A student builds and calibrates an accelerometer,
which she uses to determine the speed of her car
around a certain highway curve. The accelerometer is
a simple pendulum with a protractor which she at-
taches to the roof of her car. Her friend observes that
pendulum hangs 5
the at an angle of 1 ° from the verti-
Block
cal when the car has a speed of 23.0 m/s. (a) What is

the centripetal acceleration of the car rounding the

curve? (b) What is the radius of the curve? (c) What is

speed of the car if the pendulum deflection is 9.0°

while rounding the same curve? Figure 6.24 (Problem 50).
148 CHAPTER 6 CIRCULAR MOTION AND OTHER APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON S LAWS

0.75 (static) and 0.64 (kinetic) while for the penny 10 fim, (b) 100/im, and (c) 1 mm. Note that
radii: (a)

and block it is 0.45 (kinetic) and 0.52 (static), what is and (c) you can obtain accurate answers, with-
for (a)
the maximum speed of the disk in rpm without the out solving a quadratic equation, by considering
block or penny sliding on the disk? which of the two contributions to the air resistance is
51. Figure 6.25 shows a Ferris wheel that rotates four dominant and ignoring the lesser contribution.
times each minute and has a diameter of 18 m.
(a) What is the centripetal acceleration of a rider?

What force does the seat exert on a 40-kg rider (b) at CALCULATOR/COMPUTER PRORLEMS
the lowest point of the ride and (c) at the highest point
of the ride? (d) What force (magnitude and direction) |
54. |
A X 10 -4 kg and radius 0.5 cm
hailstone of mass 4.8
fallsthrough the atmosphere and experiences a net
does the seat exert on a rider when the rider is halfway
force given by Equation 6.9. This expression can be
between the top and bottom?
written in the form

dx,
= mg- K« !

lit

where K= \CpA, ^>=1.29 kg/m 3 and C=0.5.

(a) What is the terminal velocity of the hailstone?
(b) Use a method of numerical integration to find the
velocity and position of the hailstone at 1-s intervals,
taking v = 0. Continue your calculation until termi-
nal velocity is reached.
55. A 0.5-kg block slides down a 30° incline of length
1 m. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the
block and the incline varies with the block's velocity
according to the expression

H = 0.3+ 1.2Vo
where l" is in m/s. (a) Use a numerical method to find
the velocity of the block at intervals of 10 cm during
its motion, (b) If the length of the plane is extended to
several km, will the block reach terminal velocity? If
so, what is its terminal velocity, and at what point does
it occur on the incline?

Figure 6.25 (Problem 51)

52. An amusement park ride consists of a rotating circular

platform 8 m in diameter from which "bucket seats"
are suspended at the end of 2.5-m chains (Fig. 6.26).
When the system rotates the chains holding the seats
make an angle 6 = 28° with the vertical, (a) What is

the speed of the seat? (b) If a child of mass 40 kg sits in

the 10-kg seat, what is the tension in the chain?

53. The expression F= arc + br^c 2
gives the magnitude
of the resistive force newtons) on a sphere of radius
(in
r (in meters) exerted by a stream of air with speed v (i.-.
meters per second), where a and b are constants with
appropriate SI units. Their numerical values are a =
3.1 X 10~ 4 and b = 0.87. Using this formula, find the
terminal speed for water droplets falling under their
own weight in air. taking these values for the drop Figure 6.26 (Problem 52).
 t

ESSAY DYNAMICS OF SATELLITE ORBITS 149

Equations 6.3 and 6.4 for the velocity and period of a satellite in a circular orbit about
an assumed spherical earth have long been known:
ESSAY
(6.3)
Dynamics of
Satellite Orbits
(6.4)
Leon Blitzer
However, the advent of the Space Age had development of rockets with
to await the University of Arizona

sufficient thrust to propel the missile into orbit. With the launch of Sputnik I on
October 4. 1957. artificial earth satellites became a reality, and since then numerous
satellites and space probes have been sent into orbit. These manned, as well as
unmanned, space explorations have captured the interest and imagination of the
entire world. The unique character of the satellite is that it provides a sustained
observing platform outside the atmosphere for studying the earth and its environs, as
well as outer space. Today, hundreds of satellites and space probes are in orbit, and
their applications encompass just about the entire range of science and engineering
research: astronomy, global communication, navigation, weather reconnaissance,
planetary studies, geodesy, studies of biological organisms in a weightless environ-
ment, cosmic ray and solar physics, ocean and land surveillance for marine and min-
eral resources, agricultural surveys, location of sites for archaeological explorations,
etc.There is no doubt that the future will see an increasing number of satellites and
space probes being used for ever-expanding applications.
You should note that Equations 6.3 and 6.4 have application beyond artificial
earth satellites, for they are valid for any satellite (moon) moving in a circular orbit
about its parent planet, or any planet moving in a circular orbit about the sun. More
generally, satellite and planetary orbits are elliptical, the circle being a special case of
the ellipse."

The Satellite Orbit Paradox

Clearly, forces are required to overcome the earth's gravitational attraction and to
propel a satellite into orbit, with higher orbits requiring greater forces. Consider a
satellite moving given circular orbit. If the satellite is subjected to some force in
in a
the same direction as its motion, it will be propelled into a higher orbit and will travel

at a slower speed according to Equation 6.3. Conversely, if the satellite is subjected to

some force in a direction opposite to its motion, it will be driven into a lower orbit and
will move at a greater speed according to Equation 6.3.
It is known that even at altitudes of 500 km and more above the earth there are
sufficient atmospheric particles to create a significant frictional (drag) force on the
rapidly moving satellite. Since the frictional force is in a direction opposite to its

motion, it will cause the satellite to lower orbit and move with greater
shift into a
velocity. Hence, we have the so-called "drag paradox"; namely, atmospheric/rirrion
causes the orbital velocity to increase Indeed, all satellites moving within the earth's
atmosphere slowly spiral inward at ever-increasing speed until they burn up or im-
pact the earth (see Fig. 1). Moreover, this is also the case for satellites moving in
elliptical orbits.
Note that the paradox is not limited to drag, for any force acting in the same
direction as the motion of the satellite causes the missile to shift into a higher orbit and
move with slower speed, while any retarding force actually results in an increase in
speed, t

°
This is apart from perturbations due to the attraction of other planets, tidal forces, radiation
pressure, particle drag, electromagnetic forces, nonspherical shapes, etc.
t See L. Blitzer, "Satellite Orbit Paradox: A General View," Amer. ]. Physics 39:882, 1971 |
continued on next page)
150 CHAPTER 6 CIRCULAR MOTION AND OTHER APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS

Figure 1 Shrinking of the orbit

under atmospheric drag.

Geostationary SYNCOM Satellites

Consider a satellite moving plane of the equator at such a

in a circular orbit in the
distance that its synchronous with the rotational period of the earth,
orbital period is

namely one sidereal day. Such a satellite will then be at a fixed geographic longitude,
and is referred to as geostationary. Figure 2 shows three uniformly spaced satellites in
synchronous equatorial orbits. This configuration of three geostationary satellites,
when equipped with radio transponders, can provide line-of-sight global communica-
tion between any two points on earth. Practically all satellites currently used for
communication are in such 24-hour synchronous orbits and hence referred to as
SYNCOMS.

Libration of Synchronous Satellites

Because of its nonuniform shape and mass distribution — oceans, mountains, varia-
tions in density — the earth is far from spherical. In fact, it is flattened at the poles and
bulges at the equator, with the equatorial cross-section being very nearly elliptical.

Figure 2 Three satellites uni-

formly spaced in synchronous
equatorial orbits. (Not drawn to
scale
 ESSAY DYNAMICS OF SATELLITE ORBITS 151

Figure 3 Equatorial section of

Earth (looking south along polar
axis). FT is the net tangential force
on the satellite at the positions
shown. S is the stable equilibrium
position, U, unstable. The blue
dashed curve shows the libra-
tional path of a 24-hour satellite.

(On the between the major and minor

basis of satellite tracking data the difference
axes of the equatorial ellipse about 130 m.)
is

Let us examine the motion of a 24-hour satellite in a frame of reference rotating

with the earth (see Fig. 3). It is clear from symmetry that when the satellite is on the
extension of either principal axis of the equatorial ellipse, at positions S or U, the
gravitational force is purely radial. These must then be equilibrium positions, or
stationary points, in the rotating frame. On the other hand, at off-axis positions, the
greater gravitational attraction will be toward the nearest major axis. Hence, there is

a net tangential force FT toward the nearest major axis, as indicated for various
positions of the satellite in Figure 3.
At first thought, one might expect the satellite to accelerate in the direction of
FT However,
. in accordance with the orbit paradox, the satellite will actually drift in
the opposite direction toward the nearest equilibrium position S on the minor axis.
Since it acquires momentum, the satellite will drift past S, the direction of FT will then
be reversed, and the drift will gradually be reversed. Hence the satellite will oscillate,
or librate, about the equilibrium position S on the minor axis. Contrary to the drag
paradox, there is no friction involved in this process.
The path of one such 24-hour satellite in the rotating earth frame is shown as a
dashed curve in Figure 3. The period of libration depends on the amplitude, which, in
is determined by the initial position. For small-amplitude librations the period
turn,
approximately 2.1 years. Unless provided with propulsion for repositioning, all
is

SYNCOM satellites experience such librations.

Suggested Readings
Blitzer, L., 'Satellite Orbit Paradox: A General View," Amer. J. Phys. 39:882, 1971.
"Basic Facts About The Satellite Orbits," Sky and Telescope 15:408, 1956.
Dubridge, L.A., "Fun In Space," Amer. ]. Phys. 28:719, 1960.
Blitzer, L., "Equilibrium and Stability of a Pendulum in an Orbiting Spaceship,"
Amer.}. Phys. 47:241, 1979.
 7
Work and Energy

Cyclists are working hard and

expending energy road-racing
at top speed (Steve Leonard,
€ Tony Stone Worldwide)

The in
concept of energy is one of the most important physical concepts
both contemporary science and engineering practice. In every-
day usage, we think of energy in terms of the cost of fuel for trans-
portation and heating, electricity for lights and appliances, and the
foods we consume. However, these ideas do not really define energy. They
only tell us that fuels are needed to do a job and that those fuels provide us with
something we call energy.
Energy is present in various forms, including mechanical energy, electro-
magnetic energy, chemical energy, thermal energy, and nuclear energy. The
various forms of energy are related to each other through the fact that when
energy is transformed from one form to another, the total amount of energy
remains the same. This is the point that makes the energy concept so useful.
That is. if an isolated system loses energy in some form, then the law of
conservation of energy says that the system will gain an equal amount of
energy in other forms. For example, when an electric motor is connected to a
batterv. chemical energy is converted to electrical energy, which in turn is
converted to mechanical energy. The transformation of energy from one form
to another is an essential part of the study of physics, engineering, chemistry,
biology, geology, and astronomy.

152
 7.2 WORK DONE BY A CONSTANT FORCE 153

7.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we shall be concerned only with the mechanical form of
energy. We shall see that the concepts of work and energy can be applied to
the dynamics of a mechanical system without resorting to Newton's laws.
However, it is important to note that the work-energy concepts are based
upon Newton's laws and therefore do not involve any new physical principles.
Although the approach we shall use provides the same results as Newton's
laws in describing the motion of a mechanical system, the general ideas of the
work-energy concept can be applied to a wide range of phenomena in the
fields of electromagnetism and atomic and nuclear physics. In addition, in a
complex situation the "energy approach" can often provide a much simpler
analysis than the direct application of Newton's second law.
This alternative method of describing motion is especially useful when
the force acting on a particle is not constant. In this case, the acceleration is not
constant, and we cannot apply the simple kinematic equations we developed
in Chapter 3. Often, a particle in nature is subject to a force that varies with the
position of the particle. Such forces include gravitational forces and the force
exerted on a body attached to a spring. We shall describe techniques for
treating such systems with the help of an extremely important development
called the work-energy theorem, which is the central topic of this chapter.
We begin by defining work, a concept that provides a link between the
concepts of force and energy. In Chapter 8, we shall discuss the law of conser-
vation of energy and apply it to various problems.

7.2 WORK DONE RY A CONSTANT FORCE

Consider an object that undergoes a displacement s along a straight line under
the action of a constant force F, which makes an angle 6 with s, as in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7. 1 If an object undergoes
a displacement s, the work done by
The work done by the constant force is defined as the product of the
the force F is (F cos 8)s.
component of the force in the direction of the displacement and the
magnitude of the displacement.

Since the component of Fin the direction ofs is F cos 6, the work W done by F
is given by

W=(F cos 6)s (7.1) Work done by a constant force

According to this definition, work is done by F on an object under the

following conditions: (1) the object must undergo a displacement and (2) F
must have a nonzero component in the direction ofs. From the first condition,
we see that a force does no work on an object if the object does not move
(s = For example, if a person pushes against a brick wall, a force is exerted
0).
on the wall but the person does no work since the wall is fixed. However, the
person's muscles are contracting (undergoing displacement) in the process so
that internal energy is being used up. Thus, we see that the meaning of work in
physics is distinctly different from its meaning in day-to-day affairs. Likewise,
if you hold a weight at arm's length for some period of time, no work is done on

the weight (assuming no wiggling or oscillations of the arms). Even though you
must exert an upward force to support the weight, the work done by the force
154 CHAPTER 7 WORK AND ENERGY

is zero since the displacement is zero. After holding the weight for a long

period of time. your arms would tire and you would claim that the effort
required a considerable amount of "work."
From the second condition, note that the work done by a force is also zero
when the force is perpendicular to the displacement, since 0=90° and
cos 90 =0. For example, in Figure 7.2. both the work done by the normal
=

force and the work done by the force of gravity are zero since both forces are

»<g
perpendicular to the displacement and have zero components in the direction
f
of s.

Figure 7.2 When an object is dis- The sign of the work also depends on the direction of F relative to 8. The
placed horizontally on a rough sur- work done by the applied force is positive when the vector associated with the
face, the normal force. AT. and the
weight, mg. do no work The work component F cos is in the same direction as the displacement. For example,
done by F is (F cos 6)s. and the when an object is lifted, the work done by the applied force is positive since
work done by the frictional force the lifting force is upward, that is. in the same direction as the displacement. In
is—fs.
this situation, the work done by the gravitational force is negative. When the
vector associated with the component F cos 6 is in the direction opposite the
displacement. W
is negative The factor cos 6 that appears in the definition of

\Y automatically takes care of the sign.

A common example in which Wis negative is the work done by a frictional
force when a body slides over a rough surface. If the force of sliding friction is/,

and the body undergoes a linear displacement 8. the work done by the fric-

tional force is

Work done by a sliding

frictional force Wf =-fs (7.2)

where the negative sign comes from the fact that 0=18O ;
and
cos 180= =-1.
Finallv. if an applied force Facts along the direction of the displacement,
then 6=0. and cos = 1. In this case. Equation 7.1 gives

\V=Fi (7.3)

Work is a scalar quantity, and itsby length.

units are force multiplied
Therefore, the SI unit of work is the newton meter iN m). Another name
for the newton-meter is the joule (J). The units of work in the cgs and British
engineering systems are dyne cm. which is also called the erg. and ft lb.
respectively. These are summarized in Table 7.1. Note that 1 J = 10' ergs.
Since work is a scalar quantity we can combine the work done by each of
the separate forces to get the total work done. For instance, if there are three
forces contributing to the work done, there would be three terms in the sum.
each corresponding to the work done by a given force. The following example
illustrates this point.

TABLE 7.1 Units of Work in the Three Common Systems of Measurement

Svstem Unit of Work Name of Combined Unit

Does the weight lifter do any work SI newton-meter Nth joule (J)

as he holds the weight over his cgs dyne centimeter (dyne cm)
• • erg
head' Does he do anv work as he British engineering
raises the weight? E M. Brittan pound
,

Index Stock International) — conventional)

-
foot-pound (ft -lb) foot (ft -lb)
 .3 THE SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS 155

EXAMPLE 7.1 Dragging a Box Determine the net work done on the box by all
(c)

A box is dragged across a rough floor by a constant force forces acting on it.
of magnitude 50 N. The force makes an angle of 37° Since the normal force, N, and the force of gravity,
above the horizontal. A frictional force of 10 N retards mg, are both perpendicular to the displacement, they do
the motion, and the box is displaced a distance of 3 m to no work. Therefore, the net work done on the box is the
the right, (a) Calculate the work done by the 50-N force. sum of (a) and (b):
Using the definition of work (Equation 7.1) and
given that F = 50 N, 0=37°, and s = 3 m, W = WF +Wf = 120 J- 30 = 90
net J J

WF = (Fcos 0)s = (50 N)(cos 37°) (3 m)

Later we shall show that the net work done on the
= 120N-m= body equals the change in its kinetic energy, which es-
120 J
tablishes the physical significance of W net .

The vertical component of F does no work.

Exercise Find the net work done on the box if it is
1

(b) Calculate the work done by the frictional force. pulled a distance of 3m with a horizontal force of 50 N,
assuming the frictional force is 15 N.
W/ =-/s = (-10N)(3m) 30 N -30 J
Answer 105 J.

7.3 THE SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS

We have defined work as a scalar quantity given by the product of the magni-
tude of the displacement and the component of the force in the direction of the
displacement. It is convenient to express Equation 7.1 in terms of a scalar
product of the two vectors F and s. We write this scalar product F s. Because •

of the dot symbol used, the scalar product is often called the dot product. Thus,
we can express Equation 7.1 as a scalar product:

W=F •
s = F s cos (7.4) Work expressed as a dot
product
In other words, F •
s (read "F dot s") is a shorthand notation for F s cos 6.

In general, the scalar product of any two vectors A and B is defined as a

scalar quantity equal to the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors
and the cosine of the angle 6 that is included between the directions of A
andB.
That is, the scalar product (or dot product) of A and B is defined by the relation

A B = AB cos
•
6 (7.5) Scalar product of any two
vectors A and B
where 6 is the angle between A and B, as in Figure 7.3, A is the magnitude of A,
and B is the magnitude of B. Note that A and B need not have the same units.

Figure 7.3 The scalar product

A B equals the magnitude of A
multiplied by the projection of
B onto A.
 > ' 3

156 CHAPTER 7 WORK AND ENERGY

B cos 6 is the projection of B onto A. Therefore, the defini-

In Figure 7.3
A B as given by Equation 7.5 can be considered as the product of the
tion of
magnitude of A and the projection of B onto A. From Equation 7.5 we also see 1

that the scalar product is commutative. That is.

The order of the dot product A B=B A (7.6)

can be reversed
Finally, the scalar product obeys the distributive law of multiplication, so that

A (B + C) =A B~A C

The dot product is simple to evaluate from Equation 7.5 when A is either
perpendicular or parallel to B. If A is perpendicular to B {8 = 90'). then
A B=0.Also.A B = in the more trivial case when either A or Bis zero. If
•

A and B point in the same direction [6 = ). then A B = AB. If A and B point =

in opposite directions [0= 180°). then A-B = — AB. The scalar product is
negative when 90° < 6< 1S0
;
.

The unit vectors i.j. and Jt. which were defined in Chapter 2. lie in the
positiv e x. y. and z directions, respectively, of a right-handed coordinate
system. Therefore, it follows from the definition of A B that the scalar prod-
ucts of these unit vectors are given by

i i =j j = k k = 1
Dot products of unit vectors
i j = i k=j- Jt = (7.8b)

Two vectors A and B can be expressed in component form as

A = AJ - AJ - A.k
B = B + BJ + B k zi z

Therefore Equations 7.8a and 7.8b reduce the scalar product of A and B to

A B = AA + .\B y + A.B._ (-.9)

In the special case where A = B. we see that

A A = Ax 2 + Af + AJ = A 2
1
This is equivalent to stating that A B equals the product of the magnitude of B and the
projection of A onto B.

EXAMPLE 7.2 The Scalar Product where we have used the fact that i j=ji = 0. The
The vectors A and B are given by A = 2i + 3j and same result is obtained using Equation 7.9 directly,

B = —i+ 2j. (a) Determine the scalar product A B where Ax = 2, A, = 3, Bx = — 1, and B9 = 2

A B = (2i + 3/) -(—«' + 2j)

• (b) Find the angle d between A and B.
,. ,. „. .,„. ,. The magnitudes of A and B are given bv
2j — 3| f + 3j
,.
= — 2i i + 2t •
.
•
2j
A = ^AJ + AJ = M2 2 - 1
3 2 = n 1

= -2 + 6= 4 B= % B, 2 +B2= n (- 1)
2 + (2)
2 = % 5
 7.4 WORK DONE BY A VARYING FORCE: THE ONE- DIMENSIONAL CASE 157

Using Equation 7.5 and the result from (a) gives

s = Jx 2 + y
2 = V(2) 2 + (3)
2 = vT3m
A B 4 4
6=
'

cos F= n/Fx 2 +F2= V(5) 2 + (2)

2 = V29N
AB Vl3V5 V65

(b) Calculate the work done by the force F.

~1 = 60r
COS Substituting the expressions for F and 8 into Equa-
^06 tion 7.4 and using Equation 7.8, we get

W= F s = (5i + 2j) (2i + 3j) N m •

EXAMPLE 7.3 Work Done by a Constant Force

= 5i + = N m=
•
2i 2j •
3/ 16 16 J
A particle mov ing in the xy plane undergoes a displace-
ment = s (2i + 3j) m while a constant force given by
F = (5t + 2/) N acts on the particle, (a) Calculate the Exercise 2 Calculate the angle between Fand s.

magnitude of the displacement and the force. Answer 34.5°.

7.4 WORK DONE BY A VARYING FORCE:

THE ONE-DIMENSIONAL CASE
Consider an object being displaced along the x axis under the action of a Area = A A = Fx Ax
varying force, as in Figure 7.4. The object is displaced along the x axis from
x = Xj to x = x ( . In such a situation, we cannot use W = (F cos 6)s to calculate
the work done by the force, since this relationship applies only when F is
constant in magnitude and direction. However, if we imagine that the object
undergoes a very small displacement Ax, described in Figure 7.4a, then the x
component of the force, Fx is approximately constant over this interval and we
,

can express the work done by the force for this small displacement as

AW = F I Ax (7.10)

This is just the area of the Figure 7.4a. If we imagine that

shaded rectangle in
the Fz versus x curve is divided into a large number of such intervals, as in
Figure 7.4a, then the total work done for the displacement from x to xf is {

approximately equal to the sum of a large number of such terms:

W= J F x Ax

If thedisplacements are allowed to approach zero, then the number of terms in

the sum
increases without limit, but the value of the sum approaches a definite
value equal to the true area under the curve bounded by Fx and the x axis. As Figure 7.4 (a) The work done by
you probably have learned in the calculus, this limit of the sum is called an the force F, for the small displace-
ment Ax is Fj Ax, which equals the
integral and is represented by area of the shaded rectangle. The
total work done for the displace-
ment from x, to if is approximately
2* Ax= I Fx dx equal to the sum of the areas of all
the rectangles, (b) The work done
The on the integral, x = x to x = x f define what is called a definite
limits {
,
by the variable force F, as the parti-
cle moves from x to Xf is exactly
integral. (An indefinite integral represents the limit of a sum over an unspeci- i

equal to the area under this curve.

fied interval. Appendix B.7 gives a brief description of integration.) This defi-
nite integral is numerically equal to the area under the Fx versus x curve
between x and xf Therefore, we can express the work done by Fx for the
f
.

displacement of the object from x to x f as f

158 CHAPTER 7 WORK AND ENERGY

w Fr dx (7.11)
-r
This equation reduces to Equation 7.1 when Fx = F cos 8 is constant.
more than one force acts on the object, the total work done is just the
If
work done by the resultant force. If we express the resultant force in the x
direction as SFr in the x direction, then the net work done as the object moves
from ij to x ( is

U"„
"/» dx (7.12)

EXAMPLE 7.4 FX (N)

A force acting on an object varies with x as shown in
Figure 7.5. Calculate the work done by the force as the
object moves from i = 0toi=6m.

Solution The work done by the force is equal to the total

area under the curve from x = to x = 6 m. This area is

equal to the area of the rectangular section from x = Figure 7.5 (Example 7.4) The force acting on a particle is
to x = 4 m plus the area of the triangular section constant for the first 4 m of motion and then decreases linearly
from i = 4ratoi = 6m. The area of the rectangle is
with x from i =
4mtoi = 6ra. The net work done by this force
is the area under this curve.
(4)(5) N m= 20 J, and the area of the triangle is

equal to |(2)(5) N •
m= 5 J. Therefore, the total work
done is 25 J.

Work Done by a Spring

A common physical system for which the force varies with position is shown in
Figure 7.6. A body on a horizontal, smooth surface is connected to a helical
spring. If the spring is stretched or compressed a small distance from its

unstretched, or equilibrium, configuration, the spring will exert a force on the

body given by

Spring force F =-kx (7.13)

where x is the displacement of the body from its unstretched (x = 0) position

and k is As we
a positive constant called the force constant of the spring.
learned Chapter 5, this force law for springs is known as Hooke's law. Note
in
that Hooke's law is only valid in the limiting case of small displacements. The
value of A: is a measure of the stiffness of the spring. Stiff springs have large k
values, and soft springs have small k values.
The negative sign in Equation 7.13 signifies that the force exerted by the
spring is always directed opposite the displacement. For example, when x >
as in Figure 7.6a, the spring force is to the left, or negative. When x < as in
Figure 7.6c, the spring force is to the right, or positive. Of course, when x =
as in Figure 7.6b, the spring is unstretched and Fs = 0. Since the spring force
always acts toward the equilibrium position, it is sometimes called a restoring
force. Once the mass is displaced some distance ,r m from equilibrium and then
 7.-1 WORK DONE BY A VARYING FORCE: THE ONE-DIMENSIONAL CASE 159

o F,
I
is

is
positive
negative

Figure 7.6 The force of a spring on a block varies with the block's displacement from the
equilibrium position x = 0. (a) When i is positive (stretched spring), the spring force is to the left.
(b) When i is zero, the spring force is zero (natural length of the spring), (c) When i is negative
(compressed.spring). the spring force is to the right, (d) Graph ofFs versus x for systems described
above. The work done by the spring force as the block moves from — i m to is the area of the

shaded triangle, |kr m 2.

released, it will move from — x m through zero to +x m The details of the

.

ensuing oscillating motion will be given in Chapter 13.

Suppose that the block is pushed to the left a distance x m from equilib-
rium, as in Figure 7.6c, and then released. Let us calculate the work done by
the springforce as the body moves from x = — x m to x { = 0. Applying Equation
{

7.11. we get
luO CHAPTER 7 WORK AND ENERGY

Work done h\ ,i sprinu W=M I F,dx= I (-Jbc)it = ifcc 111

2
(1 ,14a)

That is. the work done by the spring force is positive since the spring force is in

the same direction as the displacement (both are to the right). However, if we
consider the work done by the spring force as the body moves from x = to s

x f = x m we find that
.
t W
= — ^kx m 2 since for this part of the motion, the dis-
.

placement is to the right and the spring force is to the left. Therefore, the net
work done by the spring force as the body moves from x {
= — xm to x f = x m is
zero.
If plot F versus i as in Figure 7.6d. we arrive at the same results. Note
we s

that the work calculated in Equation 7.14a is equal to the area of the shaded
triangle in Figure 7.6d. with base x m and height /cx m The area of this triangle is .

^kxj2 the work done by the spring. Equation 7.14a.

.

If the mass undergoes an arbitrary displacement from x = x to x

{
=x f, the
work done by the spring force is given by

W = (- far) dx = ifati 2 - ifac 2 f

(7.14b)

From we see that the work done is zero for any motion that ends
this equation,
where began (Xj = x f). We shall make use of this important result in describ-
it

ing the motion of this system in more detail in the next chapter.
Now let us consider the work done by an external agent in stretching a
spring very slowly from x = to x f = x m as in Figure 7.7. This work can be
{
,

easily calculated by noting that the applied force. F^p is equal to and opposite .

the spring force, Fs at any value of the displacement, so that

.
= F^
— (—fat) = far. Therefore, the work done by this applied force (the external
agent) is given by
Figure 7.7 A block being pulled
on a frietionless surface
to the right
by a force F^
from i = to x = NV = kx dx = Ux 2

xm . the process is carried out

If
very slowly, the applied force is
You should note that this work is equal to the negative of the work done by the
equal and opposite to the spring
force at all times. spring force for this displacement.

EXAMPLE 7.5 The Spring Force Does Work EXAMPLE 7.6 Measuring it for a Spring
A block lying on a smooth, horizontal surface is con- A common technique used to measure the force constant
nected to a spring with a force constant of 80 N/m. The of a spring described in Figure 7.S. The spring is hung
is

spring is compressed a distance of 3.0 cm from equilib- vertically as in Figure 7.8a. A body of mass m is
shown
rium Figure 7.6c. Calculate the work done by the
as in then attached to the lower end of the spring as in Figure
spring force as the block moves from Xj = — 3.0 cm to its 7.8b. The spring stretches a distance d from its equilib-
unstretched position. x f = 0. rium position under the action of the "load" mg. Since
the spring force is upward, it must balance the weight mg
Solution Using Equation 7.14a with x m = — 3.0 cm = downward when the system is at rest. In this case, we can
-3X 10-2 m, we get apply Hookes law to give |FS = kd = mg. |

=
-«K) (-3X 10"
\V. 2
Ifcx
igjd

3.6 X lO- 2 J
 7.5 WORK AND KINETIC ENERGY 161

EXAMPLE 7.7 Work Done in Moving a Car

A sports car on a horizontal surface is pushed by a hori-
zontal force that varies with position according to the
graph shown in Figure 7.9. Determine an approximate
value for the total work done in moving the car from
x = to x = 20 m.

Solution We can obtain the result from the graph by

dividing the total displacement into many small displace-
ments. For simplicity, we choose to divide the total dis-
placement into ten consecutive displacements, each 2 m
in length, as shown in Figure 7.9. The work done during
each small displacement is approximately equal to the
area of the dotted rectangle. For example, the work done
(b) c
for the first displacement, from x = to i = 2 m, is the
a
area of the smallest rectangle, (2 m)(5 N) = 10 J; the
Figure 7.8 (Example 7.6) Determination of the force constant work done for the second displacement, from x = 2 m to
of a helical spring. The elongation d of the spring is due to the x = 4 m, is the area of the second rectangle, equal to
weight trig. Since the spring force upward balances the weight,
(2 m)(12 N) = 24 J. Continuing in this fashion, we get
it follows that h = tng/d.
the areas indicated in Figure 7.9, the sum of which gives
the total work done from x = to x = 20 m. This result is
For example, if a spring is stretched a distance of 2.0 cm
bv a mass of 0.55 kg, the force constant of the spring is W total
- 442 J

mg_ (0.55 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 )

2.7 X 10 2 N/m
The accuracy of the result will of course improve as the

2.0 X 10- 2 m widths of the intervals are made smaller.

Figure 7.9 (Example 7.7) A graph of force versus po-

sition for a car moving along the x axis. The numbers
within the rectangles represent the work done (area of
rectangle) during that interval.
162 CHAPTER 7 WORK AND ENERGY

However, in Chapter 3 we found that the following relationships are valid

when a particle undergoes constant acceleration:

s = ^(tj + cj)f az = —
where a-, is the velocity at t = and t f is the velocity at time f . Substituting
these expressions into Equation 7.15 gives

^ ) ifo + «%)*

imcf (7.16)

The product of one half the mass and the square of the speed is defined as
the kinetic energy of the particle.

That is. the kinetic energy. K. of a particle of mass m and speed c is defined as

Kinetic energy is energy K = imv 2 (7.17)

associated with the motion of
a bod\ Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity and has the same units as work. For
example, a 1-kg mass moving with a speed of 4.0 m s has a kinetic energy of
8.0 J. Table 7.2 lists the kinetic energies for various objects. We can think of
kinetic energy as energy associated with the motion of a body. It is often
convenient to write Equation 7.16

Work-enerev theorem Kf -K = AK
i (7.18)

TABLE 7.2 Kinetic Energies for Various Objects

Object
 :

7.5 WORK AND KINETIC ENERGY 163

That is,

the work done by the resultant constant force F in displacing a particle Work done on a particle
equals the change in kinetic energy of the particle. equals the change in its
kinetic energy
The change here means the final minus the initial value of the kinetic energy.
Equation 7.18 is an important result known as the work-energy theorem.
This theorem was derived for the case where the force is constant, but we can
show that it is valid even when the force is varying: If the resultant force acting
on a body in the x direction is 2FX then Newton's second law states that
,

1FZ = ma. Thus, we can use Equation 7.12 and express the net work done as

W~.= f(E Fx)^ = '

mCldX
J
Because the resultant force varies with x, the acceleration and velocity also
depend on x. We can now use the following chain rule to evaluate ne W ,

dv _ dv dx dv
dt dx dt dx~

Substituting this into the expression for W gives

W„, = r mv dv
dt
dx = r mv dv =
a -j- I $niV(2 — \-rnv? (7.19)
Jx, dx J Vl

The limits of the integration were changed because the variable was changed
from x to v.
The work-energy theorem given by Equation 7 1 8 is also valid in the more .

general case when the force varies in direction and magnitude while the
particle moves along an arbitrary curved path in three dimensions. In this
situation, we express the work as

W =
F ds (7.20) General expression for work
f done by a force F

where the limits and f represent the initial and final coordinates of the
i

particle. The integral given by Equation 7.20 is called a line integral. Because
the infinitesimal displacement vector can by expressed as ds = dxi 4-
dyj + dzk and because F = Fx i + F j + Fz k, Equation 7.20 reduces to

W (F, dx + Fy dy + Fz dz) (7.21)

This is the general expression that is used to calculate the work done by a force
when a particle undergoes a displacement from the point with coordinates
(Xj, i/j, zj to the point with coordinates (x f , i/
f, z f).
Thus, we conclude that

the work done on a particle by the resultant force acting on it is equal to Work can be positive,
the change in the kinetic energy of the particle. negative, or zero
164 CHAPTER 7 WORK AND ENERGY

The work-energy theorem also says that the speed of the particle will increase
(K f > Kj) if the net work done on it is positive, whereas its speed will decrease
(K f < Kj) if the net work done on it is negative. That is. the speed and kinetic-
energy of a particle will change only if work is done on the particle by the net
external force. Because of this connection between work and change in kinetic
energy, we can also think of the kinetic energy of a body as the work the body
can do in coming to rest.

EXAMPLE 7.8 A Block Pulled on a Smooth Surface Exercise 3 Find the acceleration of the block, and de-
A 6-kg block pulled to the right along a
initially at rest is termine the final speed of the block using the kinematic
horizontal smooth surface by a constant, horizontal force equation if 2 = i; 2 + 2as.
of 12 N. as in Figure 7.10a. Find the speed of the block Answer a = 2 m/s 2 Of = 3.46 m/s. ;

after it moves a distance of 3 m.

Solution The weight is balanced by the normal force, EXAMPLE A Block Pulled on a Rough Surface
7.9
and neither of these forces does work since the displace- Find the finalspeed of the block described in Example
ment is horizontal. Since there is no friction, the result- 7.8 if the surface is rough and the coefficient of kinetic-
ant external force is the 12-N force. The work done by friction is 0.15.
this force is
Solution In this case, we must calculate the net work
WF = Fs = (12 N)(3m) = 36 N •
m = 36 J
done on the block, which equals the sum of the work
Using the work-energy theorem and noting that the done by the applied 1 2-N force and the factional force/,
initial kinetic energy is zero, we get as inFigure 7. 10b. Since the frictional force opposes the
displacement, the work this force does is negative. The
WF =K -K { i
= imv { 2
magnitude of the frictional force is given by /= /A" =
,_2WF _ 2(36J) 12 m 2 /s 2 umg. therefore, the work done by this force is this force
tf
m 6 kg multiplied by the displacement (see Eq. 7.2) or

W, -fa
= -nmgs = 2
(-0.15K6 kg)(9.80 m/s )(3 m)
if = 3.46 m/s
= -26.5 J

Therefore, the net work done on the block is

u net = Wr + U>= 36.0 J

- 26.5 J
= 9.50 J

Applying the work-energy theorem with Oj = gives

\Vnet = \mi( 2

°r*
, 2\Y.
:
—m
19
6
2/2i
z
/s-

i f = 1.78 m/s

Exercise 4 Find the acceleration of the block from

Newton's second law. and determine the final speed of
the block using kinematics.
Answer a = 0.530 m/s 2 Vf= 1.78 m/s.
;

EXAMPLE 7.10 A Mass-Spring System

A block of mass kg is attached to a spring with a force
1 .6

constant of 10 3 m. as in Figure 7.6. The spring is com-

N
pressed a distance of 2.0 cm and the block is released
Figure 7.10 (a) Example 7.8. (b) Example 7.S from rest, (a) Calculate the speed of the block as it passes
 7.5 WORK AND KINETIC ENERGY 165

through the equilibrium position x = 0, if the surface is

frietionless.
Using Equation 7.14a, the work done by the spring
with* =-2.0 cm = -2 X 10~ 2 m is

W s
= ±kx m 2 = U 10 3 — I (-2X 10- 2 m) 2 = 0.20J
m/
Using the work-energy theorem with v t
= gives

\VS = |mf f 2 - £m©,2

0.20 J
= |(1.6 kg)«f 2 -0
„*_ 04 J 0.25 m 2 /s 2
1.6 kg

if= 0.50 m/s

(b) Calculate the speed of the block as it passes

through the equilibrium position if a constant frictional
force of 4.0 N retards its motion.
The work done by the frictional force for a displace-
ment of 2 X 10 -2 m is given by
Figure 7.11 (Example 7.11) A block is pushed up a rough
W/ =-/s = -(4N)(2X 10- 2
m) = -0.08 J
incline by a constant force F.

The net work done on the block is the work done by the
where h = d sin 6 is the vertical displacement. That is,
spring plus the work done by friction. In part (a), we
the work done by gravity has a magnitude equal to the
found W s
= 0.20 J, therefore
force of gravity multiplied by the upward vertical dis-
W net
= W, + Wf = 0.20 J
- 0.08 J
= 0.12 J
placement. In the next chapter, we shall show that this
result is valid in general for any particle displaced be-
Applying the work-energy theorem gives
tween two points. Furthermore, the result is indepen-
iroV = W net
dent of the path taken between these points.

i(1.6kg)t f 2 = 0.12J (b) Calculate the work done by the applied force F.
Since F is in the same direction as the displacement,
0.24 J
v{ * = 0.15m 2 /s 2 we get
1.6 kg

WF =F- s = Fd
Df= 0.39 m/s
(c) Find the work done by the force of kinetic fric-
Note that this value for Vf is less than that obtained in the tion if the coefficient of friction is//.
frietionless case. Is this result sensible? The magnitude of the force of friction is fiN = f=
fling cos 6. Since the direction of this force is opposite the
direction of the displacement, we find that
EXAMPLE 7.11 Block Pushed Along an Incline
A block of mass m is pushed up a rough incline by a
constant force Facting parallel to the incline, as in Figure
Wf= —fd = —fimgd cos 6
7.11a. The block is displaced a distance d up the incline.
(d) Find the net work done on the block for this
(a) Calculate the work done by the force of gravity for
displacement.
this displacement.
Using the results to (a), (b), and (c), we get
The force of gravity is downward but has a compo-
nent down the plane. This is given by — mg sin 8 if the w Btt
= wt + wF +wf
positive x direction is chosen to be up the plane (Figure
7.1 lb). Therefore, the work done by gravity for
= — mgd sin 9 + Fd — fiingd cos 6
the dis-
placement d is

W g
= (— mg sin 0)d = — mgh "„, Fd — mgd (sin 6 + ft cos 8)
166 CHAPTER 7 WORK AND ENERGY

For example, if we take F= 15 N, d = 1.0 m, = 25°, this frictional force, —fd, must equal the change in ki-

m= 1.5 kg, .mil // = 0.30, we find that netic energy of the automobile. Since the kinetic energy
has a final value of zero and an initial value of jrnt; 2 ,
Wg = — (mg sin 0)d we get
Wf =Kf-Ki
= -(1.5 kg) (9.80||) (sin25°)(1.0m)
-fd = - im» 2
= -6.2 J
mv 2
w
.

WF =F</= (15 N)(l m) = 15 J

d=
Wy= —fitngd cos 6
If we assume /is the same for the two initial speeds, we
= -(0.30)(1.5 kg) ( 9.80 ™ (1.0 m)(cos 25°
can take m and f as constants. Therefore, the ratio of
J stopping distances is given by

= -4.0J
W =Wg +WF +W/ =4.8J
net

Taking i\ = 48 km/h, v 2 = 96 km/h, and d l

= 40 m gives
EXAMPLE 7.12 Minimum Stopping Distance d.
An automobile traveling at 48 km/h can be stopped in a h \48/
minimum distance of 40 m by applying the brakes. If the
same automobile is traveling at 96 km/h, what is the
d2 = Ad = 4(40 m) = 160 m
minimum stopping distance? l

Solution We shall when the brakes are ap-

assume that This shows that the minimum stopping distance varies as
plied, the car does not To get the minimum stop-
skid. the square of the ratio of speeds. If the speed is doubled,
ping distance, d, we take the frictional force /between as it is in this example, the distance increases by a factor
the tires and road to be a maximum. The work done by of 4.

7.6 POWER
From a practical viewpoint, it is interesting to know not only the work done on
an object, but also the rate at which the work isbeing done. Power is defined as
the time rate of energy transfer.
If an external forceapplied to an object, and if the work done by this
is

force is A Win the time interval At,

then the average power during this interval
is defined as the ratio of the work done to the time interval:

Average power
AW
(7.22)
Af

According to the work-energy theorem, this work done on the object contrib-
utes to increasing the energy of the object, so we can also say that power is the
time rate of energy transfer. The instantaneous power, P, is the limiting value
of the average power as Af approaches zero:

lim
AW
— — = —dW
j— (7.23)
A<— At at
 7.6 POWER 167

From Equation 7.4, we can express the work done by a force F for a
displacement ds, since d W = F-ds. Therefore, the instantaneous power can
be written

P
=dE= F A Fv (7.24) Instantaneous power
dt dt

where we have used the fact that v = ds/dt.

The unit of power in the SI system is J/s, which is also called a watt, W
(after James Watt):

1 W=l J/s=l kg-m 2 /s 3 The watt

The symbol W
for watt should not be confused with the symbol for work.
The unit of power in the British engineering system is the horsepower
(hp), where

1 hp = 550ft-lb/s = 746W
A new unit of energy (or work) can now be defined in terms of the unit of
power. One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the energy converted or consumed in 1 h
at the constant rate of 1 kW. The numerical value of 1 kWh is

1 kWh = (10 3 W)(3600 s) = 3.6 X 10 6 J

It is important to realize that a kWh is a unit of energy, not power. When

you pay your electric bill, you are buying energy, and the amount of electricity
used is usually in multiples of kWh. For example, an electric bulb rated at
100 W would "consume" 3.6 X 10 5 J of energy in 1 h.
Although the W
and the kWh are commonly used only in electrical appli-
cations, they can be used in other scientific areas. For example, an automobile
engine can be rated in kW as well as in hp. Likewise, the power consumption of
an electrical appliance can be expressed in hp.

EXAMPLE 7.13 Power Delivered by an Elevator

Motor
An elevator has a mass of 1 000 kg and carries a maximum
load of 800 kg. A constant frictional force of 4000 N
retards its motion upward, Figure 7.12. (a) What
as in
must be the minimum power delivered by the motor to
lift the elevator at a constant speed of 3 m/s?

The motor must supply the force T that pulls the

elevator upward. From Newton's second law and from
the fact that a = since t> is constant, we get

T-f-Mg =
A/g
where M is the total mass (elevator plus load), equal to
1800 kg. Therefore,
Figure 7.12 (Example 7.13) A motor provides a force Tup-
T = f+Mg ward on the elevator. A frictional force/and the total weight Mg
act downward.
= 4 X 10 3 N + (1.8 X 10 3 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 )
= 2.16X10 4 N
168 CHAPTER 7 WORK AND ENERGY

Using Equation 7.24 and the fact that T is in the same T= M(a +g)+f
direction as v gives

P=T-v=Tv
= (1 g y 1Q3 kg)(1

= 2.34X10 4 N
Q + g g()) ^ + 4 x 1Q3 N

(2.16 X 10 4 N)(3 m/s) = 6.49 X 10 4 W Therefore, using Equation 7.24 we get for the required
power
64.9 kW= 87.0 hp

/Lx«n.x 4i- P=Tt; = (2.34X10 4 u)W

(b) What power must*u. the motor deliver at any in- '

stant if it is designed to provide an upward acceleration , . , .

,.._,„„ where u is the instantaneous speed
r ot the elevator in m/s.
.

ofl.Om/s 2 )
!
u ., . , . ... .
.'
. ,. -. . , ji .i . , . Hence, the power required increases with increasing
Applying Newton s second law to the elevator gives A
T-/-Mg = Ma

"7.7 ENERGY AND THE AUTOMOBILE

Automobiles powered by gasoline engines are known to be very inefficient
machines. Even under ideal conditions, less than 15% of the available energy
in the fuel is used to power the vehicle. The situation is much worse under
stop-and-go driving in the city. The purpose of this section is to use the
concepts of energy, power, and forces of friction to analyze some factors that
affect automobile fuel consumption.
There are many mechanisms that contribute to the energy losses in a
2
typical automobile. About two thirds of the energy available from the fuel is
lost in the engine. Part of this energy ends up in the atmosphere via the exhaust
system, and part is used in the engine's cooling system. As we shall see in
Chapter 22, the large power loss in the exhaust and cooling system is not easy
to overcome because of some fundamental laws of thermodynamics. About
10% of the available energy is lost in the automobile's drive-train mechanism;
this loss includes friction in the transmission, drive shaft, wheel and axle
bearings, and differential. Friction in other moving parts such as in the motor
dissipates about 6% of the energy, and 4% of the available energy is used to
operate fuel and oil pumps and such accessories as power steering, air condi-
tioning, power brakes, and electrical components. Finally, about 14% of the
available energy is used to propel the automobile. This energy is used mainly
to overcome road friction and air resistance.
Table 7.3 lists the power losses for an automobile with an available fuel
power of 136 kW. These data apply to a typical 1 450-kg "gas-guzzler" with a
gas consumption rate of 15 liters per 100 km (about 15 mi/gal).
Let us examine the power requirements to overcome road friction and air
drag in more detail. The coefficient of rolling friction [i between the tires and
the road is about 0.016. For a 1 450-kg car, the weight is 14 200 N and the
force of rolling friction is/iN = /iW = 227 N. As the speed of the car increases,
there is a small reduction in the normal force as a result of a reduction in air
pressure as air flows over the top of the car. This causes a slight reduction in the
force of rolling friction fr with increasing speed, as shown in Table 7.4.
Now let us consider the effect of air friction, that is, the drag force that
results from air moving past the various surfaces of the car. The drag force

2An excellent article on this subject is the one by G. Waring in The Physics Teacher, Vol. 18
(1980), p. 494. The data in Tables 7.3 and 7.4 were taken from this article.
 °7.7 ENERGY AND THE AUTOMOBILE 169

Power Loss (kW)

1 70 CHAPTER 7 WORK AND ENERGY

This can be broken into two parts: (1) the power needed to overcome road
friction, fT v, and (2) the power needed to overcome air drag,
fa v. At
v = 26.8 m/s, these have the values

=/ o = (218N) kW
Pr r
Hi) 5.8

P.=/au = (465N) 26. = 12.5kW

Note that P = P + Pa
r
.

On the other hand, at t>= 44.7 m/s, we find that Pr = 9.0kW, Pa =

57.8 kW, and P= 66.8 kW. This shows the importance of air drag at high
speeds.

EXAMPLE 7.14 Gas Consumed by Compact Car 2.2 X 10 8 J

A compact car has a mass of 800 kg, and its efficiency = 62 kW
is
3.6 X 10 3 s
rated at 1 4%. (That is, 1 4% of the available fuel energy is
delivered to the wheels.) Find the amount of gasoline Since 14% of the available power is used to propel the
used to accelerate the car from rest to 60 mi/h (27 m/s). car, we see that the power delivered to the wheels is
Use the fact that the energy equivalent of one gallon of (0.14)(62kW) = 8.7kW. This is about one half the

gasoline is 1.3 X 10 s value obtained for the large 1 450-kg car discussed in the
J.
text. Size is clearly an important factor in power-loss
Solution The energy required to accelerate the car from mechanisms.
rest to a speed v is its kinetic energy, %mv 2 For this case, .

EXAMPLE 7.16 Car Accelerating Up a Hill

E = \mv* = £(800 kg) («?)' 2.9 X 10 5 J Consider a car of mass m accelerating up a hill, as in
Figure 7.13. Assume that the magnitude of the drag
If the engine were 100% efficient, each gallon of gaso- force is given by
line would supply an energy 1.3 X 10 8 J. Since the en-
gine is only 14% efficient, each gallon delivers only |/|= (218 + 0.70u 2 ) N
(0.14)(1.3X 10 J) 8 = 1.8X10 7 J. Hence, the number where v is the speed in m/s. Calculate the power that the
of gallons used to accelerate the car is engine must deliver to the wheels.

= 2.9 X 1Q5 J Solution The forces on the car are shown in Figure 7.13,
Number of gal 0.016 gal
1.8 X IO 7 J/gal where F is the force of static friction that propels the car
and the remaining forces have their usual meaning.
At this rate, a gallon of gas would be used after 62 such
Newton's second law applied to the motion along the
accelerations. This demonstrates the severe energy re-
road surface gives
quirements for extreme stop-and-start driving.
2Pr = F — |/| — mg sin 6 = ma
EXAMPLE Power Delivered
F = ma + mg sin 6 + |/|
7.15 to Wheels
Suppose the car described in Example 7.14 has a mileage = ma + mg sin 6 + (218 + 0.70u 2 )
rating of 35 mi/gal when traveling at 60 mi/h. How much
power is delivered to the wheels?

Solution From the given data, we see that the car con-
sumes 60/35 =1.7 gal/h. Using the fact that each gallon
is equivalent to 1 .3 X 10 8 J, we find that the total power
used is

(1.7 gal/h)(1.3X10 8 J/gal)

3.6X10 3 s/h Figure 7.13 (Example 7.16).
 7.8 RELATIVISTIC KINETIC ENERGY 171

Therefore, the power required for propulsion is mva = (1450 kg)(27 m/s)(l m/s 2 )

P= Fv = mva + mvg sin 6 + 2 18« + 0.70t 3 = 39 kW = 52 hp

In this expression, the term mva represents the power mvg sin 6= (1450 kg)(27 m/s)(9.80 m/s 2 )(sin 10°)
the engine must deliver to accelerate the car. If the car = kW = 89 hp
67
moves at constant speed, this term is zero and the power
requirement is reduced. The term mvg sin 6 is the power 218u = 218(27) = 5.9 kW = 7.9 hp
required to overcome the force of gravity as the car
0.70c 3 = 0.70(27) 3 = 14 kW = 18 hp
moves up the incline. This term would be zero for motion
on a horizontal surface. The term 218c is the power re- Hence, the total power required is 126 kW, or 167 hp.
quired to counterbalance rolling friction. Finally, the Note that the power requirements for traveling at con-
term O.TOi: 3 is the power needed to overcome air drag. stant speed on a horizontal surface are only 20 kW, or
If we take m = 1450 kg, o = 27 m/s (= 60 mi/h), 26 hp (the sum of the last two terms). Furthermore, if the
a = 1 m/s 2 , and 6 = 1 the various terms in P are calcu-
° , mass is halved (as in compact cars), the power required is
lated to be also reduced by almost the same factor.

°7.S RELATIVISTIC KINETIC ENERGY

The laws of Newtonian mechanics are only valid for describing the motion of
particles moving at speeds that are small compared with the speed of light,
c(~ 3 X 1 8 m/s) When the particle speeds are comparable to c, the equations
.

of Newtonian mechanics must be replaced by the more general equations

predicted by the theory of relativity. One consequence of the theory of rela-
tivity is that the kinetic energy of a particle of mass m moving with a speed v is
no longer given by K = mv 2 /2. Instead, one must use the relativistic form of
the kinetic energy given by

w f,2
) (7.27) Relativistic kinetic energy
\Jl-(v/c) 2 /

According to this expression, speeds greater than c are not allowed since K
would be imaginary for v> c. Furthermore, as v approaches c, K approaches
00 This is consistent with experimental observations on subatomic particles
.

such as electrons and protons, which have shown that no particles travel at
speeds greater than c. (That is, c is the ultimate speed.) From the point of view
of the work-energy theorem, o can only approach c, since it would take an
infinite amount of work to attain the speed v = c.
All formulas in the theory of relativity must reduce to those in Newtonian
mechanics at low particle speeds. It is instructive to show that this is the case
for the kinetic energy relation by analyzing Equation 7.27 when t; is small
compared to c. In this case, we expect that K should reduce to the Newtonian
expression, K = mv 2 /2. We can check this by using the binomial expansion
applied to the quantity [1 — (t>/c) 2 -1/2 with v/c <: 1. If we let x = (v/c) 2 the
]
, ,

expansion gives

1
l+^- + ^i 2 +
(I-*) 1
2 8
172 CHAPTER 7 WORK AND ENERGY

Making use of this expansion in Equation 7.27 gives

1
ic-
M
2 j.
3
c2

V*
8 c4

4_

for - <C 1
c

Thus, we see that the relativistie kinetic energy expression does indeed reduce
to the Newtonian expression for speeds that are small compared with c. We
shall return to the subject of relativity in more depth in Chapter 39.

SUMMARY
The work done by a constant force F acting on a particle is defined as the
product of the component of the force in the direction of the particle's
displacement and the magnitude of the displacement. If the force makes an
angle 6 with the displacement 8, the work done by F is

Work done by a constant force W = Fs cos d (7.1)

The scalar, or dot, product of any two vectors A and B is defined by the
relationship

Scalar product A B = AB cos (7.5)

where the result is a scalar quantity and 6 is the included angle between the
directions of the two vectors. The obeys the commutative
scalar product
and distributive laws.
The work done by a vanjing force acting on a particle moving along the
x axis from x to x f is given by
t

Work done by a varying force W= Fr dx (7.11)

"I
where Fx is the component of force in the x direction. If there are several
forces acting on the particle, the net work done by all forces is the sum of the
individual work done by each force.
The kinetic energy of a particle of mass m moving with a speed v (where
v is small compared with the speed of light) is defined as

Kinetic energy K = hnv 2 (7.17)

The work-energy theorem states that the net work done on a particle
by external forces equals the change in kinetic energy of the particle:

Work-energy theorem W net

=K [ -K = imv? - imu,
i
2
(7.18)
 QUESTIONS 173

The instantaneous power is defined as the time rate of doing work. If an

agent applies a force F to an object moving with a velocity v, the power
delivered by that agent is given by

dW = -
F (7.24) Instantaneous power
(It

When objects move at speeds comparable to the speed of light, c, their

kinetic energy must be calculated using the relativistic expression given by

K = ™A
1
—- 1 ) (7.27) Relativistic kinetic energy
\vl-(u/c) 2 /

QUESTIONS

1. When a particle rotates in a circle, a centripetal force 14. When a punter kicks a football, is he doing any work
acts on it directed toward the center of rotation. Why on the ball while his toe is in contact with it? Is he
is it that this force does no work on the particle? doing any work on the ball after it loses contact with
2. Explain why the work done by the force of sliding his toe? Are there any forces doing work on the ball
friction is negative when an object undergoes a dis- while it is in flight?
placement on a rough surface. 15. Discuss the work done by a pitcher throwing a base-

3. Is there any direction associated with the dot product ball. What is the approximate distance through which
of two vectors? the force acts as the ball is thrown?
4. If the dot product of two vectors is positive, does this 16. Estimate the time it takes you to climb a flight of stairs.

imply that the vectors must have positive rectangular Then approximate the power required to perform this
components? Express your value in horsepower.
task.
5. As the load on a spring hung vertically is increased, 17. Do always reduce the kinetic en-
frictional forces

one would not expect the Fs versus x curve to always ergy of a body? If your answer is no, give examples
remain linear as in Figure 7.6d. Explain qualitatively which illustrate the effect.
what you would expect for this curve as m is in- 18. Cite two examples in which a force is exerted on an
creased. object without doing any work on the object.
6. Can the kinetic energy of an object have a negative 19. Two sharpshooters fire .30-caliber rifles using identi-
value? cal shells. The barrel of rifle A is 2 cm longer than that
7. If the speed of a particle is doubled, what happens to of rifle B. Which rifle will have the higher muzzle
its kinetic energy? velocity? (Hint: The force of the expanding gases in
8. What can be said about the speed of an object if the the barrel accelerates the bullets.)
net work done on that object is zero? 20. A team of furniture movers wishes to load a truck
9. Using the work-energy theorem, explain why the using a ramp from the ground to the rear of the truck.
force of kinetic friction always has the effect of reduc- One of the movers claims that less work would be
ing the kinetic energy of a particle. done in loading the truck if the length of the ramp
10. Can the average power ever equal the instantaneous were increased, in order to decrease the angle of the
power? Explain. ramp with respect to the horizontal. Is his claim valid?
11. In Example 7.13, does the required power increase or Explain.
decrease as the force of friction is reduced? 21. As a simple pendulum swings back and forth, the

12. An automobile sales representative claims that a forces acting on the suspended mass are the force of
"souped-up" 300-hp engine is a necessary option in a gravity, the tension in the supporting cord, and air
compact car (instead of a conventional 130-hp en- resistance, (a)Which of these forces, if any, do no
gine). Suppose you intend to drive the car within work on the pendulum? (b) Which of these forces
speed limits (s55 mi/h) and on flat terrain. How does negative work at all times during its motion?
would you counteract this sales pitch? (c) Describe the work done by the force of gravity

13. One bullet has twice the mass of a second bullet. If while the pendulum is swinging.
both are fired such that they have the same velocity, 22. The kinetic energy of an object depends on the frame
which has more kinetic energy? What is the ratio of of reference in which its motion is measured. Give an
kinetic energies of the two bullets? example to illustrate this point.
174 CHAPTER 7 WORK AND ENERGY

PROBLEMS

Section 7.2 Work Done by a Constant Force by the rope? (c) How much work is done by the fric-
tion force?
1. If aman lifts a 20-kg bucket from a well and does 6 kj
of work, how deep is the well? Assume the speed of
the bucket remains constant as it is lifted.
Section 7.3 The Scalar Product of Two Vectors
2. A 65-kg woman climbs a flight of 20 stairs, each 23 cm
high. How much work was done against the force of 12. Two vectors are given by A= 4i + 3j and B=
gravity in the process?
— +
i 3j. Find (a) A B and (b) the angle between A
3. A tugboat exerts a constant force of 5000 N on a ship andB.
moving at constant speed through a harbor. How 13. A vector is given by A = — 2i + 3j. Find (a) the magni-
much work does the tugboat do on the ship in a dis- tude of A and (b) the angle that A makes with the
tance of 3 km? positive y axis. [In (b), use the definition of the scalar

4. Verify the following energy unit conversions: product.]

(a) 1 J = 10 ergs, (b) 1 J = 0.737 ft
7 lb.
• 14. Vector A has a magnitude of 5 units, andB has a mag-
5. A cheerleader lifts his 50-kg partner straight up off nitude of 9 units. The two vectors make an angle of
the ground a distance of 0.6 m before releasing her. If 50° with each other. Find A B. •

he does this 20 times, how much work has he done on 15. Given two arbitrary vectors A and B, show that
her? A B = A X BZ + Ay B y + A Z B Z (Hint: Write A and B in
.

unit vector form and use Eq. 7.8.)

6. A 100-kg sled is dragged by a team of dogs a distance
of 2 km over a horizontal surface at a constant veloc- 16. For the three vectors A = 3i+j — k, B = —i +
the coefficient of friction between the sled and
ity. If
2/ + 5lfc, and 2j - 3*, find C (A - B).
C= •

the snow is 0. 1 5, find the work done by (a) the team of 17. A force F= (6i — 2j) N acts on a particle that under-
dogs and (b) the force of friction. goes a displacement s = (3i +j) m. Find (a) the work
7. A horizontal force of 150 N is used to push a 40-kg done by the force on the particle and (b) the angle
box on a rough, horizontal surface through a distance between Fand s.
of 6 m. If the box moves at constant speed, find (a) the 18. Vector A is 2 units long and points in the positive y
direction. Vector B has a negative x component 5 units
work done by the 150-N force, (b) the work done by
friction, and (c) the coefficient of kinetic friction.
long, a positive y component 3 units long, and no z

S. A 15-kg block is dragged over a rough, horizontal component. Find A B and the angle between the
•

vectors.
surface by a constant force of 70 N acting at an angle
of 20° above the horizontal. The block is displaced 19. As a particle moves from the origin to (3« — 4/') m, it is
5 m, and the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.3. Find acted upon by a force given by (4» — 5/) N. Calculate
the work done by (a) the 70-N force, (b) the force of the work done by this force as the particle moves

friction, (c) the normal force, and (d) the force of grav-
through the given displacement.
ity, (e) What is the net work done on the block?
20. Find the angle between the two vectors given by A =

9. If you push a 40-kg crate at a constant speed of 1.4 m/s

-5i - 3j + 2Jt and B = -2j- 2k.
across a horizontal floor (n k = 0.25), at what rate is 21. Using the definition of the scalar product, find the

work being done on the crate by (a) you? (b) the fric- angles between the following pairs of vectors: (a) A =
3« - 2j and B = 4i - 4j, (b) A = - 2i + 4j and B =
tional force?
10. Batman, whose mass is 80 kg, is holding onto the free
3i - 4j + 2k, (c) A = i - 2j + 2Jk and B = 3j + 4k.

end of a 1 2-m rope, the other end of which is fixed to a

tree limb above. He is able to get the rope in motion as
Section 7.4 Work Done by a Varying Force:
only Batman knows how, eventually getting it to
The One-Dimensional Case
swing enough that he can reach a ledge when the rope
makes a 60° angle with the downward vertical. How 22. The object moves from x = to x — 3 m. If the result-
much work was done against the force of gravity in ant force acting on that object is in the x direction and
this maneuver? varies as shown in Figure 7.14, determine the total
1 1 . A cart loaded with bricks has a total mass of 1 8 kg and work done on that object.
is pulled at constant speed by a rope. The rope is 23. A body is subject to a force Fx that varies with position
inclined at 20° above the horizontal and the cart as in Figure 7.15. Find the work done by the force on
moves on a horizontal plane. The coefficient of kinetic the body as it moves (a) from x = to i = 5m,
friction between the ground and the cart is 0.5. (b) from i = 5mtox=10m, and (c) from x = 10 m
What is the tension in the rope? When the cart is
(a) to x = 15 m. (d) What is the total work done by the
moved 20 m, (b) how much work is done on the cart force over the distance x = 0to*=15m?
 PROBLEMS 175

Figure 7.14 (Problem 22).

 176 CHAPTER 7 WORK AND ENERGY

38. A 4-kg particle is subject to a force that varies with workis done by the 100-N force? (d) What is the

position as shown
Figure 7.15. The particle starts
in change in kinetic energy of the crate? (d) What is the
from rest at x = 0. What is the speed of the particle at speed of the crate after being pulled 5 m?
(a) x = 5 m, (b) x = 10 m, (c) x = 15 m? 48. A block of mass 0.6 kg slides 6.0 m down a frictionless
39. A 15-g bullet is accelerated in a rifle barrel 72 cm long ramp inclined at 20° to the horizontal. It then travels
to a speed of 780 m/s. Use the work -energy relation on a rough horizontal surface where /i = 0.5.
k
to find the average force that acts on the bullet while it (a) What is the speed of the block at the end of the
being accelerated.
is incline? (b) What is its speed after traveling 1 .0 m on
40. A bullet with a mass of 5 g and a speed of 600 m/s the rough plane? (c) What distance does it travel on
strikes a tree and penetrates the tree to a depth of this horizontalplane before coming to rest?
4 cm. (a) Use work and energy considerations to find 49. A 4-kg block is given an initial speed of 8 m/s at the
the average frictional force that stops the bullet. bottom of a 20° incline. The frictional force that re-
(b) Assuming that the frictional force is constant, de- tards its motion is 15 N. (a) If the block is directed up
termine how much time elapsed between the moment the incline, how far will it move before it stops?
the bullet entered the tree and the moment it (b) Will back down the incline?
it slide
stopped. 50. "Winkin, Blinkin and Nod one day ."abandoned . .

41. Apole-vaulterclearsaheightof6 m.With what veloc- their boat and took to the slopes, complete with sled.
ity does he strike the mat in the landing area? They found a hill of slope 2.87° and 30 m long. Start-
42. In the giant roller coaster in Gurnee, Illinois (see ing from rest at the top of the hill they slid to the
Problem 22, Chapter 6), the speed of the cars is bottom where their speed was 5.0 m/s. If the com-
13 m/s at the top of the loop 40 m in height. What is bined mass of the three plus sled was 70 kg, what was
their speed at the bottom if we neglect any friction the average frictional force on the slope?
effects? 51. A 3-kg block is moved up a 37° incline under the
43. An Atwood's machine consists of a light fixed pulley action of a constant horizontal force of 40 N. The coef-
with a light inextensible string over it (Fig. 5.12). The ficient of kinetic friction is 0.1, and the block is dis-
ends of the string support masses of 0.2 kg and 0.3 kg. placed 2 m up the incline. Calculate (a) the work done
The masses are held at rest beside each other and then by the 40-N force, (b) the work done by gravity,
released. Neglecting any friction, what is the speed of (c) the work done by friction, and (d) the change in
each mass the instant they have both moved 0.4 m? kinetic energy of the block. (Note: The applied force is
44. A 2-kg block is attached to a light spring of force con- not parallel to the incline.)
stant 500 N/m as in Figure 7.6. The block is pulled 52. A 4-kg block attached to a string 2 m in length rotates
5 cm to the right of equilibrium and released from in a circle on a horizontal surface, (a) If the surface is
rest. Find the speed of the block asit passes through frictionless, identify all the forces on the block and
equilibrium if (a) the horizontal surface is frictionless show that the work done by each force is zero for any
and (b) the coefficient of friction between the block displacement of the block, (b) If the coefficient of
and surface is 0.35. friction between the block and surface is 0.25, find
45. A sled of mass m is given a kick on a frozen pond, the work done by the force of friction in each revolu-
imparting to it an initial speed o = 2 m/s. The coeffi- tion of the block.
cient of kinetic friction between the sled and ice is
/i
k
= 0.1. Use the work-energy theorem to find the
distance the sled moves before coming to rest.
Section 7.6 Power
46. A block of mass 12 kg slides from rest down a friction- 53. A 700-N marine in basic training climbs a 10-m verti-
less 35° incline and is stopped by a strong spring with calrope atuniform speed in 8 s. What is his power
k = 3.0 X 10 4 N/m. The block slides a total distance output?
d = 3.0m from the point of release to the point where 54. Water flows over a section of the Niagara Falls at a
it comes to rest against the spring. When the block 1.2X10 6
rate of kg/s and
falls 50 m. How many
comes to rest, how far has the spring been com- 60-W bulbs can be with this power?
lit

pressed? 55. A weightlifter lifts 250 kg through 2 m in 1 .5 s. What

47. A crate of mass 10 kg is pulled up a rough incline with is his power output?
an initial speed of 1.5 m/s. The pulling force is 100 N 56. A 200-kg crate is pulled along a level surface by an
parallel to the incline, which makes an angle of 20° engine. The coefficient of friction between the crate
with the horizontal. the coefficient of kinetic fric-
If and surface is 0.4. (a) How much power must the en-
tion is 0.4, and the crate is pulled a distance of 5 m, gine deliver to move the crate at a constant speed of
(a) how much work is done against gravity? (b) How 5 m/s? (b) How much work is done by the engine in
much work is done against friction? (c) How much 3 min?
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 177

57. A1500-kg car accelerates uniformly from rest to a 66. Suppose the empty car described in Table 7.4 has a
speed of 10 m/s in 3 s. Find (a) the work done on the fuel economy of 6.4 km/liter (15 mi/gal) when travel-
car in this time, (b) the average power delivered by ing at a speed of 26.8 m/s (60 mi/h). Assuming con-
the engine in the first 3 s, and (c) the instantaneous stant efficiency, determine the fuel economy of the
power delivered by the engine at t = 2 s. car if the total mass of the passengers and the driver is

58. A certain automobile engine delivers a power of 350 kg.

30 hp (2.24 X 10 4 W) to its wheels when moving at a 67. When an air conditioner is added to the car described
constant speed of 27 m/s (« 60 mi/h). What is the re- in Problem 66, the additional output power required
sistive force acting on the automobile at that speed? to operate the air conditioner is 1.54 kW. If the fuel

59. An outboard motor propels a boat through the water economy is 6.4 km/liter without the air conditioner,
at a constant speed of 10 mi/h. The water resists the what is the fuel economy when the air conditioner is

forward motion of the boat with a force of 15 lb. How operating?

much power is produced by the outboard motor?
60. A car of weight 2500 N operating at a rate of 130 kW "Section 7.8 Relativistic Kinetic Energy
develops a maximum speed of 3 1 m/s on a level, hori-
68. An electron moves with a speed of 0.995c, where c is
zontal road. Assuming that the resistive force (due to
the speed of light, (a) What is the kinetic energy of the
friction and remains constant, (a) what
air resistance)
electron? (b) If you use the classical expression to cal-
is its maximum speed on an incline of 1 in 20? (i.e., if
= culate its kinetic energy, what percentage error
is the angle of the incline with the horizontal, sin 6
would result?
1/20). (b) What is its power output on a 1 in 10 incline
69. A proton in a high-energy accelerator moves with a
if it is traveling at 10 m/s?
speed of c/2, where c is the speed of light. Use the
61. A 65-kg athlete runs a distance of 600 m up a moun-
work-energy theorem to find the work required to
tain inclined at 20° to the horizontal. He performs this
increase its speed to (a) 0.75c, (b) 0.995c.
feat in 80 s. Assuming that air resistance is negligible,
(a) how much work does he perform and (b) what is his
power output during the run? ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
62. A single, constant force Facts on a particle of mass m.
= Show
70. A 1 5-kg box is dragged at uniform speed up an incline
The particle starts at rest at ( 0. (a) that the
instantaneous power delivered by the force at any
that is 8.0 m long and makes a 15° angle with the
horizontal. If the coefficient of friction between the
time t is equal to (F 2/m)t. (b) If F = 20 N and m =
box and the incline is 0.40, how much work is done by
5 kg, what is the power delivered at f = 3 s?
(a) the applied force, (b) the frictional force, (c) the
normal force, and (d) the gravitational force?
"Section 7.7 Energy and the Automobile 71. A bartender in a western saloon slides a bottle of rye
on the horizontal counter to a cowboy at the other end
63. The car described in Table 7.4 travels at a constant
of the bar 7 m away. With what speed did he release
speed of 35.9 m/s. At this speed, determine (a) the
the bottle if the coefficient of sliding friction is 0. 1 and
power needed to overcome air drag, and (b) the total
the bottle comes to rest in front of the cowboy?
power delivered to the wheels.
72. A woman raises a 10-kg flag from the ground to the
64. A passenger car carrying two people has a fuel econ-
top of a 10-m flagpoleat constant velocity, 0.25 m/s.
omy of 25 mi/gal. It travels a distance of 3000 miles. A
Find the work done by the woman while raising the
(a)
jet airplane making the same trip with 150 passengers
flag, (b) Find the work done by gravity, (c) What is the
economy of 1 mi/gal. Compare the fuel con-
has a fuel
power output of the woman while raising the flag?
sumed per passenger for the two modes of transporta-
73. The force Fx (x) given graphically in Figure 7.17 acts
tion.
on an object as it moves along the x axis. Use graphical
65. A compact car of mass 900 kg has an overall motor
efficiency of 15%. (That is, 15% of the energy sup-
plied by the fuel is transformed into kinetic energy of F (N
V

the car.) (a) If burning one gallon of gasoline supplies

1.34 X 10 8 J of energy, find the amount of gasoline
used in accelerating the car from rest to 55 mph
(24.6 m/s). (b) How many such accelerations will one
gallon provide? (c) The mileage claimed for the car is

38 mi/gal at a speed of 55 mph. What power is deliv-

() 12 3-1 5 6 7 8 vim'
ered to the wheels (to overcome frictional effects)
when the car is driven at this constant speed? Figure 7.17 (Problem 73).
178 CHAPTER 7 WORK AND ENERGY

techniques to estimate the work done by this force as is stretched a distance of d/2 from equilibrium, what
the object on which it acts moves from x = to isfi?
x = 8.0m. 81. A 0.4-kg particle slides on a horizontal, circular track
74. The direction of an arbitrary vector A can be com- 1.5 m in radius. It is given an initial speed of 8 m/s.
pletely specified with the angles a, /?, and y that the After one revolution, its speed drops to 6 m/s because
vector makes with the x, i/, and z axes, respectively. If of friction, (a) Find the work done by the force of
A = A x i + A yj + A z k, (a) find expressions for cos a, friction in one revolution, (b) Calculate the coeffi-
cos /?, and cos y (these are known as direction cosines) cient of kinetic friction, (c) What is the total number
and (b) show that these angles satisfy the relation of revolutions the particle will make before coming to
cos 2 a+ cos 2 P+ cos 2 y = 1 . (Hint . Take the scalar rest?
product of A with i,j, and k separately.) 82. A light, inextensible string is attached to a mass of
75. A 4-kg particle moves along the x-axis. Its position 0.25 kg lying on a rough, horizontal table. The string
varies with time according to x = t + 2t 3 where x is in , passes over a light frictionless pulley and is attached
m and t is in s. Find (a) the kinetic energy at any time r, to a 0.4-kg mass hanging vertically from it. The coeffi-
(b) the acceleration of the particle and the force acting between block and plane is
cient of sliding friction
on it at time f, (c) the power being delivered to the 0.2. Use the work-energy theorem to determine
particle at time f and (d) the work done on the particle
,
(a) the velocity of the blocks after each has moved
in the interval f = to t = 2 s. (Note: P = dW/dt.) 20 m from rest and (b) the mass that must be added to
76. An ideal Atwood's machine has a 3-kg and 2-kg mass the 0.25-kg mass, so that, given an initial velocity, the
at the ends of the string (Fig. 5.12). The 2-kg mass is move at a constant speed, (c) What
blocks continue to
released from rest on the floor, 4 below the 3-kg m mass must be removed from the 0.4 kg mass to ac-
mass, (a) If the pulley is frictionless, what will be the complish the same thing as in (b)?
speed of the masses when they pass each other? 83. A projectile, mass m, is shot horizontally with initial
(b) Suppose now that the pulley does not rotate and velocity v from a height h above a flat desert floor.
the string must slide over it. If the total frictional force The instant before the projectile hits the desert floor
between the pulley and string is 5 N, what are their find (a) the work done on the projectile by gravity,
speeds when the masses pass each other? (b) the change in kinetic energy since the projectile
77. A pile driver of mass 2100 kg is used to drive a steel was fired, and (c) the kinetic energy of the projectile.
I-beam into the ground. The mass falls freely from rest I 84. Referring to
1
Problem 83, find (a) the instantaneous
a distance of 5 m before contacting the beam, and it rate at which work is being done on the projectile and
drives the beam 12 cm into the ground before coming (b) if the mass of the projectile is 10 kg and the initial
to rest. Using the work - energy relation, calculate the height is 40 m, the instantaneous rate that work is
average force that the beam exerts on the mass while being done after 1 s, 2 s, and 3 s. (Note: Be careful of
the mass is brought to rest. the elapsed time.)
78. A rope tow pulling skiers up a 30° slope 600 m long 85. A 60-kg load is raised by a two-pulley arrangement as
moves at 3 m/s and carries a maximum of 1 20 passen- shown (Fig. 7.18). How much work is done by the
gers at any one time. The average mass of each passen-
ger is 80 kg. Neglecting friction, determine the
power rating a motor must have in order to operate
the tow under maximum load conditions.
79. A 200-g block is pressed against a spring of force con-
stant 1.4 kN/m until the block compresses the spring
10 cm. The spring rests at the bottom of a ramp in-
clined at 60° to the horizontal. Use the work-energy
theorem to determine how far up the incline the block
moves before it stops (a) if there is no friction be-
tween the block and the ramp, and (b) if the coeffi-
cient of kinetic friction is 0.4.
SO. A block of mass m is attached to a light spring of force
constant k as in Figure 7.6. The spring is compressed a
distance d from itsequilibrium position and released
from rest, (a) If the block comes to rest when it first
reaches the equilibrium position, what is the coeffi-
cient of friction between the block and surface? (b) If
the block first comes to rest when the spring Figure 7.18 (Problem 85).
 CALCULATOR/COMPUTER PROBLEMS 179

force F to raise the load 3 m if there is a frictional 89. The ball launcher in a pinball machine has a spring
force of 20 N
each pulley? (The pulleys do not
in with a force constant of 1.2 N/cm, Figure 7.20. The
rotate, but the rope slides across each surface.) surface on which the ball moves is inclined 10° with
86. A small sphere of mass m hangs from a string of length respect to the horizontal. If the spring is initially com-
L as in Figure 7.19. A variable horizontal force F is pressed 5 cm, find the launching speed of a 100-gball
applied to the mass in such a way that it moves slowly when the plunger is released. Friction and the mass of
from the vertical position until the string makes an the plunger are negligible.
angle 6 with the vertical. Assuming the sphere is
always in equilibrium, (a) show that F=mgtan0.
(b) Make use of Equation 7.20 to show that the work
done by the force Fis equal to mgL (1 — cos 0). (Hint:
Note that s = L8, and so ds = L dO.

Figure 7.20 (Problem 89).

90. Suppose a car is modeled as a cylinder moving with a

speed l\ as in Figure 7.21. In a time At, a column of air
of mass Am must be moved a distance c At and hence
must be given a kinetic energy |(Am)u 2 Using this .

model, show that the power loss due to air resistance

is $pAv 3 and the drag force is \pAv 2 where p is the ,

density of air.

Figure 7.19 (Problem 86).

87. To operate one of the generators in the Grand Coulee

Dam Washington 7.24X10 8
in of mechanical W
power are required. This power is provided by gravity
as it performs work on the water while it falls 87 m to
the generator. The kinetic energy acquired during the
fall is given up turning the generator, (a) Prove that Figure 7.21 (Problem 90).
the available water power is mgh/t, where m is the
mass of water falling through the height h during the
time f. (b) Calculate the flow rate in kilograms per
CALCULATOR/COMPUTER PROBLEMS
second, (c) Determine the volume of water needed to
power this generator for one day. (d) If the water for 91- A 5-kg particle starts at the origin and moves along the
one day were stored in a circular lake 10m deep, what x axis. The net force acting on the particle is measured
would the radius of the lake be? at intervals of 1 m to be: 27.0, 28.3, 36.9, 34.0, 34.5,
88. Power windmills turn in response to the force of high- 34.5, 46.9, 48.2, 50.0, 63.5, 13.6, 12.2, 32.7, 46.6,
velocity drag. For a sphere, the drag force FD is pro- 27.9 (in newtons). Determine the total work done on
portional to r 2 u 2 , where r is the radius of the sphere the particle over this interval.
and o is The power developed, P =
the fluid speed. 92. A 0.178-kg particle moves along the x axis from x =
FDv, is proportional to r 2 v 3
The power developed by.
12.8 m to x = 23.7 m under the influence of a force
a windmill can be expressed as P = ar 2 v 3 where r is ,
given by
the windmill radius, t; is the wind speed, and a —
375
2 W-s 3 /m 5 . For a home windmill with r = 1.5 m, cal- F=
culate the power delivered to the generator (this rep-
i3 + 3.75r
resentation ignores windmill efficiency — which is where Fis in newtons and x
in meters. Use a method
is

about 25%) if (a) v = 8 m/s and (b) v = 24 m/s. For of numerical integration to estimate the total work
comparison, a typical home needs about 3 kW of elec- done by this force during this displacement. Your cal-
tric power. culations should have an accuracy of at least 2%.
 8
PotentialEnergy and
Conservation of Energy

This multiflash photograph

illustrates various forms of
energy which you will study in
this chapter. The energy stored
temporarily in the bent pole is
a form of potential energy.
How many other forms of
energy can you identify in this
picture? (© Harold E.
Edgerton. Courtesy of Palm
Press Inc.)
 8.1 CONSERVATIVE AND NONCONSERVATIVE FORCES 181

8.1 CONSERVATIVE AND NONCONSERVATIVE

FORCES
Conservative Forces

In Example 7.11 we found that the work done by the gravitational force acting
on a particle equals the weight of the particle multiplied by its vertical dis-
placement, assuming that g is constant over the range of the displacement. As
we shall see in Section 8.4, this result is valid for an arbitrary displacement of
the particle. That is, the work done by gravity depends only on the initial and
final coordinates and is independent of the path taken between these points.
When a force exhibits these properties, it is called a conservative force. In
addition to the gravitational force, other examples of conservative forces are
the electrostatic force and the restoring force in a spring.

In general, a force is conservative if the work done by that force acting on

a particle moving between two points is independent of the path the

particle takes between the points.

That is, the work done on

a particle by a conservative force depends only on
the initial coordinates of the particle. With reference to the arbitrary
and final
paths shown in Figure 8.1a, we can write this condition

WrQ (along 1) = W^ (along 2) Property of a conservative

force

A conservative force has another property, which can be derived from the
above condition. Suppose the particle moves from P to Q along path 1, and
then from Q to P along path 2, as in Figure 8.1b. The work done by a conserva-
tive force in the reverse path 2 from Q to P is equal to the negative of the work
done from P to Q along path 2. Therefore, we can write the condition of a
conservative force

Wpo

W,q
(along 1)

(along 1) +
= - WQP (along

WQP (along 2) =
2)
<J .'

Hence, a conservative force also has the property that

the total work done by a conservative force on a particle

particle moves around any closed path and returns
We can interpret this property of a conservative force in the following
manner. The work-energy theorem says that the net work done on a particle
displaced between two points equals the change in its kinetic energy. There
fore, if all the forces acting on the particle are conservative, then \V— for
to

round trip. This means that the particle will return to its starting point with th
is zero
its initial
when the
position.

<3
Figure 8.1 (a)
b

A particle moves
from P to Q along two different
same kinetic energy it had when it started its motion. paths. The work done by a conserv-
To illustrate that the force of gravity is conservative, recall that thework ative force actingon the particle is
the same along each path. If the
done by the gravitational force as a particle of mass m moves between two force is nonconservative. the work
points of elevation y and y ( t
is given by done by this force differs along the
two paths, (b) A particle moves
from P to Q and then from O back to
w g
= - m g(y(-yd P along a different path. That is, it
moves in a closed path.
182 CHAPTER 8 POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

That is, the work done by the gravitational force mg (in the negative y direc-
tion) equals the force multiplied by the displacement in the y direction. From
this expression, we first note that
g
W
depends only on the initial and final y
coordinates and is independent of the path taken. Furthermore, if and y f are i/,

at the same elevation or if the particle makes a round trip, then y = y { and {

W g
= 0. For example, ifaball is thrown vertically upward with an initial speed
i>j and if air resistance is neglected, the ball must return to the thrower's hand
,

with the same speed (and same kinetic energy) it had at the start of its motion.
Another example of a conservative force is the force of a spring on a block
attached to the spring, where the restoring force is given by F = — kx. In the s

previous chapter, we found that the work done by the spring on the block is

Work done by the spring force W s

= ifex 2 - ikx?
f

where the initial and final coordinates of the block are measured from the
equilibrium position of the block, x = 0. see that We W again depends only on
s

the initial and final x coordinates. In addition, s

= W for a round trip, where
Xj = x f
.

Nonconservative Forces

A force is nonconservative if the work done by that force on a particle

moving between two points depends on the path taken.
That is, the work done by a nonconservative force in taking a particle from P to

Q in Figure 8.1a will differ for paths 1 and 2. We can write this

Property of a nonconservative Wrq (along 1) # W^ (along 2)

force
Furthermore, from this condition we can show that if a force is nonconserva-
tive, the work done by that force on a particle that moves through any closed
path is not necessarily zero. Since the work done in going from PtoQ along path

2 equal to the negative of the work done in going from Q to P along path 2, it
is

follows from the first condition of a nonconservative force that

Wpg (along 1) ¥= - WOP (along 2)

WPO (along 1) + WOP (along 2) #
The good example of a nonconservative force.
force of sliding friction is a
If an object is moved over a rough, horizontal surface between two points
along various paths, the work done by the frictional force certainly depends on
the path. The negative work done by the frictional force along any particular
path between two points will equal the force of friction multiplied by the
length of the path. Paths of different lengths involve different amounts of
work. The absolute magnitude of the least work done by the frictional force
will correspond to a straight-line path between the two points. Furthermore,
for a closed path you should note that the total work done by friction is
nonzero since the force of friction opposes the motion along the entire path.
As an instructive example, suppose you were to displace a book between
Figure 8.2 The work done by the two points on a rough, horizontal surface such as a table. If the book is dis-
force of friction depends on the
path taken as the book is moved placed in a straight line between two points, A and B in Figure 8.2, the work
from A to B. done by friction is simply — fd, where d is the distance between the points.
 .

8.2 POTENTIAL ENERGY 183

However, if the book is moved along any other path between the two points,
the work done by friction would be greater (in absolute magnitude) than —fd.
For example, the work done by friction along the semicircular path in Figure
8.2 is equal to —f(nd/2), where d is the diameter of the circle. Finally, if the
book is moved through any closed path (such as a circle), the work done by
friction would clearly be nonzero since the frictional force opposes the
motion.
In the example of a ball thrown vertically in the air with an
initial speed v t ,

careful measurements would show that because of air resistance, the ball
would return to the thrower's hand with a speed less than u,. Consequently,
the final kinetic energy is less than the initial kinetic energy. The presence of a
nonconservative force has reduced the ability of the system to do work by
virtue of its motion. We shall sometimes refer to a nonconservative force as a
dissipative force. For this reason, frictional forces are often referred to as being
dissipative.

8.2 POTENTIAL ENERGY

In the previous section we found that the work done by a conservative force
does not depend on the path taken by the particle and is independent of the
particle's velocity. The work done is a function only of the particle's initial and
final coordinates. For these reasons, we can define a potential energy function
U such that the work done equals the decrease in the potential energy. That
is, the work done by a conservative force F as the particle moves along the x

W -£'•*-
=c F dx = -AU=U -U[
z i (8.1)

That is, the work done by a conservative force equals

the negative of the change
in the potentialenergy associated with that force, where the change in the
potential energy is defined as U( — U We can also express Equation
AU= {
.

8.1 as

(8.2) Change in potential energy

where Fz is the component of Fin the direction of the displacement.

It is some particular location, x to be a
often convenient to establish (
,

reference point and to then measure all potential energy differences with
respect to this point. With this understanding, we can define the potential
energy function as

U (x) = -
f Fx dx + U, (8.3)

1
For a general displacement, the work done in two or three dimensions also equals V t
— U where
f,

17 = U(x, y, z). We write this formally W= I F •

ds = 17,
- V,
184 CHAPTER 8 POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Furthermore, the value of U is often taken to be zero at some arbitrary

t

reference point. It really doesn't matter what value we assign to Uit since it
only shifts Uf (x) by a constant, and it is only the change in potential energy that
is physically meaningful. (In the next section, we shall see that the change in

the particle's potential energy is related to a change in its kinetic energy.) If

the conservative force is known as a function of position, we can use Equation
8.3 to calculate the change in potential energy of a body as it moves from x, to
xf . It is interesting to note that in the one-dimensional case, a force is always
conservative if it is a function of position only. This is generally not true for
motion involving two- or three-dimensional displacements.
The work done by a nonconservative force does depend on the path as a
particle moves from one position to another and could also depend on the
particle's velocity or on other quantities. Therefore, the work done is not
simply a function of the initial and final coordinates of the particle. We con-
clude that there is no potential energy function associated with a nonconserva-
tive force.

8.3 CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

Suppose a particle moves along the x axis under the influence of only one
conservative force, Fx If this is the only force acting on the particle, then the
.

work-energy theorem tells us that the work done by that force equals the
change in kinetic energy of the particle:

WC
= AK
Since the force is conservative, according to Equation 8.1 we can write W c
=
— AU. Hence,
AK = -AU

AK + AU=A(K+U) = (8.4)

This is the law of conservation of mechanical energy, which can be written in

the alternative form

Conservation of mechanical
Ki+U^Kf+Uf (8.5)
energy

If we now define the total mechanical energy of the system, E, as the sum of the
kinetic energy and potential energy, we can express the conservation of me-
chanical energy as

E, =E (
(8.6a)

where
Total mechanical energy E= K+U (8.6b)

The law of conservation of mechanical energy states that the total me-
chanical energy of a system remains constant ifthe only force that does
work is a conservative force. This is equivalent to the statement that if the
kinetic energy of a conservative system increases (or decreases) by some
amount, the potential energy must decrease (or increase) by the same
amount.
 8 4 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY NEAR THE EARTHS SURFACE 185

If more than one conservative force acts on the system, then there is a
potential energy function associated with each force. In such a case, we can
write the law of conservation of mechanical energy

Conservation of mechanical
energy
where the number of terms in the sums equals the number of conservative
forces present. For example, if connected to a spring oscillates verti-
a mass
cally, two conservative forces act on
it: the spring force and the force of

gravity. We will discuss this situation later in a worked example.

8.4 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY NEAR

THE EARTH'S SURFACE
When an object moves in the presence of the earth's gravity, the gravitational
force can do work on that object. In the case of a freely falling object, the work
done by gravity is a function of the vertical displacement of the object. This
result is also valid in the more general case where the object undergoes both a
horizontal and vertical displacement, such as in the case of a projectile.
Consider a particle being displaced from P to O along various paths in the
presence of a constant gravitational force 2 (Fig. 8.3). The work done along the
path PAQ can be broken into two segments. The work done along PA is — mgh
(since mg is opposite to this displacement), and the work done along AQ is zero
(since mg is perpendicular to this path). Hence, W
PAO = —mgh. Likewise, the
work done along PBQ is also — mgh, since PB
= andW W^
= — mgh. Now
consider the general path described by the solid line from P to Q. The curve is
broken down into a series of horizontal and vertical steps. There is no work
done by the force of gravity along the horizontal steps, since mg is perpendicu-
lar to these elements of displacement. Work is done by the force of gravity
only along the vertical displacements, where the work done in the nth vertical
step is — mg Ay„. Thus, the total work done by the force of gravity as the

2
The assumption that the force of gravity is constant is a good one as long as the vertical displace-
ment is small compared with the earth's radius.

Figure 8.3 A particle that moves between the points P and Q under the influence of the force of
gravity can be envisioned as moving along a series of horizontal and vertical steps. The work
done
by the force of gravity along each horizontal element is zero, and the net work done bv the force of
gravity is equal to the sum of the work done along each of the vertical displacements.
186 CHAPTERS POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

particleis displaced upward a distance h is the sum of the work done along

each vertical displacement. Summation of all such terms gives

W g
= - mg £ A«/„ = - mgh

Since h = y( — y t
, we can express W g
as

W g
= mgt/i - mgy { (8.8)

We conclude that since the work done by the force of gravity is independent of
the path, the gravitational force is a conservative force.
Since the force of gravity is conservative, we can define a gravitational
potential energy function Ug as

Gravitational potential energy Ue = mgy (8.9)

where we have chosen to take Ug = at y = 0. Note that this function depends

on the choice of origin of coordinates and is valid only when the displacement
of the object in the vertical direction is small compared with the earth's radius.
A general expression for the gravitational potential energy will be developed
in Chapter 14.
Substituting the definition of Ug (Eq. 8.9) into the expression for the work
done by the force of gravity (Eq. 8.8) gives

W =17,-I7f =-Al7. (8.10)

That is, work done by the force of gravity is equal to the initial value of the
the
potential energy minus the final value of the potential energy. We conclude
from Equation 8.10 that when the displacement is upward, y ( > y and there- {
,

fore t/j < U[ and the work done by gravity is negative. This corresponds to
the case where the force of gravity is opposite the displacement. When the
object is displaced downward, yi<y and so L^ > Uf and the work done by {
,

gravity is positive. In this case, mg is in the same direction as the displacement.

The term potential energy implies that the object has the potential, or
capability, of gaining kinetic energy or doing work when released from some
point under the influence of gravity. The choice of the origin of coordinates for
measuring Ug is completely arbitrary, since only differences in potential en-
ergy are important. However, it is often convenient to choose the surface of
the earth as the reference position y = 0. {

If the force of gravity is the only force acting on a body, then the total
mechanical energy of the body is conserved (Eq. 8.5). Therefore, the law of
conservation of mechanical energy for a freely falling body can be written

Conservation of mechanical
\mv? + mgt/j = frnvf2 + m g?/f (8.11)
energy for a freely falling body
 8.4 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY NEAR THE EARTHS SURFACE 187

EXAMPLE S.l Ball in Free Fall

A ball of mass m
dropped from a height h above the
is

ground as in Figure 8.4. (a) Determine the speed of the

ball when it is at a height y above the ground, neglecting
air resistance.
Since the ball is in free fall, the only force acting on it
is the gravitational force. Therefore, we can use the law
of conservation of mechanical energy. When the ball is

released from rest at a height h above the ground, its

kinetic energy is K = and its potential energy is U =

t {

mgh, where the y coordinate is measured from ground

level. When the ball is at a distance y above the ground,
its kinetic energy is K ( = ^mv? and its potential energy

relative to the ground is U( = mgy. Applying Equation

8.11, we get

K i
+U i
= K { + Uf
+ mgh = fmcf 2 + mgy
Vf* = 2g(h-y)

v( =J2g(h-y)

Determine the speed of the ball at y if it is given

(b)
an speed t>j at the initial altitude h.
initial

In this case, the initial energy includes kinetic en-

ergy equal to ^niUj 2 and Equation 8.11 gives

£mt>j 2 + mgh = £mu 2 + mgy f

vf = v? + 2g(h - y)

V>
II CHAPTER 8 POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

(b) What is the tension T in the cord at b? Substituting (1) into (2) gives for the tension at point b
Since the force of tension does no work,
cannot be it

determined using the energy method. To find Tfc we can ,

(3) Tb = mg + 2mg(l-cos0o )= mg(3-2cos0o )

apply Newton's second law to the radial direction. First,

recall that the centripetal acceleration of a particle mov-
ing in a circle equal to v 2 /r directed toward the center
is
Exercise 1 A pendulum of length 2.0 m and mass 0.5 kg
of rotation. Since r = L in this example, we get is when the supporting cord makes an
released from rest
angle of 30° with the vertical. Find the speed of the
(2) ^F = Tb -mg = ma = mvb yL
r r sphere and the tension in the cord when the sphere is at
its lowest point.
Answer 2.29 m/s; 6.21 N.

8.5 NONCONSERVATIVE FORCES AND THE

WORK ENERGY THEOREM
In real physical systems, nonconservative forces, such as friction, are usually
present. Therefore, the total mechanical energy is not a constant. However,
we can use the work-energy theorem to account for the presence of noncon-
servative forces. If W
nc represents the work done on a particle by all noncon-
servative forces and W
c is the work done by
all conservative forces, we can

write the work-energy theorem

W„„ + W=AK
Since Wc = — AU (Eq. 8.1), this equation reduces to

W nc
= AK + AU= (K( -K + f)
(U{ - t/f ) (8.12)

That is,

thework done by all nonconservative forces equals the change in kinetic

energy plus the change in potential energy.

Since the total mechanical energy is given by E=K+ U, we can also express
Equation 8.12 as

Work done by nonconserva-

tive forces
W nc = (Kt + U - (K, +
() Ud = E -Et i
(8.13)

That is, the work done by all nonconservative forces equals the change in the

total mechanical energy of the system. Of course, when there are no noncon-
servative forces present, it follows that W nc
= and £ f
=E {;
that is, the total
mechanical energy is conserved.

EXAMPLE 8.3 Block Moving on Incline Since t>j = 0, the initial kinetic energy is zero. If the y
A 3-kg block slides down a rough incline 1 m in length as coordinate is measured from the bottom of the incline,
inFigure 8.6a. The block starts from rest at the top and then y = 0.50 m. Therefore, the total mechanical en-
t

experiences a constant force of friction of magnitude ergy of the block at the top is potential energy given by
5 N; the angle of inclination is 30°. (a) Use energy
methods to determine the speed of the block when it Ej = J7i
= mgy, = (3 kg) 9 .S0f) (0.50 m) = 14.7 J
reaches the bottom of the incline. (
 8.5 NONCONSERVATIVE FORCES AND THE WORK-ENERGY THEOREM 189

Rig sin 30°

!/
=

(a) (b)

Figure 8.6 (Example 8.3) (a) A block slides down a rough incline under the influence
of gravity. Its potential energy decreases while its kinetic energy increases, (b) Free-
body diagram for the block.

When the block reaches the bottom, its kinetic energy is Since the acceleration is constant, we can apply the ex-
Imuj2 but , its potential energy is zero since its elevation pression v { 2 = Uj 2 + 2as, where v {
= 0:
is i/f = 0. Therefore, the total mechanical energy at the
= = 6.46 m 2 /s 2
uf 2 = 2as 2(3.23 m/s 2 )(l m)
bottom is
£f = \mvf . However, we cannot say that E =
{

E( in this case, because there is a nonconservative force Vf = 2.54 m/s

that does work on the block, namely, the force of friction,
W"nc = —fs, where s is the displacement along the plane. Exercise 2 If the inclined plane is assumed to be fric-
(Recall that the forces normal to the plane do no work on tionless, find the final speed of the block and its accelera-
the block since they are perpendicular to the displace- tion along the incline.
ment.) In this case,/= 5 N and s = 1 m, therefore, Answer 3.13 m/s; 4.90 m/s 2 .

W nc
= -fs = (-5 N)(l m) = -5 J

That is, some mechanical energy is lost because of the

EXAMPLE 8.4 Motion on a Curved Track

presence of the retarding force. Applying the work-en-

A child of mass m
takes a ride on an irregularly curved
slide of height h, as in Figure 8.7. The child starts from
ergy theorem in the form of Equation 8.13 gives
rest at the top. (a) Determine the speed of the child at the

= £f -£ bottom, assuming there is no friction present.

W nc f
First, note that the normal force, N, does no work on
is always perpendicular to each
the child since this force
-fs = imvf 2 - mgt/i
element of the displacement. Furthermore, since there
imuf 2 =14.7 J- 5 J
= 9.7 J
is no friction, nc W
= and we can apply the law of con-
servation of mechanical energy. If we measure the y co-

19 4 T
f
2 = iZiLL = 6 .47 m 2/ s 2
3 kg

Vf= 2.54 m/s

(b) Check the answer to (a) using Newton's second

law to first find the acceleration.
Summing the forces along the plane gives

mg sin 30° — /= ma

a = g sin 30° -—= (9.80 m/s 2 )(0.500) - ^~

m 3 kg Figure 8.7 (Example 8.4) If the slide is frictionless, the speed
of the child at the bottom depends only on the height of the slide
= 3.23 m/s 2 and is independent of the shape of the slide.
1 90 CHAPTER 8 POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

ordinate from the bottom of the slide, then y i

= h, tj( = 0, EXAMPLE S.5 Let's Co Skiing
and we get A skier starts from smooth incline of
rest at the top of a

K'i+ U^Kf+Uf height 20 m Figure 8.8. At the bottom of the in-

as in
cline, the skier encounters a horizontal rough surface
+ mgh = imvf 2 + where the coefficient of kinetic friction between the skis
v( =J2gh and snow is 0.21. How far does the skier travel on the
horizontal surface before coming to rest?
Note that this result is the same as if the child had fallen
vertically through a distance h\ For example, if h = 6 m,
Solution First, let us calculate the speed of the skier at
then
the bottom of the incline. Since the incline is smooth, we
Df =V2^=y 2(9.80^)(6m)= 10.8 m/s can apply conservation of mechanical energy (as in Ex-
ample 8.4a) to find

(b) Ifthere were a frictional force acting on the u = J2gh= \/2(9.80 m/s 2 )(20 m) = 19.8 m/s
child, what would be the work done by this force?
Now we apply the work-energy theorem as the skier
In this case, nc # W
and mechanical energy is not
moves along the rough horizontal surface. The work
conserved. We
can use Equation 8.13 to find the work
done by the friction force along the horizontal is
done by friction, assuming the final velocity at the bot-
tom is known:
W nc
= —fs, where s is the horizontal displacement.
Therefore,
W„=E f -E, ^mff" mgh
W. -fs = K( -K i

For example, if v f =8.0 m/s, m = 20 kg, and li = 6m,we

To find the distance the skier travels before coming
find that
to rest, take Kf = 0. Since
we t5j = 19.8 m/s, and the fric-

W = i(20 - tion force is given by /= = /mig, we

nc kg)(8.0 m/s) 2 (20 kg)
H5) (6 m) fiN

—fimgs = — \mv?
get

536 J

Again, W negative since the work done by sliding

nc is
t5j
2
_
_ (19.8 m/s) 2
= 95.2 m
friction always negative. Note, however, that because
is 2/zg 2(0.21)(9.80m/s 2 )
the slide is curved, the normal force changes in magni-
tude and direction during the motion. Therefore, the Exercise 3 Find the horizontal distance the skier
frictional force, which is proportional to N, also changes travels before coming to rest if the incline is also rough
during the motion. Do you think it would be possible to with a coefficient of kinetic friction equal to 0.21.
determine [i from these data? Answer 40.3 m

Figure 8.8 Example 8.5.

8.6 POTENTIAL ENERGY STORED IN A SPRING

Now let us consider another mechanical system that is conveniently described
using the concept of potential, or stored, energy. A block of mass m slides on a
frictionless, horizontal surface with constant velocity t5
f
and collides with a
 8.6 POTENTIAL ENERGY STORED IN A SPRING 191

v = o
I

E = - mv, 1

(a)

E -£,»» + if
(b)

I
o =
B-JW

Figure 8.9 A block sliding on a smooth, horizontal surface collides with a light spring, (a) Initially
the mechanical energy is all kinetic energy, (b) The mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic
energy of the block and the elastic potential energy in the spring, (c) The energy is entirely
potential energy, (d) The energy is transformed back to the kinetic energy of the block. The total
energy remains constant.

light coiled spring as in Figure 8.9. The description that follows is greatly
simplified by assuming is very light and therefore its kinetic
that the spring
energy is negligible. The spring exerts a force on the block to the left as the
spring is compressed, and eventually the block stops (Fig. 8.9c). The initial
energy in the system (block + spring) is the initial kinetic energy of the block.
When the block stops after colliding with the spring, its kinetic energy is zero.
Because the spring force is conservative and because there are no external
forces that can do work on the system (including gravity), the total mechanical
energy of the system must remain constant. Thus, there is a transfer of energy
from kinetic energy of the block to potential energy stored in the spring.
Eventually, the block moves in the opposite direction and regains all of its
initial kinetic energy, as described in Figure 8.9d.

To describe the potential energy stored in the spring, recall from the
previous chapter that the work done by the spring on the block as the block
moves from x = x to x = xf is
{

W
s
= $k Xi 2 - 2
ifcx f

2
The quantity \kx is defined as the elastic potential energy stored in the spring,
denoted by the symbol U s
:

Potential energy stored in a

U. = ikx 2 (8.14)
spring

The elastic potential energy stored in the spring is zero when the spring is
unstretched, or undeformed, (x = 0). Furthermore, U, is a maximum when the
spring has reached its maximum compression (Fig. 8.9c). Finally, Us is always
positive since it is proportional to x 2 .
192 CHAPTER S POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

The total mechanical energy of the block-spring system can be expressed

as

E = imv? + ikx? = |mu f2 + £itx f2 (8.15)

Applying this expression to the system described in Figure 8.9 and noting that
x ;
— 0, we get
E = imv? = |mc f2 + $kx {2 (8.16)

This expression says that for any displacement x f when the speed of the block
,

is i f the sum of the kinetic and potential energies is equal to a constant E,

.

which equals the total energy. In this case, the total energy is the initial kinetic
energy of the block.
Now suppose there are nonconservative forces acting on the block-spring
system. In this case, we can apply the work-energy theorem in the form of
Equation 8.13, which gives

Wx = &mv {
2
+ ifccf2 -
) (Imv? + ±kx 2 { ) (8.17)

That is. the total mechanical energy is not a constant of the motion when
nonconservative forces act on the system. Again, if W
nc is due to a force of
friction, then \Vnc is negative and the final energy is less than the initial energy.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES
As we have seen, many problems in physics can be solved using the principle of
conservation of mechanical energy. Other examples involving springs as part of
the system will follow. The following steps should be followed in applying this
principle:

1. Define your system, which may consist of more than one object.
2. Select a reference position for the zero point of potential energy (both gravi-
tational and spring), and use this throughout your analysis. If there is more
than one conservative force, then remember to write expressions for the
potential energy associated with each force. (Examples 8.6 and 8.8 below, for
instance, involve systems with springs and with objects whose gravitational
potential energy changes.)
3. Determine whether or not friction forces are present. Remember that if fric-
tion or air resistance is present, mechanical energy is not conserved.
4. If mechanical energy is conserved, then you can proceed to write the total
initial energy E at some point as the sum of the kinetic and potential energy at
s

that point. Then, write an expression for the total final energy E[= Kf+ U(
at the final point that is of interest. Since mechanical energy is conserved,
you can equate the two total energies and solve for the quantity that is un-
known.
5. If friction forces are present, then you should first write expressions for the
and total final energies. In this case, however, the total final
total initial
energy differs from the total initial energy, the difference being the work
done by the nonconservative forces. That is, you should apply = E( — Ej W^
as in Examples 8.4b and 8.5.
 8.6 POTENTIAL ENERGY STORED IN A SPRING 193

EXAMPLE S.6 The Spring-Loaded Popgun

The launching mechanism of a toy gun consists of a
spring of unknown spring constant as shown in Figure
8.10a. By compressing the spring a distance of 0.12 m,
the gun is able to launch a 20-g projectile to a maximum
height of 20 m when fired vertically from rest. Neglect-
ing all resistive forces, (a) determine the value of the
spring constant.

Solution Since the projectile starts at rest, the initial ki-

netic energy in the system is zero. If the reference of

gravitational potential energy taken at the lowest posi-
is

tion of the projectile, then gravitational poten-

its initial

tial energy is also zero. Hence, the total initial energy of

the system is the elastic potential energy stored in the

spring, which is kx 2 /2, where x = 0. 1 2 m. Since the pro-
jectile rises to a height h = 20 m, its final gra-
maximum
vitational potential energy is equal to mg/i, its final ki-
netic energy is zero, and the final elastic potential energy (a) (b)

is zero. Since there are no nonconservative forces, con-

FigureS. 10 Example 8.6.
servation of mechanical energy can be applied to give

\kx 2 = mgh Exercise 4 What is the speed of the projectile when it is

j£(0.12 m)
2 = (0.02 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 )(20 m) at a height of 10 m?
Answer 14.0 m/s

k = 544 N/m EXAMPLE Mass-Spring Collision

8.7
A mass of 0.80 kg is given an initial velocity D-, = 1.2 m/s
(b) Find the speed of the projectile as it moves through to the right and collides with a light spring of force con-

the equilibrium position of the spring (where * = stant k = 50 N/m, as in Figure 8.9. (a) If the surface is
0) as
shown in Figure 8.10b. frictionless, calculate the initial maximum compression
of the spring after the collision.
Solution Using the same reference level for the gravita-
tional potential energy as in part (a), we see that the Solution The total mechanical energy is conserved since
initial energy of the system is still the elastic potential W nc = 0. Applying Equation 8.15 to this system with
2
energy kx /2. The final energy of the system when the v{ = gives
projectile moves through the unstretched position of the = 0+ ikxf
Imv? +
spring consists of the kinetic energy of the projectile,
mu 2/2, and the gravitational potential energy of the pro- m / 0.8 kg
=
jectile, mgx. Hence, conservation of energy in this case *r (1.2 m/s) 0.152 m
50 N/m
gives
(b) If a constant force of friction acts between the
ikx 2 = imv 2 + mgx block and the surface with n = 0.5 and if the speed of the
Solving for v gives block just as it collides with the spring is u, = 1.2 m/s,
what is the maximum compression in the spring?
fkx~2
2gx
V m Solution In this case, the mechanical energy of the sys-
tem is not conserved because of the presence of friction,
(544N/m)(0.12m) 2
- 2(9.80 m/s 2 )(0. 12 m)
which does negative work on the system. The magnitude
.-v (0.02 kg) of the frictional force is

19.7 m/s /= nN = fimg = 0.5(0.80 kg)( 9 .80 5) = 3.92 N

194 CHAPTER 8 POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Therefore, the work done by the force of friction as the

block is displaced from x = to x f = x is t

W„ c = -/*=(- 3.92*) J

Substituting this into Equation 8.17 gives

Wnc = (0 + iJtx
2
)
- (imv? + 0)

-3.92x = -^ x 2 - | (0.80)(1.2)
2

Figure 8.11 (Example 8.8) As the system moves from the

25x 2 + 3.92x- 0.576 = m
highest to the lowest elevation of 2 the system loses gravita-
,

tional potential energy but gains elastic potential energy in the

Solving the quadratic equation for x gives x = 0.0924 m spring. Some mechanical energy is lost because of the presence
and x = — 0.249 m. The physically acceptable root is of the nonconservative force of friction between l
and the m
x = 0.0924 m = 9.24 cm. The negative root is unaccept- surface.

able since the block must be displaced to the right of the

The change in the gravitational potential energy is asso-
origin after coming to rest. Note that 9.24 cm is less than
the distance obtained in the frictionless case (a). This
ciated only with m2 since the vertical coordinate of m,
what we should expect, since
does not change. Therefore, we get
result is friction retards the
motion of the system. (3) AU fi
=U -U = -magh
f i

where the coordinates have been measured from the

EXAMPLE 8.8 Connected Blocks in Motion lowest position of m 2 The change in the elastic potential
Two blocks are connected by a light string that passes energy in the spring is given by
over a frictionless pulley as in Figure 8.11. The block of
(4) AU =Uf-Ui = ikh 2 -0
s
mass on a rough surface and is connected to a
To] lies
spring of force constant k. The system is released from Substituting (2), (3), and (4) into (1) gives

rest when the spring is unstretched. If m 2 falls a distance — /imjg/i = —m 2 gh + ^kh 2

h before coming to rest, calculate the coefficient of ki-
netic friction between m and the surface.
-
= m 2 g jkh
x

-
[i

Solution In this situation there are two forms of poten-

tialenergy to consider: the gravitational potential en-
ergy and the elastic potential energy stored in the spring. This represents a possible experimental technique
We can write the work-energy theorem for measuring the coefficient of kinetic friction. For ex-
ample, if mj = 0.50 kg, m 2 = 0.30 kg, k = 50 N/m, and
(1) W nr = AK + ALL + At/C li = 5.0X 10~
2
m, we find that
where AUg is the change in the gravitational potential
energy and AUS is the change in the elastic potential en- (0.30 kg)( 9.80 ™) - |(50 — 1(5.0 X 10~ 2 m)
ergy of the system. In this situation, AK = since the
initial and final speeds of the system are zero. Also, W nc is
(0.50 kg) 9 8 -

the work done by friction, given by ( °S)

(2) W nc =-fh= -nm lgh 0.345

8.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONSERVATIVE

FORCES AND POTENTIAL ENERGY
In the previous sections we saw that the concept of potential energy is related
to the configuration, or coordinates, of a system. In a few examples, we showed
how to obtain the potential energy from a knowledge of the conservative
force. (Remember that one can associate a potential energy function only with
a conservative force.)
According to Equation 8 1 the change in the potential energy of a particle
. ,

under the action of a conservative force equals the negative of the work done
 °8.8 ENERGY DIAGRAMS AND STABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM 195

by the force. If the system undergoes an infinitesimal displacement, dx, we can

express the infinitesimal change in potential energy, dU, as

dU=-F x dx

Therefore, the conservative force is related to the potential energy function

through the relationship

Relation between force and

=
F,
-f (8.18)
potential energy

That is, the conservative force equals the negative derivative of the potential
energy with respect to x. 3
We can easily check this relationship for the two examples already dis-
cussed. In the case of the deformed spring, Us = \kx 2 and therefore ,

F = -fee
dx dx

which corresponds to the restoring force in the spring. Since the gravitational
potential energy function is given by t/
g
= mgy, it follows from Equation 8.18
that Fg = — mg.
We now see that Uis an important function, since the conservative force
can be derived from it. Furthermore, Equation 8.18 should clarify the fact that
adding a constant to the potential energy is unimportant.

"8.8 ENERGY DIAGRAMS AND STABILITY

OF EQUILIBRIUM
The qualitative behavior of the motion of a system can often be understood
through an analysis of its potential energy curve. Consider the potential en-
ergy function for the mass-spring system, given by Us = \kx 2 This function .

is plotted versus x in Figure 8.12a. The force is related to U through the

(b)

expression Figure 8.12 (a) The potential en-

ergy as a function of x for the block-
dU
F = s
= -kx spring system described in (b). The
dx block oscillates between the turn-
ing points, which have the coordi-
That is, the force is equal to the negative of the slope of the U versus x curve. nates i = ± i m Note that the re-
.

placed at rest at the equilibrium position (x = 0), where

storing force of the spring always
When the mass is
acts toward x = 0, the position of
F = 0, remain there unless some external force acts on it. If the spring is
it will stable equilibrium.
stretched from equilibrium, x is positive and the slope dU/dx is positive;

therefore Fs is negative and the mass accelerates back toward x = 0. If the

spring is compressed, x is negative and the slope is negative; therefore Fs is
positive and again the mass accelerates toward x = 0.
From this analysis, we conclude that the x = position is one of stable Stable equilibrium
equilibrium. That is, any movement away from this position results in a force

3In a three-dimensional problem, where t/depends on x, y, z, the force is related to [/through the
expression F = -i dU/dx -j dU/dy - k dll/dz, where d/dx, etc., are partial derivatives. In the lan-
guage of vector calculus, F is said to equal the negative of the gradient of the scalar quantity
U(x, y, z).
196 CHAPTER 8 POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

that is directed back toward x = 0. In general, positions of stable equilibrium

correspond to those points for which U(x) has a minimum value.
From Figure 8.12 we see that if the mass is given an initial displacement x m
and released from rest, its total energy initially is the potential energy stored in
the spring, given by 2^ m 2 As motion commences, the system acquires kinetic
•

energy at the expense of losing an equal amount of potential energy. Since the
total energy must remain constant, the mass oscillates between the two points
x = ±x m called the turning points. In fact, because there is no energy loss (no
,

friction), the mass will oscillate between — x m and +x m forever. (We shall
discuss these oscillations further in Chapter 13.) From an energy viewpoint,
the energy of the system cannot exceed i^m 2 therefore the mass must stop at
>

these points and, because of the spring force, accelerate toward x = 0.

Another simple mechanical system that has a position of stable equilib-
rium is that of a ball rolling about in the bottom of a spherical bowl. If the ball is
displaced from its lowest position, it will always tend to return to that position
when released.
Now consider an example where the [/versus x curve is as shown in Figure
8.13. In this case, Fx = at x = 0, and so the particle is in equilibrium at this
point. However, this is a position of unstable equilibrium for the following
reason. Suppose the particle is displaced to the right (x > 0). Since the slope is

negative for x > 0, Fz = —dU/dx is positive and the particle will accelerate
away from x = 0. Now suppose that the particle is displaced to the left (x < 0).
In this case, the force is negative since the slope is positive for x < 0. There-

fore, the particle will again accelerate away from the equilibrium position.
Figure 8.13 A plot of U versus x
for a system that has a position of
Therefore, the x = position in this situation is called a position of unstable
unstable equilibrium, located at equilibrium, since for any displacement from this point, the force pushes the
x = the force on the
0. In this case, particle farther away from equilibrium. In fact, the force pushes the particle
system for displacements
finite is

directed away from x = 0.

toward a position of lower potential energy. A ball placed on the top of an
inverted spherical bowl is obviously in a position of unstable equilibrium. That
is, if the ball is displaced slightly from the top and released, it will surely roll off

the bowl. In general, positions of unstable equilibrium correspond to those

4
points for which U(x) has a maximum value.
Finally, a situation may arise where U is constant over some region, and
Neutral equilibrium hence F= 0. This is called a position of neutral equilibrium. Small displace-
ments from this position produce neither restoring nor disrupting forces. A
ball lying on a flat horizontal surface is an example of an object in neutral
equilibrium.

8.9 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN GENERAL

We have seen that the total mechanical energy of a system is conserved when
only conservative forces act on the system. Furthermore, we were able to
associate a potential energy function with each conservative force. In other
words, mechanical energy is lost when nonconservative forces, such as fric-
tion, are present.
We can generalize the energy conservation principle to include all forces
acting on the system, both conservative and nonconservative. In the study of
thermodynamics we shall find that mechanical energy can be transformed into

4
Mathematically, you can test whether an extreme of l/is stable or unstable by examining the sign
of d 2 U/dx*.
 •8.10 MASS-ENERGY EQUIVALENCE 197

thermal energy. For example, when a block slides over a rough surface, the
mechanical energy lost is transformed into internal energy temporarily stored
in the block, as evidenced by a measurable increase in its temperature. On a
submicroscopic scale, we shall see that this internal energy is associated with
the vibration of atoms about their equilibrium positions. Since this internal
atomic motion has kinetic and potential energy, one can say that frictional
5
forces arise fundamentally from conservative atomic forces. Therefore, if we
include this increase in the internal energy of the system in our work-energy
theorem, the total energy is conserved.
This is just one example of how you can analyze a system and always find
that the total energy of an isolated system does not change, as long as you
account for all forms of energy. That is, energy can never be created or de-
stroyed. Energy may be transformed from one form to another, but the total
energy of an isolated system is always constant. From a universal point of view,
we can say that the total energy of the universe is constant. Therefore, if one Total energy is always
part of the universe gains energy in some form, another part must lose an equal conserved
amount of energy. No violation of this principle has been found.
Other examples of energy transformations include the energy carried by
sound waves resulting from the collision of two objects, the energy radiated by
an accelerating charge in the form of electromagnetic waves (a radio antenna),
and the elaborate sequence of energy conversions in a thermonuclear reac-
tion.
In subsequent chapters, we shall see that the energy concept, and espe-
ciallytransformations of energy between various forms, join together the
various branches of physics. In other words, one cannot really separate the
subjects of mechanics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism. Finally, from
a practical viewpoint, all mechanical and electronic devices rely on some

forms of energy transformation.

"8.10 MASS-ENERGY EQUIVALENCE

This chapter has been concerned with the important principle of energy con-
servation and its application to various physical phenomena. Another impor-
tant principle, called the law of conservation of mass, says that in any kind of
ordinary physical or chemical process, matter is neither created nor destroyed.
That is, the mass of the system before the process equals the mass of the system
after the process.
At would appear that energy and mass are two quantities that
this point, it

are separately conserved. However, in 1905 Einstein made the incredible

discovery that energy can be transformed into mass and that mass can be
transformed into energy. Mass and energy are not conserved separately, but
are conserved as a single entity called mass-energy. Hence, energy and mass
are considered to be equivalent concepts. The relation between energy and
mass is given by Einstein's most famous formula

E = mc* (8.19)

5By introducing the nonconservative force, friction, we are able to limit the system we are
studying.We have, in effect, avoided the complex problem of describing the dynamics of 10 23
molecules and their interactions.
198 CHAPTER 8 POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

where c is the speed of light (c ~ 3 X 10 8 m/s), and E is the energy equivalent

of a mass m. In relativity, the mass m associated with an object at rest is called
the rest mass, while the corresponding energy E is called the rest energy. As
we Chapter 39, mass increases with speed; however, this depen-
shall see in
dence is «c: c. Hence, the masses that we use for describing
insignificant for v
situations in our everyday experiences are taken to be rest masses.
The rest energy associated with a small amount of matter is enormous. For
example, the rest energy of 1 kg of any substance is calculated to be

E = mc2 = (1 kg)(3 X 10 8 m/s) 2 = 9 X 10 16 J

This is equivalent to the energy content of about 1 5 million barrels of crude oil

(about one day's consumption in the entire United States)! If this energy could
easily be converted energy resources would be unlimited.
to useful work, our
In reality, matter not freely converted to energy. However, in some
is

instances, a significant fraction of the rest energy can be converted to work.

The exchange between mass and energy is most notable in nuclear reactions,
where fractional changes in mass of about 1 -3 are routinely observed. A good
example is the enormous energy released when the uranium-235 nucleus
undergoes fission (splits) into smaller fragments. This happens because the
235
U nucleus is more massive than the sum of the masses of the fission products.
The awesome nature of the energy released in such reactions is vividly demon-
strated in the explosion of a nuclear weapon.
Since the mass and the energy of a system change together, both can be
regarded as aspects of one quantity, mass-energy. The conservation law that
describes any transformation or process states that the mass-energy of an iso-
lated system remains constant.
Another aspect of the energy-mass relationship given by Equation 8 1 9 is .

that energy has mass.Whenever the energy of an object changes in any way, its
mass changes. If A£ is the change in energy of an object, its change in mass is
given by

AE
Am = ^cr
(8.20)

In ordinary experiments, if energy A£ in any form (such as kinetic, potential,

or thermal energy) supplied to an object, the change in the mass of the

is

object would be Am = A£/c 2 However, since c2 is so large, the changes in

.

mass in any ordinary mechanical experiment (or chemical reaction) are too
small to be detected.

"8.11 QUANTIZATION OF ENERGY

As you may have learned in your chemistry course, all ordinary matter consists
of atoms, and each atom consists of a collection of electrons and a nucleus.
Thus, on the fine scale of the atomic world, we see that mass comes in discrete
quantities corresponding to the atomic masses. In the language of modern
physics, we say that mass is quantized. As we shall learn in the extended version
of this text, many more physical quantities including energy are quantized.
The quantized nature of energy is especially revealing in the atomic and
subatomic world.
 8.11 QUANTIZATION OF ENERGY 199

Hydrogen atom
(a)

Figure 8.14 (a) Quantum states of the hydrogen atom. The lowest state, E is the ground state.
,

(b) The energy levels of an earth satellite are also quantized, but are so close together that they
cannot be distinguished from each other.

First, consider the energy levels of the hydrogen atom (an electron orbit-
ing around a proton) The electron in the atom can only occupy certain energy
.

levels, calledquantum states, as shown in Figure 8. 14a. The atom cannot have
any energy values lying between these quantum states. The lowest energy
level, labeled £ is called the ground state of the atom. The ground state
,

corresponds to the state that the atom would usually occupy if it were isolated.
The atom could move to higher energy states by absorbing energy from some
external source or by colliding with other atoms. The highest energy on the
scale shown in Figure 8.14a, £„, corresponds to the energy of the atom when
the electron is completely removed from the proton, and is called the ioniza-
tion energy. Note that the energy levels get closer together at the high end of
the scale.
Next, consider a satellite in orbit about the earth. If you were asked to
describe the possible energies that the satellite could have, it would be reason-
able (but incorrect) to say that the satellite could have any arbitrary energy
you choose. However, just like the hydrogen atom, the energy of the satellite is
also quantized. If you were to construct an energy level diagram for the satel-
lite showing its allowed energies, the levels would be very close together and

essentially form a continuum of states as in Figure 8. 1 4b. In fact, the levels are
so close to one another that it is impossible to tell they are not continuous. In
other words, we have no way of experiencing quantization of energy in the
macroscopic world; hence we can ignore it in describing everyday experi-
ences.
200 CHAPTER 8 POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

SUMMARY
A force is conservative if the work done by that force acting on a particle is
independent of the path the particle takes between two given points. Alter-
natively, a force is conservative if the work done by that force is zero when
the particle moves through an arbitrary closed path and returns to its initial
position. A force that does not meet these criteria is said to be nonconserva-
tive.
A potential energy function can be associated only with a conserva-
17

tive force. If a conservative force Facts on a particle that moves along the x
from x to x ( the change in
axis {
, the potential energy equals the negative of the
work done by that force:

Change in potential energy U

t Fr dx (8.2)

The law of conservation of mechanical energy states that if the only

force acting on a mechanical system is conservative, the total mechanical
energy is conserved:

Conservation of mechanical K, + l7, = Kf+Uj (8.5)

energy
The mechanical energy of a system
total is defined as the sum of the
kinetic energy and potential energy:

Total mechanical energy E = K+U (8.6b)

The gravitational potential energy of a particle of mass m that is ele-

vated a distance y near the earth's surface is given by

Gravitational potential energy Ug - mgy (8.9)

The work-energy theorem nonconser-

states that the work done by all

vative forces acting on a system equals the change in the total mechanical
energy of the system:
Work done by nonconserva- W DC
= £ -£,
f (8.13)
tive forces
The elastic potential energy stored in a spring of force constant k is

Potential energy stored in a 17. = Ikx* (8.14)

spring

QUESTIONS

1. A bowling ball is suspended from the ceiling of a lec- 3. A ball is dropped by a person from the top of a build-

ture hall by a strong cord. The bowling ball is drawn ing, while another person at the bottom observes its
away from its equilibrium position and released from motion. Will these two people agree on the value of
rest at the tip of the demonstrator's nose. If the dem- the ball's potential energy? on the change in potential
onstrator remains stationary, explain why she will not energy of the ball? on the kinetic energy of the ball?
be struck by the ball on its return swing. Would the 4. When a person runs in a track event at constant veloc-
demonstrator be safe if the ball were given a push ity, is any work done? (Note: Although the runner may

from this position? move with constant velocity, the legs and arms un-
2. Can the gravitational potential energy of an object dergo acceleration.) How does air resistance enter
ever have a negative value? Explain. into the picture?
 PROBLEMS 201

5. Our body muscles exert forces when we lift, push, 14. Discuss all the energy transformations that occur dur-
run, jump, etc. Are these forces conservative? ing the operation of an automobile.
6. When nonconservative forces act on a system, does 15. A ball is thrown straight up into the air. At what posi-
the total mechanical energy remain constant? tion is its kinetic energy a maximum? At what position
7. If three different conservative forces and one non- is its gravitational potential energy a maximum?
conservative force act on a system, how many poten- 16. Three identical balls are thrown from the top of a
tial energy terms will appear in the work-energy building, all with the same initial speed. One ball is

theorem? thrown horizontally, the second at some angle above

8. A block is connected to a spring that is suspended the horizontal, and the third at some angle below the
from the ceiling. If the block is set in motion and air horizontal. Neglecting air resistance, compare the
resistance is neglected, will the total energy of the speeds of the balls as they reach the ground.
system be conserved? How many forms of potential 17. Consider the earth to be a perfect sphere. By how
energy are there for this situation? much does your potential energy change if you
9. Consider a ball fixed to one end of a rigid rod with the (a) walk from the north pole to the equator? (b) jump
other end pivoted on a horizontal axis so that the rod through a "tunnel" from the north pole to the south
can rotate in a vertical plane. What are the positions of pole passing through the center of the earth?
stable and unstable equilibrium? 18. Does a single external force acting on a particle nec-
10. A ball rolls on a horizontal surface. Is the ball in stable, essarily change (a) its kinetic energy? (b) its veloc-
unstable, or neutral equilibrium? ity?
11. Is it physically possible to have a situation where 19. Is the work done by a nonconservative force always
E-U<0? negative?
12. What would the curve of U versus x look like if a 20. In the high jump, is any portion of the running ath-

particle were in a region of neutral equilibrium? lete's kinetic energy converted into potential energy
13. Explain the energy transformations that occur during during the jump?
the following athletic events: the pole vault, (b) the
(a) 21. In the pole vault or high jump, why does the athlete
shotput, (c) the high jump. What is the source of en- attempt to keep his or her center of gravity as low as
ergy in each case? possible near the top of the jump?

PROBLEMS
Section 8.1 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces done by F along the three paths OAC, OBC, and OC,
and show that they are identical.
1. A 4-kg particle moves from the origin to the position
having coordinates x = 5 m and y = 5 m under the
3. A particle moves in the xy plane in Figure 8.15 under
the influence of a frictional force that opposes its dis-
influence of gravity acting in the negative y direction
placement. If the frictional force has a magnitude of
(Fig. 8.15). Using Equation 7.21, calculate the work
3 N, calculate the total work done by friction along
done by gravity in going from O to C along the follow-
the following closed paths: (a) the path OA followed
ing paths: (a) OAC, (b) OBC, (c) OC. Your results
by the return path AO, (b) the path OA followed by AC
should all be identical. Why?
and the return path CO, and (c) the path OC followed
by the return path CO. (d) Your results for the three
closed paths should all be different and nonzero.

m What is the significance of this?

(5, 5)
4. A single conservative force acting on a particle varies
as F= (-Ax + Bx 2 )i N, where A and B are constants
and x m. (a) Calculate the potential energy asso-
is in
ciated with this force, taking U=
at x = 0. (b) Find
the change in potential energy and change in kinetic
O A energy as the particle moves from x=2mtox = 3m.
Figure 8.15 (Problems 1, 2, 3, and 5).
5. A force acting on a particle moving in the xy plane is
given by F= (2yi + x 2j)
N, where x and y are in m.
2. (a) Starting with Equation 7.20 for the definition of The moves from the origin to a final position
particle
work, show that any constant force is conservative, having coordinates x = 5 m and y = 5 m, as in Figure
(b) As a special case, suppose a particle of mass m is 8.15. Calculate the work done by F along (a) OAC,
under the influence of force F=(3i + 4/) N and (b) OBC, (c) OC. (d) Is F conservative or nonconserva-
moves from O to C in Figure 8.15. Calculate the work tive? Explain.
 .

202 CHAPTER 8 POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Section 8.3 Conservation of Mechanical Energy

6. A 4-kg particle moves along the x axis under the influ-

ence of a single conservative force. If the work done
on the particle is 80 J as the particle moves from x =
2 m to x = 5 m, find (a) the change in the particle's
kinetic energy, (b) the change in its potential energy,
and (c) its speed at x = 5 m if it starts at rest at x = 2 m.
7. A single conservative force Fz = (2x + 4) N acts on a
5-kg particle, where x is in m. As the particle moves
along the x axis from x=l mtox = 5m, calculate
(a) the work done by this force, (b) the change in the
Figure 8.17 (Problem 11).
potential energy of the particle, and (c) its kinetic
energy at x = 5 m if its speed at x = 1 m is 3 m/s. maximum height of 20 m above P. Using the conser-
8. At time f; the kinetic energy of a particle is 30 J and its
,
vation of energy, determine: (a) the vertical compo-
potential energy is 10 J. At some later time ff, its ki- nent of v , (b) the work done by the gravitational
netic energy is 18 J. (a) If only conservative forces act force on the particle during its motion from P to B, and
on the particle, what is its potential energy at time t ( ? (c) the horizontal and the vertical components of the
What is its total energy? (b) If the potential energy at velocity vector when the particle reaches B.
time tf is 5 J, are there any nonconservative forces

9.
acting on the particle? Explain.
A single constant force F = (3i + 5;) N acts on a 4-kg
TN
m \
20

particle, (a) Calculate the work done by this force if

c^-j \
the particle moves from the origin to the point with
vector position r = (2i — 3j) m. Does this result de-
pend on the path? Explain, (b) What is the speed of the
particle at r if its speed at the origin is 4 m/s? (c) What
is the change in the potential energy of the particle?

10. Use conservation of energy to determine the final A 5

speed of a mass of 5 .kg attached to a light cord over a
massless, frictionless pulley and attached to another
Figure 8.18 (Problem 12).

mass of 3.5 kg when the 5.0 kg mass has fallen (start-

ing from rest) a distance of 2.5 m. (See Figure 8.16.) Section 8.4 Gravitational Potential Energy Near the
Earth's Surface

13. A rocket is launched at an angle of 53° to the horizon-

talfrom an altitude h with a speed v (a) Use energy .

methods to find the speed of the rocket when its alti-

tude is h/2. (b) Find the x and y components of veloc-
W ity
vx
when the rocket's altitude is h/2, using the fact that
= v l0 = constant (since a x = 0) and the results to
part (a).

5 kg 14. A 5-kg mass is attached to a light string of length 2 m

!.5
r m
to form a pendulum (Fig. 8.5). The mass is given an
initial speed of 4 m/s at its lowest position. When the

string makes an angle of 37° with the vertical, find

L 3.5 kg (a) the change in the potential energy of the mass,

(b) the speed of the mass, and (c) the tension in the
Figure 8.16 (Problem 10). string, (d) What is the maximum height reached by
the mass above its lowest position?
1 1 A bead slides without friction around a loop-the-loop 15. A 0.20-kg ball is thrown vertically upward from the
(Fig. 8.17). If the bead is released from a height h = ground with an initial speed of 20 m/s. Let y measure

3.5R, what is its speed at point A? How large is the the height of the ball above the ground. Choose the
normal force on it if its mass is 5.0 g? gravitational potential energy of the ball to be zero at
12. A particle of mass 0.5 kg is shot from P as shown in the ground. Write an expression for (a) the gravita-
Figure 8.18 with an initial velocity v having a hori-
,
energy as a function of y, (b) the total
tional potential
zontal component of 30 m/s. The particle rises to a mechanical energy as a function of y, and (c) the ki-
 PROBLEMS 203

netic energy of the ball as a function of y. For what Section 8.5 Noneonservative Forces and the Work-
range of values of y is this expression valid? (d) What is Energy Theorem
the maximum height above the ground attained by the
19. A 5-kg block
is set into motion up an inclined plane as
ball?
in Figure 8.21 with an initial speed of 8 m/s. The
16 A0.4-kgball is thrown into the air and reaches a maxi-
block comes to rest after traveling 3 m along the
mum altitude of 20 m. Taking its initial position as the
plane, as shown in the diagram. The plane is inclined
point of zero potential energy and using energy meth-
at an angle of 30° to the horizontal, (a) Determine the
ods, find (a) its initial speed, (b) its total mechanical
change in kinetic energy, (b) Determine the change
energy, and (c) the ratio of its kinetic energy to its
in potential energy, (c) Determine the frictional force
(potential energy when its altitude is 10 m.
on the block (assumed to be constant), (d) What is the
/Two masses are connected by a light string passing
coefficient of kinetic friction?
over a light frictionless pulley as shown in Figure
8.19. The 5-kg mass is released from rest. Using the
law of conservation of energy (a) determine the veloc-
,

ity of the 3-kg mass just as the 5-kg mass hits the

ground, ^b), Find the maximum height to which the

3-kg mass will rise.
o =8 m/s
A
Figure 8.21 (Problem 19).
5 kg

20. A block with a mass of 3 kg starts at a height h =

Tm
4
60 cm on a plane with an inclination angle of 30°, as
shown in Figure 8.22. Upon reaching the bottom of
3 kg
the ramp, the block slides along a horizontal surface.
1 If the coefficient of friction on both surfaces is

Hk = 0.20, how far will the block slide on the horizon-

Figure 8.19 (Problem 17). tal surface before coming to rest? [Hint: Divide the
path into two straight-line parts.)
1 8. A child slides down the frictionless slide shown in Fig-
ure 8.20. In terms of fi and H, at what height h will he
lose contact with the section of radius R?

Figure 8.22 (Problem 20).

21. A parachutist of mass 50 kg jumps out of an airplane at

a height of 1000 m. The parachute deploys, and she
lands on the ground with a speed of 5 m/s. How much
energy was lost to air friction during this jump?
22. A 0.5-kg bead slides on a curved wire, starting from
rest at point A in Figure 8.23. The segment from A to
B is frictionless, and the segment from B to C is rough,
(a) Find the speed of the bead at B. (b) If the bead
Figure 8.20 (Problem If comes to rest at C, find the total work done by friction
204 CHAPTER 8 POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

ingoing from B to C. (c) What is the net work done by

nonconservative forces as the bead moves from A to
C?

Figure 8.23 (Problem 22).

23. A 25-kg child on a swing 2 m long is released from rest

when make an angle of 30° with
the swing supports
the vertical, Neglecting friction, find the child's
(a)

speed at the lowest position, (b) If the speed of the

child at the lowest position is 2 m/s, what is the energy
loss due to friction?
24. A force Fx shown
, as a function of distance in Figure
8.24, acts on a 5-kg mass. If the particle starts from
rest at x = m, determine the speed of the particle at
x = 2, 4, and 6 m.
 PROBLEMS 205

32. A child's pogo stick (Fig. 8.27) stores energy in a kinetic friction between the horizontal surface and
spring (k = 10 4 N/m). At position A {x 1 =
2.5 X the block.
— 0.1 m) the spring compression is a maximum, and 35. A 10-kg block is released from point A on a track
the child is momentarily at rest. At position B (x = 0) ABCD as shown in Fig. 8.28. The track is frictionless

the spring is relaxed, and the child is moving upward. except for the portion BC, of length 6 m. The block
At position C the child is again momentarily at rest at travels down the track and hits a spring of force con-

the top of the jump. Assume that the combined mass stant k = 2250 N/m and compresses it a distance of

of the child and the pogo stick is 25 kg, and (a) calcu- 0.3 m from its equilibrium position before coming to
late the total energy of the system if both potential rest momentarily. Determine the coefficient of ki-
energies are zero at x = 0. (b) Determine x 2 (c) Cal- . netic friction between the track portion BC and the
culate the speed of the child at x = 0. (d) Determine block.
the value of x for which the kinetic energy of the sys- 36. A 120-g mass is attached to the end of an unstressed
tem is a maximum, (e) Obtain the child's maximum light vertical spring (k = 40 N/m) and then dropped.
upward velocity. (a) What is the maximum speed of the falling mass?

C (b) How far will the mass drop before coming to rest
momentarily?

Section 8.7 Relationship Between Conservative Forces

and Potential Energy

37. The potential energy of a two-particle system sepa-

rated by a distance r is given by U(r) — A/r, where A is
a constant. Find the radial force FT .

38. The potential energy function for a system is given by

U= ax 2 — bx, where a and b are constants, (a) Find
the force Fz associated with this potential energy func-
tion, (b) At what value of x is the force zero?
39. A potential energy function for a two dimensional
force is of the form

U=3x 3 y-7x
Figure 8.27 (Problem 32). Find the force that acts at the point (x, (/).

33. A block of mass 0.25 kg is placed on a vertical spring

of constant k = 5000 N/m
and is pushed downward,
"Section 8.8 Energy Diagrams and Stability of
compressing the spring a distance of 0.1 m. As the
Equilibrium
block is released it leaves the spring and continues to
travel upward. To what maximum height above the 40. Consider the potential energy curve U(x) versus x
point of release does the block rise? shown in Figure 8.29. (a) Determine whether the
34. A block of mass 2 kg is kept at rest by compressing a force F% is positive, negative, or zero at the various
horizontal massless spring having a spring constant points indicated, (b) Indicate points of stable, unsta-
k = 100 N/m by 10 cm. As the block is released it ble, or neutral equilibrium, (c) With reference to the
travels on a rough horizontal surface a distance of potential energy curve in Figure 8.29, make a rough
0.25 m before it stops. Calculate the coefficient of sketch of the curve Fz versus x from x = to x = 8 m.

Figure 8.2S (Problem 35).

206 CHAPTER 8 POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Figure 8.31 (Problem 43).

energy of the particle, and the term mc 2 is its rest

energy. A proton moves with a speed of 0.990c, where
Figure 8.29 (Problem 40).
c is the speed of light. Find (a) its rest energy, (b) its
total energy, and (c) its kinetic energy.

41. A right circular cone can be balanced on a horizontal

surface in three different ways. Sketch these three
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
equilibrium configurations, and identify them as
being positions of stable, unstable, or neutral equilib- 46. A 200-g particle is released from rest at point A along
rium. the diameter on the inside of a smooth hemispherical
42. A hollow pipe has one or two extra weights attached to bowl of radius R = 30 cm (Fig. 8.32). Calculate (a) its
its inner surface as shown in Figure 8.30(a),(b),(c). gravitational potential energy at point A relative to
Explain why one is in unstable equilibrium, one in point B, (b) its kinetic energy at point B, (c) speed at
its

neutral equilibrium, and one in stable equilibrium. (In point B, and (d) its kinetic energy and potential en-
each diagram, O is the center of curvature and cm. is ergy at point C.
the center of mass.)
43. A particle of mass m = 5 kg is released from point A on
a frictionless track shown in Figure 8.31 Determine:
.

(a) the speed of mass m at points B and C, and (b) the

net work done by the force of gravity in moving the
particle from A to C.

"Section 8.10 Mass-Energy Equivalence Figure 8.32 (Problems 46 and 47).

44. Find the energy equivalence of the following objects.

-31 kg, (b) a ura-
(a) An electron of mass 9.11 X 10 47. The particle described in Problem 46 (Fig. 8.32) is
nium atom of mass 4.0 10 -25 kg, (c) a paper clip of
X released from point A at rest, and the surface of the
mass 2 g, (d) the earth of mass 5.99 X 10 24 kg. bowl is rough. The speed of the particle at point B is
45. The correct expression for the kinetic energy of a par- 1.5 m/s. (a) What is its kinetic energy at B? (b) How
ticle moving with a speed v is given by Equation 7.27, much energy is lost as a result of friction as the particle
which can be written as K = ymc2 — mc2 where the , goes from A to B? (c) Is it possible to determine fi from
factor y= [1 - (u/c) 2
-1 / 2 The term ymc 2 is the total
]
. these results in any simple manner? Explain.

(a) (c)

Figure 8.30 (Problem 42).

 1

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 207

48. A child's toy consists of a piece of plastic attached to a throws in the track events using these objects are
spring (Fig. 8.33). The spring is compressed against about 89 m, 69 m, and 21m, respectively. Neglecting
the floor a distance of 2 cm, and the toy is released. If air resistance, (a) calculate the minimum initial ki-

the mass of the toy is 100 g and it rises to a maximum netic energies that would produce these throws, and
height of 60 cm, estimate the force constant of the (b) estimate the average force exerted on each object
spring. during the throw assuming the force acts over a dis-
(c) Do your results suggest that air resist-
tance of 2 m.
ance is an important factor?
52. An olympic high jumper whose height is 2 m makes a
record leap of 2.3 m over a horizontal bar. Estimate
the speed with which he must leave the ground to
perform this feat. (Hint: Estimate the position of his
center of gravity before jumping, and assume he is in a
horizontal position when he reaches the peak of his
jump.)
53. Prove that the following forces are conservative and
Figure 8.33 (Problem 48). find the change energy corresponding to
in potential
these forces taking X; = and x f = x: (a) Fx = ax + fox 2 ,

49. A child slides without friction from a height h along a (b) Fx = Ae " (a, fo, A, and a are all constants.)
.

curved water slide (Fig. 8.34). She is launched from a 54. A bobsled makes a run down an ice track starting at
height h/5 into the pool. Determine the maximum 150 m vertical distance up the hill. If friction is ne-
height reached by the child in terms of h and 6. glected, what is the velocity at the bottom of the hill?
55. A 2-kg block situated on a rough incline is connected
to a spring of neglible mass having a spring constant of
100 N/m (Fig. 8.36). The block is released from rest
when the spring is unstretched and the pulley is fric-
tionless. The block moves 20 cm down the incline
before coming to rest. Find the coefficient of kinetic
friction between the block and the incline.

Figure 8.34 (Problem 49).

50. A particle of mass m starts at rest and slides down a

shown in Figure 8.35. It leaves the
frictionless track as
track horizontally, striking the ground as indicated in
the sketch. At what height h did it start above the
ground?

Figure 8.36 (Problems 55 and 56).

I
56. Suppose the incline is smooth for the system de-
scribed in Problem 55 (Fig. 8.36). The block is re-
leased from rest with the spring initially unstretched.
(a) How far does it move down the incline before
coming to rest? (b) What is the acceleration of the
block when it reaches its lowest point? Is the accelera-
tion constant? (c) Describe the energy transforma-
tions that occur during the descent of the block.
57. A ball whirls around in end of a
a vertical circle at the
energy remains constant,
string. If the ball's total
h-lm—| show that the tension in the string at the bottom is
Figure 8.35 (Problem 50). greater than the tension at the top by six times the
weight of the ball.
51. The masses of the javelin, thediscus, and the shot are 58. A pendulum of length L swings in the vertical plane.
0.8 kg, 2.0 kg, and 7.2 kg, respectively, and record The string hits a peg located a distance d below the
 +

208 CHAPTER 8 POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

point of suspension (Fig. 8.37). (a) Show that if the 63. In Figure 8.39, a mass m rests on a spring, compress-
pendulum is released at a height below that of the peg, ing it a distance d from its relaxed length of s . Sup-
it will return to this height after striking the peg. pose that instead the mass is released from rest when it
(b) Show that if the pendulum is released from the barely touches the unstressed spring, (a) Find the
horizontal position (8 = 90°) and the pendulum is to maximum compression distance d max (in terms of d) of
swing in a complete circle centered on the peg, then the spring as the mass moves downward, (b) During
the minimum value of d must be 3L/5. this process, what maximum speed does the mass at-
tain?

Figure 8.37 (Problem 58).

59. A 20-kg block is connected to a 30-kg block by a string

that passes over a frictionless pulley. The 30-kg block
is connected to a spring of neglible mass with force (a) (b)
constant 250 N/m, as in Figure 8.38. The spring is
unstretched when the system is as shown in the figure, Figure 8.39 (Problem 63).
and the incline is smooth. The 20-kg block is pulled a
distance of 20 cm down the incline (so that the 30-kg
64. A 5-kg block free to move on a horizontal frictionless
block is 40 cm above the floor) and is released from
surface is attached to a spring. The spring is com-
rest.Find the speed of each block when the 30-kg
pressed 0.1 m from equilibrium and released. The
block is 20 cm above the floor (that is, when the spring
speed of the block is 1.2 m/s when it passes the equi-
is unstretched).
librium position of the spring. The same experiment is
now repeated with the frictionless surface replaced
by a surface with a coefficient of kinetic friction
[iy. = 0.3. Determine the speed ofthe block at the equi-

librium position ofthe spring.

65. A block of mass 0.5 kg is pushed against a horizontal
spring of negligible mass, compressing the spring a
Ax (see Fig. 8.40). The spring constant is
distance of
450 N/m. When released the block travels along a
frictionless horizontal surface to point B, the bottom
Figure 8.38 (Problem 59).
of a vertical circular track of radius R= 1 m and con-
tinues to move up the track. The circular track is not
60. A potential energy function for a system is given by smooth. The speed of the block at the bottom of the
U(x) = — x3 + 2x 2 +
3x. (a) Determine the force Fx as vertical circular track is v B = 12 m/s, and the block
a function of For what values of x is the force
x. (b) experiences an average frictional force of 7.0 N while
equal to zero? (c) Plot U(x) versus x and Fx versus x and sliding up the curved track, (a) What was the initial
indicate points of stable and unstable equilibrium. compression of the spring? (b) What is the speed of
61. A crane is to lift 2000 kg of material to a height of the block at the top ofthe circular track? (c) Does the
1 50 m in 1 min at a uniform rate. What electric power block reach the top of the track, or does it fall off
is required to drive the crane motor if 35 percent of before reaching the top?
the electric power is converted to mechanical power? 66. The potential energy function of a particle as a func-
2 — Bx 3 where A
(Is it reasonable to neglect the kinetic energy in this is given by U = Ax
tion of distance x ,

process?) and B are positive constants, (a) Find the expression

62. An 80 000-kg airliner is flying at 900 km/h at a height for the force the particle experiences as a function of
of 10 km. What is its total energy (kinetic x. (b)Locate the point(s) where the force vanishes.
potential)? (c) Will the equilibrium of the particle be stable at
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 209

Figure 8.40 (Problem 65).

these points? (d) What sort of motion would result if that the plunger's mass and frictional effects are negli-
the particle were released from rest a small distance gible.
away from each of these points? 69. A 1.0-kg mass slides to the right on a surface with
67. Two blocks A and B (with mass 50 kg and 100 kg re- coefficient of friction n = 0.25 (Fig. 8.43). It has a
spectively) are connected by a string as shown in Fig- speed of Uj = 3 m/s when contact is made with a spring
ure 8.41. The pulley is frictionless and of negligible with spring constant k = 50 N/m. The mass comes to
mass. The coefficient of kinetic friction between rest after the spring has been compressed a distance d.
block A and the incline is Hy = 0.25. Determine the The mass is then forced toward the left by the spring
change in the kinetic energy of block A as it moves and it continues to move in that direction beyond the
from C to D, a distance of 20 m up the incline. unstretched position. Finally the mass comes to rest a
distance D to the left of the unstretched position. Find
the following: (a) the compressed distance d, (b) the
velocity v at the unstretched position, and (c) the dis-
tance D where the mass will come to rest to the left of
the unstretched position.
100 kg

Figure 8.41 (Problem 67).

68 . A pinball machine launches a 1 00-g ball with a spring-

driven plunger (Fig. 8.42). The game board is inclined
at 8° above the horizontal. Find the force constant k of
the spring that will give the ball a speed of 80 cm/s
when the plunger is released from rest with the spring
compressed 5 cm from its relaxed position. Assume

Figure 8.42 (Problem 68). Figure 8.43 (Problem 69).

 Linear Momentum and Collisions

What would William Tell

think? An apple being pierced
bij a 30-caliber bullet traveling
at a supersonic speed of 900
m/s. This collision was photo-
graphed with a microflash
stroboscope using an exposure
time of 0.33 fis. The velocity of
the btdlet decreases from v u
to v X f because of the collision,
so it loses kinetic energy. This
loss in energy appears in the
apple, which disintegrates
completely after the collision.
Note that the points of both
entry and exit of the bullet are
visually explosive. (Shooting
the Apple, 1964. © Harold Ed-
gerton. Courtesy of Palm
Press, Inc.)

this chapter we shall analyze the motion of a system containing many

In particles. We shall introduce the concept of the linear momentum of the
system of particles and show that this momentum is conserved when the
system is isolated from its surroundings. The law of momentum conserva-
tion is especially useful for treating such problems as the collisions between
particles and for analyzing rocket propulsion. The concept of the center of
mass of a system of particles will also be introduced. We shall show that the
overall motion of a system of interacting particles can be represented by the
motion of an equivalent particle located at the center of mass.

9.1 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE

The linear momentum of a particle of mass m moving with a velocity v is
1
defined to be the product of the mass and velocity:

Definition of linear momen-

tum of a particle p = mv (9.1)

1
This expression is nonrelativistic, and is valid only when v < c, where c is the speed of light. In
relativity, momentum is defined by the relation p = mp/(l — t^/c2 ) 1 ' 2
.

210
 9.1 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE 211

Momentum is a vector quantity since it equals the product of a scalar, m, and a

vector, v. Its direction is along v, and it has dimensions of ML/T. In the SI
system, momentum has the units kg-m/s.
If a particle is moving in an arbitrary direction, p will have three compo-
nents and Equation 9.1 is equivalent to the component equations given by

px = mv x py = mv y pz = mv z (9.2)

We
can relate the linear momentum to the force acting on the particle
using Newton's second law of motion: The time rate ofchange ofthe momentum
2
of a particle is equal to the resultant force on the particle. That is,

Newton's second law for a

(9.3) particle
dt

From Equation 9.3 we see that if the resultant force is zero, the momen-
tum of the particle must be constant. In other words, the linear momentum of a
particle is conserved when F = 0. Of course, if the particle is isolated (that is, if

itdoes not interact with its environment), then by necessity, and p F=

remains unchanged. This result can also be obtained directly through the
application of Newton's second law in the form F=
m dv/dt. That is, when the
force is zero, the acceleration of the particle is zero and the velocity remains
constant.
Equation 9.3 can be written

dp = Fdt (9.4)

We can integrate this expression to find the change in the momentum of a

particle. If the momentum of the particle changes from p at time t to p f at time { {

tf then integrating Equation 9.4 gives

,

Ap = pf -pi=
f I Fdt (9.5)

The quantity on the right side of Equation 9.5 is called the impulse of the
force F for the time interval At = t( —t {
. Impulse is a vector defined by

1= Fdt = Ap (9.6) Impulse of a force

1
That is,

the impulse of the force F equals the change in the momentum of the
particle.

This statement, known as the impulse-momentum theorem, is equivalent to Impulse-momentum theorem

Newton's second law. From this definition, we see that impulse is a vector
quantity having a magnitude equal to the area under the force-time curve, as

2 The formula F = dp/dt is also valid in relativity provided that we use the relation
p = mt>/(l — v 2 /c z ) l/2 for the momentum. We shall return to the relativistic treatment of motion in
Chapter 39.
212 CHAPTER 9 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

described in Figure 9.1a. In this figure, it is assumed that the force varies in
time in the general manner shown and is nonzero in the time interval Ar =
f f — £j. The direction of the impulse vector is the same as the direction of the

change in momentum. Impulse has the dimensions of momentum, that is,

ML/T. Note that impulse is not a property of the particle itself, but is a quantity
that measures the degree to which an external force changes the momentum of
the particle. Therefore, when we say that an impulse is given to a particle, it is
implied that momentum is transferred from an external agent to that particle.
Since the force can generally varyjn time as in Figure 9.1a, it is conve-
nient to define a time-averaged force F, given by

-f Fdt (9.7)

where At = tf —ti
. Therefore, we can express Equation 9.6 as

I = Ap = F At (9.8)

This average force, described in Figure 9.1b, can be thought of as the constant
Figure 9.1 (a) A force acting ona force that would give the same impulse to the particle in the time interval At as
particle may vary in time. The im- the actual time-varying force gives over this same interval.
pulse is the area under the force
versus time curve, (b) The average
In principle, if F is known as a function of time, the impulse can be
force (horizontal line) would give calculated from Equation 9.6. The calculation becomes^especially simple if the
the same impulse to the particle in force acting on the particle is constant. In this case, F = F and Equation 9.8
the time At as the real time-varying
becomes
force described in (a).

I = Ap = FAt (9.9)

In many physical situations, we shall use the so-called impulse approxi-

mation. In this approximation, we assume that one of the forces exerted on a
particle acts for a short time but is much larger than any other force present. This
approximation is especially useful in treating collisions, where the duration of
the collision is very short. When this approximation is made, we refer to the
force as an impulsive force. For example, when a baseball is struck with a bat,
the time of the collision is about 0.01 s, and the average force the bat exerts on
the ball in this time is typically several thousand newtons. This is much greater
than the force of gravity, so the impulse approximation is justified. When we
use this approximation, it is important to remember that p and pf represent the f

momenta immediately before and after the collision, respectively. Therefore,

in the impulse approximation there is very little motion of the particle during
the collision.

EXAMPLE Teeing Off

9.1 (a) estimate the impulse due to the collision.
A 50 g is struck with a club (Fig. 9.2).
golf ball of mass
The force on the ball varies from zero when contact is Solution Neglecting air resistance, we can use the ex-
made up to some maximum value (where the ball is de- pression for the range of a projectile (Chapter 4) given
formed) back to zero when the ball leaves the club. Thus, by
the force-time curve is qualitatively described by Figure
R = ^- sin 20o
9.1. Assuming that the ball travels a distance of 200 m,
 9.1 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE 213

- 15.0 m/s

Figure 9.2 A golf ball being struck by club. (© Harold E.

Edgerton. Courtesy of Palm Press, Inc.)

Let us assume that the launch angle is 45°, which pro-

vides the maximum range for any given launch speed. Figure 9.3 (Example 9.2).

The initial velocity of the ball is then estimated to be

v = VSg = 7(200 m)(9.80 m/s 2 ) = 44 m/s Hence, the impulse, which equals the change in momen-
Since v and Vf = u for the ball, the magnitude of the
t
= tum, is

impulse imparted to the ball is I = Ap = pf -pi

I=Ap = mv = (50X = 0.39X 10 4 kg- m/s- (-2.25 X 10 4 kg-m/s)
10- 3 kgM44— ] = 2.2 kg-m/s

(b) Estimate the time of the collision. 1 = 2.64 X10 4 kg-m/s

Solution From Figure 9.2, it appears that a reasonable The average force exerted on the automobile is

estimate of the distance the ball travels while in contact

with the club the radius of the ball, about 2 cm. The Ap = 2.64X10 4 kg-m/s =
is
F= ?6
time it takes the club to move this distance (the contact At 0.150 s

time) is then

Ax 2 X 10- 2 m EXAMPLE 9.3 Follow the Bouncing Ball

At = 4.5 X 1CT 4 s A mass 100 g is dropped from a height h = 2 m
ball of
"o 44 m/s
above the floor (Fig. 9.4). It rebounds vertically to a
height h' = 1.5 m after colliding with the floor, (a) Find
Exercise Estimate the magnitude of the average force
1
the momentum of the ball immediately before and after
exerted on the ball during the collision with the club.
the ball collides with the floor.
Answer 4.9 X 10 3 N. This force is extremely large com-
pared with the weight (gravity force) of the ball, which is

only 0.49 N.

EXAMPLE 9.2 How Good are the Bumpers?

In a particular crash test, an automobile of mass
collides with a wall as in Figure 9.3. The initial
1500 kg
and final ft = 2.0 m 9
velocities of the automobile are v {
= — 15.0 m/s and
i

Uf=2.6m/s, respectively. If the collision lasts for !

fc' = 1.5m!
0.150 s, find the impulse due to the collision and the
average force exerted on the automobile.

Solution The initial and final momenta of the automo-

bile are given by

Pi = mv {
(a) (b)

= (1500 kg)(-15.0 m/s) = -2.25 X 10 4 kg-m/s) Figure 9.4 (Example 9.3) (a) The ball is dropped from a height
h and reaches the floor with a velocity c, (b) The ball rebounds
.

pf = mv{ = (1500 kg)(2.6 m/s) = 0.39 X 10 4 kg-m/s from the floor with a velocity C( and reaches a height h'.
214 CHAPTER 9 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

Solution Using the energy methods, we can find v iy the

collides with the floor, Pl=mVf= 0.542; kg -m/s
velocity of the ball just before it

through the relationship

(b) Determine the average force exerted by the floor
4mt>j 2 = tngh on the ball. Assume the time of the collision is 10 -2 s (a

Likewise, the ball's velocity right after colliding with typical value).
Uf,
the floor, is obtained from the energy expression Using Equation 9.5 and the definition of F, we get

JmUf2 = mgh' Ap = pf — p; = F At

Substituting into these expressions the values h = 2.0 m - [0.542j-(-0.626j)|kg-m/s_

= 1.17X10 2jN
and h' = 1.5 m gives 10"

o, = x/2g7i = V(2)(9.80)(2) m/s = 6.26 m/s Note that this average force is much greater than the

= = = force of gravity (mg ~ 1.0 N). That is, the impulsive

vf 4lgh' V(2)(9.80)(1.5) m/s 5.42 m/s
force due to the collision with the floor overwhelms the
Since m = 0.1 kg, the vector expressions for the initial gravitational force. In this inelastic collision, the energy
and final linear momenta are given by lost by the ball is transformed into thermal energy.

Pi
= m« = — 0. 626j kg
f
•
m/s

9.2 CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM FOR

A TWO-PARTICLE SYSTEM
Consider two particles that can interact with each other but are isolated from
their surroundings (Fig. 9.5). That is, the particles exert forces on each other,
but no external forces are present. 3 Suppose that at some time t, the momen-
tum of particle 1 is p x and the momentum of particle 2 is p2 We can apply .

Newton's second law to each particle and write

_dp2
F12 = —r- and
dt dt

where F12 is the force on particle 1 due to particle 2 and F2 i is the force on
particle 2 due to particle 1 These forces could be gravitational forces, electro-
.

static forces, or have some other origin. This really isn't important for the
present discussion. However, Newton's third law tells us that F 12 and F21 are
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. That is, they form an action-
reaction pair and F12 = — F21 We
can also express this condition as
.

Fl2 + F2l =

dp x dp2 _ d
dt dt dt
(Pi+p2 = )

(b)
Since the time derivative of the total momentum, P = p x + p 2 is zero, , we
conclude that the total momentum, P, must remain constant, that is,
Figure 9.5 (a) At some instant,
the momentum of m^ =
P=p
is

m,Ci and the momentum of m 2 is

pi
1 +p2 = constant (9.10)
p 2 = m 2 v 2 Note that Fl2 = ~F2l
. .

(b) The total momentum of the sys-

tem, P, is equal to the vector sum 3 A truly isolated system cannot be achieved in the earth-bound laboratory, since gravitational
P1+P2 forces and friction will always be present.
 m m

9.2 CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM FOR A TWO-PARTICLE SYSTEM 215

This vector equation is equivalent to three component equations. In other

words, Equation 9.10 in component form says that the total momenta in the x,
y, and z directions are all independently conserved, or

We can state this law, known as the conservation of linear momentum, as

follows:

If two uncharged particles of masses m l

and m 2 form an isolated system,
then the total momentum of the system is conserved, regardless of the
nature of the force between them. More simply, whenever two uncharged
particles collide their total momentum remains constant, provided they
are isolated.

Suppose v u and v 2i are the initial velocities of particles 1 and 2, and v lf and
v 2[ are their velocities at some later time. Applying Equation 9.10, we can
express the conservation of linear momentum of this isolated system in the
form

m l
vu + 2 v 2i
=m l
v lf + 2 v2f (9.11)

Pn ~^~
Pu ~ Pif "t"
P2f (9.12) Conservation of momentum

That is, the total momentum of the isolated system at all times equals its initial

total momentum. We can also describe the law of conservation of momentum

in another way. Since we require that the system be isolated, the only forces
acting must be internal to the system (the action-reaction pair). In other
words, if there are no external forces present, the total momentum of the
system remains constant. Therefore, momentum conservation for an isolated
system is an alternative and equivalent statement of Newton's third law.
The law of conservation of momentum is considered to be one of the most
important laws of mechanics. Mechanical energy is only conserved for an
isolated system when conservative forces alone act on a system. On the other
hand, momentum is conserved for an isolated two-particle system regardless
of the nature of the internal forces. In fact, in Section 9.7 we shall show that the
law of conservation of linear momentum also applies to an isolated system of n
particles.

EXAMPLE 9.4 The Recoiling Cannon

A 3000-kg cannon rests on a frozen pond as in Figure
9.6. The cannon is loaded with a 30-kg cannonball and is
fired horizontally. If the cannon recoils to the right with
a velocity of 1.8 m/s, what is the velocity of the cannon-
ball just after it leaves the cannon?

c~7..«:„.,
Solution We
\»7 «. l t\. i -u riL
take the system to consist i. n v. * 9.4)' When the cannonball
Figure 9.6 (Example is fired to the
of the cannonball ,
e | the cannon recoils
left, r cniU to
t n thp
the right
ri(rht
and the cannon. The system is not really isolated because
of the force of gravity and the normal force. However, served
serv in the x direction since there are no external
both of these forces are directed perpendicular to the forces
forc< in this direction (assuming the surface is friction-
motion of the system. Therefore, momentum is con- less)
216 CHAPTER 9 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

The total momentum of the system before firing is " 180m/s

zero. Therefore, the total
zero, or
momentum after firing must be ---Sl""^ <"*>-
The negative sign for v 2 indicates that the ball is moving
m^i + m 2 2 = t>
to the left after firing, in the direction opposite to the

With m = 3000 kg, t^ = 1.8 m/s, and m 2 = 30 kg, solv-

movement of the cannon.
L

ing for v 2 , the velocity of the cannonball, gives

9.3 COLLISIONS
In this section we shall use the law of conservation of momentum to describe
what happens when two particles collide with each other. We shall use the
term collision to represent the event of two particles coming together for a
short time, producing impulsive forces on each other. The impulsive force due
to the collision is assumed to be much larger than any external forces present.
(a)
The collision process may be the result of physical contact between two
objects, as described in Figure 9.7a. This is a common observation when two
macroscopic objects, such as two billiard balls or a baseball and a bat, collide.
The notion of what we mean by a collision must be generalized since "contact"
on a submicroscopic scale is ill-defined and meaningless. More accurately,
impulsive forces arise from the electrostatic interaction of the electrons in the
surface atoms of the two bodies.
He<
To understand this on a more fundamental basis, consider a collision on an
(b)
atomic scale (Fig. 9.7b), such as the collision of a proton with an alpha particle
(the nucleus of the helium atom). Since the two particles are positively
Figure 9.7 (a) The collision be- charged, they repel each other because of the strong electrostatic force be-
tween two objects as the result of
tween them at close separations. Such a process is commonly called a scatter-
direct contact, (b) The collision be-
tween two charged particles. ing process.
When the two particles of masses m, and m 2 collide as in Figure 9.7, the
impulse forces may vary in time in a complicated way such as described in
Figure 9.8. If F12 is the force on m x due to m 2 and we assume no external,

forces act on the particles, then the change in momentum of m l due to the
collision is given by

Api = I F12 dt

Likewise, if F21 is the force on m 2 due to m x , the change in momentum of m 2 is

given by

Ap, Fo, dt
-/:
However, Newton's third law states that the force on m x due to m 2 is equal to
and opposite the force on m 2 due to m 1 or F12 = — F21 (This is described
, .

Figure 9.8 The force as a function

of time for the two colliding parti- graphically in Fig. 9.8.) Hence, we conclude that
cles described in Figure 9.7a. Note
that F,, = -F21 .
Api = -Ap2
Apj + Ap 2 =
Since the total momentum of the system is P = p x + p 2 we conclude that the ,

change in the momentum of the system due to the collision is zero, that is,

P = p + p2 =
l
constant
 9.4 COLLISIONS IN ONE DIMENSION 217

This is precisely what we expect if there are no external forces acting on the

system (Section 9.2). However, the result is also valid if we consider the
motion just before and just after the collision. Since the impulsive forces due
to the collision are internal, they do not affect the total momentum of the
system. Therefore, we conclude that

for any type of collision, the total momentum of the system just before the Momentum is conserved for
collision equals the total momentum of the system just after the collision. anv collision

Whenever a collision occurs between two bodies, we have seen that the total
momentum is always conserved. However, the total kinetic energy is generally
not conserved when a collision occurs because some of the kinetic energy is
converted into thermal energy and internal elastic potential energy when the
bodies are deformed during the collision.
We define an inelastic collision as a collision in which momentum is con- Inelastic collision
served but kinetic energy is not. For a general inelastic collision, we can apply
the law of conservation of momentum in the form given by Equation 9.11. The
collision of a rubber ball with a hard surface is inelastic since some of the
kinetic energy of the ball is lost when it is deformed while it is in contact with
the surface. When two objects collide and stick together after the collision, the
collision is an extreme case of an inelastic
called perfectly inelastic. This is

collision. For example, if two pieces of putty

collide, they stick together and
move with some common velocity after the collision. If a meteorite collides
with the earth, it becomes buried in the earth and the collision is perfectly
inelastic. However, not all of the initial kinetic energy is necessarily lost even
in a perfectly inelastic collision because the combined bodies may not be
stationary after the collision.
An elastic collision is which both momentum and
defined as a collision in Elastic collision
kinetic energy are conserved. Billiard ball collisions and the collisions of air
molecules with the walls of a container at ordinary temperatures are highly
elastic. In reality, collisions in the macroscopic world, such as those between
billiard balls, can be only approximately elastic because in such collisions
there is always some permanent deformation of the objects; hence there is
always some loss of kinetic energy. However, truly elastic collisions do occur
between atomic and subatomic particles. Elastic and perfectly inelastic colli-
sions are limiting cases, and most collisions are cases in between.

1. An inelastic collision is one in which momentum is conserved, but

kinetic energy is not.
2. A perfectly inelastic collision between two objects is an inelastic colli-
Properties of inelastic and
sion in which the two objects stick together after the collision, so their
elastic collision
final velocities are the same.
3. An elastic collision is one in which both momentum and kinetic energy
are conserved.

9.4 COLLISIONS IN ONE DIMENSION

In this section, we treat collisions in one dimension and consider two extreme
types of collisions: (1) perfectly inelastic and (2) elastic. The important dis-
tinction between these two types of collisions is that momentum is conserved
in both cases, but kinetic energy is conserved only in the case of an elastic colli-
sion.
 —

218 CHAPTER 9 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

Before collision After collision

m + mo
i

(a) (b)

Figure 9.9 Schematic representation of a perfectly inelastic head-on collision between two
particles: (a) before the collision and (b) after the collision.

Perfectly Inelastic Collisions

Consider two particles of masses m, and m 2 moving with initial velocities v u

and v 2i along a straight line, as in Figure 9.9. If the two particles stick together
and move with some common velocity v f after the collision, then only the
linear momentum of the system is conserved. Therefore, we can say that the
total momentum before the collision equals the total momentum of the com-
posite system after the collision, that is,

mit>,j + m 2v = 2i
(m, + m 2 )v { (9.13)

niji^jj + m 2v 2i
»r (9.14)
m, + m2

EXAMPLE 9.5 The Cadillac Versus the "Beetle" Solution Since the luxury car is at rest before the colli-

A large luxury car with a mass of 1800 kg stopped at a sion, « 2i = 0, the initial kinetic energy (before the colli-
traffic light is struck from the rear by a compact car with sion) is

a mass of 900 kg. The two cars become entangled as a

Kj = im^n 2 + bm 2 v 2i 2
result of the collision, (a) If the compact car was moving
at 20 m/s before the collision, what will be the velocity of = |(900 kg)(20 m/s) 2 + = 1.80 X10 5 J
the entangled mass after the collision?
Because the vehicles move with a common velocity v f
after the collision, the final kinetic energy (after the col-
Solution The momentum before the collision is that of
lision) is
the compact car alone because the large car was initially
at rest. Thus, we have for the momentum before the K ( = Km, + m 2 )v? = £(900 kg + 1800 kg)(6.67 m/s) 2
collision
= 0.60X 10 s J
Pi
= mi Vi = (900 kg)(20 m/s) = 1.80 X 10 4 kg-m/s
Hence, the loss in kinetic energy is

After the collision, the mass that moves is the sum of

the masses of the large car and the compact car. The K:-K ( 1.20X 10 5 J
momentum of the combination is

pf =(m + m 2 )t; =(2700kg)( t; f

1 f )
EXAMPLE 9.6 The Ballistic Pendulum
Equating the momentum before to the momentum The ballistic pendulum (Fig. 9.10) is a system used to
after and solving for v f the velocity of the wreckage, we
, measure the velocity of a fast-moving projectile, such as
have a bullet. The bullet is fired into a large block of wood
suspended from some light wires. The bullet is stopped
v{ = — g
m, + m 2
1.80 XIO*
—— kg -m/s
= 6.67 m/s
t-
2700 kg
2 — — by the block, and the entire system swings through a
height h. Since the collision is perfectly inelastic and
(b) How much kinetic energy is lost in the collision? momentum is conserved, Equation 9.14 gives the veloc-
 9.4 COLLISIONS IN ONE DIMENSION 219

With v 2i — 0, Equation 9.14 becomes

(2) vf =
+ m2
Substituting this value of v { into (1) gives

K
2(m 1 + m2 )

where v u is the initial velocity of the bullet. Note that

this kinetic energy is less than the initial kinetic energy of
the bullet. However, after the collision, energy is con-
served and the kinetic energy at the bottom is trans-
formed into potential energy in the bullet and in the
block at the height h; that is,

„ O..

(wi! + m 2 )gh
2(m 1 + m2 )

Hence, it is possible to obtain the initial velocity of the

bulletby measuring h and the two masses. Why would it
Figure 9.10 (Example 9.6) (a) Diagram of a ballistic pendu- be incorrect to equate the initial kinetic energy of the
lum. Note that v f is the velocity of the system right after the incoming bullet to the final gravitational energy of the
perfectly inelastic collision, (b) Multiflash photo of a ballistic bullet-block combination?
pendulum used in the laboratory. (Courtesy of CENCO)
Exercise 2 In a ballistic pendulum experiment, sup-
pose that h = 5 cm, m, = 5 g, and m 2 = 1 kg. Find (a) the
ityof the system right after the collision in the impulse
initial speed of the projectile, and (b) the loss in energy
approximation. The kinetic energy right after the colli-
due to the collision.
sion is given by
Answer 199 m/s; 98.5 J.

(1) K = Km, + m 2 )v?

Elastic Collisions

Now consider two particles that undergo an elastic head-on collision (Fig.
9.1 1).In this case, both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved; there-
fore we can write these conditions

mjUu + m 2v — m u lf + m 2 v 2(
2i 1 (9.15)
2 =
£"hUii
2
+ 2m 2 v im^.f2 + $m 2 v 2(2
2i (9.16)

where v is positive if a particle moves to the right and negative if it moves to the
left.

In a typical problem involving elastic collisions, there will be two un-

known quantities and Equations 9.15 and 9.16 can be solved simultaneously to
find these. However, an alternative approach, one that involves a little mathe-
matical manipulation of Equation 9.16, often simplifies this process. To see
this, let's cancel the factor of £ in Equation 9.16 and rewrite it as

"h(«ii
2 - u if2 = m 2 (v 2(2 - v
) 2l
2
)
220 CHAPTER 9 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLUSIONS

Here we have moved the terms containing ni] to one side of the equation and
those containing m 2 to the other. Next, let us factor both sides of the equation:
m i(v u - Vk)(v u + v = m 2 (v 2f -v )(v 2( +v
lf) (9.17)2i 2i )

We now separate the terms containing m 1

and m 2 in the equation for the
conservation of momentum (Eq. 9.15) to get

mi(oii-Oi^=n*a(°2f -02i) (9.18)

Our final result is obtained by dividing Equation 9. 1 7 by Equation 9. 1 8 to

get

Vii + V 1{ =V 2f +V 2i

«U
_ «2i = - V U ~ U 2f ( ) (9.19)

The force from a nitrogen-pro-

pelled, hand-controlled device This equation, in combination with the equation for conservation of mo-
allows an astronaut to move about mentum, can be used to solve problems dealing with perfectly elastic colli-
freely in space without restrictive
sions. According to Equation 9.19, the relative velocity of the two objects
tethers. (Courtesy of NASA).
before the collision, v u — v 2i equals the negative of the relative velocity of the
,

two objects after the collision, — (v lf — v 2f ).

Suppose that the masses and the initial velocities of both particles are
known. Equations 9.15 and 9.16 can be solved for the final velocities in terms
of the initial velocities, since there are two equations and two unknowns.
Solving for v 1( and v 2[ gives
Elastic collision: relations 2m,
between final and initial )v 2 i (9.20)
velocities
+m m, + m,

\m + m k
2m
,2r=(-^-k
\m + m
+ (^^ ! i (9-21)
1 2 / 1 2/

It is important to remember that the appropriate signs for v u and v 2i must be

included in Equations 9.20 and 9.21 since velocities are vectors. For example,
if m 2 is moving to the left initially, as in Figure 9.1 1, then v 2i is negative.

Let us consider some special cases: If m^ = m 2 then we see that v lf = v 2i ,

and v 2[ = v u That is, the particles exchange velocities if they have equal
.

masses. This is what one observes in billiard ball collisions.

If m 2 is initially at rest, v 2i = 0, and Equations 9.20 and 9.21 become

After collision ( m - mj \
1
(9.22)

»o
(b)
(
\m
2tn
5

1
+
1
m,

(9.23)

Figure 9.11 Schematic represen-

If m, is very large compared with m 2 we see from Equations 9.22 and
,

tation of an elastic head-on colli-

sion between two particles; (a) be- 9.23 that v lf ~ v u and v 2( ~ 2v u That is, when a very heavy particle collides
.

fore the collision and (b) after the head-on with a very light one initially at rest, the heavy particle continues its
collision.
motion unaltered after the collision, while the light particle rebounds with a
velocity equal to about twice the initial velocity of the heavy particle. An
example of such a collision would be the collision of a moving heavy atom, such
as uranium, with a light atom, such as hydrogen.
 9.4 COLLISIONS IN ONE DIMENSION 221

If m 2 is much larger than m 1 and m 2 is initially at rest, then we find from

,

Equations 9.22 and 9.23 that t; lf = — v u and u 2f «C ou That is, when a very .

light particle collides head-on with a very heavy particle initially at rest, the
light particle will have its velocity reversed, while the heavy particle will
remain approximately at rest. For example, imagine what happens when a
marble hits a stationary bowling ball.

EXAMPLE 9.7 A Two-body

Collision with Spring energy since there are no friction forces acting on the
A block of mass m —
1.60 kg moving to the right with a
l system. Thus, we have
speed of 4.00 m/s on a frictionless horizontal track col-
lides with a spring attached to a second block of mass £mi»u2 + im 2 t>
2i
2 = im^r2 + \m 2v 2 ? + $kx 2
m2 = 10 kg moving to the left with a speed of 2. 50 m/s,
2. Substituting the given values and the result to part
as in Figure 9.12a. The spring has a spring constant of (a) into this expression gives
600 N/m. At the instant when m 1 is moving to the right
with a speed of 3.00 m/s, determine (a) the velocity of m 2
x= 0.173m
and (b) the distance x that the spring is compressed.

Exercise 3 Find the velocity of m 1 and the compression

Solution (a) First, note that the initial velocity of m2 is
— 2.50 m/s because its direction is to the left. Since the
in the spring at the instant that m 2 is at rest.
Answer 0.719 m/s; 0.251 m.
total momentum of the system is conserved, we have
rriiUjj + m 2 o 2j = mjOjf-r m 2 v2 f
EXAMPLE 9.8 Slowing Down
Neutrons by Collisions
(1.60 kg)(4.00 m/s) + (2.10 kg)(-2.50 m/s) In a nuclear reactor, neutrons are produced when the
2
= (1.60 kg)(3.00 m/s) + (2.10 kg)t> 2f isotope $§U undergoes fission. These neutrons are mov-
7
ing at high speeds (typically 10 m/s) and must be slowed

=
-1.74 m/s down to about 10 3 m/s. Once the neutrons have slowed
»2f
down, they have a high probability of producing another
fission event and hence a sustained chain reaction. The
The negative value for u 2f means that m 2 is still moving high-speed neutrons can be slowed down by passing
towards the left at that instant.
them through a solid or liquid material called a modera-
(b) To determine the compression in the spring, x, shown tor. The slowing-down process involves elastic collisions.

in Figure 9.12b, we can make use of conservation of Let us show that a neutron can lose most of its kinetic
energy if it collides elastically with a moderator contain-
ing light nuclei, such as deuterium and carbon. Hence,
o„ = 4.00 m/s v 2l = - 2.50 m/s
the moderator material is usually heavy water (D 2 0) or
graphite (which contains carbon nuclei).

Solution Let us assume that the moderator nucleus of

(a) mass m 2 is at rest initially and that the neutron of mass m 1
and initial velocity v u collides head-on with it. Since mo-
mentum and energy are conserved, Equations 9.22 and
D„ = 3.00 m/s 9.23 apply to the head-on collision of a neutron with the
moderator nucleus. The initial kinetic energy of the neu-
tron is

(b)
Kj = £mi»u 2
After the collision, the neutron has a kinetic energy
given by ^m^f, where t> lf is given by Equation 9.22.
i We can express this energy as
! i

V -1 2 m ( m _m 2V l \ 9
Figure 9.12 (Example 9.7).
222 CHAPTER 9 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

Therefore, the fraction of the total kinetic energy pos- _K 2 _ 4m 1 m 2

sessed by the neutron after the collision is given by
(2) H K, (m, + m a )»
_ (m — m 2 \
2
.
_ Kj 1
(1) /,1 ~ % ~ Vmj +
mJ Since the total energy is conserved,
tained from (1) with the condition that /j
(2) can also be ob-
+/2 = 1, so
From this result, we see that the final kinetic energy of that/2 =l-/!.
the neutron small when m 2
is close to m is 1
and is zero Suppose that heavy water is used for the moderator.
when m = m2
l
. Collisions of the neutrons with deuterium nuclei in D2
We can calculate the kinetic energy of the modera- (m 2 = 2m!) predict that fx = 1/9 and f2 = 8/9. That is,

tor nucleus after the collision using Equation 9.23: 89% of the neutron's kinetic energy is transferred to the
deuterium nucleus. In practice, the moderator effi-
2m,
K 2 = im 2 v 2 ? = ciency is reduced because head-on collisions are very
unlikely to occur. How would the result differ if graphite
Hence, the fraction of the total kinetic energy trans- were used as the moderator?
ferred to the moderator nucleus is given by

9.5 TWO-DIMENSIONAL COLLISIONS

In the previous section and in Section 9.2, it was shown that the total momen-

tum of a system of two particles is conserved when the system is isolated. For a
general collision of two particles, this implies that the total momentum in each
of the directions x, y, and z is conserved (Eq. 9.12). Thus, for a three-dimen-
sional problem we would get three component equations for the conservation
of momentum.
Let us consider a two-dimensional problem in which a particle of mass m l

collides with a particle of mass m2 , where m 2 is initially at rest (Fig. 9.13). The
collision is not head-on, but glancing. After the collision, 1
moves at an angle m
8 with respect to the horizontal and tn 2 moves at an angle <j) with respect to the
horizontal. Applying the law of conservation of momentum in component
form, Pri = Prf and P^ = P^, and noting that P^ = 0, we get

x component of momentum mi°n = rn v i( cos

\ + rn i°2( cos (9.24a)

y component of momentum = wijfif sin 8 — m 2 v 2{ sin <f)

(9.24b)

'0
o O <J-
-i; 2f sin
1 *
(a) Before the collision (b) After the collision

Figure 9.13 Schematic representation of an elastic glancing collision between two particles:
(a) before the collision and (b) after the collision.
 9.5 TWO-DIMENSIONAL COLLISIONS 223

Now let us assume that the collision is elastic, in which case we can also
write a third equation for the conservation of kinetic energy, in the form

2"ht>ii
2 = fnijCjf2 + %m 2 v 2(2 (9.25) Conservation of energy

If we know the and the masses, we are left with four

initial velocity, v l{ ,

unknowns. Since we only have three equations, one of the four remaining
quantities (v t ( v 2{ 6, or (/>) must be given to determine the motion after the
, ,

collision from conservation principles alone.

Again, it is important to note that if the collision is inelastic, kinetic energy
is not conserved, and Equation 9.25 does not apply. Examples of both inelastic

and elastic collisions will now be presented.

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY: COLLISIONS

The following procedure is recommended when dealing with problems involving
collisions between two objects.

1. Set up a coordinate system and define your velocities with respect to that
system. It is convenient to have the x axis coincide with one of the initial
velocities.
2. In your sketch of the coordinate system, draw all velocity vectors with labels
and include all the given information.
3. Write expressions for the x and y components of the momentum of each object
before and after the collision. Remember to include the appropriate signs for
the components of the velocity vectors. For example, if an object is moving in
the negative x direction, its x component of velocity must be taken to be
negative. It is essential that you pay careful attention to signs.
4. Now write expressions for the total momentum in the x direction before and
after the collision and equate the two. Repeat this procedure for the total
momentum in the y direction. These steps follow from the fact that because
the momentum of the system is conserved in any collision, the total momen-
tum along any direction must be conserved. It is important to emphasize that
it is the momentum of the system (the two colliding objects) that is conserved,

not the momentum of the individual objects.

5. If the collision is inelastic, kinetic energyis not conserved, and you should

then proceed to solve the momentum equations for the unknown quantities.
6. If the collision is elastic, kinetic energy is also conserved, so you can equate
the total kinetic energy before the collision to the total kinetic energy after
the collision. This gives an additional relationship between the various veloci-
ties.

EXAMPLE 9.9 Collision at an Intersection Solution Let us choose east to be along the positive x
A 1500-kg car traveling east with a speed of 25 m/s col- direction and north to be along the positive y direction,
lides at an intersection with a 2500-kg van traveling as in Figure 9.14. Before the collision, the only object
north at a speed of 20 m/s, as shown in Figure 9.14. Find having momentum in the x direction is the car. Thus, the
the direction and magnitude of the velocity of the wreck- momentum of the system (car plus van) in the
total initial
age after the collision, assuming that the vehicles un- x direction is

dergo a perfectly inelastic collision (that is, they stick

together)
„
2>*
= .,1500
( W
,,,„,,
5 m / = 37
s
)
500 k 8 m /s
224 CHAPTER 9 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

the same axis. Find the final speeds of the two protons
? <*
and the angle <j).

Solution Since m1 2 ~m= 37°, and we are given

,

vu = 3.5 X 10 5 m/s, Equations 9.24 and 9.25 become

t>if cos 37° + o2 f

cos <{> = 3.5 X 10 5

u lf sin 37° — v 2 ( sin 4> =

^if
2
+ ^f2 = (3.5 X 10 5 ) 2

Solving these three equations with three unknowns si-

multaneously gives

I- n i « (Example
it? n n\ t view c ii-j- -u. »if=
" 2.80X10 5 m/s uM
2f = 2.11X10 5 m/s
Figure 9.14 9.9)
i
Top of a car colliding with a ' '

Now let us assume that the wreckage moves at an angle 6 <£= 53.0°
and speed v after the collision, as in Figure 9.14. The
total momentum in the x direction after the collision is It is = 90 ° This result is nor
interesting to note that 6 + </> .

accidental. Whenever two equal masses collide elastically

£p rf = (4000 kg)(c cos 6)
in a glancing collision and one of them is initially at rest,
Because momentum is conserved in the x direction, we theirfinal velocities are always at right angles to each other.
can equate these two equations to get The next example illustrates this point in more detail.

(1) 37 5OOkg-m/s = (4OOOkg)(ucos0) EXAMPLE 9.11 Billiard Ball Collision

Similarly, the total initial momentum of the system In a game of billiards, the player wishes to "sink" the

in the y direction is that of the van, which has the value target ball in the corner pocket, as shown in Figure 9.15.
(2500 kg)(20 m/s). Applying conservation of momentum If the angle to the corner pocket is 35 ° at what angle 6 is
,

to the y direction, we have the cue ball deflected? Assume

and rota- that friction
tional motion ("English") are unimportant, and assume
=
5>* 2>* the collision is elastic.

(2500 kg)(20 m/s) = (4000 kg)(» sin 6)

Solution Since the target is initially at rest, D 2i = 0, and
(2) 50 000 kg m/s • = (4000 kg)(u sin 0) conservation of kinetic energy gives

If we divide (2) by (1), we get i^i^ii

2 = bniv,!2 + \m 2 v 2?
„ 50 000 But m± = m2 , so that
1.33
37 500
(1) n^-e^ + e^
'= 53.1' Applying conservation of momentum to the two-dimen-
sional collision gives

When this angle is substituted into (2) — or alternatively (2) vu = ou +val

into ( 1 ) — the value of o is
y
50 000 kg -m/s
15.6 m/s
(4000kg)(sin53°)

EXAMPLE 9.10 Proton -Proton Collision

A proton collides in a perfectly elastic fashion with an-
;V
other proton initially at rest. The incoming proton has an
initial speed of 3 5 X 1 5 m/s and makes a glancing colli-
.
O Q
~\ e

sion with the second proton, as in Figure 9.13. (At close Cue ball \
separations, the protons exert a repulsive electrostatic
force on each other.) After the collision, one proton is
observed to move at an angle of 37° to the original direc-
tion of motion, and the second deflects at an angle </> to Figure 9.15 (Example 9.11).
 9.6 THE CENTER OF MASS 225

If we square both sides of (2), we get

226 CHAPTER 9 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

to the larger mass, the system will rotate in the counterclockwise direction
(Fig. 9 . 1 6b) If the force
. is applied at the center of mass, the system will move
in the direction of Fwithout rotating (Fig. 9. 16c). Thus, the center of mass can

be easily located.
cm. ^^ One can describe the position of the center of mass of a system as being the
average position of the system's mass. For example, the center of mass of the
pair of particles described in Figure 9.17 is located on the x axis and lies
somewhere between the particles. The x coordinate of the center of mass in
Figure 9.17 The center of mass of
two on the i axis is located
particles
this case is defined to be
at i ca point between the particles,
,

closer to the larger mass.

mjXi + ro 2x 2
(9.26)
mi + m,

For example, if Xj = 0, x 2 = d, and m 2 = 2m 1 we find that xc = fd. That is, the ,

center of mass lies closer to the more massive particle. If the two masses are
equal, the center of mass lies midway between the particles.
We can extend the center of mass concept to a system of many particles in
three dimensions. The x coordinate of the center of mass of n particles is
defined to be

m 1
x1 + m 2x 3 + m 3x 3 + • • + m„x„ _ Sm^
•

(9.27)
T/ii + Tn 2 + m 3 + • •
+ m„ Em,

where x, is the x coordinate of the tth particle and 2m, is the total mass of the
system. For convenience, we as M = 2m, where
shall express the total mass ,

the sum runs over all n particles. The y and z coordinates of the center of mass
are similarly defined by the equations

and
_ Imp,
*"" IT (9.28)

The center of mass can also be located by its position vector, rc The rectangu- .

larcoordinates of this vector are x c y c and z c defined in Equations 9.27 and

, , ,

9.28. Therefore,

rc = xci + yj + zjt

_ 1,m x i { (
+ 2,m y j
( (
+ ^nifzji
(9.29)
M

Vector position of the center 2m,ri

(9.30)
of mass for a system of particles M

where r, is the position vector of the tth particle, defined by

r, = x,i + yj + z,k
 9.6 THE CENTER OF MASS 227

Although the location of the center of mass for a rigid body is somewhat
more cumbersome, the basic ideas we have discussed still apply. We can think
of a general rigid body as a system of a large number of particles (Fig. 9.18).
The particle separation is very small, and so the body can be considered to
have a continuous mass distribution. By dividing the body into elements of
mass Am, with coordinates x, y, z, we see that the x coordinate of the center
of mass is
,

approximately
, , ,

y£-
x = —MAm,
2x, "
Figure 9.18 A rigid body can be
considered a distribution of small
elements of mass Am,. The center
of mass is located at the vector po-
with similar expressions for yc and z c If we let the number of elements, n,
.
sition rc which has coordinates x c
, ,

approach infinity, then xc will be given precisely. In this limit, we replace the y c and s c
, .

sum by an integral and replace Am, by the differential element dm, so that

v
*c
I™ £ *i7}Am - w
- hm —
l i
( xdm
l

(9.31)
Am,— M M J

Likewise, for y c and z c we get

=
y<
hj y dm and dm (9.32)

We can express the vector position of the center of mass of a rigid body in
the form

r dm (9.33)
Mj

where this is equivalent to the three scalar expressions given by Equations

9.31 and 9.32.
The center of mass of various homogeneous, symmetric bodies must lie on
an axis of symmetry. For example, the center of mass of a homogeneous rod
must lie on the rod, midway between its ends. The center of mass of a homoge-
neous sphere or a homogeneous cube must lie at its geometric center. One can
determine the center of mass of an irregularly shaped planar body experimen-
tally by suspending the body from two different points (Fig. 9.19). The body is
first hung from point A, and a vertical line AB is drawn (which can be estab-

lished with a plumb bob) when the body is in equilibrium. The body is then
hung from point C, and a second vertical line, CD, is drawn. The center of mass
coincides with the intersection of these two lines. In fact, if the body is hung
freely from any point, the vertical line through this point must pass through
the center of mass.
Since a rigid body is a continuous distribution of mass, each portion is Figure 9.19 An experimental
technique for determining the
acted upon by the force of gravity. The net effect of all of these forces is
center of mass of an irregular
equivalent to the effect of a single force, Mg, acting through a special point, planar object. The object is hung
called the center of gravity. Ifgis constant over the mass distribution, then the freely from two different pivots, A
and C. The intersection of the two
center of gravity coincides with the center of mass. If a rigid body is pivoted at
vertical lines AB and CD locates the
its center of gravity, it will be balanced in any orientation. center of mass.
228 CHAPTER 9 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

EXAMPLE 9.12 The Center of Mass of Three mass per unit length X (the linear mass density), then
Particles X= M/L for a uniform rod. If we divide the rod into ele-
A system consists of three particles located at the corners ments of length dx, then the mass of each element is
of a right triangle as in Figure 9.20. Find the center of dm = X dx. Since an arbitrary element is at a distance x
mass of the system. from the origin, Equation 9.31 gives

XL 2
-££•*-*/. ***-stL 2M

Because X = M/L, this reduces to

_ Lg /M\ _ L
:

2M\l) 2

One can also argue that by symmetry, x c = L/2.

Figure 9.20 (Example 9.12) The center of mass of the three (b) nonuniform and the mass per
Suppose the rod is
particles is located inside the triangle.
unit length varies linearly with x according to the expres-
sion X = ax, where a is a constant. Find the x coordinate
Solution Using the basic defining equations for the co-
of the center of mass as a fraction of L.
ordinates of the center of mass, and noting that z c — 0,
we get
Solution In this case, we replace dm by X dx, where X is
_ 'Lm xi _ 2md + m(d + b) + 4m(d +
~ i
b) not constant. Therefore, x c is given by
*e
M~ 1m

= d + ^b
x< =
hl xdm=
hj xXdx
=M-\
x2dx=
w
We can also eliminate a by noting that the total mass of
_ ~Zm y( t _ 2m(0) + m(0) + 4mh _ 4 the rod is related to a through the relation
M 1m aL 2
M= I dm =1 X dx = I ax dx
Therefore, we
can express the position vector to the 2
center of mass measured from the origin as
Substituting this into the expression for x c gives

5 4
rc = xc + yJ =
i (d + -b)i + -hj aL 3 2
3aL 2 /2 3

EXAMPLE 9.13 The Center of Mass of a Rod

EXAMPLE 9.14
(a) Show that the center of mass of a uniform rod of mass
An object of mass M is in the shape of a right triangle
Mand length L lies midway between its ends (Fig. 9.21).
whose dimensions are shown in Figure 9.22. Locate the
coordinates of the center of mass, assuming the object
Solution By symmetry, we see that y c = zc = if the rod
has a uniform mass per unit area.
is placed along the x axis. Furthermore, if we call the

dm = Af/.v

Figure 9.21 (Example 9.13) The center of mass of a uniform

rod of length L is located at i c = L/2.
 9.7 MOTION OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES 229

Solution To evaluate the x coordinate of the center of b

—=— or = -x
mass, we divide the triangle into narrow strips of width j/

dx and height y as in Figure 9.22. The mass of this strip

dm can be expressed as With this substitution, x c becomes

Total mass
dm = —
. .
: X Area ot strip
Total area

By a similar calculation, you can easily show that the y

dm= =
^b
(ydx)
&)y dx coordinate of the center of mass is given by y c =— b.

Therefore, the x coordinate of the center of Thus, the results are

o mass is

xc
_lf
= [" (2M\
w x dm = — x —j- u
, 1
I rfx = —2f«
r it/
.
rfx
MJ \

MJ \abj* afcJo \»
In order to evaluate this integral, we must express the
variable y in terms of the variable x. From similar trian- Exercise 4 Show that the y coordinate of the center of
gles in Figure 9.22, we see that mass is given by y c = fa/3-

9.7 MOTION OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

We can begin to understand the physical significance and utility of the center
of mass concept by taking the time derivative of the position vector of the
center of mass, rc given by Equation 9.30. Assuming that
, remains constant, M
that is, no particles enter or leave the system, we get the following expression
for the velocity of the center of mass:

drc 1 _ dr. Imp.

Velocity of the center of mass
(9.34)
dt M ^'"' dt M
where u (
is the velocity of the ith particle. Rearranging Equation 9.34 gives

momentum
Mvc = ^"W = 2P< = P /q -jr] Total
of particles
of a system

The right side of Equation 9.35 equals the total momentum of the system.
Therefore, we conclude that the total momentum of the system equals the total
mass multiplied by the velocity of the center of mass. In other words, the total
momentum of the system is equal to that of a single particle of mass moving M
with a velocity t;
c .

If we now differentiate Equation 9.34 with respect to time, we get the

acceleration of the center of mass:

= do.
= dv _ 1 Acceleration of the center of
M Sm
{

°< ^f
dt M2
M ** ' dt
<°< (9.36)

Rearranging this expression and using Newton's second law, we get

Mac = 2"W = £F, (9.37)

where F, is the force on particle i.

230 CHAPTER 9 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

The forces on any particle in the system may include both external forces
(from outside the system) and internal forces (from within the system). How-
ever, by Newton's third law, the force of particle 1 on particle 2, for example,
isequal to and opposite the force of particle 2 on particle 1. Thus, when we
sum over all internal forces in Equation 9.37, they cancel in pairs and the net
force on the system is due only to external forces. Thus, we can write Equation
9.37 in the form

Newton's second law for a dP

system of particles !F = Ma
ert c
dt
(9.38)

That is, the resultant external force on the system of particles equals the total
mass of the system multiplied by the acceleration of the center of mass. If we
compare this to Newton's second law for a single particle, we see that
the center of mass moves like an imaginary particle of mass M under the
influence of the resultant external force on the system.

In the absence of external forces, the center of mass moves with uniform
velocity as in the case of the rotating wrench shown Figure 9.23.
in
Finally, we see that if the resultant external force is zero, then from
Equation 9.38 it follows that

dP
= Ma =
dt

that

P = Mvc = constant (when ^F = 0)

ext (9.39)

That is, the total linear momentum of a system of particles is conserved if there
are no external forces acting on the system. Therefore, it follows that for an
isolated system of particles, both the total momentum and velocity of the
center of mass are constant in time. This is a generalization to a many-particle
system of the law of conservation of momentum that was derived in Section 9.2
for a two-particle system.
Suppose an isolated system consisting of two or more members is at rest.
The center of mass of such a system will remain at rest unless acted upon by an

Figure 9.23 Multiflash photograph of a wrench moving on a horizontal surface. The center of
mass of the wrench moves in a straight line as the wrench rotates about this point shown by the
black marker. (Education Development Center, Newton, Mass.)
 9.7 MOTION OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES 231

external force. For example, consider a system made up of a swimmer and a

raft,with the system initially at rest. When the swimmer dives off the raft, the
center of mass of the system will remain at rest (if we neglect the friction
between raft and water). Furthermore, the momentum of the diver will be
equal in magnitude to the momentum of the raft, but opposite in direction.
As another example, suppose an unstable atom initially at rest suddenly
decays into two fragments of masses 1
M M
and 2 with velocities u, and v 2
,
,

respectively. (An example of such a radioactive decay is that of the uranium-

238 nucleus, which decays into an alpha particle —
the helium nucleus and —
the thorium-234 nucleus.) Since the total momentum of the system before the
decay is zero, the total momentum of the system after the decay must also be
zero. Therefore, we see that M,^ + 2v2 M
= 0. If the velocity of one of the
fragments after the decay is known, the recoil velocity of the other fragment
can be calculated. Can you explain the origin of the kinetic energy of the
fragments?

EXAMPLE Exploding Projectile

9.15 speed of 240 m/s moving in the easterly direction right
A projectile is and suddenly explodes
fired into the air after the explosion, (a) What is the velocity of the third
into several fragments (Fig. 9.24). What can be said fragment right after the explosion?
about the motion of the center of mass of the fragments
after the collision? Solution Let us call the total mass of the rocket M, hence
the mass of each fragment is M/3. The total momentum
just before the explosion must equal the total momentum
of the fragments right after the explosion since the forces
of the explosion are internal to the system and cannot
affect the total momentum of the system.

Before the explosion:

Figure 9.24 (Example 9.15) When a projectile explodes into P = Mv = 300MJ

t

several fragments, the center of mass of the fragments follows

the same parabolic path the projectile would have taken had After the explosion:
there been no explosion.
M
<•<=-(!>+-(!) j + -

Solution The only external force on the projectile is the

force of gravity. Thus, the projectile follows a parabolic where v is the unknown velocity of the third fragment.
path. If the projectile did not explode, would continue
it
Equating these two expressions gives
to move along the parabolic path indicated by the broken
line in Figure 9.24. Since the forces due to the explosion M - + 80Mi + 150MJ 300MJ
are internal, they do not affect the motion of the center
of mass. Thus, after the explosion the center of mass of
the fragments follows the same parabolic path the pro- v= (-240i + 450;) m/s
jectile would have followed if there had been no explo-
sion. (b) What is the position of the center of mass relative
to the ground 3 s after the explosion? (Assume the rocket
engine is nonoperative after the explosion.)
EXAMPLE 9.16 The Exploding Rocket
A rocket is fired vertically upward. It reaches an altitude Solution The center of mass of the fragments moves as a
of 1000 m and a velocity of 300 m/s. At this instant, the freely falling body since the explosion doesn't affect the
rocket explodes into three equal fragments. One frag- motion of the center of mass (Example 9.15). If r = is
ment continues to move upward with a speed of 450 m/s the time of the explosion, then t/ = 1000 m and v =
right after the explosion. The second fragment has a 300 m/s for the center of mass. Using an expression from
232 CHAPTER 9 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

kinematics, we get for the y coordinate of the center of Note that the x coordinate of the center of mass doesn't
mass change. That is, in a given time interval the second frag-
ment moves to the right by the same distance that the
Sfc
= Sfo + <V - ig< 2 = 1000 + 300r - 4.9f 2
third fragment moves to the left.
Thus, at f = 3 s,

yc = [1000 + 300 (3) - 4.9(3) 2 ] m= 1.86 km

"9.8 ROCKET PROPULSION

When ordinary vehicles, such as automobiles, boats, and locomotives, are
propelled, the driving force for the motion is one of friction. In the case of the
automobile, the driving force is the force of the road on the car. A locomotive
"pushes" against the tracks; hence the driving force is the force of the tracks
on the locomotive. However, a rocket moving in space has no air, tracks, or
water to "push" against. Therefore, the source of the propulsion of a rocket
must be different. Figure 9.25 is a dramatic photograph of a spacecraft at
lift-off. The operation of a rocket depends upon the law of conservation of

momentum as applied to a system ofparticles, where the system is the rocket plus
its ejected fuel.
The propulsion of a rocket can be understood by first considering the
mechanical system consisting of a machine gun mounted on a cart on wheels.
As the machine gun is fired, each bullet receives a momentum mv in some
direction where v is measured with respect to a stationary earth frame. For
each bullet that is fired, the gun and cart must receive a compensating mo-
mentum in the opposite direction (as in Example 9.4). That is, the reaction
force of the bullet on the gun accelerates the cart and gun. If there are n bullets
fired each second, then the average force on the gun is equal to Fav = nmv.

Figure 9.25 Lift-off of the space

shuttle Columbia. Massive amounts
of thrust are generated by the shut-
tle's liquid-fueled engines, aided
by the two solid fuel boosters.
Many physical principles are in-
volved in the areas of mechanics,
thermodynamics, and electricity
and magnetism. (Courtesy of
NASA)
 *9.8 ROCKET PROPULSION 233

In a similar manner, as a rocket moves in free space (a vacuum), its mo-

mentum changes when some of its mass is released in the form of ejected gases
(Fig. 9.25). Since the ejected gases acquire some momentum, the rocket receives
a compensating momentum in the opposite direction. Therefore, the rocket is
accelerated as a result of the "push," or thrust, from the exhaust gases. In free p \l ' Aim l

space, the center of mass of the entire system moves uniformly, independent
of the propulsion process. It is interesting to note that the rocket and machine

gun represent cases of the inverse of an inelastic collision; that is, momentum is
conserved, but the kinetic energy of the system is increased (at the expense of
internal energy).
m
Suppose that at some time t, the momentum of the rocket plus the fuel is
(M + Am)v (Fig. 9.26a). At some short time later, At, the rocket ejects some
fuel of mass Am and the rocket's speed therefore increasesto u + At) (Fig.
il>

9.26b). If the fuel ejected with a velocity v e relative to the rocket, then the
is
Figure 9.26 Rocket propulsion.
velocity of the fuel relative to a stationary frame of reference is v — v e Thus, if .
(a) The mass of the rocket is
initial
we equate the total initial momentum of the system to the total final momen- M + Am at a time t, and its speed is

v. (b) At a time t + Af, the rocket's

tum, we get
mass has reduced to M, and an
amount of fuel Am has been
(M + Am)v = M(v + Au) + Am(v — t> e ) ejected. The rocket's speed in-
creases by an amount At).
Simplifying this expression gives

MAc = D„ Am
We also could have arrived at this result by considering the system in the
center of mass frame of reference; that is, a frame whose velocity equals the
center of mass velocity. In this frame, the total momentum is zero; therefore if
the rocket gains a momentum M
Au by ejecting some fuel, the exhaust gases
obtain a momentum v e Am in the opposite direction, and so M At> — e Am = 0. t>

If we now take the limit as Af goes to zero, then At> —* dv and Am —* dm.
Furthermore, the increase in the exhaust mass, dm, corresponds to an equal
decrease in the rocket mass, so that dm = —dM. Note that dM is given a
negative sign because it represents a decrease in mass. Using this fact, we get

M(fo = -o» dM (9.40)

Integrating this equation, and taking the initial mass of the rocket plus fuel to
be M; and the final mass of the rocket plus its M
remaining fuel to be f we get ,

/•of rM,
= — ve dM
dv
I

Jo,
|
Jm, M

Expression for rocket

(9.41)
propulsion

This the basic expression of rocket propulsion. First, it tells us that the
is

increase in velocity is proportional to the exhaust velocity, v

e Therefore, the .

exhaust velocity should be very high. Second, the increase in velocity is pro-
portional to the logarithm of the ratio MJM
f Therefore, this ratio should be as
.

large as possible, which means that the rocket should carry as much fuel as
possible.
234 CHAPTER 9 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

The thrust on the rocket is the force exerted on the rocket by the ejected
exhaust gases. We can obtain an expression for the thrust from Equation 9.40:
dM
= —r-
Thrust M dt (9.42)
dt

Here we see that the thrust increases as the exhaust velocity increases and
as the rate of change of mass (burn rate) increases.

EXAMPLE 9.17 A Rocket in Space

= 3X 10 3 + 5X 10 3 1 n
A rocket moving in free space has a speed of 3 X 10 3 m/s. (offe)
Itsengines are turned on, and fuel is ejected in a direc-
tion opposite the rocket's motion at a speed of 5 X 10 3 = 6.47 X10 3 m/s
m/s relative to the rocket, (a) What is the speed of the
rocket once its mass is reduced to one half its mass before (b) What is the thrust on the rocket if it burns fuel at

ignition? the rate of 50 kg/s?

Applying Equation 9.41, we get
=
^| = (5X10 ^)(50^)
3
Thrust |u e
uf = « + «e ln(Mj
i

2.50 X 10 5 N

SUMMARY
The linear momentum of a particle of mass m moving with a velocity v is
defined to be

p = mv (9.1)

The impulse of a force F on a particle is equal to the change in the

momentum of the particle and is given by

= 4P
Impulse
=/; Fdt (9.6)

Impulsive forces are forces that are very strong compared with other
forces on the system, and usually act for a very short time, as in the case of
collisions.
The law of conservation of momentum for two interacting particles
form an isolated system, their total momentum is
states that if two particles
conserved regardless of the nature of the force between them. Therefore,
the total momentum of the system at all times equals its initial total momen-
tum, or

Conservation of momentum
When two particles collide, the total momentum of the system before
the collision always equals the total momentum after the collision, regard-
less of the nature of the collision. An inelastic collision is a collision for
Elastic and inelastic collision which the mechanical energy is not conserved, but momentum is con-
served. A perfectly inelastic collision corresponds to the situation where
 QUESTIONS 235

the colliding bodies stick together after the collision. An elastic collision is

one in which both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.

In a two- or three-dimensional collision, the components of momentum
ineach of the three directions (x, y, and z) are conserved independently.
The vector position of the center of mass of a system of particles is
defined as
Im/r,
r„ — — (9.30)
Center of mass for a system of
M particles

where M = Sm, is the total mass of the system and r is the vector position of (

the ith particle.

The vector position of the center ofmass ofa rigid body can be obtained
from the integral expression

r dm (9.33) Center of mass for a rigid body

Mj
The velocity of the center of mass for a system of particles is given by

_ Impi (9.34) Velocity of the center of mass

M
The total momentum of a system of particles equals the total mass
multiplied by the velocity of the center of mass, that is, P = Mvc .

Newton's second law applied to a system of particles is given by

dP Newton's second law for a
2F = Ma
ext c
dt
(9.38)
system of particles

where ac is the acceleration of the center of mass and the sum is over all

external forces. Therefore, the center of mass moves like an imaginary

particle of mass M
under the influence of the resultant external force on the
system. It follows from Equation 9.38 that the total momentum of the
system is conserved if there are no external forces acting on it.

QUESTIONS

1. If the kinetic energy of a particle is zero, what is its 7. Explain why momentum is conserved when a ball
linear momentum? If the total energy of a particle is bounces from a floor.

zero, is its linear momentum necessarily zero? Ex- 8. Is it possible to have a collision in which all of the
plain. kinetic energy is lost? If so, cite an example.
2. If the velocity of a particle is doubled, by what factor 9. In a perfectly elastic collision between two particles,

is its momentum changed? What happens to its kinetic does the kinetic energy of each particle change as a
energy? result of the collision?
3. If two particles have equal kinetic energies, are their 10. When a ball rolls down an incline, its momentum in-
momenta necessarily equal? Explain. creases. Does this imply that momentum is not con-
4. Does a large force always produce a larger impulse on served? Explain.
a body than a smaller force? Explain. 11. Consider a perfectly inelastic collision between a car
5. An isolated system is initially at rest. Is it possible for and a large truck. Which vehicle loses more kinetic
parts of the system tobe in motion at some later time? energy as a result of the collision?
If so, explain how
might occur.
this 12. Can the center of mass of a body lie outside the body?
6. If two objects collide and one is initially at rest, is it If so, give examples.
possible for both to be at rest after the collision? Is it 1 3. A boy stands at one end of a floating raft that is station-
possible for one to be at rest after the collision? Ex- ary relative to the shore. He then walks to the oppo-
plain. site end of the raft, away from the shore. What hap-
236 CHAPTER 9 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

pens to the center of mass of the system (boy + raft)? What can yousay about the center of mass of the
Does the raft move? Explain. boat-man system?
14. Three balls are thrown into the air simultaneously. 23. Explain how you would use a balloon to demonstrate
What is the acceleration of their center of mass while the mechanism responsible for rocket propulsion.
they are in motion? 24. Explain the maneuver of decelerating a spacecraft.
15. A meter stick is balanced in a horizontal position with What other maneuvers are possible?
the index fingers of the right and left hands. If the two 25. Does the center of mass of a rocket in free space accel-
fingers are brought together, the stick remains bal- erate? Explain. Can the speed of a rocket exceed the
anced and the two fingers always meet at the 50-cm exhaust velocity of the fuel? Explain.
mark regardless of their original positions (try it!). 26. A ball is dropped from a tall building in New York.
Carefully explain this observation. Identify the system whose linear momentum is con-
16. A researcher tranquilizes a polar bear on a glacier. served.
How might the researcher, knowing her own weight, 27. A bomb, initially at rest, explodes into several pieces.
be able to estimate the weight of the polar bear using a In this process (a) is the linear momentum conserved?
measuring tape and a rope? (b) Is the kinetic energy conserved? Explain.
17. A sharpshooter while standing with the
fires a rifle 28. Is kinetic energy always lost in an inelastic collision?
butt of the gun against his shoulder. If the forward Explain.
momentum of a bullet is the same as the backward 29. A skater is standing still on a frictionless ice rink. Her
momentum of the gun, why isn't it as dangerous to be friend throws a Frisbee straight at her. In which of the
hit by the gun as by the bullet? following cases is the largest momentum transferred
18. A piece of mud is thrown against a brick wall and sticks to the skater? (a) The skater catches the Frisbee and
to the wall. What happens to the momentum of the holds it, (b) catches it momentarily but drops it verti-
mud? Is momentum conserved? Explain. cally down, (c) catches the Frisbee momentarily and
1 9. Early in this century, Robert Goddard proposed send- then throws it back to her friend.
ing a rocket to the moon. Critics took the position that 30. The moon revolves around the earth as viewed by us
in a vacuum, such as exists between the earth and the on the earth. Is the moon's linear momentum con-
moon, the gases emitted by the rocket would have served? Is its kinetic energy conserved? Assume, for
nothing to push against to propel the rocket. Accord- simplicity, that themoon's orbit is perfectly circular.
ing to Scientific American (January 1975), Goddard 31. A large sheet is held at its edges by two students in
placed a gun in a vacuum and fired a blank cartridge such a way that it forms a nearly vertical "net" to
from it. (A blank cartridge fires only the wadding and catch an object. A third student, who happens to be
hot gases of the burning gunpowder.) What happened the star pitcher on the baseball team, is asked to throw
when the gun was fired? a raw egg into the sheet. Explain why the egg does not
20. A pole vaulter falls from a height of 15
ft onto a foam break in the process, regardless of the initial speed of
rubber pad. Could you calculate his velocity just be- the egg. (If you try this one, make sure the pitcher hits
fore he reaches the pad? Would you be able to calcu- the target near its center, and do not allow the the egg
late the force exerted on him due to the collision? to fall on the floor after being caught.)
Explain. 32. If a raw egg is dropped, it falls apart upon impact with
21. As a ball falls toward the earth, its momentum in- the floor. However, if you drop a raw egg onto a thick
creases. How would you reconcile this fact with the foam rubber cushion from a height of about 1 m, the
law of conservation of momentum? egg will rebound without breaking. Why is this possi-
22. A man is at rest sitting at one end of a boat in the ble? (In this demonstration, be sure to catch the egg
middle of a lake. If he walks to the opposite end of the after the first bounce.)
boat toward the east, why does the boat move west?

PROBLEMS
Section 9.1 Linear Momentum and Impulse 3. A child bounces a superball on the sidewalk. The lin-
ear impulse delivered by the sidewalk to the superball
1. A 3-kg particle has a velocity of (3» — m/s. Find its 4,/')
is 2 N-s during the 1/800 s of contact. What is the
x and y components of momentum and the magnitude
magnitude of the average force exerted on the super-
of its total momentum.
ball by the sidewalk?
2. The momentum of a 1250-kg car is equal to the mo-
4. A superball with a mass of 60 g is dropped from a
mentum of a 5000-kg truck traveling at a speed of
height of 2 m. It rebounds to a height of 1.80 m. What
10 m/s. What is the speed of the car?
is the change in its linear momentum?
 PROBLEMS 237

The force Fz acting on a 2-kg particle varies in time as

shown in Figure 9.27. Find (a) the impulse of the
force, (b) the final velocity of the particle if it is ini-

tially at rest, and (c) the final velocity of the particle if

it is initially moving along the x axis with a velocity of

-2 m/s.
238 CHAPTER 9 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

Section 9.2 Conservation of Linear Momentum for a (b) What is the velocity of the plank relative to the ice
Two-Particle System surface?

17. A 40-kg child standing on a frozen pond throws a 2-kg

stone to the east with a speed of 8 m/s. Neglecting
between the child and Section 9.3 Collisions and Section 9.4 Examples of
friction ice, find the recoil ve-
locity of the child.
Collisions in One Dimension
18. Two blocks of masses M and 3M are placed on a hori- 22. A 2.5-kg mass moving with a speed of 10 m/s
initially
zontal, frictionless surface. A light spring is attached makes a perfectly head-on collision with a
inelastic
to one of them, and the blocks are pushed together 5-kg mass initially at rest, (a) Find the final velocity of
with the spring between them (Fig. 9.31). A string the composite particle, (b) How much energy is lost in
holding them together is burned, after which the the collision?
block of mass 3M moves to the right with a speed of 23. A 2000-kgmeteorite has a speed of 120 m/s just be-
2 m/s. What is the speed of the block of mass M? (As- Determine the
fore colliding head-on with the earth.
sume they are initially at rest.) recoil speed of the earth (mass 5.98 X 10 24 kg).
24. Consider the ballistic pendulum described in Exam-
ple 9.6 and shown Figure 9.10. (a) Show that the
in

H<>fli
ratio of the kinetic energy after the collision to the
kinetic energy before the collision is given by the
ratio m 1 /(m l + m 2 ), where m 1 is the mass of the bullet
Before
and m 2 is the mass of the block, (b) If m 1 = 8 g and
(a) m 2 = 2 kg, what percentage of the original energy is
left after the inelastic collision? What accounts for the
2 m/s
missing energy?
25. A 10-g bullet is stopped in a block of wood
(m =
5 kg). The speed of the bullet-plus-wood combi-
nation immediately after the collision is 0.60 m/s.
What was the original speed of the bullet?
After
26. A 90-kg halfback running north with a speed of 10 m/s
(b) tackled by a 120-kg opponent running south with a
is

speed of 4 m/s. If the collision is assumed to be per-

Figure 9.31 (Problem 18).
fectly inelastic and head-on, (a) calculate the velocity
of the players just after the tackle and (b) determine
19. A 60-kg boy and a 40-kg girl, both wearing skates, the energy lost as a result of the collision. Can you
face each other at rest. The boy pushes the
girl, send- account for the missing energy?
ing her eastward with a speed of 4 m/s. Describe the 27. A 1200-kg car traveling initially with a speed of
subsequent motion of the boy. (Neglect friction.) 25 m/s in an easterly direction crashes into the rear
20. Identical air cars (m = 200 g) are equipped with iden- end of a 9000-kg truck moving in the same direction
tical linear springs (k = 3000 N/m). They move at 20 m/s (Fig. 9.33). The velocity of the car right
toward each other with speeds of 3 .0 m/s on a horizon- after the collision is 18 m/s to the east, (a) What is the
tal air track and collide, compressing the springs (Fig. velocity of the truck right after the collision? (b) How
9.32). Find the maximum compression of a spring. much mechanical energy is lost in the collision? How
do you account energy?
for this loss in
28. A railroad car of mass 2.5 X
10 4 kg moving with a
speed of 4 m/s collides and couples with three other
coupled railroad cars each of the same mass as the
single car and moving in the same direction with an
initial speed of 2 m/s. (a) What is the speed of the four
Figure 9.32 (Problem 20). cars after the collision? (b) How much energy is lost in
the collision?
21. A 45-kg girl is standing on a plank that has a mass of 29. A neutron in a reactor makes an elastic head-on colli-
150 kg. The plank, originally at rest, is free to slide on sion with the nucleus of a carbon atom initially at rest,
a frozen lake, which is a flat, frictionless supporting (a) What fraction of the neutron's kinetic energy is

surface. The girl begins to walk along the plank at a transferred to the carbon nucleus? (b) If the initial
kinetic energy of the neutron is 1 MeV = 1.6 X 10
-13
constant velocity of 1.5 m/s relative to the plank.
(a) What is her velocity relative to the ice surface? J, find its final kinetic energy and the kinetic energy of
 —
PROBLEMS 239

25 m/s 20 m/s 18m/s

Figure 9.33 (Problem 27).

the carbon nucleus after the collision. (The mass of the 35. A is fired into a 100-g wooden block ini-
12-g bullet
carbon nucleus is about 12 times the mass of the neu- on a horizontal surface. After impact, the
tially at rest

tron.) block slides 7.5 m before coming to rest. If the coeffi-

30. A bullet (m = 0.01 kg) moving at 300 m/s strikes a cient of friction between the block and the surface is
wooden fence 2 cm thick and comes out the other side 0.65, what was the speed of the bullet immediately
at a speed of 200 m/s. Assuming constant acceleration before impact?
while passing through the fence, determine the force 36. How many head-on collisions will the neutron in
experienced by the fence during contact with the Prob. 9.29 need to make to reduce its energy to 1 eV?
bullet. How will the number of head-on collisions change if
31. A 75-kg ice skater moving at 10 m/s crashes into a carbon is replaced by an element whose nucleus is one
stationary skater of equal mass. After the collision, the third as massive as carbon?
two skaters move 5 m/s. The average force
as a unit at 37. Consider a frictionless track ABC as shown in Figure
that a skater can experience without breaking a bone 9.35. A block of mass m =1
5 kg is released from A. It

is 4500 N. If the impact time is 0.1 s, does a bone makes a head-on elastic collision with a block of mass

break? m 2 = 10 kg at B, initially at rest. Calculate the maxi-

32. Two billiard balls have velocities of 2.0 m/s and — 0.5 mum height to which m1 will rise after the collision.
m/s before they meet in an elastic head-on collision.
What are their final velocities?
33. High-speed stroboscopic photographs show that the
head of a golf club of mass 200 g is traveling at 55 m/s
just before it 46-g golf ball at rest on a tee.
strikes a
After the collision, the clubhead travels (in the same
direction) at 40 m/s. Find the speed of the golf ball
just after impact.
34. As shown in Figure 9.34, a bullet of mass m and speed
Figure 9.35 (Problem 37).
t> passes completely through a pendulum bob of mass
M. The bullet emerges with a speed o/2. The pendu-
lum bob is suspended by a rod of length ( andstiff 38. A block of mass m = x
2 kg starts from rest on an in-

negligible mass. What minimum

value of v such
is the cline at 53° to the horizontal. The coefficient of ki-

that the pendulum bob will barely swing through a netic friction between the incline and the block is

complete vertical circle? /i

k
= 0.25.the speed of the block at the foot of
(a) If

the incline is 8 m/s to the right, determine the height

from which the block was released, (b) Another block
of mass m2 = 6 kg is at rest on the smooth horizontal
surface. Block m x
collides with block m2 . After colli-

sion, the blocks stick together and move to the right.

Determine the speed of the blocks after collision.
/

/ 39. Two particles of masses m and 3m are moving toward

/ each other along the ±x direction with the same initial
m
»-- — i

ygs
—'
//

v/o
speeds r They undergo a "head-on" elastic collision
.

and each rebounds along the same line as it ap-

proached. Find the final speeds of the particles.
40. Two blocks of mass m, = 2 kg and m 2 = 4 kg are re-
Figure 9.34 (Problem 34). leased from a height of 5 m on a frictionless track as
240 CHAPTER 9 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

m, = 4 kg

Figure 9.36 (Problem 40.;

shown Figure 9.36. The blocks undergo an elastic

in (after the collision). Determine the final speed of each
head-on Determine the velocities of the
collision, (a) disk.
two blocks just before collision, (b) Using Equations 46. A 10-kg mass initially at rest explodes into three
9.20 and 9.21 determine the velocities of the two A 4.5-kg piece goes north at 20 m/s, and a 2-kg
pieces.
blocks immediately after collision, (c) Determine the piece moves eastward at 60 m/s. (a) Determine the
maximum heights to which m l
and m2 will rise after magnitude and direction of the velocity of the third
the first collision. piece, (b) Find the energy of the explosion.
47. A billiard ball moving at 5 m/s strikes a stationary ball
Section 9.5 Two-Dimensional Collisions of the same mass. After the collision, the ball moves at
4.33 m/s at an angle of 30° with respect to the original
41. A 3-kg mass with an initial velocity of 5i m/s collides
line of motion. Assuming an elastic collision (and ig-
with and sticks to a 2-kg mass with an initial velocity of
noring friction and rotational motion), find the magni-
— 3j m/s. Find the final velocity of the composite mass.
tude and direction of the struck ball's velocity.
42. A proton moving with a velocity v i collides elastically
48. A 200-g cart moves on a horizontal, frictionless sur-
with another proton initially at rest. If both protons
face with a constant speed of 25 cm/s. A 50-g piece of
have the same speed after the collision, find (a) the
modeling clay is dropped vertically onto the cart, (a) If
speed of each proton after the collision in terms of v
the clay sticks to the cart, find the speed of the
final
and (b) the direction of the velocity vectors after the
system, (b) After the collision, the clay has no momen-
collision.
tum in the vertical direction. Does this mean that the
43. An unstable nucleus of mass 17 X 10 -27 kg initially at
law of conservation of momentum is violated?
rest disintegrates into three particles. One of the par-
49. A particle of mass m, moving with speed u, collides
ticles, of mass 5.0 X 10
-27 kg, moves
along the y axis
obliquely with an identical particle initially at rest.
with a velocity of 6 X 10 6 m/s. Another particle, of
-27 Show consequence of the conservation of
that as a
mass 8.4 X 10 kg, moves along the x axis with a
kinetic energy and linear momentum, the two parti-
velocity of 4 X 10 6 m/s. Find (a) the velocity of the
cles move at 90° from each other after collision. (Hint:
third particle and (b) the total energy given off in the
(A + = A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos 6.)
B) 2
process.
50. A mass m and initial velocity v collides
particle of
44. A 0.3-kg puck, initially at rest on a horizontal, fric- l

with a stationary mass m 2 After the collision, m and

x

-
l
tionless surface, is struck by a 0.2-kg puck moving
initiallyalong the x axis with a velocity of 2 m/s. After
m 2 are deflected as shown in Figure 9.37. The veloc-
ity of m after collision
r
v\ Show that is .

the collision, the 0. 2-kg puck has a speed of 1 m/s at an

angle of 6 = 53° to the positive x axis (Fig. 9.13).
(a) Determine the velocity of the 0.3-kg puck after the vl — t>i cos 6 2
collision, (b) Find the fraction of kinetic energy lost in
the collision.
From the information given and the result you de-
rived, can you make the assumption that the collision
45. Two shuffleboard disks of equal mass, one orange and
is perfectly elastic?
the other yellow, are involved in a perfectly elastic
glancing collision. The yellow disk is initially at rest
and is struck by the orange disk moving with a speed

of 5 m/s. After the collision, the orange disk moves Section 9.6 The Center of Mass

along a direction that makes an angle of 37° with its 51. A 3-kg particle is located on the x axis at x = —5 m,
initial direction of motion and the velocity of the yel- and a 4-kg particle is on the x axis at x = 3 m. Find the
low disk is perpendicular to that of the orange disk center of mass.
PROBLEMS 241
242 CHAPTER 9 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

80-kg boat is facing shore and the 55-kg Juliet moves ADDITIONAL PRORLEMS
2.7 m toward the 77-kg Romeo, how far does the boat
move toward shore?
69.A golf ball (m = 46 g) is struck a blow that makes an
angle of 45° with the horizontal. The drive lands
200 m away on a flat fairway. If the golf club and ball
are in contact for a time of 7 ms, what is the average
force of impact? (Neglect air resistance effects.)
Section 9.8 Rocket Propulsion
70. Consider a sphere of radius R and mass density p that is
63. A rocket engine consumes 80 kg of fuel per second. If solid except for a spherical hollow volume of radius
the exhaust velocity is 2.5 X 10 3 m/s, calculate the R/2. The center of the spherical void is located at a
thrust on the rocket. distance R/2 from the center of the large sphere. Find
64. The first stage of a Saturn V space vehicle consumes the center of mass of the body. (Hint: Treat the void as
fuel at the rate of 1.5 X 10 4 kg/s, with an exhaust ve- a negative mass.)
locity of 2.6 X 10 3 m/s. (These are approximate fig- 71. A 30-06 caliber hunting rifle fires a bullet of mass
ures.) (a) Calculate the thrust produced by these en- 0.012 kg with a muzzle velocity of 600 m/s to the
Find the initial acceleration of the vehicle
gines, (b) right. The rifle has a mass of 4.0 kg. (a) What is the
on the launch pad if its initial mass is 3 X 10 6 kg. [You recoil velocity of the rifle as the bullet leaves the rifle?
must include the force of gravity to solve (b).] (b) If the rifle is stopped by the hunter's shoulder in a
65. A large rocket with an exhaust velocity v e = 3000 m/s distance of 2.5 cm, what is the average force exerted
develops a thrust of 24 million newtons. (a) How on the shoulder by the rifle? (c) If the hunter's shoul-
much mass is being blasted out of the rocket exhaust der is partially restricted from recoiling, would the
per second? (b) What is the maximum speed the force exerted on the shoulder be the same as in part
rocket can acquire if it starts from rest in a force-free (b)? Explain.
environment with v e = 3 km/s and 90% of its initial 72. An 8-g bullet is fired into a 2.5-kg block initially at rest
mass is fuel? at the edge of a frictionless table of height 1 m (Fig.
66. A rocket for use in deep space is to have the capability 9.39). The and after im-
bullet remains in the block,
of boosting a payload (plus the rocket frame and en- pact the block lands 2 m from the bottom of the table.
gine) of 3.0 metric tons to an achieved speed of Determine the initial speed of the bullet.
10 000 m/s with an engine and fuel designed to pro-
duce an exhaust velocity of 2000 m/s. (a) How much 2.5 k
fuel and oxidizer is required? (b) If a different fuel
and engine design could give an exhaust velocity of
5000 m/s, what amount of fuel and oxidizer would be
required for the same task? Comment.
67. Fuel aboard a rocket has a density of 1 . 4 X 1
3 kg/m 3
and ejected with a speed of 3.0 X 10 3 m/s. If the
is

engine is to provide a thrust of 2.5 X 10 6 N, what vol-

ume of fuel must be burned per second?
68. A rocket with an initial total mass M is launched verti- i

cally from the Earth's surface. When the launch fuel

has been completely burned, the rocket has reached
an altitude small compared to the Earth's radius (so
that the acceleration due to gravity may be consid-
ered constant during the burn). Show that the final
velocity is

v = -ve \n(MjMf )-gt

where the time of burn t

x
is

t
x
= (Mj - MfUdm/dt)- 1

(Mfis the final total mass of the rocket, v e is the exhaust

gas velocity, and dm/dt is the constant rate of fuel
consumption.)
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 243

50 kg, find V. (b) How high would this shell rise in the as shown Figure 9.40. The cannon fires a 200-kg
in

air? 1 25 m/s, directed 45° above

projectile at a velocity of
75. A jet aircraft is traveling at 500 mi/h (223 m/s) in hor- the horizontal, (a) If the mass of the cannon and its
izontal flight. The engine takes in air at a rate of carriage is 5000 kg, find the recoil velocity of the can-
80 kg/s and burns fuel at a rate of 3 kg/s. If the exhaust non, (b) Determine the maximum extension of the
gases are ejected at 600 m/s relative to the aircraft, spring, (c) Consider the "system" to consist of the
find the thrust of the jet engine and the delivered cannon, carriage, and shell. Is the momentum of this
horsepower. system conserved during the firing? Why or why not?
76. A spacecraft is deep space when its
stationary in 81. A chain of length L and total mass Mis released from
rocket engine is Hot gases
ignited for a 100-s "burn." rest with its lower end just touching the top of a table,
are ejected at a constant rate of 1 50 kg/s with a veloc- as in Figure 9.41a. Find the force of the table on the
ity relative to the spacecraft of 3000 m/s. The initial chain after the chain has fallen through a distance x, as
mass of the spacecraft (plus fuel and oxidizer) is in Figure 9.41b. (Assume each link comes to rest the
25 000 kg. Determine the thrust of the rocket engine instant it reaches the table.)
and the initial acceleration in units of g. What is the
final velocity of the spacecraft?
77. A 75-kg firefighter slides down a pole while a constant
frictional force of 300 N retards his motion. A hori-
zontal 20-kg platform is supported by a spring at the
bottom of the pole to cushion the fall. The firefighter
starts from rest 4 m above the platform, and the spring
constant is 4000 N/m. Find (a) the firefighter's speed
just before he collides with the platform and (b) the
maximum distance the spring will be compressed.
- (Assume the frictional force acts during the entire
motion.)
78. A 70-kg baseball player jumps vertically up to catch a (a) (b)

baseball of mass 0.160 kg traveling horizontally with Figure 9.41 (Problem 81).
a speed of 35 m/s. If the vertical speed of the player at
the instant of catching the ball is 0.2 m/s, determine 82. Two gliders are set in motion on an air track. A spring
the magnitude and direction of the player's velocity of force constant k is attached to the near side of one
just after the catch. glider. The first glider of mass m 1 has velocity v x and
79. An 80-kg astronaut working on the engines of his
is the second glider of mass m 2 has velocity t>
2 as shown
ship, which is through space with a constant
drifting in Figure 9.42 (v x > » 2 ). When m x collides with the
velocity. The astronaut, wishing to get a better view of spring attached to m 2 and compresses the spring to its
the universe, pushes against the ship and later finds maximum compression xm the velocity of the gliders
,

himself 30 m behind the ship. Without a thruster, the is v. In terms of » 1( v 2 1 , m

m 2 and k, find (a) the
, ,

only way to return to the ship is to throw his 0.5-kg velocity v at maximum compression, (b) the maximum
wrench directly away from the ship. If he throws the compression x m and (c) the velocities of each glider
,

wrench with a speed of 20 m/s, how long does it take after the first glider has again lost contact with the

the astronaut to reach the ship? spring.

80. A cannon is rigidly attached to a carriage, which can
move along horizontal rails but is connected to a post
by a large spring of force constant k = 2 X 10 4 N/m,

Figure 9.40 (Problem 80). Figure 9.42 (Problem

 244 CHAPTER 9 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

S3. A 40-kg child stands at one end of a 70-kg boat that is

4 m
in length (Fig. 9.43). The boat is initially 3 from m
the pier. The child notices a turtle on a rock at the far
end of the boat and proceeds to walk to that end to
catch the turtle. Neglecting friction between the boat
and water, (a) describe the subsequent motion of the
system (child + boat), (b) Where will the child be rel-
ative to the pier when he reaches the far end of the
boat? (c) Will he catch the turtle? (Assume he can
reach out 1 m from the end of the boat.)

Figure 9.45 (Problem 85).

Figure 9.43 (Problem 83). the path of the projectile), by measuring its horizontal
displacement, X, and vertical displacement, Y, before
84. An object of mass Mis in the shape of aright triangle striking the floor (see Fig. 9.46). Show that the initial
with dimensions as shown in Figure 9.44. Locate the velocity of the projectile is related to X and Ythrough
coordinates of the center of mass, assuming the object the relation
has a uniform mass per unit area.

What numerical value does she obtain for v u based on

her measured values of X = 257 cmandY= 85.3 cm?
What factors might account for the difference in this
value compared to that obtained in part (a)?

Figure 9.44 (Problem 84).

85. A 5-g bullet moving with an initial speed of 400 m/s is

fired intoand passes through a 1 -kg block, as in Figure
9.45. The block,
initially at rest on a frictionless, hori-
zontal surface, is connected to a spring of force con-
stant 900 N/m. If the block moves a distance of 5 cm to
the right after impact, find (a) the speed at which the Figure 9.46 (Problem 86).
bullet emerges from the block and (b) the energy lost
in the collision.
CALCULATOR/COMPUTER PROBLEM
A86. A student performs a ballistic pendulum experiment
using an apparatus similar to that shown in Figure 87. Consider a head-on elastic collision between a moving
9. 10b. She obtains the following data (averaged over a particle of mass m and an initially stationary particle
1

series of five measurements); h = 8.68 cm, m =

l
of mass m 2 (see Example 9.8). (a) Plot/2 the fraction
,

68.8 g, and m 2 = 263 Determine the initial ve-

g. (a) of energy transferred to m 2 as a function of the ratio
,

locity v u of the projectile, (b) The second part of her m 2/m and show that f2 reaches a maximum when
1

experiment is to obtain v u by firing the same projec- m 2 /m = 1. (b) Perform an analytical calculation that
1

tile horizontally (with the pendulum removed from verifies that/2 isa maximum when m = tn 2 1
.
 .

10
Rotation of a Rigid Body
About a Fixed Axis

The people in this colorful

photograph are set into circu-
lar motion about the vertical
axis in an exciting amusement
park ride. The passengers are
seated in chairs connected to
long chains. The angle that the
chains make with the vertical
axis increases as the angular
velocity of the apparatus in-
creases. (Robert Harding Pic-
ture Library)

When an extended body, such as a wheel, rotates about its axis, the
motion cannot be analyzed by treating the body as a particle,
since at any given time different parts of the body have different
velocities and accelerations. For this reason, it is convenient to
consider an extended object as a large number of particles, each with its own
velocity and acceleration.
In dealing with the rotation of a body, analysis is greatly simplified by
assuming the body to be rigid. A rigid body is defined as a body that is nonde- Rigid body
formable, or one in which the separations between all pairs of particles in the
body remain constant. All real bodies in nature are deformable to some extent;
however, our rigid-body model is useful in many situations where deformation
is negligible. In this chapter, we shall treat the rotation of a rigid body about a

fixed axis, commonly referred to as pure rotational motion.

The vector nature of angular velocity and angular acceleration and the
concept of angular momentum will be presented in detail in Chapter 1 1

10.1 ANGULAR VELOCITY AND ANGULAR

ACCELERATION
Figure 10.1 illustrates a planar rigid body of arbitrary shape confined to the xy
plane and rotating about a fixed axis through O perpendicular to the plane of
the figure. A particle on the body at Pis at a fixed distance r from the origin and

245
 .

246 CHAPTER 10 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FTXED AXIS

rotates in a circle of radius r about O. In fact, every particle on the body

undergoes circular motion about O. convenient to represent the position
It is

of the point P with its polar coordinates (r, 8). In this representation, the only
coordinate that changes in time is the angle 8; r remains constant. (In rectangu-
lar coordinates, both x and ij vary in time.) As the particle moves along the
circle from the positive x axis (8 = 0) to the point P, it moves through an arc
length s, which is related to the angular position 8 through the relation

s = r8 (10.1a)

6 = s/r (10.1b)

important to note the units of 0as expressed by Equation 10.1b. The

It is

angle 8 is the ratio of an arc length and the radius of the circle, and hence is a
Figure 10.1 Rotation of a rigid
body about a fixed axis through O pure number. However, we commonly refer to the unit of 8 as a radian (rad),
perpendicular to the plane of the where
figure (the z axis). Note that a parti-
cle at P rotates in a circle of radius r one rad is the angle subtended by an arc length equal to the radius of the
centered at O.
arc.

Since the circumference of a circle is 2nr, it follows that 360° corresponds to

an angle of 2nr/r rad or 2n rad (one revolution). Hence, 1 rad = 360°/27r ~
57.3° To convert an angle in degrees to an angle in radians, we can use the fact
.

that 2n radians = 360°; hence

8 (rad) = 8 (deg)
180'

For example, 60° equals n/3 rad, and 45° equals n/4 rad.
As the particle travels from P to Q in Figure 10.2 in a time At, the radius
vector sweeps out an angle A8 = 8 2 — 8 1 which equals the angular displace-
,

ment. We define the average angular velocity co (omega) as the ratio of this
angular displacement to the time interval At:

A8
(10.2)
At

In analogy to linear velocity, the instantaneous angular velocity, co, is

defined as the limit of the ratio in Equation 10.2 as At approaches zero:

Ad d8
lim ——
.

co = = -j- (10.3)
a«— o At at
Figure 10.2 A particle on a rotat-
_1
ing rigid body moves from P to O Angular velocity has units of rad/s, or s since radians are not dimen-
,

along the arc of a circle. In the sional.Let us adopt the convention that the fixed axis of rotation for the rigid
time interval At = t 2 ~t l the ra-
body is the z axis, as in Figure 10.1. We shall take co to be positive when 8 is
,

dius vector sweeps out an angle

A6 = e 2 - 0, increasing (counterclockwise motion) and negative when 8 is decreasing
(clockwise motion).
If the instantaneous angular velocity of a body changes from co 1 to co 2 in
the time interval A*, the body has an angular acceleration. The average angu-
lar acceleration a (alpha) of a rotating body is defined as the ratio of the change
in the angular velocity to the time interval At:

—_ co 2 — co _ l Aco
Average angular acceleration (10.4)
U— t. At
 10.2 ROTATIONAL KINEMATICS: ROTATIONAL MOTION WITH CONSTANT ANGULAR ACCELERATION 247

In analogy to linear acceleration, the instantaneous angular acceleration

is defined as the limit of the ratio Aco/At as At approaches zero:

Instantaneous angular
(10.5)
acceleration

-2
Angular acceleration has units of rad/s 2 or s Note that a is positive when co is
.

increasing in time and negative when to is decreasing in time.

For rotation about a fixed axis, we see that every particle on the rigid body
has the same angular velocity and the same angular acceleration. That is, the
quantities to and a characterize the rotational motion of the entire rigid body.
Using these quantities, we can greatly simplify the analysis of rigid-body rota-
tion. The angular displacement (6), angular velocity (co), and angular accelera-
tion (a) are analogous to linear displacement (x), linear velocity (v), and linear
acceleration (a), respectively, for the corresponding motion discussed in
Chapter 3. The variables Q, to, and a differ dimensionally from the variables x,
v, and a, only by a length factor.
We have already indicated how the signs for to and a are determined;
however, we have not specified any direction in space associated with these
vector quantities. 1 For rotation about a fixed axis, the only direction in space
that uniquely specifies the rotational motion is the direction along the axis of
rotation. However, we must also decide on the sense of these quantities, that
is, whether they point into or out of the plane of Figure 10.1.

As we have already mentioned, the direction of co is along the axis of

rotation, which is the z axis in Figure 10. 1 By convention, we take the direc-
.

tion of CO to be out of the plane of the diagram when the rotation is counter-
clockwise and into the plane of the diagram when the rotation is clockwise. To
further illustrate this convention, it is convenient to use the right-hand rule
<o^r
shown in Figure 10.3a. The four fingers of the right hand are wrapped in the
direction of the rotation. The extended right thumb points in the direction of
co. Figure 10.3b illustrates that co is also in the direction of advance of a

similarly rotating right-handed screw. Finally, the sense of a follows from its
definition as dco/dt. It is the same as co if the angular speed (the magnitude of
co) is increasing in time and antiparallel to CO if the angular speed is decreasing

in time.

10.2 ROTATIONAL KINEMATICS: ROTATIONAL

MOTION WITH CONSTANT ANGULAR
ACCELERATION
y
In the study of linear motion,we found that the simplest form of accelerated
motion to analyze motion under constant linear acceleration (Chapter 3).
is

Likewise, for rotational motion about a fixed axis the simplest accelerated
motion to analyze is motion under constant angular acceleration. Therefore,
(b)
we shall next develop kinematic relations for rotational motion under constant
Figure 10.3 (a) The right-hand
rule for determining the direction
1
Although we do not verify it here, the instantaneous angular velocity and instantaneous angular of the angular velocity, (b) The di-
acceleration are vector quantities, but the corresponding average values are not. This is because rection of w is in the direction of
angular displacement is not a vector quantity for finite rotations. advance of a right-handed screw.
248 CHAPTER 10 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

TABLE 10.1 A Comparison of Kinematic Equations for Rotational and Linear

Motion Under Constant Acceleration

Rotational Motion About Fixed Axis Linear Motion with a = Constant.

with a= Constant. Variables: 8 and CO Variables: x and r

co = co + at v = v + at
=
e e + w t + \at 2 x = x + v t + {at 2
co =
2
oj
2
+ 2a(6 - 6>
)
v2 = v 2 +
2a(x - x )

angular acceleration. If we write Equation 10.5 in the form dco = adt and let
co = co at t = 0, we can integrate this expression directly:

Rotational kinematic
equations
co = co + at (a = constant) (10.6)

Likewise, substituting Equation 10.6 into Equation 10.3 and integrating once
more (with 9 = 8 at t = 0), we get

6 = 6 + co t + iat2 (10.7)

If we eliminate t from Equations 10.6 and 10.7, we get

co
2 = co
2
+ 2a(8 - 6 ) (10.8)

Notice that these kinematic expressions for rotational motion under constant
angular acceleration are of the same form as those for linear motion under
constant linear acceleration with the substitutions x — » 6, v —* co, and a —* a.
Table 10.1 gives a comparison of the kinematic equations for rotational and
linear motion. Furthermore, the expressions are valid for both rigid-body
rotation and particle motion about a fixed axis.

EXAMPLE 10.1 Rotating Wheel (b) What is the angular velocity at t =2 s?

A wheel rotates with a constant angular acceleration of
3.5 rad/s 2
. angular velocity of the wheel is 2.0 rad/s
If the co = a> + at = 2.0 rad/s + I 3.5 ^- ]
(2 s)

at t = 0, (a) what angle does the wheel rotate through in

2 s?
= 9.0 rad/s
6 - 6 = co t + {at 2
We could also obtain this result using Equation 10.8 and
the results of (a). Try it!
= (2.0f)(2sm(3.5^) 2s )2 (

Exercise 1 Find the angle that the wheel rotates

through between (=2s and t=3s.
= 11 rad = 630° = 1.75 rev
Answer 10.8 rad.
 10.3 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ANGULAR AND LINEAR QUANTITIES 249

10.3 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ANGULAR AND

LINEAR QUANTITIES
In this section we shall derive some between the angular
useful relationships
velocity and acceleration of a rotating rigid body and the linear velocity and
acceleration of an arbitrary point in the body. In order to do so, we should keep
in mind that when a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis, every particle of the
body moves in a circle the center of which is the axis of rotation (Fig. 10.4).
We can first relate the angular velocity of the rotating body to the tangen-
tial velocity, v, of a point P on the body. Since P moves in a circle, the linear

velocity vector is always tangent to the circular path, and hence the phrase
tangential velocity. The magnitude of the tangential velocity of the point Pis,
by definition, ds/dt, where s is the distance traveled by this point measured
along the circular path. Recalling that s = r6 and noting that r is constant, we Figure 10.4 As a rigid body ro-
tates about the fixed axis through
get
O, the point P has a linear velocity
p, which is always tangent to the
ds de
circular path of radius r.
dt dt

Relationship between linear

v = ru> (10.9)
and angular speed

That is, the tangential velocity of a point on a rotating rigid body equals the

distance of that point from the axis of rotation multiplied by the angular
velocity. Therefore, although every point on the rigid body has the same
angular velocity, not every point has the same linear velocity. In fact, Equation
10.9 shows that the linear velocity of a point on the rotating body increases as
one moves outward from the center of rotation toward the rim, as you would
intuitively expect.
We can relate the angular acceleration of the rotating rigid body to the
tangential acceleration of the point P by taking the time derivative of v.
dv da>
dt dt

a t
= ra (10.10)

That is, component of the linear acceleration of a point on a

the tangential
rotating rigid body equals the distance of that point from the axis of rotation
multiplied by the angular acceleration.
Chapter 4 we found that a point rotating in a circular path undergoes a
In
magnitude v 2/r and directed toward the
centripetal, or radial, acceleration of
center of rotation (Fig. 10.5). Since v = no for the point P on the rotating
body, we can express the centripetal acceleration as

ar = — = rco 2 (10.11)
r
Figure 10.5 As a rigid body ro-
The total linear acceleration of the particle is a = a, + a r
Therefore, the
.
tates about a fixed axis through O,
the point P experiences a tangen-
magnitude of the total linear acceleration of the point Pon the rotating rigid tial component of acceleration, a,,
body is given by and a centripetal component of ac-
celeration, a T . The total accelera-
a = 4a~fTa~} = Vr2 ** 2 + r^co* = Wa 2 + co
4
(10.12) tion of this point is a = a, + a,.
250 CHAPTER 10 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

EXAMPLE 10.2 A Rotating Turntable Ad = 6 - 9 = co t + {at 2

The turntable of a record player rotates initially at a rate

of 33 revolutions/min and takes 20 s to come to rest. = |3.46(20) + K-0.173)(20) 2 ] rad = 34.6 rad
(a) What is the angular acceleration of the turntable,

assuming the acceleration is uniform? This corresponds to 34.6/27T rev, or 5.50 rev.
Recalling that 1 rev In= rad, we see that the initial
(c) If the radius of the turntable is 14 cm, what are
angular velocity is given by
the magnitudes of the radial and tangential components
of the linear acceleration of a point on the rim at t = 0?
We can use a, = ra and a, = rco 2 , which gives

Using co = io + at and the fact that co = at t = 20 s, we

a, = ra = (14 cm) ( -0.173 ^-j -2.42 cm/s 2
get

co 3.46 rad/s rad\ 2

-0.173 rad/s 2 rco 2 = (14 cm) 3.46— = 168 cm/s 2
20 s
(
where the negative sign indicates a negative angular ac-
decreasing). Exercise 2 What is the initial linear speed of a point on
celeration (co is
the rim of the turntable?
(b) How many rotations does the turntable make Answer 48.4 cm/s.
before coming to rest?
Using Equation 10.7, we find that the angular dis-
placement in 20 s is

10.4 ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY

Let us consider a rigid body as a collection of small particles and let us assume
that the body rotates about the fixed z axis with an angular velocity co (Fig.
10.6). Each particle of the body has some kinetic energy, determined by its
mass and velocity. If the mass of the tth particle is m, and its speed is v the f ,

kinetic energy of this particle is

K = im
( (
t>,
2

To proceed further, we must recall that although every particle in the rigid
body has the same angular velocity, co, the individual linear velocities depend
on the distance r, from the axis of rotation according to the expression v = r,co (

(Eq. 10.9). The total kinetic energy of the rotating rigid body is the sum of the
kinetic energies of the individual particles:

K= 2K <
= ^m '
v i
^mtfco*

Figure 10.6 A rigid body rotating (10.13)

about the 2 axis with angular veloc-
ity w. The kinetic energy of the
particle of mass m, is im,t>,
2 The
.
where we have factored co 2 from the sum since it is common to every particle.
total kinetic energy of the body is
The quantity in parentheses is called the moment of inertia, I:
Uw 2 .

'-2> (10.14)

Using this notation, we can express the kinetic energy of the rotating rigid
body (Eq. 10.13) as

K - Uco 2 (10.15)
 10.4 ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY 251

From the definition of moment of inertia, we see that it has dimensions of

ML 2 (kg-m 2 in SI units and g-cm 2 in cgs units). It plays the role of mass in all
rotational equations. Although we commonly refer to the quantity \Ia> 2 as
shall
the rotational kinetic energy, it isnew form of energy. It is ordinary
not a
kinetic energy, since it was derived from a sum over individual kinetic ener-
gies of the particles contained in the rigid body. However, the form of the
kinetic energy given by Equation 10.15 is a convenient one in dealing with
rotational motion, providing we know how to calculate /. It is important that
you recognize the analogy between kinetic energy associated with linear
motion, [mc 2 and rotational kinetic energy, \Ica 2 The quantities I and a) in
, .

rotational motion are analogous to m and v in linear motion, respectively. In

the next section we shall describe how to calculate moments of inertia for rigid
bodies. The following examples illustrate how to calculate moments of inertia
and rotational kinetic energy for a distribution of particles.

EXAMPLE 10.3 The Oxygen Molecule

Consider the diatomic molecule oxygen, 2 which is ,

rotating in the xy plane about the z axis passing through

its center, perpendicular to its length. At room tempera-

ture, the "average" separation between the two oxygen

atoms is 1.21 X 10 -10 m (the atoms are treated as point
masses), (a) Calculate the moment of inertia of the mole-
cule about the z axis. M
Since the mass of an oxygen atom is 2.66 X 10 -26 kg
and the distance of each atom from the z axis is d/2, the
moment of inertia about the z axis is
2 nd 2
I
2"V.2 = «i(f) + «(fj 2

(^H^kg)(1.21 X 10- m)*

Figure 10.7 (Example 10.4) All particles are at a fixed separa-
tion as shown. The moment of inertia depends on the axis about
= 1.95 X10- 46 kg-m 2 which it is evaluated.

(b) If the angular velocity of the molecule about the

z axis is 2.0 X 10 12 rad/s, what is its rotational kinetic
the rotation of the system occurs about the y axis with an
energy?
angular velocity 10, find the moment of inertia about the
K ilcu 2
y axis and the rotational kinetic energy about this axis.
First, note that the particles of mass m that lie on the
= i(1.95X 10- 46 kgm 2 )
'2.0 XIO* 2 —Y y axis do not contribute to Iy (that is, r, = for these
particles about this axis). Applying Equation 10.14, we
= 3.89X 10- 22 J get

This about one order of magnitude smaller than the

is I
y
= 2>,r, 2 = Ma 2 + Ma 2 = 2Ma 2
average kinetic energy associated with the translational
Therefore, the rotational kinetic energy about the y axis
motion of the molecule at room temperature, which is
is
about 6.2 X 10~ 21 J.
K= tfy co
2 = i(2Ma 2 )w 2 = Ma 2 a> 2
EXAMPLE 10.4 Four Rotating Particles
Four point masses are fastened to the corners of a frame The fact that the masses m do not enter into this result
of negligible mass lying in the xy plane (Fig. 10.7). (a) If makes sense, since these particles have no motion about
252 CHAPTER 10 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

the chosen axis of rotation; hence they have no kinetic

energy.
K = llz a> 2 = \{2Ma 2 + 2mb 2 )oj 2 = (Ma 2 + mb 2 )a>2

(b) Now suppose the system rotates in the xy plane Comparing the results for (a) and (b), we conclude
about an axis through O (the z axis). Calculate the mo- that the moment of inertia, and therefore the rotational
ment of inertia about the z axis and the rotational kinetic kinetic energy associated with a given angular speed,
energy about this axis. depends on the we would expect
axis of rotation. In (b),
Since r, in Equation 10.14 isthe perpendicular dis- the result to include masses and distances, since all
all
tance to the axis of rotation, we get particles are in motion for rotation in the xy plane. Fur-

= 2 = Ma 2 + Ma 2 + mb 2 + mb 2 thermore, the fact that the kinetic energy in (a) is smaller

Iz
2> (
r,
than in (b) indicates that it would take less effort (work)
to set the system into rotation about the y axis than about
= 2Ma 2 + 2mb 2
the z axis.

10.5 CALCULATION OF MOMENTS OF INERTIA

We can evaluate the moment of inertia of an extended body by imagining that
the body is divided into volume elements, each of mass Am. Now we can use
the definition / = Sr2 Am and take the limit of this sum as Am — » 0. In this limit,
the sum becomes an integral over the whole body, where r is the perpendicu-
lar distance from the axis of rotation to the element Am. Hence,

I = lim Yr
^ 2
Am = I r2 dm (10.16)
Am— J

To evaluate the moment of inertia using Equation10.16, it is necessary to

express the element of mass dm
terms of its coordinates. It is common to
in
define a mass density in various forms. For a three-dimensional body, it is
appropriate to use the local volume density, that is, mass per unit volume. In
this case, we can write

Am = dm
/,=
ir Av dv

dm = pdV

Therefore, the moment of inertia can be expressed in the form

7= Ipr^dV

If the body is homogeneous, then p is constant and the integral can be evalu-
ated for a known geometry. If/? is not constant, then its variation with position
must be specified. When dealing with an object in the form of a sheet of
uniform thickness t, it is convenient to define a surface density a — pt, which
signifies mass per unit area. Finally, when mass is distributed along a uniform
rod of cross-sectional area A, we sometimes use linear density, X = pA, where A
is defined as mass per unit length.
 10.5 CALCULATION OF MOMENTS OF INERTIA 253

EXAMPLE 10.5 Uniform Hoop f r'

2
M M C
m
Find the moment of inertia of a uniform hoop of mass M I
y
= Ir2 dm = \
x2
tL dx = ^ J- L x2 dx
J J-L/2 L.
/2
and radius R about an axis perpendicular to the plane of
the hoop, through its center (Fig. 10.8). r3 W*
ML 2
-mi -1/2

Exercise 3 Calculate the moment of inertia of a uniform

rigid rod about an axis perpendicular to the rod through
one end (the y' axis). Note that the calculation requires
that the limits of integration be from x — to x = L.
Answer $ML 2 .

EXAMPLE 10.7 Uniform Solid Cylinder

A uniform solid cylinder has a radius R, mass M, and
length L. Calculate the moment of inertia of the cylinder
about its axis (the z axis in Fig. 10.10).
Figure 10.8 (Example 10.5) The mass elements of a uniform
hoop are all the same distance from O.

Solution All elements of mass are at the same distance

r = R from the axis, so, applying Equation 10.16, we get
for the moment of inertia about the z axis through O:

1 = \r2
dm = R 2 \dm = MR 2
\r*dm

EXAMPLE 10.6 Uniform Rigid Rod

Calculate the moment of inertia of a uniform rigid rod of
length L and mass M (Fig. 10.9) about an axis perpendic-
ular to the rod (the y axis) passing through its center of
mass. Figure 1 0. 1 (Example 10.7) Calculating / about the z axis for
a uniform solid cylinder.
V' </

Solution In this example, it is convenient to divide the

cylinder into cylindrical shells of radius r, thickness dr,
and length L, as in Figure 10.10. In this case, cylindrical
shells are chosen because one wants all mass elements

"I!*-
=RR-
dm to have a single value for r, which makes the calcula-
tion of / more straightforward. The volume of each shell
is its cross-sectional area multiplied by the length, or

-I dV = dA L = (2nr dr)L. If the mass per unit volume is p,

•

then the mass of this differential volume element is

dm = pdV = p 2nrL dr. Substituting this into Equation
10.16, we get
Figure 10.9 (Example 10.6) A uniform rigid rod of length L.
The moment of inertia about the y axis is less than that about the npLR*
(/' axis.
= lr 2 dm = 2npL I r3 dr =

Solution The shaded element of width dx has a mass dm However, since the total volume of the cylinder is nR 2 L,
equal to the mass per unit length multiplied by the ele- p = M/V= M/nR 2 L. Substituting this into the above re-

ment of length, dx. That is,

M
dm = — dx. Substituting this
sult gives

L
into Equation 10.16, with r : :

x, we get Iz = iMR 2
254 CHAPTER 10 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

TABLE 10.2 Moments of Inertia of Homogeneous Rigid Bodies with

Different Geometries

Hollow cylinder

/,. = Im(Rc + R?)

Solid cylinder
Rectangular plate
or disk
1 / = — M(a 2

u-

Long thin rod Long

t^
thin rod

/, = X ML- / = i ML-

^H

Solid sphere Thin spherical

shell
7, = = MR 2
7, = - MR 1

As we saw in the previous examples, the moments of inertia of rigid bodies

with simple geometry (high symmetry) are relatively easy to calculate pro-
vided the reference axis coincides with an axis of symmetry. Table 10.2 gives
2
the moments of inertia for a number of bodies about specific axes.
The calculation of moments of inertia about an arbitrary axis can be some-
what cumbersome, even for a highly symmetric body, such as a sphere. In this
regard, there is an important theorem, called the parallel-axis theorem, that
often simplifies the calculation of moments of inertia. Suppose the moment of
inertia about any axis through the center of mass is Ic The parallel-axis .

theorem states that the moment of inertia about any axis that is parallel to and a

2 Civil engineers use the moment of inertia concept to characterize the elastic properties (rigid-
ity) of such structures as loaded beams. Hence, it is often useful even in a nonrotational context.
 10.5 CALCULATION OF MOMENTS OF INERTIA 255

distance D away from the axis that passes through the center of mass is given by

/ = J + MD 2
c (10.17) Parallel-axis theorem

"Proof of the Parallel-axis Theorem Suppose a body rotates in the xy plane

about an axis through O as in Figure 10.11 and the coordinates of the center of
mass are xc ,y c Let the element Am hav e coord inates x, y relative to the origin.
.

Since this element is at a distance r = Vx z + y 2 from the z axis, the moment of

inertia about the z axis through O is

-/•"*-/ (x
2
+ y
2
)dm

However, we can relate the coordinates x, y to the coordinates of the center of

mass, x c y c and the coordinates relative to the center of mass, x', y' through
, ,

the relations x = x' + x c and y = y' + y c Therefore, .

= \[(x')
2
+ (y')
2
]dm + 2x c jx' dm+ :

+ -)

J' /'

The first term on the right is, by definition, the moment of inertia about an axis
parallel to the z axis, through the center of mass. The second two terms on the
right are zero, since by definition of the center of mass JV dm = Sy' dm =
(x', y' are the coordinates of the mass element relative to the center of mass).
Finally, the last term on the right is simply MD 2 , since fdm = M and D 2 =
x 2
+ y
2
. Therefore, we conclude that
I = L + MD 2

Figure 10.11 The parallel-axis theorem. If the moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to
the figure through the center of mass at c is /c then the moment of inertia about the z axis is
,

/x = /c + MD 2 .
256 CHAPTER 10 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

EXAMPLE 10.8 Applying the Parallel-axis Theorem lel axis through its end is D= L/2, the parallel-axis
Consider once again a uniform rigid rod of mass and M theorem gives
length L as in Figure 10.9. Find the moment of inertia of
the rod about an axis perpendicular to the rod through / = 7C + MD 2 = ±ML 2 + M (§)" \ML 2
one end (the y' axis in Fig. 10.9).

Exercise 4 Calculate themoment of inertia of the rod

Solution Since the moment of inertia of the rod about an about an axis perpendicular to the rod and through the
axis perpendicular to the rod through its center of mass is point x — L/4.
ML 2 / 12, and the distance between this axis and the paral- Answer / = 4ML2

10.6 TORQUE
When a force is exerted on a rigid body pivoted about some axis, the body will
tend to rotate about thataxis. The tendency of a force to rotate a body about

some axis is measured by a quantity called the torque (t) Consider the wrench .

pivoted about the axis through O in Figure 10.12. The applied force Fgener-
ally can act at an angle (/> to the horizontal. We define the magnitude of the
torque, T, (Greek letter tau), resulting from the force Fby the expression

Definition of torque T = rF sin = Fd (10.18)

very important that you recognize that torque is defined only when a
It is

Moment arm reference axis is specified. The quantity d = r sin (/>, called the moment arm (or

lever arm) of the force F, represents the perpendicular distance from the
rotation axis to the line of action of F. Note that the only component of F that
tends to cause a rotation is F sin </>, the component perpendicular to r. The
horizontal component, F cos (/>, passes through O and has no tendency to
produce a rotation. If there are two or more forces acting on a rigid body, as in
Figure 10.13, then each has a tendency to produce a rotation about the pivot
at O. For example, F2 has a tendency to rotate the body clockwise, and F x has a
tendency to rotate the body counterclockwise. We shall use the convention
that the sign of the torque resulting from a force is positive if its turning
tendency is counterclockwise and negative if its turning tendency is clock-

Figure 10.12 The force F has a

greater rotating tendency about O
as F increases and as the moment Figure 10.13 The force F^ tends
arm, d, increases. It is the compo- to rotate the body counterclock-
nent F sin (f> that tends to rotate the wise about O, and F2 tends to rotate
system about O. the body clockwise.
 10.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TORQUE AND ANGULAR ACCELERATION 257

wise. For example, in Figure 10.13, the torque resulting from F1 which has a ,

moment arm of dt , is positive and equal to + Fl d 1 the torque from F2 is

;

negative and equal to — F2 d 2 . Hence, the net torque acting on the rigid body
about O is
?„e. = Tl + T2 = Ml - Ma
From the definition of torque, we see that the rotating tendency increases
as F increases and as d increases.
For example, it is easier to close a door if we
push the doorknob rather than at a point close to the hinge. Torque should
at
not be confused with force. Torque has units of force times length, or N in SI •
m
units, the same combination that gives work. In Section 10.7 we shall see that
the concept of torque is convenient for analyzing the rotational dynamics of a
rigid body. The vector nature of torque will be described in detail in the next
chapter.

EXAMPLE 10.9 The Net Torque on a Cylinder

A solid cylinder ispivoted about a frictionless axle as in
Figure 10.14. A rope wrapped around the outer radius,
Rj exerts a force F Y to the right on the cylinder. A sec-
,

ond rope wrapped around another section of radius R 2

exerts a force F2 downward on the cylinder, (a) What is
the net torque acting on the cylinder about the z axis
through O?
The torque due to Fx is — R,Fj and is negative be-
cause it tends to produce a clockwise rotation. The
torque due to F2 is +R 2 F2 and is positive because it tends
to produce a counterclockwise rotation. Therefore, the
net torque is
Figure 10.14 (Example 10.9) A solid cylinder pivoted about
T net = Tl "t" T2 = ^2^2
— ^lFi the z axis through O. The moment arm of F l is Rj and the
,

moment arm of F» is R,.

(b) Suppose F, =5 N, R, = 1.0 m, F2 =6 N, and
R2 = 0.5 m. What is the net torque and which way will
the cylinder rotate?

Since the net torque is negative, the cylinder will rotate

Vt = (6 N)(0.5 m) - (5 N)(1.0 m) = -2 N-m
in the clockwise direction.

10.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TORQUE AND

ANGULAR ACCELERATION
In this section we shall show that the angular acceleration of a rigid body
rotating about a fixed axis is proportional to the net torque acting about that
axis. Before discussing the more complex case of rigid-body rotation, it is
instructive first to discuss briefly the case of a particle rotating about some

fixed point under the influence of an external force. The ideas embodied in this
situation will then be extended to the case of a rigid body rotating about a fixed
Figure 10.15 A particle rotating
axis. in a circleunder the influence of a
Consider a particle of mass m
under the
rotating in a circle of radius r tangential force F,. A centripetal
force Fr (not shown) must also be
influence of a tangential force F, as in Figure 10.15 and a centripetal force Fr
present to maintain the circular
not shown in the figure. (The centripetal force must be present to keep the motion.
258 CHAPTER 10 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

particle moving in its circular path.) The tangential force provides a tangential
acceleration a, and ,

F t
= ma t

The torque about the origin due to the force Ft is the product of the magnitude
of the force, F and the moment arm
t
, of the force:

T = Fr = t
(ma t
)r

Since the tangential acceleration is related to the angular acceleration through

the relation a t = roc, the torque can be expressed

t = (mra)r = (m^a
Recall that the quantity mr2 is the moment of inertia of the rotating mass about
the z axis passing through the origin, so that

Relationship between torque

and angular acceleration
t = la (10.19)

That is, the torque acting on the particle is proportional to its angular accelera-

tion, and the proportionality constant is the moment of inertia. It is important

to note that t = la is the rotational analogue of Newton's second law of motion,
F= ma.
Now let us extend this discussion to a rigid body of arbitrary shape rotat-
ing about a fixed axis as in Figure 10.16. The body can be regarded as an
infinite number of mass elements dm of infinitesimal size. Each mass element
rotates in a circle about the origin, and each has a tangential acceleration a t

produced by an external tangential force dF For any given element, we know t

.

from Newton's second law that

dF = (dm)a
t t

The torque dr associated with the force dF t

acting about the origin is given by

dt = r dF = t
(r dm)a t

Since a t = ra, the expression for dr becomes

dx = (r dm)ra = (r
2
dm)a
Figure 10.16 A rigid body pi-
voted about an axis through O. important to recognize that although each point of the rigid body may
It is
Each mass element dm rotates have a different a all mass elements have the same angular acceleration, a.
,

about O with the same angular ac-

t

celeration a, and the net torque on With this in mind, the above expression can be integrated to obtain the net
the body is proportional to a. torque of the external forces about O:

= I (r
2
dm)a = a I r2 dm

where a can be taken outside the integral since it is common to all mass
elements. Since the moment of inertia of the body about the rotation axis
through O is defined by 7 = /r2 dm, the expression for T ne becomes ,

Torque is proportional to
angular acceleration
= la (10.20)

Again we see that the net torque about the rotation axis is proportional to
the angular acceleration of the body with the proportionality factor being I,
 10.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TORQUE AND ANGULAR ACCELERATION 259

which depends upon the axis of rotation and upon the size and shape of the
body.
In view of the complex nature of the system, the important result that
T net = la is strikingly simple and in complete agreement with experimental
observations. The simplicity of the result lies in the manner in which the
motion is described.

Although each point on a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis may not
experience the same force, linear acceleration, or linear velocity, every Every point has the
point on the body has the same angular acceleration and angular velocity same CO and a

at any instant. Therefore, at any instant the rotating rigid body as a whole
is characterized by specific values for angular acceleration, net torque,

and angular velocity.

you should note that the result T net = la would also apply if the
Finally,
forces acting on the mass elements had radial components as well as tangential
components. This is because the line of action of all radial components must
pass through the axis of rotation, and hence would produce zero torque about
that axis.

EXAMPLE 10.10 Rotating Rod

M
A uniform rod of length L and mass is free to rotate

about a frictionless pivot at one end, as in Figure 10.17.

The rod is released from rest in the horizontal position.
m
Mg(L/2)
2
_ 3g
2L

What is the initial angular acceleration of the rod and the This angular acceleration is common to all points on the
initial linear acceleration of the right end of the rod? rod.
To find the linear acceleration of the right end of the
Solution For the purposes of computing the torque on rod, we use the relation a, = Ra, with R = L. This gives
we may assume that the weight Mg is located at
the rod,
the geometric center of the rod, and thus acts at its at = La= \g
center of mass as shown in Figure 10.17. The magnitude
of the torque due to this force about an axis through the This result is rather interesting, since a, > g. That is, the
pivot is end of the rod has an acceleration greater than the accel-
_MgL eration due to gravity. Therefore, if a coin were placed at
r
2 the end of the rod, the end of the rod would fall faster
than the coin when released.
The support force at the hinge has zero torque about an
Other points on the rod have a linear acceleration
axis through the pivot, because this force passes through
less than \g. For example, the middle of the rod has an
the axis (hence r = 0). Since T = la, where 7 = $ML 2 for
acceleration \g.
this axis of rotation (see Table 10.2), we get

Exercise 5 Show that the force of gravity can be treated

la Mg
\ as a single force acting at the center of the rod.

EXAMPLE 10.11 Angular Acceleration of a Wheel

A wheel of radius R, mass M, and moment of inertia I is
mounted on a frictionless, horizontal axle as in Figure
1 0. 1 8. A light cord wrapped around the wheel supports a
body of mass m. Calculate the linear acceleration of the
suspended body, the angular acceleration of the wheel,
and the tension in the cord.

Figure 10.17 (Example 10.10) The uniform rod is pivoted at Solution The torque acting on the wheel about its axis of
the left end. rotation is t = TR. The weight of the wheel and the nor-
260 CHAPTER 10 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

M Likewise, solving for a and a gives

-^ /// \ a
g
1 + I/mR 2

_ a _ g
a
~R~R + I/mR

Exercise 6 The wheel in Figure 10.18 is a solid disk of

M = 2.0 kg, R = 30 cm, and 7 =
0.09 kg m 2 The sus- •
.

pended object has a mass of m = 0.5 kg. Find the tension

in the cord and the angular acceleration of the wheel.
Answer 3.27 N; 10.9 rad/s 2 .

EXAMPLE 10.12
Two masses m 1
and m s are connected to each other by a
lightcord which passes over two identical pulleys, each
having a moment of inertia I. (See Figure 10.19a.) Find
the acceleration of each mass and the tensions Tx T2 , ,

and T3 in the cord. (Assume that no slipping occurs be-

tween the cord and pulleys.)

Figure 10. IS (Example 10.11) The cord attached to m is

Solution First, let us write Newton's second law of mo-
wrapped around the pulley, which produces a torque about the tion as applied to each block, taking m2 > m^. The free-
axle through O. body diagrams are shown in Figure 10.19b.

ri — m g=
"iig l
m"i a
f
l (!)

mal force of the axle on the wheel pass through the axis of m?g- (2)
rotation and produce no torque. Since t = la, we get
Next, we must include the effect of the pulleys on
r = 7a = TR the motion. Free-body diagrams for the pulleys are
(1) a = TR/I shown in Figure 10.19c.
The net torque about the axle for the pulley on the
Now let us apply Newton's second law to the motion of left is (T2 —T Y
while the net torque for the pulley on
)R,
the suspended mass m. making use of the free-body dia- the right is (T3 — T2 )R. Using the relation T ne , = la for
gram (Fig. 10.18):

^Fy = T-mg = -ma

B= "£ZI
$
(2)
m
The linear acceleration of the suspended mass is equal to
the tangential acceleration of a point on the rim of the
(a)
wheel. Therefore, the angular acceleration of the wheel
and this linear acceleration are related by a = Ra. Using
this fact together with (1) and (2) gives
Ni
TR 2 _ mg - T
a = Ra
I ~ m

mg
iR 2 (c)
1 +
/
Figure 10.19 (Example 10.12).
 10.8 WORK AND ENERGY IN ROTATIONAL MOTION 261

each wheel, and noting that each wheel has the same a Substituting Equation (6) into Equation (5), we have
gives
[(m 2 -m 1
)g- (m, + m 2 )a]R = 21a
(Ta - TJR = la (3)
Since & = —, this can be simplified as follows:
(T3 -T2 )R = Ia (4) n
We now have four equations with four unknowns; (m 2 - m^g - (m, + m 2 )a = 2/ ^j-
namely, a, TjT2 and T3 These can be solved simulta-
, , .

neously. Adding Equations (3) and (4) gives

(T3 -T 1
)R=27<* (5) j_ ( m 2-"»l)g
(7)
Adding Equations (1) and (2) gives m l
"+" m2 + 2 2
fi

T, - T3 + m 2g - mjg = (m, + m 2 )a
This value of a can then be substituted into Equations (1)
and (2) to give TY and T3 Finally, T2 can be found from
.

Tn-T, (m 2 -m 1
)g-(m 1 + m 2 )a (6) Equation (3) or Equation (4).

10.8 WORK AND ENERGY IN ROTATIONAL MOTION

The description of a rotating rigid body would not be complete without a
discussion of the rotational kinetic energy and how its change is related to the
work done by external forces.
we shall restrict our discussion to rotation about a fixed axis located
Again,
in an inertial frame. Furthermore, we shall see that the important relationship
T net = la derived in the previous section can also be obtained by considering
the rate which energy is changing with time.
at
Consider a rigid body pivoted at the point O in Figure 10.20. Suppose a
single external force F is applied at the point P. The work done by Fas the body
rotates through an infinitesimal distance ds = r d6 in a time dt is

dW=F- ds = (F sin </>)r dd

where Fsin the tangential component of F, or the component of the force
is

along the displacement. Note from Figure 10.20 that the radial component ofF
does no work since it is perpendicular to the displacement.
Since the magnitude of the torque due to Fabout the origin was defined as
rF sin <t>, we can write the work done for the infinitesimal rotation

Figure 10.20 A rigid body rotates

dW=rd6 (10.21) about an axis through O under the
action of an external force F ap-
The which work is being done by Ffor rotation about the fixed axis
rate at plied at P.

is obtained by formally dividing the left and right sides of Equation 10.21
by dt:
dW dd
(10.22)
dt dt

But the quantity dW/dt is, by definition, the instantaneous power, P,

delivered by the force. Furthermore, since dd/dt = w, Equation 10.22 re-
duces to

dW
P= (10.23) Power delivered to a rigid body
dt
262 CHAPTER 10 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

This expression is analogous to P = Fv in the case of linear motion, and the

expression d W
= x dd is analogous to d = Fz dx. W
The Work-Energy Theorem in Rotational Motion
In linear motion, we found the energy concept, and in particular the work-en-
ergy theorem, to be extremely useful in describing the motion of a system. The
energy concept can be equally useful in simplifying the analysis of rotational
motion. From what we learned of linear motion, we expect that for rotation of
a symmetric object (such as a symmetric wheel) about a fixed axis, the work
done by external forces will equal the change in the rotational kinetic energy.
To show that this is in fact the case, let us begin with x = 7a. Using the chain
rule from the calculus, we can express the torque as

da> , dco d6 , dco

—r- -j- =
,
X = la = I —j- = / I -rrCO
dt d6 dt dd
Rearranging the above expression and noting that x dO = dW, we get

xdG = dW=Ia> dai

Integrating this expression, we get for the total work done

Work-energy theorem for f f"

rotational motion
W= ^ dd = ItO dco = \li0 2 - |Z«; 2 iintul
(10.24)
J0o Jfo

where the angularvelocity changes from co to to as the angular displacement

changes from 6 to 8. This expression is analogous to the expression for the
work-energy theorem in linear motion with m replaced by / and v replaced by
a>. That is,

the net work done by external forces in rotating a symmetric rigid body
about a fixed axis equals the change in the body's rotational kinetic
energy.

TABLE 10.3 A Comparison of Useful Equations in Rotational and

Translational Motion

Rotational Motion
About a Fixed Axis Linear Motion

Angular velocity £0 = d6/dt Linear velocity v = dx/dt

Angular acceleration a = dco/dt Linear acceleration a = dv/dt
Resultant torque St = la Resultant force 2F = Ma
If f co = co + at If f = v + at
v
a= constant i 8 — 6 = a> t + fyxt 2 a = constant < x — x = v t + %at
.
w 2 = eV + 2a(6 - 8 ) Iu = v
2 2
+ 2a(x - x )

WorkW= I xd8 WorkW= I Fx dx

Je •'*o

Kinetic energy K= \la) 2 Kinetic energy K = $mv 2

Power P = xo) Power P = Fv
Angular momentum L = Ico Linear momentum p = mt>
Resultant torque x = dL/dt Resultant force F = dp/dt
 10.8 WORK AND ENERGY IN ROTATIONAL MOTION 263

Table 10.3 lists the various equations we have discussed pertaining to

rotational motion, together with the analogous expressions for linear motion.
The last two equations Table 10.3, involving the concept of angular mo-
in
mentum L, will be discussed in Chapter 1 1 and are included for completeness.

In all cases, note the similarity between the equations of rotational motion and
those of linear motion.

EXAMPLE 10.13 Rotating Rod — Revisited EXAMPLE 10.14 Connected Masses

A uniform rod of length L and mass Mis free to rotate on a Consider two masses connected by a string passing over a
frictionless pin through one end (Fig. 10.21). The rod is pulley having a moment of inertia / about its axis of rota-
released from rest in the horizontal position, What
(a) is tion, as in Figure 10.22. The string does not slip on the
the angular velocity of the rod when it is at its lowest pulley, and the system is released from rest. Find the
position? linear velocities of the masses after m 2 descends through
The question can be easily answered by considering a distance h, and the angular velocity of the pulley at this
the mechanical energy of the system. When the rod is in time.
the horizontal position, it has no kinetic energy. Itspo-
tential energy relative to the lowest position of its center Solution If we neglect friction in the system, then me-
of mass (O') is MgL/2. When it reaches its lowest posi- chanical energy is conserved and we can state that the

tion, the energy is entirely kinetic energy, \lio 2 where / , increase in kinetic energy of the system equals the de-
is the moment of inertia about the pivot. Since / = %ML 2 crease in potential energy. Since K = (the system is
t

(Table 10.2) and since mechanical energy is conserved, initially at rest), we have
we have
AK = K f -K = lm,c 2 + im 2 v 2 + \lco 2
i

iMgL = {Ico 2 = \{^ML 2 )co 2

where frq and m 2 have a common speed. But v = Rco, so
that

-V* AK M m, + m 2 + -jjAv 2
For example, if the rod is a meter stick, we find that From Figure 10.22, we see that m2 loses potential
a> = 5.42 rad/s. energy while tn l gains potential energy. That is,
Determine the linear velocity of the center of
(b) AU2 = — m 2 gh and Al/, = m x gh. Applying the law of
mass and the linear velocity of the lowest point on the rod conservation of energy in the form AK + AU1 + Al/2 =
in the vertical position. gives

L =
rco = -co /3gL H m, + m 2 + -jp jv 2 + m,g/i - m 2g/i :

The lo west p oint on the rod has a linear velocity equal to

2v c = V3gL.

O E= MgL/2
Pf
L/2

\W
I

l_l
I
s ir 2
E=±Ia
2'
I I

Figure 10.21 (Example 10.13) A uniform rigid rod pivoted at

O rotates in a vertical plane under the action of gravity. Figure 10.22 (Example 10.14).
264 CHAPTER 10 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

Exercise 7 Repeat the calculation of v in Example

2(m 2 -m,)gfi I 1 '2 10.14 using T net = la applied to the pulley and Newton's
second law applied to wi] and m 2 Make use of the proce-
.

dure presented in Examples 10.11 and 10.12.

Since v = Ra>, the angular velocity of the pulley at this

instant is given by to = v/R.

SUMMARY
The instantaneous angular velocity of a particle rotating in a circle or of a
rigid body rotating about a fixed axis is given by

de
Instantaneous angular velocity (10.3)
dt

where a) is in rad/s, ors '.

The instantaneous angular acceleration of a rotating body is given by

Instantaneous angular dco

(10.5)
acceleration dt
-2
and has units of rad/s 2 or , s .

When a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis, every part of the body has
the same angular velocity and the same angular acceleration. However,
different parts of the body, in general, have different linear velocities and
linear accelerations.
If a particle or body undergoes rotational motion about a fixed axis
under constant angular acceleration a, one can apply equations of kine-
matics in analogy with kinematic equations for linear motion under constant
linear acceleration:

co = co + at (10.6)

Rotational kinematic e = eo + + ^af2

co t (10.7)
equations
to
2 = co 2
+ 2a(6 - 6 ) (10.8)

When a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis, the angular velocity and
angular acceleration are related to the linear velocity and tangential linear
acceleration through the relationships
Relationship between linear
and angular speed v = ra> (10.9)

Relationship between linear a t

= ra (10.10)
and angular acceleration
The moment of inertia of a system of particles is given by
Moment of inertia for a
system of particles
i-2"v«' ( 1014 )

If a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis with angular velocity to, its

kinetic energy can be written

Kinetic energy of a rotating K = \lai 2 (10.15)

rigid body
where 7 is the moment of inertia about the axis of rotation.
 QUESTIONS 265

The moment of inertia of a rigid body is given by

Moment of inertia for a rigid

1= \t*dm (10.16)
body

where r is the distance from the mass element dm to the axis of rotation.
The torque associated with a force F acting on a body has a magnitude
equal to

z = Fd (10.18) Torque

where d is the moment arm which is the perpendicular distance

of the force,
from some origin to the line of action of the force. Torque is a measure of the
tendency of the force to rotate the body about some axis.
If a rigid body free to rotate about a fixed axis has a net external torque
acting on it, thebody will undergo an angular acceleration a, where
T net = fo (10.20) Net torque

The rate at which work isbeing done by external forces in rotating a

rigid body about a fixed axis, or the power delivered, is given by

P= T(o (10.23) Power delivered to a rigid body

The net work done by external forces in rotating a rigid body about a
fixed axis equals the change in the rotational kinetic energy of the body:
Work-energy theorem for
W = ilco 2 - $Ico 2
(10.24) rotational motion

This is the work-energy theorem applied to rotational motion.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the magnitude of the angular velocity, to, of does the moment of inertia have the smallest value?
the second hand of a clock? What is the direction of (O the largest value?
as you view a clock hanging vertically? What is the 7. A wheel is in the shape of a hoop as in Figure 10.8. In
angular acceleration, a of the second hand? two separate experiments, the wheel is rotated from
2. A wheel rotates counterclockwise in the xy plane. rest to an angular speed co. In one experiment, the
What is the direction of to? What is the direction of a if rotation occurs about the z axis through O; in the
the angular velocity is decreasing in time? other, the rotation occurs about an axis parallel to z
3. Are the kinematic expressions for 6, co, and a valid through the bottom of the wheel. Which rotation re-
when the angular displacement is measured in de- quires more work?
grees instead of in radians? 8. Suppose the rod in Figure 10.9 has anonuniform mass
4. A turntable rotates at a constant rate of 45 rev/min. distribution. In general, would the moment of inertia
What is the magnitude of its angular velocity in rad/s? about the y axis still equal -feML 2 ? If not, could the
What is its angular acceleration? moment of inertia be calculated without knowledge of
5. When a wheel of radius R rotates about a fixed axis, do the manner in which the mass is distributed?
all points on the wheel have the same angular veloc- 9. Suppose that only two external forces act on a rigid
ity? Do theyhave the same linear velocity? If the
all body, and the two forces are equal in magnitude but
angular velocity is constant and equal to co describe , opposite in direction. Under what condition will the
the linear velocities and linear accelerations of the body rotate?
points at r = 0, r = R/2, and r = R. 10. Explain how you might use the apparatus described
6. Suppose a = b and M
> m in the system of particles in Example 10.11 to determine the moment of iner-
described in Figure 10.7. About what axis (x, y, or z) tia of the wheel. (If the wheel is not a uniform disk
 . .

266 CHAPTER 10 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FDCED AXIS

the moment of inertia is not necessarily equal to 16. Must an object be rotating to have a nonzero moment
IMR 2 .) of inertia?
1 1 Using the results from Example 10.11, how would you 17. If you see an object rotating,
is there necessarily a net
calculate the angular velocity of the wheel and the torque acting on it?
linear velocity of the suspended mass at, say, t = 2 s, if 18. Can a (momentarily) stationary object have a nonzero
the system is released from rest at t = 0? Is the rela- angular acceleration?
tion v = Rco valid in this situation? 19. A particle is moving in a circle with constant speed.
12. If a small sphere of mass M
were placed at the end of Locate one point about which the particle's angular
the rod in Figure 10.21, would the result for w be momentum is constant and another about which it
greater than, less than, or equal to the value obtained changes with time.
in Example 10.13? 20. The polar diameter of the earth is slightly less than the
13. Explain why changing the axis of rotation of an object equatorial diameter. How would the moment of iner-
changes its moment of inertia. tia of the earth change if some mass from near the
14. Is it possible to change the translational kinetic en- equator were removed and transferred to the polar
ergy of an object without changing its rotational ki- regions to make the earth a perfect sphere?
netic energy? 21. During a wrecking operation, a tall chimney is top-
1 5. Two cylinders having the same dimensions are set into pled by an explosive charge at its base. The chimney is
rotation about their axes with the same angular veloc- observed to rupture on its lower half while toppling,
ity. One is hollow, and the other is filled with water. so that the bottom part reaches the ground before the
Which cylinder would be easier to stop rotating? top part. Explain why this occurs.

PROBLEMS
Section 10.2 Rotational Kinematics: Rotational Motion wheel is then brought to rest with uniform negative
with Constant Angular Acceleration acceleration in 10 revolutions. Determine the nega-
tive acceleration required and the time needed to
1. A wheel starts from rest and rotates with constant an-
bring the wheel to rest.
gular acceleration to an angular velocity of 1 2 rad/s in
Find
8. A car accelerates uniformly from rest and reaches a
a time of 3 s. (a) the angular acceleration of the
speed of 22 m/s in 9 s. If the diameter of a tire is
wheel and (b) the angle in radians through which it
58 cm, find (a) the number of revolutions that a tire
rotates in this time.
makes during this motion, assuming no slipping
2. The turntable of a record player rotates at the rate of
occurs, (b) What is the final rotational velocity of a tire
33^ rev/min and takes 60 s to come to rest when
in revolutions per second?
switched off. Calculate (a) its angular acceleration and
(b) the number of revolutions it makes before coming
Section 10.3 Relationships Between Angular and Linear
to rest.
Quantities
3. What is the angular speed in rad/s of (a) the earth in its
orbit about the sun and (b) the moon in its orbit about 9. A racing car travels on a circular track of radius
the earth? 250 m. If the car moves with a constant speed of 45
4. A wheel rotates in such a way that its angular displace- m/s, find (a) the angular speed of the car and (b) the
ment in a time t is given by 6 = at 2 + bt3 where a and , magnitude and direction of the car's acceleration.
b are constants. Determine equations for (a) the angu- 10. An automobile accelerates from zero to 30 m/s in 6 s.

lar speed and (b) the angular acceleration, both as The wheels have a diameter of 0.4 m. What is the
functions of time. angular acceleration of each wheel?
5. An electric motor rotating a workshop grinding wheel 1 1 A wheel 2 m in diameter rotates with a constant angu-
ata rate of 1 00 rev/min is switched off. Assuming con- lar acceleration of 4 rad/s 2The wheel starts at rest at
.

stant negative angular acceleration of magnitude t = and the radius vector at point P on the rim
0,
2 rad/s 2 (a) how long will it take for the grinding makes an angle of 57.3° with the horizontal at this
wheel to stop? (b) through how many radians has the time. At t = 2 s, find (a) the angular speed of the
wheel turned during the time found in (a)? wheel, (b) the linear velocity and acceleration of the
|
6.
[
The angular position of a point on a wheel can be point P, and (c) the position of the point P.
described by 6 = 5+ lOt + It 2 rad. Determine the 12. A discus thrower accelerates a discus from rest to a
angular position, speed, and acceleration of the point speed of 25 m/s by whirling it through 1.25 revolu-
at t = and t = 3 s. tions. Assume the discus moves on the arc of a circle
7. A grinding wheel, initially at rest, is rotated with con- 1 in in radius, (a) Calculate the final angular velocity
stant angular acceleration a= 5 rad/s 2 for 8 s. The of the discus, (b) Determine the angular acceleration
 PROBLEMS 267

d = 5m

Figure 10.23 (Problem 15).

of the discus, assuming it to be constant, (c) Calculate plane about the z axis with an angular velocity of 6
the acceleration time. rad/s, calculate (a) the moment of inertia of the sys-
13. A disk 8 cm in radius rotates at a constant rate of 1 200 tem about the z axis and (b) the kinetic energy of the
rev/min about its axis. Determine (a) the angular system.The center of the rectangle is at the origin.
speed of the disk, (b) the linear speed at a point 3 cm 18. The center of mass of a pitched baseball (radius =
from its center, (c) the radial acceleration of a point on 3.8 cm) moves at 38 m/s. It spins about an axis
the rim, and (d) the total distance a point on the rim through its center of mass with an angular velocity of

moves in 2 s. 125 rad/s. Calculate the ratio of the rotational kinetic

14. A car is travelling at 36 km/h on a straight road. The energy to the translational kinetic energy. Treat the
radius of the tires is 25 cm. Find the angular speed of ball as a uniform sphere.
one of the tires with its axle taken as the axis of rota- 19. Three particles are connected by rigid rods of negligi-
tion. ble mass lying along the y axis (Fig. 10.25). If the
15. A 6-kg block is released from A on a frictionless track system rotates about the x axis with an angular speed
as shown in Figure 10.23. Determine the radial and of 2 rad/s, find (a) the moment
of inertia about the x
tangential components of acceleration for the block axis and the energy evaluated from \lco 2
total kinetic

at P. and (b) the linear speed of each particle and the total
kinetic energy evaluated from S^m^ 2 .

Section 10.4 Rotational Kinetic Energy

16. A tire of moment of inertia 80 kg-m 2 rotates about a

fixed central axis at the rate of 600 rev/min. What is its
kinetic energy?
17. The four particles in Figure 10.24 are connected by
rigid rods of negligible mass. The origin is at the
center of the rectangle. If the system rotates in the xy

3 kg y(m) 2 kg

o
r(m)
Figure 10.25 (Problem 19).

M are
o
2 kg 4 kg
20, Three particles each of mass
vertices of an equilateral triangle as
10.26. Determine the
arranged
shown in
at the
Figure
moment of inertia about the i, y
and z axes. The z axis passes through O and is normal
Figure 10.24 (Problems 17 and It
to the xOy plane.
268 CHAPTER 10 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY AROUT A FIXED AXIS

25. Find the net torque on the wheel in Figure 10.29

about the axle through O if a = 10 cm and b = 25 cm.

Figure 10.26 (Problem 20).

21 . Two masses M and m are connected together by a rigid Figure 10.29 (Problem 25).
rod of length L and negligible mass as in Figure 10.27.
For an axis perpendicular to the rod, show that the 26. Find the mass m needed to balance the 150-kg truck
system has the minimum moment of inertia when the on the incline shown in Figure 10.30. The angle of
axis passes through the center of mass. Show that this inclination 6 is 45 ° Assume
. all pulleys are frictionless
moment of inertia is / = fiL 2 where /i = mM/(m + M). and massless.

Figure 10.2" (Problem 21).

Section 10.5 Calculation of Moments of Inertia

150 kg
22. Following the procedure used in Example 10.6. prove
that the moment of inertia about the y' axis of the rigid
rod in Figure 10.9 is %ML 2 .

23. Use the parallel-axis theorem and Table 10.2 *o find

Figure 10.30 (Problem 26).
the moments of inertia of (a) a solid cylinder about an
axis parallel to the center of mass axis and passing
through the edge of the cylinder and (b) a solid sphere A flywheel in the shape of a solid cylinder of radius
about an axis tangent to the surface of the sphere. R = 0.6 m and mass M= 15 kg can be brought to an
angular speed of 12 rad/sin0.6 s by a motor exerting
Section 10.6 Torque a constant torque. After the motor is turned off, the
flywheel makes 20 revolutions before coming to rest
24. Calculate the net torque (magnitude and direction) on
because of frictional losses (assumed constant during
the beam shown in Figure 10.28 about (a) an axis
rotation).What percentage of the power generated
through O, perpendicular to the figure and (b) an axis
bv the motor is used to overcome the frictional losses?
through C, perpendicular to the figure.

Section 10.7 Relationship Between Torque and Angular

Acceleration

28. The combination of an applied force and a frictional

N m on a
force produces a constant total torque of 36 •

wheel rotating about a fixed axis. The applied force

acts for 6 s, during which time the angular speed of
the wheel increases from to 10 rad/s. The applied
30 N
force is then removed, and the wheel comes to rest in
Figure 10.28 (Problem 24). 60 s. Find (a) the moment of inertia of the wheel.
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 269

(b) the magnitude of the frictional torque, and (c) the rim (Fig. 10.32). If the disk is released from rest in the
total number of revolutions of the wheel. position shown by the green circle, what is the veloc-
29. If a motor is to produce a torque of 50 N-m on awheel ity of its center of mass when it reaches the position
rotating at 2400 rev/min, how much power must the indicated by the dashed circle? (b) What is the speed
motor deliver? of the lowest point on the disk in the dashed position?
30. A model airplane whose mass is 0.75 kg is tethered by (c) Repeat part (a) if the object is a uniform hoop.
a wire so that it flies in a circle 30 m in radius. The
airplane engine provides a thrust of 0.80 N perpendic-
ular to the tethering wire, (a) Find the torque that the
engine thrust produces about the center of the circle.
(b) Find the angular acceleration of the airplane when
it is in level flight, (c) Find the linear acceleration of

the airplane tangent to its flight path.

Section 10.8 Work and Energy in Rotational Motion

31. A wheel 1 m in diameter rotates on a fixed, friction-

less, horizontal axle. Its moment of inertia about this
axis is 5 kg-m 2 A . constant tension of 20 N is main- Figure 10.32 (Problem 33).
tained on a rope wrapped around the rim of the wheel,
so as to cause the wheel to accelerate. If the wheel 34. A potter's wheel, a thick stone disk of radius 0.5 m
starts from rest at t = 0, find (a) the angular accelera- and mass 100 kg, is 50 rev/min. The
freely rotating at
tion of the wheel, (b) the wheel's angular speed at potter can stop the wheel in 6 s by pressing a wet rag
t = 3 s, (c) the kinetic energy of the wheel at t = 3 s, against the rim and exerting a radially inward force of
and (d) the length of rope unwound in the first 3 s. 70 N. Find the effective coefficient of kinetic friction
32. A 15-kg mass and a 10-kg mass are suspended by a between the wheel and the wet rag.
pulley with a radius of 10 cm and a mass of 3 kg (Fig- 35. A weight of 50 N is attached to the free end of a light
ure 10.31). The cord has a negligible weight and string wrapped around a pulley of radius 0.25 m and
causes the pulley to rotate without slipping. The pul- mass 3 kg. The pulley is free to rotate in a vertical
ley rotates without friction. The masses start from rest plane about the horizontal axis passing through its
3 m apart. Treat the pulley as a uniform disk, and center. The weight is released 6 m above the floor.
determine the speeds of the two masses as they pass (a) Determine the tension in the string, the accelera-
each other. tion of the mass, and the velocity with which the
weight hits the floor, (b) Find the velocity calculated
in part (a) by using the law of conservation of energy.
36. A bus is designed to draw its power from a rotating
flywheel that is brought up to its maximum speed
(3000 rpm) by an electric motor. The flywheel is a
solid cylinder of mass 1000 kg and diameter 1 m
2 MR ).
== 2
(Cylinder If the bus requires an average
power of 10 kW, how long will the flywheel rotate?

ADDITIONAL PRORLEMS
37. A grinding wheel is in the form of a uniform solid disk
of radius 7 cm and mass 2 kg. It starts from rest and
accelerates uniformly under the action of the constant
torque of 0.6 N m that the motor exerts on the wheel,
•

(a) How long does the wheel take to reach its final

operating speed of 1 200 rpm? (b) Through how many

revolutions does the grindstone turn while accelerat-
Figure 10.31 (Problem 32). ing?
38. Calculate the moment of inertia of a uniform solid
sphere of mass M
and radius R about a diameter (see
33. (a) A
uniform solid disk of radius R and mass Mis free Table 10.2). (Hint: Treat the sphere as a set of disks of
to rotate on a frictionless pivot through a point on its various radii, and first obtain an expression for the
270 CHAPTER 10 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

moment of inertia of one of these disks about the sym- much work is done on the flywheel during this acceler-
metry axis.) ation? (c) After 1000 rpm is achieved the motor is
39. A uniform solid cylinder of mass M
and radius R ro- disengaged from the flywheel. A friction brake is used
tates on a horizontal, frictionless axle (Fig. 10.33). to slow the rotational rate to 500 rpm. How much
Two equal masses hang from light cords wrapped energy is dissipated as heat within the friction brake?
around the cylinder. If the system is released from 43. A long uniform rod of length L and mass is pivoted M
rest, find (a) the tension in each cord, (b) the accelera- about a horizontal, frictionless pin through one end.
tion of each mass, and (c) the angular velocity of the The rod is released from rest in a vertical position as in
cylinder after the masses have descended a distance h. Figure 10.34. At the instant the rod is horizontal, find
(a) the angular velocity of the rod, (b) its angular accel-
eration, (c) the x and y components of the acceleration
of its center of mass, and (d) the components of the
reaction force at the pivot.

i A

Figure 10.33 (Problem 39). pivot HZZZZZZ] >

40. The density of the earth, a distance r from its center, is

Figure 10.34 (Problem 43).
given approximately by

44. A bicycle is turned upside down while its owner re-

14.2- 11.6 (-) X 10 3 kg/m 3 pairs a flat tire. A friend spins the other wheel and
observes that drops of water fly off tangentially. She
where R is the radius of the earth. Show that this den- measures the height reached by drops moving verti-
sity leads to a moment of inertia about an axis through
cally (Figure 10.35). A drop that breaks loose from
the center given by I = 0.330MR 2 where ,is the M the tire on one turn rises 54 cm above the tangent
mass of the earth. (The value deduced from astronomi- point. A drop that breaks loose on the next turn rises
cal observations 0.331MR 2
is .) 51 cm above the tangent point. The radius of the
41. A 4-m length of light nylon cord is wound around a wheel is 0.381 m. She correctly infers that the height
uniform cylindrical spool of radius 0.5 m and 1-kg to which the drops rise decreases because the angular
mass. The spool is mounted on a frictionless axle and is velocity of the wheel decreases. From this informa-
initially at rest. The cord is pulled from the spool with
tion, estimate the average angular acceleration of the
a constant acceleration of 2.5 m/s 2 (a) How much .

work has been done on the spool, when it reaches an

angular speed, a> = 8 rad/s? (b) Assuming there is
enough cord on the spool, how long will it take the
spool to reach an angular speed of 8 rad/s? (c) Is there
enough cord on the spool to enable the spool to reach
this angular speed of 8 rad/s?
42. Many machines make use of heavy circular disks,
called flywheels, to help maintain uniformity in rota-
tional motion. The rotational inertia of a flywheel
smooths fluctuations in rotational velocity incurred
during operation, such as between power strokes in a
gasoline engine. A particular flywheel of diameter
0.6 mand mass 200 kg is mounted on a frictionless
bearing. A motor connected to the flywheel acceler-
ates the flywheel from rest to 1000 rev/min. (a) What
is the moment of inertia of the flywheel? (b) How Figure 10.35 (Problem 44).
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 271

wheel, using only the observed heights and the radius t. Show that the torque due to the frictional forces
of the wheel. between the spool and the axle is
45. For any given rotational axis, the radius of gyration, K,
of a rigid body is defined by the expression K2 = I/M,
where M the total mass of the body and the
moment
is

of inertia about the given axis. That

/ is

is, the -H'-*)-"®]

radius of gyration is equal to the distance of an imagi-
nary point mass M
from the axis of rotation such that /
mass about that axis is the same as for the
for the point
rigid body about the same axis. Find the radius of
gyration of (a) a solid disk of radius R, (b) a uniform rod
of length L, and (c) a solid sphere of radius R, all three
rotating about a central axis.
46. A bright physics student purchases a wind vane for
her father's garage. The vane consists of a rooster sit-
ting on top of an arrow. The vane is fixed to a vertical
shaft of radius r and mass m that is free to turn in its
roof mount as shown in Figure 10.36. The student sets
up an experiment to measure the rotational inertia of
the rooster and arrow attached to the shaft. String
wound about the vertical shaft passes over a pulley
and is connected to a mass M
hanging over the edge of
the garage roof. When the mass M
is released, the

student determines the time t that the mass takes to

48. A cord wrapped around a pulley of mass m and
is
fall through a distance h. From these data the student
radius The free end of the cord is connected to a
r.
is able to find the rotational inertia / of the rooster and
block of mass M. The block starts from rest and then
arrow. Find the expression for / in terms of m, M, r, g,
slides down a rough incline which makes an angle
h, and t.
with the horizontal. The coefficient of kinetic friction
between the block and the incline is fi. (a) Use the
work-energy theorem to show that the block's veloc-
ity v as a function of displacement d down the incline

u=
W^) (sin0 -^° s
4
Find the acceleration of the block in terms oifi, m,
(b)
M, and 0.
g,
49. (a) What is the rotational energy of the earth about its
spin axis? The radius of the earth is 6400 km, its mass
is 6 X 10
24 kg. Treat the earth as a sphere of moment

of inertia § MR 2 (b) The rotational energy of the earth

,

is decreasing steadily because of tidal friction. Esti-

mate the change in the rotational energy of the earth

in one day, given that the rotational period of the earth
Figure 10.36 (Problem 46). decreases by about 10 /is each year.
50. We can determine the speed of a moving bullet by
allowing the bullet to pass through two rotating paper
47. A uniform hollow cylindrical spool has an inside disks that are mounted a distance d apart on the same
radius of R/2, outside radius R and mass (see Fig. M axle (Fig. 10.38). From the angular displacement Ad
10.37). It is mounted so as to rotate on a rough, fixed of the two bullet holes in the disks and the rotational
horizontal axle. A mass m is connected to the end of a speed co of the disks, we can determine the speed of
string that is wound around the spool. The mass m is the bullet. Find the bullet speed for the following
observed to fall from rest through a distance y in time data: d = 80cm, w = 900 rpm, andA0=31°.
272 CHAPTER 10 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

Figure 10.38 (Problem 50). Figure 10.40 (Problem 52).

51. Two blocks, as shown in Fig. 10.39, are connected by ley is wound counterclockwise so as to stretch the
a string of negligible mass passing over a pulley of spring a distance d from its unstretched position and
radius 0.25 m and moment of inertia /. The block on then released from rest, find (a) the angular velocity of
the incline is moving up with a constant acceleration the pulley when the spring is again unstretched and
of 2 m/s 2 . (a) Determine T l and T2 the tensions in the
, (b) a numerical value for the angular velocity at this
two parts of the string, and (b) find the moment of point if/ = 1 kg-m 2 ,R = 0.3m,)l- = 50N/m,m = 0.5
inertia of the pulley. kg, d = 0.2 m, and = 37°.
53. As a result of friction the angular velocity of a wheel
changes with time according to

dO
= co n e~ at
dt

where co and a are constants. The angular velocity

changes from 3.5 rad/s at time t = to 2.0 rad/s at
time ( = 9.3 s. Use this information to determine a
and oj Then determine (a) the angular acceleration
.

at ( = 3 s, (b) the number of revolutions the wheel

makes in the first 2.5 s, and (c) the number of revolu-
tions the wheel makes before coming to rest.

Figure 10.39 (Problem 51).

54 An electric motor can accelerate a Ferris wheel of
moment of inertia / = 20 000 kg-m 2 from rest to 10
rev/min in 12 s. When the motor is turned off, the
52. The pulley shown in Figure 10.40 has a radius R and Ferris wheel slows down from 10 to 8 rev/min in 10 s
moment of inertia /. One end of the mass to is con- due to frictional losses. Determine (a) the torque gen-
nected to a spring of force constant and the other
jfc, erated by the motor to bring the wheel to 10 rev/min,
end is fastened to a cord wrapped around the pulley. and (b) the power needed to maintain the Ferris
The pulley axle and the incline are smooth. If the pul- wheel's rotation speed of 10 rev/min.
 11
Rolling Motion, Angular
Momentum, and Torque

This toy gyroscope undergoes

precessional motion about the
vertical axis as it spins about
its axis of symmetry. The only

external forces acting on it are

the force of gravity, W, and
the upward force of the pivot,
N. The direction of its angular
momentum, L, is along the axis
of symmetry as indicated by
the green vector.

the previous chapter we learned how to treat the rotation of a rigid body

Inwhere
about a fixed axis. This chapter deals in part with the more general case,
the axis of rotation is not fixed in space. We begin by describing the
rolling motion of an object such as a cylinder or sphere. Next, we define a
vector product. The vector product is a convenient mathematical tool for
expressing such quantities as torque and angular momentum. The central
point of this chapter is to develop the concept of the angular momentum of a
system of particles, a quantity that plays a key role in rotational dynamics. In
analogy to the conservation of linear momentum, we shall find that the angular
momentum of any isolated system (an isolated rigid body or any other isolated
collection of particles) is always conserved. This conservation law is a special
case of the result that the time rate of change of the total angular momentum of
any system of particles equals the resultant external torque acting on the
system.

273
 r

274 CHAPTER 11 ROLLING MOTION, ANGULAR MOMENTUM, AND TORQUE

Figure 11.1 Light sources at the center and rim of a rolling cylinder illustrate the different paths
these points take. The center moves in a straight line, as indicated by the green line, while a point
on the rim moves in the path of a cycloid, as indicated by the red curve. (Courtesy of Henry Leap
and Jim Lehman)

11.1 ROLLING MOTION OF A RIGID BODY

In this sectionwe shall treat the motion of a rigid body that is rotating about a
moving axis. The general motion of a rigid body in space is very complex.
However, we can simplify matters by restricting our discussion to a homoge-
neous rigid body having a high degree of symmetry, such as a cylinder, sphere,
or hoop. Furthermore, we shall assume that the body undergoes rolling mo-
tion in a plane.
Suppose a cylinder is rolling on a straight path as in Figure 11.1. The
center of mass moves in a straight line, while a point on the rim moves in a more
complex path, which corresponds to the path of a cycloid. As we shall see later
in this chapter, it is convenient to view this latter motion as a combination of
rotation about the center of mass and the translation of the center of mass.
Now consider a uniform cylinder of radius R rolling on a rough, horizontal
surface (Fig. 11.2). As the cylinder rotates through an angle 6, its center of
mass moves a distance s = R8. Therefore, the velocity and acceleration of the
Figure 11.2 For pure rolling mo-
tion, as the cylinder rotates center of mass for pure rolling motion are given by
through an angle 6, the center of
the cylinder moves a distance s = —
ds
u de = Rio
= R—r n (11.1)
Rd. dt dt

dv dw
— 2c = R -r- = Ra (11.2)
dt dt

The linear velocities of various points on the rolling cylinder are illustrated in
Figure 11.3. Note that the linear velocity of any point is in a direction perpen-
dicular to the line from that point to the contact point. At any instant, the point
P is at rest relative to the surface since sliding does not occur.
A general point on the cylinder, such as Q, has both horizontal and vertical
components of velocity. However, the points P and F and the point at the
center of mass are unique and of special interest. Relative to the surface on
which the cylinder is moving, the center of mass moves with a velocity vc =
Rco, whereas the contact point P has zero velocity. The point F
has a velocity
equal to 2v c = 2Rco, since all points on the cylinder have the same angular
Figure 11.3 All points on a rolling
body move in a direction perpen-
velocity.
dicular to an axis through the con- We can express the total kinetic energy of the rolling cylinder as
tact point P. The center of the body
moves with a velocity t> c while the
, K= iIP co
2
(11.3)
point P' moves with the velocity
2c,. where I P is the moment of inertia about the axis through P. Applying the
 11.1 ROLLING MOTION OF A RIGID BODY 275

parallel-axis theorem, we can substitute IP = Zc + MR 2 into Equation 1 1.3 to

get
K= ILco 2 + MR 2 to 2

K= Um 2
+ Wv 2
(11.4)
Total kinetic energy of a
rolling body-

where we have used the fact that v c = Rco.

We can think of Equation 11.4 as follows: The first term on the right,
2
\Ic io , represents the rotational kinetic energy about the center of mass, and
2
the term ^Mv represents the kinetic energy the cylinder would have if it were
just translating through space without rotating. Thus, we can say that

the total kinetic energy of an object undergoing rolling motion is the sum
of a rotational kinetic energy about the center of mass and the transla-
tional kinetic energy of the center of mass.
We can
use energy methods to treat a class of problems concerning the
rolling motion of a rigid body down a rough incline. shall assume that the We
rigid body in Figure 11.4 does not slip and is released from rest at the top of the
incline. Note that rolling motion is possible only if a frictional force is present
between the object and the incline to produce a net torque about the center of
mass. Despite the presence of friction, there is no loss of mechanical energy
since the contact point is at rest relative to the surface at any instant. On the
other hand, if the rigid body were to slide, mechanical energy would be lost as
motion progressed.
Figure 11.4 A round object roll-
Using the fact that v c = Rco for pure rolling motion, we can express Equa- ing down an incline. Mechanical
tion 11.4 as energy is conserved if no slipping

occurs and there is no rolling fric-

K + Wv 2
tion.

K (11.5)

When the rolling cylinder reaches the bottom of the incline, it has lost poten-
tial energy Mgh, where h is the height of the incline. If the body starts from rest
at the top, its kinetic energy at the bottom, given by Equation 11.5, must equal
its potential energy at the top. Therefore, the velocity of the center of mass at

the bottom can be obtained by equating the two quantities:

Vc
= (_2gb_\ (11.6)
\1+IJMR 2 )

EXAMPLE 11.1 Sphere Rolling Down an Incline Solution For a uniform solid sphere, JC = |MR 2 , and
If the rigid body shown in Fig. 11.4 is a solid sphere, therefore Equation 11.6 gives
bottom
calculate the velocity of its center of mass at the
and determine the linear acceleration of the center of
mass of the sphere.
2gh
MR 2
Y I
2

r»-
1 + 2

MR 2 /
5
276 CHAPTER 11 ROLLING MOTION, ANGULAR MOMENTUM, AND TORQUE

The vertical displacement is related to the displacement

x along the incline through the relation h = x sin 8.
Hence, after squaring both sides, we can express the
equation above as

v/ = — ex sin 8

Mg sin e
Comparing this with the familiar expression from kine-
matics, v c 2 = 2a c x, we see that the acceleration of the
center of mass is given by

Figure 11.5 (Example 11.2) Free-body diagram for a solid

ac = jg sin 8 sphere rolling down an incline.

The results are quite interesting in that both the where x is measured downward along the inclined plane.
velocity and acceleration of the center of mass are inde- Now let us write an expression for the torque acting on
pendent of the mass and radius of the sphere! That is, all the sphere. A convenient axis to choose is an axis through
homogeneous solid spheres would experience the same ve- the center of the sphere, perpendicular to the plane of
locity and acceleration on a given incline. If we repeated the figure. 1 Since N
and Mg go through this origin, they
the calculations for a hollow sphere, a solid cylinder, or a have zero moment arms and do not contribute to the
hoop, we would obtain similar results. The constant fac- torque. However, the force of friction produces a torque
tors that appear and a c depend
in the expressions for t>
c about this axis equal to fR in the clockwise direction;
on the moment of inertia about the center of mass for the therefore
specific body. In all cases, the acceleration of the center
t c =/R = 7c q
of massis less than g sin 8, the value it would have if the
plane were frictionless and no rolling occurred. Since Ic = fMR 2 and a = aJR, we get

(2)
y f=-s—=\ 5
J
•
-£
R
= fMa.
5 c
EXAMPLE 1 1 .2 Another Look at the Rolling Sphere
' R \ R j

In this example, let us consider the solid sphere rolling Substituting (2) into (1) gives
down an and verify the results of Example 11.1
incline
using dynamic methods. The free-body diagram for the ac = sin 8
fg
sphere is illustrated in Figure 11.5.
which agrees with the result of Example 11.1. Note that
Solution Newton's second law applied to the center of < g sin 6 because of the retarding frictional force.
ac
mass motion gives

(1) ^Fx = Mg sin8- f=Ma c 1

You should note that although the point at the center of mass is
not an inertial frame, the expression T c = la still applies in the
^Fy = N - Mg cos 8 = center of mass frame.

11.2 THE VECTOR PRODUCT AND TORQUE

Consider a force F acting on a rigid body at the vector position r (Fig. 11.6).
The origin O is assumed to be in an inertial frame, so that Newton 's second law is
valid. The magnitude of the torque due to this force relative to the origin is, by
definition, equal to rF sin <p, where <p is the angle between r and F. The axis
about which F would tend to produce rotation is perpendicular to the plane
formed by r and F. If the force lies in the xy plane as in Figure 11.6, then the
torque, x is represented by a vector parallel to the z axis. The force in Figure
1 1.6 creates a torque that tends to rotate the body counterclockwise looking

down the z axis, so the sense oft is toward increasing z, and T is in the positive z
direction. If we reversed the direction of Fin Figure 11.6, T would then be in
 11.2 THE VECTOR PRODUCT AND TORQUE 277

the negative z direction. The torque involves two vectors, rand F, and is in fact
defined to be equal to the vector product, or cross product, of r and F:

T = rXF (11.7)

We must now give a formal definition of the vector product. Given any
two vectors A and B, the vector product AX Bis defined as a third vector C,
the magnitude of which is AB sin 6, where 6 is the angle included between
A and B. That is, if C is given by

C = AXB (11.8)

then its magnitude is

C = \Q = \AB sin 6\ (11.9) Figure 11.6 The torque vector T

lies in a direction perpendicular to
the plane formed by the position
Note that the quantity AB sin 6 is equal to the area of the parallelogram formed vector r and the applied force F.
by A and B, as shown in Figure 11.7. The direction of A X B is perpendicular to
the plane formed by A and B, as in Figure 11.7, and its sense is determined by
the advance of a right-handed screw when turned from A to B through the
angle 8. A more convenient rule to use for the direction of A X B is the

right-hand rule illustrated in Figure 11.7. The four fingers of the right hand
are pointed along A and then "wrapped" into B through the angle 6. The
direction of the erect right thumb is the direction of A X B. Because of the
notation, AX
Bis often read "A cross B"; hence the term cross product.
Some properties of the vector product which follow from its definition are
as follows:

1. Unlike the scalar product, the order in which the two vectors are multiplied
in a cross product is important, that is,

AXB = -(BXA) (11.10)

i
C = A x B

Right-hand rule

Figure 11.7 The vector product A X B is a third vector C having a magnitude AB sin 6 equal to
the area of the parallelogram shown. The direction of Cis perpendicular to the plane formed by
A and B, and its sense is determined by the right-hand rule.
278 CHAPTER 11 ROLLING MOTION, ANGULAR MOMENTUM, AND TORQUE

Therefore, if you change the order of the cross product, you must change
the sign. You could easily verify this relation with the right-hand rule (Fig.
11.7).
2. If A is parallel to B (6 = 0° or 180°), then AXB = 0; therefore, it follows
that AXA = 0.
3. If A is perpendicular to B, then \A X B\ = AB.
4. It is also important to note that the vector product obeys the distributive
law, that is,

Properties of the vector

product
AX(B + C)=AXB + AXC (11.11)

5. Finally, the derivative of the cross product with respect to some variable
such as t is given by

4-(AXB)=AX^ + ^XB (11.12)

dt dt dt

where it is important to preserve the multiplicative order of A and B, in

view of Equation 11.10.

It is left as an exercise to show from Equations 11.8 and 11.9 and the
definition of unit vectors that the cross products of the rectangular unit vectors
i,j, and Jfc obey the following expressions:

iXi=jXj = JtXJk = (11.13a)

iXj = -jXi = k (11.13b)

Cross products of unit vectors
jXk = -kXj = i (11.13c)

kXi = -iXk=j (11.13d)

Signs are interchangeable. For example, i X (—j) = — i Xj = — k.

The cross product of any two vectors A and B can be expressed in the
following determinant form:

i J k
AXB= Ax \ Az
Bx By Bz
Expanding this determinant gives the result

AXB= (A& - A B z y
)i + (A Z BX - AxB z )j + (A^ - Afijk (11.14)

EXAMPLE 11.3 The Cross Product Solution Using Equations 11.13a through 11.13d for
Two vectors lying in the xy plane are given by the equa- the cross product of unit vectors gives
tions A = 2» + 3j and B = - i + 2j. Find A X B, and ver-
ify explicitly that AXB = -BXA.
AXB=(2» + 3i)X(-i + 2j)
= 2i X 2j + 3j X (-t ) = 4k + 3k Ik
 11.3 ANCULAR MOMENTUM OF A PARTICLE 279

(We have omitted the terms with i X i andj Xj, since

280 CHAPTER 11 ROLLING MOTION, ANGULAR MOMENTUM, AND TORQUE

where we have used the fact that F = dp/dt. Now let us differentiate Equation
11.15 with respect to time using the rule given by Equation 11.12.

dt
K H/ H
dt dt dt

It isimportant to adhere to the order of terms since B = — B X A. AX

right in the above equation is zero, since v = dr/dt is
The last term on the
parallel to p. Therefore,

§-,X$ <.,..„

Comparing Equations 11.17 and 11.18, we see that

Torque equals time rate of

change of angular momentum (11.19)

which is the rotational analog of Newton's second law, F= dp/dt. This result
says that

the torque acting on a particle is equal to the time rate of change of the
particle's angular momentum.

important to note that Equation 1 1 1 9 is valid only if the origins of T and L

It is .

are the same. It is left as an exercise to show that Equation 1 1.19 is also valid

when there are several forces acting on the particle, in which case T is the net
torque on the particle. Furthermore, the expression is valid for any origin fixed
in an inertial frame. Of course, the same origin must be used in calculating all
torques as well as the angular momentum.

A System of Particles

The total angular momentum, L, of a system of particles about some point is

defined as the vector sum of the angular momenta of the individual particles:

where the vector sum is over all of the n particles in the system.
Since the individual momenta of the particles may change in time, the
total angular momentum may also vary in time. In fact, from Equations 11.17
through 11.18, we find that the time rate of change of the total angular
momentum equals the vector sum of all torques, including those associated
with internal forces between particles and those associated with external
forces. However, the net torque associated with internal forces is zero. To
understand this, recall that Newton's third law tells us that the internal forces
occur in equal and opposite pairs. If we assume that these forces lie along the
line of separation of each pair of particles, then the torque due to each action-
reaction force pair is zero. By summation, we see that the net internal torque

vanishes. Finally, we conclude that the total angular momentum can vary with
time only if there is a net external torque on the system, so that we have
 11.3 ANGULAR MOMENTUM OF A PARTICLE 281

That is,

the time rate of change of the total angular momentum of the system about
some origin in an inertia] frame equals the net external torque aeting on
the system about that origin.

Note that Equation 1 1 .20 is the rotational analog of Fei dp/dt for a system of
particles (Chapter 9).

EXAMPLE 11.4 Linear Motion

A particle of mass m moves in the xy plane with a velocity
i; along a straight line (Fig. 11.9). What is the magnitude
and direction of its angular momentum with respect to

the origin O?

Figure 11.10 (Example 11.5) A particle moving in a circle of

radius r has an angular momentum equal in magnitude to mvr
relative to the center.The vector L = rXp points out of the
diagram.

L — mvr sin 90 ° = mvr (for r perpendicular to v )

Figure 11.9 (Example 11.4) A particle moving in a straight The L is perpendicular to the plane of the
direction of
line with a velocity v has an angular momentum equal in magni- circle, and
sense depends on the direction of v. If the
its

tude to mvd relative to O, where d = r sin <j> is the distance of sense of the rotation is counterclockwise, as in Figure
closest approach to the origin. The vector L = rXp points into =
11.10, then by the right-hand rule, the direction of L
the diagram in this case.
r X p is out of the paper. Hence, we can write the vector
momentum, expression L = (mvr)k. On the other hand, if the particle
Solution From the definition of angular
were to move clockwise, L would point into the paper.
L = rXp = rmv sin d>(—k). Therefore the magnitude of
L is given by (b) Find an alternative expression for L in terms of
the angular velocity, to.

L = mvr sin <p = mvd Since v = no for a particle rotating in a circle, we can
express L as
where d = r sin <£> is the distance of closest approach of
the particle from the origin. The direction of L from the L = mvr = mr2 a> = Ioj
right-hand rule is into the diagram, and we can write the
vector expression L= —(mvd)k. The angular momen- where 7 is the moment of inertia of the particle about the
tum relative to the origin O' is zero. z axis through O. Furthermore, in this case the angular
momentum is in the same direction as the angular veloc-
ity vector, (o (see Section 10.1), and so we can write
EXAMPLE Circular Motion
11.5 L= Ico = Itok.
A particle moves in the xy plane in a circular path of
radius r, as in Figure 11.10. (a) Find the magnitude and Exercise 2 A car of mass 1500 kg moves in a circular
direction of its angular momentum relative to O when its race track of radius 50 m with a speed of 40 m/s. What is
velocity is v. the magnitude of its angular momentum relative to the
Since r is perpendicular to »,</> = 90° and the mag- center of the race track?
nitude of L is simply Answer 3.00 X 10 6 kg-m 2 /s.
282 CHAPTER 11 ROLLING MOTION, ANGULAR MOMENTUM, AND TORQUE

11.4 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT

A FIXED AXIS
Let us consider a rigid body rotating about an axis that is fixed in direction. We
shall assume that the z axis coincides with the axis of rotation, as in Figure
11.11. Each particle of the rigid body rotates in the xy plane about the z axis
with an angular velocity to. The magnitude of the angular momentum of the
particle of mass m, is mp^ about the origin O. Because v = r a), we can express { t

the magnitude of the angular momentum of the ith particle as

Lj = mf? a)

The vector L {
is directed along the z axis, corresponding to the direction of to.
We can now find the z component of the angular momentum of the rigid
body by taking the sum of L over {
all particles of the body:

K = 2>< r <
2
<» = (£™< r 2 < )
0J
Figure 11.11 When a rigid body
rotates about an axis, the angular
momentum L is in the same direc-
tion as the angular velocity (O, ac-
cording to the expression L= 1(0.
L=Ico (11.21)

where Ls is the z component of the angular momentum and/ is the moment of

inertia of the rigid body about the Z axis.
Now let us differentiate Equation 11.21 with respect to time, noting that J

is constant for a rigid body:

da)
= 7 —r- = la (11.22)
dt dt

where a is the angular acceleration relative to the axis of rotation. Because the
product la is equal to the net torque (see Eq. 1 1 .20), we can express Equation
11.22 as follows:

(11.23)

That is, the net external torque acting on a rigid body rotating about a
fixed axis equals the moment of inertia about the axis of rotation multi-
plied by its angular acceleration relative to that axis.

You should note that if a symmetrical rigid body rotates about a fixed axis
passing through its center of mass, one can write Equation 11.21 in vector

form, L= la), where L is its total angular momentum measured with respect to
the axis of rotation. Furthermore, the expression is valid for any body, regard-
less of its symmetry, if L stands for the component of angular momentum along
the axis of rotation. 2

2
In general, the expression L = 1(0 is not always valid. If a rigid body rotates about an arbitrary
axis,L and (O may point in different directions. In fact, in this case, the moment of inertia cannot be
treated as a scalar. Strictly speaking, L = l(0 applies only to rigid bodies of any shape that rotate
about one of three mutually perpendicular axes (called principal axes) through the center of mass.
This is discussed in more advanced texts on mechanics.
 11.4 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FUCED AXIS 283

EXAMPLE 11.6 Rotating Sphere

A uniform solid sphere of radius R = 0.50 m and mass 15
kg rotates about the 2 axis through its center, as in Figure
11.12. Find its angular momentum when the angular
velocity is 3 rad/s.

r^-^ '
284 CHAPTER 1 1 ROLLING MOTION, ANGULAR MOMENTUM, AND TORQUE

pulley has zero moment arm, it does not contribute to

the torque. Furthermore, the normal force acting on 2 m
is balanced by its weight m^g, hence these forces do not
contribute to the torque. The external force rrijg pro-
duces a torque about the axle equal in magnitude to
wijgR, where R is the moment arm of the force about the

axle. This the total external torque about O; that is,

is

Te „, =m 1
gR. Using this result, together with (1) and
Equation 11.23 gives

dt
Figure 11.14 (Example 11.8).

acceleration of the two masses using the concepts of an-

m^R =4 (m 1 + m 2 )Rv + I
Si
gular momentum and torque.

Solution First, let us calculate the angular momentum of

the system, which consists of the two masses plus the (2) migR = (m 1 + m 2 )R^ + l^
pulley. Weshall calculate the angular momentum about
an axis along the axle of the pulley through O. At the =
Because dv/dt a, we can solve this for a to get
instant the masses m x and m
2 have a speed v, the angular
momentum of m 1 is m^R, while the angular momentum
of m 2 is m 2 vR. At the same instant, the angular momen-
(m, + m2 + ) I/R 2
tum of the pulley is Ia> = Iv/R. Therefore, the total angu-
lar momentum of the system is You may wonder why we did not include the forces
of tension in evaluating the net torque about the axle.
(1) L= m 1
vR + m 2 vR + I^ The reason is that the forces of tension are internal to
the system under consideration. Only the external
Now let us evaluate the total external torque on the sys- torques contribute to the change in angular momentum.
tem about the axle. Because the force of the axle on the

11.5 CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

In Chapter 9 we found that the total linear momentum of a system of particles
remains constant when the resultant external force acting on the system is
zero. We have an analogous conservation law in rotational motion which states
that the total angular momentum of a system is constant if the resultant external
torque acting on the system is zero. This follows directly from Equation 1 1 .20,
where we see that if

*--#- (11.24)

then

constant (11.25)

For a system of particles, we write this conservation law as XL„ = constant. If a

body undergoes a redistribution of its mass, then moment of inertia changes
its

and we express this conservation of angular momentum in the form

Lj =L = f
constant (11.26)
 11.5 CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM 285

If the system is a body rotating about a fixed axis, such as the z axis, then we
can write Lz = let), where L z is the component of L along the axis of rotation and
/ is the moment of inertia about this axis. In this case, we can express the
conservation of angular momentum as

Conservation of angular
/,&;, = IfCOf = constant (11.27)
momentum
This expression is valid for rotations either about a fixed axis or about an axis
through the center of mass of the system as long as the axis remains parallel to
itself. We only require the net external torque to be zero.

Although we do not prove it here, there is an important theorem concern-

ing the angular momentum relative to the center of mass. This theorem states
that

the resultant torque acting on a body about an axis through the center of
mass equals the time rate of change of angular momentum regardless of
the motion of the center of mass.

This theorem applies even if the center of mass is accelerating, provided

T and L are evaluated relative to the center of mass.
In Equation 11.27 we have a third conservation law to add to our list.
Furthermore, we can now state that the energy, linear momentum, and angu-
lar momentum of an isolated system all remain constant.
There are many examples that demonstrate conservation of angular mo-
mentum, some of which should be familiar to you. You may have observed a
figure skater undergoing a spin motion in the finale of an act. The angular
velocity of the skater increases upon pulling his or her hands and feet close to
the body. Neglecting friction between the skater and the ice, we see that there
are no external torques on the skater. The change in angular velocity is due to
This student is holding the axle of
the fact that since angular momentum is conserved, the product Ico remains
a spinning bicycle wheel while
constant and a decrease in the moment of inertia of the skater causes an seated on a pivoted stool. The stu-
increase in the angular velocity. Similarly, when divers (or acrobats) wish to dent and stool are initially at rest
while the wheel is spinning in a hor-
make several somersaults, they pull their hands and feet close to their bodies in
izontal plane. When the wheel is
order to rotate at a higher rate. In these cases, the external force due to gravity inverted about its center by 180°,
acts through the center of mass and hence exerts no torque about this point. the student and stool begin to ro-
tate. This is because the total angu-
Therefore, the angular momentum about the center of mass must be con-
lar momentum of the system
served, or ZjftJj = I(d>f. For example, when divers wish to double their angular (wheel + student + stool) must be
velocity, they must reduce their moment of inertia to half its initial value. conserved. (Courtesy of CENCO)

EXAMPLE 11.9 A Projectile -Cylinder Collision system is zero about this axle. Hence, the angular mo-
A projectile of mass m and velocity v is fired at a solid mentum of the system is the same before and after the
cylinder of mass Mand radius R (Fig. 11.15). The cylin- collision.
der is initially at rest and is mounted on a fixed horizontal
axle that runs through the center of mass. The line of
motion of the projectile is perpendicular to the axle and
at a distance d < R from the center. Find the angular
speed of the system after the projectile strikes and ad-
heres to the surface of the cylinder.

Figure 11.15 (Example 11.9) The angular momentum of the

Solution Let us evaluate the angular momentum of the
system before the collision equals the angular momentum right
system (projectile + cylinder) about the axle of the cyl- after the collision with respect to the center of mass if we ne-
inder. About this point, the net external torque on the glect the weight of the projectile.
286 CHAPTER 11 ROLLING MOTION, ANGULAR MOMENTUM, AND TORQUE

Before the collision, only the projectile has angular Let us call the moment of inertia of the platform 7

momentum with respect to a point on the axle. The mag- and the moment of inertia of the student /s Treating the .

nitude of this angular momentum is mv d, and it is di- student as a point mass m, we can write the initial mo-
rected along the axle into the paper. After the collision, ment of inertia of the system about the axle of rotation
the total angular momentum of the system is ho,
= 7 + 7S = ±MR 2 + mR 2
where / is the total moment of inertia about the axle 7i p

(projectile + cylinder). Since the total angular momen- where M and R are the mass and radius of the platform,
tum is conserved, we get respectively. When the student has walked to the posi-
tion r < R, the moment of inertia of the system reduces to
mv d = Ico = (%MR 2 + mR 2 )w
If = |MR 2 + mr2
Since there are no external torques on the system
WR 2
+ mR 2 (student + platform) about the axis of rotation, we can
apply the law of conservation of angular momentum:
This suggests another technique for measuring the ve-
/jtoj = IfCOf
locity of a bullet.

(Pffi 2 + mfi 2 )Wi = (|MR 2 + mr2)w f

Exercise 4 In this example, mechanical energy is not
(\MR 2 + mR 2
conserved, since the collision is inelastic. Show that a>( =
\ WR + mr ),
2 2
2
\Ioj 2 < %mv . What do you suppose accounts for the
energy loss? Substituting the values given for M, R, m, and a> i we get

_/ 200 + 240 \
=
(Of ~ 200+ 15 /
(2 rad/s) 4.1 rad/s
\
EXAMPLE 11.10 The Merry-Co-Round
A horizontal platform in the shape of a circular disk ro- (b) Calculate the initial and final kinetic energies of
tates in a horizontal plane about a frictionless vertical the system.
axle (Fig. 11.16). The platform has a mass of 100 kg and a
radius of 2 m. A student whose mass is 60 kg walks slowly K: = U. w ;.
K440kg-m 2 )(2^ = 880 J
from the rim of the platform toward the center. If the
angular velocity of the system is 2 rad/s when the student T
Kf = HfWf = 4(215 kg-m 2 )(4.1 -j)
2 = 1800
is at the rim, (a) calculate the angular velocity when the
J

student has reached a point 0.5 m from the center.

Note that the kinetic energy of the system increases! Al-
though this result may surprise you, it can be explained
as follows: In the process of walking toward the center of
the platform, the student has to exert some muscular
effort and perform positive work, which in turn is trans-
formed into an increase in kinetic energy of the system.
In other words, internal forces within the system do
work. The student must exert a centripetal force to keep
from flying off the platform. Hence, he has to do work
against the reaction to this force.

Exercise 5 Show that the gain in kinetic energy can be

accounted for using the work-energy theorem.

EXAMPLE Spinning on a Stool

11.11
A student sits on a pivoted
stool while holding a pair of
weights, as in Figure 11.17. The stool is free to rotate
about a vertical axis with negligible friction. The student
Figure 11.16 (Example 11.10) As the student walks toward
is set in rotating motion with the weights outstretched.
the center of the rotating platform, the angular velocity of the
system increases since the angular momentum must remain con- Why does the angular velocity of the system increase as
stant. the weights are pulled inward?
 "11.6 THE MOTION OF GYROSCOPES AND TOPS 287

«=A=

Figure 11.18 (Example 11.12) The wheel is initially spinning

when the student is at rest. What happens when the wheel is
inverted?

Figure 11.17 (Example 11.11) (a) The student is given an

initialangular velocity while holding two masses as shown.
(b) When the masses are pulled in close to the body, the angular ward. Explain what happens if the wheel is inverted
velocity of the system increases. Why? about its center by 180°.

Solution In this situation, the system consists of the stu-

Solution The initial angular momentum of the system is
dent, wheel, and stool. Initially, the total angular mo-
ijCDj , where / refers to the initial moment of inertia of the
(
mentum of the system is L corresponding to the contri-
system (student + weights + stool). After the
,

entire
bution from the spinning wheel. As the wheel is inverted,
weights are pulled in, the angular momentum of the sys-
a torque is supplied by the student, but this is internal to
tem is IfCOf. Note that If < I since the weights are now
the system. There is no external torque acting on the
t

closer to the axis of rotation, reducing the moment of

system about the vertical axis. Therefore, the angular
inertia. Since the net external torque on the system is
momentum of the system must be conserved.
zero, angular momentum is conserved, so l 0J = IfCOf.
Initially, we have
i i

Therefore, w f > w or the angular velocity increases. As

x
,

in the previous example the kinetic energy of the system System =L (upward)
increases as the weights are pulled inward. The increase
After the wheel is inverted,
in kinetic energy arises from the fact that the student
does work in pulling the weights toward the axis of rota- ^system
— M) = ^student + stool
""
^Av^ee!
tion.
In this case, Ivheel = ~^o since it is now rotating in the
opposite sense. Therefore
Exercise 6 Suppose the student were to drop the
weights to his side rather than pull them inward horizon-
tally. What would account for the increase in the kinetic
V ^shident+stool ^0

^student + stool 2L„

energy of the system in this situation?
This shows that the student and stool will start to turn,
acquiring an angular momentum having a magnitude
EXAMPLE 11.12 The Spinning Bicycle Wheel twice that of the spinning wheel and directed upward.
In another favorite classroom demonstration, a student
holds the axle of a spinning bicycle wheel while seated on Exercise 7 How much angular momentum would the
a pivoted stool (Fig. 11.18). The student and stool are student acquire if the wheel is tilted through an angle 6
initially at rest while the wheel is spinning in a horizontal measured from the vertical axis?
plane with an initial angular momentum Lq pointing up- Answer L (1 — cos 6).

•11.6 THE MOTION OF GYROSCOPES AND TOPS

A very unusual and fascinating type of motion that you probably have ob-
served is that of a top spinning about its axis of symmetry as in Fig. 11.19a. If
the top spins about its axis very rapidly, the axis will rotate about the vertical
288 CHAPTER 11 ROLLING MOTION. ANGULAR MOMENTUM, AND TORQUE

direction as indicated, thereby sweeping out a cone. The motion of the axis of
Precessional motion the top about the vertical, known as precessional motion, is usually slow
compared with the spin motion of the top. It is quite natural to wonder why the
top doesn't fall over. Since the center of mass is not directly above the pivot
point O, there is clearly a net torque acting on the top about O due to the
weight force Mg. From this description, it is easy to see that the top would
certainly fall if it were not spinning. However, because the top is spinning, it

has an angular momentum L directed along its axis of symmetry. As we shall

show, the motion of the rotation axis about the z axis (the precessional motion)
arises from the fact that the torque produces a change in the direction of the
rotation axis. This is an excellent example of the importance of the directional
nature of angular momentum.
The two forces acting on the top are the downward force of gravity, Mg.
and the normal force, N, acting upward at the pivot point O. The normal force
produces no torque about the pivot since its moment arm is zero. However,
the force of gravity produces a torque T = rX Mg about O. where the direction
of T is perpendicular to the plane formed by rand A/g. By necessity, the vector x
lies in a horizontal plane perpendicular to the angular momentum vector. The
net torque and angular momentum of the body are related through the ex-
pression

dL
Figure 11.19 Precessional mo-
tion of a top spinning about its axis
of symmetry. The only external
From this expression,we see that the nonzero torque produces a change in
forces acting on the top are the angular momentum dL. which is in the same direction as T. Therefore, like the
normal force. N, and the force of torque vector. dL must also be at right angles to L. Figure 11.19b illustrates
gravity. Mg. The direction of the
the resulting precessional motion of the axis of the top. In a time At, the change
angular momentum. L. is along the
axis of symmetry. in momentum AL = Lf — L = x At. Note that because AL is perpen-
angular i

dicular toL the magnitude of L doesn't change (|Lj| = |Lf|). Rather, what is
changing is the direction of L. Since the change in angular momentum is in the
direction of T. which lies in the xy plane, the top undergoes precessional
motion. Thus, the effect of the torque is to deflect the angular momentum of
the top in a direction perpendicular to its spin axis.
We have presented a rather qualitative description of the motion of atop.
In general, the motion of such an object very complex. However, the essen-
is

tial features of the motion can be by considering the simple gyro-

illustrated
scope shown in Fig. 1 1 .20. This device consists of a wheel free to spin about an
axle that is pivoted at a distance /; from the center of mass of the wheel. If the
wheel is given an angular velocity (O about its axis, the wheel will have a spin
angular momentum L = Ico directed along the axle as shown. Let us consider
the torque acting on the wheel about the pivot O. Again, the force, N, of the
support on the axle produces no torque about O. On the other hand, the
weight Mg produces a torque of magnitude Mgh about O. The direction of this
torque is perpendicular to the axle (and perpendicular to L), as described in
Figure 11.20. This torque causes the angular momentum to change in the
direction perpendicular to the axle. Hence, the axle moves in the direction of
the torque, that is, in the horizontal plane. There is an assumption that we must
make in order to simplify the description of the system. The total angular
momentum of the precessing wheel is actually the sum of the spin angular
momentum. Ico. and the angular momentum due to the motion of the center of
mass about the pivot. In our treatment, we shall neglect the contribution from
 •11.6 THE MOTION OF GYROSCOPES AND TOPS 289

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 11.20 (a) The motion of a simple gyroscope pivoted a distance h from its center of
gravity. Note that the weight Mg produces a torque about the pivot that is perpendicular to the
axle, (b) This results in a change in angular momentum dL in the direction perpendicular to the
axle. The axle sweeps out an angle d<t> in a time dt. (c) Photograph of a toy-gyroscope. (Courtesy of
CENCO)

the center of mass motion and take the total angular momentum to be just Ico.
In practice, this good approximation if CO is made very large.
is a
In a time dt the torque due to the weight force adds to the system an
additional angular momentum equal to dL = x dt in the direction perpendicu-
lar to L.This additional angular momentum, x dt, when added vectorially to
the original spin angular momentum, Ico, causes a shift in the direction of the
total angular momentum. We
can express the magnitude of this change in
angular momentum as

dL = xdt = (Mgh) dt

The vector diagram in Fig. 11.20 shows that in the time dt, the angular mo-
mentum vector rotates through an angle d(f>, which is also the angle through
which the axle rotates. From the vector triangle formed by the vectors Lj, Lf ,

and dL and from the expression above, we see that

,
= dL = (Mgh) dt
T —L—
,

d(t)

Using L= Ico, we find that the rate at which the axle rotates about the vertical
axis is given by

_ d<f> _ Mgh Precessional frequency

0iv (11.28)
~~di~ ~ho~

The angular frequency co p is called the precessional frequency. This result is

valid only when co < co. Otherwise, a much more complicated motion is
p
involved. As you can see from Equation 11.28, the condition that co „ <§ co is
met when Ico is large compared with Mgh. Furthermore, note that the preces-
sional frequency decreases as co increases, that is, as the wheel spins faster
about axis of symmetry.
its
290 CHAPTER 11 ROLLING MOTION, ANGULAR MOMENTUM, AND TORQUE

"11.7 ANGULAR MOMENTUM AS A FUNDAMENTAL

QUANTITY
We have seen that the concept of angular momentum is very useful for de-
scribing the motion of macroscopic systems. However, the concept is also
validon a submicroscopic scale and has been used extensively in the develop-
ment of modern theories of atomic, molecular, and nuclear physics. In these
developments, it was found that the angular momentum of a system is a funda-
mental quantity. The word fundamental in this context implies that angular
momentum is an inherent property of atoms, molecules, and their constitu-
ents.
In order to explain the results of a variety of experiments on atomic and
molecular systems, it is necessary to assign discrete values to the angular
momentum. These discrete values are some multiple of a fundamental unit of
angular momentum, which equals h = h/2n, where h is called Planck's con-
stant.

_ 34 kg-m 2
Fundamental unit of angular momentum =h = 1.054 X 10

Let us accept this postulate for the time being and show how it can be used
to estimate the rotational frequency of a diatomic molecule. Consider the O z
molecule as a rigid rotor, that is, two atoms separated by a fixed distance d and
rotating about the center of mass (Fig. 11.21). Equating the rotational angular

Figure 11.21 The rigid-rotor

momentum to the fundamental unit h, we can estimate the lowest rotational
model of the diatomic molecule. frequency:
The rotation occurs about the
center of mass in the plane of the Ic co =n or co ~ —
diagram.

In Example 10.3, we found that the moment of inertia of the 2 molecule

-46
about this axis of rotation is 2.03 X 10 kg-m 2 Therefore,
.

h 1.054 X10- 3 * kg -m 2 /s - lovinI1 ,,

=5.19X10"rad/s
"-ir 2.03 X 10-" kg-m 2
This result is in good agreement with measured rotational frequencies.
Furthermore, the rotational frequencies are much lower than the vibrational
13
frequencies of the molecule, which are typically of the order of 10 Hz.
This simple example shows that certain classical concepts and mechanical
models might be useful in describing some features of atomic and molecular
systems. However, a wide variety of phenomena on the submicroscopic scale
can be explained only if one assumes discrete values of the angular momentum
associated with a particular type of motion.
Historically, the Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1885-1962) was the first to
suggest this radical idea in his theory of the hydrogen atom. Strictly classical
models were unsuccessful in describing many properties of the hydrogen
atom, such as the fact that the atom emits radiation at discrete frequencies.
Bohr postulated that the electron could only occupy circular orbits about
the proton for which the orbital angular momentum was equal to nh,
where n is an integer. That is, Bohr made the bold postulate that the orbital
angular momentum is quantized. From this rather simple model, one can
estimate the rotational frequencies of the electron in the various orbits (Prob-
lem 35).
 SUMMARY 291

Although Bohr's theory provided some insight concerning the behavior of

matter at the atomic level, it is basically incorrect. Subsequent developments
in quantum mechanics from 1924 to 1930 provided models and interpreta-
tions that are still accepted. We shall discuss this further in Chapter 40.
Later developments in atomic physics indicated that the electron also
possesses another kind of angular momentum, called spin, which is also an
inherent property of the electron. The spin angular momentum is also re-
stricted to discrete values. We shall return to this important property later in
the extended version of this text and discuss its great impact on modern
physical science.

SUMMARY B

The total kinetic energy of a rigid body, such as a cylinder, that is rolling on
a rough surface without slipping equals the rotational kinetic energy about
2
its center of mass, \lc O) ,
plus the translational kinetic energy of the center
of mass, \Mvc 2 :

Total kinetic energy of a

K = ILco 2 + IMv* (11.4)
rolling body
In this expression v c , is the speed of the center of mass and v c = Rco for pure
rolling motion.
The torque T due to a force F about an origin in an inertial frame is

defined to be

T^rXF (11.7) Torque

Given two vectors A and B, their cross product AXB is a vector C

having a magnitude
Magnitude of the
C = \AB sin 0| (11.9)
cross product
where 8 is the angle included between A and B. The direction of the vector
C = A X B is perpendicular to the plane formed by A and B, and its sense is
determined by the right-hand rule. Some properties of the cross product
include the facts that AXB=-BXAand = 0. AXA
The angular momentum L of a particle of linear momentum p = mv is
given by
Angular momentum of a
L = rXp = mrXv (11.15)
particle
where r is the vector position of the particle relative to an origin in an
inertial frame. If is the angle between rand p, the magnitude of L is given

by
L = mvr sin <f) (11.16)

The net external torque acting on a particle or rigid body is equal to the
time rate of change of its angular momentum:

V - dL (11.20)
 [

292 CHAPTER 11 ROLLING MOTION, ANGULAR MOMENTUM, AND TORQUE

The z component of angular momentum of a rigid body rotating about a

fixed axis (the z axis) is given by
Angular momentum of a rigid
bodv about a fixed axis Lz = ho (11.21)

where 7 is the moment of inertia about the axis of rotation, and co is its
angular velocity.
The net external torque acting on a rigid body equals the product of its
moment of inertia about the axis of rotation and its angular acceleration:

2t = /«
ert (11-23)

If the net external torque acting on a system is zero, the total angular
momentum of the system is constant. Applying this conservation of angular
momentum law to a body whose moment of inertia changes gives
Conservation of angular
momentum /jtoj = IftOf = constant (11.27)

QUESTIONS

1. Is it possible to calculate the torque acting on a rigid 12. Why is it easier to keep your balance on a moving
body without specifying the origin? Is the torque in- bicycle than on a bicycle at rest?
dependent of the location of the origin? 13. A scientist at a hotel sought assistance from a bellhop
2. Is the triple product defined by A •
(B X C) equal to a to carry a mysterious suitcase. When the unaware
scalar or vector quantity? Explain why the operation bellhop rounded a corner carrying the suitcase, it sud-
(A-B) X C has no meaning. denly moved away from him for some unknown rea-
3. In the expression for torque, T = r X F, is r equal to son. At this point, the alarmed bellhop dropped the
the moment arm? Explain. suitcase and ran off. What do you suppose might have
4. Can a particle moving in a straight line have nonzero been in the suitcase?
angular momentum? 14. When a cylinder rolls on a horizontal surface as in
5. If the angular momentum of a particle is constant as Figure 11.4, are there any points on the cylinder that
measured by one observer, will it be constant accord- have only a vertical component of velocity at some
ing to all observers? instant? If so, where are they?
6. If the torque acting on a particle about an arbitrary 15. Three homogeneous rigid bodies a solid sphere, a —
origin is zero, what can you say about its angular mo-
I

solid cylinder, and a hollow cylinder are placed at —

mentum about that origin? the top of an incline (Fig. 11.22). If they all are re-
7. A particle moves in a straight line, and you are told leased from rest at the same elevation and roll without
that the torque acting is zero about some unspecified slipping, which reaches the bottom first? Which
origin. Does this necessarily imply that the net force reaches last? You should try this at home and note that
on the particle is zero? Can you conclude that its ve- the result is independent of the masses and radii.
locity is constant? Explain.
8. Suppose that the velocity vector of a particle is com-
pletely specified. What can you conclude about the
direction of its angular momentum vector with re-
spect to the direction of motion?
9. If the net torque acting on a rigid body is nonzero
about some origin, is there any other origin about
which the net torque is zero? Figure 1 1.22 (Question 15) Which object wins the race?
10. If a system of particles is in motion, is it possible for
the total angular momentum to be zero about some
origin? Explain. 16. A mouse is initially at rest on a horizontal turntable
11. A ball is thrown in such a way that does not spin
it mounted on a frictionless vertical axle. If the mouse
about own axis. Does this
its mean that the angular begins to walk around the perimeter, what happens to
momentum is zero about an arbitrary origin? Explain. the turntable? Explain.
 PROBLEMS 293

17. Stars originate as large bodies of slowly rotating gas. 21. Space colonies have been proposed that consist of
Because of gravity, these regions of gas slowly de- large cylinders placed in space. Gravity would be sim-
crease in size. What happens to the angular velocity of ulated in these cylinders by setting them into rotation
a star as it shrinks? Explain. about their long axis. Discuss the difficulties that
18. Use the principle of conservation of angular momen- would be encountered in attempting to set the cylin-
tum to form a hypothesis that explains how a cat can ders into rotation.
always land on its feet regardless of the position from 22. For a particle undergoing uniform circular motion,
which it is dropped. how are its linear momentum, p and the angular mo-
19. Often when a high diver wants to turn a flip in midair, mentum L oriented with respect to each other?
she will draw her legs up against her chest. Why does 23. If the net force acting on a system is zero, then is it

this make her rotate faster? What should she do when necessarily true that the net torque on it is also zero?
she wants to come out of her flip? 24. Why do tightrope walkers carry a long pole to help
20. As a tether ball winds around a pole, what happens to balance themselves while walking a tightrope?
its angular velocity? Explain.

PROBLEMS
Section 11.1 Rolling Motion of a Rigid Body 8. Given M = 6» + 2j - k and N = 2i -j - 3k, calculate
1. A cylinder of mass 10 kg rolls without slipping on a
the vector product MXN.
9. Vector A is negative y direction, and vector B is
in the
rough surface. At the instant its center of mass has a
in the negative x direction. What are the directions of
speed of 10 m/s, determine (a) the translational ki-
(a) A X B and (b) BXA?
netic energy of its center of mass, (b) the rotational
10. A particle is located at the vector position r= (i + 3j)
kinetic energy about its center of mass, and (c) its total
kinetic energy.
m, and the force acting on it is F=
(3i + 2j)N. What is
the torque about (a) the origin and (b) the point hav-
2. A solid sphere has a radius of 0.2 m and a mass of 150
m?
ing coordinates (0, 6)
kg. How much work is required to get the sphere
11. If \AXB\ = A-B, what is the angle between
rolling with an angular speed of 50 rad/s on a horizon-
tal surface? (Assume the sphere starts from rest and
A and B?
12. Verify Equation 11.14 for the cross product of any
rolls without slipping.)
two vectors A and B, and show that the cross product
3. (a)Determine the acceleration of the center of mass of
may be written in the following determinant form:
a uniform solid disk rolling down an incline and com-
pare this acceleration with that of a uniform hoop. i

(b) What is the minimum coefficient of friction re- AXB =

quired to maintain pure rolling motion for the disk?
4. A uniform solid disk and a uniform hoop are placed
13. Two forces F and F2 act along the two sides of an
side by side at the top of a rough incline of height h. If 1

equilateral triangle as shown in Figure 11.23. Find a

they are released from rest and without slipping,
roll

determine their velocities when they reach the bot-

tom. Which object reaches the bottom first?
5. A bowling ball has amass of 4.0 kg, a moment of iner-
tia of 1.6 X 10- 2 kg-m 2 and a radius of 0.20 m. If it
,

rolls down the lane without slipping at a linear speed

of 4.0 m/s, what is its total kinetic energy?
6. The centers of mass of a solid sphere and a solid cylin-
der, each of mass M
and radius R, are moving with
speed v with respect to the floor. Find the ratios of
their total kinetic energies.

Section 1 1.2 The Vector Product and Torque

7. Two vectors are given by A = — 3i + 4j and B = 2\ +
3j. Find (a) A X B and (b) the angle between A and B.
294 CHAPTER 11 ROLLING MOTION, ANGULAR MOMENTUM, AND TORQUE

third force F3 to be applied at B and along BC which

will make the net torque about the point of intersec-
tion of the altitudes zero. Will the net torque change if
F3 were to be applied not at B but at any other point
along BC?
14. A force F= 2i + 3/
(in newtons) is applied to an ob-
ject that pivoted about a fixed axis aligned along the
is

Z coordinate axis. If the force is applied at the point

r= 4i + 5j + Ok (in meters), find (a) the magnitude of
the net torque about the z axis and (b) the direction of
the torque vector t.

Section 1 1.3 Angular Momentum of a Particle

15. A light rigid rod 1 m in length rotates

in the xy plane Figure 11.25 (Problem If
about a pivot through the rod's center. Two particles
of mass 4 kg and 3 kg are connected to its ends (Fig.
11.24). Determine the angular momentum of the sys-
m/s relative to the earth, (a) What is the magnitude of
tem about the origin at the instant the speed of each
the airplane's angular momentum relative to a ground
particle is 5 m/s.
observer who is directly below the airplane? (b) Does
this value change as the airplane continues its motion
along a straight line?
21. (a) Calculate the angular momentum of the earth due
to its spinning motion about its axis, (b) Calculate the
angular momentum of the earth due to its orbital mo-
tion about the sunand compare this with (a). (Take the
earth-sun distance to be 1.49 X 10 11 m.)
22. A 4-kg mass is attached to a light cord, which is wound
around a pulley (Fig. 10.18). The pulley is a uniform
solid cylinder of radius 8 cm and mass 2 kg. (a) What is
the net torque on the system about the point O?
(b) When the 4-kg mass has a speed t>, the pulley has
an angular velocity co = v/R. Determine the total an-
gular momentum of the system about O. (c) Using the
fact that t = dL/dt and your result from (b), calculate
the acceleration of the 4-kg mass.
Figure 11.24 (Problem 15). 23. A particle of mass m is shot with an initial velocity v
making an angle 6 with the horizontal as shown in

16. At a certain instant the position of a stone in a sling is Figure 1 1.26. The particle moves in the gravitational
given by r = 1 .7* m. The linear momentum p of the field of the earth. Find the angular momentum of the
stone is 12; kg -m/s. Calculate its angular momentum particle about the origin when the particle is (a) at the
L = rXp. origin, (b) at the highest point of its trajectory, and
17. The position vector of a particle of mass 2 kg is given (c) just before it hits the ground, (d) What torque
as a function of time by r = (6i + 5tj) m. Determine causes itsangular momentum to change?
the angular momentum of the particle as a function of
time.
18. Two particles move in opposite directions along a »i = u„ i

straight line (Fig. 11.25). The particle of mass m

moves to the right with a speed v while the particle of
mass 3m moves to the left with a speed v. What is the
angular momentum of the system relative to

z
total
(a) the point A, (b) the point O, and (c) the point B?
19. A 1.5-kg particle moves in the xy plane with velocity
v = (4.2i — 3.6;') m/s. Determine its angular momen-
tum when its position vector is r = m.
(1.5* + 2.2j)
20. An airplane of mass 1 2 000 kg flies level ground to the
at an altitude of 10 km with a constant speed of 175 Figure 11.26 (Problem 23).
 PROBLEMS 295

Section 1 1.4 Rotation of a Rigid Rody About a Fixed Axis merry-go-round. What is the new angular speed of the
merry-go-round (in rpm)?
24. A uniform solid disk of mass 3 kg and radius 0.2 m 29. A woman whose mass is 60 kg stands at the rim of a
rotates about a fixed axis perpendicular to its face. If
horizontal turntable having a moment of inertia of
the angular frequency of rotation is 6 rad/s, calculate
500 kg m 2 and a radius of 2 m. The system is initially
•

the angular momentum of the disk when the axis of

at rest, and the turntable is free to rotate about a fric-
rotation (a) passes through its center of mass and
through its center. The woman
tionless, vertical axle
(b) passes through a point midway between the
then walking around the rim in a clockwise di-
starts
center and the rim.
rection (looking downward) at a constant speed of
25. A mass 0.4 kg is attached to the 100-cm
particle of
1.5 m/s relative to the earth, (a) In what direction
mark of a meter stick of mass 0.1 kg. The meter stick
and with what angular speed does the turntable ro-
rotates on a horizontal, smooth table with an angular
tate? (b) How much work does the woman do to set
velocity of 4 rad/s. Calculate the angular momentum
the system into motion?
of the system if the stick is pivoted about an axis
30. A uniform rod of mass 100 g and length 50 cm rotates
(a) perpendicular to the table through the 50-cm
in a horizontalplane about a fixed, vertical, friction-
mark and (b) perpendicular to the table through the
less pin through its center. Two small beads, each of
0-cm mark.
mass 30 g, are mounted on the rod such that they are
26. Two point masses, each 4 kg, are joined by a light
able to slide without friction along its length. Initially
rigid rod 0.40 m "dumbbell" system is
long. This
the beads are held by catches at positions 10 cm on
placed on a horizontal frictionless surface and set into
each side of center, at which time the system rotates at
rotation about a vertical axis through the center of
an angular speed of 20 rad/s. Suddenly, the catches
mass with an angular speed of 3 rad/s. Find (a) the
are released and the small beads slide outward along
moment of inertia of the system about the center of
the rod. Find (a) the angular speed of the system at the
mass and (b) the angular momentum about the center
instant the beads reach the ends of the rod, and (b) the
of mass, (c) What tangential force, applied to each
angular speed of the rod after the beads fly off the
mass, will produce an angular acceleration of
ends.
6 rad/s 2 ?
31. The student Figure 11.17 holds two weights, each
in
of mass 10 kg. When
his arms are extended horizon-

Momentum tally, the weights are 1 m from the axis of rotation and
Section 1 1.5 Conservation of Angular
he rotates with an angular speed of 2 rad/s. The mo-
27. A cylinder with moment of inertia I x rotates with angu- ment of inertia of the student plus the stool is
lar velocity (O about a vertical, frictionless axle. A 8 kg m 2 and is assumed to be constant. If the student
•

second cylinder, with moment of inertia Z 2 initially not pulls the weights horizontally to 0.25 m from the ro-
rotating, drops onto the first cylinder (Fig. 11.27). tation axis, calculate the final angular speed of the
(a)
Since the surfaces are rough, the two eventually reach system and (b) the change in the mechanical energy of
the same angular velocity to. (a) Calculate a>. (b) Show the system.
that energy is lost in this situation and calculate the 32. A particle of mass m = 10 g and speed u = 5 m/s col-
ratio of the final to the initial kinetic energy. lides with and sticks to the edge of a uniform solid
sphere of mass = 1 kg and radius R = 20 cm (Fig.
M
1 1.28). If the sphere is initially at rest and is pivoted

about a frictionless axle through O perpendicular to

the plane of the paper, (a) find the angular velocity of
the system after the collision and (b) determine how
much energy is lost in the collision.

Before After

Figure 11.27 (Problem 27). Figure 11.28 (Problem 32).

28. A merry-go-round of radius R = 2 m has a moment of 33. A wooden block of mass M

resting on a frictionless
inertia 1 = 250 kg-m 2 and is rotating at 10 rpm. A
,
horizontal surface is attached to a rigid rod of length (

child whose mass is 25 kg jumps onto the edge of the and of negligible mass (Fig. 11.29). The rod is pivoted
296 CHAPTER 11 ROLLING MOTION, ANGULAR MOMENTUM, AND TORQUE

at the other end. of mass m traveling parallel

A bullet the angular speed of the sphere when it reaches the
to the horizontal surface and normal to the rod with bottom of the bowl.
speed v hits the block and gets embedded in it. 37. (a) Compute the kinetic energy of the earth due to its

(a) What is the angular momentum of the bullet and annual orbit around the sun. (b) Compute the rota-
block system? (b) What fraction of the original kinetic tional kinetic energy of the earth due to its daily
energy is lost in the collision? rotation about its own axis, (c) Compute the ratio

^orbit/ ^rotation
38. A thin uniform cylindrical turntable of radius 2 m and
mass 30 kg rotates in a horizontal plane with an initial

angular velocity. An rad/s. The turntable bearing is

frictionless. A clump of clay of mass 0.25 kg is

small
dropped onto the turntable and sticks at a point 1.8 m
from the center of rotation, (a) Find the final angular
velocity of the clay and turntable. (Treat the clay as a
point mass.) (b) Is mechanical energy conserved in
this collision? Explain and use numerical results to
verify your answer.
39. A stringis wound around a uniform disk of radius R

and mass M. The disk is released from rest with the

string vertical and its top end tied to a fixed support
Figure 1 1.29 (Problems 33 and 34). (Fig. 11.31). As the disk descends, show that (a) the

= tension in the string is one third the weight of the disk,

34. Consider the previous problem with f = 2m, M
(b) the acceleration of the center of mass is 2g/3, and
2 kg, m= 10 g, =
200 m/s. In this case the bul-
and v 2
(c) the velocity of the center of mass is (4g/i/3)^
let leaves the block with speed v = 25 m/s horizontal
.

Verify your answer to (c) using the energy approach.

to the surface, (a) Determine the angular momentum
of the block just after the bullet exits it. (b) Determine
the kinetic energy lost in this collision. Neglect the
transit time through the block.

"Section 11.7 Angular Momentum as a Fundamental

Quantity

35. In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, the electron

moves in a circular orbit of radius 0.529 X 10~ 10 m
around the proton. Assuming the orbital angular mo-
mentum of the electron is equal tofi, calculate (a) the
orbitalspeed of the electron, (b) the kinetic energy of
the electron, and (c) the angular frequency of the
electron's motion.

Figure 11.31 (Problem 39).

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
40. A constant horizontal force F is applied to a lawn
36. A uniform solid sphere of radius r is placed on the form of a uniform solid cylinder of radius
roller in the
inside surface of a hemispherical bowl of radius R. The M
R and mass (Fig. 11.32). If the roller rolls without
sphere is released from rest at an angle 6 to the verti- slipping on the horizontal surface, show that (a) the
cal and rolls without slipping (Fig. 1 1 .30). Determine
acceleration of the center of mass is 2F/3M and (b) the
minimum coefficient of friction necessary to prevent

Figure 11.30 (Problem 36). Figure 11.32 (Problem 40).

 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 297

slipping is F/3Mg. (Hint: Take the torque with respect 43. This problem describes a method of determining the
to the center of mass.) moment of inertia of an irregularly shaped object such
41. A light rope passes over a light, frictionless pulley. as the payload for a satellite. Figure 1 1 .35 shows one
One end is fastened bunch of bananas of mass M,
to a method of determining A mass m is / experimentally.
and a monkey of mass M clings to the other end of the suspended by a cord wound around the inner shaft
rope (Fig. 1 1.33). The monkey climbs the rope in an (radius r) of a turntable supporting the object. When
attempt to reach the bananas, (a) Treating the system the mass is released from rest, it descends uniformly a
as consisting of the monkey, bananas, rope, and pul- distance h, acquiring a speed v. Show that the moment
ley, evaluate the net torque about the pulley axis, of inertia J of the equipment (including the turntable)
(b) Using the results to (a), determine the total angu- is mr 2
(2gh/v 2 — 1).

lar momentum about the pulley axis and describe the

motion of the system. Will the monkey reach the ba-
nanas?

Figure 11.35 (Problem 43).

44. Consider the problem of the solid sphere rolling down

an incline as described in Example 11.1. (a) Choose
the axis of the origin for the torque equation as the
instantaneous axis through the contact point P and
show that the acceleration of the center of mass is

given by a c = fg sin 6. (b) Show that the minimum

coefficient of friction such that the sphere will roll
without slipping is given by //„,)„ = ftan 6.
45. The position vector of a particle of mass 5 kg is given
by r = (2 t2 i + 3j) m, where t is in seconds. Determine
the angular momentum and the torque acting on the
Figure 11.33 (Problem 41). particle about the origin.
46. A particle of mass m is located at the vector position r
42. A small, solid sphere of mass m and radius r rolls with- and has a linear momentum p. (a) If r and p both have
out slipping along the track shown in Figure 1 1 .34. If nonzero x, y, and z components, show that the angular
it from rest at the top of the track at a height h,
starts momentum of the particle relative to the origin has
where h is large compared to r, (a) what is the mini- components given by Lz = yp z — zpy Ly = zpx — xpz , ,

mum value of h (in terms of the radius of the loop R) and L z = xpy — ypz (b) If the particle moves only in
.

such that the sphere completes the loop? (b) What are the xy plane, prove that L z = L y = and L z ¥= 0.
the force components on the sphere at the point P if 47. A constant torque of 25 N m is applied to a grind- •

ft = 3R? stone whose moment of inertia is 0. 1 3 kg m Using

2
.

energy principles, find the angular speed (in revolu-

tions per second) after the grindstone has made 15
revolutions. (Neglect friction.)
48. It is proposedpower a passenger bus with a massive
to
is periodically brought up to its
rotating flywheel that
maximum speed (3500 rpm) by means of an electric
motor. The flywheel has a mass of 1 200 kg, a diameter
of 1.8 m, and is in the shape of a solid cylinder. (This is
not an efficient shape for a flywheel that is designed to

power a vehicle: can you see why?) (a) What is the

Figure 1 1 .34 (Problem 42) maximum amount of kinetic energy that can be stored
 .

298 CHAPTER 11 ROLLING MOTION, ANGULAR MOMENTUM, AND TORQUE

in the flywheel? (b) If the bus requires an average vehicle)? (c) Find the values of Fx and Fy given that
power of 30 hp, how long will the flywheel rotate? W= l500N,d = 0.8m,L = 3m,h= 1.5 m, anda =
49. A mass m is attached to a cord passing through a small -2 m/s 2
.

hole in a frictionless, horizontal surface (Fig. 11.36). 52. (a) A thin rod of length h and mass M is held vertically
The mass is initially orbiting in a circle of radius r up with lower end resting on a frictionless horizon-
its

with velocity » The cord is then slowly pulled from

. tal The rod is then let go to fall freely. Deter-
surface.
below, decreasing the radius of the circle to r. mine the velocity of its center of mass just before it
(a) What is the velocity of the mass when the radius hits the horizontal surface, (b) Suppose the rod were

is r? (b) Find the tension in the cord as a function of r. pivoted at its lower end. Determine the speed of the
(c) How much work is done in moving m from r to r? rod's center of mass just before it hits the surface.
(Note: The tension depends on r.) (d) Obtain numeri- 53. Two astronauts (Figure 1 1.38), each having a mass of
cal values foru, T, and Wwhen r = 0.1 m, ifm = 50 g, 75 kg, are connected by a 10-m rope of negligible
r = 0.3 m, and v = 1.5 m/s. mass. Theyare isolated in space, orbiting their center
of mass speeds of 5 m/s. Calculate (a) the magnitude
at
of the angular momentum of the system by treating
the astronauts as particles and (b) the kinetic energy
of the system. By pulling in on the rope, the astronauts
shorten the distance between them to 5 m. (c) What is
the new momentum of the system? (d) What
angular
are their new speeds? (e) What is the new kinetic
energy of the system? (f) How much work is done by
the astronauts in shortening the rope?

Figure 11.36 (Problem 49).

50. A bowling ball initial speed v on an alley

is given an
such that it without rolling. The coeffi-
initially slides
cient of friction between the ball and the alley is fi.
Show that at the time pure rolling motion occurs,
(a) the velocity of the ball's center of mass is 5u /7 and
2
(b) the distance it has traveled is 12o /49 fig. (Hint:
= Figure 11.38 (Problem 53).
When pure rolling motion occurs, vc Rco. Since the
frictional force provides the deceleration, from New-
A solid cube of wood of side 2a and mass Mis resting
ton's second law it follows that a c = —fig.) 54.

51. A with loaded weight

trailer W
is being pulled by a
on a horizontal surface. The cube is constrained to
rotate about an axis AB (see Figure 1 1.39). A bullet of
vehicle with a force F, as in Figure 1 1 .37. The trailer
is loaded such that its center of gravity is located as
mass m and speed t> is shot at the face opposite to
shown. Neglect the force of rolling friction and as- ABCD at a height of 4a/3. The bullet gets embedded
in the block. Find the minimum value of the v re-
sume the trailer has an acceleration a. (a) Find the
quired to tip the cube to fall on its face ABCD. Assume
vertical component of Fin terms of the given parame-
ters, (b) If a = 2 m/s 2 and h = 1.5 m, what must be the
m< M.
value of d in order that Fu = (no vertical load on the

Figure 1 1 .39 (Problem 54)

55. Toppling chimneys often break apart in mid-fall be-

Figure 11.37 (Problem 51). cause the mortar between the bricks cannot withstand
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 299

much tension force. As the chimney falls, this tension

supplies the centripetal forces on the topmost seg-
ments that they need to keep them traveling in a cir- •»

56.
cle.

A
Consider a long uniform rod of length ( pivoted at
the lower end. The rod starts at rest in a vertical posi-
tion and falls over under the influence of gravity.
What fraction of the length of the rod will have a
tangential acceleration greater than the
gravitational acceleration in the tangential direction?
solid sphere is
component of

released from height h from the top

of an incline making an angle 9 with the horizontal.
Calculate the velocity of the sphere when it reaches
Q
Figure 11.41 (Problems 58 and 59).
the bottom of the incline in the case that (a) it rolls

without slipping, and (b) it slips frictionlessly without

rolling. Compare the times required to reach the bot-
tom in cases (a) and (b).

57. A spool of wire of mass M

and radius R is unwound 59. Suppose a solid disk of radius R is given an angular
under a constant force F (Fig. 11.40). Assuming the velocity co about an axis through its center and is then
spool is a uniform solid cylinder that doesn 't slip, show lowered to a rough, horizontal surface and released,
that (a) the acceleration of the center of mass is 4F/3M as in Problem 58 (Fig. 11.41). Furthermore, assume
and (b) the force of friction is to the right and equal to that the coefficient of friction between the disk and
F/3. (c) If the cylinder starts from rest and rolls with- surface is/u. (a) Show that the time it takes pure rolling
out slipping, what is the velocity of its center of mass motion to occur is given by Ra» /3//g. (b) Show that
after it has rolled through a distance d? (Assume the the distance the disk travels before pure rolling occurs
2
is given by R co
force remains constant.) 2
/ 18 fig.

60. A large, cylindrical roll of tissue paper of initial radius

R lies on a long, horizontal surface with the open end
of the paper nailed to the surface so that it can unroll
easily. The roll is given a slight shove (v = 0) and
commences to unroll, (a) Determine the speed of the
center of mass of the roll when its radius has dimin-
ished tor. (b) Calculate a numerical value for this

speed at r = 1 mm, assuming R = 6 m. (c) What hap-

pens to the energy of the system when the paper is
Figure 11.40 (Problem 57). completely unrolled? (Hint: Assume the roll has a uni-
form density and apply energy methods.)
58. A uniform solid disk is set into rotation about an axis 61. A solid cube of side 2a and mass M
is sliding on a

through its center with an angular velocity a> The . frictionless surface with uniform velocity v as in Fig-
rotating disk is lowered to a rough, horizontal surface ure 11.42a. It hits a small obstacle at the end of the
with this angular velocity and released as in Figure table, which causes the cube to tilt as in Figure
1 1 .4 1 (a) What is the angular velocity of the disk once
. 11.42b. Find the minimum value of v such that the
pure rolling takes place? (b) Find the fractional loss in cube falls off the table. Note that the moment of iner-
kinetic energy from the time the disk is released until tia of the cube about an axis along one of its edges is

pure rolling occurs. (Hint: Consider torques about the 8M« 2 /3. (Hint: The cube undergoes an inelastic colli-
center of mass.) sion at the edge.)

Figure 1 1 .42 (Problem 6 1

 12
Static Equilibrium
and Elasticity

This one-bottle wine holder is

an interesting example of a
balanced cantilevered mechan-
ical system, ivhich seems to
defy gravity. The system,
which consists of the bottle
and wine holder, is balanced
when its center of gravity is di-
rectly over the lowest support
point so that the net torque
acting on the system is zero.
The external forces acting on
the system as shown by the
blue vectors are the weight of
the wine holder, W, the,

weight of the bottle, W

2 and ,

the upward force of the book

on the ivine holder, N. The two
conditions of equilibrium for
such a system are (1J the vec-
tor sum of the external forces
must be zero and (2) the net
external torque on the system
about any axis must be zero.
(Charles Winters)

of this chapter is concerned with the conditions under which a

Part rigid body is in equilibrium. The term equilibrium implies that the
body is either at rest or that its center of mass moves with constant
velocity. We shall deal with bodies at rest, or bodies in static equilib-
rium. This represents a common situation in engineering practice, and the
principles involved are of special interest to civil engineers, architects, and
mechanical engineers, who deal with various structural designs, such as
bridges and buildings. Those of you who are engineering students will un-
doubtedly take an intensified course in statics in the future.
In Chapter 5 we stated that one necessary condition for equilibrium is that
the net force on an object be zero. If the object is treated as a single particle,
this the only condition that must be satisfied in order that the particle be in
is

equilibrium. That is, if the net force on the particle is zero, it will remain at rest
(if originally at rest) or move with constant velocity in a straight line (if origi-
nally in motion).
The situation with real objects somewhat more complex because ob-
is

jects cannot be treated as particles. Anobject has a definite size, shape, and
mass distribution. In order for an object to be in static equilibrium, the net
300
 12.1 THE CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID OBJECT 301

force on it must be zero and the object must have no tendency to rotate. This
second condition of equilibrium requires that the net torque about any origin
be zero. In order to establish whether or not an object is in equilibrium, we
must know the size and shape of the object, the forces acting on different parts
of the object, and the points of application of the various forces.
In the first part of this chapter, we shall be concerned with objects that are
assumed to be rigid. A rigid object is defined as one that does not deform under
the application of external forces. That is, all parts of a rigid object remain at a
fixed separation with respect to each other when subjected to external forces.
The last section of this chapter deals with the realistic situation of objects
that deform under load conditions. Deformation is an important consideration
in understanding the mechanics of materials and structural designs. Such de-
formations are usually elastic in nature and will not affect the conditions of
Figure 12.1 A single force Facts
equilibrium. By elastic we mean that when the deforming forces are removed,
on a rigid object at the point P. The
the object returns to its original shape. Several elastic constants will be de- moment arm of Frelative to O is the
fined, each corresponding to a different type of deformation. perpendicular distance d from O to
the line of action of F.

12.1 THE CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A

RIGID OBJECT
Consider a single force F acting on a rigid object as in Figure 12.1. The effect
of the force on the object depends on its point of application, P. If r is the
position vector of this point relative to O, the torque associated with the force F
about O is given by

x = rXF (12.1)

Recall that the vector t is perpendicular to the plane formed by r and F.

Furthermore, the sense of x is determined by the sense of the rotation that F

tends to give to the object. The right-hand rule can be used to determine the
direction of T: Close your right hand such that your four fingers wrap in the
direction of rotation that F tends to give the object; your thumb will point in
the direction ofr. Hence, in Figure 12.1 t is directed out of the paper.
As you can see from Figure 12.1, the tendency of Fto make the object
Figure 12.2 The two forces act-
rotate about an axis through O depends on the moment arm d (the perpendicu- ing on the object are equal in mag-
lar distance to the line of action of the force) as well as on the magnitude of F. nitude and opposite in direction,
yet the object is not in equilibrium.
By definition, the magnitude oft is given by Fd.
Now suppose two forces, F1 and F2 act on a rigid object. The two forces
,

will have the same effect on the object only if they have the same magnitude,
the same direction, and the same line of action. In other words,

two forces F, and F2 are equivalent if and only if Fx = F2 and if they have Equivalent forces
the same torque about any given point.

An example of two equal and opposite forces that are not equivalent is shown
inFigure 12.2. The force directed toward the right tends to rotate the object
clockwise about an axis through O, whereas the force directed toward the left
tends to rotate it counterclockwise about that axis.
When an object is pivoted about an axis through its center of mass, the
object will undergo an angular acceleration about this axis if there is a nonzero
torque acting on the object. As an example, suppose an object is pivoted about
an axis through its center of mass as in Figure 12.3. Two equal and opposite
302 CHAPTER 12 STATIC EQUILIBRIUM AND ELASTICITY

forces act in the directions shown, such that their lines of action do not pass
through the center of mass. A pair of forces acting in this manner form what is
called a couple. Since each force produces the same torque, Fd, the net torque
has a magnitude given by 2Fd. Clearly, the object will rotate in a clockwise
direction and will undergo an angular acceleration about the axis. This is a
nonequilibrium situation as far as the rotational motion is concerned. That is,
the "unbalanced," or net, torque on the object gives rise to an angular acceler-
ation a according to the relationship T ne = 2Fd = la. ,

In general, an object will be in rotational equilibrium only if its angular

acceleration a = 0. Since T net = la for rotation about a fixed axis, a necessary
condition of equilibrium for an object is that the net torque about any origin
Figure 12.3 Two equal and oppo-
site forces acting on the object
must be zero. We
now have two necessary conditions for equilibrium of an
form a couple. In this case, the ob- object, which can be stated as follows:
ject will rotate clockwise. The net
torque on the object about the
center of mass is 2Fd. 1. The resultant external 2^ = ^ (12.2)
force must equal zero.

2. The resultant external

torque must be zero — =
Vt (12.3)
about any origin.

The first condition is a statement of translational equilibrium, that is, the

linear acceleration of the center of mass of the object must be zero when
viewed from an inertial reference frame. The second condition is a statement
of rotational equilibrium, that is, the angular acceleration about any axis must
be zero. In the special case of static equilibrium, which is the main subject of
this chapter, the object is at rest so that it has no linear or angular velocity (that
is, vc = and co = 0).
The two vector expressions given by Equations 12.2 and 12.3 are equiva-
lent, in general, to six scalar equations. Three of these come from the first
condition of equilibrium, and three follow from the second condition (corre-
sponding to x, y, and z components). Hence, in a complex system involving
several forces acting in various directions, you would be faced with solving a
set of equations with many unknowns. We will restrict our discussion to situa-
tions inwhich all the forces lie in a common plane, which we assume to be the
xy plane. Forces whose vector representations are in the same plane are said to
be coplanar. In this case, we shall have to deal with only three scalar equations.
Two of these come from balancing the forces in the x and y directions. The
third comes from the torque equation, namely, that the net torque about any
point in the xy plane must be zero. Hence, these two conditions of equilibrium
provide the equations

2F * = o 2F„=o 2*. (12.4)

where the axis of the torque equation is arbitrary, as we shall show later.
There are two cases of equilibrium that are often encountered. The first
case deals with an object subjected to only two forces, and the second case is
Figure 12.4 (a) The object is not concerned with an object subjected to three forces.
in equilibrium since the two forces
do not have the same line of action. Case I. If an object is subjected to two forces, the object is in equilibrium ifand
(b) The object is in equilibrium
only if the two forces are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction, and
since the two forces act along the
same line. have the same line of action. Figure 12.4a shows a situation in which
 12.2 THE CENTER OF GRAVITY 303

the object is not in equilibrium because the two forces are not along
the same line. Note that the torque about any axis, such as one
through P, is not zero, which violates the second condition of equilib-
rium. In Figure 12.4b, the object is in equilibrium because the forces
have the same line of action. In this situation, it is easy to see that the
net torque about any axis is zero.
Case II. // an object subjected to three forces is in equilibrium, the lines of
action of the three forces must intersect at a common point. That is, the
forces must be concurrent. (One exception to this rule is the situation
in which none of the lines of action intersect. In this situation, the
forces must Figure 12.5 illustrates the general rule. The
be parallel.)
lines of action of the three forces pass through the point S. The
conditions of equilibrium require that F1 + F2 + F3 = and that the
Figure 12.5 If three forces act on
net torque about any axis be zero. Note that as long as the forces are an object that is in equilibrium,
concurrent, the net torque about an axis through S must be zero. their lines of action must intersect
at a point S (or they must be paral-

We can easily show that if an object is in translational equilibrium and the lel).

net torque zero with respect to one point, it must be zero about any point.
is

The point can be inside or outside the boundaries of the object. Consider an
object under the action of several forces such that the resultant force IF =
F1 + F2 + F3 + = 0. Figure 12.6 describes this situation (for clarity, only
• •

four forces are shown). The point of application of F 1

is specified by the
position vector r x . Similarly, the points of application of F2 F3, , . . . are
specified by r2 r3 , , . . . (not shown). The net torque about O is
2t = n X F, + r2 X F2 + r3 X F3 + • •
•

Now consider another arbitrary point, O', having a position vector r'
relative to O.The point of application of Fx relative to this point is identified by
the vector r l — r' Likewise, the point of application of F2 relative to O' is
.

r2 — r', and so forth. Therefore, the torque about O' is

2*0- = (n - r') XF, + (r2 - r') X F2 + (r3 - r') X F3 + •

•
Figure 1 2.6 Construction for show-
ing that if the net torque about ori-
£t = r XF + r2 XF2 + r3 XF3 +
,
1 1
r' X (F, + F2 + F3 + • • •
gin O is zero, the net torque about
any other origin, such as O', will be
Since the net force is assumed to be zero, the last term in this last expression zero.

vanishes and we see that 2t = 2t Hence, . .

if an object is in translational equilibrium and the net torque is zero about

one point, it must be zero about any other point.

12.2 THE CENTER OF GRAVITY

Whenever we deal with rigid objects, one of the forces that must be consid-
ered is the weight of the object, that is, the force of gravity acting on the
object. In order to compute the torque due
to the weight force, all of the
weight can be considered as being concentrated at a single point called the
center of gravity. As we shall see, the center of gravity of an object coincides
with its center of mass if the object is in a uniform gravitational field. Figure 12.7 An object can be di-
Consider an object of arbitrary shape lying in the xy plane, as in Figure vided into many small particles
with specific masses and coordi-
12.7. Suppose the object is divided into a large number of very small particles
nates. These can be used to locate
of masses m 1 ,m 2 ,m 3 having coordinates (x 1 j/i), (i 2 y 2 ), (x 3 ,y 3 ),
, . . . , , the center of mass.
304 CHAPTER 12 STATIC EQUILIBRIUM AND ELASTICITY

In Chapter 9 we defined the x coordinate of the center of mass of such an

object to be

_m 1
x1 + m 2 x2 + m 3x 3 + • • •
_ Im,i,
rn 1 + m2 + m3 + •
•
Im,

The y coordinate of the center of mass is similar to this, with x replaced by t/ ( (

.

Let us now examine the situation from another point of view by consider-
ing the weight of each part of the object, as in Figure 12.8. Each particle
contributes a torque about the origin equal to its weight multiplied by its
moment arm. For example, the torque due to the weight mjgj is m^Xj and so ,

forth. We wish to locate the one position of the single force W(the total weight
W = Mg of the object) whose effect on the rotation of the object is the same as that of

Figure 12.8 The center of gravity

the individual particles. This point is called the center of gravity of the object.
of the object is located at the center Equating the torque exerted by W
acting at the center of gravity to the sum of
of mass if the value ofgis constant the torques acting on the individual particles gives
over the object.
(m x gj + m 2 g 2 + m 3g3 + • •
)x cg = mjg.Xj + m 2g2 x 2 + m 3 g3 x 3 +
where this expression accounts for the fact that the acceleration of gravity can
in general vary over the object. If we assume that g is uniform over the object
(as is usually the case), then the g terms in the above equation cancel and we
get

_m 1
x1 + m 2x2 + m 3x3 + • •

(12.5)
+ m, + m, +
In other words, the center ofgravity is located at the center ofmass as long as the
body isuniform gravitational field.
in a
In several examples that will be presented in the next section, we shall be
concerned with homogeneous, symmetric objects for which the center of
gravity coincides with the geometric center of the object. A rigid object in a
uniform gravitational field can be balanced by a single force equal in magni-
tude to the weight of the object, as long as the force is directed upward
through the object's center of gravity.

12.3 EXAMPLES OF RIGID OBJECTS IN STATIC

EQUILIBRIUM
In this section we present several examples of rigid objects in static equilib-
A large balanced rock photo- rium. In working such problems, it is important to first recognize all external
graphed at the Garden of the Gods forces acting on the object. Failure to do so will result in an incorrect analysis.
in Colorado Springs, Colorado.
This is an example of stable equilib- The following procedure is recommended when analyzing a body in equilib-
rium. (Photo by David Serway) rium under the action of several external forces:

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY: OBJECTS IN EQUILIBRIUM

1. Make a sketch of the object under consideration.
2. Draw a free-body diagram and label all external forces acting on the object.
Try to guess the correct direction for each force. If you select a direction that
leads to a negative sign in your solution for a force, do not be alarmed; this
merely means that the direction of the force is the opposite of what you
assumed.
 12.3 EXAMPLES OF RIGID OBJECTS IN STATIC EQUILIBRIUM 305

3. Resolve all forces into rectangular components, choosing a convenient coor-

dinate system. Then apply the first condition for equilibrium, which balances
forces. Remember to keep track of the signs of the various force components.
4. Choose a convenient axis for calculating the net torque on the object. Re-
member that the choice of the origin for the torque equation is arbitrary;
therefore choose an origin that will simplify your calculation as much as
possible. Becoming adept at this is a matter of practice.
5. The first and second conditions of equilibrium give a set of linear equations

with several unknowns. All that is left is to solve the simultaneous equations
for the unknowns in terms of the known quantities.

EXAMPLE 12.1 The Seesaw ity of the board as the axis for our torque equation, we
A uniform board of weight 40 N supports two children see from 2t = that
weighing 500 N and 350 N, respectively, as shown in -
(500 N)(1.5 m) (350 N)(x) =
Figure 12.9. If the support (called the fulcrum) is under
the center of gravity of the board and if the 500-N child is
1.5 m from the center, (a) determine the upward force N i= 2.14 m
exerted on the board by the support.

Exercise 1 If the fulcrum did not lie under the center of

Solution First note that, in addition to N, the external
gravity of the board, what other information would you
forces acting on the board are the weights of the children
need to solve the problem?
and the weight of the board, all of which act downward.
We can assume that the center of gravity of the board is
geometric center because we were told that the
at its
boardis uniform. Since the system is in equilibrium, the EXAMPLE 12.2 A Weighted Hand
upward force N must balance all the downward forces. A 50-N weight is held in the hand with the forearm in the
From 2F = 0, we have
y
horizontal position, as in Figure 12.10a. The biceps mus-
cle attached 3 cm from the joint, and the weight is 35
is

N-500N-350N-40N = or N= 890 N cm from the joint. Find the upward force that the biceps
exerts on the forearm (made up of the radius and ulna)
Itshould be pointed out here that the equation and the downward force on the upper arm (the humerus)
2FX = also applies to this situation, but it is unnecessary acting at the joint. Neglect the weight of the forearm.
to consider this equation because we have no forces act-
ing horizontally on the board. Solution The forces acting on the forearm are equiva-
(b) Determine where the 350-N child should sit to lent to those acting on a bar of length 35 cm, as shown in
balance the system. Figure 1 2. 10b, where F is the upward force of the biceps
Solution To find this position, we must invoke the sec- and R is the downward force at the joint. From the first

condition for equilibrium, we have

ond condition for equilibrium. Taking the center of grav-
(!) 2F »
= F-R-50N =
From the second condition for equilibrium, we
know that the sum of the torques about any point must be
zero. With the joint O as the axis, we have

Fd - Wt =
F(3 cm) - (50 N)(35 cm) =

F= 583 N
500 N 350 N
This value for F can be substituted into (1) to give
Figure 12.9 (Example 12.1) A balanced system. R = 533 N. These values correspond to 131 lb and F=
306 CHAPTER 12 STATIC EQUILIBRIUM AND ELASTICITY

W = 50 N
d = 3 cm
8= 35 cm

4 ml ^200 N

(b)

Figure 12.11 (Example 12.3) (a) A uniform beam supported

by a cable, (b) The free-body diagram for the beam.

the person on the beam. These are all indicated in the

Figure 12.10 (Example 12.2) In this skeletal view, the
(a) free-body diagram for the beam (Fig. 12.11b). If we re-
biceps are pulling (essentially) at right angles to the forearm. solve T and R into horizontal and vertical components
(b) The mechanical model for the system described in (a).
and apply the first condition for equilibrium, we get

R = 1201b. Hence, the forces at joints and in muscles can (1) ^F = Rcos0-rcos53° =0
I

be extremely large. (2) 2F !/

= R sin 6 + Tsin 53 ° - 600 N - 200 N =
Exercise 2 In reality, the biceps makes an angle of 15° Because R, T, and 8 are all unknown, we cannot obtain a
solution from these expressions alone. (The number of
with the vertical, so that F has both a vertical and a hori-
zontal component. Find the value of F and the compo- simultaneous equations must equal the number of un-
nents of R including this fact in your analysis. knowns in order for us to be able to solve for the un-
Answer F= 604 N, Rx = 156 N, Ry = 533 N. knowns.)
Now let us invoke the condition for rotational equi-
librium. A convenient axis to choose for our torque equa-
EXAMPLE 12.3 Standing on a Horizontal Beam tion is the one that passes through the pivot at O. The
A uniform horizontal beam of length 8 m and weight feature that makes convenient is that the
this point so

200 N is attached to a wall by a pin connection that force R and the horizontal component of T both have a

allows the beam to rotate. Its far end is supported by a lever arm of zero, and hence zero torque, about this

cable that makes an angle of 53 ° with the horizontal (Fig. pivot. Recalling our convention for the sign of the torque

12.1 la). If a 600-N person stands 2 m from the wall, find about an axis and noting that the lever arms of the 600-N,
the tension in the cable and the force exerted on the 200-N, and T sin 53° forces are 2 m, 4 m, and 8 m,
beam by the wall. respectively, we get
o
(3) ]TT o =(Tsin53 )(8m)-(600N)(2m)
Solution First we must identify all the external forces - (200 N)(4 m) =
acting on the beam. These are its weight, the tension, T,
in the cable, the force R exerted by the wall at the pivot T= 313N
(the direction of this force is unknown), and the weight of
 12.3 EXAMPLES OF RIGID OBJECTS IN STATIC EQUILIBRIUM 307

Thus the torque equation with this axis gives us one

of the unknowns directly! This value is substituted into
(1) and (2) to give

Rcos0 = 188 N
fl sin 6 = 550 N
We divide these two equations and recall the trigono-
metric identity sin 0/cos 6 = tan 6 to get

550 N
tantf
188 N

Finally,

188 N
R
308 CHAPTER 12 STATIC EQUILIBRIUM AND ELASTICITY

tain the angle 4> that R makes with the horizontal (where
4> is greater than 6), assuming the length of the ladder is
known.

Exercise 3 With reference to Figure 12.12, show that

tan<f)
= 2 tan 6.

EXAMPLE 12.5 Raising a Cylinder

A cylinder of weight \V and radius R is to be raised onto a
step of height h as shown in Figure 12.13. A rope is
(a)
wrapped around the cylinder and pulled horizontally.
Assuming the cylinder doesn't slip on the step, find the
minimum force F necessary' to raise the cylinder and the C F
reaction force at P.

Solution When the cylinder is just about to be raised,

the reaction force at Q goes to zero. Hence, at this time
there are only three forces on the cylinder, as shown in
Figure 1 2. 1 3b. From the dotted triangle drawn in Figure
12.13a, we see that the moment arm d of the weight
relative to the point P is given by

d = VR2 - (R - h) 2 = J2Rh - h 2
The moment arm of F relative to Pis 2R — h. Therefore,
(b)
the net torque acting on the cylinder about P is
Wd - F(2R - h) = Figure 12.13 (Example 12.5) (a) A cylinder of weight Wbeing
pulled by a force Fover a step, (b) The free-body diagram for the
WV2R/i - h2 - F(2R - h) = cylinder when it is just about to be raised, (c) The vector sum of
the three external forces is zero.

WV2RA - h2
F=
2R-h
Hence, the second condition of equilibrium was suffi-
and solving for N gives
We can determine the
cient to obtain the magnitude of F.
components of JVby using the first condition of equilib- (2) N= VW 2 + F 2
rium:

^F = F-N cos 6 = For example, if we take W=

500 N, h = 0.3 m, and
0.8 m, we find that F = 240 N, 6 = 64.3°, and N =
Z
R=
2)Fj, = Nsin0-W=O 551 N.
Dividing gives
Exercise 4 Solve this problem by noting that the three

(1)
W forces acting on the cylinder are concurrent and must
pass through the point C. The three forces form the sides
of the triangle shown in Figure 12.13c.

J
12.4 ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
In our study of mechanics thus we assumed that objects remain unde-
far,

formed when external forces on them. In reality, all objects are deform-
act
able. That is, it is possible to change the shape or size of an object (or both)
through the application of external forces. Although these changes are ob-
served as large-scale deformations, the internal forces that resist the deforma-
tion are due to short-range forces between atoms.
 12.4 ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 309

We shall discuss the elastic properties of solids in terms of the concepts of

stress and strain. Stress is a quantity that is proportional to the force causing a
deformation; more specifically, stress is the external force per unit cross-
sectional area acting on an object. Strain is a measure of the degree of de-
formation. It is found that, for sufficiently small stresses, the stress is pro-
portional to the strain; the constant of proportionality depends on the
material being deformed and on the nature of the deformation.
proportionality constant the elastic modulus. The elastic modulus
fore the ratio of stress to strain:

Elastic modulus = stress

strain
We call this
is there-

(12.6)
Figure 12.14
at one end
amount
^
AL
A long bar clamped
is stretched by an
under the action of a
We shall consider three types of deformation and define an elastic modu- force F.

lus for each:

1. Young's modulus, which measures the resistance of a solid to a change

in its length
2. Shear modulus, which measures the resistance to motion of the planes
of a solid sliding past each other
3. Bulk modulus, which measures the resistance that solids or liquids
offer to changes in their volume

Young's Modulus: Elasticity in Length

Consider a long bar of cross-sectional area A and length L that is clamped at

one end (Fig. 12.14). When an external force Fis applied along the bar and
perpendicular to the cross section, internal forces in the bar resist distortion
("stretching"), but the bar attains an equilibrium in which its length is greater
and in which the external force is exactly balanced by internal forces. In such a
situation, the bar is said to be stressed. We define the tensile stress as the ratio
of the magnitude of the external force F to the cross-sectional area A. The
tensile strain in this case is defined as the ratio of the change in length, AL, to
the original length, L and is therefore a dimensionless quantity. Thus, we can
,

use Equation 12.6 to define Young's modulus, Y:

Y=
tensile stress _ F/A
(12.7) Young's modulus
tensile strain AL/L

This quantity is typically used to characterize a rod or wire stressed under

either tension or compression. Note that because the strain is a dimensionless
quantity, Y has units of force per unit area. Typical values are given in
Table 12.1. Experiments show that (a) the change in length for a fixed applied
force is proportional to the original length and (b) the force necessary to
produce a given strain is proportional to the cross-sectional area. Both of these
observations are in accord with Equation 12.7.
It is possible to exceed the elastic limit of a substance by applying a
sufficiently large stress (Fig. 12.15). When the stress exceeds the elastic limit, Strain

the object permanently distorted and

is will not return to its original shape Figure 12.15 Stress versus strain
after the stress is removed. Beyond the elastic limit, the stress-strain curve curve for an elastic solid.
310 CHAPTER 12 STATIC EQUILIBRIUM AND ELASTICITY

TABLE 12.1 Typical Values for Elastic Modulus

Young's
Modulus Shear Modulus Bulk Modulus
Substance (N/m 2 ) (N/m 8 ) (N/m 2 )

Aluminum 7.0 X10 10 2.5 X 10 10 7.0 X 10 10

Brass 9.1 X10 10 3.5 X10 10 6.1X10 10
Copper 11 X10 10 4.2 X 10 10 14X10 10
Steel 20 X 10 10 8.4 X 10 10 16X10 10
Tungsten 35 X 10 10 14 X 10 10 20 X 10 10
Glass 6.5 -7.8 X 10 10 2.6-3.2 X 10 10 5.0-5.5 X 10 10
Quartz 5.6 X 10 10 2.6 X 10 10 2.7 X 10 10
Water 0.21 X10 10
Mercury 2.8 X 10 10

Figure 12.16 (a) A shear defor-

mation in which a rectangular departs from a straight line. Hence, its shape is permanently changed. As the
block is distorted by two forces of
stress is increased even further, the material will ultimately break.
equal magnitude but opposite di-
rections applied to two parallel
faces, (b) A book under shear
stress. Shear Modulus: Elasticity of Shape

Another type of deformation occurs when a body is subjected to a force F

tangential to one of its faces while the opposite face is held in a fixed position
by a force of friction, fs (Fig. 12.16a). If the object is originally a rectangular
block, a shear stress results in a shape whose cross-section is a parallelogram.
For this situation, the stress is called a shear stress. A book pushed sideways as
in Figure 12.16b is an example of an object under a shear stress. There is no
change in volume under this deformation. We define the shear stress as F/A,
the ratio of the tangential force to the area, A, of the face being sheared. The
shear strain is defined as the ratio Ax/h, where Ax is the horizontal distance the
sheared face moves and h is the height of the object. In terms of these quanti-
She iduh ties, the shear modulus, S, is

= shear stress _ F/A

(12.8)
s
shear strain Ax/h
V

Values of the shear modulus for some representative materials are given in
Table 12.1. The units of shear modulus are force per unit area.

Bulk Modulus: Volume Elasticity

Finally,we define the bulk modulus of a substance, which characterizes the

response of a substance to uniform squeezing. Suppose that the external forces
acting on an object are at right angles to all of its faces (Fig. 12.17) and
distributed uniformly over all the faces. As we shall see in Chapter 15, this

Figure 12.17 When a solid is

occurs when an object is immersed in a fluid. A body subject to this type of
under uniform pressure, it under- deformation undergoes a change in volume but no change in shape. The
goes a change in volume but no volume stress, AP, is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the normal force,
change in shape. This cube is com-
F, to the area, A. The quantity AP = F/A is called the pressure. The volume
pressed on all sides by forces nor-
mal to its surfaces. strain is equal to the change in volume, A V, divided by the original volume, V.
 12.4 ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 311

Thus, from Equation 12.6 we can characterize a volume compression in terms

of the bulk modulus, B, defined as

volume stress _ _ F/A _ AP

B= (12.9) Bulk modulus
volume strain AV/V AV/V

A negative sign is inserted in this defining equation so that B is a positive

number. This is because an increase in pressure (positive AP) causes a decrease
in volume (negative AV) and vice versa.
Table 12.1 lists bulk moduli for some materials. If you look up such values
in a different source, you will often find that the reciprocal of the bulk modulus
is listed. The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called the compressibility of the

material. You should note from Table 12.1 that both solids and liquids have a
bulk modulus. However, there is no shear modulus and no Young's modulus
for liquids because a liquid will not sustain a shearing stress or a tensile stress (it
will flow instead).

Prestressed Concrete

If the stress on a exceeds a certain value, the object will break or

solid object
fracture. The maximum can be applied before fracture occurs de-
stress that
pends on the nature of the material and the type of stress that is applied. For
example, concrete has a tensile strength of about 2 X 10 N/m a compressive
6 2
,

strength of 20 X 10 6 N/m and a shear strength of 2 X 10 N/m If the actual

2 6 2
, .

stress exceeds these values, the concrete fractures. It is common practice to

use large safety factors to prevent failure in concrete structures.
Concrete is normally very brittle when cast in thin sections. Thus, con-
crete slabs tend to sag and crack at unsupported areas, as in Figure 12.1 8a. The
slab can be strengthened by using steel rods to reinforce the concrete at
specific depths, as in Figure 12.18b. Recall that concrete is much stronger
under compression than under tension. For this reason, vertical columns of
concrete that are under compression can support very heavy loads, whereas A plastic model of an arch structure
horizontal beams of concrete will tend to sag and crack because of their under load conditions observed be-
smaller shear strength. A significant increase in shear strength is achieved, tween two crossed polarizers. The
stress pattern is produced in those
however, by prestressing the reinforced concrete, as in Figure 12.18c. As the regions where the stresses are
concrete is being poured, the steel rods are held under tension by external greatest. Such patterns and models
forces. The external forces are released after the concrete cures, which results are useful in the optimum design of
architectural components. (Peter
in a permanent tension in the steel and hence a compressive stress on the
Aprahamian/Sharples Stress Engi-
concrete. This enables the concrete slab to support a much heavier load. neers Ltd./Science Photo Library)

Load force

Concrete
Cracks

Figure 12.18 (a) A concrete slab with no reinforcement tends to crack under a heavy load.
(b)The strength of the concrete slab is increased by using steel reinforcement rods, (c) The slab is
further strengthened by prestressing the concrete with steel rods under tension.
312 CHAPTER 1 2 STATIC EQUILIBRIUM AND ELASTICITY

Another method that has been successful in strengthening concrete is the

use of fibers mixed in the cement and aggregate. Problems such as cracking can
be controlled by fibrous materials, such as glass, steel, nylon, polypropylene,
and, more recently, glass fibers.

EXAMPLE Measuring Young's Modulus

12.6 EXAMPLE 12.7 Squeezing a Lead Sphere
A load of 1 02 kgsupported by a wire of length 2 m and
is A solid leadsphere of volume 0.5 m 3 is lowered to a
2 The wire is stretched by
cross-sectional area 0.1 cm . depth in the ocean where the water pressure is equal to
0.22 cm. Find the tensile stress, tensile strain, and 2 X 10 7 N/m 2 The bulk modulus of lead is equal to
.

Young's modulus for the wire from this information. 7.7 X

10 9 N/m 2 What . is the change in volume of the
sphere?
Soluti
Solution From the definition of bulk modulus, we have
(102 kg)(9.80 m/s 2
Tensile stress = Mg
F —
=— — :

A A 0.1 X 10- 4 m 2 AP
AV/V
1.0 X 10 8 N/m 2

VAP
Tensile strain = —
AL =
L
0.22 X
2
10- 2
m
m AV =

In this case, the change in pressure, AP, has the value

= 0.11X10"2 2 X 10 7 N/m 2 . (This is large relative to atmospheric
pressure, 1.01 X 10 5 N/m 2 .) Taking V=0.5m 3 and

X N/m
10 8 2 B = 7.7X 10 9 N/m 2 we get
tensile stress _ 1.0
,

tensile strain 0.11 X10"2 (0. 5 m3)(2X10 7 N/m 2 = ) _ L3X1(r . rf

7.7X10 9 N/m 2
= 9.1X10 10 N/m 2
The negative sign indicates a decrease in volume.

Comparing this value for Y with the values in Table 12.1,

we conclude that the wire is probably made of brass.

SUMMARY
A rigid object is in and only if the following conditions are
equilibrium if

must be zero and (2) the resultant

satisfied: (1) the resultant external force
external torque must be zero about any origin. That is,

£F=0 (12.2)
Conditions for equilibrium
2t = (12.3)

The first condition is the condition of translational equilibrium, and the

second the condition of rotational equilibrium.
is

If two forces act on a rigid object, the object is in equilibrium if and only
if the forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction and have the

same line of action.

 QUESTIONS 313

When three forces act on a rigid object that is in equilibrium, the three
forces must be concurrent, that is, their lines of action must intersect at a
common point.
The center of gravity of an object coincides with the center of mass if

the object is in a uniform gravitational field.

The elastic properties of a solid can be described using the concepts of

stress and strain. Stress is a quantity proportional to the force producing a
deformation; strain is a measure of the degree of deformation. Stress is

proportional to strain, and the constant of proportionality is the elastic

modulus:

stress
Elastic modulus = (12.6)
strain

Three common types of deformation are: (1) the resistance of a solid to

elongation under a load, characterized by Young's modulus, Y; (2) the re-
sistance of a solid to the motion of planes in the solid sliding past each other,
characterized by the shear modulus, S; (3) the resistance of a solid (or a
liquid) to a volume change, characterized by the bulk modulus, B.

QUESTIONS

1 . Can a body be in equilibrium if only one external force 1 1 A male and a female student are asked to do the fol-
acts on it? Explain. lowing task. Face a wall, step three foot lengths away
2. Can a body be in equilibrium if it is in motion? Ex- from the wall, and then lean over and touch the wall
plain. with your nose, keeping your hands behind your back.
3. Locate the center of gravity for the following uniform The male usually fails, but the female succeeds. How
objects: (a) a sphere, (b) a cube, (c) a right circular would you explain this?
cylinder. 12. When lifting a heavy object, why is it recommended
4. The center of gravity of an object may be located to straighten your back as much as possible, lifting
outside the object. Give a few examples for which this from the knees, rather than bending over and lifting
is the case. from the waist?
5. You are given an arbitrarily shaped piece of plywood, 1 3. Would you expect the center of gravity and the center
together with a hammer, nail, and plumb bob. How of mass of the Empire State Building to coincide pre-
could you use these items to locate the center of grav- cisely? Explain.
ityof the plywood? (Hint: Use the nail to suspend the 14. Give several examples where several forces are acting
plywood.) on a system in such a way that their sum is zero, but
6. In order for a chair to be balanced on one leg, where the system is not in equilibrium.
must the center of gravity of the chair be located? 15. If you measure the net torque and the net force on a
7. Give an example in which the net torque acting on an system to be zero, (a) could the system still be rotating
object is zero and yet the net force is nonzero. with respect to you? (b) Could it be translating with
8. Give an example in which the net force acting on an respect to you?
object is zero and yet the net torque is nonzero. 16. A ladder is Would you
resting inclined against a wall.
9. Can an object be in equilibrium if the only torques feel safer climbing up the ladder
you were told that
if
acting on it produce clockwise rotation? the floor is frictionless but the wall is rough or that the
10. A tall crate and a short crate of equal mass are placed wall is smooth but the floor is rough? Justify your
side by side on an incline (without touching each answer.
other). As the incline angle is increased, which crate 17. What kind of deformation does a cube of Jello exhibit
will topple first? Explain. when it "jiggles"?
314 CHAPTER 12 STATIC EQUILIBRIUM AND ELASTICITY

PROBLEMS
Section 12.1 The Conditions of Equilibrium of a Rigid 4. With reference to Figure 12.21, find x such that the
Object normal force at O will be one half the normal force at
P. Neglect the weight of the beam.
1. A baseball player holds a 36-oz bat (weight = 10. ON)
5. A ladder of weight 400 N and length 10 m is placed
with one hand at the point 0(Fig. 12.19). The bat is in
against a smooth vertical wall. A person weighing
equilibrium. The weight of the bat acts along a line
800 N stands on the ladder 2 m from the bottom as
60 cm Determine the force and the
to the right of O.
measured along the ladder. The foot of the ladder is
torque exerted on the bat by the player.
8 m from the bottom of the wall. Calculate the force
exerted by the wall, and the normal force exerted by
the floor on the ladder.
6. A student gets his car stuck in a snow drift. Not at a
loss, having studied physics, he attaches one end of a
stout rope to the vehicle and the other end to the
trunk of a nearby tree, allowing for a small amount of
slack. The student then exerts a force F on the center
Figure 12.19 (Problem 1).
of the rope in the direction perpendicular to the car-
tree line, as shown in Figure 12.22. If the rope is
inextensible and magnitude of the applied force
if the
2. Write the necessary conditions of equilibrium for the
is 500 N, what is the force on the car? (Assume equi-
body shown in Figure 12.20. Take the origin of the
librium conditions.)
torque equation at the point O.

Tree

Figure 12.22 (Problem 6).

Section 12.2 The Center of Gravity

7. A flat T is cut with the
plate in the shape of a letter
•
w dimensions shown in Figure 12.23. Locate the center
of gravity. (Hint: Note that the weights of the two
Figure 12.20 (Problem 2).
rectangular parts are proportional to their volumes.)

3. A uniform beam of weight Wand length i has weights

Wj and W2 at two positions, as in Figure 12.21. The
beam is resting at two points. For what value of x will
the beam be balanced at P such that the normal force
at O is zero?

ra_
•E
A -4 v .
\r
-*| 4 cm|—

Figure 12.21 (Problems 3 and 4). Figure 12.23 (Problem 7).

 PROBLEMS 315

8. A carpenter's square has the shape of an L, as in Fig- painter of mass 70 kg walk on the overhanging part of
ure 12.24. Locate the center of gravity. (See hint in the plank before it tips?
Problem 7.) 15. An automobile with a mass of 1500 kg has a wheel
base (the distance between the axles) of 3.0 m. The
—h4 L«
center of mass of the automobile is on the center line
<_ i i

at apoint 1.2 m behind the front axle. Find the force

exerted by the ground on each of the four wheels.
16. A48-kg diver stands at the end of a 3-m-long diving
board.What torque does the weight of the diver pro-
duce about an axis perpendicular to and in the plane of
the diving board through its midpoint?
17. A cue stick strikes a cue ball and delivers a horizontal
impulse in such a way that the ball rolls without slip-
ping as it starts to move. At what height above the
ball's center (in terms of the radius of the ball) was the
blow struck?
18. A flexible chain weighing 40 N hangs between two
hooks located the same height (Fig. 12.25). At each
at
Figure 12.24 (Problem 8).
hook, the tangent to the chain makes an angle = 42°
with the horizontal. (The equation of the curve as-
9. Consider the following mass distribution: 5 kg at sumed by a chain hanging under the force of gravity is

(0, 0), 3 kg at (0, 4), and 4 kg at (3, 0). The position called a catenary. You need not know this equation
coordinates are in meters. Where should a fourth mass to solve the problem.) Find (a) the magnitude of
of 8 kg be placed so that the center of gravity of the the force each hook exerts on the chain and
four-mass arrangement will be at (0, 0)? (b) the tension in the chain at its midpoint. (Hint: for
10. A rod of length L and linear mass density X(x) = Ax part (b), make a free-body diagram for half the chain.)
kg/m, where A is a constant and x is measured in
meters from one end of the rod. Assuming the rod is in
a uniform gravitational field, determine the location
of the center of gravity of the rod.

Section 12.3 Examples of Rigid Bodies in Static

Equilibrium Figure 12.25 (Problem 18).

1 1 A meter stick supported at the 50-cm mark has masses

19. A hemispherical sign 1 m in diameter and of uniform
of 300 g and 200 g hanging from it at the 10-cm and
60-cm marks, respectively. Determine the position at mass density is supported by two strings as shown in
Figure 12.26. What fraction of the sign's weight is
which one would hang a third, 400-g mass to keep the
supported by each string?
meter stick balanced.
12. Two pans of a balance are 50 cm apart. The fulcrum of
the balance has been shifted 1 cm away from the
center by a dishonest shopkeeper. By what percent-
age is the true weight of the goods being marked up by
the shopkeeper? The balance itself has negligible
mass.
13. A ladder with a uniform density and a mass m rests
against a frictionless vertical wall at an angle of 60°.
The lower end rests on a flat surface where the coeffi-
cient of static friction is ns = 0.40. A student with a
mass M= 2 mattempts to climb the ladder. What
L of the ladder will the student
fraction of the length
have reached when the ladder begins to slip?
14. A uniform plank of length 6 m and mass 30 kg rests
horizontally on a scaffold, with 1.5 m of the plank
hanging over one end of the scaffold. How far can a Figure 12.26 (Problem 19).
 .

316 CHAPTER 12 STATIC EQUILIBRIUM AND ELASTICITY

is 1.5 X 10
8 N/m 2 determine the minimum
20. A 10-m-long uniform beam of 100 kg is supported at of copper ,

the two ends by two strings to hang horizontally. If diameter a copper wire can have under a load of 1 kg
one of the strings can withstand a maximum load of if its elastic limit is not to be exceeded.

600 N, at what maximum distance, measured from 27. What increase in pressure is necessary to decrease the
the stronger string, could a mass of 50 kg be placed so volume of a 4-cm-diameter sphere of mercury by
that the weaker string would not break? 0.1%?
2 1 Two identical uniform bricks of length L are placed in 28. At a depth of 400 km below the earth's surface, the

a stack over the edge of a horizontal surface with the pressure is X

10 10 Pa. If a cubic centimeter of
1.36
maximum overhang possible without falling, as in Fig- copper were brought to the surface from this depth,
ure 12.27. Find the distance x. what would be its new volume?
29. If the shear stress in steel exceeds about 4.0 X 10*
N/m 2 , it ruptures. Determine the shearing force nec-
essary to (a) shear a steel bolt 1 cm in diameter and
(b) punch a 1 -cm-diameter hole in a steel plate that is

0.5 cm thick.
30. (a) Find the minimum diameter of a steel wire 18 m

long that will elongate no more than 9 when a mm

load of 380 kg is hung on the lower end. (b) If the
elastic limit for this steel is 3 X 10 8 N/m 2 will
, perma-
nent deformation occur?
Figure 12.27 (Problem 21). 31. When expands about 9%. What
water freezes, it

would be the pressure increase inside your automo-

22. A vaulter holds a 29.4-N pole in equilibrium by exert- bile engine block if the water in the engine block

upward force, 17, with his leading hand, and a

ing an froze? (The bulk modulus of ice is 2 X 10 9 N/m 2 .)
downward force, D, with his trailing hand, as shown in 32. For safety in climbing, a mountaineer uses a 50-m
Figure 12.28. If we assume that the weight of the pole nylon rope that is 10 mm in diameter. When support-
acts at its midpoint, what are the values of U and D? ing the 90-kg climber on one end, the rope elongates
1.6 m. Find Young's modulus for the rope material.

3 m
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
33. A bridge of length 50 m and mass 8 X 10 4 kg is sup-
ported at each end as in Figure 12.29. A truck of mass
3 X 1 4 kg is located 15m from one end. What are the
forces on the bridge at the points of support?

% Figure 12.28 (Problem 22).

Section 12.4 Elastic Properties of Solids

23. A 200-kg load is hung on a wire of length 4 m, cross-

sectional area 0.2 X 10 _4 m 2 and Young's modulus
8 X
10 10 N/m 2 What is
. its increase in length?
24. A piano wire 1.12
steel m long has a cross-sectional
area of 6 X 10 -3 cm 2
When under a tension of
.
Figure 12.29 (Problem 33).
115 N, how much does it stretch?
25. A cube of steel 4 cm on an edge is subjected to a
shearing force of 3000 N while one face is clamped. 34. A solid sphere of radius R and mass M is placed in a
Find the shearing strain in the cube. wedge as shown in Figure 1 2.30. The inner surfaces of
26. The elastic limit of a material is defined as the maxi- the wedge are frictionless. Determine the forces ex-
mum stress that can be applied to the material before erted by the wedge on the sphere at the two contact
it becomes permanently deformed. If the elastic limit points.
 PROBLEMS 317

Figure 12.30 (Problem 34).

35. A 10-kg monkey climbs up a 120-N uniform ladder of

length £, as in Figure 12.31. The upper and lower

ends of the ladder rest on frictionless surfaces. The

lower end of the ladder is fastened to the wall by a
horizontal rope AB that can support a maximum ten-
sion of 110 N. (a) Draw a free-body diagram for the
ladder, (b) Find the tension in the rope when the
monkey is one third the way up the ladder, (c) Find
the maximum distance d the monkey can walk up the
ladder before the rope breaks, expressing your an-
swer as a fraction of the length (.
318 CHAPTER 12 STATIC EQUILIBRIUM AND ELASTICITY

.'59. A uniform sign of weight Wand width It hangs from a the wall and the floor are the same, obtain a value
light, horizontal beam, hinged at the wall and sup- for n s .

ported by a cable (Fig. 12.35). Determine (a) the ten-

sion in the cable and (b) the components of the reac-
tion force at the hinge in terms of W, d, C, and 6.

Figure 12.35 (Problem 39).

40. A crane of mass 3000 kg supports a load of 1 000 kg

as in Figure 12.36. The crane is pivoted with a smooth
pin at A and rests against a smooth support at B. Find
the reaction forces at A and B.

II
 PROBLEMS 319

(a)
Figure 12.41 (Problem 46).

ant normal force, (b) If F = 300 N, find the value of h

for which the block will just begin to tip from a verti-
cal position.

100 cm

Figure 12.39 (Problem 44).

Figure 12.42 (Problem 47).

45. A person bends over and lifts a 200-N object as in

4S. Consider the rectangular block of Problem 47. A
Figure 12.40a, with the back in the horizontal posi-
force F is applied horizontally at the upper edge,
tion (a terrible way to lift an object). The back muscle
(a) What is the minimum force required to start to tip
attached at a point two thirds up the spine maintains
the block on its edge? (b) What is the minimum coeffi-
the position of the back, where the angle between the
cient of static friction required for the block to tip
spine and this muscle is 12°. Using the mechanical
with the application of F in (a)? (c) Find the magni-
model shown in Figure 12.40b and taking the weight
tude and the direction of the minimum force required
of the upper body to be 350 N, find the tension in the
to tip the block if the point of application can be cho-
back muscle and the compressional force in the spine.
sen anywhere on the block.
49. A uniform beam of weight w is inclined at an angle to
Back Muscle
the horizontal with its upper end supported by a hori-
zontal rope tied to a wall and its lower end resting on a
rough floor (Fig. 12.43). (a) If the coefficient of static
friction between the beam and floor is// s determine
,

an expression for the maximum weight Wthat can be

suspended from the top before the beam slips, (b) De-
termine the magnitude of the reaction force at the
floor and the magnitude of the force of the beam on

350 N the rope at P in terms of w, W

and fi s .

(a) (b)

Figure 12.40 (Problem 45).

46. Two 200-N traffic lights are suspended from a single

cable as shown in Figure 12.41. Neglect the cable
weight and (a) prove that if 6 l = 6 2 then T 1 = T2
, .

(b)Determine the three tensions if 6 X — 82 — 8°.

17. A force Facts on a rectangular block weighing 400 N
as inFigure 12.42. (a) If the block slides with constant
speed when F = 200 N and h = 0. 4 m, find the coeffi-
cient of sliding friction and the position of the result- Figure 12.43 (Problem 49).
320 CHAPTER 12 STATIC EQUILIBRIUM AND ELASTICITY

50. Figure 12.44 shows a truss that supports a downward

1000 N applied at the point B. Neglect the 80 N I 5 cm
force of
weight of the truss. Apply the conditions of equilib-
rium to prove that N A = 366 N and N c = 634 N.

1IIIHI \

6 cm

Figure 12.46 (Problem 53).

Figure 12.44 (Problem 50). horizontally as shown, find (a) the force exerted by
the hammer claws on the nail and (b) the force exerted
by the surface on the point of contact with the ham-
51 A stepladder of negligible weight is constructed as
mer head. Assume that the force the hammer exerts
shown in Figure 12.45. A painter of mass 70 kg stands
on the nail is parallel to the nail.
on the ladder 3 m from the bottom. Assuming the floor
is frictionless, find (a) the tension in the horizontal bar
connecting the two halves of the ladder, (b) the nor-
mal forces at A and B, and (c) the components of the
reaction force at the hinge C that the left half of the
ladder exerts on the right half. (Hint: Treat each half of
the ladder separately.)

I
Single point
/on<H I of contact
3
/ °
/ — I

i
5
I

r—
cm

Figure 12.47 (Problem 54).

A B
U,„J
55. Figure 12.48 shows a vertical force Fthat is applied
Figure 12.45 (Problem 51). tangentially to a uniform cylinder of weight W. The
coefficient of static friction between the cylinder and
all surfaces is 0.50. Find, in terms of W, the maximum
52. Two sheets of metal are joined together by four steel
rivets, each 7 mm
in diameter. Find the maximum
force that can be applied to pull the sheets apart tan-
gentially if the shearing stress on the rivets must not
exceed 8 X 10 7 N/m 2 Assume that the stress is shared
.

equally by the rivets.

53. A shelf bracket ismounted on a vertical wall by a
single screw, as shown in Figure 12.46. Neglecting
the weight of the bracket, find the horizontal force
component that the screw exerts on the bracket when
an 80-N vertical force is applied as shown. (Hint: imag-
ine that the bracket is slightly loose.)
54. Figure 12.47 shows a claw hammer as it pulls a nail
out of a horizontal surface. If 150 N of force is exerted Figure 12.48 (Problem 55).
 PROBLEMS 321

force F that can be applied without causing the cylin- a 10-km layer of rock is sheared through a distance of
der to rotate. (Hint: when the cylinder is on the verge 5 m?
of slipping, both friction forces will be at their maxi- 58. A 30-kg hammer strikes a 2.3-cm-diameter steel spike
mum values. Why?) while moving with a speed of 20 m/s. It rebounds with
56. A wire of length L, Young's modulus Y, and cross-sec- a speed of 10 m/s in 0. 1 1 s. What is the average strain
tional area A is stretched elastically by an amount AL. in the spike during the impact?
By Hooke's law, the restoring force is given by — k AL. 59. (a)Estimate the force with which a karate master
(a) Show that the constant k is given by k = YA/L. strikes aboard if the speed at time of impact is t> = 10
(b) Show that the work done in stretching the wire by m/s, decreasing to 1 m/s during a 0.002 s time-of-
an amount AL is given by contact with the board. The mass of coordinated hand
and arm is 1 kg. (b) Estimate the shear stress if this
force isexerted on a 1 -cm-thick pine board which is
YA
Work = i y~ (AL) 2 10 cm wide, (c) If the maximum shear stress a pine
board can receive before breaking is 3.6 X 10 6 N/m 2 ,

will the board break?

57. The distortion of the earth's crustal plates is an exam- 60. A steel cable 3 cm 2
in cross-sectional area has a mass
ple of shear on a large scale. A particular type of of 2.4 kg per meter length. If 500 m of the cable are
crustal rock is determined to have a shear modulus of hung over a vertical cliff, how much does the cable

1.5 X 10 10 N/m 2 What . shear stress is involved when stretch under its own weight? Ystee) = 2 X 10 11 N/m 2 .

"I think you should be more explicit here in step two."

322 CHAPTER 12 STATIC EQUILIBRIUM AND ELASTICITY

Of all structures built for various utilitarian purposes, a bridge and its structural
ESSAY components are the most visible. The load-carrying tasks of the principal structural
components can be comprehended easily; the supporting cables of a suspension
bridge are under tension induced by the weight and loads on the bridge.
Arch Structures The arch is another type of structure whose shape indicates that the loads are
carried by compression. The arch can be visualized as an up-side-down suspension
Cordon Batson
cable.
Clarkson University,
Potsdam NY. The stone arch is one of the oldest existing structures found in buildings, walls,
and bridges. Other materials, such as timber, may have been used prior to stone, but
nothing of these remains today most likely because of fires, warfare, and the decay
processes of nature. Although stone arches were constructed prior to the Roman
Empire, the Romans constructed some of the largest and most enduring stone arches.
Before the development of the arch, the principal method of spanning a space
was the simple post-and-beam construction (Fig. la), in which a horizontal beam is
supported by two columns. This type of construction was used to build the great
Greek temples. The columns of these temples are closely spaced because of the
limited length of available stones. Much larger spans can now be achieved using steel
beams, but the spans are limited because the beams tend to sag under heavy loads.
The corbeled arch (or false arch) shown in Figure lb is another primitive struc-
ture; only a slight improvement over post-and-beam construction. The stability of
it is

this false arch depends upon the horizonal projection of one stone over another and
the downward weight of stones from above.
The semicircular arch (Fig. 2a) developed by the Romans was a great technologi-
cal achievement in architectural design. The stability of this true (or voussoir) arch
depends on the compression between its wedge-shaped stones. (That is, the stones
are forced to squeeze against each other.) This results in horizontal outward forces at
the springing of the arch (where it starts curving), which must be supported by the
foundation (abutments) on the stone wall shown on the sides of the arch (Fig. 2a). It is
common to use very heavy walls (buttresses) on either side of the arch to provide the
horizontal stability. If the foundation of the arch should move, the compressive forces
Corbeled (false) arch between the wedge-shaped stones may decrease to the extent that the arch collapses.
(b) The surfaces of the stones used in the semicircular arches constructed by the Romans

Figure 1 Some methods of

spanning space: (a) simple post-
and-beam structure and (b) cor-
beled, or false, arch.

Flying
buttress

Semicircular arch (Roman) Pointed arch (Gothic)

(a) (b)

Figure 2 (a) The semicircular arch developed by the Romans, (b) Gothic arch with fixing
buttresses to provide lateral support. (Typical cross-section of a church or cathedral.) The
buttresses transfer the spreading forces of the arch by vertical loads to the foundation of the
structure.
 ESSAY ARCH STRUCTURES 323

were cut, or "dressed," to make a very tight joint; it is interesting to note that mortar
was usually not used in these joints. The resistance to slipping between stones was
provided by the compression force and the friction between the stone faces.
Another important architectural innovation was the pointed Gothic arch shown
in Figure 2b. This type of structure was first used in Europe beginning in the 12th
century, followed by the construction of several magnificent Gothic cathedrals in
France in the 13th century. One of the most striking features of these cathedrals is
their extreme height. For example, the cathedral at Chartres rises to 1 18 ft and the
one at Reims has a height of 137 ft. It is interesting to note that such magnificent
Gothic structures evolved over a very short period of time, without the benefit of any
mathematical theory of structures. However, Gothic arches required flying but-
tresses to prevent the spreading of the arch supported by the tall, narrow columns.
The fact that they have been stable for more than 700 years attests to the technical
skill of their builders and architects, which was probably acquired through experi-

ence and intuition.

Figure 3 shows how the horizontal force at the base of an arch varies with arch
height for an arch hinged at the peak. For a given load P, the horizontal force at the
base is doubled when the height is reduced by a factor of 2. This explains why the
horizontal force required to support a high pointed arch is less than that required for a
circular arch. For a given span L, the horizontal force at the base is proportional to the
total load P and inversely proportional to the height h. Therefore, in order to mini-
mize the horizontal force at the base, the arch must be made as light and high as
possible.
With the advent of more advanced methods of structural analysis, it has become
possible to determine the optimum shape of an arch under given load conditions.
One of the most impressive modern arches, the St. Louis Gateway Arch, de-
signed by Eero Saarinen, has a span of 192 m and a height of 192 m (Fig. 4). The
largest steel-truss arch bridge, the New River Gorge Bridge in Charleston, West
Virginia, has a span of 520 m. Beautiful concrete arch bridges were designed and
built in the 1920s and 1930s by Robert Maillart in Switzerland. The Sando Bridge in
Sweden, a single arch of reinforced concrete, spans 264 m. Today, the arch is still the
most common structure used to span large distances.

(a) (b)

Figure 3 (Above) When the height of an arch is reduced by a factor of

2, and the load force P remains the same, the horizontal force at the
base is doubled.

Figure 4 (Right) The St. Louis Gateway Arch seen from the Missis-
sippi River. This beautiful structure has the approximate shape of an
inverted freely hanging cable.
 13
Oscillatory Motion

The Foucault pendulum at the

Smithsonian Institution in
Washington, DC. This type of
pendulum was first used by
the French physicist Jean
Foucault to verify the earth's
rotation experimentally.
During its swinging motion,
the pendulum 's plane of
oscillation appears to rotate,
as the bob successively knocks
over the red indicators
arranged in a horizontal circle.
In reality, the pendulum's
plane of motion is fixed in
space, while the earth rotates
beneath the swinging
pendulum. (Courtesy of the
Smithsonian Institution)

The main objectives of the previous chapters was to discover that the
motion of a body can be predicted if the initial conditions describ-
ing its state of motion and the external forces acting on it are known.
If a force varies in time, the velocity and acceleration of the body
will also change with time. A very special kind of motion occurs when the force
on a body is proportional to the displacement of the body from equilibrium. If
this force always acts toward the equilibrium position of the body, a repetitive
back-and-forth motion will result about this position. The motion is an exam-
ple of what is called periodic or oscillatory motion.
You are most likely familiar with several examples of periodic motion,
such as the oscillations of a mass on a spring, the motion of a pendulum, and the
vibrations of a stringed musical instrument. The number of systems that ex-
hibit oscillatory motion is extensive. For example, the molecules in a solid
oscillate about their equilibrium positions; electromagnetic waves, such as
light waves, radar, and radio waves, are characterized by oscillating electric
and magnetic field vectors; and in alternating-current circuits, voltage, cur-
rent, and electrical charge vary periodically with time.
Most of the material in this chapter deals with simple harmonic motion.
For this type of motion, an object oscillates between two spatial positions for
an indefinite period of time, with no loss in mechanical energy. In real me-
chanical systems, retarding (or frictional) forces are always present. Such
forces reduce the mechanical energy of the system as motion progresses, and

324
 13.1 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 325

the oscillations are said to be damped. If an external driving force is applied

such that the energy loss is balanced by the energy input, we call the motion a

forced oscillation.

13.1 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

A particle moving along the x axis is said to exhibit simple harmonic motion
when x, its displacement from equilibrium, varies in time according to the
relationship
Displacement versus time for
x = A cos(cot + S) :i3.i)
simple harmonic motion
where A, co, and S are constants of the motion. In order to give physical
significance to these constants, convenient to plot x as a function off, as in
it is

Figure 13.1. First, we note that A, called the amplitude of the motion, is
simply the maximum displacement of the particle in either the positive or
negative x direction. The constant co is called the angular frequency (defined in
Eq. 13.4). The constant angle S is called the phase constant (or phase angle)
and along with the amplitude A is determined uniquely by the initial displace-
ment and velocity of the particle. The constants S and A tell us what the
displacement was at time t = 0. The quantity (cot + S) is called the phase of the
motion and is useful in comparing the motions of two systems of particles. Note
Figure 13.1 Displacement versus
that the function x is periodic and repeats itself when cot increases by 2n time for a particle undergoing sim-
radians. ple harmonic motion. The ampli-
tude of the motion is A and the pe-
The period, T, is the time for the particle to go through one
full cycle of its
riod is T.
motion. That is, equals the value of x at time t + T.
the value of x at time t We
can show that the period of the motion is given by T = 2n/co by using the fact
that the phase increases by 2n radians in a time T:

cot +S+ 2n = co(t + T) +S

Hence, coT = 2n or

(13.2) Period

The inverse of the period is called the frequency of the motion, /. The
frequency represents the number of oscillations the particle makes per unit
time:

,_ 1 _ CO
Frequency
(13.3)
J~T~2n
The units off are cycles/s, or hertz (Hz).
Rearranging Equation 13.3 gives

In
co = 2nf= (13.4) Angular frequency

The constant co is called the angular frequency and has units of rad/s. We
shall discuss the geometric significance of co in Section 13.4.
326 CHAPTER 13 OSCILLATORY MOTION

We can obtain the velocity of a particle undergoing simple harmonic

motion by differentiating Equation 13.1 with respect to time:

Velocity in simple harmonic dx

motion
v = -y = — aA sin(<yf + 8) (13.5)
at

The acceleration of the particle is given by dv/dt:

Acceleration in simple
harmonic motion
—=—
dt
co A cosUot + S)
2
(13.6)

Since x = A cos(a>t + S), we can express Equation 13.6 in the form

(13.7)

From Equation 13.5 we see that since the sine and cosine functions oscil-
late between ± 1,
the extreme values of u are equal to ±a>A. Equation 13.6
2
tells us that the extreme values of the acceleration are ±a> A. Therefore, the
maximum values of the velocity and acceleration are given by

Maximum values of velocity

= (oA (13.8)
and acceleration in simple
harmonic motion
= co 2A (13.9)

Figure 13.2a represents the displacement versus time for an arbitrary

value of the phase constant. The projection of a point moving with uniform

Figure 13.2 Graphical representation of simple harmonic motion: (a) the displacement versus
time, (b) the velocity versus time, and (c) the acceleration versus time. Note that the velocity
is

90° out of phase with the displacement and the acceleration is 180° out of phase with the
displacement.
 13.1 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 327

circular motion on a reference circle of radius A also moves in sinusoidal

fashion. This will be discussed in more detail in Section 13.5.
The velocity and acceleration versus time curves are illustrated in Figures
13.2b and 13.2c. These curves show that the phase of the velocity differs from
the phase of the displacement by n/2 rad, or 90° That is, when x is a maximum .

or a minimum, the velocity is zero. Likewise, when x is zero, the speed is a

maximum. Furthermore, note that the phase of the acceleration differs from
the phase of the displacement by n radians, or 180°. That is, when x is a
maximum, a is a maximum in the opposite direction.
As we stated earlier, the solution x = A cos(cot + 8) is a general solution of
the equation of motion, where the phase constant 8 and the amplitude A must
be chosen to meet the initial conditions of the motion. The phase constant is
important when comparing the motion of two or more oscillating particles.
Suppose that the initial position x and initial velocity u of a single oscillator
are given, that is, at r= 0, x = x and v = v Under these . conditions, the
equations x = A cos(cot + 8) and v = —coA sin(a>r + 8) give
x =A cos 8 v = — coA sin 8

Dividing these two equations eliminates A, giving

= — (O tan 8

The phase angle 8 and ampli-

v
tan 8 —— (13.10a) tude A can be obtained from
the initial conditions

Furthermore, if we take the sum x 2

+ 6)' :
A 2 cos 2 8 + A 2 sin 2 8 and solve
for A, we find that

(13.10b)

Thus, we see that 8 and A are known if x a>, and v are specified. We shall treat
,

a few specific cases in the next section.

We conclude this section by pointing out the following important proper-
ties of a particle moving in simple harmonic motion:

1. The displacement, velocity, and acceleration all vary sinusoidally with

time but are not in phase, as shown inFigure 13.2.
2. The acceleration of the particle is proportional to the displacement, Properties of simple harmonic
but in the opposite direction. motion
3. The frequency and the period of motion are independent of the ampli-
tude.

EXAMPLE 13.1 An Oscillating Body where t is ins, and the angles in the parentheses are in

A body oscillates with simple harmonic motion along the radians, (a) Determine the amplitude, frequency, and
x axis. Its displacement varies with time according to the period of the motion.
equation By comparing this equation with the general rela-
tion for simpleharmonic motion, x = A cos(cot + S), we
see that A = 4.0 m and co = n rad/s; therefore we find
x = (4.0 m) cos
M) /= o)/2n = 7T/27T = 0.50 s" 1 and T= l/f= 2.0 s.
328 CHAPTER 13 OSCILLATORY MOTION

(b) Calculate the velocity and acceleration of the (d) Determine the maximum speed and maximum
body at any time t. acceleration of the body.
From the general relations for v and a found in (b),
dx
5)l w
,
= — 4.0 sin
(* + we see that the maximum values of the sine and cosine
dt functions are unity. Therefore, v varies between ±An
m/s, and a varies between ±An 2m/s 2 Thus, v max —.

= — {An m/s) sinl nt +— 1

An m/s and o max = 4;r 2 m/s 2 . The same results are ob-
tained using v max = coA and a max = co
2
A, where A=
m and co = n rad/s.
a = ^ = -4*cos(,rt + f)|(;rt) 4.0

Find the displacement of the body between t =

(e)

= - {An 2 m/s 2 and t = 1 s.

) cosf nt +j 1
=
The x coordinate at t is given by

(c) (b), determine the position,

Using the results to z = (4.0 m) cos = (4.0 m)(0.707) = 2.83 m
velocity, and acceleration of the body at t = 1 s. (0+f)
(c), we found that the coordinate at t = 1 s was —2.8
Noting that the angles in the trigonometric func-
In
we =
m; therefore the displacement between t = and (=ls
tions are in radians, get at t 1 s

x = (4.0 m) cosl n +— = I (4.0 m) cos! — I

Ax = x-x = -2.83 m - 2.83 m -5.66 m

= (4.0m)(-0.707)= -2.83 m
Because the particle's velocity changes sign during
the second, the magnitude of Ax is not the same as
first

v = — {An m/s) sinl — I (47rm/s)(-0.707) = 8.89 the distance traveled in the first second.
m/s ^ '
(f) What is the phase of the motion at ( = 2 s?
The phase defined as cot + S, where in this case
is
= -(4n 2 cos(^J =
2
m/s 2 ) -(4;r 2 m/s )(- 0.707)
= n/A. Therefore, at t = 2 s, we get
a =
co n and S

= 27.9 m/s 2 Phase = {cot + S) t=2 = n{2) + n/A = 9n/A rad

13.2 MASS ATTACHED TO A SPRING

In Chapter 7 we introduced the physical system consisting of a mass attached
to the end of a spring, where the mass is free to move on a horizontal, friction-
less surface (Fig. 13.3). We know from experience that such a system will
oscillate back and forth if disturbed from the equilibrium position x = 0,
where the spring is unstretched. If the surface is frictionless, the mass will
exhibit simple harmonic motion. One possible experimental arrangement that
clearly demonstrates that such a system exhibits simple harmonic motion is
illustrated in Figure 13.4, in which a mass oscillating vertically on a spring has
a marking pen attached to it. While the mass is in motion, a sheet of paper is
moved horizontally as shown, and the marking pen traces out a sinusoidal
pattern. We can understand this qualitatively by first recalling that when the
mass is displaced a small distance x from equilibrium, the spring exerts a force
on m given by Hooke's law,

F=-kx (13.11)

where k is the force constant of the spring. We call this a linear restoring force
since it is and is always directed
linearly proportional to the displacement
toward the equilibrium position, opposite to the displacement. That is, when
 13.2 MASS ATTACHED TO A SPRING 329

the mass displaced to the right in Figure 13.3, x is positive and the restoring
is

force is left. When the mass is displaced to the left of x = 0, then x is

to the (a)

negative and F is to the right. If we now apply Newton's second law to the
motion of m in the x direction, we get
i=
F = —kx = ma F=
(b)

k
x (13.12)

that is, the acceleration is proportional to the displacement of the mass from (c)

equilibrium and is in the opposite direction. If the mass is displaced a maximum

xU-j
distance x = A at some initial time and released from rest, its initial accelera-
x=
tion will be —kA/yn (that is, it has its extreme negative value). When it passes

through the equilibrium position, x =

and its acceleration is zero. At this Figure 13.3 A mass attached to

instant, its velocity is a maximum.

then continue to travel to the left of
It will a spring on a frictionless surface
exhibits simple harmonic motion.
equilibrium and finally reach x = — A, at which time its acceleration is kA/m (a) When the mass is displaced
(maximum positive) and its velocity is again zero. Thus, we see that the mass to the right of equilibrium, the

between the turning points x = ±A. In one full cycle of its mo-
will oscillate displacement is positive and the ac-
celeration is negative, (b) At the
mass travels a distance 4A.
tion, the equilibrium position, x = 0, the ac-
We shall now describe the motion in a quantitative fashion. This can be celerationis zero but the speed is a

accomplished by recalling that a = dv/dt = d 2 x/dt2 Thus, we can express .

maximum, (c) When the displace-
ment is negative, the acceleration
Equation 13.12 as is positive.

k
x (13.13)
dt2

2
If we denote the ratio k/m by the symbol co ,

CO
2 = k/m (13.14)

then Equation 13.13 can be written in the form

-
d 2x = - (OX (13.15)
d ¥
What we now is a solution to Equation 13.15, that is, a function
require
second-order differential equation. The nature of such a
x(t) that satisfies this
Motion
solution x(t) as an algebraic relationship is that it reduces the differential
of paper
equation to an identity. However, since Equations 13.15 and 13.7 are equiva-
lent, we see that the solution must be that of simple harmonic motion:

x(f) = A cos(ot + 3) Figure 13.4 An experimental ap-

paratus for demonstrating simple
To see this explicitly, note that if harmonic motion. A pen attached
to the oscillating mass traces out a
x = A cos(wr + 3) sine wave on the moving chart
paper.
then

t = At
dt at
cos((ot + 3) = — coA sin(a>t + 3)

-s-r = — coA — sin(a»r + S) = -co 2A cos(cot + S)

dt z dt
330 CHAPTER 13 OSCILLATORY MOTION

Comparing the expressions for x and d^/dt2 we see that d 2 x/dt2

,
= — to 2 x and
Equation 13.15 is satisfied.
The following general statement can be made based on the above discus-
sion:

Whenever the force acting on a particle is linearly proportional to the

displacement and in the opposite direction, the particle will exhibit sim-
ple harmonic motion.

We shall give additional physical examples in subsequent sections.

Since the period is given by T = 27t/a> and the frequency is the inverse of
the period, we can express the period and frequency of the motion for this
system as

T= —=
CO
2tt x

Period and frequency for

mass-spring system

r=L = —
/=- —
±- J[I (13.17)
J
T In2n\m
V m
v '

That is, the period and frequency depend only on the mass and on the force
constant of the spring. As we might expect, the frequency is larger for a stiffer
spring and decreases with increasing mass.
It is interesting to note that a mass suspended from a vertical spring

attached to a fixed support will also exhibit simple harmonic motion. Although
there is a gravitational force to consider in this case, the equation of motion
still reduces to Equation 13.15, where the displacement is measured from the

equilibrium position of the suspended mass. The proof of this is left as a

problem (Problem 56).

Special Case I In order to better understand the physical significance of our

solution of the equation of motion, let us consider the following special case.
Suppose we pull the mass from equilibrium by a distance A and release it from
rest from this stretched position, as in Figure 13.5. We must then require that
our solution for x(t) obey the initial conditions that at t = 0, x = A and t> = 0.
These conditions will be met if we choose (5=0, giving x = A cos cot as our
solution. Note that this is consistent with x = A cos(cot + S), where x = A and
8 = 0. To check this, we see that the solution x = A cos cot satisfies the condi-
tion that x = A at t = 0, since cos 0=1. Thus, we see that A and S contain the

Figure 13.5 A mass-spring system that starts from rest at i = A. In this case, S - 0, and so
i =A cos (ot.
 13.2 MASS ATTACHED TO A SPRING 331

Special Case I

Figure 13.6 Displacement, velocity, and acceleration versus time for a particle undergoing
simple harmonic motion under the initial conditions that at t = 0, x = A and t> = 0.

information on initial conditions. Now let us investigate the behavior of the

velocity and acceleration for this special case. Since x =A cos cot

dx
v = —r = — coA sin cot
„ •

dt

a = —r = — co 2A cos cot
dt

From the velocity expression v = —coA sin cot, we see that at t = 0, u = 0, as

we require. The expression for the acceleration tells us that at t = 0, a =
-co 2A. Physically this makes sense, since the force on the mass is to the left
when the displacement is positive In fact, at this position F = — kA (to the left)
.

and the initial acceleration is — kA/tn.

We could also use a more formal approach to show that x = A cos cot is the
correct solution by using the relation tan S= —v /cox (Eq. 13.10a). Since
vQ = at t = 0, =
and so 8 = 0.
tan S
The displacement, and acceleration versus time are plotted in
velocity,
Figure 13.6 for this special case. Note that the acceleration reaches extreme
values of ±co A when the displacement has extreme values of ±A. Further-
2

more, the velocity has extreme values of ±coA, which both occur at x = 0.
Hence, the quantitative solution agrees with our qualitative description of this
system.

Special Case II Now suppose that the mass is given an initial velocity v to the Figure 13.7 The mass-spring sys-
tem starts its motion the equilib-
t = 0, x =
at
right at the unstretched position of the spring so that at and v = v rium position, i = at t = 0. If its
(Fig. 13.7). Our particular solution must now satisfy these initial conditions. initial velocity is v to the right, its i
Since the mass is moving toward positive x values at t = 0, and x = at t = 0, coordinate varies as x = — sin tot.
the solution has the form x = A sin cot.
332 CHAPTER 13 OSCILLATORY MOTION

= —v /tox and the initial condition that x = at t =

Applying tan 5
gives tan S = —n/2. Hence, the solution is x = A cos(cot — n/2),
= — °° or 5
which can be written x = A sin cot. Furthermore, from Equation 1 3. 1 Ob we see
that A = v /to; therefore we can express our solution as

x =—
vo
sin cot
CO

The velocity and acceleration in this case are given by

dx
v = -j- = v cos cot

dv
a = -j- = — cov sin cot

This consistent with the fact that the mass always has a maximum speed at
is

x = while the force and acceleration are zero at this position. The graphs of
0,
these functions versus time in Figure 13.6 correspond to the origin at O'. What
would be the solution for x if the mass is initially moving to the left in Figure
13.7?

EXAMPLE That Car Needs a New Set of Shocks

13.2 k
A 1300 kg is constructed using a frame sup-
car of mass
ported by four springs. Each spring has a force constant
of 20 000 N/m. If two people riding in the car have a
combined mass of 160 kg, find the frequency of vibra-
tion of the car when it is driven over a pot hole in the
road.

Solution We shallassume that the weight is evenly dis-

tributed. Thus, each spring supports one fourth of the
load. The total mass supported by the springs is 1 460 kg,
and therefore each spring supports 365 kg. Hence, the
frequency of vibration is

f=±JI
J
= ±M°f^= 1.18Hz
V m
2tt In V 365 kg

Exercise 1 How long does it take the car to execute two

complete vibrations?
Answer 1.70 s.

EXAMPLE 13.3 A
Mass-Spring System
A mass of 200 g connected to a light spring of force
is

constant 5 N/m and is free to oscillate on a horizontal,

frictionless surface. If the mass is displaced 5 cm from
equilibrium and released from rest, as in Figure 13.5,
(a) find the period of its motion.
This situation corresponds to Case I, where i =
-2
A cos cot and A = 5 X 10 m. Therefore,
 13.3 ENERGY OF THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR 333

13.3 ENERGY OF THE SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

Let us examine the mechanical energy of the mass-spring system described in
Figure 13.6. Since the surface is frictionless, we expect that the total mechani-
cal energy is conserved, as was shown in Chapter 8. We can use Equation 13.5
to express the kinetic energy as
Kinetic energy of a simple
K = \mv 2 = \mco 2A 2 2
sin (cot + S) (13.18) harmonic oscillator
The elastic potential energy stored in the spring for any elongation x is

given by \kx 2 . Using Equation 13.1, we get

Potential energy of a simple
U= ±kx 2 = ±kA 2 cos 2 (cot + 6) (13.19)
harmonic oscillator
We see that K and U arealways positive quantities. Since co 2 = k/m, we can
express the total energy of the simple harmonic oscillator as

E = K + U = ikA 2 \sin 2 (cot + S) + cos 2 (cot + d)}

But sin
2
6 + cos 2 0=1, where 6 = cot + S; therefore this equation reduces to

Total energy of a sim P le

E = ikA 2 n 3 2m
* '
harmonic oscillator

That is,

the energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is a constant of the motion and

proportional to the square of the amplitude.

In fact, the total mechanical energy is just equal to the maximum potential
energy stored in the spring when x = ± A. At these points, v = and there is no
kinetic energy. At the equilibrium position, x = and U = 0, so that the total
energy is all in the form of kinetic energy. That is, at x = 0, E = ^mu 2 M =
^mco 2A 2 .

Plots of the kinetic and potential energies versus time are shown in Figure
13.8a, where we have taken S = 0. In this situation, both K and [/are always

kx 2

(a) (b)

Figure 13.8 (a) Kinetic energy and potential energy versus time for a simple harmonic oscillator
with <5=0. (b) Kinetic energy and potential energy versus displacement for a simple harmonic
oscillator. In either plot, note that K + constant. U=
334 CHAPTER 13 OSCILLATORY MOTION

positive and their sum at all times is a constant equal to %kA 2 the total energy of
,

the system. The variations of K and [/with displacement are plotted in Figure
13.8b. Energy is continuously being transferred between potential energy
stored in the spring and the kinetic energy of the mass. Figure 13.9 illustrates
the position, velocity, acceleration, kinetic energy, and potential energy of the
mass-spring system for one full period of the motion. Most of the ideas dis-
cussed so far are incorporated in this important figure. We suggest that you
study this figure carefully.
Finally, we can use energy conservation to obtain the velocity for an
arbitrary displacement x by expressing the total energy at some arbitrary
position as

E= K+U = imv 2
+ ikx 2 = ifcA 2
Velocity as a function of
position for a simple har-
yl±(A
2
-x*) = ±coW=xT) (13.21)
monic oscillator

On, I
 13.4 THE PENDULUM 335

Again, this expression substantiates the fact that the speed is a maximum at
x = and is zero at the turning points, x = ±A.

EXAMPLE 13.4 Oscillations on a Horizontal Surface We can apply Equation 13.21 directly:
A mass of 0.5 kg connected to a light spring of force
constant 20 N/m oscillates on a horizontal, frictionless v = ± ^(A 2 - x 2 = ± - 2 2) X 10-*
surface, (a) Calculate the total energy of the system and
)
^|| (3*
the maximum speed of the mass if the amplitude of the
= ±0.141 m/s
motion is 3 cm.

Using Equation 13.20, we get The positive and negative signs indicate that the mass
could be moving to the right or left at this instant.
E = ikA 2 = if 20 (3 X 10- 2 m) 2
—J (c) Compute the kinetic and potential energies of
the system when the displacement equals 2 cm.
= 9.00X10- 3
J Using the result to (b), we get
When the mass is at x = 0, U= and E = \ mi) 2,,, ; there-
fore K = imv 2 = i(0.5 kg)(0.14 m/s) 2 = 5.00 X 10"3 J

i™uL* = 9.00 XIO-3 J U=lkx 2 = d 20— J

(2X 10- 2 m) 2 = 4.00 X 10-3J

I8XIO- 3 Note that the sum K + U equals the total energy, E.

/ J
= 0.190 m/s
5 kg
Exercise 2 For what values of x does the speed of the
(b) What is the velocity of the mass when the mass equal 0.10 m/s?
displacement is equal to 2 cm? Answer ±2.55 cm.

13.4 THE PENDULUM

The Simple Pendulum
The simple pendulum another mechanical system that exhibits periodic,
is

oscillatory motion. It mass m suspended by a light string of

consists of a point
length L, where the upper end of the string is fixed as in Figure 13.10. The
motion occurs in a vertical plane and is driven by the force of gravity. We shall
show that the motion is that of a simple harmonic oscillator, provided the angle
6 that the pendulum makes with the vertical is small.
The forces acting on the mass are the tension, T, acting along the string,
and the weight mg. The tangential component of the weight, mg sin 6, always
acts toward 6 = 0, opposite the displacement. Therefore, the tangential force
is a restoring force, and we can write the equation of motion in the tangential

direction

F = t
-mgsm6 = m — »ig cos 8

where s is the displacement measured along the arc and the minus sign indi- Figure 13.10 When 6 is small, the
cates that Ft
acts toward the equilibrium position. Since s = L6 and L is con- simple pendulum oscillates with
simple harmonic motion about the
stant, this equation reduces to
equilibrium position (6 = 0). The
restoring force is mg sin 6, the
cP6 g component of weight tangent to
dt 2 the circle.
336 CHAPTER 13 OSCILLATORY MOTION

The motion of a simple pendulum

captured with multiflash photog-
raphy. Is the motion simple har-
monic in this case? (© Berenice
Abbott, Science Source/Photo Re-
searchers)

right side is proportional to sin 6, rather than to 0; hence we conclude

The
that themotion is not simple harmonic motion. However, if we assume that 6 is
small, we can use the approximation sin 6 ~ 9, where 6 is measured in radians. 1
Therefore, the equation of motion becomes

Equation of motion for the

(13.22)
simple pendulum (small 8)

Now we have an expression that is of exactly the same form as Equation 13.15,
and so we conclude that the motion is simple harmonic motion. Therefore, 6
can be written as 8 = 6 cos(cot + S), where 6 is the maximum angular dis-
placement and the angular frequency a> is given by

Angular frequency of motion

(13.23)
for the simple pendulum

The period of the motion is

Period of motion for the (13.24)

simple pendulum

In other words, the period and frequency of a simple pendulum depend only on
the length of the stri7igand the acceleration of gravity. Since the period is
independent of the mass, we conclude that all simple pendulums of equal
length at the same location oscillate with equal periods. 2 The analogy between

1
This approximation can be understood by examining the series expansion for sin 8, which is
sin 8 = 8 — 3 /3! + -. For small values of#, we see that sin 8 •» 8. The difference between 8 and
• •

sin 6 for 8= 15° is only about 1%.

2 The period of oscillation for the simple pendulum with arbitrary amplitude is

[L /
+-sin
T=27i-v /-(
1
2 —+—
8 9
4
8
—+ \

Vg\4 1
2 64
sin
2
• • • 1

where 8 is the maximum angular displacement in radians.

 13.4 THE PENDULUM 337

the motion of a simple pendulum and the mass-spring system is illustrated in

Figure 13.9.
The simple pendulum can be used as a timekeeper. It is also a convenient
device for making precise measurements of the acceleration of gravity. Such
measurements are important since variations in local values of g can provide
information on the location of oil and other valuable underground resources.

EXAMPLE 13.5 What is the Height of That Tower? Solution If we use T = In \/L/g and solve for L, we get
A man enters a tall tower. He needs to know the height of
gJ2 (9.80m/s 2 )(12s) 2 _ 357m
the tower. He notes that a long pendulum extends from 4^2
4tt 2
the ceiling almost to the floor and that its period is 12 s.

How tall is the tower?

Exercise 3 If the pendulum described in this example is
taken to the moon, where the acceleration due to gravity
is 1.67 m/s
2 what would its period be there?
,

Answer 29.1 s.

The Physical Pendulum

A physical, or compound, pendulum consists of any rigid body suspended from
a fixed axis that does not pass through the body's center of mass. The system
will oscillate when equilibrium position. Consider a rigid
displaced from its

body pivoted at a point O that is a distance d from the center of mass (Fig.
13.1 1). The torque about O is provided by the force of gravity, and its magni-
tude is mgd sin 6. Using the fact that t = 7a, where I is the moment of inertia
about the axis through O, we get

-mgd sin 6 = I-7-£

The minus sign on the left indicates that the torque about O tends to
decrease That is, the force of gravity produces a restoring torque.
6.

If we again assume that 6 is small, then the approximation sin 6 = 8 is valid Figure 13.11 The physical pen-
dulum consists of a rigid body piv-
and the equation of motion reduces to
oted at the point O, and not
through the center of mass. At
equilibrium, the weight vector
(13.25) passes through O, corresponding to
6 = 0. The restoring torque about
O when the system is displaced
through an angle 6 is mgd sin 6.
Thus, we note that the equation is of the same form as Equation 13.15, and so
the motion is simple harmonic motion. That is, the solution of Equation 13.25

is =6 cos(tot + S), where 6 is the maximum angular displacement and

The period is given by

(13.26)

\ i»

i
338 CHAPTER 13 OSCILLATORY MOTION

One can use this result to measure the moment of inertia of a planar rigid body.
If the location of the center of mass, and hence of d, are known, the moment of
inertia can be obtained through a measurement of the period. Finally, note

that Equation 13.26 reduces to the period of a simple pendulum (Eq. 13.24)
when J = md 2 , that is, when all the mass is concentrated at the center of mass.

EXAMPLE 13.6 A Swinging Rod Solution In Chapter 10 we found that the moment of
A uniform rod of mass M
and length L is pivoted about uniform rod about an axis through one end is
inertia of a

one end and oscillates in a vertical plane (Fig. 13.12). $ML Z The distance d from the pivot to the center of mass
.

Find the period of oscillation if the amplitude of the mo- isL/2. Substituting these quantities into Equation 13.26
tion is small. gives

T=2tt
Mg -

Comment In one of the early moon landings, an astro-

naut walking on the moon's surface had a belt hanging
from his spacesuit, and the belt oscillated as a compound
pendulum. A scientist on earth observed this motion on
TV and was able to estimate the acceleration of gravity
1

»'g on the moon from this observation. How do you suppose

this calculation was done?

Exercise 4 Calculate the period of a meter stick piv-

oted about one end and oscillating in a vertical plane as in
Figure 13.12 (Example 13.6) A rigid rod oscillating about a
Figure 13.12.
pivot through one end is a physical pendulum with d = L/Z and
Answer 1.64 s.

Torsional Pendulum
Figure 13.13 shows a rigid body suspended by a wire attached at the top to a
fixed support. When the body is twisted through some small angle 0,
the

twisted wire exerts a restoring torque on the body proportional to the angular
displacement. That is,

where K (the Greek letter kappa) is called the torsion constant of the support
wire. The value of K can be obtained by applying a known torque to twist
the

wire through a measurable angle 6. Applying Newton's second law for rota-

tional motion gives

d2 6
X= - Ke=l
i?
Figure 13.13 A torsional pendu-
lum consists of a rigid body sus-
pended by a wire attached to a rigid (13.27)
support. The body oscillates about
the line OP with an amplitude 8 .
 13.5 COMPARING SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION WITH UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 339

Again, this is the equation of motion for a simple harmonic oscillator, with
co = ficfl and a period Lamp

(13.28)

This system is called a torsional pendulum. There is no small angle restriction

in this situation, as long as the elastic limit of the wire is not exceeded. The
balance wheel of a watch oscillates as a torsional pendulum, energized by the
mainspring. Torsional pendulums are also used in laboratory galvanometers
and the Cavendish torsional balance.

'13.5 COMPARING SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

WITH UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
i Screen
We can better understand and visualize many aspects of simple harmonic
motion along a straight line by looking at its relationship to uniform circular
/
^ ^T^
motion. Figure 13.14 shows an experimental arrangement useful for develop- Shadow
ing this concept. This figure represents a top view of a ball attached to the rim of ball

of a phonograph turntable of radius A, illuminated from the side by a lamp.

Figure 13.14 Experimental setup
Rather than concentrating on the ball, let us focus our attention on the shadow
for demonstrating the connection
that the ball casts on the screen. We find that as the turntable rotates with between simple harmonic motion
constant angular velocity, the shadow of the ball moves back and forth with and uniform circular motion. As
the ball rotates on the turntable
simple harmonic motion.
with constant angular velocity, its
Consider a particle at point P moving in a circle of radius A with constant shadow on the screen moves back
angular velocity co (Fig. 13.15a). We shall refer to this circle as the reference and forth with simple harmonic
motion.
circle for the motion. As the particle rotates, the position vector of the particle
rotates about the origin, O. At some instant of time, r, the angle between OP
and the x axis is cot + S, where 5 is the angle that OP makes with the x axis at
f = 0. We take this as our reference point for measuring the angular displace-

ment. As the particle rotates on the reference circle, the angle that OP makes
with the x axis changes with time. Furthermore, the projection of P onto the x

6 = a>t + 8
340 CHAPTER 13 OSCILLATORY MOTION

axis,labeled point Q moves back and forth along a line parallel to the diameter
,

of the reference circle, between the limits x = ±A.

Note that points P and Q have the same x coordinate. From the right
triangle OPQ, we see that the x coordinate of P and Q is given by

x = A cos(cot + S) (13.29)

This expression shows that the point Q moves with simple harmonic motion
along the x axis. Therefore, we conclude that

simple harmonic motion along a straight line can be represented by the

projection of uniform circular motion along a diameter.

By a similar argument, you can see from Figure 1 3. 1 5a that the projection of?
along the y axis also exhibits simple harmonic motion. Therefore, uniform
circular motion can be considered a combination of two simple harmonic mo-
tions, one along x and one along y, where the two differ in phase by 90°.
The geometric interpretation we have presented shows that the time for
one complete revolution of the point P on the reference circle is equal to the
period of motion, T, for simple harmonic motion between x = ±A. That is, the
angular speed of the point Pis the same as the angular frequency, co, of simple
harmonic motion along the x axis. The phase constant S for simple harmonic
motion corresponds to the initial angle that OP makes with the x axis. The
radius of the reference circle, A, equals the amplitude of the simple harmonic
motion.
Since the relationship between linear and angular velocity for circular
motion is v = rco, the particle moving on the reference circle of radius A has a
velocity of magnitude coA. From the geometry in Figure 13.15b, we see that
the x component of this velocity is given by — coA sin(cot + S). By definition,
the point Q has a velocity given by dx/dt. Differentiating Equation 13.29 with
respect to time, we find that the velocity of Q is the same as the x component of
velocity of P.
The acceleration of the point P on the reference circle is directed radially
inward toward O and has a magnitude given by v 2 /A = a> 2A. From the geome-
try in Figure 13.15c, we see that the x component of this acceleration is equal
to -co 2A cos(a>t + S). This also coincides with the acceleration of the pro-
jected point Q along the x axis, as you can easily verify from Equation 13.29.

EXAMPLE 13.7 Circular Motion with Constant 2.0 m= (3.0 m) cos(0 + S)

Speed = 48° =0.841 rad

,
, , . . , r .. J=cos- 1
(f)
A particle rotates counterclockwise in a circle ol radius
3.0 m with a constant angular speed of 8 rad/s, as in Fig- Therefore, the x coordinate versus time is of the form
ure 13.15. At r = 0, the particle has an x coordinate of = +
x (3 m) cos(8f 841)
2.0 m. (a) Determine the x coordinate as a function of
time. Note that the angles in the cosine function are in radians.

Since the amplitude of the particle's motion equals (b) Find the x components of the particle's velocity

the radius of the circle and to = 8 rad/s, we have and acceleration at any time t.

x = A cosM + 5) = m) cos(8* + 6)
t = (_30)(8) Sm(8
(3.0 =
»* ' + °' 84)

We can evaluate S using the initial condition that x =

2.0 m at = 0:
t
 "13.6 DAMPED OSCILLATIONS 341

From we conclude that v^^ = 24 m/s and

these results,
-(24 m/s) sin(8f + 0.841) a msa =192
m/s 2 Note that these values also equal the
.

tangential velocity, aiA, and centripetal acceleration,

a= ^=
at
(- 24)(8) cos(8r + 0.841) co 2A.

= -(192 m/s 2 )cos(8( + 0.841)

"13.6 DAMPED OSCILLATIONS

The oscillatory motions we have considered so far have dealt with an ideal
system, that is, one that oscillates indefinitely under the action of a linear
restoring force. In realistic systems, dissipative forces, such as friction, are
present and retard the motion of the system. Consequently, the mechanical
energy of the system will diminish in time, and the motion is said to be damped.
One common type of retarding force, which we discussed in Chapter 6, is
proportional to the velocity and acts in the direction opposite the motion. This
is often observed for the motion of an object through gases like air. Because

the retarding force can be expressed as R = — bv, where b is a constant, and the
restoring force is — kx, we can write Newton's second law as

^F = — kx — bv
x

2
— kx — b—r = m d x2 (13.30)
dt dt

The solution of this equation requires mathematics that may not be familiar to
you as yet, and so it will simply be stated without proof. When the retarding
force is small compared with kx, that is, when b is small, the solution to
Equation 13.30 is

x = Ae ** cos(cot + S) (13.31) (a)

where the frequency of motion is

(13.32)

This can be verified by substitution of the solution into Equation 13.30. Figure
13.16a shows the displacement as a function of time in this case. see that We
when small compared with the restoring force, the oscil-
the dissipative force is

latory character of the motion is preserved but the amplitude of vibration de-
creases in time, and the motion will ultimately cease. This is known as an
underdamped oscillator. The dashed blue line in Figure 13.16a, which is the (b)

envelope of the oscillatory curve, represents the exponential factor that ap-
Figure 13.16 (a) Graph of the dis-
pears in Equation 13.31. This shows that the amplitude decays exponentially placement versus time for an un-
with time. For motion with a given spring constant and particle mass, the derdamped oscillator. Note the
oscillationsdampen more rapidly as the maximum value of the dissipative decrease inamplitude with time.
(b) One example of a damped os-
force approaches the maximum value of the restoring force. One example of a cillator is a mass on a spring sub-
damped harmonic oscillator is a mass immersed in a fluid as in Figure 13.16b. mersed in a liquid.
342 CHAPTER 13 OSCILLATORY MOTION

It is convenient to express the frequency of vibration in the form

\2m)
where co = -Jk/rn represents the frequency of oscillation in the absence of a
resistive force (the undamped oscillator). In other words, when b = 0, the
resistive force is zero and the system oscillates with its natural frequency, 0) .

As the magnitude of the resistive force approaches the value of the restoring
force in the spring, the oscillations dampen more rapidly. When b reaches a
Figure 13.17 Plots of displace- critical value b c such that b c /2m = co the system does not oscillate and is said
,

ment versus time for (a) an under-

to be critically damped. In this case, the system returns to equilibrium in an
damped oscillator, a critically
(b)
damped oscillator and (c) an over- exponential manner with time, as in Figure 13.17.
damped oscillator.
If the medium is so viscous that the resistive force is greater than the re-
storing force, that is, if b/2m > co , the system will be overdamped. Again, the
displaced system does not oscillate but simply returns to its equilibrium posi-
tion.As the damping increases, the time it takes the displacement to reach
equilibrium also increases, as indicated in Figure 1 3. 1 7. In any case, when fric-
tion is present, the energy of the oscillator will eventually fall to zero. The loss
in mechanical energy dissipates into thermal energy in the resistive medium.

"13.7 FORCED OSCILLATIONS

We have seen that the energy of a damped oscillator decreases in time as a
result of the dissipative force. It is possible to compensate for this energy loss
by applying an external force that does positive work on the system. At any
instant, energy can be put into the system by an applied force that acts in the
direction of motion of the oscillator. For example, a child on a swing can be
kept in motion by appropriately timed "pushes." The amplitude of motion will
remain constant if the energy input per cycle of motion exactly equals the
energy lost as a result of friction.
A common example of a forced oscillator is a damped oscillator driven by
an external force that varies harmonically, such as F = F cos cot, where co is the
angular frequency of the force and F is a constant. Adding this driving force to
the left side of Equation 13.30 gives

dx d%x
c cos
b n cot
* — i.
b—, 1
kx = m —r-r
2
(13.33)
dt dt

Again, the solution of this equation is rather lengthy and will not be presented.
However, after a sufficiently long period of time, when the energy input per
cycle equals the energy lost per cycle, a steady-state condition is reached in

which the oscillations proceed with constant amplitude. At this time, when the
system is in steady state, Equation 13.33 has the following solution:

x = A cos(tot + S) (13.34)

/here

(13.35)
 13.7 FORCED OSCILLATIONS 343

and where co = Vfc/m is the frequency of the undamped oscillator (b = 0).

One can argue physically that in a steady state the oscillator must have the
same frequency as that of the driving force, so the solution given by Equation
13.34 is expected. In fact, when this solution is substituted into Equation
13.33, one finds that it is indeed a solution provided the amplitude is given by
Equation 13.35.
Equation 13.35 shows that the motion of the forced oscillator is not
damped since it is being driven by an external force. That is, the external agent
provides the necessary energy to overcome the losses due to the resistive
force. Note that the mass oscillates at the frequency of the driving force, CO.
For small damping, the amplitude becomes large when the frequency of the
driving force is near the natural frequency of oscillation, or when to = co The .

Figure 13.18 Graph of the ampli-

dramatic increase in amplitude near the natural frequency is called resonance, tude versus frequency for a
and the frequency co is called the resonance frequency of the system. damped oscillator when a periodic

Physically, the reason for large-amplitude oscillations at the resonance driving force is present. When the
frequency of the driving force
frequency is that energy is being transferred to the system under the most equals the natural frequency, co ,

favorable conditions. This can be better understood by taking the first time resonance occurs. Note that the
derivative of x, which gives an expression of the velocity of the oscillator. In shape of the resonance curve de-
pends on the size of the damping
doing so, one finds that v is proportional to sin(cot + S). When the applied force coefficient, b.
is in phase with v, the rate at which work is done on the oscillator by the force F

(or the power) equals Fv. Since the quantity Fv is always positive when F and v
are in phase, we conclude that at resonance the applied force is in phase with the
velocity and the power transferred to the oscillator is a maximum.
A graph of the amplitude as a function of frequency for the forced oscilla-
tor with and without a resistive force is shown in Figure 13.18. Note that the
amplitude increases with decreasing damping (b —* 0). Furthermore, the reso-
nance curve is broadened as the damping increases. Under steady-state condi-
tions, and at any driving frequency, the energy transferred into the system
equals the energy lost because of the damping force; hence the average total
energy of the oscillator remains constant. In the absence of a damping force
(b = 0), we see from Equation 13.35 that the steady-state amplitude ap-
proaches infinity as a> — co In other words, if there are no losses in the
.

system, and we continue to drive an initially motionless oscillator with a sinus-

oidal force that is in phase with the velocity, the amplitude of motion will build
up without limit (Fig. 13.18). This does not occur in practice since some
damping will always be present. That is, at resonance the amplitude will be
large but finite for small damping.
One experiment that demonstrates a resonance phenomenon is illustrated
in Figure 13.19. Several pendulums of different lengths are suspended from a

stretched string. If one of them, such as P, is set in sideways motion, the others
will begin to oscillate, since they are coupled by the stretched string. Of those
that are forced into oscillation by this coupling, pendulum Q, whose length is
the same as that of P (and hence the two pendula have the same natural
frequency), will oscillate with the greatest amplitude.
Later in the text we shall see that the phenomenon of resonance appears in
other areas of physics. For example, certain electrical circuits have natural (or
Figure 13.19 If pendulum Pis set
resonant) frequencies. A structure such as a bridge has natural frequencies,
into oscillation, pendulum O will
which can be set into resonance by an appropriate driving force. A striking eventually oscillate with the great-
example of such a structural resonance occurred in 1940, when the Tacoma est amplitude because of the coup-
ling between them and the fact that
Narrows bridge in Washington was destroyed by resonant vibrations. It should they have the same natural fre-
be noted that although the winds were not particularly strong on that occasion, quency of vibration.
344 CHAPTER 13 OSCILLATORY MOTION

the bridge ultimately collapsed because vortices (turbulences) generated by

the wind blowing through the bridge structure occurred at a frequency which
matched the natural frequency of the structure. A more detailed discussion of
thisdramatic event is given in the essay at the end of this chapter.
Many other examples of resonant vibrations can be cited. A resonant
vibration which you may have experienced is the "singing" of telephone wires
inthe wind. Mechanical machines are often broken apart if one vibrating part
is atresonance with some other moving part. Finally, soldiers marching in
cadence across bridges have been known to set up resonant vibrations in the
one such famous accident, which
structure, causing the bridges to collapse. In
occurred in France in 1850, a collapsed suspension bridge resulted in the
death of 226 soldiers.

SUMMARY
The position of a simple harmonic oscillator varies periodically in time
according to the relation
Displacement versus time for x =A cos((ot + 8) (13.1)
simple harmonic motion
where A is the amplitude of the motion, to is the angular frequency, and 8 is
the phase constant. The value of 8 depends on the initial position and
velocity of the oscillator.
The time for one complete vibration is called the period of the motion,
defined by

Period T= —to
(13.2)

The inverse of the period is the frequency of the motion, which equals the
number of oscillations per second.
The velocity and acceleration of a simple harmonic oscillator are given
by

Velocity in simple harmonic

motion
i) = —=—
at
toA sin(a>r + 8) (13.5)

Acceleration in simple a = —r = ~ u) 2A cositot + 8) (13.6)

harmonic motion dt
2
Thus, the maximum velocity is coA, and the maximum acceleration is to A.
The velocity is zero when the oscillator is at its turning points, x = ± A, and
the speed is a maximum at the equilibrium position, x = 0. The magnitude
of the acceleration is a maximum at the turning points and is zero at the
equilibrium position.
A mass-spring system exhibits simple harmonic motion on a frictionless
surface, with a period given by

Period of motion for mass-

spring system
T= — = 2nJ T
to V k
(13.16)

where k is the force constant of the spring and m is the mass attached to the
spring.
 QUESTIONS 345

The kinetic energy and potential energy for a simple harmonic oscilla-
tor vary with time and are given respectively by
Kinetic and potential energy
K = |mu 2 = $mco 2A 2 sin 2 (a)t + S) (13.18) of a simple harmonic oscillator
U = \kx 2 = \kA 2 cos 2 (cot + 6) (13.19)

The total energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is a constant of the

motion and is given by
Total energy of a simple
E = ikA 2 (13.20)
harmonic oscillator
The potential energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is a maximum
when the particle is at its turning points (maximum displacement from
equilibrium) and is zero at the equilibrium position. The kinetic energy is
zero the turning points and is a maximum at the equilibrium position.
at
A simple pendulum of length L exhibits simple harmonic motion for
small angular displacements from the vertical, with a period given by

Period of motion for a simple

-VI (13.24) pendulum

That the period is independent of the suspended mass.

is,

A physical pendulum exhibits simple harmonic motion about a pivot

that does not go through the center of mass. The period of this motion is

Period of motion for a

T=2tt (13.26) physical pendulum
mgd
where I is the moment of inertia about an axis through the pivot and d is the
distance from the pivot to the center of mass.
Damped oscillations occur in a system in which a dissipative force
opposes the linear restoring force. If such a system is set into motion and
then left to itself, the mechanical energy decreases in time because of the
presence of the nonconservative damping force. It is possible to compen-
sate for this loss in energy by driving the system with an external periodic
force that is in phase with the motion of the system. When the frequency of
the driving force matches the natural frequency of the undamped oscillator
that starts its motion from rest, energy is continuously transferred to the
oscillator and its amplitude increases without limit.

QUESTIONS

What is the total distance traveled by a body execut- displacement and velocity, (b) velocity
oscillator: (a)
ing simple harmonic motion in a time equal to its pe- and acceleration, (c) displacement and acceleration.
riod if its amplitude is A? 5. Can the amplitude A and phase constant 5 be deter-
If thecoordinate of a particle varies as * = —A cos cot, mined for an oscillator if only the position is specified
what is the phase constant 5 in Equation 1 3. 1 ? At what at t = 0? Explain.
position does the particle begin its motion? 6. Describe qualitatively the motion of a mass-spring
Does the displacement of an oscillating particle be- system if the mass of the spring is not neglected.
tween f = and a later time t necessarily equal the 7. If a mass-spring system is hung vertically and set into
position of the particle at time t? Explain. oscillation, why does the motion eventually stop?
Determine whether or not the following quantities 8. Explain why the kinetic and potential energies of a
can be in the same direction for a simple harmonic mass-spring system can never be negative.
 .

346 CHAPTER 13 OSCILLATORY MOTION

9. A mass-spring system undergoes simple harmonic 14. Will damped oscillations occur for any values of b and
motion with an amplitude A. Does the total energy fc? Explain.
change if the mass is doubled but the amplitude is not 15. Is it possible to have damped oscillations when a sys-
changed? Do the kinetic and potential energies de- tem resonance? Explain.
is at

pend on the mass? Explain. 16. At resonance, what does the phase constant 3 equal in
10. What happens to the period of a simple pendulum if Equation 13.34? (Hint: Compare this with the expres-
its length is doubled? What happens to the period if sion for the driving force, which must be in phase with
the mass that is suspended is doubled? the velocity at resonance.)
1 1. A simple pendulum is suspended from the ceiling of a 17. A platoon of soldiers marches in step along a road.
stationary elevator, and the period is determined. De- Why are they ordered to break step when crossing a
scribe the changes, if any, in the period if the elevator bridge?
(a) accelerates upward, (b) accelerates downward, 18. Give as many examples as you can in the workings of
and moves with constant velocity.
(c) an automobile where the motion is simple harmonic
12. A simple pendulum undergoes simple harmonic mo- or damped.
tion when 6 is small. Will the motion be periodic if 6 is 19. If a grandfather clock were running slow, how could
large? How does the period of motion change as 6 we adjust the "length" of the pendulum to correct the
increases? time?
13. Give a few examples of damped oscillations that are
commonly observed.

PROBLEMS
Section 13.1 Simple Harmonic Motion the particle move during one cycle of its motion?
(b) What maximum speed? Where does this
is its
1. The displacement of a particle is given by the expres-
occur? (c) Find the maximum acceleration of the par-
sion * = (4 m) cos(37rt + n), where x is in m and t is
ticle. Where in the motion does the maximum accel-
in s. Determine (a) the frequency and period of the
eration occur?
motion, (b) the amplitude of the motion, (c) the
7. A particle moving along the x axis with simple har-
phase constant, and (d) the displacement of the parti-
monic motion starts from the origin at t = and moves
cle at t = 0.25 s.
toward the right. If the amplitude of its motion is 2 cm
2. For the particle described in Problem 1, determine
and the frequency is 1 .5 Hz, (a) show that its displace-
(a) the velocity at any time t, (b) the acceleration at
ment is given by x = (2 cm) sin (37rr). Determine
any time, (c) the maximum velocity and maximum ac-
(b) the maximum speed and the earliest time (t > 0) at
celeration, and (d) the velocity and acceleration at
which the particle has this speed, (c) the maximum
t= 0.
acceleration and the earliest time (t > 0) at which the
3. A particle oscillates with simple harmonic motion
particle has this acceleration, and (d) the total distance
such that its displacement varies according to the ex-
traveled between ( = and t = 1 s.
pression as x = (5 cm) cos(2i + n/6), where x is in
8. A piston in an automobile engine is in simple har-
cm and t is in s. At t = 0, find (a) the displacement of
monic motion. amplitude of oscillation from cen-
If its
the particle, (b) its velocity, and (c) its acceleration,
terline is ±5 cm, and the mass of the piston is 2 kg,
(d) Find the period and amplitude of the motion.
find the maximum velocity and acceleration of the
4. A moving with simple harmonic motion
particle
piston when the auto engine is running at the rate of
travels a total distance of 20 cm in each cycle of its
3600 rev/min.
motion, and its maximum acceleration is 50 m/s 2 .

Find (a) the angular frequency of the motion and Section 13.2 Mass Attached to a Spring
(b) the maximum speed of the particle.
Neglect spring masses.
5. The displacement of a body is given by the expression
x = (8.0 cm) cos(2t + n/3), where x is in cm and t is in 9. weight of 0.2 N is hung from a spring with a force
A
s. Calculate (a) the velocity and acceleration at t
= = 6 N/m. How much is the spring dis-
constant k
n/2 s, (b) the maximum speed and the earliest time placed?
(t > 0) at which the particle has this speed, and (c) the
10. A spring stretches by 3.9 cm when a 10-g mass is hung

maximum acceleration and the earliest time (t > 0) at from it. If a total mass of 25 g attached to this spring
which the particle has this acceleration. oscillates in simple harmonic motion, calculate the

6. A 20-g particle moves in simple harmonic motion period of motion.

with a frequency of 3 oscillations/s and an ampli- 1 1 A 7-kg mass is hung from the bottom end of a vertical
tude of 5 cm. (a) Through what total distance does spring fastened to an overhead beam. The mass is set
 PROBLEMS 347

into vertical oscillations whose period is 2.6 s. Find system, (b) the maximum speed of the mass, and
the force constant k of the spring. (c) the maximum acceleration.
12. A 1-kg mass attached to a spring of force constant 20. The velocity of a 300-g mass attached to the end of a
25 N/m oscillates on a horizontal, frictionless surface. linear spring is represented by v = 1.60 sin cot m/s,
At * = 0, the mass is released from rest at x cm. = —3 with (o = 2.83 rad/s. Determine the total energy of
-"'
(That is, the spring is compressed by 3 cm.) Find the system.
(a) the period of its motion, (b) the maximum values of 21. The amplitude of a system moving with simple har-
speed and acceleration, and (c) the displacement,
its monic motion is doubled. Determine the change in
velocity, and acceleration as functions of time. (a) the total energy, (b) the maximum velocity, (c) the
13. A simple harmonic oscillator takes 12 s to undergo 5 maximum acceleration, and (d) the period.
complete vibrations. Find (a) the period of its motion, 22. A 50-g mass, connected to a light spring of force con-
(b) the frequency in Hz, and (c) the angular frequency stant 35 N/m, on a horizontal surface with
oscillates
in rad/s. an amplitude of 4 cm. Friction is negligible. Find
14. A mass-spring system oscillates such that the displace- (a) the total energy of the oscillating system and

ment is given by x = (0.25 m) cos (27rt). (a) Find the (b) the speed of the mass when the displacement is
speed and acceleration of the mass when x = 0.10 m. 1 cm. When the displacement is 3 cm, find (c) the

(b) Determine the maximum speed and maximum ac- kinetic energy and (d) the potential energy.
celeration. 23. A particle executes simple harmonic motion with an
15. A 0.5-kg mass attached to a spring of force constant amplitude of 3.0 cm. At what displacement from the
8 N/m vibrates with simple harmonic motion with an midpoint of its motion will its speed equal one half of
amplitude of 10 cm. Calculate (a) the maximum value its maximum speed?

of its speed and acceleration, (b) the speed and accel- 24. A 2-kg mass is attached to a spring and placed on a
eration when the mass is at x = 6 cm from the equilib- horizontal smooth surface. A horizontal force of 20 N
rium position, and (c) the time it takes the mass to is required to hold the mass at rest when it is pulled

move from x = to x — 8 cm. 0.2 m from its equilibrium position (the origin of the x
16. A 100-g mass hangs on the end of a Hooke's-law axis). The mass is now released from rest with an initial

spring suspended vertically. When 40 g are added, displacement of x = 0.2 m, and it subsequently un-
the spring stretches an additional 5 cm. With this dergoes simple harmonic oscillations. Find (a) the
extra mass, the spring is now set into vertical oscilla- force constant k of the spring, (b) the frequency /of
tion with an amplitude of 10 cm. (a) Find the fre- the oscillations, and (c) the maximum speed c mMI of the
quency of the motion, (b) How long does the mass mass. Where does this maximum speed occur?
take to travel from the mid-position to a point of maxi- (d) Find the maximum acceleration a^^ of the mass.
mum displacement? (c) Find the net force on the total Where does it occur? (e) Find the total energy E of the
mass when it is at a point of maximum upward dis- oscillating system. When the displacement x equals
placement. one-third the maximum value, find (f ) the velocity and
1 7. A particle that hangs from an ideal spring has an angu- (g) the acceleration.
lar frequency for oscillations, co 2.0 rad/s. The =
spring is suspended from the ceiling of an elevator car
Section 13.4 The Pendulum
and hangs motionless (relative to the elevator car) as
the car descends at a constant velocity of 1.5 m/s. The 25. A simple pendulum has a period of 2.50 s. (a) What is
car then stops suddenly, (a) With what amplitude will its length? (b) What would its period be on the moon
the particle oscillate? (b) What is the equation of mo- where gm = 1.67 m/s 2 ?
tion for the particle? (Choose the upward direction to 26. Calculate the frequency and period of a simple pen-
be positive.) dulum of length 10 m.
27. A visitor to a lighthouse wishes to determine the
height of the tower. She has a spool of thread that she
Section 13.3 Energy of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator
uses to support a small rock as a simple pendulum
Neglect spring masses.
hanging down the center of the spiral staircase of the
18. A 200-g mass is attached to a spring and executes tower. The period of oscillation is 9.4 s. What is the
simple harmonic motion with a period of 0.25 s. If the height (in meters) of the tower?
totalenergy of the system is 2 J, find (a) the force A2S. A mass is attached to the end of a light string to form
constant of the spring and (b) the amplitude of the a simple pendulum as in Figure 13.10. The period of
motion. its harmonic motion is measured for small angular dis-
19. A mass-spring system oscillates with an amplitude of placements using three different lengths and timing
3.5 cm. If the spring constant is 250 N/m and the mass the motion with a stopwatch for 50 complete oscilla-
is 0.5 kg, determine (a) the mechanical energy of the tions. For lengths of 1.00 m, 0.75 m, and 0.50 m, total
348 CHAPTER 13 OSCILLATORY MOTION

times of 99.8 s, and 71.1s are measured for

s, 86.6 Section 13.7 Forced Oscillations
50 Determine the period of motion
oscillations, (a)
40. A 2-kg mass attached to a spring is driven by an exter-
for each of these lengths, (b) Determine the mean
value of g obtained from these three independent
nal force F= (3 N) cos (2nt). If the force constant of
the spring is 20 N/m, determine (a) the period and
measurements, and compare it with the accepted
(b) the amplitude of the motion. (Hint: Assume that
value of g. (c) Make a plot of T 2 versus L, and obtain
there is no damping, that is, b = 0, and make use of Eq.
a value for g from the slope of your best fit straight
13.35.)
line graph. Compare this value with that obtained
41. Calculate the resonant frequencies of the following
in part (b).
systems: (a) a 3-kg mass attached to a spring of force
29. A simple pendulum has amass of 0.25 kg and a length
constant 240 N/m, (b) a simple pendulum 1.5 m in
of 1 m . It is displaced through an angle of 1 5 ° and then
length.
released. What is (a) the maximum velocity? (b) the
= 0),
42. Consider an undamped forced oscillator (b and
maximum angular acceleration? (c) the maximum re-
show that Equation 13.34 is a solution of Equation
storing force?
13.33, with an amplitude given by Equation 13.35.
30. A uniform rod is pivoted at one end as in Figure 13.12.
43. A weight of 40 N
suspended from a spring with
is
rod swings with simple harmonic motion, what
If the
force constant is undamped and
200 N/m. The system
must its length be in order that its period be equal to
is subjected to a harmonic force of frequency 10 Hz,
that of a simple pendulum 1 m long?
resulting in a forced-motion amplitude of 2 cm. De-
31. A simple pendulum has alength of 3. 00 m. Determine
termine the maximum value of the impressed force.
the change in its period if it is taken from a point where
g = 9.80 m/s 2 to a higher elevation, where the accel-
eration due to gravity decreases to g = 9.79 m/s 2 .

32. A circular hoop of radius R is hung over a knife edge. ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
Show that its period of oscillation is equal to that of a
simple pendulum of length 2R. 44. A car with bad shock absorbers bounces up and down
33. A physical pendulum in the form of a planar body with a period of 1.5 s after hitting a bump. The car has
exhibits simple harmonic motion with a frequency of a mass of 1500 kg and is supported by four springs of

0.45 Hz. If the pendulum has a mass of 2.2 kg and the equal force constant k. Determine a value for k.
is located 0.35 m from the center of mass, deter-
pivot 45. A large passenger of mass 150 kg sits in the car (Prob-
mine the moment of inertia of the pendulum. lem 44) with bad shocks. The mass of the car is now
34. The angular displacement of a pendulum is repre-
1650 kg. What is the new period of oscillation?
46. A block rests on a flat plate that executes vertical sim-
sented by the equation = 0.32 cos cot, where is in
radians, and CO = 4.43 rad/s. Determine the period ple harmonic motion with a period of 1.2 s. What is

and the length of the pendulum. the maximum amplitude of the motion for which the
35. A clock balance wheel has a period of oscillation of block will not separate from the plate?
0.25 s. The wheel is constructed so that 20 g of mass is 47. When the simple pendulum illustrated in Figure

concentrated around a rim of 0.5 cm radius. What is 13.20 makes an angle with the vertical, its speed is v.
(a) Calculate the total mechanical energy of the pen-
(a) the wheel's moment of inertia? (b) the torsion con-
stant of the attached spring? dulum as a function of v and 0. (b) Show that when is
small, the potential energy can be expressed as
\mgL02 = |mwV. (Hint: In part (b), approximate
Section 13.6 Damped Oscillations cos by cos 0= 1 -02/2.)

36. Show that the damping constant, b, has units of

kg/s.
37. Showthat Equation 13.31 is a solution of Equation
13.30 provided that b 2 < 4mk.
38. Show that the time rate of change of mechanical en-
ergy for a damped, undriven oscillator is given by
dE/dt = —bv 2 and hence is always negative. (Hint:
Differentiate the expression for the mechanical en-
ergy of an oscillator, E = \mv 2 + %kx 2 and make use ,

ofEq. 13.30.)
39. A pendulum of length 1 m is released from an initial
angle ofl5°.Afterl000s,its amplitude is reduced by
friction to 5.5°. What is the value of b/2m? Figure 13.20 (Problem 47)
 PROBLEMS 349

48. A horizontal platform vibrates with simple harmonic speed v and (b)the period of oscillation. (Hint: As-
motion in the horizontal direction with a period of 2 s. sume that all portions of the spring oscillate in phase
A body on the platform starts to slide when the ampli- and that the velocity of a segment dx is proportional to
tude of vibration reaches 0.3 m. Find the coefficient
of statictfriction between the body and the platform.
the distance from the fixed end; that is, v 1r = — v. Also,
e
49. A particle of mass m slides inside a hemispherical bowl note that the mass of a segment of the spring is dm =
of radius fl. Show from
that for small displacements
equilibrium, the particle exhibits simple harmonic ^dx.)
motion with an angular frequency equal to that of a
simple pendulum of length R. That is, w = Vg/R.
50. A horizontal plank of mass in and length L is pivoted at
one end, and the opposite end is attached to a spring
of force constant k (Fig. 13.21). The moment of inertia
of the plank about the pivot is ^mL 2 If the plank is
.

displaced a small angle 6 from the horizontal and re-

leased,show that it will move with simple harmonic
Figure 13.23 (Problem 52).
motion with an angular frequency given by a> =
\/3fc/m.
53. A small thin disk of radius r and mass m is attached
rigidly to the face of asecond thin disk of radius R and
mass Mas shown in Figure 13.24. The center of the
small disk is located at the edge of the large disk. The
large disk is mounted at its center on a frictionless
axle. The assembly is rotated through an angle from
its equilibrium position and released, (a) Show that

the speed of the center of the small disk as it passes

through the equilibrium position is
Figure 13.21 (Problem 50). 2
Rgq-cosfl)
c
- g r
.(M/m) + (r/R) 2 + 2_
L(M/m) 2j
f
51. A mass M
is attached to the end of a uniform rod of

mass Mand length L, which is pivoted at the top (Fig. (b) Show that the period of the motion is

13.22). (a) Determine the tensions in the rod at the |~ (M+ 2m)R 2 + mr 2 ~| 1 /2

pivot and at the point P when the system is stationary, 71

1 2mgR J
(b) Calculate the period of oscillation for small dis-
placements from equilibrium, and determine this pe-
riod for L = 2 m. (Hint: Assume the mass at the end of
the rod is a point mass, and make use of Eq. 13.26.)

Figure 13.24 (Problem 53).

54. A mass m is to two springs of force con-

connected
and k 2 as in Figures 13.25a and 13.25b. In
stants k 1

Figure 13.22 (Problem 51). each case, the mass moves on a frictionless table and is
displaced from equilibrium and released. Show that
52. A mass M is connected to a spring of mass m and oscil- in each case the mass exhibits simple harmonic

lates in simple harmonic motion on a horizontal,

smooth surface (Fig. 13.23). The force constant of the
motion with periods (a) T = 2n J™K+El and
V ^1^2
spring is k and the equilibrium length is (. Find (a) the
kinetic energy of the system when the mass has a
(b)T = 2
*V*7 + A-,
350 CHAPTER 13 OSCILLATORY MOTION

a period of 1 . 1 6 s. Determine (a) the spring constant it

and (b) the unknown mass.

I

m
I

A flat plate P executes horizontal simple harmonic

motion by sliding across a frictionless surface with a
frequency /= 1.5 Hz. A block B rests on the plate, as
shown in Figure 13.28, and the coefficient of static
friction between the block and the plate is// s = 0.60.
What maximum amplitude of oscillation can the plate-
block system have if the block is not to slip on the
plate?

(b)

Figure 13.25 (Problem 54).

55. A pendulum of length L and mass M has a spring of

force constant k connected to it at a distance h below
its point of suspension (Fig. 13.26). Find the fre-
quency of vibration of the system for small values of
Figure 13.28 (Problem 57).
the amplitude (small 6). (Assume the vertical suspen-
sion of length L is rigid, but neglect its mass.)
58. A long, thin rod of mass M
and length L oscillates
about its center on a cylinder of radius R (Fig. 13.29).
Show that small displacements give rise to simp le har-
monic motion with a period given by 7rL/V3gR.

Figure 13.29 (Problem 58).

59. A simple pendulum with a length of 2. 23 m and a mass

of 6.74 kg is speed of 2.06 m/s at its
given an initial
Figure 13.26 (Problem 55).
equilibrium position. Assume it undergoes simple

harmonic motion and determine its (a) period,

56. A mass m is oscillating freely on a linear spring (Fig.
(b) total energy and (c) maximum angular displace-
13.27). When m = 0.81 kg the period is 0.91 s. An ment.
unknown mass on the same spring is observed to have 60. A 50-g mass attached to a spring moves on a horizon-
tal, frictionless surface in simple harmonic motion. Its

amplitude is 16 cm, and its period is 4 s. At t = 0, the

mass is released from rest at x = 16 cm, as in Figure
13.5. Find (a) the displacement as a function of time
and its value at t = 0.5 s, (b) the magnitude and direc-
tion of the force acting on the mass at t = 0.5 s, (c) the
minimum time required for the mass to reach the po-
sition x = 8 cm, (d) the velocity at any time t and the
speed at x = 8 cm, and (e) the total mechanical energy
and force constant of the spring.
61. The mass of the deuterium molecule (D 2 ) is twice that
of the hydrogen molecule (H 2 ). If the vibrational fre-
Figure 13.27 (Problem 56). quency of H 2 is 1.3 X 10 14 Hz, what is the vibrational
 CALCULATOR/COMPUTER PROBLEMS 351

frequency of D 2 assuming that the "spring constant"

, bottom of the cube at a constant rate (dM/dt). At any
of attracting forces is the same? time t the level of the fluid in the container is £ and the
62. Show that if a torsional pendulum is twisted through length of the pendulum is L (measured relative to the
an angle 6 and then held the potential energy is U= instantaneous center of mass), (a) Sketch the appa-
JK0*. ratus and label the dimensions a, (, L , and L. (b) Find
63. A block with a mass of 2 kg hangs without vibrating at the time rate of change of the period as a function of
the end of a spring (k = 500 N/m) that is attached to time t. (c) Find the period T as a function of time.
The car is rising with an
the ceiling of an elevator car. A 67. When a mass M
connected to the end of a spring of
upward acceleration of Jg when the acceleration sud- mass m and force constant k is set into simple har-
s
denly ceases (at t = 0). (a) What is the angular fre- monic motion, the period of its motion is given by
quency of oscillation of the block after the accelera-
tion ceases? (b) By what amount is the spring
M+(m /3) s

stretched during the time that the elevator car is ac-

"-a«V
celerating? (c) What is the amplitude of the oscillation A two-part experiment is conducted with a spring

and the initial phase angle observed by a rider in the whose mass measured to be 7.4 g with various
is

car? Take the upward direction to be positive. masses suspended vertically from the spring, as in Fig-
64. A solid sphere (radius = R) rolls without slipping in a ure 13.27. (a) Displacements of 17 cm, 29.3 cm, 35.3
cylindrical trough (radius = 5R) as shown in Figure cm, 41.3 cm, 47.1 cm, and 49.3 cm are measured for
13.30. Show that for small displacements from equilib- M values of 20 g, 40 g, 50 g, 60 g, 70 g, and 80 g,
rium, perpendicular to the length of the trough, the respectively. Construct a graph of Mg versus x, and
sphere executes simple harmonic motion with a pe- perform a linear least squares fit to the data. From the
riod slope of your graph, determine a value for k for this
spring, (b) The system is now set into simple harmonic
motion, and periods are measured with a stopwatch.
With M = 80 g, the total time for 10 complete oscilla-
tions is measured to be 13.41 s. The experiment is
repeated with M
values of 70 g, 60 g, 50 g, 40 g, and
20 g, with corresponding times for 10 oscillations of
12.52 s, 11.67 s, 10.67 s, 9.62 s, and 7.03 s. Obtain
experimental values for T for each of these values. M
Plot a graph of T 2 versus the quantity M, and deter-
mine a value for k from the slope of the linear least
squares fit through the data points. Compare this
value of k with that obtained in part (a), (c) Obtain a
Figure 13.30 (Problem 64). value for m s from your graph and compare it with the
measured value.
65. A mass m is connected to two rubber bands of length
L, each under tension T, as in Figure 13.31. The mass
isdisplaced by a small distance y vertically. Assuming
CALCULATOR/COMPUTER PROBLEMS
the tension does not change appreciably, show that 68. Using Equations 13.18 and 13.19, plot (a) the kinetic
(a) the restoring force is — (2T/L)y and (b) the system energy versus time and (b) the potential energy versus
exhibits simple harmo nic moti on with an angular fre- time for a simple harmonic oscillator. For conve-
quency given by co = V2T/mL. nience, take 8 = 0. What features do these graphs il-
lustrate?
69. An object attached to the end of a spring vibrates with
an amplitude of 20 cm. Find the position of the object
at these times: 0, T/8, T/4, 3T/8, T/2, 5T/8, 3T/4,
7T/8, and T, where Tis the period of vibration. Plot
your results (position along the vertical axis and time
Figure 13.31 (Problem 65). along the horizontal axis).
70. A body oscillates with simple harmonic motion ac-
66. A light cubical container of volume a 3 is initially filled cording to the equation at = (— 7 cm) cos (2nt). (a) De-
with a fluid of mass density p. The cube is initially termine the velocity and acceleration as functions of
supported by a light string to form a pendulum of time, (b) Make a table of x, v, and a versus t for the
length L measured from the center of mass of the interval t = to t = 1 s in steps of 0.1 s. (c) Plot x, v,
filled container. The fluid is allowed to flow from the and a versus time for this interval.
352 CHAPTER 13 OSCILLATORY MOTION

The Tacoma Narrows Bridge was not the first suspension bridge to collapse. In fact, a

ESSAY survey of the history of suspension bridges shows that several were destroyed by wind
or other oscillating forces (Table 1).
However, the Tacoma Narrows Bridge was by far the longest and most expensive
Galloping Gertie: suspension bridge to collapse as a result of interaction with the wind. Perhaps this
The Tacoma collapse seemed so striking because nearly 50 years had elapsed since the previous
collapse of a bridge.
Narrows Bridge At the time of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse in 1940, many theories were
Collapse advanced to explain what had happened. What follows are excerpts from six different
explanations. Each presents a slightly different view of the role of design and wind
Robert G. Fuller factors in the collapse.
University of Nebraska -
Lincoln
Why Did The Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse? (Six Theories)
Dean A. '/oilman
Kansas State University It isvery improbable that resonance with alternating vortices plays an important role in
the oscillations of suspension bridges. First, it was found that there is no sharp correlation
between wind velocity and oscillation frequency such as is required in case of resonance
with vortices whose frequency depends on the wind velocity. Secondly, there is no
evidence for the formation of alternating vortices at a cross section similar to that used in
the Tacoma Bridge, at least as long as the structure is not oscillating. It seems that it is
more correct to say that the vortex formation and frequency is determined by the oscilla-
tion of the structure than that the oscillatory motion is induced by the vortex forma-
tion. A Report to the Honorable John M. Carmody, Administrator, Federal Works Agency,
Washington, DC. March 28, 1941.

The primary cause of the collapse lies in the general proportions of the bridge and the
type of stiffening girders and floor. The ratio of the width of the bridge to the length of the
main span was so much smaller and the vertical stiffness was so much less than those of
previously constructed bridges that forces heretofore not considered became domi-
nant. Board of Investigation, Tacoma Narrows Bridge, L.j. Sverdrup, Chairman, June 26,
1941.

Once any small undulation of the bridge is started, the resultant effect of a wind tends to
cause a building up of vertical undulations. There is a tendency for the undulations
to change to a twisting motion, until the torsional oscillations reach destructive propor-
tions. Bridges and Their Builders, D. Steinman and S. Watson, Putnam's Sons, N.Y.,
1941.

The experimental results described in a ( 1942) report indicated rather definitely that the
motions were a result of vortex shedding. University of Washington Engineering Experi-
ment Station Bulletin No. 116, 1952.

TABLE 1 Collapsed Suspension Bridges

Bridge
 ESSAY GALLOPING GERTIE: THE TACOMA NARROWS BRIDGE COLLAPSE 353

Summing up the whole bizarre accident, Galloping Gertie tore itself to pieces, because of
two characteristics: was a long, narrow, shallow, and therefore very flexible struc-
1. It

ture standing in a wind ridden valley; 2. Its stiffening support was a solid girder, which,

combined with a solid produced a cross section peculiarly vulnerable to aerody-

floor,
namic effects. Bridges and Men,/. Cies, Doubleday and Co., 1963.

Aerodynamic instability was responsible for the failure of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in
1940. The magnitude of the oscillations depends on the structure shape, natural fre-
quency, and damping. The oscillations are caused by the periodic shedding of vortices on
the leeward side of the structure, a vortex being shed first from the upper section and
then the lower section. Wind Forces on Buildings and Structures, E. Houghton and
N. Carruthers, ]. Wiley b Sons, N.Y. 1976.

Physical Principles

The general principle of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse is straightforward: a

resonance effect. However, the details of the physical mechanisms involved are nei-
ther trivial nor obvious.
Every system has a natural fundamental vibration frequency. If forces are ex-
erted on that system at the right frequency and phase, sympathetic vibrations can be
excited (see Section 13.7). Oscillating forces at the right frequency and phase can
cause sympathetic vibrations of catastrophic proportions. The forces applied to the
bridge by the wind were applied at a natural frequency of the bridge. Thus, the
amplitude of the bridge's oscillations increased until the steel and concrete could no
longer stand the stress.
But how does the fluctuating force of just the right frequency arise as the wind
blows across the bridge? The first idea that comes to mind is that the gusty wind
arrived in pulses, thereby striking the bridge at just the appropriate frequency to
cause the large oscillations. Closer examination of this explanation shows it cannot be
correct. While all wind speeds fluctuate, these fluctuations tend to be random in
phase and variable in frequency. Wind gusts are not the answer. Furthermore, the
kinds of forces that must be exerted on the bridge are vertical forces transverse to —
the direction of the wind. The wind was blowing across the bridge (from side to side,
as shown in Figure 1), while the forces on the bridge were acting vertically. These
oscillating vertical forces can be explained by a concept called vortex shedding.
When a wind that exceeds a minimum speed blows around any object, vortices will be
formed on the back side of that object (see Figure 2).

LLt

Figure 1 Direction of wind blowing across the bridge. (Continued on next page)
354 CHAPTER 13 OSCILLATORY MOTION

Wind
&> "--*-
1-5) ^
^---^J'(O) _,_

Figure 2 Vortex shedding.

As the wind increases in speed, the vortices form on alternate sides of the down-
wind side of the object, break loose, and flow downstream. At the time a vortex breaks
loose from the back side of the object, a transverse force is exerted on the object. The
frequency of these fluctuating eddies is about 20% of the ratio of the velocity of the
wind to the width of the object. These lateral forces can be as much as twice as large as
the drag forces. Thus, vortex shedding allows us to understand the origin of the
fluctuating vertical forces on the Tacoma Narrows Bridge even though the wind was
blowing across it in a transverse, horizontal direction.

Model of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge

Let us create a model of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge and treat it as if it were sus-
pended by two springs with equal force constants, as shown in a cross-sectional view
in Figure 3.
We can then write down the equations of motion using Newton's second law for
translation (Eq. 1) and for rotation (Eq. 2).

Ma=-k( yi + y 2) (1)

4 Ia = kW
(«/2
_ «/i) (2)

Figure 3 Cross-sectional view of We then make a small angle approximation (Eq. 3)

the bridge
9
w~ (3)

and assume simple harmonic motion forms for the solutions to the simultaneous
equations. Thus, we can write the solutions as:

yl
= Aj sin(wt) and y2 — A 2 sin(a»f.)
We can write down in a standard way the two normal mode solutions for this cross
section of the bridge. The vertical motion in which the amplitudes of oscillation of the

two sides are equal in magnitude and direction has a frequency, co v ,

S (forAi (4)

The torsional motion in which the amplitudes of the two sides are equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction and has a frequency co t where a> t is given by ,

„ kW 2 = - A2
(for Ai ) (5)
2MB. 2

The latter frequency describes the twisting motion that ultimately caused the
bridge to fall down. The exact values for these oscillation frequencies depend on the
characteristics of the bridge. On the basis of the physical properties of the first

Tacoma Narrows Bridge, we find that the values appropriate for this analysis are:
 ESSAY GALLOPING GERTIE: THE TACOMA NARROWS BRIDGE COLLAPSE 355

Frequency distribution (rad/s)

Figure 4 Typical values for Aw.

mass per unit length = 4.3 X 10 3 kg/m, width of the bridge = 12 m, radius of gyra-
tion of the bridge = 4.8 m, effective spring constant = 1.5 X 10 3 N/m. These nu-
merical values result in the vertical normal mode frequency of 8 cycles per minute
and the torsional motion of 10 cycles per minute. The approximate equality of these
two frequencies played an important role in the fate of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge.
In a real system the normal mode frequency will not be a single frequency, but
rather a distribution of frequencies. The energy per unit time that is accepted by a
mode of oscillation is given by the following equation:
1
P(co) (6)
'AaA«
(co - w +
2
)

where Aco is the width of the resonance response curve at half maximum. The maxi-
mum increases with the tendency of the system to resist oscillations. For the original
Tacoma Narrows Bridge, the tendencies of the bridge to resist vertical and rotational,
or torsional, motions were different. Hence, the P(co) function for vertical and tor-
sionalmotion has different values for co the normal mode frequency and for Aco.
,

Using the constants given above, the values for co v and co t for vertical and torsional
, ,

motion can be computed. Graphs of P(co) v and P(co), versus co using typical values for
Aco are shown in Figure 4. The area of overlap of the two curves indicates the
tendency of the vertical motion to pump energy into the rotational motion.
As can be seen in Table 2, the ratio of torsional to vertical frequencies for other
long bridges is significantly larger than the ratio for the first Tacoma Narrows Bridge.

TABLE 2 Ratio of Torsional to Vertical Frequencies in Suspension Bridges

J
Bridge Length (m) /„(min ') /«(min )

Verrazano
356 CHAPTER 13 OSCILLATORY MOTION

Figure 5 (a) High winds set up vibrations in the bridge, causing it to oscillate at a frequency
near to one of the natural frequencies of the bridge structure, (b) Once established, this reso-
nance condition led to the bridge's collapse. (UPI/Bettmann Newsphotos)

Even before the Tacoma Narrows Bridge was opened, the vortex shedding forces
were pumping energy into the vertical motion of the bridge. Vertical oscillations
were noticed early, and many people avoided using the bridge. However, the tor-
day of the collapse. On that day a mechanical
sional oscillations did not occur until the
failure allowed the torsional oscillations to begin. Because this motion was closely
coupled to the vertical motion of the bridge, it quickly led to its destruction. The
photographs (Fig. 5) show the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge and provide a
vivid demonstration of mechanical resonance.

Public Perceptions

It isinteresting to recall some public perceptions involving the bridge collapse.

Locals had already noticed for some time that, when driving across this technological
marvel, they would experience an undeniable bounce. Some tried to deal with this
humorously. For example, the bridge was often referred to as "Galloping Gertie."
An editorial in the Tacoma Times dated August 25, 1940 (soon after the bridge
was opened) made the following comment regarding the tolls being charged:
There is no truth to the rumor that part of the Narrows Bridge toll is for the scenic railway
effects. The charge is for cross onlyand the bounce is free.

Before the Tacoma Bridge collapsed, bridges had been considered secure, so
much so that a local insurance agent who had arranged a second $800,000 auxiliary
policy on the bridge had never bothered to pay the premium. Instead, he pocketed
the money and was sent to jail following the disaster.
 ESSAY GALLOPING GERTIE: THE TACOMA NARROWS BRIDGE COLLAPSE 357

The collapse of theTacoma Narrows Bridge was a watershed in the design of

suspension bridges. The debates as to who was responsible and whether anything
could have been done to prevent the collapse continue.

Suggested Readings
Aerodynamic Stability of Suspension Bridges, University of Washington, Engineering
Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 116, Parts I, II, III, IV, and V, University of
Washington Press, Seattle, 1949, 1950, 1952, and 1954.
O'Connor, C, Design of Bridge Superstructures, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1971.
The Failure of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge. A Reprint of Original Reports, School of
Engineering, Texas Engineering Experiment Station, College Station, Texas,
Bulletin No. 78, 1944.
Robert C, Dean Zollman, and Thomas C. Campbell, The Puzzle of the Tacoma
Fuller,
Narrows Bridge Collapse, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1982.
Houghton, E.L., and N.B. Carruthers, Wind Forces on Buildings and Structures: An
Introduction, New York, Halsted Press, 1976.
Scigliano, Eric, "Galloping Gertie," Pacific Northwest, January 1989.
Simiu, E., and R.H. Scanlan, Wind Effects on Structures: An Introduction to Wind
Engineering, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1978.
Steinman, D.B., "Suspension Bridges: The Aerodynamic Problem and its Solution,"
American 1954, pp. 397-438.
Scientist, July
Wind Effects on Bridges and Other Flexible Structures, Notes on Applied Science, No.
1, National Physics Laboratory, London, 1955.

Essay Questions
1. The Tacoma Narrows Bridge was a two-lane bridge. How would the bridge have
behaved had it been a four-lane bridge?
2. Based on current knowledge, what would have been your advice for a "quick fix"
for the bridge which could possibly have averted the disaster?

Essay Problems
1. Derive the frequency relations of Equations (4) and (5) by solving Equations (1),
(2), and (3). Assume that the solutions are simple harmonic vibrations.
2. Calculate the effect of stiffening the bridge suspension by increasing the effec-
tive spring constant of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge by 50%.
3. How much change in the total mass of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge is necessary to
bring the vibrational frequency down to that of the Golden Gate Bridge? Assume
uniform mass distribution.
 14
The Law of Universal Gravitation

This image of Saturn, taken by

Voyager I spacecraft on
October 18, 1980, was color-
enhanced to increase the
visibility of large, bright
features in Saturn's North
Temperate Belt. The largest
violet-colored cloud belt (its

true color is brownish) is

Saturn 's North Equatorial Belt.
The distinct color difference
between this and other belts
and zones may be due to a
thicker haze layer covering the
northern portion of the belt.
Three separate Voyager I
images taken through
ultraviolet, green, and violet
filters were used to construct
and red color
this blue, green,
composite. (Courtesy of NASA)

686, a great mass of data had been collected on the motions

to of
Prior 1

the moon and the planets but a clear understanding of the forces that
caused these bodies to move the way they did was not avail-
celestial
able. In that year, however, Isaac Newton provided the key that un-
locked the secrets of the heavens. He knew, from the first law, that a net force
had to be acting on the moon. If not, it would move in a straight-line path
rather than in its almost circular orbit. Newton reasoned that this force arose as
a result of a gravitational attraction that the earth exerts on the moon. He also
concluded that there could be nothing special about the earth-moon system or
the sun and its planets that would cause gravitational forces to act on them
alone. In other words, he saw that the same force of attraction that causes the
moon to follow path also causes an apple to fall to earth from a tree. He
its

wrote, "I deduced that the forces which keep the planets in their orbs must be
reciprocally as the squares of their distances from the centers about which
they revolve; and thereby compared the force requisite to keep the Moon in
her orb with force of gravity at the surface of the Earth; and found them answer
pretty nearly."

358
 14.1 NEWTON'S UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITY 359

In this chapter we shall study the law of universal gravitation. Emphasis

will be placed on describing the motion of the planets, since astronomical data
provide an important test of the validity of the law of universal gravitation. We
shall show that the laws of planetary motion developed by Johannes Kepler
(1571-1630) follow from the law of universal gravitation and the concept of
the conservation of angular momentum. A general expression for the gravita-
tional potential energy will be derived, and the energetics of planetary and
satellite motion will be treated. The law of universal gravitation will also be
used to determine the force between a particle and an extended body.

14.1 NEWTON'S UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITY

It has been said that Newton was struck on the head by a falling apple while
napping under a tree (or some variation of this legend). This supposedly
prompted Newton to imagine that perhaps all bodies in the universe are
attracted to each other in the same way the apple was attracted to the earth.
Newton proceeded to analyze astronomical data on the motion of the moon
around the earth. From the analysis of such data, Newton made the bold
statement that the law of force governing the motion of planets has the same
mathematical form as the force law that attracts a falling apple to the earth.
In 1687 Newton published his work on the universal law of gravity in his
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Newton's law of gravitation
states that

every particle universe attracts every other particle with a force

in the
that is and inversely
directly proportional to the product of their masses
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Ifthe particles have masses m, and m 2 and are separated by a distance r, the
magnitude of this gravitational force is

F=G m m 1 2
(14.1) Universal law of gravity

where G is a universal constant called the gravitational constant, which has

been measured experimentally. Its value in SI units is

N m2
•

G= 6.672 X 10" 11 (14.2)

kg 2

The force law given by Equation 14.1 is often referred to as an inverse-

square law, since the magnitude of the force varies as the inverse square of the
separation of the particles. We can express this force in vector form by defin-
ing a unit vector f 12 (Fig. 14.1). Because this unit vector is in the direction of
the displacement vector r 12 directed from m 1 tom 2 the force on m 2 due to m l
,

is given by

F ,=-G (14.3)
Figure 14.1 The gravitational
force between two particles is at-

tractive. The unit vector f l2 is di-

The minus sign in Equation 14.3 indicates that m 2 is attracted to m 1
and so the
,
rected from m to m Note that
.
x 2
force must be directed toward m Y
. Likewise, by Newton's third law the force F12 = —F%\-
360 CHAPTER 14 THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

on ?7ij due to m2 , designated F12 is equal in magnitude to F21 and in the

,

opposite direction. That is, these forces form an action-reaction pair, and

There are several features of the inverse-square law that deserve some
Properties of the gravitational attention. The gravitational force acts as an action-at-a-distance force, which
force always exists between two particles, regardless of the medium that separates
them. The force varies as the inverse square of the distance between the
particles and therefore decreases rapidly with increasing separation. Finally,
the gravitational force is proportional to the mass of each particle.
Another important fact is that the gravitational force exerted by a finite-
size, spherically symmetric mass distribution on a particle outside the sphere is
the same as if the entire mass of the sphere were concentrated at its center. For
example, the force on a particle of mass m at the earth's surface has the
magnitude

F~ G
Re2
where M
e is the earth's
mass and Re is the earth's radius. This force is directed
toward the center of the earth.

14.2 MEASUREMENT OF THE GRAVITATIONAL

CONSTANT
The was first measured in an important experiment
gravitational constant, G,
by Sir Henry Cavendish 1798. The Cavendish apparatus consists of two
in
small spheres each of mass m fixed to the ends of a light horizontal rod sus-
pended by a fine fiber or thin metal wire, as in Figure 14.2. Two large spheres
each of mass M
are then placed near the smaller spheres. The attractive force
between the smaller and larger spheres causes the rod to rotate and twist the
wire suspension. If the system is oriented as shown in Figure 14.2, the rod
rotates clockwise when viewed from the top. The angle through which the
suspended rod rotates is measured by the deflection of a light beam reflected

Figure 14.2 (a) Schematic diagram of the Cavendish apparatus for measuring G. The smaller
spheres of mass tn are attracted to the large spheres of mass M, and the bar rotates through a small
angle. A light beam reflected from a mirror on the rotating apparatus measures the angle of
rotation, (b) Photograph of a student Cavendish apparatus. (Courtesy of PASCO Scientific)
 14.3 WEIGHT AND GRAVITATIONAL FORCE 361

from a mirror attached to the vertical suspension. The deflected spot of light is
an effective technique for amplifying the motion. The experiment is carefully
repeated with different masses at various separations. In addition to providing
a value for G, the results show that the force is attractive, proportional to the
product mM, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r.

EXAMPLE 14.1 Three Interacting Masses The force on the 4-kg mass due to the 2-kg mass is

Three uniform spheres of mass 2 kg, 4 kg, and 6 kg are upward and given by
placed at the corners of a right triangle as in Figure 14.3,
where the coordinates are in m. Calculate the resultant
gravitational force on the 4-kg mass, assuming the
spheres are isolated from the rest of the universe. _n N 1 mf\ (4 kg)(2 kg)
= 6.67 X 10
kg 2 / (3 m) 2 •

Solution First we calculate the individual forces on the

= 5.93X10- n jN
4-kg mass due to the 2-kg and 6-kg masses separately,
and then we find the vector sum to get the resultant force The force on the 4-kg mass due to the 6-kg mass is to the

on the 4-kg mass. left and given by

(-«•)

(0, 3) m N m2 \ (4 kg)(6 kg)

2 kg
=(" 6.67 X 10 _u
kg 2 /
) (4 m) 2
= -10.0X 10- u iN
'F 4,

(-4, 0)m Therefore, the resultant force on the 4-kg mass is the
vector sum of F42 and F46 :

-O 6 kg
"4 kg F4 = F42 + F46 = (- lO.Oi + 5.93j) X 10"» N

The magnitude of this force is 11.6 X 10~

u N, which is
only 2.62 X 10 -11 lb! The force makes an angle of 149°
Figure 14.3 (Example 14.1) The resultant force on the 4-kg
mass is the vector sum F46 + F42 .
with the positive x axis.

14.3 WEIGHT AND GRAVITATIONAL FORCE

In Chapter 5 we defined the weight of a body of mass m as simply mg, where g
is the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity. Now, we are in a position to

obtain a more fundamental description of g. Since the force on a freely falling

body of mass m near the surface of the earth is given by Equation 14.1, we can
equate mg to this expression to give

mg = G
Mm
e

"r7

g = G M. (14.4) Acceleration due to gravity

where M
e is the
mass of the earth and R e is the earth's radius. Using the facts
that g =
9.80 m/s 2 at the earth's surface and the radius of the earth is approxi-
mately 6.38 X 10 6 m, we find from Equation 14.4 that e = 5.98 X 10 kg.
24
M
362 CHAPTER 14 THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

From this result, the average density of the earth is calculated to be

M„ M e 5.98 X 10 24
kg
= 5.50 X 10 3 kg/m 3
Pe
V. 47rR„ 4
tt(6.38 X 10 6 m) 3

Since this value is about twice the density of most rocks at the earth's surface,

we conclude that the inner core of the earth has a much higher density.
Now consider a body of mass m a distance h above the earth's surface, or a
distance r from the earth's center, where r = R e + h. The magnitude of the
gravitational force acting on this mass is given by

M m _ _Mjn_
F-C^" e

r* ~^(R + hf e

If the body is in free fall, then F=

mg' and we see that g', the acceleration of
gravity at the altitude h, is given by

GM e GM e
Variation of g with altitude (14.5)
r2 (Re + W
Thus, it follows that g' decreases with increasing altitude. Since the true weight
of a body is mg', we see that as r
—> °°, the true weight approaches zero.

EXAMPLE 14.2 Variation of g with Altitude h D

TABLE 14.1 Acceleration
Determine the magnitude of the acceleration of gravity
Due to Gravity, g\ at
at an altitude of 500 km. By what percentage is the
Various Altitudes
weight of a body reduced at this altitude?
Altitude h (km) a

Solution Using Equation 14.5 with h = 500 km, Re =

M
6.38 X 10 6 m, and e = 5.98 X 10 24 kg gives

GM e

(Re + h) 2

(6.67 X 10- n N m 2 /kg 2 )(5.98 X 10 24 kg)

(6.38 X 10 6 + 0.5X 10 6 2 m 2
)

= 8.43 m/s 2

Since g'/g = 8.43/9.8 = 0.86, we conclude that the

weight of a body is reduced by about 14% at an altitude
of 500 km. Values of g' at other altitudes are listed in
Table 14.1.
 14.4 KEPLER'S LAWS 363

earth and the other planets revolve in circular orbits about the sun (the helio-
centric hypothesis).
The Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) made accurate astro-
nomical measurements over a period of 20 years and provided the basis for the
currently accepted model of the solar system. It is interesting to note that
these precise observations, made on the planets and 777 stars visible to the
naked eye, were carried out with a large sextant and compass because the
telescope had not yet been invented.
The German astronomer Johannes Kepler, who was Brahe's student, ac-
quired Brahe's astronomical data and spent about 16 years trying to deduce a
mathematical model for the motion of the planets. After many laborious calcu-
lations, he found that Brahe's precise data on the revolution of Mars about the
sun provided the answer. Such data are difficult to sort out because the earth is
also in motion about the sun. Kepler's analysis first showed that the concept of
circular orbits about the sun had to be abandoned. He eventually discovered Johannes Kepler (1 571-1630),
German astronomer, (The Bett-
that the orbit of Mars could be accurately described by an ellipse with the sun
mann Archive)
at one focus. He then generalized this analysis to include the motion of all
planets. The complete analysis is summarized in three statements, known as
Kepler's laws. These empirical laws applied to the solar system are:

1 All planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one of the focal
points.
2. The radius vector drawn from the sun to any planet sweeps out equal Kepler's laws
areas in equal time intervals.
3. The square of the orbital period of any planet is proportional to the
cube of the seminiajor axis of the elliptical orbit.

About 100 years later, Newton demonstrated that these laws are the
consequence of a simple force that exists between any two masses. Newton's
law of universal gravitation, together with his development of the laws of
motion, provides the basis for a full mathematical solution to the motion of
planets and satellites. More important, Newton's universal law of gravity
correctly describes the gravitational attractive force between any two masses.

(Lefi) The earth as viewed from space. (Right)

Voyager I took this photo of Jupiter and two of
and Europa) on February
its satellites (Io, left,

13, 1979. Io is about 350,000 km (220,000

miles) above Jupiter's Great Red Spot; Europa

is about 600,000 km (375,000 miles) above
Jupiter's clouds. (Courtesy of NASA)
364 CHAPTER 14 THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

14.5 THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION AND

THE MOTION OF PLANETS
In formulating his law of universal gravitation, Newton used the following
observation, which suggests that the gravitational force is proportional to the
inverse square of the separation. Let us compare the acceleration of the moon
in its orbit with the acceleration of an object falling near the earth's surface,
such as the legendary apple (Fig. 14.4). Assume that both accelerations have
the same cause, namely, the gravitational attraction of the earth. From the
inverse-square law, Newton found that the acceleration of the moon toward
2
the earth (centripetal acceleration) should be proportional to l/rm where rm ,

is the earth-moon separation. Furthermore, the acceleration of the apple

toward the earth should vary as 1 /Re 2 where R e is the radius of the earth. Using
,

the values r m 3.84 X 10 8 m and Re = 6.37 X 10 6 m, the ratio of the moon's

=
acceleration, a m to the apple's acceleration, g, is predicted to be
,

(l/0 2 _;/HA 2
/ 6.37X10 6 m
2
•, =
\rm )
,
|

\3.84X10 8 m/
y=
,
17
-
|()

g (1/Re)

Therefore

The acceleration of the moon am = (2.75 X l(r 4 )(9.80 m/s 2 ) = 2.70 X KT 3 m/s 2

The centripetalacceleration of the moon can also be calculated kinemati-

cally from a knowledge of its orbital period, T, where T= 27.32 days
=
2.36 X 10 6 s, and its mean distance from the earth, rm In a time T, the moon .

travels a distance 2nrm which equals the circumference of its orbit. There-
,

fore, its orbital speed is InrjT, and its centripetal acceleration is

m
= vl= (2nrjT)> , 4^ = 4,(2.36X10
X 2
(3.84 10* m)
6 2
= '
rm rm T2 s)

This agreement provides strong evidence that the inverse-square law of force
is correct.

Figure 14.4 As the moon revolves about the earth, the moon experiences a centripetal acceler?
tion a m directed toward the earth. An object near the earth's surface experiences an acceler-.ion
equal to g. (Dimensions are not to scale.)
 14.5 THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION AND THE MOTION OF PLANETS 365

Although these results must have been very encouraging to Newton, he

was deeply troubled by an assumption made in the analysis. In order to evalu-
ate the acceleration of an object at the earth's surface, the earth was treated as
if its mass were all concentrated at its center. That is, Newton assumed that the

earth acts as a particle as far as its influence on an exterior object is concerned.

Several years later, and based on his pioneering work in the development of
the calculus, Newton proved this point. (The details of the derivation are given
in Section 14.11.) For this reason, and because of Newton's inherent shyness,
the publication of the theory of gravitation was delayed for about 20 years.

Kepler's Third Law

Figure 14.5 A planet of mass Mp
It isinformative to show that Kepler's third law can be predicted from the moving in a circular orbit about the
inverse-square law for circular orbits. 1 Consider a planet of mass p
which is M sun.The orbits of all planets except
assumed be moving about the sun of mass s in a circular orbit, as in Figure
to M Mars, Mercury, and Pluto are
nearly circular.
14.5. Since the gravitational force on the planet is equal to the centripetal
force needed to keep it moving in a circle,

GM Mp _ Mp v
s
2

r2 r

But the orbital velocity of the planet is simply 2nr/T, where T is its period;
therefore the above expression becomes

GM _ S
(2nr/T) 2
r2

(14.6) Kepler's third law

where K s
is a constant given by

K = ^tt - 2.97 X lfr 19 s

2
/m 3
s
GM S

Equation 14.6 is Kepler's third law. The law is also valid for elliptical
orbits if we replace r by the length of the semimajor axis, a (Fig. 14.6). Note
that the constant of proportionality, K s , is independent of the mass of the
planet. Therefore, Equation 1 4.6 is valid for any planet. If we were to consider
the orbit of a satellite about the earth, such as the moon, then the constant
would have a different value, with the sun's mass replaced by the earth's mass.
In this case, the proportionality constant equals 4n 2 /GMe .

A collection of useful planetary data is given in Table 14.2. The last

column of this table verifies that T 2 /r 3 is a constant whose value is given by
K = 4n 2 /GMs = 2.97 X 10~ 19 s 2 /m 3
s
.

Figure 14.6 Plot of an ellipse.

1
The orbits ofplanets except Mars, Mercury, and Pluto are very close to being circular. For
all The semimajor axis has a length a,
example, the ratio of the semiminor to the semimajor axis for the earth is b/a = 0.99986. Although and the semiminor axis has a length
the orbit of the earth is nearly circular, the sun is not at the center of the orbit. Hence, the b. The focal points are located at a
difference between perihelion (minimum distance from the sun) and aphelion (maximum distance distance c from the center, where
from the sun) is much greater than might be inferred from the comparison of semimajor and a2 = b 2 + c 2 and the eccentricity is
,

semiminor axes. defined as e = c/a.

366 CHAPTER 14 THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

TABLE 14.2 Useful Planetary Data

Body Mass (kg) Mean Radius (m) Period (s) Distance from Sun (in)
(5)
Mercury-
 14.6 THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD 367

We can relate this result to the following geometric consideration. The

radius vector r in Figure 14.7b sweeps out an area dA in a time dt. This area
equals one half the area \r X dr\ of the parallelogram formed by the vectors
r and dr. Since the displacement of the planet in a time dt is given by dr = v dt,
we get

dA = i|r X dr\ = \\r X v dt\ = -~-dt

dA
—r- = —L— = constant (14.7) Kepler's second law
dt 2m

where L and m are both constants of the motion. Thus, we conclude that

the radius vector from the sun to any planet sweeps out equal areas in
equal times.

It isimportant to recognize that this result, which is Kepler's second law, is a

consequence of the fact that the force of gravity is a central force, which in turn
implies conservation of angular momentum. Therefore, the law applies to any
situation that involves a central force, whether inverse-square or not.
The inverse-square nature of the force of gravity is not revealed by
Kepler's second law. Although we do not prove it here, Kepler's first law is a
2
direct consequence of the fact that the gravitational force varies as 1/r That .

is, under an inverse-square force law, the orbits of the planets can be shown to

be ellipses with the sun at one focus.

EXAMPLE 14.4 Motion in an Elliptical Orbit

A planet of mass m moves in an elliptical orbit about the
sun (Fig. 14.8). The minimum and maximum distances of
368 CHAPTER 14 THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

space. When a particle of mass tn is placed at a point where the field is g, the

particle experiences a force F= mg. In other words, the field g exerts a force
on the particle. Hence, the gravitational field is defined by

Gravitational field (14.8)

That is, the gravitational field at any point equals the gravitational force that a
test mass experiences divided by that test mass. Consequently, ifgis known at
some point in space, a test particle of mass m experiences a gravitational force
mg when placed at that point.
As an example, consider an object of mass m near the earth's surface. The
gravitational force on the object is directed toward the center of the earth and
has a magnitude mg. Thus we see that the gravitational field that the object
experiences at some point has a magnitude equal to the acceleration of gravity
at that point. Since the gravitational force on the object has a magnitude
M
GMe m/r 2 (where e is the mass of the earth), the field g at a distance r from the
center of the earth is given by

F GM„

This expression is valid at all points outside the earth's surface, assuming that
the earth is spherical and that the earth's rotation can be neglected. At the
earth's surface, where r = R e ghas a magnitude of 9.80 m/s
2
.
,

The field concept is used in many other areas of physics. In fact, the field
concept was first introduced by Michael Faraday (1 79 1 - 1867) in the study of
electromagnetism. Later in the text we shall use the field concept to describe

Messier 83 (NGC 5236), a large

spiral galaxy in the constellation of
Centaurus, is one of the brightest
galaxies in the southern
visible
hemisphere. This whirlpool of stars
is about 30,000 lightyears in di-

ameter and 10 million lightyears

away from our solar system. It is
receding from us at a speed of
about 320 km (200 miles) per
second. (© Anglo-Australian Tele-
scope Board 1986)
 14.7 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY 369

electromagnetic interactions. Gravitational, electrical, and magnetic fields are

all examples of vector fields since a vector is associated with each point in

space. On the other hand, a scalar field is one in which a scalar quantity is used
to describe each point in space. For example, the variation in temperature
over a given region can be described by a scalar temperature field.

14.7 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

In Chapter 8 we introduced the concept of gravitational potential energy, that
is,the energy associated with the position of a particle. We emphasized the
fact that the gravitational potential energy function, U is valid only= mgy,
when the particle near the earth's surface. Since the gravitational force
is

between two particles varies as 1/r2 we expect that the correct potential
,

energy function will depend on the amount of separation between the parti-
cles.
Before we calculate the specific form for the gravitational potential en-
ergy function, we shall first verify that the gravitational force is conservative. In
order to establish the conservative nature of the gravitational force, we first
note that it is a central force. By definition, a central force is one that depends
only on the polar coordinate r, and hence can be represented by F(r)f, where f
is a unit vector directed from the origin to the particle under consideration.

Such a force acts from some origin and is directed parallel to the radius vector.
Consider a central force acting on a particle moving along the general
path P to O in Figure 14.9. The central force acts from the point O. This path
can be approximated by a series of radial and circular segments. By definition,
a central force is always directed along one of the radial segments; therefore
the work done along any radial segment is given by Figure 14.9 A particle moves
from P to Q while under the action
dW = F- dr = F(r) dr of a central force F, which is in the
radial direction. The path is broken
You should recall that by definition the work done by a force that is perpendic- into a series of radial and circular
ular to the displacement is zero. Hence, the work done along any circular segments. Since the work done
segment is zero because F is perpendicular to the displacement along these
along the circular segments is zero,
the work done is independent of
segments. Therefore, the total work done by Fis the sum of the contributions the path.
along the radial segments:

W= F(r)dr Work done by

-f a central force

where the subscripts i and f refer to the initial and final positions. This result
applies to any path from P to Q. Therefore, we conclude
any central force
that
is conservative. We are now assured that a potential energy function can be

obtained once the form of the central force is specified. You should recall from
Chapter 8 that the change in the gravitational potential energy associated with
a given displacement is defined as the negative of the work done by the
gravitational force during that displacement, or

(14.9)

We can use this result to evaluate the gravitational potential energy func-
tion. Consider a particle of mass m moving between two points P and Q above
 -

370 CHAPTER 14 THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

the earth's surface (Fig. 14.10). The particle is subject to the gravitational
force given by Equation 14.1. We can express the force on m in vector form as
F= GMr m

where f is a unit vector directed from the earth to the particle and the negative
sign indicates that the force is attractive. Substituting this into Equation 14.9,
we can compute the change in the gravitational potential energy function:
Figure 14.10 As a particle of mass
m moves from P to Q above the Ut - t/ = GMe m
f
earth's surface, the potential en-
ergy changes according to Equa-
tion 14.10.

U,-U, = -GM m (14.10)

m
(H)
As always, the choice of a reference point for the potential energy is completely
arbitrary. It is customary to choose the reference point where the force is zero.
Taking L/j = at r = °°, we obtain the important result
;

Gravitational potential
= GMjn
U(r) (14.11)
energy r > Re

This expression applies to the earth-particle system separated by a distance r,

provided that r> R e The result is not valid for particles moving inside the
.

earth, where r e <R We

shall treat this situation in Section 14.10. Because of
.

our choice of Uiy

the function U(r) is always negative (Fig. 14.11).
Although Equation 14.11 was derived for the particle-earth system, it can
be applied to any two particles. That is, the gravitational potential energy
associated with any pair of particles of masses m 1 and m 2 separated by a
distance r is given by

U=
Gm,mo — (14.12)

^&m*
This expression shows that the gravitational potential energy for any pair
2
of particles varies as 1/r, whereas the force between them varies as 1/r .

Furthermore, the potential energy is negative since the force is attractive and
we have taken the potential energy as zero when the particle separation is
infinity.Since the force between the particles is attractive, we know that an
external agent must do positive work to increase the separation between the
two particles. The work done by the external agent produces an increase in the
potential energy as the two particles are separated. That is, U becomes less
negative as r increases. (Note that part of the work done can also produce a
CM,,,! change in kinetic energy of the system. That is, if the work done in separating
/».
the particles exceeds the increase in potential energy, the excess energy is
accounted for by the increase in kinetic energy of the system.) When the two
Figure 14.11 Graph of the gravi- particles are separated by a distance r, an external agent would have to supply
tational potential energy, U, versus
r for a particle above the earth's
an energy at least equal to + 1
Gm m
2 /r in order to
separate the particles by an
surface. The potential energy goes infinite distance. Itconvenient to think of the absolute value of the potential
is

to zero as r approaches «. energy as the binding energy of the system. If the external agent supplies an
 14.8 ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS IN PLANETARY AND SATELLITE MOTION 371

energy greater than the binding energy, Gm 1 m 2 /r, the additional energy of the
system will be in the form of kinetic energy when the particles are at an infinite
separation.
We
can extend this concept to three or more particles. In this case, the
total potentialenergy of the system is the sum over all pairs of particles. 3 Each
pair contributes a term of the form given by Equation 14.12. For example, if
the system contains three particles as in Figure 14.12, we find that Figure 14.12 Diagram of three
interacting particles.
m m3 m2m 3
t/tota! = Ul2 + Ul3 + U2 x
(14.13)
\ r l2

The absolute value of Utotai represents the work needed to separate the parti-
cles by an system consists of four particles, there are
infinite distance. If the
six terms in the sum, corresponding to the six distinct pairs of interaction
forces.

EXAMPLE 14.5 The Change in Potential Energy If both the initial and the final position of the particle are
A particle of mass m is displaced through a small vertical close to the earth's surface, then r( r = Ay and rff~ — {

2 measured from the center of the

distance Ay near the earth's surface. Let us show that the Re . (Recall that r is

general expression for the change in gravitational poten- earth.) Therefore, the change in potential energy be-
tial energy given by Equation 14.10 reduces to the famil- comes
iar relationship AU = mg Ay. >,r.
A17- —
GM m e
-r-Ay A
mgAy
Solution We can express Equation 14.10 in the form
where we have used the fact that g = GMe/Re 2 Keep in .

mind that the reference point is arbitrary, since it is the

AU=- GMe m (---) = GMe m (^77^) change in potential energy that is meaningful.

14.8 ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS IN PLANETARY

AND SATELLITE MOTION
Consider a body of mass m moving with a speed v in the vicinity of a massive
body of mass M, where M> m. The system might be a planet moving around
the sun or a satellite in orbit around the earth. If we assume that Mis at rest in
an inertial reference frame, then the total energy E of the two-body system
when the bodies are separated by a distance r is the sum of the kinetic energy
of the mass m
and the potential energy of the system, given by Equation
14.12. 4 Thatis,

E= K+U
3 The fact that one can add potential energy terms for all pairs of particles stems from the
obey the superposition principle. That is, if 2F =
". the
. .greater the veloc-
experimental fact that gravitational forces
+ F\ 3 + F23 + then there exists a potential energy term for each interaction F j. ity .. with which (a stone) is
.

^12 • • •
(
projected, the farther it goes be-
4
You might recognize that we have
ignored the acceleration and kinetic energy of the larger fore it falls to the earth. may We
mass. To see that this is reasonable, consider an object of mass m falling toward the earth. Since the therefore suppose the velocity to
center of mass of the object-earth system is stationary, it follows that mv = e v e Thus, the earth M .
be so increased, that it would de-
acquires a kinetic energy equal to scribe an arc of 1, 2, 5, 10, 100,
1000 miles before it arrived at the
±Me 2 1 " 2 V
t>« earth, till at last, exceeding the
t limits of the earth, it should pass
where K is the kinetic energy of the object. Since M r > m, the kinetic energy of the earth is into space without touching." —
negligible. Newton, System of the World.
 : CHAPTER M THE LAW OF l-MVERSAL CRAYTTATION

GMm
£ = ±mv 2 — ,14.14'

Furthermore, the total energy is conserved if we assume the system is isolated.

Therefore as the mass m moves from Pto Q in Figure 14.10. the total energy
remains constant and Equation 14.14 gives

GMm GMm
£= j/ni-j
2
t""f V14.15)

Figure 14.13 A body of mass m This result shows that £ may be positive, negative, or zero, depending on
moving in a circular orbit about a the value of the velocity of the mass m. However, for abound system, such as
bodv of mass SI the earth and sun. E is necessarily less than zero. We can easily establish that
£< for the system consisting of a mass mmoving in a circular orbit about a
body of mass M. where M > m (Fig. 14.13). Newton's second law applied to
the body of mass m gives

GMm mv 2

Multiplying both sides by r and dividing by 2 gives

. „ GMm
(14.16)

Substituting this into Equation 14.14. we obtain

GMm GMm

GMm
Total energy for circular orbits £=- (14.17)
•2r

This clearly shows that the total energy must be negative in the case of circular
orbits. Note that the kinetic energy is positive and equal to one half the magni-
tude of the potential energy. The absolute value of £ is also equal to the binding
energy of the system.
The total mechanical energy is also negative in the case of elliptical
orbits. 5 The expression for £ for elliptical orbits is the same as Equation 14.17
with r replaced by the semimajor axis length, a.

Both the total energy and the total angular momentum of a planet-sun
m are constants of the motion.

5This is shown in more advanced mechanics texts. One can also show that if £ = 0. the mass would
move in a parabolic path, whereas if E > 0. its path would be hyperbolic. Nothing in Equation
14.14 precludes a particle with £ a from reaching infinitely great distances from the gravitating
center that is. the particle's orbit is unbound Infinitely great distances are energetically forbid-
t
1
.

den to a particle with E < 0. so its orbit is bound.

 1-4.8 ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS IN PLANETARY AND SATELLITE MOTION 373

EXAMPLE 14.6 Changing the Orbit of a Satellite For example, if we take m= 10 3 kg, we find that the
Calculate the work required to move an earth satellite work required is W—
5.2 X 10 9 J, which is the energy
of mass m from a circular orbit of radius 'ZR^ to one of equivalent of 39 gal of gasoline.
radius 3R,, If we wish to determine how the energy is distrib-

uted after doing work on the system, we find from Equa-

tion 14.16 that the change in kinetic energy is AK =
Solution Applying Equation 14.17, we get for the total — GA/e m/12fle (it decreases), while the corresponding
initial and final energies change in potential energy is AU=GM
e m/6R e (it in-
creases). Thus, the work done on the system is given by

_ CMe m _ GMe m W= AK + AU= GM

e m/12R e as we calculated above.
^~_ " ,

4RT f
oRT In other words, part of the work done goes into increas-
ing the potential energy and part goes into decreasing

Therefore, the work required to increase the energy of the kinetic energy.
It is interesting to point out that the process of orbit
the system is
injection consists of two stages. First, the satellite is

placed in an elliptical orbit. Then, its potential energy is

f
6^ \ 4fl e / 12^ maximized, giving it additional kinetic energy.

Escape Velocity

Suppose an object of mass m is projected vertically upward from the earth's

surface with an initial speed tj, as in Figure 14.14. We can use energy consid-
erations to find the minimum value of the initial speed such that the object will
escape the earth's gravitational field. Equation 14.15 gives the total energy of
the object at any point when its velocity and distance from the center of the
earth are known. At the surface of the earth, where v, = d, r = R e When the t
.

object reaches its maximum altitude, v f = and rf = rmax Because the total .

energy of the system is conserved, substitution of these conditions into Equa-

tion 14.15 gives

, GM m _ GM m
e e

R.
2
Solving for tj gives

*-**(*-£) (14.18)

Figure 14.14 An object of mass m

Therefore, if the initial speed is known, this expression can be used to calculate projected upward from the earth's
the maximum altitude h, since we know that h = rmax — Re .
surface with an initial speed D)
reaches a maximum altitude h.
We are now in a position to calculate the minimum speed the object must
have at the earth's surface in order to escape from the influence of the earth's
gravitational field. This corresponds to the situation where the object canjasf
reach infinity with a final speed of zero. Setting r,^ = ^ in Equation 14.18 and
taking c = v,^. (the escape velocity), we get
s

[2GMe
(14.19) Escape velocity
°«"V~IL~
Note that this expression for om is independent of the mass of the object
projected from the earth. For example, a spacecraft has the same escape
374 CHAPTER 14 THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

velocity as a molecule. Furthermore, the result is independent of the direction

of the velocity, provided the trajectory does not intersect the earth. If the
object is given an initial speed equal to t> esc its total energy is equal to zero.
,

This can be seen by noting that when r =

», the object's kinetic energy and its
potential energy are both zero. If v is greater than v esc the total energy will be
{
,

greater than zero and the object will have some residual kinetic energy at

EXAMPLE 14.7 Escape Velocity of a Rocket 2(6.67 X 10-"N-m 2 /kg 2 )(5.98 X 10 24 kg)
Calculate the escape velocity from the earth for a V 6.37 X 10 6 m
5000-kg spacecraft, and determine the kinetic energy it
must have at the earth's surface in order to escape the
= 1.12X10 4 m/s
earth's field.

This corresponds to about 25 000 mi/h.

Solution Using Equation 14.19 with Me = 5.98 X 10 24 The kinetic energy of the spacecraft is given by
kg and R e = 6.37 X 10 6 m
gives K = |mu 2sc = |(5 X 10 3 kg)(1.12 X 10 4 m/s) 2

2CAL
= 3.14 X10 11
4 J

Finally, you should note that Equations 14.18 and 14.19 can be applied to
objects projected vertically from any planet. That is, in general, the escape
velocity from any planet of mass M
and radius R is given by

TABLE 14.3 Escape

Velocities for the Planets,
the Moon, and the Sun
 14.9 THE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE BETWEEN AN EXTENDED BODY AND A PARTICLE 375

collection of particlesand making use of integral calculus. We shall take the

approach of first evaluating the potential energy function, from which the
force can be calculated.
The potential energy associated with a system consisting of a point mass m
M
and an extended body of mass is obtained by dividing the body into segments
of mass AM, (Fig. 14.15). The potential energy associated with this element
and with the particle of mass m is — Gm AMJr,, where r is the distance from (

the particle to the element AM,. The total potential energy of the system is
obtained by taking the sum over all segments as AM, —* 0. In this limit, we can
express U in integral form as

Figure 14.15 A particle of mass m

Gm interacting with an extended body
U-
If (14.20)
of mass M. The potential energy of
the system is given by Equation
14.20. The total force on a particle
Once [/has been evaluated, the force can be obtained by taking the negative atP due to an extended body can be
derivative of this scalar function (see Section 8.7). If the extended body has obtained by taking a vector sum
over all forces due to each segment
spherical symmetry, the function U depends only on r and the force is given by
of the body.
— dU/dr. We shall treat this situation in Section 14.10. In principle, one can
evaluate U for any specified geometry; however, the integration can be cum-
bersome.
An alternative approach to evaluating the force between a particle and an
extended body is to perform a vector sum over all segments of the body. Using
the procedure outlined in evaluating 17 and the law of universal gravitation
(Eq. 14.3), the total force on the particle is given by

dM Total force between a particle

F = -Gm —r r .
(14.21)
and an extended body
/
where f is a unit vector directed from the element dM toward the particle (Fig.
14.15). This procedure is not always recommended, since working with a
vector function is more difficult than working with the scalar potential energy
function. However, if the geometry is simple, as in the following example, the
evaluation of F can be straightforward.

EXAMPLE 1 4.S Force Between a Mass and a Bar

A homogeneous bar of length L and mass is at a dis- M
tance h from a point mass m (Fig. 14.16). Calculate the
force on m.

Solution The segment of the bar that has a length dx has

a mass dM. Since the mass per unit length is a constant, it
then follows that the ratio of masses, dM/M, is equal to
M
the ratio of lengths, dx/L, and so dM = — dx. The vari-
Figure 14.16 (Example 14.8) The force on a particle at the
able r in Equation 14.21 is i in our case, and the force on origin due to the bar is to the right. Note that the bar is not
m is to the right; therefore we get equivalent to a particle of mass M
located at its center of mass.

L+h
F = Gm
f M dx _ GmM\ if' GmM
h(L + h)
 .

376 CHAPTER 14 THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

We see that the force on m is in the positive x direction, of the expression for F can be expressed in the form
as expected, since the gravitational force is attractive.
Note that in the limit L —» 0, the force varies as 1/h 2
h2 I 1 +t I, which is approximately equal to h 2 Thus,
.

which is what is expected for the force between two when bodies are separated by distances that are large
point masses. Furthermore, if h > L, the force also varies compared with their characteristic dimensions, they be-
as l/h 2 This can be seen by noting that the denominator
.
have like particles.

"14.10 GRAVITATIONAL FORCE RETWEEN A

PARTICLE AND A SPHERICAL MASS
In this section we shall describe the gravitational force between a particle and
a spherically We have already stated that a large
symmetric mass distribution.
sphere attracts a particle outside it as if the total mass of the sphere were
concentrated at its center. Let us describe the nature of the force on a particle
when the extended body is either a spherical shell or a solid sphere, and then
apply these facts to some interesting systems.

Spherical Shell

1 If a particle of mass m is located outside a spherical shell of mass M (say,

point P in Fig. 14.17), the spherical shell attracts the particle as though the
Figure 14.17 The
force on a par- mass of the shell were concentrated at its center.
ticle when outside the spheri-
it is 2. If the particle is located inside the spherical shell (point Q in Fig.
cal shell is given by GMm/r 2 and
acts toward the center. The force
14.17), the force on it is zero. We can express these two important results in
on the particle is zero everywhere the following way:
inside the shell.
GMm
— r>R
Force on a particle due to a
F= .
r for (14.22a)

spherical shell
F=0 forr<R (14.22b)

The force as a function of the distance r is plotted in Figure 14.17. Note that
the shell of mass does not act as a gravitational shield. The particle may experi-
ence forces due to other masses outside the shell.

Solid Sphere

1 If a particle of mass m is located outside a homogeneous solid sphere of

.

mass M
(point Pin Fig. 14.18), the sphere attracts the particle as though the
mass of the sphere were concentrated at its center. That is, Equation 14.22a
applies in this situation. This follows from case 1 above, since a solid sphere can
be considered a collection of concentric spherical shells.
2. If a particle of mass m is located inside a homogeneous solid sphere of
Figure 14.18
ticle when
The force on a par-
outside a uniform
it is
mass M
(point Q in Fig. 14.18), the force on m is due only to the mass M
solid sphere given by GMm/r 2
is
contained within the sphere of radius r<R, represented by the dotted line in
and is directed toward the center. Figure 14.18. In other words,
The force on the particle when it is
inside such a sphere is proportional _ GmM c ^
r>R
_
to r and goes to zero at the center. F= =— .
r for (14.23a)

Force on a particle due to a GmM'

solidsphere
F= =— f .
for r <R (14.23b)
 14.10 GRAVITATIONAL FORCE BETWEEN A PARTICLE AND A SPHERICAL MASS 377

Since the sphere is assumed to have a uniform density, it follows that the ratio
of masses M'/M is equal to the ratio of volumes V'/V, where V is the total
volume of the sphere and V is the volume within the dotted surface. That is,

V
M V \tzR 3 R3
Solving this equation for M' and substituting the value obtained into Equation
14.23b, we get

GmM rr
F= for r <R (14.24)
R3
That is, the force goes to zero at the center of the sphere, as we would
intuitively expect. The force as a function of r is plotted in Figure 14.18.
3. If located inside a solid sphere having a density p that is
a particle is

spherically symmetric but not uniform, then M' in Equation 14.23 is given by
an integral of the form M' = Jp dV, where the integration is taken over the
volume contained within the dotted surface. This integral can be evaluated if
the radial variation of p is given. The integral is easily evaluated if the mass
distribution has spherical symmetry, that is, iip is a function of r only. In this
case, we take the volume element dV as the volume of a spherical shell of
radius r and thickness dr, so that dV = Am dr. For3,
example, if p(r) = Ar,
where A is problem (Problem 63) to show that M' =
a constant, it is left as a
nAr* Hence we see from Equation 14.23b that Fis proportional to r2 in this
.

case and is zero at the center.

EXAMPLE 14.9 A Free Ride Solution When the object is in the tunnel, the gravita-
An object moves in a smooth, straight tunnel dug be- tional forceon it acts toward the earth's center and is
tween two points on the earth's surface (Fig. 14.19). given by Equation 14.24:
Show that the object moves with simple harmonic mo-
tion and find the period of its motion. Assume that the F=- GmM
R 3
e

earth's density is uniform throughout its volume.

The y component of this force is balanced by the normal
force exerted by the tunnel wall, and the x component of
the force is given by

GmMe
r cos 8
R 3

Since the x coordinate of the object is given by i =

r cos 8, we can write Fx in the form

F. = - GmMe
~RJ~
Applying Newton's second law to the motion along x
gives

GmM,
Fr = 3
Figure 14.19 A particle moves along a tunnel dug through the fie
earth. The component of the gravitational force F along the i
axis is the driving force for the motion. Note that this component
GMe
always acts toward the origin O. R 3
 .

378 CHAPTER 14 THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

But this is the equation of simple harmonic motion with This period is the same as that of a satellite in a circular
angular velocity co (Chapter 13), where orbit just above the earth's surface. Note that the result
is independent of the length of the tunnel.

It has been proposed to operate a mass-transit sys-

tem between any two cities using this principle. A one-

The period is calculated using the data in Table 14.2 and way trip would take about 42 min. A more precise calcu-
the above result: lation of the motion must account for the fact that the
earth's density is not uniform as we have assumed. More
T= — = 2n important, there are many practical problems to con-
sider. For instance, it would be impossible to achieve a
frictionless tunnel, and so some auxiliary power source
(6.37 X 10 6 ) 3
2 would be required. Can you think of other problems?
«h. 67 X 10- n )(5.98X 10 24
)

5.06X10 3 s 84.3 min

SUMMARY
Universal law of gravity Newton's law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational force of
attraction between any two particles of masses mi and m 2 separated by a
distance r has the magnitude

F=G r-2
(14.1)

where G is the universal gravitational constant, which has the value

6.672 X 10- u N-m7kg 2 .

Kepler's laws Kepler's laws of planetary motion state that

1 All planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one of the focal points.
2. The radius vector drawn from the sun to any planet sweeps out equal
areas in equal time intervals.
3. The square of the orbital period of any planet is proportional to the cube
of the semimajor axis for the elliptical orbit.

Kepler's second law is a consequence of the fact that the force of gravity
is a central force, that is, one that is directed toward a fixed point. This in
turn implies that the angular momentum of the planet-sun system is a
constant of the motion.
Kepler's third law is consistent with the inverse-square nature of the
law of universal gravitation. Newton's second law, together with the force
law given by Equation 14.1, verifies that the period T and radius r of the
orbit of a planet about the sun are related by

Kepler's third law

where 5
M
-m
is the mass of the sun. Most planets have nearly circular orbits
(14.6)

about the sun. For elliptical orbits, Equation 14.6 is valid if r is replaced by
the semimajor axis, a.
 QUESTIONS 379

The gravitational force is a conservative force, and therefore a poten-

tialenergy function can be defined. The gravitational potential energy
associated with two particles separated by a distance r is given by

u=- Gmim 2
Gravitational potential
(14.12) energy for a pair of particles

where taken to be zero at r = °°. The total potential energy for a system
l/is
of particles is the sum of energies for all pairs of particles, with each pair

represented by a term of the form given by Equation 14.12.

If an isolated system consists of a particle of mass moving with a speedm
v in the vicinity of a massive body of mass M, the total energy of the system is
given by

GMm
E = hnv 2 — (14.14)

That is, the energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies. The total
energy is a constant of the motion.
If m moves in a circular orbit of radius r about M, where m, the total M>
energy of the system is

GMm
E=- (14.17) Total energy for circular orbits
2r

The total energy is negative for any bound system, that is, one in which the
orbit is closed, such as an elliptical orbit.
The potential energy of gravitational attraction between a particle of
mass m and an extended body of mass M is given by
Total potential energy for a
U=-Gm particle - extended-body
J* (14.20)
system
where the integral is over the extended body, dM is
an infinitesimal mass
element of the body, and r is the distance from the particle to the element.
If a particle is outside a uniform spherical shell or solid sphere with a
spherically symmetric internal mass distribution, the sphere attracts the
particle as though the mass of the sphere were concentrated at the center of
the sphere.
If a particle is inside a uniform spherical shell, the gravitational force on
the particle is zero.
If a particle is inside a homogeneous solid sphere, the force on the
particle actstoward the center of the sphere and is linearly proportional to
the distance from the center to the particle.

QUESTIONS

1. Estimate the gravitational force between you and a 3. How would you explain the fact that planets such as
person 2 m away from you. Saturn and Jupiter have periods much greater than
2. Use Kepler's second law to convince yourself that the one year?
earth must move faster in its orbit during December, 4. If a system consists of five distinct particles, how many
when it is closest to the sun, than it does during June, terms appear in the expression for the total potential
when it is farthest from the sun. energy?
380 CHAPTER 14 THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

5. possible to calculate the potential energy function

Is it 15. If A! equals A 2 in Figure 14.8, is the average speed of
associated with a particle and an extended body with- the planet in the time interval t2 — t
1
less than, equal

out knowing the geometry or mass distribution of the to, or greater than its average speed in the time inter-
extended body? val f 4 -t3 ?
6. Does the escape velocity of a rocket depend on its 16. At what position in its elliptical orbit is the speed of a
mass? Explain. maximum? At what
planet a position is the speed a
7. Compare the energies required to reach the moon for minimum?
a 10 5 -kg spacecraft and a 10 3 -kg satellite. 17. If you are given the mass and radius of planet X, how
8. Explain why it takes more fuel for a spacecraft to would you calculate the acceleration of gravity on the
travel from the earth to the moon than for the return surface of this planet?
trip.Estimate the difference. 18. If a hole could be dug do
to the center of the earth,

9. Is the magnitude of the potential energy associated you think on a mass m would still obey
that the force
with the earth-moon system greater than, less than, or Equation 14.1 there? What do you think the force on
equal to the kinetic energy of the moon relative to the m would be at the center of the earth?
earth? 1 9. Henry Cavendish, in his 1798 experiment, was said to

10. Explain carefully why no work done on a

there is have "weighed the Earth." Explain this statement.
planet as it moves around the sun,
in a circular orbit 20. The Voyager spacecraft was accelerated toward
even though a gravitational force is acting on the escape velocity from the sun by the gravitational force
planet. What is the net work done on a planet during from the giant planet Jupiter. How is this possible?
each revolution as it moves around the sun in an ellip- Wouldn't the additional speed gained on approach be
tical orbit? lost as the spacecraft receded away?

11. A particle is projected through a small hole into the 21. How would you find the mass of the moon?
interior of a large spherical shell. Describe the motion 22. The Apollo 13 spaceship developed trouble in the
of the particle in the interior of the shell. oxygen system about halfway to the moon. Why did
12. Explain why the force on a particle due to a uniform the mission continue on around the moon, and then
sphere must be directed toward the center of the return home, rather than immediately turn back to
sphere. Would this be the case if the mass distribution earth?
of the sphere were not spherically symmetric? 23. By how much the acceleration due to gravity at the
is

13. Neglecting the density variation of the earth, what earth's equatorreduced because of the rotation of the
would be the period of a particle moving in a smooth earth? How does this effect vary with latitude?
hole dug through the earth's center? 24. A possible antisatellite weapon has been discussed,
14. With reference to Figure 14.8, consider the area where another satellite is launched into a contrary
swept out by the radius vector in the time intervals orbit at the same height, but in the opposite direction.
f 2 — f i and t 4 — t 3 Under what condition is A! equal to
. If this new satellite, filled with copper wire, were ex-

A,? ploded would the copper chaff impacting the original

satellite do any damage?

PROBLEMS
Section 14.1 through Section 14.3 Two stars of masses M and AM are separated by a dis-
tance d. Determine the location of a point measured
1. Two each of mass 2 kg,
identical, isolated particles,
from M at which the net force on a third mass would be
are separated by a distance of 30 cm. What is the mag-
zero.
nitude of the gravitational force of one particle on the
Three equal mass points m are located, respectively,
other?
at three corners of a square of edge length £ as in
2. A 200-kg mass and a 500-kg mass are separated by a
distance of 0.40 m. (a) Find the net gravitational force
due to these masses acting on a 50-kg mass placed
midway between them, (b) At what position (other
than infinitely remote ones) would the 50-kg mass
experience a net force of zero?
3. Three 5-kg masses are located at the corners of an
equilateral triangle having sides 0.25 m in length. De-
termine the magnitude and direction of the resultant
gravitational force on one of the masses due to the Figure 14.20
other two masses. (Problem 5).
-4^*
 PROBLEMS 381

Figure 14.20. Find the gravitational field g at the estimate the mass of the earth. Assume the orbit is

fourth corner due to these masses. circular. Why do you suppose your estimate is high?
6. When a falling meteor is at a distance above the 14. The Explorer VIII satellite, placed into orbit No-
earth's surface of 3 times the earth's radius, what is its vember 3, 1960, to investigate the ionosphere, had
acceleration due to the earth's gravity? the following orbit parameters: perigee 459 km and
7. An astronaut weighs 140 N
on the moon's surface. apogee 2289 km (both distances above the earth's
When he is in a circular orbit about the moon at an surface); period 112.7 min. Find the ratio u /u a
p
.

altitude above the moon's surface equal to the moon's 15. Io, a small moon of the giant planet Jupiter, has an
radius, what gravitational force does the moon exert orbital period of 1.77 days and an orbital radius of
on him? 4.22 X 10 5 km. From this data, determine the mass of
8. Two objects attract each other with a gravitational Jupiter.
force of 1.0 X 10~ 8 N when
separated by 20 cm. If 16. A satellite of Mars has a period of 459 min. The mass of
the total mass of the two objects is 5.0 kg, what is the Mars is 6.42 X 10 23 kg. From this information, deter-
mass of each? mine the radius of the satellite's orbit.

9. If the mass of Mars is 0. 1 08 times that of earth and its 17. At its aphelion, the planet Mercury is 6.99 X 10 10 m
radius is 0.6 that of earth, estimate the gravitational from the sun, and at its perihelion, it is 4.60 X 10 10 m
acceleration g at the surface of Mars. from the sun. If its orbital speed is 3.88 X 10 4 m/s at
10. The force of gravity on the surface of the moon is the aphelion, what is its orbital speed at the perihe-
about one-sixth that on the surface of the earth. If the lion?
radius of the moon is about one-quarter that of the 1 8. Geosynchronous satellites orbit the earth at a distance
earth, find the ratio of the average mass density of the of 42 000 km from the earth's center. Their angular
moon relative to the average mass density of the velocity at this height is the same as the rotation of the
earth. earth, so they appear stationary at certain locations in
1 1. Plaskett's binary system consists of two stars that re- the sky. What is the force acting on a 1 000-kg satellite
volve in a circular orbit about a center of gravity mid- at this height?
way between them. This means that the masses of the 19. A "synchronous" satellite, which always remains
two stars are 4 2 1 ). If the orbital veloc-
equal (Figure 1 . above the same point on a planet's equator, is put in
ity of each star is 220 km/s and the
orbital period of orbit around Jupiter to study the famous red spot.
each is 14.4 days, find the mass M
of each star. (For Jupiter rotates once every 9.9 h. Use the data of Table
comparison, the mass of our sun is 2 X 10 30 kg.) 14.2 to find the altitude of such an orbiting satellite on
Jupiter.
220 km/s
20. Halley's comet approaches the sun to within 0.57
A.U. (1 A.U. = 150 X 10 6 km), and its orbital period
is 75.6 years. How far from the sun will Halley's

comet travel before it starts its return journey? (Fig-

ure 14.22.)

Sun
Figure 14.21 (Problem 11). 220 km/s

12. The moon is 384 400 km distant from the earth's

center and it completes an orbit in 27.3 days, (a) De-

termine the moon's orbital velocity, (b) How far does
the moon "fall" towards earth in 1 second?

Figure 14.22 (Problem 20).

Section 14.4 Kepler's Laws
Section 14.5 The Law of Universal Gravitation and the
Motion of Planets Section 14.6 The Gravitational Field

13. Given that the moon's period about the earth is 27.32 21. Compute the magnitude and direction of the gravita-
days and the earth-moon distance is 3.84 X 10 8 m, tional field at a point P on the perpendicular bisector
382 CHAPTER 14 THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

of two equal masses separated by 2a as shown in Fig- from the surface of the moon. The moon has a
craft

ure 14.23. mass that of earth and a radius \ that of earth.

^i
29. A spaceship is fired from the earth's surface with
an initial speed of 2.0 X 10 4 m/s. What will its speed
be when it is very far from the earth? (Neglect fric-

r 30.
tion.)
A 1 000-kg
100 km.
satellite orbits
It is
the earth at an altitude of
desired to increase the altitude of the
orbit to 200 km. How much energy must be added to
the system to effect this change in altitude?
31. (a) Calculate the minimum energy required to send a

3000-kg spacecraft from the earth to a distant point in

space where earth's gravity is negligible, (b) If the
journey is to take three weeks, what average power
would the engines have to supply?
32. A rocket is fired vertically, ejecting sufficient mass to
move upward at a constant acceleration of 2g. After
Figure 14.23 (Problem 21).
40 the rocket motors are turned off, and the rocket
s,

subsequently moves under the action of gravity alone,

22. Find the gravitational field at a distance r along the
with negligible air resistance. Ignoring the variation
mass
axis of a thin ring of M
and radius a.
of g with altitude, find (a) the maximum height the
23. At what point along the line connecting the earth and
rocket reaches and (b) the total flight time from
the moon is there zero gravitational force on an ob-
launch until the rocket returns to earth, (c) Sketch a
ject? (Ignore the presence of the sun and the other
freehand (qualitative) graph of velocity versus time
planets.)
for the entire flight.
X]. A satellite moves in a circular orbit just above the
surface of a planet. Show that the orbital velocity D
Section 14.7 Gravitational Potential Energy
= and escape velocity of the satellite are related by the
Assume U= at r <*>.

=
expression t esc s2v.
24. A satellite of the earth has a mass of 1 00 kg and is at an 34. A satellite moves in an elliptical orbit about the
altitude of 2 X 10 6 m. (a) What is the potential energy earth such that, at perigee and apogee positions,
of the satellite-earth system? (b) What is the magni- the distances from the earth's center are, respec-
tude of the force on the satellite? tively, D and AD. (a) Find the ratio of the speeds at

25. A system consists of three particles, each of mass 5 g, the two positions: u p /c a . (b) Find the ratio of the
located at the corners of an equilateral triangle with total energy (kinetic and potential) at the same posi-
sides of 30 cm. (a) Calculate the potential energy of tions: £p /Ea -

the system, (b) If the particles are released simulta- 35, A satellite with a mass of 500 kg is in a circular orbit at
neously, wherethey collide?
will an altitude of 500 km above the earth's surface. Be-
26. How much energy is required to move a 1 000-kg mass cause of air friction, the satellite eventually is brought
from the earth's surface to an altitude equal to twice to the earth's surface, and it hits the earth with a veloc-
the earth's radius? ity of 2 km/s. How much energy was absorbed by the
27. After it exhausts its nuclear fuel, the ultimate fate of atmosphere through friction?
our sun is possibly to collapse to a white dwarf state, 36. An artificial earth satellite is "parked" in an equa-
having approximately the mass of the sun, but the 3
torial circular orbit at an altitude of 10 km. What
radius of the earth. Calculate (a) the average density is the minimum additional velocity that must be im-
of the white dwarf, (b) the acceleration due to gravity parted to the satellite if it is to escape from earth's
at its surface, and (c) the gravitational potential en- gravitational attraction? How does this compare with
ergy of a 1-kg object at its surface. (Take Ug = at the minimum escape velocity for leaving from the
infinity.) earth's surface?
37. (a) What is the minimum velocity necessary for a
spacecraft to escape the solar system, starting at the
Section 14.S Energy Considerations in Planetary and
earth's orbit? (b) Voyager 1 achieved a maximum ve-
Satellite Motion 125 000 km/h on its way to photograph Ju-
locity of
28. The escape velocity from the surface of the earth is piter. Beyond what distance from the sun is this veloc-
1 1.2 km/s. Estimate the escape velocity for a space- ity sufficient to escape the solar system?
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 383

'Section 14.9 The Gravitational Force Between an ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS

Extended Body and a Particle
43. Calculate the fractional difference Ag/g in the accel-
38. A uniform rod of mass Mis in the shape of a semicircle eration due to gravity at points on the Ea. th's surface
of radius R (Fig. 14.24). Calculate the force on a point nearest to and farthest from the Moon, taking into
mass m placed at the center of the semicircle. account the gravitational effect of the Moon. (This
difference is responsible for the occurrence of the
lunar tides on the Earth.)
44. Voyagers 1 and 2 surveyed the surface of Jupiter's

moon and photographed active volcanoes spewing

Io
liquid sulfur to heights of 70 km above the surface of
this moon. Estimate the velocity with which the liquid
sulfur left the volcano. Io's mass is 8.9 X 10 22 kg, and
its radius is 1820 km.

45. A cylindrical habitat in space 6 km in diameter and

Figure 14.24 (Problem 38).
30 km long has been proposed (by G.K. O'Neill,
1974). Such a habitat would have cities, land, and
lakes on the inside surface and air and clouds in the
39. A nonuniform rod of length L is placed along the x axis
center. This would all be held in place by rotation of
at a distanceh from the origin, as in Figure 1 4 1 6 The
. .

the cylinder about its long axis. How fast would the
mass per unit length, X, varies according to the expres-
cylinder have to rotate to imitate a 1-g gravity field at
sion A = A + Ax 2 where A and A are constants. Find
,

the walls of the cylinder?

the force on a particle of mass m placed at the origin.
46. While approaching a planet circling a distant star, a
(Hint: An element of the rod has a mass dM = k dx.)
space traveler determines the planet's radius to be
half that of the earth. After landing on the surface, the
'Section 14.10 Gravitational Force Between a Particle
traveler finds the acceleration due to gravity to be
and a Spherical Mass
twice that on the earth's surface. Find the mass of the
40. A m and mass of
spherical shell has a radius of 0.5 planet Mpin terms of the mass of the earth e M .

80 Find the force on a particle of mass 50 g placed

kg. 47. In introductory physics laboratories, a typical Caven-
(a) 0.3 m from the center of the shell and (b) outside dish balance for measuring the gravitational constant
the shell 1 m from its center. G uses lead spheres of masses 1.5 kg and 15 g whose
41. A uniform solid sphere has a radius of 0.4 m and a mass centers are separated about 4.5 cm. Calculate the
of 500 kg. Find the magnitude of the force on a parti- gravitational force between these spheres, treating
cle of mass 50 g located (a) 1.5 m from the center of each sphere as a point mass located at the center of the
the sphere, (b) at the surface of the sphere, and sphere.
(c) 0.2 m from the center of the sphere. 48. Four objects are located at the corners of a rectangle,
42. A uniform solid sphere of mass m l and radius fij is as in Figure 14.26. Determine the magnitude and di-
inside and concentric with a spherical shell of mass m 2 rection of the resultant force acting on the 2-kg mass
and radius R 2 (Fig. 14.25). Find the force on a particle at the origin.
of mass in located at (a) r = a, (b) r = b, (c) r = c,
where r is measured from the center of the spheres.

Figure 14.26 (Problem 48).

49. An object of mass m moves in a smooth straight tunnel

of length L dug through a chord of the earth as dis-
cussed in Example 14.9 (Fig. 14.19). (a) Determine
Figure 14.25 (Problem 42). the effective force constant of the harmonic motion
384 CHAPTER 14 THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

and the amplitude of the motion, (b) Using energy eration due weight of a
to gravity at its surface, (b) the

considerations, find the maximum speed of the object. 70-kg man and (c) the energy required
at its surface,
-27
Where does this occur? (c) Obtain a numerical value to remove a neutron of mass 1 .67 X 10 kg from its
for the maximum speed if L = 2500 km. surface to infinity.
50. For any planet, comet, or asteroid orbiting the sun, 57. When the Apollo 1 1 spacecraft orbited the moon, its
Kepler's third law may be written T 2 = kr 3 where Tis mass was 9.979 X 10 3 kg, its period was 119 min, and
the orbital period and r is the semimajor axis of the its mean distance from the moon's center was
orbit, (a) What is the value of k if T is measured in 1.849 X 10 6 m. Assuming its orbit was circular and
years and r is measured in A.U.s? One astronomical the moon to be a uniform sphere, find (a) the mass of
unit (A.U.) is the mean distance from the earth to the the moon, (b) the orbital speed of the spacecraft, and
sun. (b) Use this new value of k to quickly find the (c) the minimum energy required for the craft to leave

orbital period of Jupiter if its mean radius from the sun the orbit and escape the moon's gravity.
is 5.2 A.U. 58. Studies of the relationship of the sun to the local
51. Two oceanliners, each with a mass of 40 000 metric galaxy —
the Milky Way —
have revealed that the sun
tons, are moving on parallel courses, 100 m apart. is located near the outer edge of the galactic disc,

What is the magnitude of the acceleration of one of about 30 000 light years from the center. Further-
the liners toward the other due to the mutual gravita- more, it has been found that the sun has an orbital
tional attraction? velocity of approximately 250 km/s around the galac-
52. An airplane in a wide sweeping "outside" loop can ticcenter, (a) What is the period of the sun's galactic
create "zero gees" inside the aircraft cabin. What motion? (b) What is the approximate mass of the
must be the radius of curvature of the flight path for an Milky Way galaxy? Using the fact that the sun is a
aircraft moving at 480 km/h to create a condition of typical star, estimate the number of stars in our local
"weightlessness" inside the aircraft? galaxy.
53. What angular velocity (in rev/min) needed for
is a 59. X-ray pulses from Cygnus X-l, a celestial x-ray
centrifuge to produce an acceleration of lOOOg at a source, have been recorded during high-altitude
radius arm of 10 cm? rocket flights. The signals can be interpreted as origi-
54. The maximum distance from the earth to the sun (at nating when a blob of ionized matter orbits a black
the aphelion) is 1.521 X
10 11 m, and the distance of hole with a period of 5 ms. If the blob were in a circu-
closest approach (at the perihelion) is equal to lar orbit about a black hole whose mass is 20 times the

1.471 X 10 u m. If the earth's orbital speed at the mass of the sun, what would be the radius of the orbit?
perihelion is 3.027 X 10 4 m/s, determine (a) the 60. A satellite moves in an elliptical trajectory about the
earth's orbital speed at the aphelion, (b) the kinetic earth as in Figure 14.27. The minimum and maximum
and potential energy at the perihelion, and (c) the ki- distances from the surface of the earth are 400 km and
netic and potential energy at the aphelion. Is the total 3000 km. Find the speeds of the satellite at apogee
energy conserved? (Neglect the effect of the moon and perigee. See Figure 14.27.
and other planets.)
55. Two hypothetical planets of masses rnj and m 2 and
radii r l and r 2 respectively, are at rest when they are
,

an infinite distance apart. Because of their gravita-

tional attraction, they head toward each other on a
collision course, (a) When their center-to-center sepa-
ration is speed of each planet and their
d, find the
relative velocity, (b)Find the kinetic energy of each
planet just before they collide if m 1 = 2 X 10 24 kg,
m 2 = 8 X 10 24 kg, r; = 3X 10 6 m, and r2 = 5 X 10 6
m. (Hint: Note that both energy and momentum are
conserved.)
56. After a supernova explosion, a star may undergo a
gravitational collapse to an extremely dense state
known as a neutron star, in which all the electrons and

protons are squeezed together to form neutrons. A

neutron star with a mass about equal to that of the sun
would have a radius of about 10 km. Find (a) the accel-
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 385

61. A satellite of mass 200 kg is placed in Earth orbit at a

height 200 km above the surface, (a) Assuming a cir-
cular orbit, how long does the satellite take to com-
plete one orbit? (b) What is the satellite's speed?
(c) What is the minimum energy necessary to place
this satellite in orbit (assuming no air friction)?

62. In Larry Niven's science fiction novel Ringworld, a

solid ring of material rotates about a star (Fig. 14.28).
is 1.25 X 10
6 m/s,
The rotational speed of the ring
and its radius is 1.53 X 10 11 m. The inhabitants of this
ring world experience a normal contact force, N. Act-
ing alone, this normal force would produce an inward
acceleration of 9.90 m/s 2 Additionally, the star at the
.
Figure 14.29 (Problem 64).
center of the ring exerts a gravitational force on the
ring and its inhabitants, (a) Show that the total centrip- 65. In 1978, astronomers at the U.S. Naval Observatory
etal acceleration of the inhabitants is 10.2 m/s 2 .
discovered that the planet Pluto has a moon, called
(b) The difference between the total acceleration and Charon, that eclipses the planet every 6.4 days. If,
the acceleration provided by the normal force is due from observation, the center-to-center separation be-
to the gravitational attraction of the central star. Show tween Pluto and Charon is 19 700 km, find the total
that the mass of the star is approximately 10 32 kg. mass (M + m) of Pluto and its moon. (Hint: Use the
result of Problem 64.)
66. In an effort to explain large meteor collisions with the
earth, scientists have postulated the existence of a
solar companion star which is extremely dim and ex-
tremely far from the sun. This star (which some call
Nemesis) moves through the axis of the cloud of
comets, disturbing their orbits every 3 X 10 7 years. If
this hypothetical star has the above orbital period and
amass of 0.2 times the sun's mass, determine the aver-
age distance of this star from the sun. sun
=2X M
10 30 kg.
67. A satellite is in a circular orbit about a planet of radius
R. If the altitude of the satellite is h and its period is T,
(a) show that the density of the planet is given by

Figure 14.28 (Problem 62). Ringworld. s

3k

63. A sphere of mass M and radius R has a nonuniform (b) Calculate

P
=
GT* H)
the average density of the planet if the
density that varies with r, the distance from its center, period is 200 min and the satellite's orbit is close to
according to the expression p = Ar, for O^rsR. the planet's surface.
(a) What is the constant A in terms of and R? (b) De- M 68 It isclaimed that a commercially available, portable
termine the force on a particle of mass m placed out- gravity meter is sensitive enough to detect changes in
side the sphere, (c) Determine the force on the parti- gto 1 part in 10 11 At the earth's surface, what change
.

cle if it is inside the sphere. (Hint: See Section 14.10.) in elevation would produce this variation? Assume the
64. Two stars of masses M and m, separated by a distance radius of the earth is 6 X 10 6 m.
d, revolve in circular orbits about their center of mass 69. A particle of mass m is located inside a uniform solid
(Fig. 14.29). Show that each star has a period given by sphere of radius R and mass M. If the particle is at a
4tt 2
distance r from the center of the sphere, (a) show that
72 d* the gravitational potential energy of the system is
G(M + m)
given by U= (GrnM/2R 3 )r 2 - 3GmM/2R. (b) How
(Hint: Apply Newton's second law to each star, and much work is done by the gravitational force in bring-
note that the center of mass condition requires that ing the particle from the surface of the sphere to its
Mr2 = mrj where , rl + r2 = d.) center?
386 CHAPTER 14 THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

The ancient Greeks supposedly believed that all earthly objects and events result

ESSAY from interactions among four elements —

earth, air, fire, and water —
while heavenly
ones consist of a fifth element or quintessence. This idea went out of fashion during
the Renaissance. It became completely untenable when 19th century physicists used
Dark Matter the principles of spectroscopy to show that sun, moon, planets, stars, and clouds of gas

Virginia Trimble
in space consist of exactly the same chemical elements as found on earth —
hydrogen,
helium, carbon, oxygen, sodium, iron, and all the rest.
Physics Department,
University of California,
So far, so good. But spectroscopy (Chapter 40) works only for matter that emits
Irvine; Astronomy or absorbs light (including radio waves, x-rays, and other forms of electromagnetic
Department, University of radiation; see Chapter 34). Could there be matter out there that does not absorb or
Maryland, College Park emit light? And, if so, could it be something different from ordinary matter, which is
made of atoms and molecules? The short answers are almost certainly yes; and we
cannot be sure. As the 20th century closes, nearly all astronomers agree that 90% or
more of the mass in the universe that is capable of exerting gravitational forces does
not emit its fair share of light. This is what scientists call dark matter. Its existence is
well established. Its nature is not.
How something you cannot see? By its effects on things you can
do you look for
see, the way a barking dog may alert you to the presence of a silent burglar. When two
or more objects ("a system") exert gravitational forces on each other (see Eq. 14.1),
they set up a balance between kinetic and potential energy, such that

2
•:
fl
M= (14.E1)

where M
is the mass of the system, v is a characteristic velocity in that system (orbit

speed, rotation speed, escape velocity, or range of velocities if there are many ob-
jects), R is the size scale of the system (radius of orbit, diameter of cluster .),andG
. .

is the universal constant of gravity Equations 14.6 and 1 4 1 9 are both special cases of
. .

this relationship. (To see this, solve Eq. 14. 1 9 for M, and in Eq. 14.6, divide both sides
by T 2 so that r 3 /T 2 becomes rv 2 then solve for M.)
, ,

You don't have to be able to see the whole system for this to work. Between 1843
and 1846, John Couch Adams in England and Urbain Jean Joseph Leverrier in France
used the velocity and position of Uranus in its orbit to deduce the existence, mass, and
25.1100 pc'. .'
location of Neptune before anyone had ever knowingly observed it. Thus, if you can
300 pc
measure the size of a system and a characteristic velocity from a few of the objects in
the system, you will know the mass of the entire system.
Many hundreds of astronomers, from Newton's time to the present, have used
various versions of Equation 1 4. El and observations of sizes and speeds of astronomi-
cal objects to measure their masses. Unfortunately, scientific discoveries almost
never happen in the order in which professors would like you to learn about them, so
we will have to jump somewhat between large and small systems. It may help to
Figure 1. Schematic drawing of glance occasionally at Table 1 to see where we are.
the Milky Way galaxy. Most of
Dutch astronomer Jan H. Oort, born in 1 900 and still interested in the subject as I
the light comes from the central
write, studied the velocities and positions of stars relatively close to our own sun, in
bulge and thin disk, but globular
clusters of stars trace a spheroidal the disk of the Milky Way galaxy (Fig. 1), between 1932 and 1965. He could measure
halo (in which most of the mass is system from shifts in the wavelengths of lines in the
star velocities relative to the solar
dark) that extends five to ten Doppler effect, Chapter 1 7). The distances to the stars (the "R" of
stellar spectra (the
times further out. X marks the
neighborhood. The actual
the system) come from comparing how bright they appear with their real luminosi-
solar
solar system is so small on the ties. Oort then used Equation 14. El to determine the mass of the system, which he

scale of this picture that you compared with the sum of the masses of the known stars in the solar neighborhood.
would have to expand its diame- The value of M came out somewhat larger, by 30 to 50%, than he had expected. Even
ter by a factor of 5000 to make
our own corner of space has some dark matter. Most of it is cool gas and faint stars that
the orbit of the earth look as big as
the period at the end of this sen- emit radio and infrared radiation, which could not be observed when Oort began his
tence. work.
 ESSAY DARK MATTER 387

Figure 3. Spiral galaxy, some-

what Milky Way, seen
like the
face on. Most of the light conies
from this disk, especially the
arms, where the young bright
stars are concentrated, but the
gravitational potential of the gal-
axy extends much further out.
(Courtesy of NASA)

Figure 2. Messier 84 and 86,

bright elliptical galaxies in the
nearby Virgo Cluster. (© Royal
Observatory Edinburgh/AAT
Board 1987)
Swiss- American astrophysicist Fritz Zwicky (1898-1974) was interested in sys-
tems having much larger scales. Starting in 1933, he measured velocities and dis-
tances in clusters containing hundreds to thousands of galaxies like the Milky Way
(Fig. 2). His result was a real surprise —
more than 100 times as much mass as you
would have guessed on the basis of the light coming from the galaxies. Zwicky also
used a very convenient shorthand for describing the results of his (and other) studies.
Measure the brightness in units of the luminosity of the sun (1 L = 4 X 10 26 W) and
the mass of the system in units of the mass of the sun (1 M
Q = 2 X 10 kg). Then a
30

group of stars will have M/L = 1 or maybe as much as 3 - 4 if there are more faint stars
,

than bright ones. Larger values of M/L indicate the presence of dark matter.
Oort and others, studying stars close to the sun, found M/L = 3-4, while Zwicky
and others, examining large clusters of galaxies, found M/L = 100-300. What about
single galaxies?
American astronomer Vera C. Rubin is one of the most active investigators of
dark matter. Using the world's largest telescopes, she records spectra at many differ-
ent points within the images of galaxies like the one in Figure 3. Lines in the spectra
are shifted by an amount proportional to the velocity of the gas emitting them
(Doppler effect, Fig. 4). Applying Equation 14. El is particularly easy when the
galaxy is edge-on to us (Fig. 5). In such cases, R is just the distance from the center to
Figure 5. Spiral galaxy, some-
the point measured, and u is the difference in velocity between the center and that what like the Milky Way, seen
point. The light-emitting parts of galaxies have M/L values of about 10, in between edge-on. The part you can see ex-
the solar neighborhood and clusters of galaxies. Table 1 shows characteristic numbers tends out about 15,000 parsecs
(5 X 10
20 m), but the real galaxy
for clusters of gj laxies and some other kinds of astronomical systems.
is much larger. (Courtesy of U.S.

Figure 4. Sketch illustrating the Naval Observatory)

resultsof placing the slit of a
- Lines from spectrograph along the disk of a
laboratory source spiral galaxy that we happen to
Side going see face-on (e.g., see Fig. 5). The
away from - Lines from lines emitted by gas the gal-
in
galaxy axy's disk are moving toward us
on one side and away from us on
the other side, because the galaxy
is rotating. This shifts the lines
Side coming
Wavelength away from the wavelengths of the
toward you
same line emitted by gas in the
lab ("comparison spectrum") and
enables us to measure a v for
Equation 14. El. (Continued on next page)
388 CHAPTER 14 THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

TABLE 1 Mass to Light Ratios in Astronomical Systems

Fraction of
Scale MIL Closure Density
System Methods Used (parsecs)" (solar units) Seen

Solar neigh- Velocities of 1-3X 10 3 1-4 0.001-0.004

borhood, stars
star clusters
Luminous Rotation 10" 3-10 0.003-0.01
parts of gal- speed; veloc-
axies ities of stars
Whole galaxies Velocities of 10 5 10-30 0.01-0.03
globular
and
clusters
companion
galaxies
Temperature
of X-ray gas
Pairs and small Velocities of 10 6 30-100 0.03-0.10
groups of galaxies
galaxies
Large clusters Velocities of 10 7 100-300 0.1-0.3
of galaxies galaxies;
temperature
of x-ray gas
Universe Change in ex- 10 1 1000 si
pansion rate

" 1 parsec = 3.086 X 10 16 m = distance at which the earth-sun distance subtends an angle of 1
arcsec.

Most of the velocities used for the systems listed in Table 1 come from Doppler
but there are other techniques possible. In a hot gas, the speed with
shifts in spectra,
which the atoms move is proportional to the square root of the gas temperature

= const X T1 ' 2 (14.E2)

as shown Chapter 21. Thus, if you can measure the temperature of the gas, for
in
instance from the kind of radiation it emits, you can obtain a value for v to use in
Equation 14.E1.
A portion of the nonluminous mass implied by the numbers in Table 1 consists of
gas and tiny stars. These emit x-rays, infrared radiation, radio waves, and so forth; thus
they can be inventoried. After we allow for them, at least 90% of the matter that
exerts gravitational forces in clusters of galaxies is still not emitting its fair share of
light. This is the minimum amount of dark matter that must be present.
Limits can also be placed on the maximum amount of dark matter possible. The
universe as a whole is a (very large!) system in which gravitation is the dominant force.
The system is not in equilibrium. Rather, the clusters of galaxies are all moving away
from one another, like raisins in a swelling loaf of bread (although this particular
bread has no center and no surfaces and doesn't slice very well). In other words, the
universe is expanding. It is doing so in a way that says the total mass (luminous + dark
matter) is not much larger than the amount implied by Equation 14. El. The equation
cannot be used directly. The total volume (hence mass) of the universe is large
compared to the part we can survey and may be infinite. But divide both sides of the
 ESSAY DARK MATTER 389

equation by R3 (volume), and you get

(14.E3)
R 2G
where p is an average density for our part (or any other part) of the universe.
Essay Problem 4 invites you to derive this equation for yourself in a slightly
different way.The measured ratio of velocity to distance (v/R) for clusters of galaxies
outside our own is called Hubbies constant, H. Using it, one can set the desired upper
limit to density and so to the amount of dark matter in the universe. That upper limit is
-26
about 10 kg/m 3 It is called the "closure density," meaning the amount that will
.

just barely stop the expansion of the universe, if you wait long enough. The closure
density corresponds to M/L = 1000, almost 10 times as large as the ratio in clusters of
galaxies. Thus, if the universe is closed, there is about 10 times more dark matter
between the clusters than in them. Our universe therefore contains at least 90% dark
matter, but no more than 99%.
What is the nature of dark matter? Two major candidates are in the running, and
there are several ways one might tell the difference between them. First, there could
be ordinary dark matter, consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium, as do the stars and
galaxies. Second, dark matter could be something else. The standard names for these
are baryonic (for ordinary matter) and nonbaryonic dark matter, because ordinary
atoms have nuclei consisting of protons and neutrons, for which the collective name is
baryons. Atoms also have clouds of negatively charged electrons, held to the posi-
tively charged nuclei by a force different from gravity. It is called the electromagnetic
force. Protons, neutrons, electrons, and all forms of light can exert and be affected by
electromagnetic forces.
In addition, protons and neutrons experience a third force, called the strong or
nuclear force, which holds them together in nuclei. And finally there is a fourth force,
the weak interaction, involved in some kinds of radioactivity and nuclear fusion
reactions, like those that keep the sun shining. Exerting and reacting to all four forces
is the signature of baryonic material.

Nonbaryonic material, in contrast, can exert and experience only the gravita-
tional and (perhaps) weak forces. This immediately accounts for its darkness —
no
electromagnetic force equals no light! Modern theoretical physics predicts that many
different kinds of nonbaryonic particles are likely to exist. Most will be unstable, just
Figure 6. Interior of the Irvine-
as there are many kinds of baryons that we normally do not see because they decay
Michigan-Brookhaven particle
into neutrons and protons. The nonbaryonic candidates carry names like WIMP (for detector. Originally constructed
Weakly Interacting Massive Particle) and ino (short for photino, gravitino, higgsino, to look for proton decay, its
and some of the other names for specific kinds of particles). hundreds of thousands of gallons
of extremely pure water also func-
Not a single nonbaryonic particle has ever been convincingly detected in a phys-
tion as a WIMP detector. A
ics laboratory or any other place. This could change soon. Several different kinds of
weakly "ino" can
interacting
WIMP detectors are under construction or operating (Fig. 6). If enough WIMPs or transfer energy to a baryon or
inos pass through such a detector, one will occasionally exert a (weak interaction) an electron in the water. The
force on a baryon inside, thereby depositing some energy and announcing its passage. charged particle then moves
away at close to the speed of light,
Meanwhile, perhaps the strongest argument in favor of the dark matter being bar-
making a shock wave of radiation
yonic is that we know baryons exist! as it goes. The light so radiated
The strongest argument against large quantities of baryonic dark matter is that it (Cerenkov light) is then seen by
isreally quite hard to hide. We can now detect gas at any temperature (as Zwicky phototubes that line the inside of
the tank. The diver is not nor-
could not) and even the faintest stars (as Oort could not), at least in our own galaxy.
mally present when data are
Only a couple of possibilities remain. One is spheres of gas so small that they never get
being recorded. No firm detec-
hot enough for nuclear reactions to occur in them, and therefore never shine except tions of WIMPs have been re-
by reflected light. Jupiter is an example, and it would be difficult to prove that the ported from 1MB or any other
dark matter (at least in galaxies) does not consist of billions of Jupiters moving in the detector operated so far. (Joe
Stancampiano and Karl Luttrell,
space between the stars. Another possibility is remnants from generations of stars that
© National Geographic Society)
died billions of years ago (although one then has to hide some other products as well
as the lingering light). (Continued on next page)
390 CHAPTER 14 THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

But there is a generic problem associated with hiding any kind of baryonic dark
matter in large quantities. Ten or twenty billion years ago, our expanding universe
was so compact and hot that nuclear reactions occurred throughout its constituents.
The main products were ordinary hydrogen, heavy hydrogen (deuterium), helium,
and a small amount of lithium. (In case you wondered, all the other elements are made
by nuclear reactions inside stars.) The relative amounts of each depend on the num-
ber of baryons present during the reactions. Qualitatively, it is easy to see which way
the relationship must go. With lots of baryons around, they find each other quickly
and react, making relatively more helium and lithium. With fewer baryons, they are
less likely to interact, and so leave more hydrogen and deuterium behind.
The oldest stars and some gas clouds preserve the relative proportions of H, He,
and Li left over from the early universe, so that we can measure them. The propor-
tions correspond to what is produced if the density in baryons is 1 to 10% of the

closure density. Thus M/L in baryonic material is 10- 100. This is enough to take care
of galaxies. It may not be enough to account for the masses and M/L's of the largest
clusters of galaxies. And you really cannot close the universe with baryonic material,
unless some important physical process has been left out of the calculations.
We do not know whether the real universe is open or closed. Many tests have
been tried, but they invariably get tangled up with changes in the appearance of
galaxies as they age or with some other confounding factor. Many theorists, however,
strongly suspect that the true density is precisely equal to the critical density, pc Such
.

a universe has the Euclidean geometry of flatspace that you learned in high school.
But the main reasons for perferring/? = pc have to do with the very early phases of the
universal expansion and how they gave rise to what is now here —
for instance, the
fact that the universe on large scales looks so very nearly the same in all directions,
even though the galaxies we see at large distances in opposite directions in the sky
could never have communicated with one another in the past. If one takes these
arguments seriously and concludes that the universe must have exactly the critical
density, then MIL = 1000. Most of the gravitating mass in the universe in this case is
probably not just dark but also nonbaryonic.
The hypothetical nonbaryonic dark matter has some positive virtues of its own, as
well as the negative ones of being easy to hide and not messing up nuclear reactions in
the early universe. An important one is its potential role in galaxy formation.
Galaxies exist (after all, we live in one) and have existed for more than 95% of the
history of the universe. They had to start forming at a time when everything was still
so hot (more than 3000 K) that ordinary matter and light constantly interacted. Thus,
growing lumps in the matter would have caused corresponding lumpiness in the
radiation left from that period. We see the radiation (as microwaves with a character-
istic temperature of 2.7 K), and it is smooth, to better than one part in 100 000, from

place to place in the sky. This combination of lumpy matter and smooth radiation is
very difficult (perhaps impossible) to achieve if the lumps that become galaxies are
made entirely of ordinary matter.
Suppose, however, that we have WIMPs or other nonbaryonic dark matter. Such
dark matter will not interact with the light except gravitationally (remember, no
electromagnetic forces). Thus lumps can form in it when the universe is young and
hot, while still leaving the radiation smooth. Then, later, after everything has cooled
below 3000 K, ordinary gas (the baryonic material) will respond to the gravitational
forces of those lumps and flow into them. At these lower temperatures, light no
longer tags around after ordinary matter, and galaxies like the Milky Way can form
without ruffling up the background radiation. The details of the process differ de-
pending on your favorite sort of WIMP or ino, but, quite generally, it is easier to
understand galaxy formation if 90% or so of the gravitating mass in the universe is
nonbaryonic.
The situation is not entirely a happy one. We know that much of the matter in the
universe is nonluminous (not you or me; each of us emits 1 00 W
of infrared radiation).
 ESSAY DARK MATTER 391

But it could be 99% dark or only 90% dark. And there is no firm way to decide
whether the dark stuffis (a) all baryons (hydrogen and helium; carbon and oxygen like
us can be ruled out), (b) all nonbaryons (for which there is no independent evidence),
or (c) some of each. In the latter two cases, baryonic structures like us, the sun, and
stars are not made of the dominant kind of substance in the cosmos. It's a strange sort
of minority to be a part of, but perhaps the ancient Greeks would have been pleased.

Suggested Readings
Gribbin, J., and M.J. Rees, Cosmic Coincidences, New York, Bantam Books, 1989.
Krauss, L., The Fifth Essence: Dark Matter in the Universe, New York, Basic Books,
1989.
Parker, B., Invisible Matter and the Fate of the Universe, New York, Plenum, 1989.
Tucker, W., and K. Tucker, The Dark Matter, New York, William Morrow, 1988.

Essay Questions
1. Use the numbers given in Table 1 to make a graph of M/L ratio as a function of R,
the distance scale over which it is measured. (You will probably want to use
logarithmic scales on both axes.) What is the simplest sort of function/(R) you can
think of that would roughly fit the graph you have drawn with M/L =f(R)?
2. Explain the arguments for and against dark matter consisting of the kind of matter
we know about (baryonic matter, made of hydron, helium, and all the other
chemical elements) compared to dark matter consisting of some unfamiliar kind
of material.
3. Depending on whether the average density of the universe (inluminous and dark
matter) is larger or smaller than a critical value (about 10 -26 kg/m 3 ), the universe
will either continue to expand forever or will eventually slow down and,
hundreds of billions of years from now, contract back to very high density and
temperature. Discuss the various things that might happen to mankind (if it
survives long enough) in these two kinds of universe.

Essay Problems
1 Our solar system moves in a roughly circular orbit around the center of the Milky
Way galaxy at a speed of about 220 km/s. Our distance from the center of the
galaxy is about 8500 pc (2.6 X 10 20 m). What is the mass of the galaxy inside our
orbit? (Note: 1 parsec = 1 pc = 3.26 lightyears = 3.086 X 10 16 m.)
2. Old, spherical clusters of stars, called globular clusters (Fig. 14. El), orbit the
galaxy at distances as far from its center as 50 kpc (1.5 X 10 21 m). If the mass of
the galaxy were the value you calculated in Problem 1 what would the velocities
,

of these clusters be? In fact, their velocities are more like 220 km/s. What,
therefore, is the total mass of the galaxy out to 50 kpc from its center? As an

approximation, treat the galaxy as a sphere.

3. Our Milky Way is part of a small group of about 25 galaxies. Others live in large
clusters with 1000 or more members. A typical such cluster has a core radius of
9 million pc (2.8 X 10 23 m), a velocity dispersion of 1400 km/s, and a total lumi-
nosity 1000 times that of a single galaxy (e.g., a total of 4 X 10 13 L ). What is the
i=fiH
ratio of M/L in solar units of such a cluster?
4. You can approximate a representative part of the (probably infinite) universe as a
sphere of uniform density p, radius R, and outward velocity at the surface
V=RH, where //=Hubble's constant = 100 km/s/Megaparsec (3.1 X 10 -22
km/s/m) Consider the fate of a test particle of mass m on the surface of the
(Fig. 7).
sphere. It back in if its potential energy exceeds its kinetic energy;
will fall
otherwise, it will keep going forever. Calculate (a) its potential energy, (b) its
kinetic energy, and (c) the density of the sphere if the two energies are precisely
equal. This is the critical density mentioned in Question 1. Figure 7.
 15
Fluid Mechanics

Coronet formed by a drop of

milk. (© Harold E. Edgerton.
Courtesy of Palm Press, Inc.)

our treatment of the mechanics of fluids, we shall see that no

new
physical principles are needed to explain such effects as
the buoyant
In force on a submerged object and the dynamic lift on an
airplane wing.

First, we shall present a discussion of the various

states of matter. Next,

we shall consider a fluid at rest and derive an expression for the pressure as a
function of its density and depth. We shall then treat fluids in motion, or fluid

dynamics. A motion can be described by a model in which certain

fluid in
simplifying assumptions are made. We shall use this model to analyze some

situations of practical importance. An underlying principle known as the Ber-

noulli principle will enable us to determine relations

between the pressure,
density, and velocity at every point in a fluid. As we shall
see, the Bernoulli

principle is a result of conservation of energy applied to

an ideal fluid. We
fluid and
conclude the chapter with a brief discussion of internal friction in a
turbulent motion.

392
 15.1 STATES OF MATTER 393

15.1 STATES OF MATTER

Matter is normally classified as being in one of three states: solid, liquid, or
gaseous. Often, this classification is extended to include a fourth state referred

to as a plasma.
Everyday experience tells us that a solid has a definite volume and shape.
A brick maintains its familiar shape and size day in and day out. We also know
that a liquid has a definite volume but no definite shape. For example, when
you the tank in a car, the gasoline assumes the shape of the tank in the
fill

vehicle, but if you have a gallon of gasoline before filling, you will have a gallon
after. Finally, a gas has neither definite volume nor definite shape. These
definitions help us to picture the states of matter, but they are somewhat
Droplets of mercury lying on a
artificial.For example, asphalt and plastics are normally considered solids, but glass surface. Mercury is the only
over long periods of time they tend to flow like liquids. Likewise, water can be metal that is liquid at room temper-
a solid, liquid, or gas (or combinations of these), depending on the tempera- ature.Note that the small droplets
are almost spherical, while the
ture and pressure. The response time of the change in shape to an external
large droplets are flattened. This
force or pressure determines if we treat the substance as a solid, a very viscous shows that the effect of surface ten-
fluid, or another state. sion has more influence on the
shape of the small (lighter) drop-
The fourth state of matter can occur when matter is heated to very high lets. (© Charles Steele)
temperatures. Under these conditions, one or more electrons surrounding
each atom are freed from the nucleus. The resulting substance is a collection of
free electrically charged particles: the negatively charged electrons and the
positively charged ions. Such an ionized gas with equal amounts of positive
and negative charges is called a plasma. The plasma state exists inside stars, for
example. If we were to take a grand tour of our universe, we would find that
there is far more matter in the plasma state than in the more familiar forms of
solid, liquid, and gas because there are far more stars around than any other
form of celestial matter. However, in this chapter we shall ignore this plasma
state and concentrate instead on the more familiar solid, liquid, and gaseous
forms that make up the environment on our planet.
All matter consists of some distribution of atoms and molecules. The
atoms in a solid are held at specific positions with respect to one another by
forces that are mainly electrical in origin. The atoms of a solid vibrate about
these equilibrium positions because of thermal agitation. However, at low
temperatures, this vibrating motion is slight and the atoms can be considered
to be almost fixed. As thermal energy (heat) is added to the material, the
amplitude of these vibrations increases. One can view the vibrating motion of
the atom as that which would occur if the atom were bound to its equilibrium
position by springs attached to neighboring atoms. One such vibrating collec-
tion of atoms and imaginary springs is shown in Figure 15.1. If a solid is
compressed by external forces, we can picture these external forces as com-
pressing these tiny internal springs. When the external forces are removed,
the solid tends to return to its original shape and size. For this reason, a solid is
said to have elasticity.
Solids can be classified as being either crystalline or amorphous. A crys-
talline solid is one in which the atoms have an ordered, periodic structure. For
example, in the sodium chloride crystal (common table salt), sodium and Figure 15.1 A model of a solid.
chlorine atoms occupy alternate corners of a cube face, as in Figure 15.2a. In The atoms (spheres) are imagined
as being attached to each other by
an amorphous solid, such as glass, the atoms are arranged in a disordered springs, which represent the elastic
fashion, as in Figure 15.2b. nature of the interatomic forces.
394 CHAPTER 15 FLUID MECHANICS

4^^
J3&
m* (a)

Figure 15.2 (a) The NaCl structure, with Na+ and Cl~ ions at alternate corners of a cube. The
small spheres represent Na+ ions, and the large spheres represent Cl~ ions, (b) In an amorphous
solid, the atoms are arranged in a random fashion, (c) Erratic motion of a molecule in a liquid.

In any given substance, the liquid state exists at a higher temperature than
the solid state. Thermal agitation is greater in the liquid state than in the solid
state.As a result, the molecular forces in a liquid are not strong enough to keep
the molecules in fixed positions, and the molecules wander through the liquid
in a random fashion (Fig. 15.2c). Solids and liquids have the following prop-
erty in common. When one tries to compress a liquid or a solid, strong repul-
sive atomic forces act internally to resist the deformation.
In the gaseous state, the molecules are in constant random motion and
exert only weak forces on each other. The average separation distances be-
tween the molecules of a gas are quite large compared with the dimensions of
the molecules. Occasionally, the molecules collide with each other; however,
most of the time they move as nearly free, noninteracting particles. shall We
have more to say about the properties of gases in subsequent chapters.
Natural quartz (Si0 2 ) crystals, one
of the most common minerals on
earth. Quartz crystals are used to 15.2 DENSITY AND PRESSURE
make and prisms and
special lenses
in certain electronic applications. The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume. That is, a
(Courtesy of Ward's Natural substance of mass m and volume V has a density p given by
Science)

Definition of density P-Tt (15.1)

 15.2 DENSITY AND PRESSURE 395

TABLE 15.1 Densities of Some Common Substances

Substance
396 CHAPTER 15 FLUID MECHANICS

force exerted by the fluid is AF over a surface element of area AA, then the
pressure at that point is

„ . AF dF
P= hm -7-r = -7T (15.3)
aa— o A A dA

As we shall see in the next section, the pressure in a fluid in the presence of the
force of gravity varies with depth. Therefore, to get the total force on a plane
wall of a container, we have to integrate Equation 15.3 over the surface.
Since pressure is force per unit area, it has units of N/m 2 in the SI system.
Another name for the SI unit of pressure is pascal (Pa).

1 Pa = 1 N/m 2 (15.4)

15.3 VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH

Consider a fluid at rest in a container (Fig. 15.5). We first note that all points at
the same depth are at the same pressure. If this were not the case, a given
(P + dP)A
element of the fluid would not be in equilibrium. To see this, let us select a
portion of the fluid contained within an imaginary cylinder of cross-sectional
area A and height dy. The upward force on the bottom of the cylinder is PA,
and the downward force on the top is (P + dP)A. The weight of the cylinder,
the volume of which is dV, is given by d W
= pg dV = pgA dy, where p is the
density of the fluid. Since the cylinder is in equilibrium, the forces must add to

V
zero, and so we get
ir
^F = PA-(P + dP)A
y
pgA dy =
Figure 15.5 The variation of
pressure with depth in a fluid. The dP
volume element is at rest, and the = ~Pg (15.5)
forces on it are shown. ll
'J

From this result, we see that an increase in elevation (positive dy) corresponds
to a decrease in pressure (negative dP). If Pi and P2 are the pressures at the
elevations y x and y 2 above the reference level, and if the density is uniform,
then integrating Equation 15.5 gives
Pi = Pa
P2 - Pi = -pg(y* ~ «/i) (15.6)

^ If the vessel is open

the top (Fig. 15.6), then the pressure at the
at
depth h can be obtained from Equation 15.5. Taking atmospheric pressure to
be P^ = P2 , and noting that the depth h = y2 — t/, , we find that

P=P + pgh A (15.7)

where we usually take P = 1.01

tt
X 10 5 Pa (14.7 lb/in.
2
). In other words,

the absolute pressure P at a depth h below the surface of a liquid open to

the atmosphere is greater than atmospheric pressure by an amount pgh.
Figure 15.6 The pressure P at a This result also verifies that the pressure is the same at all points having the
depth h below the surface of a liq-
uid open to the atmosphere is given same elevation. Furthermore, the pressure is not affected by the shape of the
by P = Pa + pgh. vessel.
 15.3 VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH 397

This photograph illustrates that the Figure 15.7 Schematic diagram

pressure in a liquid is the same at of a hydraulic press. Since the in-
all points having the same eleva- crease in pressure is the same at the
tion. Note that the shape of the ves- left and right sides, a small force F x
sel does not affect the pressure. at the left produces a much larger
(Courtesy of CENCO) force F2 at the right.

In view of the fact that the pressure in a fluid depends only upon depth,
any increase in pressure at the surface must be transmitted to every point in
the fluid. This was first recognized by the French scientist Blaise Pascal
(1623-1662) and is called Pascal's law:
A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undimin-
ished to every point of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.

An important application of Pascal's law is the hydraulic press illustrated

by Figure 1 5 7
. . A force F
applied to a small piston of area A, The pressure
1
is .

is transmitted through a fluid to a larger piston of area A 2 Since the pressure is .

the same on both sides, we see that P = F1 /A 1 = F2 /A 2 Therefore, the force F2 .

is larger than F, by the multiplying factor A 2 /A 1 Hydraulic brakes, car

. lifts,

hydraulic jacks, fork lifts, and so on make use of this principle.

EXAMPLE 15.1 The Car Lift ,_ F1 1.48 X 1Q3N

1.88 X 10 5 Pa
In a car used in a service station, compressed air
lift A, 7t(5X10- 2 m) 2
exerts a force on a small piston having a radius of 5 cm.
This pressure is approximately twice atmospheric pres-
This pressure is transmitted to a second piston of radius
sure.
15 cm. What force must the compressed air exert in
order to lift a car weighing 1 3 300 N? What air pressure Note that the input work (the work done by F,) is
will produce this force?
equal to the output work (the work done by F2 ), so that
energy is conserved.
Solution Because the pressure exerted by the com-
pressed air is transmitted undiminished throughout the
fluid, we have
EXAMPLE 15.2 The Water Bed
tt(5 X IP" 2 m) 2 A water bed is 2 m on a side and 30 cm deep, Find
*-£) tt(15 X 10- 2 m) 2
(13 300 N)
weight.
(a) its

= 1.48X10 3 N Solution Since the density of water is 1000 kg/m 3 the ,

mass of the bed is

The air pressure that will produce this force is given by M = pV= (1000 kg/m 3 )(1.2m 3 = ) 1.20 X 10 3 kg
398 CHAPTER 1.5 FLUID MECHANICS

and its weight is Exercise 2 Calculate the total force exerted on the out-
side of a circular submarine window of diameter 30 cm at
W=Mg=(1.20X 10 3 kg)(9.80m/s 2 ) this depth.
Answer 7.00 X 10 5 N.

= 1.18X10 N 4
EXAMPLE 15.4 The Force on a Dam
Water is filled to a height H behind a dam of width w (Fig.
This is equivalent to approximately 2640 lb. In order to 15.8). Determine the resultant force on the dam.
support such a heavy load, you would be well advised to
keep your water bed in the basement or on a sturdy,
well-supported floor.

Find the pressure that the water bed exerts on

(b)
the floor when the bed rests in its normal position. As-
sume that the entire lower surface of the bed makes con-
tact with the floor.

Solution The weight of the water bed is 1.18 X 10 4 N.

The cross-sectional area is 4 m 2 when the bed is in its

normal position. This gives a pressure exerted on the

floor of

1.1 8 X 10 4 N
P= 2.95 X 10 3 Pa
4 m2
Exercise 1 Calculate the pressure that would be ex-
erted on the floor if the bed rests on its side.
Answer Since the area of its side is 0.6 m2 , the pressure
Figure 15.8 (Example 15.4) The total force on a dam must be
is 1.96X10 4 Pa. obtained from the expression F = fPdA, where dA is the area of
the dark strip.

EXAMPLE 15.3 Pressure In the Ocean

Calculate the pressure at an ocean depth of 1000 m. As- Solution The pressure at the depth h beneath the sur-
sume the density of water is 1.0 X 10 3 kg/m 3 and take face at the shaded portion is

Pa =1.01 X10 5 Pa.

P = pgh = pg(H-y)

Solution (We have left out atmospheric pressure since it acts on

both sides of the dam.) Using Equation 15.3, we find the
P=Pa + pgh force on the shaded strip to be
= 1.01 X 10 5 Pa
dF = P dA = pg(H - y)w dy
+ (1.0 X 10 3 kg/m 3 ) (9.80 m/s 2 )(10 3 m)
Therefore, the total force on the dam is

P= 9.90X10 6 Pa pdA= ~ pgwH 2

/ f Pg(H y)w dy t

This is approximately 100 times greater than atmos- For example, if H = 30 m and w = 100 m, we find that
pheric pressure! Obviously, the design and construction F= 4.4 X 10 8 N = 9.9 X 10 7 lb! Note that because the
of vessels that will withstand such enormous pressures pressure increases with depth, the dam is designed such
are not trivial matters. that its thickness increases with depth, as in Figure 5.8.

15.4 PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

One simple device for measuring pressure is the open-tube manometer illus-
trated in Figure 1 5.9a. One end of a U-shaped tube containing a liquid is open
to the atmosphere, and the other end is connected to a system of unknown
 15.5 BUOYANT FORCES AND ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE 399

pressure P. The pressure at point B equals Pa + pgh, where p is the density of

the But the pressure at B equals the pressure
fluid. at A, which is also the
unknown pressure P. Therefore, we conclude that
P=P> + pgh
The pressure P is called the absolute pressure, while P — Pa is called the
gauge pressure. Thus, if the pressure in the system is greater than atmospheric
pressure, h is positive. If the pressure is less than atmospheric pressure (a
partial vacuum), h is negative.
Another instrument used to measure pressure is the common barometer,
invented by Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647). A long tube closed at one
(a)
end is filled with mercury and then inverted into a dish of mercury (Fig.
15.9b). The closed end of the tube is nearly a vacuum, so its pressure can be
taken as zero. Therefore, it follows that Pa = pgh, where p is the density of the
mercury and h is the height of the mercury column. One atmosphere of
pressure is defined to be the pressure equivalent of a column of mercury that is Th
exactly 0.76 m in height at 0°C, with g = 9.80665 m/s 2 At this temperature,
M
.

mercury has a density of 13.595 X 10 3 kg/m 3 therefore ;

I

P* = Pgh = (13.595 X 3 3
10 kg/m )(9.80665 m/s )(0.7600 m) 2

= 1.013 X 10 5 Pa

(b)

15.5 BUOYANT FORCES AND ARCHIMEDES' Figure 15.9 Two devices for
PRINCIPLE measuring pressure: (a) the open-
tube manometer; (b) the mercury
Archimedes' principle can be stated as follows: barometer.

Any body completely or partially submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a

Archimedes' principle
force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
Everyone has experienced Archimedes' As an example of a
principle.
common experience, recall that it is lift someone if the
relatively easy to
person is in a swimming pool whereas lifting that same individual on dry land is
much harder. Evidently, water provides partial support to any object placed in
it. We say that an object placed in a fluid is buoyed up by the fluid, and we call

this upward force the buoyant force. According to Archimedes' principle,

the magnitude of the buoyant force always equals the weight of the fluid
displaced by the object.

The buoyant force acts vertically upward through what was the center of
gravity of the displaced fluid.
Archimedes' principle can be verified in the following manner. Suppose
we focus our attention on the indicated cube of water in the container of
Figure 15.10. This cube of water is in equilibrium under the action of the
forces on it. One of these forces is the weight of the cube of water. What
cancels this downward force? Apparently, the rest of the water inside the
container is buoying up the cube and holding it in equilibrium. Thus, the
Figure 15.10 The external forces
buoyant force, B, on the cube of water is exactly equal in magnitude to the on the cube of water are its weight
weight of the water inside the cube: W and the buoyancy force B.
Under equilibrium conditions,
B=W B= W.
400 CHAPTER 15 FLUID MECHANICS

Archimedes, a Greek mathematician, physicist, and engineer, was perhaps the great-
est scientist of antiquity. He was the first to compute accurately the ratio of a circle's
circumference to its diameter and also showed how to calculate the volume and
surface area of spheres, cylinders, and other geometric shapes. He is well known for
discovering the nature of the buoyant force acting on objects and was also a gifted
inventor. One of his practical inventions, still in use today, is the Archimedes' screw,
an inclined rotating coiled tube used originally to lift water from the holds of ships.
He also invented the catapult and devised systems of levers, pulleys, and weights for
raising heavy loads. Such inventions were successfully used by the soldiers to defend
his native city, Syracuse, during a two-year siege by the Romans.
According to legend, Archimedes was asked by King Hieron to determine
whether the king's crown was made of pure gold or had been alloyed with some other
Biographical metal. The task was to be performed without damaging the crown. Archimedes

Sketch presumably arrived at a solution while taking a bath, noting a partial loss of weight
after submerging his arms and legs in the water. As the story goes, he was so excited

Archimedes about his great discovery that he ran through the streets of Syracuse naked shouting,
"Eureka!" which is Greek for "I have found it."
(287-212 b.c.)

Now, imagine that the cube of water is replaced by a cube of steel of the
same dimensions. What is the buoyant force on the steel? The water surround-
ing a cube will behave in the same way whether a cube of water or a cube of
steel is being buoyed up; therefore, the buoyant force acting on the steel is the
same as the buoyant force acting on a cube of water of the same dimensions. This
result applies for a submerged object of any shape, size, or density.
Let us show explicitly that the buoyant force is equal in magnitude to the
weight of the displaced fluid. The pressure at the bottom of the cube in Figure
15.10 is greater than the pressure at the top by an amount Pigh, where p( is
the density of the fluid and h is the height of the cube. Since the pressure
difference, AP, is equal to the buoyant force per unit area, that is, AP = B/A,
we see that B = (AP)(A) = (p{ gh)(A) = pf gV, where V is the volume of the
cube. Since the mass of the water in the cube is M
= pfV, we see that
(a)

B=W = p Vg = Mg
{ (15.8)

where W
is the weight of the displaced fluid.

Before proceeding with a few examples, it is instructive to compare the

forces on a totally submerged object with those acting on a floating object.

Case I A Totally Submerged Object When an object is totally submerged

in a fluid of density pf the upward buoyant force is given by B = P(V g, where
,

V„ is the volume of the object. If the object has a density p ,weight is equal
its

to W = Mg = p V g, and the net force on it is B — = (pf W —p

)V g. Hence, if
the density of the object is less than the density of the fluid as in Figure 15.11a,
the unsupported object will accelerate upward. If the density of the object is
greater than the density of the fluid as in Figure 15.11b, the unsupported
Figure 15.11 (a) A totally sub-
object will sink.
merged object with a density less
than the density of water will expe-
rience a net upward force, (b) If a Case A Floating Object Now consider an object in static equilibrium
II
totally submerged object has a
density greater than the density of
floatingon a fluid; that is, one which is partially submerged. In this case, the
the fluid, it will sink. upward buoyant force is balanced by the downward weight of the object. If
 15.5 BUOYANT FORCES AND ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE 401

V is the volume of the fluid displaced by the object (which corresponds to

that volume of the object which is beneath the fluid level), then the buoyant
force has a magnitude given by B = pf Vg. Since the weight of the object is
W W
= Mg = PoVgg, and = B, we see that pf Vg = p V g, or

(15.9)
Pt v
Under normal conditions, the average density of a fish is slightly greater
than the density of water This being the case, a fish would sink if it did not have
.

some mechanism for adjusting its density. The fish accomplishes this by inter-
nally regulating the size of its swim bladder. In this manner, fish are able to
maintain neutral buoyancy as they swim to various depths.

EXAMPLE 15.5 A Submerged Object T2 + B-Mg =

A piece of aluminum is suspended from a string and then
T2 = Mg - B = 9.80 N-B
completely immersed in a container of water (Fig.
15.12). The mass of the aluminum is 1 kg, and its density In order to calculate B, we must first calculate the vol-
is 2.7 X 10 ume
3 kg/m 3 Calculate the tension in the string
. of the aluminum:
before and after the aluminum is immersed.
VA =
,
M=
— 1 kg
3.70 X 10-" m3
Solution When the piece of aluminum is suspended in pM 2.7 X10 3 kg/m 3
Figure 15.12a, the tension in the string, Tl (the
air, as in Since the buoyant force equals the weight of the water
is equal to the weight, Mg, of the
reading on the scale), displaced, we have
aluminum, assuming that the buoyant force of air can be
neglected:
B= Mwg = p„ VMg
= X 10 3 kg/m 3 )(3.7 X 10~ 4 m 3 )(9.80 m/s 2
T1 =Mg= (1 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 ) = 9.80 N (1 )

= 3.63N
When immersed in water, the aluminum experiences an
Therefore,
upward buoyant force B, as in Figure 15.2b, which re-
duces the tension in the string. Since the system is in T, = 9.80 N-C = 9.80 N - 3.63 N = 6.17 N
equilibrium,

EXAMPLE 15.6 The Floating Ice Cube

An ice cube floats in a glass of water as in Figure 15.13.
What fraction of the ice cube lies above the water level?

1 Scale

Mg

(a) (b)

Figure 15.12 (Example 15.5) (a) When

the aluminum is sus-
pended in air, the scale reads the true weight, Mg (neglecting
the buoyancy of air), (b) When the aluminum is immersed in
water, the buoyant force, B, reduces the scale reading to T2 =
Mg-B. Figure 15.13 (Example 15.6).
402 CHAPTER 15 FLUID MECHANICS

Solution This problem corresponds to Case II described of ice beneath water is V/Vj = Pi/pw - Hence, the fraction
in the text. The weight of the ice cube is W
= PtVjg, of ice that lies above the water level is

=
917 kg/m 3 and V, is the volume of the ice
where p t

cube. The upward buoyant force equals the weight of the

displaced water; that is, B = pw Vg, where Vis the volume
f=l-*2
Pf
=
l- ^y^
1000 kg/m 3
0.083 or 8.3%

of the ice cube beneath the water (the shaded region in

Exercise 3 What fraction of the volume of an iceberg
Fig. 5.13) and pw is the density of the water, pw =
liesbelow the level of the sea? Note that the density of
1000 kg/m 3 Since /JjVjg = pw Vg, we see that the fraction
.

seawater is 1024 kg/m 3 .

Answer 0.896 or 89.6%.

15.6 FLUID DYNAMICS

Thus our study of fluids has been restricted to fluids at rest. We now turn
far,

our attention to the subject of fluids in motion. Instead of trying to study the
motion of each particle of the fluid as a function of time, we shall take the more
usual approach of describing the properties of the fluid at each point as a
function of time.

Flow Characteristics
When fluid is in motion, its flow can be characterized as being one of two main
types. The flow is said to be steady if each particle of the fluid follows a smooth
path, and the paths of different particles do not cross each other, as in Figure
15.14. Thus, in steady flow, the velocity of the fluid at any point remains
constant in time. Above a certain critical speed, fluid flow becomes nonsteady
or turbulent. Turbulent flow an irregular flow characterized by small whirl-
is

pooUike regions as in Figure 15.15. As an example, the flow of water in a

stream becomes turbulent in regions where rocks and other obstructions are
encountered, often forming "white water" rapids.

Figure 15.14 Steady flow: a com-

puter simulation of the pattern of
air flow around a space shuttle.
(Courtesy of NASA)
 15.6 FLUID DYNAMICS 403

Figure 15.15 Turbulent flow: the

tip of a rotating blade (the dark re-
gion) forms a vortex in air that is
being heated by an alcohol lamp
(the wick is at the bottom). Note
the air turbulence on both sides of
the rotating blade. (© Harold R.
Edgerton. Courtesy of Palm Press,
Inc.)

The term viscosity is commonly used in fluid flow to characterize the

degree of internal friction in the fluid. This internal friction is associated with
the resistance to two adjacent layers of the fluid to move relative to each other.
Because of viscosity, part of the kinetic energy of a fluid is converted to
thermal energy. This is similar to the mechanism by which an object sliding on
a rough horizontal surface loses kinetic energy.
Because the motion of a real fluid is very complex, and not yet fully
understood, we shall make some simplifying assumptions in our approach. As
we shall see, many features of real fluids in motion can be understood by
considering the behavior of an ideal fluid. In our model of an ideal fluid, we
make the following four assumptions:
1. Nonviscous fluid. In a nonviscous fluid, internal friction is neglected. An
object moving through a nonviscous fluid would experience no retarding
viscous force.
2. Steady flow. In steady flow, we assume that the velocity of the fluid at each
point remains constant in time.
3. Incompressible fluid. The density of the fluid is assumed to remain constant
in time.
4. Irrotational flow. Fluid flow is irrotational if there is no angular momentum

of the fluid about any point. If a small wheel placed anywhere in the fluid
does not rotate about its center of mass, the flow is irrotational. (If the wheel
were to rotate, as it would if turbulence were present, the flow would be
rotational.)
404 CHAPTER 15 FLUID MECHANICS

15.7 STREAMLINES AND THE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

The path taken by a fluid particle under steady flow is called a streamline. The
velocity of the fluid particle is always tangent to the streamline at that point, as

shown Figure 15.16. No two streamlines can cross each other, for if they
in
did, a fluid particle could move either way at the crossover point, and the flow
would not be steady. A set of streamlines as shown in Figure 15.16 forms what
is called a tube offlow. Note that fluid particles cannot flow into or out of the

sides of this tube, since the streamlines would be crossing each other.
Consider a fluid flowing through a pipe of nonuniform size as in Figure
15.17. The particles in the fluid move along the streamlines in steady flow. At
Figure 15.16 This diagram repre- all points the velocity of the particle is tangent to the streamline along which it
sents a set of streamlines (blue
moves.
lines). A particle at P follows one of
these streamlines, and its velocity end of the pipe moves a
In a small time interval Af, the fluid at the bottom
istangent to the streamline at each distance Ai| = Uj
Ai is the cross-sectional area in this region, then the
Af. If
point along its path.
mass contained in the shaded region is Am! = /?,Ai A*i = /V^i u i Af. Similarly,
the fluid that moves through the upper end of the pipe in the time Af has a mass
Am 2 = p 2A 2 t> 2 Af However, since mass is conserved and because the flow is
•

steady, the mass that crosses A t in a time Af must equal the mass that crosses A 2
in a time Af. Therefore Am, = Am 2 or ,

PiAiVx = p 2A 2 v 2 (15.10)

This expression is called the equation of continuity.

Since p is constant for an incompressible fluid, Equation 15.10 reduces to

Ajf ! = A2 t>
2 = constant (15.11)

That is,

Figure 15.17 An incompressible the product of the area and the fluid speed at all points along the pipe is a
fluid moving with steady flow
constant.
through a pipe of varying cross-
sectional area. The volume of fluid
flowing through A, in a time inter-
Therefore, as one would expect, the speed is high where the tube is con-
val Af must equal the volume flow- stricted and low where the tube is wide. The product Av, which has the
ing through A 2 in the same time in- dimensions of volume/time, is called the volume flux, or flow rate. The condi-
terval. Therefore, A t Vi = A 2 v 2
tion Av = constant is equivalent to the fact that the amount of fluid that enters
.

one end of the tube in a given time interval equals the amount of fluid leaving
the tube in the same time interval, assuming no leaks.

EXAMPLE 15.7 Filling a Water Bucket liters 20 X 10 3 cm 3

At; = 20
A water hose 2 cm in diameter is used to fill a 20-liter mm 60s
bucket. If ittakes 1 min to fill the bucket, what is the
20 X 10 3 cm 3
speed i> at which the water leaves the hose? (Note that = 106 cm/s
1 liter = 10 3 cm 3 .)
(n cm 2 )(60 s)

Solution The cross-sectional area of the hose is

A= n- =«(?) cm 2 = n cm 2 Exercise 4 If the diameter of the hose is reduced to

1 cm, what will the speed of the water be as it leaves the
According to the data given, the flow rate is equal to 20 hose, assuming the same flow rate?
liters/min. Equating this to the product Av gives Answer 424 cm/s.
 15.8 BERNOULLI'S EQUATION 405

15.8 BERNOULLI'S EQUATION

As a moves through a pipe of varying cross section and elevation, the
fluid *V*2
pressure will change along the pipe. In 1738 the Swiss physicist Daniel Ber-
noulli (1700-1782) first derived an expression that relates the pressure to
fluid speed and elevation. As we shall see, this result is a consequence of
P h\ x

energy conservation as applied to our ideal fluid.

Again, we shall assume that the fluid is incompressible and nonviscous and
flows in an irrotational, steady manner. Consider the flow through a nonuni-
form pipe in a time At, as illustrated in Figure 15.18. The force on the lower
end of the fluid is P\A where P l is the pressure at point 1. The work done by Figure 15.18 An incompressible
,
X

this force is W
1
= Ft A*! = P X A 1 Ax 1 = Px AV, where A Vis the volume of the fluid flowing through a constricted
pipe with steady flow. The fluid in
lower shaded region. In a similar manner, the work done on the fluid at the the section of length Ax x moves to
W
upper end in the time At is given by 2 = — P2A 2 Ax 2 = —P2 AV. (The volume the section oflength Ax 2 The vol-
.

umes of fluid in the two sections are

that passes through 1 in a time At equals the volume that passes through 2 in
equal.
the same time interval.) This work is negative since the fluid force opposes the
displacement. Thus the net work done by these forces in the time Af is

W=(P -P )AV l 2

Part of this work goes energy of the fluid, and part

into changing the kinetic
goes into changing the gravitational potential energy. If Am is the mass passing
through the pipe in the time Af, then the change in its kinetic energy is

AK = i(Am)u 2 2 - KAm)tV
The change in its potential energy is

AC/ = Amgy 2 - Amgy x

|
We can apply the work-energy theorem in the form W= AK + AU (Chap-
iter 8) to this volume of fluid to give

(Pi — P2 AV = \(Am)v 2 2 — £(Am)u, 2 + Amgy 2 — Amgy

) x

Daniel Bernoulli was a Swiss physicist and mathematician who made important
discoveries in hydrodynamics. Born into a family of mathematicians on February 8,
1700, he was the only member of the family to make a mark in physics. He was
educated and received his doctorate in Basle, Switzerland.
Bernoulli's most famous work, Hydrodynamica, was published in 1738; it is both
a theoretical and a practical study of equilibrium, pressure, and velocity of fluids. He
showed that as the velocity of fluid flow increases, its pressure decreases. Referred to
as "Bernoulli's principle," his work is used to produce a vacuum in chemical laborato-
ries by connecting a vessel to a tube through which water is running rapidly. Ber-
noulli's principle is an early formulation of the idea of conservation of energy.
Bernoulli's Hydrodynamica also attempted the first explanation of the behavior
of gases with changing pressure and temperature; this was the beginning of the
kinetic theory of gases.

(Photograph courtesy of The Bettmann Archive)

Daniel Bernoulli
(,1700-1782)
406 CHAPTER 15 FLUID MECHANICS

If we divide each term by A V, and recall that p = Am/A V, the above expression
reduces to

Pi-Pz = 2PV2
2
~ \PVi 2 + Pgyz ~ PgVi
Rearranging terms, we get

Pi + ipvi 2 + pgyi = P2 + ipv 2 2 + pgy 2 (15.12)

This is Bernoulli's equation as applied to a nonviscous, incompressible fluid in

steady flow. It is often expressed as

Bernoulli's equation P + \pv 2 + pgy = constant (15.13)

Bernoulli's equation says that the sum of the pressure, (P), the kinetic
energy per unit volume (%pv 2 ), and potential energy per unit volume (pgy)
has the same value at all points along a streamline.

When the fluid is at rest, v 1 = v2 — and Equation 15.12 becomes

Pi-P2 = pg(y*-yi)=pgh
which agrees with Equation 15.6. The following examples represent some
interesting applications of Bernoulli's equation.

EXAMPLE 15.8 The Venturi Tube Substituting this expression into the previous equation
The horizontal constricted pipe illustrated in Figure gives
15.19, known can be used to measure
as a Venturi tube,
flow velocities in an incompressible fluid. Let us deter- px +y> V22 = P2 + ipv 2 2
mine the flow velocity at point 2 if the pressure differ- (^
ence Pj — P2 is known.
t'2
^ 2(Pi ~ Pt)
PIAS-Af)
(15.14)

Solution Since the pipe is horizontal, y x = and Equa-

We can also obtain an expression for v 1
using this result
y2
tion 15.12 applied to points 1 and 2 gives
and the continuity equation. Note that since A 2 < A lr it

follows that Px is greater than P2 . In other words, the

Pj + ipvf = P2 + ipv 2
*
pressure is reduced in the constricted part of the pipe.

we see that This result somewhat analogous to the following situa-

is
From the equation of continuity (Eq. 15.1 1),
tion: Consider a very crowded room, where people are
AjU, = A2 t>
2 or
squeezed together. As soon as a door is opened and peo-
ple begin to exit, the squeezing (pressure) is least near
t'2
the door where the motion (flow) is greatest.

Figure 15.19 (a) (Example 15.8) Schematic diagram of

a Venturi tube. The pressure P l is greater than the pres-
sure P2 since t>j < v 2 This device can be used to measure
,

the speed of fluid flow, (b) Photograph of a Venturi tube.

(Courtesy of CENCO) (a) (b)
 15.9 OTHER APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI'S EQUATION 407

EXAMPLE 15.9 Torricelli's law (speed of efflux)

A tank containing a liquid of density p has a small hole in
2) P., = P

air
its side at a distance i/i from the bottom (Fig. 15.20). The
above the liquid is maintained at a pressure P. Deter-
rh
mine the speed at which the fluid leaves the hole when \y-
the liquid level is a distance h above the hole.

Solution If
compared
we assume the tank
> AJ,
is

then the fluid will be

to the hole (A 2
large in cross section
it
approximately at rest at the top, point 2. Applying Ber-
noulli's equation to points 1 and 2, and noting that at the Figure 15.20 (Example 15.9) The speed of efflux, c lf from
the hole in the side of the container is given by v 1 = -J2gh.
holePj = Pa we, get

Pa + l/V + pgyi = ?+ PZU2

But y 2 — !/i
= ^> an d so this reduces to
compared with atmospheric pressure (and therefore the
term 2gh can be neglected), the speed of efflux is mainly
2(P-PJ a function of P. Finally, if the tank is open to the atmos-
»i = + 2gfc (15.15)
Y' phere, then P = PA and v 1 = J2gh. In other words, the
speed of efflux for an open tank is equal to that acquired
If Aj is the cross-sectional area of the hole, then the by a body falling freely through a vertical distance h. This
flow rate from the hole is given by A x
v± . When P is large is known as Torricelli's law.

"15.9 OTHER APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI'S

EQUATION
Many common phenomena can be explained at least in part by Bernoulli's
equation. A qualitative description of such phenomena will now be given.
Consider the streamlines that flow around an airplane wing as shown in
Figure 15.21. The shapes of airplane wings are designed such that the upper
surface has a smaller radius of curvature than the lower surface. Air flowing
over the upper surface follows more of a curved path than the air flowing over
the lower surface. Since the direction of decreasing pressure is toward the
center of curvature, the pressure is lower at the upper surface. The approach-
ing air accelerates into this low pressure region; hence the air speed is greater
Figure 15.21 Streamline flow
past the upper surface. The net upward force F on the wing, called the dy- around an airplane wing. The pres-
namic lift, depends on several factors, such as the speed of the airplane, the sure above is less than the pressure
area of the wing, its curvature, and the angle between the wing and the below, and there is a dynamic lift
force upward.
horizontal. As this angle increases, turbulent flow can set in above the wing to
reduce the lift predicted by the Bernoulli principle. In practice, wings are
usually tilted upward causing the air mass below the wing to be deflected
downward. The impact of the air against the lower surface of the wing results
in an additional upward force on the wing.
If you place a sheet of paper on a table and blow across its top surface, the
paper rises. This is because the faster moving air over the top surface causes a
reduction in air pressure above the paper and hence a net upward force.
It is well known that the roofs of buildings are often blown off by strong
winds, hurricanes, or tornados. The Bernoulli principle tells us that atmo-
spheric pressure decreases under such conditions. If a building is not well
vented, the air pressure inside may be substantially greater than the external
air pressure, which may cause the roof to be blown off. A well-vented building
is less likely to be damaged in this manner.
408 CHAPTER 15 FLUID MECHANICS

A number of devices operate in the manner described in Figure 15.22. A

stream of air passing over an open tube reduces the pressure above the tube.
This reduction in pressure causes the liquid to rise into the air stream. The
liquid is then dispersed into a fine spray of droplets. You might recognize that
this so-called atomizer is used in perfume bottles and paint sprayers. The same
principle is used in the carburetor of a gasoline engine. In this case, the
low-pressure region in the carburetor is produced by air drawn in by the
piston through the air filter. The gasoline vaporizes, mixes with the air, and
enters the cylinder of the engine for combustion.
If a person has advanced arteriosclerosis, the Bernoulli principle pro-
duces a sign called vascular flutter. In this situation, the artery is constricted as
Figure 1 5.22 A stream of air pass-
a result of an accumulation of plaque on its inner walls. In order to maintain a
ing over a tube dipped into a liquid constant flow rate through such a constricted artery, the driving pressure must
will cause the liquid to rise in the increase. Such an increase in pressure requires a greater demand on the heart
tube as shown.
muscle. If the blood velocity is sufficiently high in the constricted region, the
artery may collapse under external pressure, causing a momentary interrup-
tion in blood flow. At this point, there is no Bernoulli principle and the vessel
reopens under arterial pressure. As the blood rushes through the constricted
artery, the internal pressure drops and again the artery closes. Such variations
in blood flow can be heard with a stethoscope. If the plaque becomes dis-
lodged and ends up in a smaller vessel that delivers blood to the heart, the
person can suffer a heart attack.
Finally, consider the circulation of air around a thrown baseball. If the ball
is not spinning, as in Figure 15.23a, the motion of the airstream past the ball is

nearly streamline. In this figure, the ball is moving from right to left. Hence,
from the point of view of the baseball, the airstream is moving from left to
right. A symmetric region of turbulence occurs behind the ball as shown.
When the ball is spinning counterclockwise, as in Figure 15.23b, layers of air
near the surface of the ball are carried in the direction of spin because of
viscosity, which will be discussed in Section 15.11. The combined effect of the
steady flow of air and the air dragged along due to the spinning motion pro-
duces the streamlines shown in 15.23b and an asymmetric turbulence pattern.
The velocity of the air below the ball is greater than the velocity above the ball.
Thus, from Bernoulli's equation, the air pressure above the ball is greater than
the air pressure below the ball, and the ball experiences a sideways deflecting
force. This deflecting force is often called the dynamic lift. When a pitcher
wishes to throw a curve ball that deflects sideways, the spin axis should be
vertical (perpendicular to the page in Fig. 15.23b). On the other hand, if he
wishes to throw a "sinker," the spin axis should be horizontal. Tennis balls and
golf balls with spin also exhibit dynamic lift.

"15.10 ENERGY FROM THE WIND

Figure 15.23 (a) The airstream
The wind as a is not a new concept
source of energy —
there is some evidence
around a nonrotating baseball mov- that windmills were used in Babylon and in China as early as 2000 b.c. The
ing from right to left. The stream- kinetic energy carried by the winds originates from solar energy.
Although the wind is a large potential source of energy (about 5 kW per
lines represent the flow relative to
the baseball. Note the symmetric
region of turbulence behind the acre in the United States), it has been harnessed only on a small scale. It has
ball, (b) The airstream around a been estimated that, on a global scale, the winds account for a total available
spinning baseball. The ball experi-
ences a deflecting force partly be-
power of 2 X 10 10 kW (three times the world power consumption in 1972).
cause of the Bernoulli principle. Therefore, if only a small percentage of the available power could be har-
 15.10 ENERGY FROM THE WIND 409

nessed, wind power would represent a significant fraction of our energy

needs. As with all indirect energy resources, wind power systems have some
disadvantages, which in this case arise mainly from the variability of wind
velocities.
The United States was a 1.25-MW generator
largest windmill built in the
installed at Grandpa's Knob near Rutland, Vermont. The machine's blades
were 175 ft in diameter, and the facility operated intermittently between
1941 and 1945. Unfortunately, one of its two main blades broke off as a result
of material fatigue and was never repaired. Despite this failure, the windmill
was considered a technological success, since wartime needs limited the qual-
ity of available materials. Nevertheless, the project was abandoned because
costs were not competitive with hydroelectric power. The U.S. Department of
Energy has recently developed wind machines each capable of generating
2.5 MW.
We can use some of the ideas developed in this chapter to estimate wind
power. Any wind energy machine involves the conversion of the kinetic en-
ergy of moving air to mechanical energy of an object, usually by means of a
rotating shaft. The kinetic energy per unit volume of a moving column of air is
given by

KE
v'oh
&*
where p is the density of air and v is its speed. The rate of flow of air through a
column of cross-sectional area A is Av (Fig. 15.24). This can be considered as
the volume of air crossing the area each second. In the working machine, A is
the cross-sectional area of the wind-collecting system, such as a set of rotating
propeller blades. Multiplying the kinetic energy per unit volume by the flow
rate gives the rate at which energy is transferred, or, in other words, the
power:

= KE
Power X (15.16) Figure 15.24 Wind moving
volume time through a cylindrical column of
cross-sectional area A with a
Therefore, the available power per unit area is given by speed v.

= ipv 3 (15.17)

where the symbol P for power is not to be confused with pressure. According
to this result, if the moving air column could be brought to rest, a power of \pv 3
would be available for each square meter that was intercepted. For example, if
we assume a moderate speed of 12 m/s (27 mi/h) and take p = 1.3 kg/m 3 we ,

find that

w = 1.1 kW
H"SX U ?)' 1100

Since the power per unit area varies as the cube of the velocity, its value
doubles if v increases by only 26%. Conversely, the power output would be
halved if the velocity decreased by 26%.
This calculation is based on ideal conditions and assumes that all of the
kinetic energy is available for power. In reality, the air stream emerges from
410 CHAPTER 15 FLUID MECHANICS

Figure 15.25 (a) A vertical-axis wind generator, (b) A horizontal-axis wind generator, (c) Photo-
graph of a vertical-axis wind generator. (Courtesy of U.S. Department of Energy)

the wind generator with some residual velocity, and more refined calculations
show that, at best, one can extract only 59.3% of this quantity. 1 The expression
for the maximum available power per unit area for the ideal wind generator is
found to be

X = 27^ (15.18)

In a real wind machine, further losses resulting from the nonideal nature
of the propeller, gearing, and generator reduce the total available power to
around 15% of the value predicted by Equation 15.17. Sketches of two types
of wind turbines are shown in Figure 15.25.

EXAMPLE Power Output of a Windmill

15.10 = 3.0X10 6 W = 3.0MW
Calculate the power output of a wind generator having a
Since the overall efficiency is 15%, the output power is
blade diameter of 80 m, assuming a wind speed of 10 m/s
and an overall efficiency of 15%.
P=0.l5Pmax = 0.45 MW
Solution Since the radius of the blade is 40 m, the cross-
sectional area of the propellers is given by In comparison, a large steam-turbine plant has a power
output of about 1 GW. Hence, one would require 2200
A= Trr2 = tt(40 m) 2 = 5.0 X 10 3 m 2
such wind generators to equal this output under these
If100% of the available wind energy could be extracted, conditions. The large number of generators required for

the maximum available power would be reasonable output power is clearly a major disadvantage
of wind power. (See Problem 52.)

Pmax = IpAv 3 = H 1.2 ^§](5.0 X 10 3 m 2 )( 10

—J

"15.11 VISCOSITY
We have seen that a fluid does not support a shearing stress. However, fluids
do offer some degree of resistance to shearing motion. This resistance to
shearing motion is a form of internal friction which is called viscosity. In the
1
For more details, see J. H. Krenz, Energy Conversion and Utilization, Boston. Allyn and Bacon,
1976, Chapter 8.
 •15.11 VISCOSITY 411

case of liquids, the viscosity arises because of a frictional force between adja-
cent layers of the fluid as they slide past one another. The degree of viscosity of
a fluid can be understood with the following example. If two plates of glass are
separated by a layer of fluid such as oil, with one plate fixed in position, it is
H £ C

easy to slide one plate over the other (Fig. 15.26). However, if the fluid
separating the plates is tar, the task of sliding one plate over the other becomes
much more difficult. Thus, we would conclude that tar has a higher viscosity
than oil. In Figure 15.26, note that the velocity of successive layers increases A D
linearly from to v asone moves from a layer adjacent to the fixed plate to a
layer adjacent to the moving plate. Figure 15.26 A layer of liquid be-
tween two solid surfaces in which
Recall that in a solid a shearing stress gives rise to a relative displacement the lower surface is fixed and the
of adjacent layers (Section 12.4). In an analogous fashion, adjacent layers of a upper surface moves to the right
with a velocity v.
fluid under shear stress are set into relative motion. Again, consider two
parallel layers, one fixed and one moving to the right under the action of an
external force F as in Figure 15.26. Because of this motion, a portion of the
liquid is distorted from its original shape, ABCD, at one instant to the shape
AEFD after a short time interval. If you refer to Section 12.4, you will recog-
nize that the liquid has undergone a shear strain. By definition, the shear stress
on the liquid is equal to the ratio F/A, while the shear strain is defined by the
ratio Ax/£. That is,

Ax
Shear stress =— Shear strain =
A
The upper plate moves with a speed v, and the fluid adjacent to this plate
has the same speed. Thus, in a time At, the fluid at the upper plate moves a
distance Ax = v At, and we can express the shear strain per unit time as

Shear strain _ Ax/£ _ v

At At e

This equation states that the rate of change of shearing strain is v/£.
The coefficient of viscosity, r], for the fluid is defined as the ratio of the
shearing stress to the rate of change of the shear strain:

_ F/A _ Ft
n ~ (15.19) Coefficient of viscosity
vie Av

The SI unit of viscosity is N-s/m 2 The coefficients of viscosity for some sub-
.

stances are given in Table 1 5 2 The cgs unit of viscosity is dyne s/cm 2 which
. .
,

is called the poise.

TABLE 1 5.2 The Viscosities of Various Fluids

Fluid
412 CHAPTER 15 FLUID MECHANICS

The expression for t] given by Equation 15.19 is only valid if the fluid
velocity varies linearly with position. In this case, common to say that the
it is

velocity gradient, v/£, is uniform. If the velocity gradient is not uniform, we

must express r\ in the general form

m
dv/dy
(15.20)

where the velocity gradient dv/dy is the change in velocity with position as
measured perpendicular to the direction of velocity.

EXAMPLE 15.11 Measuring the Coefficient of Solution Because the plate moves with constant speed,
Viscosity its acceleration is zero. The plate moves to the right
A metal plate of area 0.15 m 2 is connected to an 8-g mass under the action of the tension force, T, and the frictional
via a string that passes over an ideal pulley (massless and force,/, associated with the viscous fluid. In this case, the
frictionless), as in Figure 15.27. A lubricant with a film tension is equal in magnitude to the suspended weight,
thickness of 0.3 mm is placed between the plate and sur- therefore,
face. When released, the plate is observed to move to the
/= T = mg = (8 X 10- 3 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 )
right with a constant speed of 0.085 m/s. Find the coeffi-
cient of viscosity of the lubricant. = 7.84 X 10- 2 N
Film
The lubricant in contact with the horizontal surface is at
rest,while the layer in contact with the plate moves at
the speed of the plate. Assuming the velocity gradient is
uniform, we have
_ Fe _ (7.84 X 10~ 2 N)(0.3 X 10~3 m)
n ~
Av~ (0.05 m 2 )(0. 085 m/s)

= 5.53X10-3 N-s/m 2
Figure 15.27 (Example 15.11).

"15.12 TURBULENCE
Ifadjacent layers of a viscous fluid flow smoothly over each other, the stable
streamline flow is called laminar flow. However, at sufficiently high velocities,
the fluid flow changes from laminar flow to a highly irregular and random
motion of the fluid called turbulent flow. The velocity at which turbulence
occurs depends on the geometry of the medium surrounding the fluid and the
fluid viscosity.
There are many examples of turbulent flow that can be cited. Water
flowing in a rock-filled stream or river, and smoke rising from a chimney on a
windy day are turbulent in nature. Likewise, the water in the wake of a
speedboat and the air in the wakes left by airplanes and other moving vehicles
represent turbulent flow.
Experimentally, it is found that the onset of turbulence is determined by a
dimensionless parameter called the Reynolds number, RN, given by

pvd
Revnolds number KN = (15.21)
 SUMMARY 413

Fluid flow. A Cray-2 (one of the

most powerful computers in the
world) simulation of gaseous flow
around a post or cylinder in a
rocket engine. Note the tornado-
like vortex wake at the right. Such
simulations help explain phenom-
ena observed in research experi-
ments. (Courtesy of U.S. Depart-
ment of Energy)

where p is the fluid density, v is the fluid speed, t] is the viscosity, and d is a

geometrical length associated with the flow. For flow through a tube, d would
be the diameter of the tube. In the case of flow around a sphere, d would be the
diameter of the sphere.
Experiments show that if the Reynolds number is below about 2000, the
flow of fluid through a tube is laminar; turbulence occurs if the Reynolds
number is above about 3000.

SUMMARY
The density, p, of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume and has
units of kg/m 3 in the SI system:

P= (15.1) Density

The pressure, P, in a fluid is the force per unit area that the fluid exerts
on any surface:

(15.2) Average pressure

In the SI system, pressure has units of N/m 2 and, 1 N/m 2 = 1 pascal (Pa).
The pressure in a fluid varies with depth h according to the expression

P = Pt + pgh (15.7) Pressure at any depth h

where Pa is atmospheric pressure (= 1.01 X 10 5 N/m 2 and pis the density

)

of the fluid, assumed uniform.

Pascal's law states that when pressure is applied to an enclosed fluid,
the pressure is transmitted undiminished to every point of the fluid and of
the walls of the container.
When an object is partially or fully submerged in a fluid, the fluid exerts
an upward force on the object called the buoyant force. According to
Archimedes' principle, the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body.
414 CHAPTER 15 FLUID MECHANICS

Various aspects of fluid dynamics (fluids in motion) can be understood

by assuming that the fluid is nonviscous and incompressible and that the
fluid motion is a steady flow with no turbulence.

Using these assumptions, one obtains two important results regarding

fluid flow through a pipe of nonuniform size:

1. The flow rate through the pipe is a constant, which is equivalent to

stating that the product of the cross-sectional area, A, and the speed, v, at
any point is a constant. That is,

Equation of continuity AjUx = A 2v 2 = constant (15.11)

2. The sum of the pressure, kinetic energy per unit volume, and potential
energy per unit volume has the same value at all points along a stream-
line. That is,

Bernoulli's equation P + \pv z + pgy = constant (15.13)

This is known as Bernoulli's equation and is fundamental in the study of

fluid dynamics.

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to shearing motion.

The coefficient of viscosity for a fluid is defined as the ratio of the shearing
stress to the rate of change of the shear strain.
The onset of turbulence in fluid flow is determined by a parameter
called the Reynolds number, whose value depends on the fluid density, the
fluid speed, the viscosity, and a geometrical factor.

QUESTIONS

1. Two glass tumblers that weigh the same but have dif- begins to sink, will it go all the way to the bottom of
ferent shapes and different cross-sectional areas are the ocean or will it stop when its density becomes the
filled to the same level with water. According to the same surrounding water?
as that of the

expression P—P^ + pgh, the pressure is the same at 9. A on the bottom of a bucket of water while
fish rests

the bottom of both tumblers. In view of this, why does the bucket is being weighed. When the fish begins to
one tumbler weigh more than the other? swim around, does the weight change?
2. If the top of your head has an area of 1 00 cm 2 what is,
1 0. Will a ship ride higher in the water of an inland lake or

the weight of air above your head? in the ocean? Why?

3. When you drink a liquid through a straw, you reduce 11. If 1 000 000 N of weight were placed on the deck of
the pressure in your mouth and let the atmosphere the World War II battleship North Carolina, the ship
move the liquid. Explain how this works. Could you would sink only 2.5 cm lower in the water. What is the
use a straw to sip a drink on the moon? cross-sectional area of the ship at water level?
4. Indian fakirs stretch out for a nap on a bed of nails. 12. Lead has a greater density than iron, and both are
How is this possible? denser than water. Is the buoyant force on a lead ob-
5. Pascal used a barometer with water as the working ject greater than, less than, or equal to the buoyant
fluid. Why is it impractical to use water for a typical force on an iron object of the same volume?
barometer? 1 3. An ice cube is placed in a glass of water. What happens

6. A person sitting in a boat floating in a small pond to the level of the water as the ice melts?
throws a heavy anchor overboard. Does the level of 14. A woman wearing high-heeled shoes is invited into a
the pond rise, fall, or remain the same? home in which the kitchen has a newly installed vinyl
7. Steel is much denser than water. How, then, do boats floor covering. Why should the homeowner be con-
made of steel float? cerned?
8. A helium-filled balloon will rise until its density be-
comes the same as that of the air. If a sealed submarine
 QUESTIONS 415

15. A typical silo on a farm has many bands wrapped there is a net upward force (lift) on the wing due to the
around its perimeter, as shown in the photograph. Bernoulli principle.
Why is the spacing between successive bands smaller 20 When a fast-moving train passes a train at rest, the two
at the lower regions of the silo? tend to be drawn together. How does the Bernoulli
effect explain this phenomenon?
21. A baseball thrown from left field toward home plate is

seen from above to be spinning counterclockwise. In

which direction does the ball deflect?
22. A tornado or hurricane will often lift the roof of a
house. Use the Bernoulli principle to explain why this
occurs. Why should you keep your windows open
during these conditions?
23. If you suddenly turn on your shower water at full
speed, why is the shower curtain pushed inward?
24. If you hold a sheet of paper and blow across the top
surface, the paper rises. Explain.
25. If air from a hair dryer is blown over the top of a
Ping-Pong ball, the ball can be suspended in air. Ex-
plain how the ball can remain in equilibrium.
26. Two ships passing near each other in a harbor tend to
be drawn together and run the risk of a sideways colli-
sion. How does the Bernoulli principle explain this?
(Question 15).
27. When ski-jumpers are airborne, why do they bend
their bodies forward and keep their hands at their
16. The water supply for a city is often provided from
sides?
reservoirs built on high ground. Water flows from the
reservoir, through pipes, and into your home when
you turn the tap on your faucet. Why is the water flow
more rapid out of a faucet on the first floor of a build-
ing than in an apartment on a higher floor?
17. Smoke rises in a chimney faster when a breeze is
blowing. Use Bernoulli's principle to explain this phe-
nomenon.
18. Why do many trailer trucks use wind deflectors on the
top of their cabs? (See photograph.) How do such de-
vices reduce fuel consumption?

(Question 27). (© Thomas Zimmerman, FPG International)

28. When an object is immersed in a fluid at rest, why is

the net force on it in the horizontal direction equal to

zero?
29. Explain why a sealed bottle partially filled with a liq-

uid can float.

30. When is the buoyant force on a swimmer the greatest

— when the swimmer is exhaling or inhaling?
31. A piece of wood is partially submerged in a container
filled with water. If the container is sealed and pres-
(Question 18) The high cost of fuel has prompted many truck
owners to install wind deflectors on their cabs to reduce air drag. surized above atmospheric pressure, does the wood
(Courtesy of Henry Leap) rise, fall, or remain at the same level? (Hint: Wood is

porous.)
19. Consider the cross section of the wing on an airplane. 32. A flat plate is immersed in a fluid at rest. For what
The wing is designed such that the air travels faster orientation of the plate will the pressure on its flat

over the top than under the bottom. Explain why surface be uniform?
416 CHAPTER 15 FLUID MECHANICS

33. Because atmospheric pressure is 10

5 N/m 2
and the
area of a person's chest is about 0.13 2 m
the force of ,

the atmosphere on one's chest is around 13 000 N. In

view of this enormous force, why don't our bodies
collapse?
34. How does a bumblebee stay aloft? A helicopter?
35. How would you determine the density of an irregu-
larly shaped rock?
36. Why do airplane pilots prefer to take off into the
wind?
37. Baseball pitchers are capable of throwing several in-
teresting kinds of pitches. Can you describe how each
of the following pitches is thrown by a right-handed
pitcher? (a) a curveball (breaks left), (b) screwball
(breaks right), (c) sinker (breaks down), (d) submarine
(breaks up), and (e) knuckleball (random deviations).
38. If you release a ball while inside a freely falling eleva-
tor, the ball remains in front of you rather than falling
to the floor, because the ball, the elevator, and you all
experience the same downward acceleration, g. What (Question 43). (Courtesy of Henry Leap and Jim Lehman)

happens if you repeat this experiment with a helium-

filled balloon? (This one is tricky.)
44. In the photograph below, an air stream moves from
39. Two identical ships set out to sea. One is loaded with a
right to left through a tube which is constricted at the
cargo of Styrofoam, and the other is empty. Which
middle. Three Ping-Pong balls are levitated in equi-
ship will be more submerged?
librium above the vertical columns through which the
40. A small piece of steel is tied to a block of wood. When air escapes, (a) Why is the ball at the right at a higher
the woodplaced in a tub of water with the steel on
is
elevation than the one in the middle? (b) Why is the
top, half of the block is submerged. If the block is
ball at the left at a lower elevation than the ball at the
inverted so that the steel is underwater, will the
right even though the horizontal tube has the same
amount of the block submerged increase, decrease, or
dimensions at these two points?
remain the same? What happens to the water level in
the tub when the block is inverted?
41. Prairie dogs ventilate their burrows by building a
mound over one of their entrances, which is open to a
stream of air. A second entrance at ground level is
open to almost stagnant air. How does this construc-
tion create an air flow through the burrow?
42. An unopened can of diet cola floats when placed in a
tank of water, whereas a can of regular cola of the
same brand sinks in the tank. What do you suppose
could explain this behavior?
43. The photograph below shows a glass cylinder contain-
ing four fluids of different densities. From top to bot-
tom, the fluids are oil (orange), water (yellow), salt
water (green), and mercury (silver). The cylinder also
contains four objects, which from top to bottom are a
Ping-Pong ball, a piece of wood, an egg, and a steel
ball, (a) Which of these fluids has the lowest density,
and which has the greatest? (b) What can you con-
clude about the density of each object in the cylinder? (Question 44). (Courtesy of Henry Leap and Jim Lehman)
 PROBLEMS 417

PROBLEMS
Section 15.2 Density and Pressure equal to 1 atm) and a depth of 4.96 km (where the
pressure is 500 atm)?
1. Calculate the mass of a solid iron sphere that has a
16. What is the hydrostatic force on the back of Grand
diameter of 3.0 cm.
Coulee Dam if the water in the reservoir is 150 m
2. A small ingot of shiny grey metal has a volume of
deep and the width of the dam is 1200 m?
25 cm 3 and a mass of 535 g. What is the metal? (See
17. In some places, the Greenland ice sheet is 1 km thick.
Table 15.1).
Estimate the pressure on the ground underneath the
3. Estimate the density of the nucleus of an atom. What
ice. (pice = 920 kg/m 3 .)
does this result suggest concerning the structure of
matter? (Use the fact that the mass of a proton is
-27 Section 15.4 Pressure Measurements
1.67 X 10 kg and its radius is about 10 -15 m.)
4. A king orders a gold crown having a mass of 0.5 kg. 18. The U-shaped tube in Figure 15.9a contains mercury.
When it arrives from the metalsmith, the volume of What is the absolute pressure, P, on the left side if
the crown is found to be 185 cm 3 Is the crown made
. h — 20 cm? What is the gauge pressure?
of solid gold? 19. If the fluid in the barometer illustrated in Figure
5. A 50-kg woman balances on one heel of a pair of high- 15.9b is water, what will be the height of the water
heel shoes. If the heel is circular with radius 0.5 cm, column tube at atmospheric pressure?
in the vertical
what pressure does she exert on the floor? 20. The open tube in Figure 15.28 contains two
vertical
6. What is the total mass of the earth's atmosphere? (The fluids of densities p l and/) 2 which do not mix. Show
,

radius of the earth is 6.37 X 10 6 m, and atmospheric that the pressure at the depth h x + h 2 is given by the
pressure at the surface is 1.01 X 10 N/m .) 5 2
expression P—P + Pigh + p 2 gh 2
a x .

7. Estimate the density of a neutron star. Such an object

is thought to have a radius of only 10 km and a mass

equal to that of the sun. (Msun = 1.99 X 10 30 kg.)

Section 15.3 Variation of Pressure with Depth

8. Determine the absolute pressure at the bottom of a
lake that is 30 m deep."
9. At what depth in a lake is the absolute pressure equal
to three times atmospheric pressure?
10. The small piston of a hydraulic lift has a cross-sec-
tional area of 3 cm 2 and the large piston has an area of
,

200 cm 2 (Fig. 15.7). What force must be applied to

the small piston to raise a load of 15 000 N? (In ser-
vice stations this is usually accomplished with com-
pressed air.)
Figure 15.28 (Problem 20).
11. The spring of the pressure gauge shown in Figure
1 5 4 has a force constant of 1 000 N/m, and the piston Figure 15.29
.
(Problem 21).
has a diameter of 2 cm. Find the depth in water for
which the spring compresses by 0.5 cm. 21. Blaise Pascal duplicated Torricelli's barometer using
12. A swimming pool has dimensions 30 m X 10 m and a (as a Frenchman would) a red Bordeaux wine as the
flat bottom. When the pool is filled to a depth of 2 m working liquid. The density of the wine he used was
with fresh water, what is the total force due to the 0.984 X 10 3 kg/m 3 What was the height h of the
.

water on the bottom? On each end? On each side? wine column for normal atmospheric pressure? (Refer
13. What must bethe contact area between a suction cup to Fig 15.29 and use g = 9.80 m/s 2 .) Would you ex-
(completely exhausted) and a ceiling in order to sup- pect the vacuum above the column to be as good as for
port the weight of an 80-kg student? mercury?
14. A magician is immersed in 4.0 m
of water in a sealed 22. Normal atmospheric pressure is 1.013 X 10 5 Pa. The
trunk. If the lid of the trunk measures 0.70 mX approach of a storm causes the height of a mercury
2.0 m, what is the force of the water on the trunk lid? barometer to drop by 20 mm from the normal height.
15. What is the fractional change in the density of sea What is the atmospheric pressure? (The density of
water between the surface (where the pressure is mercury is 13.59 g/cm 3 .)
418 CHAPTER 15 FLUID MECHANICS

23. A simple U-tube that is open at both ends is partially and bottom of the block? (Take Pa = 1.0130 X 10 5
filledwith water (Figure 15.30). Kerosene (fa = N/m 2 .) (b) What is the reading of the spring scale?
0.82 X 10 3 kg/m 3 ) is then poured into one arm of the (c) Show that the buoyant force equals the difference
tube, forming a column 6 cm in height, as shown in between the forces at the top and bottom of the block.

the diagram. What is the difference h in the heights of 31. A frog in a hemispherical pod finds that he just floats
the two liquid surfaces? without sinking in a blue-green sea (density 1.35 g/
cm 3 ). If the pod has a radius of 6 cm and has negligible
mass, what is the mass of the frog? (See Fig. 15.31.)

fm 6 cm

Water- Figure 15.31 (Problem 31).

32. APing-Pongballhasadiameterof3.8 cm and average

density of 0.084 g/cm 3 What force would be required
.

to hold it completely submerged under water?

Figure 15.30 (Problem 23).
33. A Styrofoam slab has a thickness of 10 cm and a den-
3 What is the area of the slab if it
sity of 300 kg/m .

floats just awash in fresh water when a 75-kg swimmer

is aboard?
Section 15.5 Buoyant Forces and Archimedes' Principle 34. Arectangular air mattress has a length of 2.0 m, a

24. Calculate the buoyant force on a solid object made of width of 0.50 m, and a thickness of 0.08 m. If the mass
copper and having a volume of 0.2 m3 if it is sub- of the material is 2.3 kg, what mass can just be sup-

merged in water. What is the result if the object is ported by the mattress in water?
made of steel? 35. How much helium (in cubic meters) is required to lift

25. Show that only 11% of the total volume of an iceberg aballoon with a 400-kg payload to a height of 8000 m?
above the water level. (Note that sea water has a
is (pHe
= 0.18 kg/m 3 .) Assume the balloon maintains a
density of 1.03 X 10 3 kg/m 3 and ice has a density of
,
constant volume and that the density of air decreases
8000 (z = height in meters,
0.92 X 10 3 kg/m 3 .) with height as p^ = p^^ .

26. In air, an object weighs 15 N. When immersed in p = sea level density =1.25 kg/m 3 .)

water, the same object weighs 12 N. When immersed

in another liquid, it weighs 13 N. Find (a) the density
Sections 15.6-15.8 Fluid Dynamics and Bernoulli's
of the object and (b) the density of the other liquid.
Equation
27. A cube of wood 20 cm on a side and having a density
of 0.65 X 10 3 kg/m 3 floats on water, (a) What is the 36. The rate of flow of water through a horizontal pipe is

distance from the top of the cube to the water level? 2 m 3 /min. Determine the velocity of flow at a point
(b) How much lead weight has to be placed on top of where the diameter of the pipe is (a) 10 cm, (b) 5 cm.
the cube so that its top is just level with the water? 37. A large storage tank filled with water develops a small
28. blimp is filled with 400 m 3 of helium. How big a
A hole in its side at a point 16m below the water level. If
-3
payload can the balloon lift? (The density of air is 1.29 the rate of flow from the leak is 2.5 X 10 m 3 /min,
kg/m 3 the density of helium is 0.18 kg/m 3 .)
; determine (a) the speed at which the water leaves the
29. A plastic sphere floats in water with 0.50 of its volume hole and (b) the diameter of the hole.
submerged. This same sphere floats in oil with 0.40 of 38. Water squirts from a syringe at a speed of 30 m/s.The
its volume submerged. Determine the densities of the diameter of the opening is 0.01 cm. Determine the
oil and the sphere. pressure difference between the water inside the sy-
30. A 10-kg block of metal measuring 12 cm X 10 cm X ringe and the air outside. Assume that the flow speed
10 cm is suspended from a scale and immersed in inside is zero. Express your result in pascals and atmo-
water as in Figure 15.12b. The 12-cm dimension is spheres.
vertical, and the top of the block is 5 cm from the 39. A horizontal pipe 10 cm in diameter has a smooth
surface of the water, (a) What are the forces on the top reduction to a pipe 5 cm in diameter. If the pressure
 PROBLEMS 419

of the water in the larger pipe is 8 X 10 4 Pa and the

pressure in the smaller pipe is 6 X 1
4
Pa, at what rate
does water flow through the pipes?
40. The water supply of a building is fed through a main
6-cm-diameter pipe. A 2-cm-diameter faucet tap lo-
cated 2 m above the main pipe is observed to fill a
25-liter container in 30 s. (a) What is the speed at
Mercury
which the water leaves the faucet? (b) What is the
gauge pressure in the 6-cm main pipe? (Assume the
faucet is the only "leak" in the building.) Figure 15.32 (Problem 47).
41. Water flows through a fire hose of diameter 6.35 cm
at a rate of 0.012 m 3 /s. The fire hose ends in a nozzle
1 m, find the velocity of outflow at the end of the
of inner diameter 2.2 cm. What is the velocity with
siphon, (b) What is the limitation on the height of the
which the water exits the nozzle?
top of the siphon above the water surface? (In order to
42. The Garfield Thomas water tunnel at Pennsylvania
have a continuous flow of liquid, the pressure in the
State University has a circular cross-section which
liquid cannot go below atmospheric pressure.)
constrictsfrom a diameter of 3 6 m to the test section, .

which is 1.2 m in diameter. If the velocity of flow is

3 m/s in the larger-diameter pipe, determine the ve-
locity of flow in the test section.
43. Old Faithful Geyser in Yellowstone Park erupts at ap-
proximately 1-hour intervals, and the height of the
fountain reaches 40 m. (a) With what velocity does
the water leave the ground? (b) What is the pressure
(above atmospheric) in the heated underground
chamber?

'Section 15.9 Other Applications of Bernoulli's Equation

44. An airplane has a mass of 16 000 kg, and each wing © ''3 =
has an area of 40 m2 . During level flight, the pressure
on the lower wing surface is 7.0 X 10 4 Pa. Determine Figure 15.33 (Problem 48).
the pressure on the upper wing surface.
45. Each wing of an airplane has an area of 25 m 2 If the .

49. A large storage tank

is filled to a height /i If the tank .

speed of the air is 50 m/s over the lower wing surface punctured
is height h from the bottom of the tank,
at a
and 65 m/s over the upper wing surface, determine (Fig. 15.34) how far from the tank will the stream
the weight of the airplane. (Assume the plane travels
land?
in level flight at constant speed at an elevation where
the density of air is 1 kg/m 3 Also assume that all of the
.

lift is provided by the wings.)

46. A Venturi tube may be used as a fluid flow meter

(Figure 15.19). If the difference in pressure PY — P2 =
21 000 Pa (=3 lb/in. 2 ), find the fluid flow rate in 3 /s m
given that the radius of the outlet tube is 1 cm, the
radius of the inlet tube is 2 cm, and the fluid is gaso-
line (/>= 700 kg/m 3 ).
47. A pitot tube can be used to determine the velocity of
air flow by measuring the difference between the
Figure 15.34 (Problem 49).
total pressure and the static pressure (Fig. 15.32).
If the fluid in the tube is mercury, density pHg =
13 600 kg/m 3 and , A/i = 5 cm, find the velocity of air 50. A hole is punched in the side of a 20 cm-tall container,
flow. (Assume that the air is stagnant at point A and full of water as in the photograph below. If the water is
take p^ t =1.25 kg/m 3 .) to shoot as far as possible horizontally, (a) how far up
48. A siphon used to drain water from a tank, as indi-
is the container should the hole be punched? (b) Ne-
cated in Figure 15.33. The siphon has a uniform diam- glecting friction losses, how far (initially) from the
eter d. Assume steady flow, (a) If the distance hx = side of the container will the water land?
420 CHAPTER 15 FLUID MECHANICS

jjiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii t

m
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 421

as the atmosphere thins out. Suppose that the density Two teams of eight horses each could pull the hemi-
were a constant (1.3 kg/m 3 ) up to some altitude h, and spheres apart only on some trials, and then "with

zero above. Then h would represent the depth of the greatest difficulty." (Fig. 15.39). (a) Show that the
ocean of air, or the thickness of our atmosphere. De- force F required evacuated hemispheres
to pull the
termine the value of h that gives a pressure of 1 atm at apart is 7rfi 2 (Pa — P), where R is the radius of the hemi-
the surface of the earth. Would the peak of Mt. Ever- spheres and P is the pressure inside the hemispheres,
est rise above the surface of such an ocean? whichis much less than Pa . (b) Determine the force if

61. The true weight of a body is its weight when measured P=0.1P„ and fi = 0.3 m.
in a vacuum where there are no buoyant forces. A
body of volume V is weighed in air on a balance using
weights of density p. If the density of air is />„ and the
balance reads W, show that the true weight W is

given by

W'\
W=W '
+ ( V-
Pgt Figure 15.39 (Problem 68).

62. A wooden dowel has a diameter of cm. It floats in

1 .2

water with 0.4 cm of its diameter above water (Fig. 69. In 1983, the United States began coining the cent
15.38). Determine the density of the dowel. piece out of copper-clad zinc rather than pure cop-
per. Ifthemassof the old copper cent is 3.083 g while
that of the new cent is 2.517 g, calculate the percent
of zinc (by volume) in the new cent. The density of
copper 8.960 g/cm 3 and that of zinc is 7. 133 g/cm 3
is .

The new and old coins have the same volume.

70. How much air must be pushed downward at 40 m/s in
order to keep an 800-kg helicopter aloft?
7 1 The flow rate of the Columbia River is approximately
3200 m 3 /s. What would be the maximum power out-
Figure 15.38 (Problem 62). put of the turbines in a dam if the water were to fall a
vertical distance of 160 m?
63. A pipe carrying water has a diameter of 2.5 cm. Esti- 72. As a first approximation, the earth's continents may be
mate the maximum flow speed if the flow is to be thought of as granite blocks floating in a denser rock
laminar. Assume the temperature is 20°C.
(called peridotite) in the same way that ice floats in

64. What power is required to pump 50 L/s of water water, (a) Show that a formula describing this phe-

through a horizontal pipe with a pressure difference nomenon is

of1 atm? = PP d,
Pg t
65. If a 1 -megaton nuclear weapon is exploded at ground
level, the peak overpressure (that is, the pressure in- where pg is the density of granite (2800 kg/m 3 ), pp is
3
crease above normal atmospheric pressure) will be the density of peridotite (3300 kg/m ), f is the thick-
0.2 atm at a distance of 6 km. What force due to such ness of a continent, and d is the depth to which a
an explosion will be exerted on the side of a house continent floats in the peridotite. (b) If a continent
with dimensions 4.5 m X 22 m? rises 5 km above the surface of the peridotite (this
66. Water flows through a horizontal pipe that gradually surface may be thought of as the ocean floor), what is

narrows so that the final inside diameter is one-half the thickness of the continent?
the original diameter. In the wide section the flow 73. Consider a composite "raft" consisting of two square
speed is 11.4 m/s and the pressure is 10.2 atm. Deter- slabs, each of side s, attached face to face. One slab has
mine (a) the flow speed in the narrow section and density p x and thickness \i x while the other has den-
,

(b) the pressure in the narrow section. sity p 2 > Pi and thickness h 2 (a) Find the average
.

67. With reference to Figure 15.8, show that the total density p of the raft, (b) Assume that w so that p<p ,

torque exerted by the water behind the dam about an the raft floats in water. The raft is placed in water with
axis through O is %pgwH 3 Show that the effective line
. the denser slab on the bottom. Find d, the depth of the
of action of the total force exerted by the water is at a bottom surface of the raft, (c) If the raft is placed in
distance %H above O. water with the denser slab on the top find d', the
68. In 1 657 Otto von Guericke, inventor of the air pump, depth of the bottom surface of the raft. Comment on
evacuated a sphere made of two brass hemispheres. your answer, (d) For which of the orientations de-
422 CHAPTER 15 FLUID MECHANICS

scribed in (b) and (c) is the gravitational potential en- 77. A cube of ice whose edge is 20 mm is floating in a glass
ergy of the entire system (consisting of the raft and the of ice-cold water with one of its faces parallel to the
body of water in which it is floating) greater? Find the water surface, (a) How far below the water surface is

potential energy difference. the bottom face of the block? (b) Ice-cold ethyl alco-
74. Water falls over a dam of height H meters at a rate of hol is gently poured onto the water surface to form a
R kg/s. (a) Show that the power available from the layer 5 mm thick above the water. When the ice cube
water is attains hydrostatic equilibrium again, what will be the
distance from the top of the water to the bottom face
P=RgH of the block? (c) Additional cold ethyl alcohol is

where g is the acceleration of gravity (b) Each hydro- .

poured onto the water surface until the top surface of

electric unit at the Grand Coulee Dam discharges the alcohol coincides with the top surface of the ice
water at a rate of 8.5 X 10 5 kg/s from a height of cube (in hydrostatic equilibrium). How thick is the
87 m. The power developed by the falling water is required layer of ethyl alcohol?
converted to electric power with an efficiency of
85%. How much electric power is produced by each
hydroelectric unit?
75. A cable of mass density p c and diameter d extends
vertically downward a distance h through water, and a
M
block of mass b and density fa is hung from the bot-
tom end of the cable. Both pQ and fo exceed p„, the
density of water. Find (a) the tension Te at the lower
end of the cable, (b) the tension Tu at the upper end of
the cable, and (c) the tensions T/ and TJ that would

exist at the lower and upper ends of the cable if the

entire assembly were in air rather than water. (Ne-
glect the buoyant force provided by the air.) (d) Evalu-
ate Tt Tu T/, and Tu for the case of a 100-meter steel
, ,
'

cable supporting a prefabricated concrete ob-

ject of mass 2.00 metric tons: p c = 7.86 X 10 kg/m
3 3
,

d = 2 X 10" 2 m, h = 100 m, b = 2.00 X 10 kg, and

3
M
/>,,
= 2.38 X10 3
kg/m 3
.

76. |
Show that the variation of atmospheric pressure with
is given by P = P e~ where a = p g/P Po is
ah
altitude , ,

atmospheric pressure at some reference level, and/>

is the atmospheric density at this level. Assume that

the decrease in atmospheric pressure with increasing

altitude is given by Equation 1 5 5 and that the density.

of air is proportional to the pressure.

 ESSAY CHAOS 423

Many important problems in physics such as the motion of the planets around the Sun
or the oscillations of a mass suspended by a spring have well-understood solutions.
These solutions come from fundamental equations such as Newton's laws and can be
ESSAY
expressed as simple mathematical functions such as sine and cosine. The laws of
classical physics are deterministic in the sense that they allow us to predict what will
Chaos
happen next based on the present state of the system. This kind of detailed quantita-
J. C. Sprott
tive prediction has proved much more difficult in other fields such as the life sciences.
University of Wisconsin -
Even within physics there are many processes such as the turbulent motion of a Madison
fluid or the motion of the molecules in a gas that defy a simple description and seem
governed more by chance and probability than by determinism. These systems typi-
cally involvevery complicated equations or a large number of simple equations.
What come as a surprise to most scientists in recent years is the fact that
has
simple systems, governed by simple laws, can exhibit behavior of such complexity as
to appear random. Such systems are said to exhibit "chaos," which we may define as
apparently random behavior of a deterministic system. These systems cannot be
"solved" in the usual sense of finding a mathematical expression that gives the state of
the system at some arbitrary future time. Many examples of chaos have been discov-
ered in recent years, and some processes previously thought to be random have now
been explained in terms of relatively simple models.

The Three-Body Problem

An example of chaos that bothered Newton 300 years ago and was appreciated by
Henri Poincare (a French mathematician) 100 years ago is the famous three-body
problem in which, for example, a planet orbits a pair of stars. The motion of a single
planet around a star is a simple ellipse as was understood by Kepler even before the
time of Newton. But when a third body is added, the motion as shown in Figure 1 is of
great complexity and never repeats. This complexity persists even if both stars are
held fixed and the planet moves in a plane about the stars.
Despite valiant attempts by the best mathematicians, this problem has never
been solved except by a computer that laboriously calculates each successive position
in terms of the previous position using tiny time steps. Digital computers are an
indispensable tool for studying problems of this type, and the complicated results
vividly illustrate why such problems will probably never be solved by the usual
algebraic methods.
A characteristic of chaos is an extreme sensitivity to initial conditions. If we were
to repeat the three-body calculation with the initial position or velocity of the planet (Continued on next page)

Figure 1 The chaotic motion of a

planet orbiting a pair of identical
stars.
424 CHAPTER 15 FLUID MECHANICS

i
 ESSAY CHAOS 425

Now if we push the pendulum slightly harder, but still periodically, so that it

occasionally goes over the top, the phase-space plot looks very different, as shown in

Figure 3, and if we watch long enough, the trajectory will fill in a large region of the
plane. Although the motion looks random and unpredictable, it is in fact deterministic
and subject to rules that are not apparent in Figure 3.
Suppose that instead of looking at the entire trajectory, we flash a strobe light
occasionally and place a dot on the graph where the trajectory is at that instant. For
example, if the strobe light flashes every time the pendulum is pushed, a plot such as
Figure 4 emerges after many dots have been collected. Such a plot is called a "Poin-
care section," and it reveals dramatically and beautifully both the complexity and the
structure that characterize the motion. If the motion had been periodic, the Poincare
section would have been just a few isolated dots. If it had been random, a region of the
plane would have been solidly filled with points.

Fractals

The object in Figure 4 is called a "strange attractor." It is an attractor because no

matter how the pendulum is started, the motion is quickly attracted to the darkly
colored region. It is strange because the attractor is neither a line nor a surface but
rather an object with fractional (noninteger) dimension. It resembles a turbulent fluid
or a blob of salt-water taffy that has been repeatedly stretched and folded. The
stretching causes nearby points to separate, accounting for the sensitivity to initial
conditions. The folding produces structure on even the smallest scale. Such objects
have been called "fractals," and they are often self-similar, which means that they
look the same at any magnification.
Fractals seem to be very common in nature. Natural objects like clouds, rivers,
and trees are neither lines nor surfaces nor solids, but rather somewhere in between.
The length of a river or a coastline depends on the length of the ruler used to measure
it. A small, puffy cloud a few meters across looks the same as a cloud that covers a

continent. Fractal patterns generated by computer represent an exciting new art

form.
A way to quantify chaos and
determine the complexity of the underlying
to
equations is Truly random processes require an
to calculate the fractal dimension.
infinite number of variables and equations to specify them, and they produce objects
with an infinite number of dimensions when plotted in phase space. Many interesting
chaotic phenomena have low dimension.

Figure 4 Poincare section for a

driven pendulum showing the frac-
tal structure of a strange attractor. (Continued on next page)
426 CHAPTER 15 FLUID MECHANICS

The Logistic Equation

A particularly simple example of chaos arises from the logistic equation

•^new
= ft^old( 1 — -^old )

which has been used to model population growth. The variable X is restricted to the
range of to 1 and might represent the population of some species of bug in succes-
sive seasons relative to the maximum possible number. For different values of the
growth rate R in the range of to 4, successive iteration of the logistic equation yields
solutions which die out, oscillate among various distinct values of X, or fluctuate
chaotically. With R = 4 the logistic equation is fully chaotic and provides a dramatic
illustration of a simple deterministic equation whose long-term behavior is unpredict-
able.
The transition from regular to chaotic behavior exhibited by the logistic equation
has been observed in many different physical systems. For example, a leaky faucet
drips at regular intervals if the drip rate is small, but the drips become chaotic as the
rate is increased. Similar behavior has been observed in electrical circuits, lasers, and
convecting fluids.

Current Research
An important (and yet unsolved) problem is to predict the conditions under which a
system will exhibit chaos. For systems governed by ordinary differential equations
(such as Newton's second law), it appears that at least three variables and at least one
nonlinear term are required. In the three-body problem, there are four variables (two
components each of velocity and position), and the nonlinearity comes from the fact
2
that the gravitational force is proportional to 1/r In the driven pendulum there are
.

three variables (angular velocity, angle, and time), and the nonlinearity is provided
by the gravitational torque, which is proportional to the sine of the angle. However,
there are systems that satisfy these requirements yet do not exhibit chaos.
Since it is now known that simple equations can have complicated and unpredict-
able solutions, it is worthwhile to reexamine processes that exhibit complicated be-
havior in the hope that they can be understood in terms of simple models. Quantities
that fluctuate in an apparently random manner arise in fields as diverse as meteorol-
ogy, seismology, ecology, epidemiology, medicine, and economics, to name just a
few. If such fluctuations turn out to be chaotic rather than random, then it might be
possible to learn something about the underlying causes and perhaps to make im-
proved short-term predictions.
The study of chaos is still in its infancy. The hope is that it will someday provide
tools that are as useful for understanding complicated phenomena as are the tools
described in this text for understanding simple phenomena.

Suggested Reading
J. Gleick, Chaos: Making a New Science, New York, Viking, 1987.
I. Stewart, Does God Play Dice?: The Mathematics of Chaos, New York, Blackwell,

1989.
J. J. D.
P. Crutchfield, Farmer, N. H. Packard, and R. S. Shaw, "Chaos," Scientific
American, Dec. 1986, p. 46.
D. R. Hofstadter, "Strange Attractors: Mathematical Patterns Delicately Poised Be-
tween Order and Chaos," Scientific American, Nov. 1981, p. 22.
H. O. Peitgen and P. Richter, The Beauty of Fractals: Images of Complex Dynamical
Systems, New York, Springer- Verlag, 1986.
M. F. Barnsley, R. L. Devaney, B. B. Mandelbrot, H. O. Peitgen, D. Saupe, and R. F.
Voss, The Science of Fractal Images, New York, Springer- Verlag, 1988.
 ESSAY CHAOS 427

Essay Questions
1. How can a system be at the same time deterministic and unpredictable?
2. Why are computers an indispensable tool for studying chaos?
3. How would you distinguish between a random process and a chaotic process?
4. How might you determine the dimension of a fractal?
5. Can you think of other apparently random processes that might be chaotic?

Essay Problems
1. Calculate the x and y components of the force on the planet in Figure 1, assuming
the stars are identical and located at positions ±a/2 along the x axis.
2. Show that the phase-space trajectory of a frictionless pendulum is an ellipse if the
amplitude of its oscillation is small.
3. Starting with x = 0.1, calculate the next twenty iterates of the logistic equation
for R= 2, R = 3.2, R = 3.5, and R = 4. Yourresults should illustrate the period-
doubling route to chaos.
4. Iterate the logistic equation with R = 4 twenty times using initial values of
x = 0.1 and x = 0.100001. Your results should illustrate the sensitivity of a cha-
otic system to initial conditions.
5. Write a computer program to graph the values of x versus R for 2 < R < 4 that
result from repeated iteration of the logistic equation. Do not plot the first 100
iterates during which the solution approaches the attractor. Show that your
results are independent of the initial value of x.
A surfer "riding the pipe" on an ocean wave. (© Doug Peebles/ Index Stock
International)
 PART II

Mechanical Waves

As we look around us, we find many examples of objects that vibrate or The impetus is much
oscillate: a pendulum, the strings of a guitar, an object suspended on a spring, quicker than the water,
the piston of an engine, the head of a drum, the reed of a saxophone. Most for it often happens that
elastic objects will vibrate when an impulse is applied to them. That is, once the wave flees the place
they are distorted, their shape tends to be restored to some equilibrium con- of its creation, while the
figuration. Even at the atomic level, the atoms in a solid vibrate about some water does not; like the
position as if they were connected to their neighbors by some imaginary waves made in a field of
springs. grain by the wind, where
Wave motion is closely related to the phenomenon of vibration. Sound we see the waves running
waves, earthquake waves, waves on stretched strings, and water waves are all across the field while the
produced by some source of vibration. As a sound wave travels through some grain remains in place.
medium, such as air, the molecules of the medium vibrate back and forth; as a LEONARDO DA VINCI
water wave travels across a pond, the water molecules vibrate up and down. As
waves travel through a medium, the particles of the medium move in repeti-
tive cycles. Therefore, the motion of the particles bears a strong resemblance
to the periodic motion of a vibrating pendulum or a mass attached to a spring.
There are many other phenomena in nature whose explanation requires
us to understand first the concepts of vibrations and waves. Although many
large structures, such as skyscrapers and bridges, appear to be rigid, they
actually vibrate, a fact that must be taken into account by the architects and
engineers who design and build them (see the essay in Chapter 13). To under-
stand how radio and television work, we must understand the origin and
nature of electromagnetic waves and how they propagate through space.
Finally, much of what scientists have learned about atomic structure has come
from information carried by waves. Therefore, we must first study waves and
vibrations in order to understand the concepts and theories of atomic physics.

429
 16
Wave Motion

Interference of water waves

produced in ripple tank. The
sources of the waves are two
objects that vibrate perpen-
dicular to the surface of the
tank. (Courtesy of CENCO)

Most of us experienced waves as children when we dropped a

pebble into a pond. The disturbance created by the pebble ex-
cites ripple waves, which move outward, finally reaching the
shore of the pond. If you were to examine carefully the motion of
a leaf floating near the disturbance, you would see that it moves up and down
and sideways about its original position, but does not undergo any net dis-
placement away or toward the source of the disturbance. That is, the water
wave (or disturbance) moves from one place to another, yet the water is not
carried with it.

An excerpt from a book by Einstein and Infeld gives the following remarks
concerning wave phenomena. 1

A bit of gossip starting in Washington reaches New York very quickly, even
though not a single individual who takes part in spreading it travels between
these two cities. There are two quite different motions involved, that of the
rumor, Washington to New York, and that of the persons who spread the rumor.
The wind, passing over a field of grain, sets up a wave which spreads out across

1
Albert Einstein and Leopold Infeld, The Evolution of Physics, New York, Simon and Schuster,
1961. Excerpt from What is a Wave?

430
 16.1 INTRODUCTION 431

the whole field. Here again we must distinguish between the motion of the wave
and the motion of the separate plants, which undergo only small oscilla-
tions.. . The particles constituting the medium perform only small vibrations,
.

but the whole motion is that of a progressive wave. The essentially new thing
here is that for the first time we consider the motion of something which is not
matter, but energy propagated through matter.

Water waves represent only one example of a wide variety of physical

phenomena that have wavelike characteristics. The world is full of waves:
sound waves; mechanical waves, such as a wave on a string; earthquake waves;
shock waves generated by supersonic aircraft; and electromagnetic waves,
such as visible light, radio waves, television signals, and x-rays. In the present
chapter, we shall confine our attention to mechanical waves, that is, waves that
travel only in a material substance.
The wave concept is rather abstract. When we observe what we call a
water wave, what we see is a rearrangement of the water's surface. Without
the water, there would be no wave. A wave traveling on a string would not exist
without the string. Sound waves travel through air as a result of pressure
variations from point to point. In such cases, what we interpret as a wave
corresponds to the disturbance of a body or medium. Therefore, we can
consider a wave to be the motion of a disturbance. The motion of the distur-
bance (that is, the wave itself, or the state of the medium) is not to be confused
with the motion of the particles. The mathematics used to describe wave
phenomena is common to all waves. In general, we shall find that mechanical
wave motion is described by specifying the positions of all points of the dis-
turbed medium as a function of time.

16.1 INTRODUCTION
The mechanical waves discussed in this chapter require (1) some source of
disturbance, (2) a medium that can be disturbed, and (3) some physical con-
nection or mechanism through which adjacent portions of the medium can
influence each other. We shall find that all waves carry energy. The amount of
energy transmitted through a medium and the mechanism responsible for the
transport of energy will differ from case to case. For instance, the power of
ocean waves during a storm is much greater than the power of sound waves
generated by a single human voice.
Three physical characteristics are important in characterizing waves: the
wavelength, the frequency, and the wave velocity. One wavelength is the
minimum distance between any two points on a wave that behave identically.
For example, in the case of water waves, the wavelength is the distance be-
tween adjacent crests or between adjacent troughs.
Most waves are periodic in nature. The frequency of such periodic waves
is the rate at which the disturbance repeats itself.

Waves travel, or propagate, with a specific velocity, which depends on the

properties of the medium being disturbed. For instance, sound waves travel
through air at 20°C with a speed of about 344 m/s (781 mi/h), whereas the
speed of sound in most solids is higher than 344 m/s. A special class of waves
that do not require a medium in order to propagate is electromagnetic waves,
which travel very swiftly through a vacuum with a speed of about 3 X 10 8 m/s
(186 000 mi/s). We shall discuss electromagnetic waves further in Chap-
ter 34.
432 CHAPTER 16 WAVE MOTION

16.2 TYPES OF WAVES

One way to demonstrate wave motion is to flip one end of a long rope that is
under tension and has its opposite end fixed, as in Figure 1 6. 1 In this manner,
.

a single wave bump (or pulse) is formed that travels (to the right in Fig. 16.1)
with a definite speed. This type of disturbance is called a traveling wave.
Figure 16.1 represents four consecutive "snapshots" of the traveling wave. As
we shall see later, the speed of the wave depends on the tension in the rope and
on the properties of the rope. The rope is the medium through which the wave
travels. The shape of the wave pulse changes very little as it travels along the
rope. 2
Note that, as the wave pulse travels along the rope, each segment of the
rope that is disturbed moves in a direction perpendicular to the wave motion.
Figure 16.2 illustrates this point for one particular segment, labeled P. Note
that there is no motion of any part of the rope in the direction of the wave.

A traveling wave such as this, in which the particles of the disturbed

medium move perpendicular to the wave velocity, is called a transverse
Figure 16.1 A wave pulse travel-
ing down a stretched rope. The
wave. 3
shape of the pulse is approximately
unchanged as it travels along the In another class of waves, called longitudinal waves, the particles of the
rope. medium undergo displacements in a direction parallel to the direction of
wave motion.
Sound waves, which we shall discuss in Chapter 17, are longitudinal
waves that result from the disturbance of the medium. The disturbance corre-
sponds to a series of high- and low-pressure regions that travel through air or
through any material medium with a certain velocity. A longitudinal pulse can
be easily produced in a stretched spring, as in Figure 16.3. The left end of the
spring is given a sudden jerk (consisting of a brief push to the right and equally
brief pull to the left) along the length of the spring; this creates a sudden
compression of the coils. The compressed region C (pulse) travels along the
spring, and so we see that the disturbance is parallel to the wave motion.
Region C is followed by a region R, where the coils are extended. 4
Some waves in nature are neither transverse nor longitudinal, but a com-
bination of the two. Surface water waves are a good example. When a water
wave travels on the surface of deep water, water molecules at the surface move
Figure 16.2 A pulse traveling on in nearly circular paths, as shown in Figure 16.4, where the water surface is
a stretched rope is a transverse drawn as a series of crests and troughs. Note that the disturbance has both
wave. That is, any element P on the
rope moves in a direction perpen-
transverse and longitudinal components. As the wave passes, water molecules
dicular to the wave motion. at the crests move in the direction of the wave, and molecules at the troughs
move in the opposite direction. Hence, there is no net displacement of a water
molecule after the passage of any number of complete waves.

2 Strictly speaking, the pulse will change its shape and gradually spread out during the motion.

This effect is called dispersion and is common to many mechanical waves.

3 Other examples of transverse waves are electromagnetic waves, such as light, radio, and televi-
sion waves. At a given point in space, the electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave
are perpendicular to the direction of the wave and to each other, and vary in time as the wave
passes. As we shall see later, electromagnetic waves are produced by accelerating charges.
4In the case of longitudinal pressure waves in a gas, each compressed area is a region of higher-
than-average pressure and density, and each extended region is a region of lower-than-average
pressure and density.
 16.3 ONE-DIMENSIONAL TRAVELING WAVES 433

-<j&NmMNN9h

Wave motion

Figure 16.3 A longitudinal

pulse along a stretched spring.
The disturbance of the me-
dium (the displacement of the Trough
coils) is in the direction of the
wave motion. For the starting
motion described in the text, Figure 16.4 Wave motion on the surface of water. The parti-
the compressed region C is cles at the water's surface move in nearly circular paths. Each
followed by an extended re- particle is displaced horizontally and vertically from its equilib-
gion R. rium position, represented by circles.

16.3 ONE DIMENSIONAL TRAVELING WAVES

So far we have given only a verbal and graphical description of a traveling
wave. Let us now give a mathematical description of a one-dimensional travel-
ing wave. Consider again a wave pulse traveling to the right on a long stretched
string with constant speed v, as in Figure 16.5. The pulse moves along the x
axis (the axis of the string), and the transverse displacement of the string is
measured with the coordinate y.
Figure 16.5a represents the shape and position of the pulse at time t = 0.
At this time, the shape of the pulse, whatever it may be, can be represented as
y = f(x). That is, y is some definite function of x. The maximum displacement,
y m is called the amplitude of the wave. Since the speed of the wave pulse is v,
,

it travels to the right a distance vt in a time t (Fig. 16.5b).

If the shape of the wave pulse doesn't change with time, we can represent
the displacement y for all later times measured in a stationary frame with the
origin at as

y=f(x-vt) (16.1) Wave traveling to the right

Similarly, if the wave pulse travels to the left, its displacement is given by

y=f(x + vt) (16.2) Wave traveling to the left

Figure 16.5 A one-dimensional

wave pulse traveling to the right
with a speed t>. (a) At f = 0, the
shape of the pulse is given by y =
f(x). (b) At some later time t, the
shape remains unchanged and the
vertical displacement is given by
(a) Pulse at t = (b) Pulse at time t y=f(x-vt).
434 CHAPTER 16 WAVE MOTION

The displacement y, sometimes called the wave function, depends on the

two variables x and t. For this reason, it is often written y (x, t), which is read "y
as a function of x and t." It is important to understand the meaning of y.
Consider a particular point P on the string, identified by a particular value
of its coordinates. As the wave passes the point P, the y coordinate of this point
will increase, reach a maximum, and then decrease to zero. Therefore, the
wave function y represents the y coordinate ofany point Pat any time t. Further-
more, if t is fixed, then the wave function y as a function of x defines a curve
representing the actual shape of the pulse at this time. This is equivalent to a
"snapshot" of the wave at this time.
For a pulse that moves without changing its shape, the velocity of a wave
pulse is the same as the motion of any feature along the pulse profile, such as
the crest. To we can calculate how far the crest
find the velocity of the pulse,
moves time and then divide this distance by the time interval. The
in a short
crest of the pulse corresponds to that point for which y has its maximum value.
In order to follow the motion of the crest, some particular value, say x must ,

be substituted for x — vt. (The value x is called the argument of the function;/.)
Regardless of how x and t change individually, we must require that
x — vt = x in order to stay with the crest. This, therefore, represents the
equation of motion of the crest. Atr = 0, the crest is at x = x ;atatimedrlater,
the crest is at x = x + v dt. Therefore, in a time dt, the crest has moved a
distance dx = (x + v dt) — x = v dt. Clearly, the wave speed, often called the
phase velocity, is given by

Phase velocity v = dx/dt (16.3)

The wave velocity, or phase velocity, must not be confused with the transverse
velocity (which is in the y direction) of a particle in the medium.
The following example illustrates how a specific wave function is used to
describe the motion of a traveling wave pulse.

EXAMPLE 16.1 A Pulse Moving to the Right , ^_ 2

at f
= 1 s
A traveling wave pulse moving to the right along the x (x — 3)
2
+ 1

axis is represented by the wave function

!/(*> f ) = Z- +
3 f)2 l
We can now use these expressions to plot the wave func-
where x and y are measured in cm and t is in s. Let us plot Hon versus x at these times. For example, let us evaluate
the waveform at t = 0, t = 1 s, and t = 2s. y( x 0) at x
,
= 0.5 cm:

=r • •
c u r 1/(0.5, 0)
v
= ,»„>,, = 1-60 cm
, .

Solution First, note that this function is ot the form y

2
(0.5) + 1

Jfix
- vt).' By inspection, we see that the speed of the
„ „ ^ j w Likewise,' »t/(l, u(2, 0) = 0.40 cm, etc. A
0) = 1.0 cm, ="
=
wave s» 3 cm/s.
; .i
Furthermore, the wave amplitude x
' , ' . . ,
.' _ . / .... continuation of this rprocedure tor other values ot i yields
(the maximum value ot y) is given by y m = 2 cm. At times
. .

. •
v
„' i
= 1 s, and. t=2s, c the waveform shown in Figure
6 16.6a. In a similar man-
-i

f = 0, t
•
*•
the wave function expressions . . . , . . ,
ner,one obtains the graphs of t/(x, 1 ) and y(x, 2), shown in
Figures 16.6b and 16.6c, respectively. These snapshots
2 _ _ show that the wave pulse moves to the right without
y( x v) ~ changing its shape and has a constant speed of 3 cm/s.
x2
>
_j_ i
 16.4 SUPERPOSITION AND INTERFERENCE OF WAVES 435

(/(cm)

i cm)

i/l cm i

Figure 16.6 (Example 16.1) Graphs of the function

y(x, t) = 2/[(x - 3t) 2 + 1). (a) t = 0, (b) (=ls, and (c) t = 2 s.

16.4 SUPERPOSITION AND INTERFERENCE

OF WAVES
Many interesting wave phenomena in nature cannot be described by a single
moving pulse. Instead, one must analyze complex waveforms in terms of a
combination of many traveling waves. To analyze such wave combinations,
one can make use of the superposition principle:

If two or more traveling waves are moving through a medium, the result- Linear waves obey the
ant wave function at any point is the algebraic sum of the wave functions of superposition principle
the individual waves.

This rather striking property is exhibited by many waves in nature. Waves that

obey this principle are called linear waves, and they are generally character-
ized by small wave amplitudes. Waves that violate the superposition principle
are called nonlinear waves and are often characterized by large amplitudes. In
this book, we shall deal only with linear waves.
One consequence of the superposition principle is the observation that
two traveling waves can pass through each other without being destroyed or
even altered. For instance, when two pebbles are thrown into a pond, the
expanding circular surface waves do not destroy each other. In fact, the ripples
pass through each other. The complex pattern that is observed can be viewed
as two independent sets of expanding circles. Likewise, when sound waves
from two sources move through air, they also can pass through each other. The
resulting sound one hears at a given point is the resultant of both disturbances.
436 CHAPTER 16 WAVE MOTION

A simple pictorial representation of the superposition principle is ob-

tained by considering two pulses traveling in opposite directions on a
stretched string, as in Figure 16.7. The wave function for the pulse moving to
the rightis y x and the wave function for the pulse moving to the left is i/ 2 The
,
.

pulses have the same speed, but different shapes. Each pulse is assumed to be
symmetric (although this is not a necessary condition) and both displacements
,

are taken to be positive. When the waves begin to overlap (Fig. 16.7b), the
resulting complex waveform is given by y x + y 2 When the crests of the pulses
exactly coincide (Fig. 16.7c), the resulting waveform y x + y 2 is symmetric.
The two pulses finally separate and continue moving in their original direc-
tions (Fig. 16.7d). Note that the final waveforms remain unchanged, as if the
two pulses never met! The combination of separate waves in the same region of
Interference patterns produced by space to produce a resultant wave is called interference. For the two pulses
outward spreading waves from two shown in Figure 16.7, the displacements of the individual pulses are in the
drops of liquid dropped into a body
of water. (Martin Dohrn/Science
same direction, and the resultant waveform (when the pulses overlap) exhibits
Photo Library) a displacement greater than those of the individual pulses.
Now consider two identical pulses traveling in opposite directions on an
infinitely long string, where one is inverted relative to the other, as in Figure

Figure 16.7 (Left) Two wave pulses traveling on a stretched string in opposite directions pass
through each other. When the pulses overlap, as in (b) and (c), the net displacement of the string
equals the sum of the displacements of each pulse. Since the pulses both have positive displace-
ments, we refer to their superposition as constructive interference. (Right) Photograph of superpo-
sition of two equal and symmetric pulses traveling in opposite directions on a stretched spring.
(Photo, Education Development Center, Newton, Mass.)
16.5 THE VELOCITY OF WAVES ON STRINGS 437
438 CHAPTER 16 WAVE MOTION

ing on a stretched string. If the tension in the string is F and its mass per unit
length is fi, then as we shall show, the wave speed v is given by

(16.4)
Vn

First, we is dimensionally correct. The dimen-

verify that this expression
sions of F are and the dimensions of// are ML-1 Therefore, the
MLT~ 2 , .

2 2
dimensions of F/// are L /T hence the dimensions of vF/jl are L/T, which are
;

indeed the dimensions of velocity. No other combination of Fand/i is dimen-

sionally correct, assuming they are the only variables relevant to the situation.
Now let us use a mechanical analysis to derive the above expression for the
speed of a pulse traveling on a stretched string. Consider a pulse moving to the
right with a uniform speed v, measured relative to a stationary frame of refer-
ence. It is more convenient to choose as our reference frame one that moves
along with the pulse with the same speed, so that the pulse appears to be at rest
in this frame, as in Figure 16.9a. This is permitted since Newton's laws are
valid in either a stationary frame or one that moves with constant velocity. A
small segment of the string of length As forms the approximate arc of a circle of
radius R, as shown in Figure 16.9a and magnified in Figure 16.9b. In the
pulse's frame of reference, the shaded segment is moving toward the left with
2
a speed v. This small segment has a centripetal acceleration equal to v /R,
which is supplied by the force of tension F in the string. The force F acts on
each side of the segment, tangent to the arc, as in Figure 16.9b. The horizontal
components of F cancel, and each vertical component F sin acts radially
inward toward the center of the arc. Hence, the total radial force is 2F sin 0.
Since the segment is small, is small and we can use the familiar small-angle

approximation sin 8 — 6. Therefore, the total radial force can be expressed as

Fr = 2F sin - 2F0
The small segment has a mass givenby m = [lAs, where // is the mass per
unit length of the string. Since the segment forms part of a circle and subtends
an angle 20 at the center, As = R(20), and hence

m= fi As = 2//R0
(b)

If we apply Newton's second law to this segment, the radial component of

Figure 16.9 (a) To obtain the
speed v of a wave on a stretched motion gives
string, it is convenient to describe
the motion of a small segment of
Fr = mv 2 /R or 2F0 = 2/iR0t>
2
/R
the string in a moving frame of ref-
erence, (b) The net force on a small where Fr is the force which supplies the centripetal acceleration of the seg-
segment of length A* is in the radial ment and maintains the curvature at this point.
direction. The horizontal compo-
Solving for v gives
nents of the tension force cancel.

Vm
Notice that based on the assumption that the pulse height is
this derivation is

small relative to the length of the string. Using this assumption, we were able
to use the approximation that sin 0=0. Furthermore, the model assumes that
the tension Fis not affected by the presence of the pulse, so that Fis the same at
all points on the string. Finally, this proof does not assume any particular shape
 16.6 REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION OF WAVES 439

for the pulse. Therefore, we conclude that a pulse of any shape will travel on
the string with speed v = JF/ji without changing its shape.

EXAMPLE 16.2 The Speed of a Pulse on a Cord Solution The tension Fin the cord is equal to the weight
A uniform cord has a mass of 0.3 kg and a length of 6 m. of the suspended 2-kg mass:
Tension is maintained in the cord by suspending a 2-kg
F=mg=(2kg)(9.80m/s 2 )= 19.6 N
mass from one end (Fig. 16.10). Find the speed of a pulse
on this cord. (This calculation of the tension neglects the small mass of
the cord. Strictly speaking, the cord can never be exactly
horizontal, and therefore the tension is not uniform.)
The mass per unit length fi is

_m_
_ 0.3 kg _ 0.05 kg/m
^
£ 6m
Therefore, the wave speed is

I'
v = VF//Z = V19.6 N/0.05 kg/m = 19.8 m/s

Exercise 1 Find the time it takes the pulse to travel

Figure 16.10 (Example 16.2) The tension F in the cord is
maintained by the suspended mass The wave speed is calcu-
.
from the wall to the pulley.
lated using the expression v = VF//L Answer 0.253 s.

16.6 REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION OF WAVES

Whenever a traveling wave reaches a boundary, part or all of the wave will be
reflected. For example, consider a pulse traveling on a string fixed at one end
(Fig. 16.11). When the pulse reaches the fixed wall, it will be reflected. Since
the support attaching the string to the wall is assumed to be rigid, the pulse
does not transmit any part of the disturbance to the wall.
Note that the reflected pulse is inverted. This can be explained as follows.
When the pulse meets the end of the string that is fixed at the support, the
string produces an upward force on the support. By Newton's third law, the
support must then exert an equal and opposite (downward) reaction force on
the string. This downward force causes the pulse to invert upon reflection.
Now consider another case where the pulse arrives at the end of a string
is free to move vertically, as in Figure 16.12. The tension at the free end is
that
maintained by tying the string to a ring of negligible mass that is free to slide
(d) -\J
vertically on a smooth post. Again, the pulse will be reflected, but this time its
displacement is not inverted. As the pulse reaches the post, it exerts a force on
the free end, causing the ring to accelerate upward. In the process, the ring
"overshoots" the height of the incoming pulse by a factor of 2 and is then
returned to its original position by the downward component of the tension.
This produces a reflected pulse that is not inverted, whose amplitude is the Figure 16.11 The reflection of a
same as that of the incoming pulse. travelingwave at the fixed end of a
stretched string. Note that the re-
Finally, we may have a situation in which the boundary is intermediate
flected pulse is inverted, but its
between these two extreme cases, that is, one in which the boundary is neither shape remains the same.
440 CHAPTER 16 WAVE MOTION

Incident

(a)
pulse
/^-H
Transmitted
(b)
pulse

Reflected
pulse

(b)

Figure 16.13 (a) A pulse traveling to the right on a light string tied to a heavier string, (b) Part of
the incident pulse is reflected (and inverted), and part is transmitted to the heavier string.

Figure 16.12 The

reflection of a
traveling wave the free end of a
at
stretched string. In this case, the rigid nor free. In this case, part of the incident energy is transmitted and part is

reflected pulse is not inverted. reflected. For instance, suppose a light string is attached to a heavier string as
in Figure 16.13. When a pulse traveling on the light string reaches the knot,
part of it is reflected and inverted and part of it is transmitted to the heavier
string.As one would expect, the reflected pulse has a smaller amplitude than
the incident pulse, since part of the incident energy is transferred to the pulse
in the heavier string. The inversion in the reflected wave is similar to the
behavior of a pulse meeting a rigid boundary, where it is totally reflected.
When a pulse traveling on a heavy string strikes the boundary of a lighter
string, as in Figure 16.14, again part is reflected and part is transmitted.
However, in this case, the reflected pulse is not inverted. In either case, the
relative heights of the reflected and transmitted pulses depend on the relative
densities of the two strings.
If the strings are identical, there is no discontinuity at the boundary, and
hence no reflection takes place.
In the previous section, we found that the speed of a wave on a string
increases as the density of the string decreases. A pulse travels more slowly on
a heavy string than on a light string if both are under the same tension. The
following general rules apply to reflected waves: When a wave pulse travels
from medium A to medium B and vA > v B (that when B is denser than A), the
is,

pulse is inverted upon reflection. When a wave pulse travels from medium A to

Reflected - Transmitted

y^^ (b)
p,,l
~ /X-
Figure 16.14 (a) A pulse traveling to the right on a heavy string tied to a lighter string, (b) The
incident pulse is partially reflected and partially transmitted. In this case, the reflected pulse is not
inverted.
 16.7 HARMONIC WAVES 441

Photographs showing: (Left) Reflection of a pulse from a fixed end. The reflected pulse is in-
verted. (Center) A pulse passing from a heavy spring to a light spring. At the junction the pulse is
partially transmitted and partially reflected. The reflected pulse is not inverted. (Right) A pulse
passing from a light spring to a heavy spring. At the junction the pulse is partially transmitted and
partially reflected. Note that the reflected pulse is inverted. (Photos, Education Development
Center, Newton, Mass.)

medium B and vA < v B (A is denser than B), it is not inverted upon reflection.
Similar rules apply to other waveforms such as harmonic waves described in
the following section.

16.7 HARMONIC WAVES

we introduce an important waveform known as a harmonic
In this section,
wave. A harmonic wave has a sinusoidal shape, as shown in Figure 16.15. The
red curve represents a snapshot of the traveling harmonic wave at t = 0, and
the blue curve represents a snapshot of the wave at some later time t. At f = 0,
the displacement of the curve can be written
Figure 16.15 A one-dimensional

The constant A,
y = A sin
m
called the amplitude of the wave, represents the
value of the displacement.
(16.5)

maximum
harmonic wave traveling to the
right with a speed v. The red curve
represents a snapshot of the
at ( = 0, and the blue curve at
later time t.
wave
some

The constant A, called the wavelength of the wave,

442 CHAPTER 16 WAVE MOTION

equals the distance between two successive maxima, or crests, or between any
two adjacent points that have the same phase. Thus, we see that the displace-
ment repeats itself when x is increased by any integral multiple of A. If the wave
moves to the right with a phase velocity v, the wave function at some later time
t is given by

2U I
y= A Sm \ -«*)] (16.6)
~P
That is, the harmonic wave moves to the right a distance vt in the time t as in ,

Figure 16.15. Note that the wave function has the form/(x — vt) and repre-
sents a wave traveling to the right. If the wave were traveling to the left, the
quantity x — vt would be replaced by x + vt.

The time it takes the wave to travel a distance of one wavelength is called
the period, T. Therefore, the phase velocity, wavelength, and period are
related by
X/T X = vT (16.7)

Substituting this into Equation 16.6, we find that

y
= Asin 2n (16.8)
[ {l-j)
This form of the wave function clearly shows the periodic nature of y. That is, at
any given time t (a snapshot of the wave), y has the same value at the positions
x, x + X, x+ 2A, etc. Furthermore, at any given position x, the value of y at
times t, t + T, t + 2T, etc.
We
can express the harmonic wave function in a convenient form by
wave number k and the angular
defining two other quantities, called the
frequency to:

Wave number k m 2n/l (16.9)

Angular frequency CO = 27T/T (16.10)

Using these definitions, we see that Equation 16.8 can be written in the more
compact form

Wave function for a harmonic

= A sin(fct — cot)
y (16.11)
wave

We shall use this form most frequently.

The frequency of a harmonic wave equals the number of times a crest (or
any other point on the wave) passes a fixed point each second. The frequency is
related to the period by the relationship

Frequency f-\ (16.12)

The most common unit for /is s

l
, or hertz (Hz). The corresponding unit for
Tiss.
 16.7 HARMONIC WAVES 443

Using Equations 16.9, 16.10, and 16.12, we can express the phase veloc-
ity t> in the alternative forms

V
444 CHAPTER 16 WAVE MOTION

Figure 16.17 One method for producing harmonic waves on a continuous string. The left end of
the string is connected to a blade that is set into vibration. Note that every segment, such as P,
oscillates with simple harmonic motion in the vertical direction.

string,such as P, oscillates vertically in the y direction with simple harmonic

motion. This must be the case because each particle follows the simple har-
monic motion of the blade. Therefore, every segment of the string can be
treated as a simple harmonic oscillator vibrating with a frequency equal to the
frequency of vibration of the blade that drives the string. 5 Note that although
each segment oscillates in the y direction, the wave (or disturbance) travels in
the x direction with a speed v. Of course, this is the definition of a transverse
wave. In this case, the energy carried by the traveling wave is supplied by the
vibrating blade. (In reality, the oscillations would gradually decrease in ampli-
tude because of air resistance and the friction internal to the string.)
If the waveform at t = is as described in Figure 16.17b, then the wave

function can be written

y = A sin(fct — cot)

We can use this expression to describe the motion of any point on the string.
The point P (or any other point on the string) moves vertically, and so its x
coordinate remains constant. Therefore, the transverse velocity, v y (not to be
confused with the wave velocity v), and transverse acceleration, a y are given ,

by
= ^- = -coAcos(kx-ajt) (16.16)
at

dvJ
„
= ^=
at
-a)2Asin(kx-(ot) (16.17)

The maximum values of these quantities are simply the absolute values of the
coefficients of the cosine and sine functions:

(o»L = °>A (16.18)

(16.19)

5 In this arrangement, we are assuming that the mass always oscillates in a vertical line. The
tension in the string would vary if the mass were allowed to move sideways. Such a motion would
make the analysis very complex.
 16.8 ENERGY TRANSMITTED BY HARMONIC WAVES ON STRINGS 445

You should recognize that the transverse velocity and transverse acceleration
do not reach their maximum values simultaneously. In fact, the transverse
velocity reaches its maximum value (coA) when the displacement y = 0,
whereas the transverse acceleration reaches its maximum value (co 2A) when
y = —A. Finally, Equations 16.18 and 16.19 are identical to the correspond-
ing equations for simple harmonic motion.

EXAMPLE
The string shown
16.4 A Harmonically Driven String
Figure 1 6. 1 7 is driven at one end at a
in
k = co/v
31-4
=— r—
20 m/s
rad/s
; — _= 1.57 m.
frequency of 5 Hz. The amplitude of the motion is 1 2 cm,
and the wave speed is 20 m/s. Determine the angular Since A =12 cm 0.12 m, we have
frequency and wave number for this wave, and write an
expression for the wave function. y =A sin(kx - cot) = (0.12 m) sin(1.57x - 31. 4r)

Solution Using Equations 16.10, 16.12, and 16.13 gives Exercise 2 Calculate the maximum values for the trans-
verse velocity and transverse acceleration of any point

= on the string.
co 2n/T = 2nf= 2n(5 Hz) = 31.4 rad/s
Answer 3.77 m/s; 118 m/s 2 .

16.8 ENERGY TRANSMITTED RY HARMONIC WAVES

ON STRINGS
As waves propagate through a medium, they transport energy. This is easily
demonstrated by hanging a mass on a stretched string and then sending a pulse
down the string, as in Figure 16.18. When the pulse meets the suspended
mass, the mass will be momentarily displaced, as in Figure 16.18b. In the
process, energy is transferred to the mass since work must be done in moving it
upward.
In this section, we describe the rate at which energy is transported along a
string. We shall assume a sinusoidal wave when we calculate the power trans-
ferred for this one-dimensional wave. Later, we shall extend these ideas to
three-dimensional waves.
Consider a harmonic wave traveling on a string (Fig. 16.19). The source of "TIP
the energy is some external agent at the left end of the string, which does work

in producing the oscillations. Let us focus our attention on an element of the ,hi

string of length Ax and mass Am. Each such segment moves vertically with
simple harmonic motion. Furthermore, each segment has the same frequency, Figure 16.18 (a) A pulse travel-
ing to the right on a stretched string
co, and the same amplitude, A. As we found in Chapter 13, the total energy E
on which a mass has been sus-
associated with a particle moving with simple harmonic motion is given by pended, (b) Energy and momen-
tum are transmitted to the sus-
pended mass when the pulse
arrives.

{
Figure 16.19 A harmonic wave traveling along the x axis on a stretched string. Every segment
moves vertically, and each has the same total energy. The power transmitted by the wave equals
the energy contained in one wavelength divided by the period of the wave.
446 CHAPTER 16 WAVE MOTION

£ = $kA 2 = %m co 2A 2 where k is the equivalent force constant of the restoring

,

force. If we apply this to the element of length Ax, we see that the total energy
of this element is

A£ = \{Am)w 2A 2
If/z is the mass per unit length of the string, then the element of length Ax has a
mass Am that is equal to fi Ax. Hence, we can express the energy A£ as

A£ = H/i Ax)w 2A 2 (16.20)

If thewave travels from left to right as in Figure 16.19, the energy AE arises
from the work done on the element Am by the string element to the left of Am.
Similarly, the element Am does work on the element to its right, so we see that
energy is transmitted to the right. The rate at which energy is transmitted
along the string, or the power, is given by dE/dt. If we let Ax approach 0,
Equation 16.20 gives

Since dx/dt is equal to the wave speed, v, we have

Power Power = %fi(D 2A 2 v (16.21)

This shows that the power transmitted by a harmonic wave on a string is

proportional to (a) the wave speed, (b) the square of the frequency, and (c) the
square of the amplitude. In fact, all harmonic waves have the following general
property: The power transmitted by any harmonic wave is proportional to the
square of the frequency and to the square of the amplitude.
Thus, we see that a wave traveling through a medium corresponds to
energy transport through the medium, with no net transfer of matter. An
oscillating source provides the energy and produces a harmonic disturbance of
the medium. The disturbance is able to propagate through the medium as the
result of the interaction between adjacent particles. In order to verify Equa-
tion 16.20 by direct experiment, one would have to design some device at the
far end of the string to extract the energy of the wave without producing any
reflections.

EXAMPLE 16.5 Power Supplied to a Vibrating Rope Since/= 60 Hz, the angular frequency co of the har-
A stretched rope having mass per unit length of u = monic waves on the string has the value
5 X 10 -2 kg/m is under a tension of 80 N. How much _ a-f— oWfifi H =
) ^77 s _1
power must be supplied to the rope to generate har-
monic waves at a frequency of 60 Hz and an amplitude of Using these values in Equation 1 6. 2 1 for the power, with
_2 m, gives
6 cm? A = 6X 10

P^ uto A v
^~

Solution The wave speed on the stretched rope is given

by = i(5 X 10- 2 kg/m)(377 S -!) 2 (6 X 10" 2 m) 2 (40 m/s)

[f ( 80 N y /2
,„
^Vr Uxio-^g/m) = 512W
.

=40m/s
)
 16.9 THE LINEAR WAVE EQUATION 447

"16.9 THE LINEAR WAVE EQUATION

Earlier in this chapter, we introduced the concept of the wave function to
represent waves traveling on a string. All wave functions y(x, t) represent
solutions of an equation called the linear wave equation. This equation gives a
complete description of the wave motion, and from it one can derive an
expression for the wave velocity. Furthermore, the wave equation is basic to
many forms of wave motion. In this section, we shall derive the wave equation
as applied to waves on strings.
Consider a small segment of a string of length Ax and tension F, on which a
traveling wave is propagating (Fig. 16.20). Let us assume that the ends of the
segment make small angles 6 1 and 2 with the x axis.
The net force on the segment in the vertical direction is given by

2)F„ = F sin 2
- F sin 0, = F(sin 2
- sin 0,)

Since we have assumed that the angles are small, we can use the small-angle
~ Figure 16.20 A segment of a
approximation sin tan and express the net force as
string under tension F. Note that
the slopes at points A and B are
2)F, - F(tan 2
- tan 0,) given by tan 6 l and tan 6 2 respec-
,

tively.
However, the tangents of the angles at A and B are defined as the slope of the
curve at these points. Since the slope of a curve is given by dy/dx, we have 6
2F y
-F[(dy/dx) B -(dy/dx) A ] (16.22)

We now apply Newton's second law, 1Fy = ma y to the segment, where m ,

is the mass of the segment, given by m = Ax. This gives fi

JF i y
= ma y =nAx(d 2 y/dt2 ) (16.23)

where we have used the fact that a y = d2 y/dt 2 . Equating Equation 16.23 to
Equation 16.22 gives

li Ax(d2 y/dt2 ) = F[(dy/dx) B - (dy/dx) A

M d 2 y_[(dy/dx) B -(dy/dx) A )
(16.24)
F dt 2 Ax

The right side of Equation 16.24 can be expressed in a different form if we note
that the derivative of any function is defined as

3f = f(x + Ax) -f(x)

Um
dx Ax— Ax

If we associate/(x + Ax) with (dy/dx) B and/(x) with (dy/dx) A , we see that in the
limit Ax —* 0, Equation 16.24 becomes

2
H d y _ d 2 t/
(16.25) Linear wave equation
F dt2 dx 2

This is the linear wave equation as it applies to waves on a string.

6
It is necessary to use partial derivatives because y depends on both x and t.
448 CHAPTER 16 WAVE MOTION

We shall now show that the harmonic wave function represents a solution
of this wave equation. If we take the harmonic wave function to be of the form
y(x, t) = A sin(fct — lot), the appropriate derivatives are

Py/dt2 = -co 2A sin(kx - cot)

Py/dx 2 = -PA sin(kx - cot)

Substituting these expressions into Equation 16.25 gives

k2 = (nlF)co
2

Using the relation o = co/h in the above expression, we see that

t 2 = 2
co Ik
2 = Flu

This represents another proof of the expression for the wave velocity on a
stretched string.
The linear wave equation given by Equation 16.25 is often written in the
form

Linear wave equation in

(16.26)
general dx 2 v 2 dt2

This expression applies in general to various types of waves moving through

nondispersive media. For waves on strings, y represents the vertical displace-
ment. For sound waves, y corresponds to variations in the pressure or density
of a gas. In the case of electromagnetic waves, y corresponds to electric or
magnetic field components.
We have shown that the harmonic wave function is one solution of the
linear wave equation. Although we do not prove it here, the linear wave
equation is satisfied by any wave function hav ing the form y =f(x ± vt). Fur-
thermore, we have seen that the wave equation is a direct consequence of
Newton's second law applied to any segment of the string. Similarly, the wave
equation in electromagnetism can be deriv ed from the fundamental laws of
electricity and magnetism. This will be discussed further in Chapter 34.

SUMMARY
Transverse wave A transverse wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium move in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of the wave velocity. An example is
a wave on a stretched string.
Longitudinal wave Longitudinal waves are waves for which the particles of the medium
move in a direction parallel to the direction of the wave velocity. Sound
waves are longitudinal.
Any one-dimensional wave
traveling with a speed v in the positive x
direction can be represented by a wave function of the form y —f(x — vt).
Likewise, the wave function for a wave traveling in the negative x direction
has the form y =f(x + vt). The shape of the wave at any instant (a snapshot
of the wave) is obtained by holding t constant.
 QUESTIONS 449

The superposition principle says that when two or more waves move Superposition principle
through a medium, the resultant wave function equals the algebraic sum of
the individual wave functions. Waves that obey this principle are said to be
linear. When two waves combine they interfere to produce a
in space,
resultant wave. The interference may be constructive (when the individual
displacements are in the same direction) or destructive (when the displace-
ments are in opposite directions).
The speed of a wave traveling on a stretched string of mass per unit
length n and tension F is
Speed of a wave on a
(16.4) stretched string
V/i

When a pulse traveling on a string meets a fixed end, the pulse is

reflected and inverted. If the pulse reaches a free end, it is reflected but not
inverted.
The wave function for a one-dimensional harmonic wave traveling to
the right can be expressed as
Wave function for a
y =A sin[(2n/X)(x - vt)] = A sin(fcc - cot) (16.6, 16.11) harmonic wave
where A is the amplitude, A is the wavelength, k is the wave number, and co is
the angular frequency. If Tis the period (the time it takes the wave to travel
a distance equal to one wavelength) and /is the frequency, then v, k and co
can be written

v = XlT = Xf (16.7, 16.14)

k = 2%\X (16.9) Wave number

co = 2n/T = 2nf (16.10, 16.12) Angular frequency

The power transmitted by a harmonic wave on a stretched string is

given by

P= \fito
2
A 2v (16.21) Power

The wave function y(x, t) for many kinds of waves satisfies the following
linear wave equation:
Linear wave equation in
(16.26) general
dx 2 v 2 dt2

QUESTIONS

1 Why is a wave pulse traveling on a string considered a 5. Can two pulses traveling in opposite directions on the
transverse wave? same string reflect from each other? Explain.
2. How would you set up a longitudinal wave in a 6. Does the transverse velocity of a segment on a
stretched spring? Would it be possible to set up a stretched string depend on the wave velocity?
transverse wave in a spring? 7. If you were to shake one end of a stretched rope
3. By what factor would you have to increase the tension periodically three times each second, what would
in a stretched string in order to double the wave be the period of the harmonic waves set up in the
speed? rope?
4. When a wave pulse travels on a stretched string, does 8. Harmonic waves are generated on a string under con-
it always invert upon reflection? Explain. stant tension by a vibrating source. If the power deliv-
 . '

450 CHAPTER 16 WAVE MOTION

ered to the string is doubled, by what factor does the 15. If you stretch a rubber hose and pluck it, you can
amplitude change? Does the wave velocity change observe a pulse traveling up and down the hose. What
under these circumstances? happens to the speed if you stretch the hose tighter? If
9. Consider a wave traveling on a stretched rope. What you fill the hose with water?
is the difference, if any, between the speed of the 16. In a longitudinal wave in a spring, the coils move back
wave and the speed of a small section of the rope? and forth in the direction the wave travels. Does the
10. If a long rope is hung from a ceiling and waves are sent speed of the wave depend on the maximum velocity of
up the rope from its lower end, the waves do not each of the coils?
ascend with constant speed. Explain. 17. When two waves interfere, can the resultant wave be
1 1 What happens to the wavelength of a wave on a string larger than either of the two original waves? Under
when the frequency is doubled? Assume the tension what conditions?
in the string remains the same. 18. A solid may transport a longitudinal wave as well as a
12. What happens to the velocity of a wave on a string transverse wave, but a fluid may only transport a lon-
when the frequency is doubled? Assume the tension gitudinal wave. Why?
in the string remains the same. 19. In an earthquake both S (shear) and P (pressure)
13. How do transverse waves differ from longitudinal waves are sent out. The S (transverse) waves travel
waves? through the earth slower than the P (longitudinal)
14. When all the strings on a guitar are stretched to the waves (5 km/s versus 9 km/s). By detecting the time
same tension, will the velocity of a wave along the of arrival of the waves, how may one determine how
more massive bass strings be faster or slower than the far away the epicenter of the quake was? How many
velocity of a wave on the lighter strings? detection centers are necessary to pinpoint the loca-
tion of the epicenter?

PROBLEMS
Section 16.3 One-Dimensional Traveling Waves
!/(*, = '

1 . At t — 0, a transverse wave pulse in a wire is described 2 + (i-4r) 2

by the function where x and y are measured in cm and t is in s. Plot the
shape of the waveform at t = 0, 1, and 2 s.
4. A traveling wave pulse moving to the left is described
c
2
+ 3
by the following function:
where x and y are in m. Write the function y(x, t) that 10
describes this wave if it is traveling in the positive x J
'
~~
5 + (x + 2r) 4
direction with a speed of 4.5 m/s.
where x and y are in cm and f is in s. (a) Compute the
2. Two wave pulses A and B are moving in opposite direc-
speed of this wave, (b) Plot this wave at two different
tions along a stretched string with a speed of 2 cm/s.
times and show that it is traveling to the left.
The amplitude of A is twice the amplitude of B. The
5. Ocean waves with a crest-to-crest distance of 10 m
pulses are shown in Figure 16.21 at t = 0. Sketch the
can be described by
shape of the string at f = 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 3 s.
y/(x, t) = (0.8 m) sin [0.63(t - vt)\ v = 1.2 m/s

(a) Sketch t) at = 0. This corresponds to a snap-

if/(x, t

shot of the waves at = 0. (b) Sketch tt) at = 2 s. i//(x, t

Note how the entire wave form has shifted 2.4 m in

the positive x direction in this time interval.

Section 16.4 Superposition and Interference of Waves

6. Two waves in one string are described by the follow-

10 12 14 16 18 20 ing relationships:

yx = 3 cos(4x - 5f ) y2 = 4 sin(5i - It)

Figure 16.21 (Problem 2).

Find the superposition of the waves y t + y 2 at the
points (a) x= 1, f= 1, (b)x= l,f = 0.5, (c) x = 0.5,
3. A traveling wave pulse moving to the right along the x f = 0. (Remember that the arguments of the trigono-
axis is represented by the following wave function: metric functions are in radians.)
 PROBLEMS 451

7. Two harmonic waves in a string are defined by the 17. A 30-m steel wire and a 20-m copper wire, both with
following functions: 1-mm diameters, are connected end-to-end and

= - = - stretched to a tension of 150 N. How long will it take a

i/i 2 cm sin(20x 30t) y 2 2 cm sin(25x 40t),
transverse wave to travel the entire length of the two
where the and x are in cm and t is in s. (a) What is
y's wires?
the phase difference between these two waves at the 18. A light string with a mass per unit length 8 g/m has its
point x = 5 cm at t = 2 s? (b) What is the positive * ends tied to two walls which are separated by a dis-
value closest to the origin for which the two phases tance equal to 3/4 the length of the string. (See Fig.
will differ by ±n at t = 2 s? (This is where the two 16.22.) A mass m is suspended from the center of the
waves will add to zero.) string, putting a tension in the string, (a) Find an ex-
8. Two waves are described by y 1 = l/(ax — bt) and pression for the transverse wave velocity in the string
c/2
= l/(ax + bt) where a and b are constants. Find a hanging mass, (b) How much mass
as a function of the
relationship for the superposition of the two waves should be suspended from the string to have a wave
(/! + 2 What points along this wave would be physi-
i/ speed of 60 m/s?
cally unrealistic and why?
9. One wave pulse in a string is described by the equa-
tion

5
(3x - 4t) 2 + 2

A second wave pulse in the same string is described by

-5
=
</2
(3x + 4t - 6) 2 + 2

(a) which direction does each pulse travel? (b) At

In
what time will the two waves exactly cancel every-
where? (c) At what point do the two waves always Figure 16.22 (Problem 18).
cancel?

Section 16.5 The Velocity of Waves on Strings

Section 16.7 Harmonic Waves
10. Transverse waves with a speed of 50 m/s are to be
produced in a stretched string. A 5-m length of string 19. (a) Plot y versus t at x =
harmonic wave of the
for a
with a total mass of 0.06 kg is used. What is the re- form y = (15 cm) cos(0. 157x —
50. 3f), where x and y
quired tension in the string? are in cm and t is in s. (b) Determine the period of
11. A piano string of mass per unit length 0.005 kg/m is vibration from this plot and compare your result with
under a tension of 1350 N. Find the velocity with the value found in Example 16.3.
which a wave travels on this string. 20. For a certain transverse wave, it is observed that the
12. The tension in a cord 15 m in length is 20 N. The distance between two successive maxima is 1.2 m. It
measured transverse wave speed in the cord is 60 m/s. is also noted that eight crests, or maxima, pass a given

Calculate the total mass of the cord. point along the direction of travel every 12 s. Calcu-
13. Transverse waves travel with a speed of 20 m/s in a wave speed.
late the
string under a tension of 6 N. What tension is required 21. A harmonic wave is traveling along a rope. It is ob-
for a wave speed of 30 m/s in the same string? served that the oscillator that generates the wave
14. A rope 8 m long has a total mass of 500 g. The rope is completes 40 vibrations in 30 s. Also, a given maxi-
stretched with a tension of 430 N. Find the speed of mum travels 425 cm along the rope in 10 s. What is
transverse waves on this rope. the wavelength?
15. The elastic limit of a piece of steel wire is equal to 22. When a particular wire is vibrating with a frequency
2.7 X 10 9 Pa. What is the maximum velocity at which of 4 Hz, a transverse wave of wavelength 60 cm is

transverse wave pulses can propagate along this wire produced. Determine the speed of wave pulses along
without exceeding this stress? (The density of the the wire.
steel7.86 g/cm 3 .)
is 23. A transverse wave moving along a string in the posi-
16. Transverse pulses travel with a speed of 200 m/s tive x direction with a speed of 200 m/s has an ampli-
along a taut copper wire that has a diameter of tude of 0.7 mm
and a wavelength of 20 cm. Deter-
1.5 mm. What is the tension in the wire? (The density mine the values of A, k, and CO in the
(in SI units)
of copper is given in Table 15.1.) equation describing the wave: y = A sin (kx — lot).
452 CHAPTER 16 WAVE MOTION

24. A harmonic wave train is described by 32. A sinusoidal wave on a string is described by

i/ = (0.25m)sin(0.3x-40t), tf/= (0.51 cm) s\r\(kx — cot) k = 3.1 rad/cm

co = 9.3 rad/s
where x and y are in m and t is in s. Determine for
this wave the (a) amplitude, (b) angular frequency,
How far does a wave crest move in 1 s? Does it move
(c) wave number, (d) wavelength, (e) wave speed, and
in the positive x direction or in the negative x direc-

(f) direction of motion. tion?

25. Determine the quantities (a) through (f) of Problem 33. A transverse traveling wave on a stretched wire has an
24 when the wave train is described by y = (0. 2 m)sin amplitude of 0.2 mm, a frequency of 500 Hz, and
travels with a speed of 196 m/s. (a) Write an equation
47r(0.4x + t). Again x and y are in m and t is in s.
in SI units of the form y = A sin(kx — cot) for this wave,
26. In Example 16.3 the harmonic wave was found to be
described by y = (15 cm)cos(0.157x — 50. 3t), where (b) The mass per unit length of this wire is 4.10 g/m.

x and y are in cm and t is in s. (a) Plot y versus x at t = Find the tension in the wire.
and t = 0.050 s. (b) Determine the wave speed from 34. A wave in a string is described by the wave function
this plot and compare your result with the value found y = (0.10 m)sin(0.5 x - 20 t). (a) Show that a particle
in Example 16.3.
in the string at x = 2 m executes harmonic motion.
27. (a) Write the expression for y as a function of x and t
(b) Determine the frequency of the oscillation and
for a sinusoidal wave traveling along a rope in the the initial phase angle of this particular point.

negative x direction with the following characteristics:

y max
= = 80 cm, /= 3 Hz, and y(0, t) = at
8 cm, A
f = Write the expression for y as a function of x
0. (b) Section 16.8 Energy Transmitted by Harmonic Waves
for the wave in (a) assuming that y(x, 0) = at the on Strings
point x = 10 cm. 35. A stretched rope has amass of 0.18 kg and a length of
28. A transverse wave on a string is described by 3.6 m. What power must be supplied in order to gen-
erate harmonic waves having an amplitude of 0.1 m
y= (0.12 m) sin n(x/8 + 4t)
and a wavelength of 0.5 m and traveling with a speed
of 30 m/s?
Determine the transverse velocity and accelera-
(a)
36. A wire of mass 0.24 kg is 48 m long and under a ten-
t = 0.20 s for the point on the string located at
tion at
sion of 60 N. An electric vibrator operating at an angu-
x — 1.6 m. (b) What are the wavelength, period, and
lar frequency of 807T rad/s is generating harmonic
velocity of propagation of this wave?
waves in the wire. The vibrator can supply energy to
29. A transverse harmonic wave has a period T = 25 ms
the wire at a maximum rate of 400 J/s. What is the
and travels in the negative x direction with a speed of
maximum amplitude of the wave pulses?
30 m/s. At t = 0, a particle on the string at x = has a
37. Transverse waves are being generated on a rope
displacement of 2.0 cm and a velocity v = —2.0 m/s.
under constant tension. By what factor will the re-
(a) What is the amplitude of the wave? (b) What is the
quired power be increased or decreased if (a) the
initial phase angle? (c) What is the magnitude of the
length of the rope is doubled and the angular fre-
maximum transverse velocity? (d) Write the wave quency remains constant, (b) the amplitude is dou-
function for the wave.
bled and the angular frequency is halved, (c) both the
30. (a) Write the expression for y as a function of x and t
wavelength and the amplitude are doubled, and
for a sinusoidal wave traveling along a rope in the
(d) both the length of the rope and the wavelength are
positive x direction with the following characteristics:
halved?
y mm = 8 cm, X = 80 cm,/= 3 Hz, and «/(0, t) = ymax at
38. Harmonic waves 5 cm in amplitude are to be transmit-
* = 0. (b) Determine the speed and wave number for -2
ted along a string that has a linear density of 4 X 1
thewave described in (a).
kg/m. If the maximum power delivered by the source
31. A wave form is described by is 300 W
and the string is under a tension of 100 N,
= - fc=2.11rad/m what the highest vibrational frequency at which the
is
i// (2.0 cm) sin(kx cot)
source can operate?
CO = 3.62 rad/s 39. A harmonic wave in a string is described by the equa-
tion:
where x is the position along the wave form (in
=
y (0.15 m)sin(0.8x- 50t)
meters) and f is the time (in seconds). Determine the
amplitude, wave number, wavelength, angular fre- where x and y are in m and * is in s. If the mass per unit
quency, and speed of the wave. length of this string is 1 2 g/m, determine (a) the speed
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 453

of the wave, (b) the wavelength, (c) the frequency, are in m and t is in s. This wave is traveling in a rope
and (d) power transmitted to the wave.
the that has a linear mass density of 0.25 kg/m. If the

40. It is found that a 6-m segment of a long string contains tension in the rope is provided by an arrangement like

4 complete waves and has a mass of 1 80 g. The string the one illustrated in Figure 16.10, what is the value
is vibrating sinusoidally with a frequency of 50 Hz of the suspended mass?
and a peak to peak displacement of 15 cm. (Peak to 49. Consider the sinusoidal wave of Example 16.3, for
peak means the vertical distance from the farthest which it was determined that
positive displacement to the farthest negative dis-
y = (15 cm)cos(0.157x - 50. 3r)
placement.) (a) Write down the function which de-
scribes this wave traveling in the positive x direction, At a given instant, let point A be at the origin and point
and (b) determine the power being supplied to the B be the first point along x that is 60 ° out of phase with
string. point A. What is the coordinate of point B?
50. Ocean waves with a wavelength of 120 m are travel-
Section 16.9 The Linear Wave Equation ing into a harbor at a rate of 8 per minute. What is
their speed?
41. Show wave function y = ln|A(x — vt)] is a so-
that the
where A is a constant. 51. Determine the speed and direction of propagation of
lution to Equation 16.25,
- each of the following sinusoidal waves, assuming that
42. Show that the wave function y = e A (* <") is a solution
x is measured in meters and t in seconds.
of the wave equation (Equation 16.25), where A is a
constant. (a) y = 0.6 cos(3x - 15r+2)
43. In Section 16.9 it is verified that y 1 =A sin(kx — cot) (b) y = 0.4 cos(3x + 15f-2)
is a solution to thewave equation. The wave func- (c) y=
1.2sin(15r+2i)
tion y 2 = B cos(kx —
cot) describes a wave n/2 ra- (d) =
0.2sin(12t-x/2 + 7r)
i/

dians out of phase with the first, (a) Determine 52. A rope of total mass m and length L is suspended verti-
whether or not y = A sin(kx — cot) + B cos(kx — cot) is
|

cally. Show that a transverse wave puls e will travel the

a solution to the wave equation, (b) Determine if y = length of the rope in a time t = 2 VL/g. (Hint: First find
A (sin kx) B(cos cot) is a solution to the wave equation.
•
an expression for the velocity at any point a distance x
from the lower end of the rope, by considering the
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS tension in the rope as resulting from the weight of the
segment below that point.)
44. A traveling wave propagates according to the expres-
sion y = (4.0 cm)sin(2.0x — 3. Of) where x is in cm and 53. A wire of density p is tapered so that its cross-sectional
area varies with x, according to
t is in s. Determine (a) the amplitude, (b) the wave-
length, (c) the frequency, (d) the period, and (e) the A= (10- 3 x + 0.01}cm 2
direction of travel of the wave.
45. The wave function for a linearly polarized wave on a (a) If the wire is subject to a tension F, derive a rela-
taut string is (in SI units) tionship for the velocity of a wave as a function of
= - position, (b) If the wire is aluminum and is subject to a
y(x, t) (0.35 m)sin(107rt 3nx + n/4)
tension of 24 N, determine the velocity at the origin
(a) What
the velocity of the wave? (Give the speed
is and at x = 10 m.
and the direction.) (b) What is the displacement at 54. As a sound wave travels through the air, it produces
f = 0, x = 0.1m? (c) What is the wavelength and pressure variations (above and below atmospheric
what is the frequency of the wave? (d) What is the pressure) given by p = 1.27 sin n(x — 340t) in SI
maximum magnitude of the transverse velocity of the units. Find (a) the amplitude of the pressure varia-
string? tions, (b) the frequency, (c) the wavelength in air, and
46. What is the average rate at which power is transmitted (d) the speed of the sound wave.
along the string in Problem 45 if// = 75 g/m? What is 55. An aluminum wire is clamped at each end under zero
the total energy per wavelength in the wave? tension at room temperature (22°C). The tension in
47. (a) Determine the speed of transverse waves on a the wire is increased by reducing the temperature,
stretched string that is under a tension of 80 N if the which results in a decrease in the wire's equilibrium
string has a length of 2 m and a mass of 5 g. (b) Calcu- length. What strain (AL/L) will result in a transverse
late the power required to generate these waves if wave speed of 100 m/s? Take the cross-sectional area
they have a wavelength of 16 cm and are 4 cm in am- of the wire to be 5 X 10~ 6 m 2 Furthermore, you .

plitude. should use the following properties of aluminum:

48. A harmonic wave in a rope is described by the wave density, p = 2.7 X 10 3 kg/m 3 and ; Young's modulus,
functioni/ = (0.2 m)sin[7r(0.75x — 18f)] where x and y Y=7.0X 10 10 N/m 2 .
454 CHAPTER 16 WAVE MOTION

56. (a) Show that the speed of longit udinal waves along a one end of the string to the other. Give your result as a

spring of force constant k is v = V/rL///, where L is the multiple of T = L/v

o
.

unstretched length of the spring and// is the mass per 59. A wave pulse traveling along a string of linear mass
unit length, (b) A spring of mass 0.4 kg has an un- density // is described by the relationship
stretched length of 2 m and a force constant of 100
= —
y [A e _fcl ]sin(/cx (Of)
N/m. Using the results to (a), determine the speed of
longitudinal waves along this spring. where the factors in brackets before the sine are said
57. It is stated in Problem 52 that a wave pulse will travel to be the amplitude, (a) What is the power P(x) carried

from the b ottom to the top of a rope of length L in a by thiswave at a point x? (b) What is the power car-
time f = 2VL/g. Use this result to answer the following ried bv this wave at the origin? (c) Compute the ratio
questions. (It is not necessary to set up any new inte- , P(xj
of .

grations.) (a) How long does it take for a wave pulse to P(0)
travel halfway up the rope of length L? (Giv e your
answer as a fraction of the quantity (2\/L/g). (b) A CALCULATOR/COMPUTER PROBLEM
pulse starts traveling up th e ro pe. How far has the
pulse traveled after a time vL/g? 60. Two transverse wave pulses traveling in opposite di-

58. A string of length L consists of two distinct sections. rections along the .r axis are represented by the follow-
The left half has mass density// = /f /2. while the right ing wave functions:

half has mass per unit length//' = 3// = 3// /2. Tension
in the string is F Notice that this string has the same
.
!/i(*, *^
y 2 (x, t) = —
(x-3f) 2 (x + 3r) 2
total mass as a uniform string of length L and mass per
unit length // .(a) Find the speeds v and o' at which where and y are measured in cm and f is in s. Write a
.v

transverse wave pulses travel in the two sections program which will enable you to obtain the shape of
of the string. Express the speeds in terms of F and the composite waveform y x + y 2 as a function of time.
/z , and also as multiples of the speed v = VF //i • Use your program and make plots of the waveform at
(b) Find the time required for a wave to travel from t = 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 3 s.
 17
Sound Waves

Audible waves are produced

by this rock band.
(© A. DAmario, III, FPG
International)

This chapter deals with the properties of longitudinal waves travel-

ing through various media. Sound waves are the most important
example of longitudinal waves. They can travel through any mate-
rial medium (that is, gases, solids, or liquids) with a speed that
depends on the properties of the medium. As sound waves travel through a
medium, the particles in the medium vibrate to produce density and pressure
changes along the direction of motion of the wave. This is in contrast to a
transverse wave, where the particle motion is perpendicular to the direction
of wave motion. The displacements that occur as a result of sound waves
involve the longitudinal displacements of individual molecules from their
equilibrium positions. This results in a series of high- and low-pressure regions
called condensations and rarefactions, respectively. If the source of the sound
waves, such as the diaphragm of a loudspeaker, vibrates sinusoidally, the
pressure variations are also sinusoidal. We shall find that the mathematical
description of harmonic sound waves is identical to that of harmonic string

waves discussed in the previous chapter.

There are three categories of longitudinal mechanical waves that cover
different ranges of frequency: (1) Audible waves are sound waves that lie
within the range of sensitivity of the human ear, typically, 20 Hz to
20 000 Hz. They can be generated in a variety of ways, such as by musical
instruments, human vocal cords, and loudspeakers. (2) Infrasonic waves are
longitudinal waves with frequencies below the audible range. Earthquake

455
456 CHAPTER 17 SOUND WAVES

waves are an example. (3) Ultrasonic waves are longitudinal waves with fre-
quencies above the audible range. For example, they can be generated by
inducing vibrations in a quartz crystal with an applied alternating electric
field.
Any device that transforms one form of power into another is called a
transducer. In addition to the loudspeaker and the quartz crystal, ceramic and
magnetic phonograph pickups are common examples of sound transducers.
Some transducers can generate ultrasonic waves. Such devices are used in the
construction of ultrasonic cleaners and for underwater navigation.

17.1 VELOCITY OF SOUND WAVES

Sound waves are compressional waves traveling through a compressible me-
dium, such as air. The compressed region of air which propagates corresponds
to a variation in the normal value of the air pressure. The speed of such
compressional waves depends on the compressibility of the medium and on
the inertia of the medium. If the compressible medium has a bulk modulus B
and an equilibrium density p, the speed of sound in that medium is

Speed of sound
-VS (17.1)

Undisturbed gas
Recall that the bulk modulus (Section 12.4) is defined as the ratio of the
change in pressure, AP, to the resulting fractional change in volume, — AV/V:

AP
(a)
B= (17.2)
'

AV/V
Compressed region
Note that Balways positive, since an increase in pressure (positive AP)
is

results in a decrease in volume. Hence, the ratio AP/AVis always negative.

It is interesting to compare Equation 1 7.1 w ith the expression for the

speed of transverse waves on a string, v = \/F//i, discussed in the previous

J

chapter. In both cases, the wave speed depends on an elastic property of the
medium (B or F) and on an inertial property of the medium (p or//). In fact, the
speed of all mechanical waves follows an expression of the general form

elastic property
»=Viinertial property
Let us describe pictorially the motion of a longitudinal pulse moving
through a long tube containing a compressible gas or liquid (Fig. 17.1). A
piston at the left end can be moved to the right to compress the fluid and create
the longitudinal pulse. This is a convenient arrangement, since the wave mo-
tion is one-dimensional. Before the piston is moved, the medium is undis-
turbed and of uniform density, as represented by the uniformly shaded region
in Figure 17.1a. When the piston is suddenly pushed to the right (Fig. 17.1b),
(d)
the medium just in front of it is compressed (represented by the heavier
Figure 17.1 Motion of a longitu- shaded region). The pressure and density in this region are higher than nor-
dinal pulse through a compressible mal. When the piston comes to rest (Fig. 17.1c), the compressed region con-
medium. The compression (darker
region) is produced by the moving tinues to move to the right, corresponding to a longitudinal pulse traveling
piston. down the tube with a speed v. Note that the piston speed does not equal v.
 17.2 HARMONIC SOUND WAVES 457

Furthermore, the compressed region does not "stay with" the piston until the
piston stops.
Let us now determine the speed of sound waves in various media with a
few examples.

EXAMPLE 17.1 Sound Waves in a Solid Bar This result is much smaller than that for the speed of

If a solid bar is struck at one end with a hammer, a longi- sound inaluminum, calculated in the previous example.
tudinal pulse will propagate down the bar with a speed In general, sound waves travel more slowly in liquids
than in solids. This is because liquids are more compress-
(17.3) ible than solids and hence have a smaller bulk modulus.
The speed of sound in various media is given in
where Yis the Young's modulus for the material, defined Table 17.1.
as the longitudinal stress divided by the longitudinal
strain (Chapter 12). Find the speed of sound in an alumi-
num bar.

Solution Using Equation 17.3 and the available data for

aluminum, Y= 7.0 X 10 10 N/m 2 and the density p = TABLE 17.1 Speed
2.7 X 10 3 kg/m 3 we find that
,

/To X 10 10 N/m 2
»Ar » 5100 m/s
X 10 3 kg/m 3

This is a typical value for the speed of sound in solids.

The result is much larger than the speed of
sound in
gases. This makes sense since the molecules of a solid are
close together (in comparison to the molecules of a gas)
and hence respond more rapidly to a disturbance.

EXAMPLE 1 7.2 Speed of Sound in a Liquid

Find the speed of sound in water, which has a bulk modu-
lus of about 2.1 X 10 9 N/m 2 and a density of about
10 3 kg/m 3 .

Solution Using Equation 17.1, we find that

B / 2.1 X 1 9 N/m 2
1500 m/s
P V 1 X 10 3 kg/m 3
458 CHAPTER 17 SOUND WAVES

tube as a pulse, continuously compressing the layers in front of it. When the
piston is withdrawn from the tube, the gas in front of it expands and the
pressure and density in this region fall below their equilibrium values (repre-
sented by the lighter regions in Figure 17.2). These low-pressure regions,
called rarefactions, also propagate along the tube, following the condensa-
tions. Both regions move with a speed equal to the speed of sound in that
medium (about 343 m/s in air at 20°C).
As the piston oscillates back and forth in a sinusoidal fashion, regions of

EZ- condensation and rarefaction are continuously set up. The distance between
two successive condensations (or two successive rarefactions) equals the
wavelength, X. As these regions travel down the tube, any small volume of the
medium moves with simple harmonic motion parallel to the direction of the
wave. If s(x, t) is the displacement of a small volume element measured from its
equilibrium position, we can express this harmonic displacement function as

EZ s(x, t) = sm cos(kx — cot) (17.4)

Figure 17.2 A
M
harmonic longitu-
where s m
amplitude), k
is the
is
maximum
the
displacement from equilibrium (the displacement
wave number, and to is the angular frequency of the piston.
dinal wave propagating down a
Note that the displacement is along x, the direction of motion of the sound
tube with a compressible gas.
filled wave, which of course means we are describing a longitudinal wave. The
The source of the wave is a vibrat- variation in the pressure of the gas, AP, measured from its equilibrium value is
ing piston at the left. The high- and
also harmonic and given by
low-pressure regions are dark and
light, respectively.

AP = APm sin(kx - cot) (17.5)

The derivation of this expression will be given below.

The pressure amplitude APm is the maximum change in pressure from the
equilibrium value. As we shall show later, the pressure amplitude is propor-
tional to the displacement amplitude, s m and , is given by

Pressure amplitude APm = pvcos„ (17.6)

where tos m is the maximum longitudinal velocity of the medium in front of the
piston.
Thus, we see that a sound wave may be considered as either a displace-
ment wave A
comparison of Equations 17.4 and 17.5
or a pressure wave.
shows that the pressure wave is 90° out of phase with the displacement wave.
Graphs of these functions are shown in Figure 17.3. Note that the pressure
variation is a maximum when the displacement is zero, whereas the displace-
ment is a maximum when the pressure variation is zero. Since the pressure is

proportional to the density, the variation in density from the equilibrium value
follows an expression similar to Equation 17.5.
We shall now give a derivation of Equations 17.5 and 17.6. From Equa-
tion 17.2, we see that the pressure variation in a gas is given by

AP=- B(AV/V)
The volume of a layer of v = A Ax
ot thickness Ax and cross-sectional area A is V ax.
lume AV accompanying the pressure change is eq
The change in the volume equal to
 17.3 ENERGY AND INTENSITY OF HARMONIC SOUND WAVES 459

A As, where As is the difference in s between x and x + Ax. That is,

As = s(x + Ax) — s(x). Hence, we can express AP as

AP = -B —
AV =
V
A
-B-—
A
= -B —
„ As
Ax
„ As
Ax

As Ax approaches zero, the ratio As/ Ax becomes ds/dx. (The partial derivative
is used here to indicate that we are interested in the variation of s with position

at a fixed time.) Therefore,

AP=-B(ds/dx) (17.7)

If the displacement is the simple harmonic function given by Equation 17.4,

we find that

AP = — B —
ox
[s m cos(fcx — cot)] = Bs m k sin(kx — cot)

Since the bulk modulus is given by B = pv 2 (Eq. 17.1), the pressure variation
reduces to

AP = pv 2 s m k sin(kx — cot)

Furthermore, from Equation 16.13, we can write co = kv; hence AP can be

expressed as

AP = pcos m v sin(fcx — cot) = APm sin(fcc — cot) (17 8) Figure 17.3 (a) Displacement
amplitude versus position and (b)
pressure amplitude versus position
where APm is the maximum pressure variation, given by Equation 17.6.
for a harmonic longitudinal wave.
The displacement wave is 90° out
APm = pvcosm of phase with the pressure wave.

17.3 ENERGY AND INTENSITY OF HARMONIC

SOUND WAVES
In the previous chapter, we showed that waves traveling on stretched strings
transport energy. The same concepts are now applied to sound waves. Con-
sider a layer of air of mass Am and width Ax in front of a piston oscillating with a
frequency co, as in Figure 17.4. The piston transmits energy to the layer of air. 1

Since the average kinetic energy equals the average potential energy in simple
harmonic motion (as was shown in Chapter 13), the average total energy of the
mass Am equals its maximum kinetic energy. Therefore, we can express the
average energy of the moving layer of gas as

AE = \Am(cosJ 2 = \{pA Ax)(&>sJ 2

where A Ax is the volume of the layer. The time rate at which energy is

transferred (or the power) to each layer is given by

Power —
= AE = %pA\( Ax\ — I (cos m )
2 = %pAv(cosm )
2

where v = Ax/ At is the velocity of the disturbance to the right.

460 CHAPTER 17 SOUND WAVES

We define the intensity 1 of a wave, or the power per unit area, to be the
rate at which sound energy flows through a unit area A perpendicular to
the direction of travel of the wave.

In this case, the intensity is given by

Intensity of a
7
sound wave 7 = -power = $p(a>sj 2 v (17.9)

Thus, we see that the intensity of the harmonic sound wave is proportional to
the square of the amplitude and to the square of the frequency (as in the case of
a harmonic string wave). This can also be written in terms of the pressure
amplitude APm , using Equation 17.6, which gives

1 = APJ (17.10)
2pv

EXAMPLE 17.3 Hearing Limitations as3 parts in 10 10 The corresponding maximum displace-
!

The sounds the human ear can detect at a fre-

faintest ment can be calculated using Equation 17.6, recalling
quency of 1000 Hz correspond to an intensity of about that co = Inf.
10 -12 W/m 2 (the so-called threshold of hearing). Like- X 10~ 5
APm 2.87 N/m 2
wise, the loudest sounds that the ear can tolerate corre-
paw (1.20 kg/m 3 )(2;r X 10 3 s-!)(343 m/s)
spond to an intensity of about 1 W/m 2 (the threshold of
pain). Determine the pressure amplitudes and maximum
displacements associated with these two limits. = 1.11 X lfr 11 m
This is a remarkably small number! If we compare this
Solution First, consider the faintest sounds. Using Equa-
result for s m with the diameter of a molecule (about
tion 17.10 and taking v = 343 m/s and the density of air
10~ 10 m), we see that the ear is an extremely sensitive
to be p = 1.20 kg/m 3 , we get
detector of sound waves.
APm = {2pvl) l l2
In a similar manner, one finds that the loudest
sounds the human ear can tolerate correspond to a pres-
= [2(1.20 kg/m 3 )(343 m/s)(10- 12 W/m 2 )]
1 /2
sure amplitude of about 30 N/m 2 and a maximum dis-
placement of 1 1 X 1 _s m. Note that the small pressure
.

= 2.87 X 10- 5 N/m 2 amplitudes, called acoustic pressure, correspond to fluc-

tuations taking place above and below atmospheric pres-
Since atmospheric pressure is about 10 s N/m 2 this ,

means the ear can discern pressure fluctuations as small

Sound Level (Intensity) in Decibels

The previous example illustrates the wide range of intensities that the human
ear can detect. For this reason, it is convenient to use a logarithmic scale,
where the sound level /? is defined by the equation

Sound level in decibels £=10 log (17.11)

G)
The constant I is the reference intensity, taken to be at the threshold of hearing
= ), and I is the intensity in W/m
2
(Z 10~ 12 W/m 2 at the level fi, where y? is
 17.4 SPHERICAL AND PLANE WAVES 461

TABLE 17.2 Sound Levels for Some Sources in Decibels

Source of Sound fi (dB)

Nearby jet airplane 150

Jackhammer; machine gun 130
Siren; rock concert 120
Subway; power mower 100
Busy traffic 80
Vacuum cleaner 70
Normal conversation 50
Mosquito buzzing 40
Whisper 30
Rustling leaves 10
Threshold of hearing

measured in decibels (dB). 2 On this scale, the threshold of pain (/ = 1 W/m 2 )

corresponds to a sound level of /?= 10 log(l/10 -12 ) = 10 log(10 12 ) =
120 dB. Likewise, the threshold of hearing corresponds to/?= 10 log(l/l) =
dB. Nearby jet airplanes can create sound levels of 150 dB, and subways
and riveting machines have levels of 90 to 100 dB. The electronically ampli-
fied sounds heard at rock concerts can be at levels of up to 120 dB, the
threshold of pain. Prolonged exposure to such high sound levels may produce
serious damage to the ear. Ear plugs are recommended whenever sound levels
exceed 90 dB. Becent evidence also suggests that "noise pollution" may be a
contributing factor to high blood pressure, anxiety, and nervousness. Table
17.2 gives some typical values of the sound levels of various sources.

17.4 SPHERICAL AND PLANE WAVES

If aspherical body pulsates or oscillates periodically such that its radius varies
harmonically with time, a sound wave with spherical wave fronts will be
produced (Fig. 17.5). The wave moves outward from the source at a constant
speed if the medium is uniform.
Since all points on the sphere behave in the same way, we conclude that
the energy in a spherical wave will propagate equally in all directions. That is,
no one direction is preferred over any other. If Pav is the average power
emitted by the source, then this power at any distance r from the source must
be distributed over a spherical surface of area 47rr2 Hence, the wave intensity
.

at a distance r from the source is

/ = PJA = Pj4nr^ (17.12)

Since Pav is the same through any spherical surface centered at the source, we
see that the intensities at distances r, and r2 are given by

h = Pj4nr? and 72 = Pj4nr2 2

2
The "bel" is named after the inventor of the telephone, Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922).
The prefix deci- is the metric system scale factor that stands for 10 _1
.
462 CHAPTER 17 SOUND WAVES

Spherical

Figure 17.5 A spherical wave propagating radially outward from an oscillating spherical body.
The intensity of the spherical wave varies as 1/r 2 .

Therefore, the ratio of intensities on these two spherical surfaces is

r 2
lJ 2 '1

In Equation 17.9 we found that the intensity was also proportional to s m 2 ,

wave amplitude. Comparing this result with Equation 17.12,

the square of the
we conclude that the wave amplitude of a spherical wave must vary as 1/r.
Therefore, we can write the wave function y/ (Greek letter "psi") for an
outgoing spherical wave in the form

y/(r, t) = (sjr)sin(kr — a)t) (17.13)

where s is a constant.
It is useful to represent spherical waves by a series of circular arcs con-
centric with the source, as in Figure 17.6. Each arc represents a surface over
which the phase of the wave is constant. We call such a surface of constant

phase a wavefront. The distance between adjacent wavefronts equals the

wavelength, X. The radial lines pointing outward from the source are called
rays.
Now consider a small portion of the wavefronts at large distances from the
source, as in Figure 17.7. In this case, the rays are nearly parallel and the
Figure 17.6 Spherical waves
emitted by a point source. The cir- wavefronts are very close to being planar. Therefore, at distances from
cular arcs represent the spherical the source that are large compared with the wavelength, we can approximate
wavefronts concentric with the
source. The rays are radial lines
the wavefronts by parallel planes. We call such a wave a plane wave. Any small
pointing outward from the source portion of a spherical wave that is far from the source can be considered a
perpendicular to the wavefronts. plane wave.
 17.4 SPHERICAL AND PLANE WAVES 463

Plane
wavefront

Rays

Wavefronts

Figure 17.7 At large distances

from a point source, the wavefronts
are nearly parallel planes and the
rays are nearly parallel lines per-
pendicular to the planes. Hence, Figure 17.8 Representation of a
a small segment of a spherical plane wave moving in the positive x
wavefront is approximately a plane direction. The wavefronts are
planes parallel to the yz plane.

Figure 17.8 illustrates a plane wave propagating along the x axis. If x is

taken to be the direction of the wave motion (or rays) in Figure 17.8, then the
wavefronts are parallel to the yz plane. In this case, the wave function depends
only on x and t and has the form

y/(x, t) = i//
Q sin(kx — cot) (17.14) Plane wave representation

That is, the wave function for a plane wave is identical in form to that of a
one-dimensional traveling wave. The intensity is the same on successive
wavefronts of the plane wave.

EXAMPLE 17.4 Intensity Variations of a (b) Find the distance at which the sound reduces to a
Point Source Ll level of 40 dB.
A source emits sound waves with a power output of
80 W. Assume the source is a point source, (a) Find the Solution We can find the intensity at the 40-dB level by
intensity at a distance 3 m from the source. using Equation 17.11 with I = 10" 12 W/m 2 This gives .

A point source emits energy in the form of

Iog(Z/I )
= 4
Solution
spherical waves (Fig. 17.5). Let Pttv be the average power Z=10 4 J = 10- 8 W/m 2
output of the source. At a distance r from the source, the
Using this value for I in Equation 17.12 and solving for r,
power is distributed over the surface area of a sphere,
we get
4nr 2 Therefore, the intensity at a distance r from the
80W
.

1/2
source is given by Equation 17.12. Since Pav = 80 Wand r=(Pav/I4nl)m =
K '
< >

r = 3 m, we find that
(47rX10- 8 W/m 2 )i/2

7 = 80 W = 0.707 W/m 2 = 2.52X10<m

Ant* 4tt(3 m) 2
which is close to the threshold of pain which equals about 16 miles!
464 CHAPTER 17 SOUND WAVES

'17.5 THE DOPPLER EFFECT

When is moving while its horn is blowing, the frequency of the
a car or truck
sound you hear is higher as the vehicle approaches you and lower as it moves
away from you. This is one example of the Doppler effect. 3
In general, a Doppler effect is experienced whenever there is relative
motion between the source and the observer. When the source and ob-
server are moving toward each other, the frequency heard by the ob-
server is higher than the frequency of the source. When the source and
observer move away from each other, the observer hears a frequency
which is lower than the source frequency.

Although the Doppler effect is most commonly experienced with sound

waves, it is a phenomenon common to all harmonic waves. For example, there
is waves (electromagnetic waves) produced by
a shift in frequencies of light
the relative motion of source and observer. The Doppler effect is used in
police radar systems to measure the speed of motor vehicles. Likewise, as-
tronomers use the effect to determine the relative motion of stars, galaxies,
and other celestial objects.
First, let us consider the case where the observer O is moving and the
sound source S is stationary. For simplicity, we shall assume that the air is also
stationary and that the observer moves directly toward the source. Figure
17.9 describes the situation when the observer moves with a speed v toward
the source (considered as a point source), which is at rest (v s = 0). In general,
"at rest" means at rest with respect to the medium, air.
We shall take the frequency of the source to be/, the wavelength to be A,
and the velocity of sound to be d. If the observer were also stationary, clearly
he or she would detect /wavefronts per second. (That is, when v = and
v s = 0, the observed frequency equals the source frequency.) When the ob-
server moves towards the source, the speed of the waves relative to the ob-
server is v' = v + v Q but the wavelength A is unchanged. Hence, the fre-
,

quency heard by the observer is increased and given by

Figure 17.9 An observer O mov-
ing with a speed v toward a sta-
tionary point source S hears a fre-
quency /' that is greater than the
source frequency.
Since X = v/f, we can express f as
/' =/( 1 + — I (Observer moving toward the source) (17.15)

Similarly, if the observer is moving away from the source, the speed of the
wave relative to the observer is v' = v — v The frequency heard by the
.

observer in this case is lowered and is given by

-*) (Observer moving away from the source)

-i
/' 1 (17.16)

In general, when an observer moves with a speed v relative to a station-

ary source, the frequency heard by the observer is

Frequency heard with an

observer in motion ,-/( 1± ^) (17.17)

3 Named after the Austrian physicist Christian Johann Doppler (1803-1853), who discovered
the effect for light waves.
 *17.5 THE DOPPLER EFFECT 465

(a)

Figure 17.10 (a) A source S moving with a speed f

s
toward a stationary observer A and away from a sta-
tionary observer B. Observer A hears an increased
frequency, and observer B hears a decreased fre-
quency, (b) The Doppler effect in water observed in a
ripple tank. (Courtesy Educational Development (b)
Center, Newton, Mass.)

where the positive sign is used when the observer moves toward the source
and the negative sign holds when the observer moves away from the source.
Now consider the situation in which the source is in motion and the
observer is at rest. If the source moves directly toward observer A in Figure
17.10a, the wavefronts seen by the observer are closer together as a result of
the motion of the source in the direction of the outgoing wave. As a result, the
wavelength A' measured by observer A is shorter than the wavelength A of the
source. During each vibration, which lasts for a time T(the period), the source
moves a distance v s T= t> s //and the wavelength is shortened by this amount.
Therefore, the observed wavelength A' is given by

A' = A - AA = A - (v s /f)

Since A = v/f, the frequency heard by observer A is

_ v _ v v
J
r,
T7
~
£s £_£s
f f f

f'=f (17.18)
1

That is, the observed frequency is increased when the source moves toward "I love hearing that lonesome
the observer. wail of the train whistle as the
magnitude of the frequency of
In a similar manner, when the source moves away from an observer B at
the wave changes due to the
rest(where observer B is to the left of the source, as in Fig. 17.1 0a), observer B Doppler effect."
measures a wavelength A' that is greater than A and hears a decreased frequency
given by

/'=/ (17.19)
i+a
466 CHAPTER 17 SOUND WAVES

Combining Equations 17.18 and 17.19, we can express the general rela-
tionship for the observed frequencywhen the source is moving and the ob-
server is at rest as

Frequency heard with (17.20)

source in motion

Finally,if both the source and the observer are in motion, one finds the

following general relationship for the observed frequency:

Frequency heard with /' (17.21)

observer and source in motion

In this expression, the upper signs (+ v and — v s ) refer to motion of one toward
the other, and the lower signs (— v Q and + v s ) refer to motion ofoneaiDay from
the other.
A convenient rule to remember concerning signs when working with all

Doppler effect problems is the following:

The word toward is associated with an increase in the observed frequency.

The words away from are associated with a decrease in the observed
frequency.

EXAMPLE 17.5 The Moving Train Whistle EXAMPLE 17.6 The Noisy Siren
A train moving speed of 40 m/s sounds its whistle,
at a An ambulance travelsdown a highway at a speed of
which has a frequency of 500 Hz. Determine the fre- 33.5 m/s (= 75 mi/h). Its siren emits sound at a fre-

quencies heard by a stationary observer as the train ap- quency of 400 Hz. What the frequency heard by a
is

proaches and then recedes from the observer. passenger in a car traveling at 24.6 m/s (= 55 mi/h) in
the opposite direction as the car approaches the ambu-
lance and as the car moves away from the ambulance?
Solution We can use Equation 17.18 to get the apparent
frequency as the train approaches the observer. Taking Solution Let us take the velocity of sound in air to be
v = 343 m/s for the speed of sound in air gives v = 343 m/s. We can use Equation 17.21 in both cases.
J
As the ambulance and car approach each other, the ob-
f'=f (500 Hz) served apparent frequency is
40 m/s
1-^ 1-
343 m/s 343 m/s + 24.6 m/s N
/'=/(^) = «oo„ 2 ,( 343 m/s - 33.5 m/s,
566 Hz
475 Hz
Likewise, Equation 17.19 can be used to obtain the fre-
quency heard as the train recedes from the observer: Likewise, as they recede from each other, a passenger in
the car hears a frequency
/'=/
1
= _1 \
(500 Hz)
343 m/s - 24.6 m
+ +
40 m/s
1 1

343 m/s ) Ms?)-<«»* >( 343 m/s + 33.5 m

= 448 Hz = 338 Hz
 '17.5 THE DOPPLER EFFECT 467

The change in frequency as detected by the passenger in the highway at the speed of 33.5 m/s. What frequency

the car is 475 - 338 = 137 Hz, which is more than 30% will the passenger in the car hear as the ambulance
of the actual frequency emitted. (a) approaches the parked car and (b) recedes from the
parked car?
Exercise 1 Suppose that the passenger car is parked on Answer (a) 443 Hz (b) 364 Hz
the side of the highway as the ambulance travels down

Shock Waves

Now let us consider what happens when the source velocity v s exceeds the
wave velocity v. is described graphically in Figure 17.11. The
This situation
circles represent spherical wavefronts emitted by the source at various times
during its motion. At t = 0, the source is at S 0) and at some later time t, the
source is at S n In the time t, the wavefront centered at S reaches a radius of vt.
.

In this same interval, the source travels a distance v s t to S„. At the instant the
source is at S„ waves are just beginning to be generated and so the wavefront
,

has zero radius at this point. The line drawn from S„ to the wavefront centered
on S is tangent to all other wavefronts generated at intermediate times. Thus,
we see that the envelope of these waves is a cone whose apex half-angle 6 is
given by

sin 6 = v/vs
The ratio v s /v is referred to as the Mach number. The conical wavefront pro-
duced when v s > v (supersonic speeds) is known as a shock wave. An interest-
ing analogy to shock waves is the V-shaped wavefronts produced by a boat (the
bow wave) when the boat's speed exceeds the speed of the surface water
The V-shaped bow wave of a boat is
formed because the boat travels at
a speed greater than the speed of
water waves. This is analogous to a
shock wave formed by an airplane
traveling at a speed greater than
Conical the speed of sound. (© Mike Shel-
shockfront don/FPG International)

Figure 17.11 Representation of a shock wave produced when a source moves from S to S„ with a
speed v s which is greater than the wave speed t> in that medium. The envelope of the wavefronts
,

forms a cone whose apex half-angle is given by sin 8 = v/v s .

468 CHAPTER 17 SOUND WAVES

Jet airplanes traveling at supersonic speeds produce shock waves, which

are responsible for the loud explosion, or "sonic boom," one hears. The shock
wave carries a great deal of energy concentrated on the surface of the cone,
with correspondingly large pressure variations. Such shock waves are unpleas-
ant to hear and can cause damage to buildings when aircraft fly supersonically
at low altitudes. In fact, an airplane flying at supersonic speeds produces a
double boom because two shock fronts are formed, one from the nose of the
plane and one from the tail (Fig. 17.12).
Figure 17.13 is a dramatic photographic of a bullet passing through the
flame of a candle. There is a clear outline of the shock wave produced by the
Figure 17.12 Two shock waves
bullet moving at supersonic speed.
produced by the nose and tail of a

jet airplane traveling at supersonic

speeds.

Figure 17.13 Supersonic candlelight. A stroboscopic shadow photograph showing a bullet trav-
eling at supersonic speed passing through the hot air rising above a candle. This type of picture,
called a schlieren, enables one to observe regions of nonuniform air density. Note the shock wave
in the vicinity of the bullet. (Bullet through Flame, 1 973. © Harold E. Edgerton. Courtesy of Palm
Press, Inc.)
 SUMMARY 469

SUMMARY
Sound waves are longitudinal in nature and travel through a compressible
medium with a speed that depends on the compressibility and inertia of that
medium. The speed of sound in a medium having a bulk modulus B and
density p is

Speed of sound in a compress-

(17.1)
»-v1 ible medium

In the case of harmonic sound waves, the variation in pressure from the
equilibrium value is given by

AP = APm sin(kx - cot) (17.7) Pressure variation

where APm is the pressure amplitude. The pressure wave is 90° out of phase
with the displacement wave. If the displacement amplitude is sm , then APm
has the value

APm = pvtos„ (17.6) Pressure amplitude

The intensity of a harmonic sound wave, which is the power per unit
area, is given by

I = £ p(cosJ 2v = APJ (17.9, 17.10) Intensity of a sound wave

2pv

The intensity of a spherical wave produced by a point source is propor-

tional to the average power emitted and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from the source.
The change in frequency heard by an observer whenever there is rela-
tive motion between the source and observer is called the Doppler effect. If
the observer moves with a speed v Q and the source is at rest, the observed
frequency /' is

where the positive

M
/' 1 *")
sign is used when the observer moves toward the source
(17.17)
Frequency heard by an
observerin motion

and the negative sign refers to motion away from the source.
If the source moves with a speed v s and the observer is at rest, the
observed frequency is

1 Frequency heard with source

/'=/ (17.20)
in motion
IT*
where — vs refers to motion toward the observer and +vs refers to motion
away from the observer.
When the observer and source are both moving, the observed frequency

Frequency heard with

(17.21) observer and source in motion
\v + VS J
470 CHAPTER 17 SOUND WAVES

QUESTIONS

1. Why are sound waves characterized as longitudinal? 12. A binary star system consists of two stars revolving
2. As a result of a distant explosion, an observer senses a about each other. If we observe the light reaching us
ground tremor and then hears the explosion. Explain. from one of these stars as it makes one complete revo-
3. If an alarm clock is placed in a good vacuum and then lution about the other, what does the Doppler effect
activated, no sound will be heard. Explain. predict will happen to this light?
4. Some sound waves are harmonic, whereas others are 13. How could an object move with respect to an ob-
not. Give an example of each. server such that the sound from it is not shifted in
5. In Example 17.4, we found that a point source with a frequency?
power output of 80 W
reduces to an intensity level of 14. Why is it not possible to use sonar (sound waves) to

40 dB at a distance of about 16 miles. Why do you determine the speed of an object traveling faster than
suppose you cannot normally hear a rock concert the speed of sound in that medium?
going on 16 miles away? 15. Why is it so quiet after a snowfall?
6. If the distance from a point source is tripled, by what 16. Why is the intensity of an echo less than that of the
factor does the intensity decrease? original sound?
7. Explain how the Doppler effect is used with micro- 17. If the wavelength of a sound source is reduced by a
waves to determine the speed of an automobile. what happens to its frequency? Its speed?
factor of 2,
8. If you are in a moving vehicle, explain what happens 18. A sound wave travels in air at a frequency of 500 Hz.
to the frequency of your echo as you move toward a If part of the wave travels from the air into water, does
canyon wall. What happens to the frequency as you its frequency change? Does its wavelength change?

move away from the wall? Justify your answers.

9. Suppose an observer and a source of sound are both at 19. In a recent discovery, a nearby star was found to have
rest, and a strong wind blows toward the observer. a large planet orbiting about it, although the planet
Describe the effect of the wind (if any) on (a) the could not be seen. In terms of the concept of systems
observed wavelength, (b) the observed frequency, rotating about their center of mass and the Doppler
and (c) the wave velocity. shift for light (which is in many ways similar to that of
10. Of the following sounds, which is most likely to have sound), explain how an astronomer could determine
an intensity level of 60 dB: a rock concert, the turning the presence of the invisible planet.
of a page in this text, normal conversation, a cheering 20. Explain how the distance to a lightning bolt may be
crowd at a football game, or background noise at a determined by counting the seconds between the
church? flash and the sound of the thunder. Does the speed of
11. Estimate the decibel level of each of the sounds in the light signal have to be taken into account?
Question 10.

PROBLEMS
Section 17.1 Velocity of Sound Waves 4. The ocean floor is underlaid by a layer of basalt that
uppermost layer of the earth
constitutes the crust, or
1 . Suppose that you hear a thunder clap 16.2s after see- in this region.Below this crust is found more dense
ing the associated lightning stroke. The speed of peridotite rock, which forms the earth's mantle. The
sound waves in air is 343 m/s and the speed of light in boundary between these two layers is called the Mo-
air is 3.0 X 10 8 m/s. How far are you from the light- horovicic discontinuity ("Moho" for short). If an ex-
ning stroke? plosive charge is set off at the surface of the basalt, it

2. A stone is dropped into a deep canyon and is heard to generates a seismic wave that is reflected back at the
strike the bottom 10.2 s after release. The speed of Moho. If the velocity of this wave in basalt is 6.5 km/s,
sound waves in air is 343 m/s. How deep is the can- and the two-way travel time is 1.85 s, what is the
yon? What would be the percentage error in the thickness of this oceanic crust?
depth if the time required for the sound to reach the 5. (a)What are the SI units of bulk modulus as expressed
canyon rim were ignored? in Equation 17.2? (b) Show that the SI units of -fB/p
3. Find the velocity of sound in mercury, which has a are m/s, as required by Equation 17.1.
bulk modulus of about 2.8 X 10 10 N/m 2 and a density 6. The density of aluminum is 2.7 X 10 3 kg/m 3 Use the .

of 13 600kg/m 3 .
value for the speed of sound in aluminum given in
 PROBLEMS 471

Table 17.1 to calculate Young's modulus for this ma- (a)Find the amplitude, wavelength, and speed of this
terial. wave and state what materialthis sound wave is travel-

7. You are watching a pier being constructed on the far ing through. [See Table 17.1.] (b) Determine the
shore of a salt water inlet when some blasting occurs. instantaneous displacement of the molecules at the
You hear the sound in the water 4.5 s before it reaches position x = 0.05 m at t = 3 ms. (c) Determine the
you through the air. How wide is the inlet? (Hint: See maximum velocity of the molecules' oscillatory mo-
Table 17.1. Assume the air temperature is 20°C.) tion.

8. The density of acetone is 792 kg/m 3 Its bulk modulus . 16. Consider the sound wave whose harmonic displace-
has a temperature dependence given by the relation ment is described in Problem 15. What is the pres-
B= -6X10 6 T+9.02X 10 8 where Bis in N/m z and sure variation at x = when t = n/2co? Take p =
T is in °C. What is the speed of sound in acetone at 900 kg/m 3 .

20°C? 17. Write an expression that describes the pressure varia-

The speed of sound through air (in m/s) is given by the tion as a function of position and time for a harmonic
J9. |

following function of temperature: sound wave in air if X = 0.1 m and APm = 0.2 N/m 2 .

18. Write the function that describes the displacement

v = 331.5 + 0.607T
wave corresponding to the pressure wave in Problem
where T is the Celsius temperature. In dry air the 17.
temperature decreases about 1°C for every 150 m
Section 17.3 Energy and Intensity of Harmonic Sound
rise in altitude, (a) Assuming this change is constant
up to an altitude of 9000 m, how long will it take the Waves
sound from an airplane flying at 9000 m to reach the 19. Calculate the sound level in dB of a sound wave that
ground on a day when the ground temperature is has an intensity of 4 //W/m 2 .

30°C? (b) Compare this to the time it would take if 20. A vacuum cleaner has a measured sound level of
the air were a constant 30°C. Which time is longer? 70 dB. What is the intensity of this sound in W/m 2 ?
21. (a) Calculate the intensity in W/m 2 of the wave de-
scribed in Problem Express this intensity in dB.
1 4. (b)
Section 17.2 Harmonic Sound Waves
22. The intensity of a sound wave at a fixed distance from
a speaker vibrating at 1000 Hz is 0.6 W/m
(In this section, use the following values as needed 2 (a) De- .

unless otherwise specified: the equilibrium density of termine the intensity if the frequency is increased to
air, p = 1.2 kg/m 3 ; the velocity of sound in air, v = 2500 Hz while a constant displacement amplitude is
343 m/s. Also, pressure variations AP are measured maintained, (b) Calculate the intensity if the fre-
relative to atmospheric pressure.) quency is reduced to 500 Hz and the displacement
10. Calculate the pressure amplitude of a 2000-Hz sound amplitude is doubled.
wave in air if the displacement amplitude is equal to 23. Calculate the pressure amplitude corresponding to a
2 X 10- 8 m. sound level of 120 dB (a rock concert).
1 1. A sound wave in air has a pressure amplitude equal to 24. An explosive charge is detonated at a height of several
4X 10~ 3 N/m 2 Calculate the displacement ampli-
.
kilometers in the atmosphere. At a distance of 400 m
tude of the wave at a frequency of 10 kHz. from the explosion the acoustic pressure reaches a
12. The pressure amplitude corresponding to the thresh- maximum of 10 N/m 2 Assuming that the atmosphere
.

old of hearing is 2.9 X 10~ 5 N/m 2 At what frequency .

is homogeneous over thedistances considered, what
will a sound wave in air have this pressure amplitude if be the sound level (in dB) at 4 km from the explo-
will
the displacement amplitude is 2.8 X 10~ 10 m? sion? (Sound waves in air are absorbed at a rate of
13. An experimenter wishes to generate in air a sound approximately 7 dB/km.)
wave that has a displacement amplitude equal to 25. The amplitude of the vibrations of a certain sound
5.5X1 0~6 m. The pressure amplitude is to be limited wave is increased by 50%. What is the corresponding
_1
to 8.4 X 10 N/m 2 What is the minimum wave- .
increase in the decibel level of the sound?
length the sound wave can have? 26. Two sources have sound levels of 75 dB and 80 dB. If
14. A sound wave in air has a pressure amplitude of they are sounding simultaneously (a) what is the com-
4 N/m 2 and a frequency of 5000 Hz. AP = at the bined sound level? (b) What is their combined inten-
point x = when t = 0. (a) What is AP at x = when sity in W/m 2 ?
t = 2 X 10~ 4 s and (b) what is APat x = 0.02 m when

r = 0? Section 17.4 Spherical and Plane Waves

15. A harmonic sound wave can be described in the dis-
27. An experiment requires a sound intensity of 1.2
placement mode by
W/m 2 at a distance of 4 m from a speaker. What power
= m" 1 - -1
s(x, t) (2 /an)cos|(15.7 )* (858 S )*] output is required?
 472 CHAPTER 17 SOUND WAVES

28. Asource of sound (1000 Hz) emits uniformly in all the siren is 480 Hz. Determine the car's speed from
An observer 3 m from the source measures
directions. these observations.
a sound level of 40 dB. Calculate the average power 38. A band is playing on a moving truck. The band strikes
output of the source. the note middle C (262 Hz), but it is heard by specta-
\ 29. The sound level at a distance of 3 m from a source is tors ahead of the truck as C sharp [C# (277 Hz)|. How
120 dB. At what distance will the sound level be fast is the truck moving? Use 340 m/s for the speed of
(a) 100dBand(b) 10 dB? sound in air.
30. A fireworks rocket explodes at a height of 100 m 39. A train is moving parallel to a highway with a constant
above the ground. An observer on the ground directly speed of 20 m/s. A car is traveling in the same direc-
under the explosion experiences an average sound in- tion as the train with a speed of 40 m/s. The car horn
tensity of 7 X 10- 2 W/m 2 for 0.2 s (a) What is the sounds at a frequency of 510 Hz and the train whistle
sound energy of the explosion? (b) What is the
total sounds at a frequency of 320 Hz. (a) When the car is
sound level in decibels heard by the observer? behind the train what frequency does an occupant of
31. A rock group is playing in a studio. Sound emerging the car observe for the train whistle? (b) When the car
from an open door spreads uniformly in all directions. is in front of the train what frequency does a train

If the sound level of the music is 80.0 dB at a distance passenger observe for the car horn just after passing?
of 5.0 m from the door, at what distance is the music 40. A tuning fork vibrating 512 Hz
falls from rest and
at

just barely audible to a person with a normal thresh- accelerates at 9.80 m/s 2 . How
below the point of
far

old of hearing (0 dB)? Disregard absorption. release is the tuning fork when waves of frequency
32. A spherical wave is radiating from a point source and 485 Hz reach the release point? Take the speed of
is described by the following: sound in air to be 340 m/s.
41 . When high-energy, charged particles move through a
sin(1.25r-1870r) transparent medium with a velocity greater than the
V(r, t) i

ffl velocity of light in that medium, a shock wave, or bow

wave, of light is produced. This phenomenon is called
where y/ is in Pa, r in m and t in s. (a) What is the
the Cerenkov effect and can be observed in the vicinity
maximum pressure amplitude 4 m from the source?
of the core of a swimming pool reactor due to high-
(b) Determine the speed of the wave and hence the
speed electrons moving through the water. In a par-
material the wave is in. (c) Find the intensity of the
ticular case, the Cerenkov radiation produces a wave-
wave in dB at a distance 4 m from the source, (d) Find front with an apex half- angle of 53°. Calculate the
the instantaneous pressure 5 m from the source at
velocity of the electrons in the water. (Use 2.25 X
0.08 s.
10 8 m/s as the velocity of light in water.)
42. A driver traveling northbound on a highway is driving
at a speed of 25 m/s. A police car driving southbound
"Section 17.5 The Doppler Effect at a speed of 40 m/s approaches with its siren sound-

33. A bullet fired from a rifle travels at Mach 1 .38 (that is,
ing at a base frequency of 2500 Hz. (a) What fre-

vjv = 1.38). What angle does the shock front make quency observed by the driver as the police car
is

with the path of the bullet? approaches? (b) What frequency is detected by the
34. At what speed should a supersonic aircraft fly so that driver after the police car passes him? (c) Repeat

the conical wavefront will have an apex half-angle of (a) and (b) for the case when the police car is traveling
40°? northbound.
35. A jet fighter plane travels in horizontal flight at Mach 43. A supersonic jet traveling at Mach 3 at an altitude of

1.2 (that is, 1.2 times the speed of sound in

At the air). 20 000 m is directly overhead at time f = as in Fig-
instant an observer on the ground hears the shock ure 17.14. (a) How long will it be before one en-
wave, what is the angle her line-of-sight makes with counters the shock wave? (b) Where will the plane be
the horizontal as she looks at the plane? when it is finally heard? (Assume the speed of sound in
36. A commuter train passes a passenger platform at a air is uniform at 335 m/s.)

constant speed of 40 m/s. The

horn is sounded at
train
its characteristic frequency of 320 Hz. (a) What

change in frequency is observed by a person on the

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
platform as the train passes? (b) What wavelength
does a person on the platform observe as the train 44. A copper rod is given a sharp compressional blow at
approaches? one end. The sound of the blow, traveling through air
37. Standing at a crosswalk, you hear a frequency of at 0°C, reaches the opposite end of the rod 6.4 ms

560 Hz from the siren on an approaching police car. later than the sound transmitted through the rod.
After the police car passes, the observed frequency of What is the length of the rod? (Refer to Table 17.1.)
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 473

50. Consider a longitudinal (compressional) wave of

wavelength A traveling with speed v along the x direc-
tion through a medium of density p. The displacement
of the molecules of the medium from their equilib-
rium position is given by

s = sm sin(fcr — cot)
Show that the pressure variation in the medium is

given by
2

P=- (inpv s m )cos(kx — cot)

51. A meteoroid the size of a truck enters the earth's at-

mosphere at a speed of 20 km/s and is not significantly
Figure 17.14 (Problem 43). slowed before entering the ocean, (a) What is the
Mach angle of the shock wave from the meteoroid in
the atmosphere? (Use 331 m/s as the sound speed.)
(b) Assuming that the meteoroid survives the impact

45. An earthquake on the ocean floor in the Gulf of Alaska with the ocean surface, what is the (initial) Mach angle
induces a tsunami (sometimes called a "tidal wave") of the shock wave that the meteoroid produces in the
that reaches Hilo, Hawaii, 4450 km distant, in a time water? (Use the wave speed for sea water given in
of 9 h 30 min. Tsunamis have enormous wavelengths Table 17.1.)
(100-200 km), and for such waves the propagation 52. In the afternoon, the sound level of a busy freeway is
velocity is t; =
vgd, where d is the average depth of 80 dB with 100 cars passing a given point every min-
the water. From the information given, find the aver- ute. Late at night, the traffic flow is only five cars per
age wave velocity and the average ocean depth be- minute. What is the late-night sound level?
tween Alaska and Hawaii. (This method was used in 53. By proper excitation, it is possible to produce both
1856 to estimate the average depth of the Pacific longitudinal and transverse waves in a long metal rod.
Ocean long before soundings were made to give a A particular metal rod is 1 50 cm long and has a radius
direct determination.) of 0.2 cm and a mass of 50.9 g. Young's modulus for
46. A painfully loud 2000-Hz tone has an intensity of 1 the material is 6.8 X 10 10 N/m 2 What must the ten-
.

W/m 2 . Calculate the corresponding air molecule am- sion in the rod be if the ratio of the speed of longitu-
3
plitude of oscillation for an air density of 1.21 kg/m dinal waves to the speed of transverse waves is 8?
and a sound speed of 343 m/s. 54. An earthquake emits both P-waves and S-waves which
47. (a) The sound level of a jackhammer is measured as travel at different speeds through the earth. A P-wave
1 30 dB and that of a siren as 1 20 dB. Find the ratio of travels at a speed of 9000 m/s and an S-wave travels at
the intensities of the two sound sources, (b) Two 5000 m/s. If P-waves are received at a seismic station
sources have measured intensities of I t = 100 //W/m 2 1 minute before an S-wave arrives, how far away is the

and I 2 — 200 //W/m 2 By how many dB is source 1

. earthquake center?
lower than source 2? 55. The gas filling the tube shown in Figure 17.2 is air at
48. The measured speed of sound in copper is 3560 m/s, 20°Candat a pressure of 1.5 X 10 5 N/m 2 The piston .

and the density of copper is 8890 kg/m 3 Based on this . shown is driven at a frequency of 600 Hz. The diame-
information, by what percent would you expect a ter of the piston is 10 cm, and the amplitude of its
block of copper to decrease in volume when sub- motion is 0.1 cm. What power must be supplied to
jected to a uniform external (gauge) pressure of maintain the oscillation of the piston?
2atm? 56. Consider plane harmonic sound waves propagating in
49. Two ships are moving along a line due east. The trail- three different media at 0°C: air, water, and iron.

ing vessel has a speed relative to a land-based obser- Each wave has the same intensity (J ) and the same
vation point of 64 km/h, and the leading ship has a angular frequency (co ). (a) Compare the values of A
speed of 45 km/h relative to that station. The two (the wavelength) in the three media, (b) Compare the
ships are in a region of the ocean where the current is values of s m (the displacement amplitude) in the three
moving uniformly due west at 10 km/h. The trailing media. (Hi'nf. Befer to Tables 15.1 and 17.1.) (c) Com-
ship transmits a sonar signal at a frequency of pare the values of APm (the pressure amplitude) in the
1200 Hz. What frequency is monitored by the lead- three media, (d) For co = 20007: rad/s and 7 =
ing ship? (Use 1520 m/s as the speed of sound in 10~ 6 W/m 2 (60 dB), evaluate A, s m and APm for each
,

ocean water.) of the three media.

474 CHAPTER 17 SOUND WAVES

57. In order to be able to determine her speed, a skydiver

time for the wave to travel the length of rod 3? (b) If
carries a tone generator. A friend on the ground at the the frequency of the source is 4000 Hz, determine
landing site has equipment for receiving and analyz- the phase difference between the wave traveling

ing sound waves. While the skydiver is falling at ter- along rods 1 and 2 and the one traveling along rod 3.
minal speed, her tone generator emits a steady tone of 60. A bat, moving at 5 m/s, is chasing a flying insect. If the

1800 Hz. (Assume that the air is calm and that the bat emits a 40-kHz chirp and receives back an echo at
sound speed is 343 m/s, independent of altitude.) 40.4 kHz, at what velocity is the insect moving
(a) If her friend on the ground (directly beneath the
toward or away from the bat? (Take the speed of
skydiver) receives waves of frequency 2150 Hz, what sound in air to be v = 340 m/s.)

is the skydiver's speed of descent? (b) If the skydiver

were also carrying sound-receiving equipment sensi-

tiveenough to detect waves reflected from the
ground, what frequency would she receive?
58 A train whistle (/= 400 Hz) sounds higher or lower
in pitch depending on whether it approaches or re-
cedes,(a) Prove that the difference in frequency be-

tween the approaching and receding train whistle is

2/
(!) u = speed of train
A/=- v = speed of sound
1— -?
(b) Calculate this difference for a train moving at a

speed of 130 km/h. Take the speed of sound in air to

be 340 m/s.
59. Three metal rods are located relative to each other as
(Problem 60). (© Merlin Tuttle, Science Source/Photo
shown in Figure 17.15, where Lj + L 2 = L 3 Values .
Researchers)
of density and Young's modulus for the three materi-
als are Pl = 2.7 X 10 kg/m Y, = 7 X 10 10 N/m
3 3 2
, ,
61. A supersonic aircraft is flying parallel to the ground.
=1 1.3 X10 3 kg/m 3 Y2 =1.6X10 10 N/m 2 p3 =
/> 2 , ,
When the aircraft is directly overhead, an observer
8.8 X10 3 kg/m 3 and Y3 = 11 X 10
10 N/m 2 (a) If
,
.

sees a rocket fired from the aircraft. Ten seconds later

L3 = 1.5 m, what must the ratio L 1 /L 2 be if a sound
the observer hears the sonic boom, followed 2.8 s
wave to travel the length of rods 1 and 2 in the same
is
laterby the sound of the rocket engine. What is the
Mach number of the aircraft?
« L {
H""
- 2_** 62. The volume knob on a radio has what is known as a
"logarithmic taper." The electrical device connected
2 knob (called a potentiometer) has a resistance fi
to the
whose logarithm is proportional to the angular posi-
3
tion of the knob: that is, log R « 8. If the intensity of

t Z-3 * the sound / (in W/m 2

produced by the speaker is pro-
)

portional to the resistance R, show that the intensity

Figure 17.15 (Problem 59). level P (in dB) is a linear function of 8.
 ESSAY THE PHYSICS OF WOODWINDS 475

All wind instruments have the same basic structure: the mouthpiece, which is the
initial

it
source of sound waves, is joined to the tube or bore of the instrument, and with
determines the final pitch of the tone being played (Fig. 1). In addition, brass
ESSAY
instruments and some woodwinds have a bell at the end of the bore that radiates the
sound into the air.
The Physics of
All wind instruments except the flute use some form of reed in the mouthpiece Woodwinds
(Fig. 2(a)). For brass instruments, the "reed" is the player's lips; for the woodwinds,
the reed is one or more pieces of cane. The discussion that follows describes the Alma C. Zook
behavior of the oboe reed, but it may be applied to any reed. The reed of an oboe is Pomona College
actually a double reed, as indicated in the side view in Fig. 2(b). Before the instru-
ment can be played, the reed must be thoroughly moistened to make the cane flexi-
ble. When moist, the cane behaves like a spring with a relatively low spring constant.
Sound production begins when a player places the reed in his or her mouth and
pushes air through it. As a result, the speed of the air between the blades of the reed is
increased from zero to some value, which in turn causes the air pressure inside the
reed to decrease. The air pressure in the player's mouth, however, is equal to or
slightly greater than the ambient air pressure. The difference in pressure between
the inside and outside of the reed forces the blades together, stopping the flow of air
through the reed. Once the air flow is cut off, the air speed inside the reed drops to
zero, and the air pressure inside rises to its original value. At this point the pressure
Reedf
difference between the inside and outside of the reed is zero, the reed springs back to
its equilibrium (open) configuration, and the cycle repeats itself.

The rapid opening and closing of the reed blades results in alternating compres-
sions and rarefactions inside the bore of the instrument —
that is, sound waves. But
Figure 1 Woodwind structure.
the vibration of the reed is irregular and not particularly pleasant to hear, because it
contains many frequencies with no particular relationship to each other. Converting
the sound wave from the vibrating reed into musical sound requires that most of the
sound energy be filtered out, leaving only frequencies that are integer multiples of
some lowest or fundamental frequency. (Such frequencies are referred to as "har-
monically related.") That filtering process is carried out by the bore of the instru-
ment.
Although many frequencies are present in the sound generated by the reed, the
frequencies that are primarily responsible for the musical sound of the instrument are
those that can set up standing waves inside the bore. (Standing waves will be dis-
cussed further in the next chapter.) Any other frequencies interfere destructively
with themselves as they reflect off the two ends of the instrument. In this respect, the
inside of a musical instrument is like a laser cavity, which also uses the occurrence of
standing waves to remove all but one desired frequency. With a laser, of course, the
wave is light rather than sound.
The particular frequencies that can set up standing waves in a wind instrument

(a) (b)

Figure 2 The oboe reed. (Continued on next page)

476 CHAPTER 17 SOUND WAVES
 ESSAY THE PHYSICS OF WOODWINDS 477

1000 2000 3000 5000

Frequency (Hz) Figure 4 Oboe spectrum.

less, much of the behavior of any wind instrument can be explained using familiar
physics.

Suggested Readings
Backus,J. The Acoustical Foundations of Music, New York, Norton, 1977.
Benade, A.H., "The Physics of Woodwinds," Scientific American, October 1960.
Benade, A.H., "The Physics of Brasses," Scientific American, July 1973.
Fletcher, N.H., and S. Thwaites, "The Physics of Organ Pipes," Scientific American,
January 1983.
Hall, D.E., Musical Acoustics: An Introduction, Belmont, CA, Wadsworth, 1980.

Essay Problems
1. The speed of sound changes with temperature. This temperature variation is

described approximately by the equation

v(T) = 331.5 + 0.607 T

where v is in m/s and Tis the Celsius temperature. Therefore, blowing through an
instrument raises the temperature of the air inside it, unless the room is very
warm. For a certain fingering, a clarinet has an effective length of 24.6 cm. This
fingering sounds the pitch F 4 (/= 349.2 Hz) at 20°C. During a concert, the air
temperature inside the bore rises to 27 °C. (a) What new frequency will the
clarinetsound for this fingering? (b) What is the percentage of change in the
frequency? (Note that a 1 % change in frequency would be readily noticeable to a
listener.)
2. What is the frequency of the third available harmonic in a closed organ pipe with
a length of 2.5 m? (Assume T=20°C.)
3. The English horn badly named, since it is neither English nor a horn. It is
is

essentially a larger version of the oboe, differing primarily in the shape of the
bell, which does not flare the way the bell on the oboe does. For a given finger
position, the English horn plays a note that is lower in frequency by a factor of 2/3
compared with the note on the oboe with the same fingering. If the lowest note on
an oboe is B 3 (/= 246.9 Hz) and the oboe is 66 cm long, how long must the
English horn be? The true length of an English horn is 92 cm. Can you account for
the discrepancy?
 18
Superposition and Standing
Waves

Even uhen silent, this organ at

the Mormon Tabernacle
conveys a sense of the power
of sound waves. (Courtesy of
Henry Leap)

An important aspect of waves is the combined effect of two or more

waves traveling in the same medium. For instance, what happens to
a string when a wave traveling toward its fixed end is reflected back
on itself? What is the pressure variation in the air when the instru-
ments of an orchestra sound together?
In a linear medium, that is, one in which the restoring force of the medium
is proportional to the displacement of the medium, one can apply the principle

of superposition to obtain the resultant disturbance. This principle can be

applied to many types of waves, including waves on strings, sound waves,
surface water waves, and electromagnetic waves. The superposition principle
states that the actual displacement of any part of the disturbed medium equals
the vector sum of the displacements caused by the individual waves. We
discussed this principle in Chapter 16 as it applies to wave pulses. The term
interference was used to describe the effect produced by combining two waves
moving simultaneously through a medium.
This chapter is concerned with the superposition principle as it applies to
harmonic waves. If the harmonic waves that combine in a given medium have
the same frequency and wavelength, one finds that a stationary pattern, called

478
 18.1 SUPERPOSITION AND INTERFERENCE OF HARMONIC WAVES 479

a standing wave, can be produced at certain frequencies under certain circum-

stances. For example, a stretched string fixed at both ends has a discrete set of
oscillation patterns, called modes of vibration, which depend upon the tension
and mass per unit length of the string. These modes of vibration are found in
stringed musical instruments. Other musical instruments, such as the organ
and flute, make use of the natural frequencies of sound waves in hollow pipes.
Such frequencies depend upon the length of the pipe, its shape, and upon
whether one end is open or closed.
We also consider the superposition and interference of waves with differ-
ent frequencies and wavelengths. When two sound waves with nearly the
same frequency interfere, one hears variations in the loudness called beats.
The beat frequency corresponds to the rate of alternation between construc-
tive and destructive interference. Finally, we describe how any complex peri-
odic waveform can, in general, be described by a sum of sine and cosine
functions.

18.1 SUPERPOSITION AND INTERFERENCE OF

HARMONIC WAVES
The superposition principle tells us that when two or more waves move in the
same linear medium, the net displacement of the medium (the resultant wave)
at any point equals the algebraic sum of the displacements of all the waves. Let
us apply this superposition principle to two harmonic waves traveling in the
same direction in a medium. If the two waves are traveling to the right and
have the same frequency, wavelength, and amplitude but differ in phase, we
can express their individual wave functions as

t/i
=A sin(fcx — cot) and y2 =A sin(kx — tot — <f>)

Hence, the resultant wave function y is given by

y = yi + y2 — A [sin(kx — cot) + sin(fcr — cot — </>)]

In order to simplify this expression, it is convenient to make use of the follow-

ing trigonometric identity:

— (a-b\ (a + h\
sin a + sin b 2 cos

If we let a = kx cot and b = kx — cot <f), we find that the resultant wave y
reduces to

Resultant of two traveling

= (2A cos^jsin(fcx-a;r-^j (18.1)
harmonic waves

There are several important features of this result. The resultant wave func-
tion y is also harmonic and has the same frequency and wavelength as the
individual waves. The amplitude of the resultant wave is 2A cos($/2), and
its phase is equal to 0/2. If the phase constant <j> equals 0, then cos(0/2) =

cos 0=1 and the amplitude of the resultant wave is 2A In other words, the .

amplitude of the resultant wave is twice as large as the amplitude of either

individual wave. In this case, the waves are said to be everywhere in phase and
thus interfere constructively. That is, the crests and troughs of the individual Constructive interference
480 CHAPTER 18 SUPERPOSITION AND STANDING WAVES

y
 18.1 SUPERPOSITION AND INTERFERENCE OF HARMONIC WAVES 481

lengths Ar = \r2 — r 1 \
is either zero or some integral multiple of the wave-
length the two waves reaching the receiver are in phase and interfere
A,

constructively, as in Figure 18.1a. For this case, a maximum in the sound

intensity will be detected at the receiver. If the path length r2 is adjusted such
that the path difference Ar is A/2, 3A/2, nA/2 (for n odd), the two waves
. . . ,

are exactly 180° out of phase at the receiver and hence cancel each other. In
this case of completely destructive interference, no sound is detected at the
receiver. This simple experiment is a striking illustration of the phenomenon
of interference. In addition, it demonstrates the fact that a phase difference
may arise between two waves generated by the same source when they travel
along paths of unequal lengths.
It is often useful to express the path difference in terms of the phase

difference (/> between the two waves. Since a path difference of one wave-
length corresponds to a phase difference of In radians, we obtain the ratio
X\2n = Ar/(f>, or

Ar = —
27T
</> (18.2)
Relationship between path
difference and phase angle

There are many other examples of interference phenomena in nature.

Later, in Chapter 37, we shall describe several interesting interference effects
involving light waves.

F.X AMPLE 18.1 Two Speakers Driven by the Same rj = V(8m) 2 + (1.15 m) 2 = 8.082 m
Source
A pair of speakers separatedby 3 m are driven by the
r2 = n/(8 m) 2 + (1.85 m) 2 = 8.211 m
same Figure 18.3. The listener is origi-
oscillator as in Hence, the path difference is r% — r = 0.129
x
m. Since
nally at point O located 8 m from the center line. The we require that this path difference be equal to A/2 for
listener walks perpendicular to the center line a distance the first minimum, we find that A = 0.258 m. To obtain
of 0.35 m before reaching the first minimum in sound the oscillator frequency, wecan use t> = Xfi where v is
intensity. What is the frequency of the oscillator? the speed of sound in air, 344 m/s. This gives

Solution The first minimum occurs when the two waves |W

/=TA = 0.258 /1
m
= 1330Hz
reaching the listener at Pare 180° out of phase, or when
their path difference equals A/2. In order to calculate the Exercise 1 If the frequency of the oscillator is adjusted
path difference, we must first find the path lengths r and 1
such that the listener hears the first minimum at a dis-
r2 Making use of the two shaded triangles in Figure
. tance of 0.75 m from 0, what is the new frequency of the
1 and the given numerical distances, we find the path
8.3, oscillator?
lengths to be Answer 625 Hz.

1.15 m

.----.)
3 in

Figure 18.3 (Example 18.1).

482 CHAPTER 18 SUPERPOSITION AND STANDING WAVES

IS. 2 STANDING WAVES

If a stretched string is clamped at both ends, traveling waves are reflected from
the fixed ends, creating waves traveling in both directions. The incident and
reflected waves combine according to the superposition principle.
Consider two sinusoidal waves in the same medium with the same ampli-
tude, frequency, and wavelength, but traveling in opposite directions. Their
wave functions can be written

i/i
=A sin(fcx — cot) and y2 = A„ sin(fcx + cot)

where y represents
t
awave traveling to the right and y 2 represents a wave
traveling to the left. Adding these two functions gives the resultant wave
function y:

y =y +l y2 = Aq sin(kx — cot) +A sin(fcx 4- cot)

where k = 2njX and co — 2nf, as usual. Using the trigonometric identity

sin(o ± b) = sin a cos h ± cos a sin b, this reduces to

Wave function for a standing

w a\ e y = (2Aq sin kx) cos cot (18.3)

This expression represents the wave function of a standing wave. From this
result, we see that a standing wave has an angular frequency co and an ampli-
tude given by 2A sin kx (the quantity in the parentheses of Eq. 18.3). That is,
every particle of the string vibrates in simple harmonic motion with the same
frequency. However, the amplitude of motion of a given particle depends on x.
This is in contrast to the situation involving a traveling harmonic wave, in
which all particles oscillate with both the same amplitude and the same fre-
quency.
Because the amplitude of the standing wave at any value of x is equal to
2A sin kx, we see that the maximum amplitude has the value 2A This occurs .

when the coordinate x satisfies the condition sin kx = ± 1, or when

n 3n on

Since k = 2n/X, the positions of maximum amplitude, called antinodes, are

given by

Position of antinodes
 18.2 STANDING WAVES 483

(a) t = (b) r = T/4 c t=T/2

Figure 18.4 Standing wave patterns

at various times produced by two waves of equal amplitude
For the resultant wave y, the nodes (N) are points of zero displace-
traveling in opposite directions.
ment, and the antinodes (A) are points of maximum amplitude.

where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . These points of zero amplitude, called nodes, are

also spaced by A/2. The distance between a node and an adjacent antinode
is A/4.
A graphical description of the standing wave patterns produced at various
times by two waves traveling in opposite directions is shown in Figure 18.4.
The upper part of each figure represents the individual traveling waves, and
the lower part represents the standingwave patterns. The nodes of the stand-
ingwave are labeled N, and the antinodes are labeled A. At t = (Fig. 18.4a),
the two waves are identical spatially, giving a standing wave of maximum
amplitude, 2A One quarter of a period later, at t — T/4 (Fig. 18.4b), the
.
(b) P*1NW
individual waves have moved one quarter of a wavelength (one to the right and
the other to the left). At this time, the individual displacements are equal and
opposite for all values of x, and hence the resultant wave has zero displace-
ment everywhere. At f = T/2 (Fig. 18.4c), the individual waves are again
identical spatially, producing a standing wave pattern that is inverted relative
to the t = pattern.
(d)

It is instructive to describe the energy associated with the

motion of a
standing wave. To illustrate this point, consider a standing wave formed on a
stretched string fixed at each end, as in Figure 18.5. All points on the string
e)
oscillate vertically with the same frequency except for the nodes, which are
stationary. Furthermore, the various points have different amplitudes of mo- Figure 18.5 A standing wave pat-
tion.Figure 18.5 represents snapshots of the standing wave at various times tern in a stretched string showing
snapshots during one half of a
over one half of a cycle. Since the nodal points are stationary, no energy is cycle, (a) At f = 0, the string is mo-
transmitted along the string across the center nodal point. For this reason, mentarily at rest, and so K = and
all of the energy is potential en-
standing waves are often called stationary waves. Each point on the string
ergy U associated with the vertical
executes simple harmonic motion in the vertical direction. That is, one can displacements of the string seg-
view the standing wave as a large number of oscillators vibrating parallel to ments (deformation energy), (b) At
each other. The energy of the vibrating string continuously alternates be- t = T/8, the string is in motion, and

the energy is half kinetic and half

tween elastic potential energy, at which time the string is momentarily sta-
potential, (c) At t = T/4, the string
tionary (Fig. 18.5a), and kinetic energy, at which time the string is horizontal is horizontal (undeformed) and
and the particles have their maximum speed (Fig. 18.5c). The string particles therefore (7=0; all of the energy is
kinetic. The motion continues as
have both potential energy and kinetic energy at intermediate times (Figs.
indicated, and ultimately the initial
18.5b and 18. 5d). configuration (a) is repeated.
484 CHAPTER 18 SUPERPOSITION AND STANDING WAVES

EXAMPLE 18.2 Formation of a Standing Wave

Two waves traveling in opposite directions produce a
= (8 cm)sin(6.9 rad) = 4.63 cm
standing wave. The individual wave functions are given
by (b) Find the positions of the nodes and antinodes.

(4 cm) sin(3x - 2t) Solution Since k = 2njk = 3 cm -1 , we see that / = 27r/3

(4 cm) sin(3x + It) cm. Therefore, from Equation 18.4 we find that the anti-
nodes are located at
where x and y are in cm. (a) Find the maximum displace-
ment of the motion at x = 2.3 cm.

(*) (n = 1,3,5, . . .)

Solution When the two waves are summed, the result is

a standing wave whose function is given by Equation

18.3, with A = 4 cm and k = 3 cm -1 :
and from Equation 18.5 we find that the nodes are lo-
cated at
y = (2A sin kx) cos tot = [(8 cm) sin 3x] cos cot

Thus, the maximum displacement of the motion at the

= 2.3 cm is given by
=n cm (n = 1,2,3,
position x
l= "(f)
!/max = (8 cm)sin 3i] r=2 3

18.3 STANDING WAVES IN A STRING FIXED AT

BOTH ENDS
Consider a string of length L that is fixed at both ends, as in Figure 18.6.
Standing waves are set up in the string by a continuous superposition of waves
incident on and reflected from the ends. The string has a number of natural
patterns of vibration, called normal modes. Each of these has a characteristic
frequency; the frequencies are easily calculated.
First, note that the ends of the string must be nodes since these points are

fixed. The first normal mode shown in Figure 18.6b has nodes at its ends, one

Figure 18.6 (a) Standing waves in a string of length L fixed at both ends. The normal modes of
vibration shown exposures form a harmonic series; (b) the fundamental frequency, or
as multiple
first harmonic; (c) the second harmonic; and (d) the third harmonic.
 18.3 STANDING WAVES IN A STRING FIXED AT BOTH ENDS 485

antinode in the middle. For this normal mode, the length of the string equals
A/2 (the distance between nodes):
L= A,/2 or Aj = 2L
The next normal mode, of wavelength A 2 (Fig. 18.6c), occurs when the length
of the string equals one wavelength, that is, when A2 = L. The third normal
mode (Fig. 18.6d) corresponds to the case where the length equals 3A/2;
therefore, A 3 = 2L/3. In general, the wavelengths of the various normal modes
can be conveniently expressed as

2L
L= (n= 1,2,3, . .
.) (18.6) Wavelengths of normal modes

where the index n refers to the nth mode of vibration. The natural frequencies
associated with these modes are obtained from the relationship/= u/A, where
the wave speed v is the same for all frequencies. Using Equation 18.6, we find
that the frequencies of the normal modes are given by

r LI II
(n=l,2, 3, Frequencies of normal modes

Because v =VF/u, where Fis the tension in the string and// is its mass per unit
length, we can also express the natural frequencies of a stretched string as 1

_n_ /F Normal modes of a

/„ (n=l,2, 3, . . .) (18.8) stretched string fixed at
2L V/z both ends

The lowest frequency, corresponding to n = 1, is called the fundamental or

the fundamental frequency, f , and is given by

Fundamental frequency of a
/l- 2L\7 (18.9)
stretched string

Clearly, the frequencies of the remaining modes (sometimes called har-

monics) are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency, that is, 2/, 3/i , ,

4f and so on. These higher natural frequencies, together with the fundamen-
,

tal frequency, are seen to form a harmonic series. The fundamental,/! is the ,

first harmonic; the frequency = 2fi is the second harmonic; the frequency/,
^
is the nth harmonic.
We can obtain the above results in an alternative manner. Since we re-
quire that the string be fixed at x — and x = L, the wave function y(x, t) given
by Equation 18.3 must be zero at these points for all times. That is, the
boundary conditions require that y(0, t) = and y(L, t) = for all values oft.
Since y = (2A sin kx) cos cot, the first condition, t/(0, t) = 0, is automatically
satisfied because sin kx = at x = 0. To meet the second condition, y(L, t) = 0,
we require that sin kL = 0. This condition is satisfied when the angle kL equals
an integral multiple of n (180°). Therefore, the allowed values of k are 2

1
The laws governing the sound produced by a vibrating string were first published in 1636 by a
Franciscan friar, Pere Mersenne, in a treatise entitled "Harmonie Universelle."
Concert style harp. (Courtesy of
* We exclude n = since this corresponds to the trivial case where no wave exists (k = 0). Lyon & Healy Harps, Chicago)
486 CHAPTER 18 SUPERPOSITION AND STANDING WAVES

k„L = nil (n=l,2, 3, . •) (18.10)

Since k n = 2njXn , we find that

(27r/A„)L = nn or An = 2L

which is identical to Equation 18.6.

When a stretched string is distorted such that its initial shape corresponds
to any one of its harmonics, after being released it will vibrate at the frequency
of that harmonic. However, if the string is struck or bowed, the resulting
vibration will include frequencies of various harmonics, including the funda-
mental. In effect, the string "selects" the normal-mode frequencies when
disturbed by a nonharmonic disturbance (which happens, for example, when a
guitar string is plucked).
Figure 18.7 shows a stretched string vibrating with its first and second
harmonics simultaneously. In this figure, the combined vibration is the super-
position of the two vibrations shown in Figures 18.6b and 18.6c. The large
loop corresponds to the fundamental frequency of vibration, fx and the ,

smaller loops correspond to the second harmonic,/2 I n general, the resulting •

motion, or displacement, can be described by a superposition of the various

Figure 18.7 Multiple exposures harmonic wave functions, with different frequencies and amplitudes. Hence,
of a stretched string vibrating si- the sound that one hears corresponds to a complex waveform associated with
multaneously in its first and second
harmonics.
these various modes of vibration. We shall return to this point in Section 18.8.
The frequency of a stringed instrument can be changed either by varying
the tension F or by changing the length L. For example, the tension in the
strings of guitars and violins is varied by a screw adjustment mechanism or by
turning pegs located on the neck of the instrument. As the tension is increased,
the frequency of the normal modes increases according to Equation 18.8.
Once the instrument is "tuned," the player varies the frequency by moving his
or her fingers along the neck, thereby changing the length of the vibrating
portion of the string. As the length is shortened, the frequency increases, since
the normal-mode frequencies are inversely proportional to string length.

EXAMPLE IS. 3 Give Me a C Note Solution Using Equation 18.8 for the two strings vibrat-
A middle C string of the C-major scale on a piano has a ing at their fundamental frequencies gives
fundamental frequency of 264 Hz, and the A note has a 1
fundamental frequency of 440 Hz. (a) Calculate the fre- /i. * "^ /«
2L 2L
quencies of the next two harmonics of the C string.
fuJfic = ^c"
Solution Since /i = 264 Hz, we can use Equations 18.8
FJFc = (fiJfic)
2 = (440/264)2 = 2 78
.

and 18.9 to find the frequencies f2 and/3 :

(c) While the string densities are, in fact, equal, the

k = 2/i = 528 Hz
A string is 64% as long as the C string. What is the ratio of
their tensions?
h = 3/i = 792 Hz
/ia//ic = WW ^a/Fc = (100/64) 4¥J¥c
two piano strings for the A and C notes are
(b) If the
assumed to have the same mass per unit length and the
FJFC = 2
(0.64) (440/264)
2 = 1.14

same length, determine the ratio of tensions in the two

strings.
 18.4 RESONANCE 487

Photographs of standing waves. As one end of the tube is moved from side to side with increasing
frequency, patterns with more and more loops are formed; only certain definite frequencies will
produce fixed patterns. (Photos, Education Development Center, Newton, Mass.)

18.4 RESONANCE
We have seen that a system such as a stretched string is capable of oscillating in
one or more natural modes of vibration. If a periodic force is applied to such a
system, the resulting amplitude of motion of the system will be larger when the
frequency of the applied force is equal or nearly equal to one of the natural
frequencies of the system than when the driving force is applied at some other
frequency. Wehave already discussed this phenomenon, known as resonance,
for mechanical systems.
The corresponding natural frequencies of oscillation of the system are
often referred to as resonant frequencies. The resonance phenomenon is of
great importance in the production of musical sounds. At the atomic level, the
electrons and nuclei of atoms and molecules exhibit resonant behavior when
exposed to certain frequencies of electromagnetic radiation and applied mag-
netic fields.
Whenever a system capable of oscillating is driven by a periodic force of
constant small amplitude, the resulting amplitude of motion will be large only
when the frequency of the driving force is nearly equal to one of the resonant
frequencies of the system. Figure 18.8 shows the response of a system to Figure 18.8 The amplitude (re-
various frequencies, where the peak of the curve represents the resonant sponse) versus driving frequency
for an oscillating system. The am-
frequency, f Note that the amplitude is largest when the frequency of the
.
plitude is a maximum at the reso-
driving force equals the resonant frequency. When the frequency of the driv- nance frequency, f .
488 CHAPTER 18 SUPERPOSITION AND STANDING WAVES

ing force exactly matches one of the resonant frequencies, the amplitude of
the motion is limited by friction in the system. Once maximum amplitude is
reached, the work done by the periodic force is used to overcome friction. A
system is said to be weakly damped when the amount of friction is small. Such a
system undergoes a large amplitude of motion when driven at one of its reso-
nant frequencies. The oscillations in such a system will persist for a long time
after the driving force is removed. On the other hand, a system with consider-

able friction, that one that is strongly damped, will undergo small amplitude
is,

'ft oscillations that decrease rapidly with time once the driving force is removed.

Examples of Resonance
Figure 18.9 If pendulum A is set A playground swing is a pendulum with a natural frequency that depends on its
into oscillation, only pendulum C,
length. Whenever we push a child in a swing with a series of regular impulses,
whose length is close to the length

of A, will eventually oscillate with the swing will go higher if the frequency of the periodic force equals the
large amplitude, or resonate. natural frequency of the swing. One can demonstrate a similar effect by sus-
pending several pendula of different lengths from a horizontal support, as in
Figure 1 8 9 If pendulum A is set into oscillation, the other pendula will soon
. .

begin to oscillate as a result of the longitudinal waves transmitted along the

beam. However, you will find that a pendulum, such as C, whose length is
close to the length of A oscillated with a much larger amplitude than those
such as B and D whose lengths are much different from the length of A. This is
because the natural frequency of C is nearly the same as the driving frequency
\_> associated with A.
Next, consider a stretched string fixed at one end and connected at the
Vibrating
blade opposite end to a vibrating blade as in Figure 18.10. As the blade oscillates,
transverse waves sent down the string are reflected from the fixed end. As we
Figure 18.10 Standing waves are
setup in a stretched string having
found in Section 18.3, the string has natural frequencies of vibration that are
one end connected to a vibrating determined by its length, tension, and mass per unit length (Eq. 18.8). When
blade when the natural frequencies the frequency of the vibrating blade equals one of the natural frequencies of
of the string are nearly the same as
those of the vibrating blade.
the string, standing waves are produced and the string vibrates with a large
amplitude. In this case, the wave being generated by the vibrating blade is in
phase with the wave that has been reflected at the fixed end, and so the string
absorbs energy from the blade at resonance. Once the amplitude of the stand-
ing-wave oscillations reaches a maximum, the energy delivered by the blade
and absorbed by the system is lost because of the damping forces. The fixed
end is a node, and the point P, which is near the end connected to the vibrating
blade, is very nearly a node, since the amplitude of the blade's motion is small
compared with that of the string. It is also interesting to note that if the applied
frequency differs from one of the natural frequencies, energy is first trans-
ferred to the string from the blade. However, later the phase of the wave in the
string becomes such that it forces the blade to receive energy from the string,
thereby reducing the energy in the string.
As a final example of resonance, consider two identical tuning forks
mounted on separate hollow boxes (Fig. 18.11). The hollow boxes augment
the sound wave power generated by the vibrating tuning forks. If tuning fork A
is set into vibration (by striking it, say), tuning fork B will be set into vibration

Figure 18.11 tuning fork A is

If as longitudinal sound waves are received from A. The frequencies of vibration
tuning fork B will
set into vibration, of A and B will be the same, assuming the tuning forks are identical. The
eventually vibrate at the same fre-
quency, or resonate, if the two
energy exchange, or resonance behavior, will not occur if the two have differ-
forks are identical. ent natural frequencies of vibration.
 18.5 STANDING WAVES IN AIR COLUMNS 489

18.5 STANDING WAVES IN AIR COLUMNS

Standing longitudinal waves can be set up in a tube of air, such as an organ
pipe, as the result of interference between longitudinal waves traveling in
opposite directions. The phase relationship between the incident wave and
the wave reflected from one end depends on whether that end is open or
closed. This is analogous to the phase relationships between incident and
reflected transverse waves at the ends of a string. The closed end of an air
column is a displacement node, just as the fixed end of a vibrating string is a
displacement node. As a result, at a closed end of a tube of air, the reflected
wave is 180° out of phase with the incident wave. Furthermore, since the
pressure wave is 90° out of phase with the displacement wave (Section 17.2),
the closed end of an air column corresponds to a pressure antinode (that is, a
point of maximum pressure variation).
end of an air column is open to the atmosphere, the air molecules
If the
have complete freedom of motion. The wave reflected from an open end is
nearly in phase with the incident wave when the tube's diameter is small
relative to the wavelength of the sound. Consequently, the open end of an air
column approximately a displacement antinode and a pressure node.
is

open end of an air column is not exactly an antinode.

Strictly speaking, the
When a condensation reaches an open end, it does not reach full expansion
until it passes somewhat beyond the end. For a thin-walled tube of circular
cross section, this end correction is about 0.6R, where R is the tube's radius.
Hence, the effective length of the tube is somewhat longer than the true
length L.
The first three modes of vibration of a pipe open at both ends are shown in
Figure 18.12a. By directing air against an edge at the left, longitudinal stand-

First harmonic
/i=f=

Second harmonic
/.«7-a/.

Third harmonic

'3/,

V V
f

(1.)
 ,

490 CHAPTER 18 SUPERPOSITION AND STANDING WAVES

ing waves are formed and the pipe resonates at its natural frequencies. All
modes of vibration are excited simultaneously (although not with the same
amplitude). Note that the ends are displacement antinodes (approximately).
In the fundamental mode, the wavelength is twice the length of the pipe, and
hence the frequency of the fundamental, fx is given by v/2L. Similarly, one
,

finds that the frequencies of the higher harmonics are 2/i 3/i Thus, , , . . . .

in apipe open at both ends, the natural frequencies of vibration form a

harmonic series, that is, the higher harmonics are integral multiples of the
fundamental frequency.

Since all harmonics are present, we can express the natural frequencies of
vibration as

Natural frequencies of a pipe

open at both ends f" = n
2L
(n-1,2,3, . . .) (18.11)

where v is the speed of sound in air.

If a closed at one end and open at the other, the closed end is a
pipe is

displacement node (Fig. 18.12b). In this case, the wavelength for the funda-
mental mode is four times the length of the tube. Hence, the fundamental,/!
is equal to v/4L, and the frequencies of the higher harmonics are equal to 3fy ,

5/x That is,

in a pipe closed at one end, only odd harmonics are present, and these are
given by

Natural frequencies of a pipe

closed at one end fn = n AL 1,3,5, ) (18.12)

Standing waves in air columns are primarily responsible for the sounds
produced by various wind instruments, as described in the essay that precedes
this chapter.

EXAMPLE 18.4 Resonance in a Pipe one end is

A pipe has a length of 1.23 m. (a) Determine the fre-

v 344 m/s
quencies of the first three harmonics if the pipe is open at /i=T7 70 Hz
= 344 AL 4(1.23 m)
each end. Take v m/s as the speed of sound in air.

In this case, only odd harmonics are present, and so the

Solution The first harmonic of an open pipe is next two resonances have frequencies given by f3 =
3/, = 210 Hz and/5 = 5/, = 350 Hz, respectively.
JL= 344m/s
n 2L 2(1.23 m) (c) For the case of the open pipe, how many har-

monics are present in the normal human hearing range

Since all harmonics are present, the second and third (20 to 20 000 Hz)?
harmonics are given by /2 = 1fx — 280 Hz and f3 =
3/i
= 420 Hz, respectively. Solution Since all harmonics are present, /„ = nfi . For
(b) What are the three frequencies determined in
/„ = 20 000 Hz, we have n = 20 000/140
142, so that =
(a) if the pipe is closed at one end? 142 harmonics are present in the audible range. Actu-
ally, only the first few harmonics have sufficient ampli-

Solution The fundamental frequency of a pipe closed at tude to be heard.

 18.6 STANDING WAVES IN RODS AND PLATES 491

EXAMPLE IS. 5 Measuring the Frequency of a

x M"fMT
Tuning Fork
A
W4 L*J3X/4

A
tube
simple apparatus for demonstrating resonance in a
is described in Figure 1 8. 1 3a. A long, vertical, open
M First /\
tube is partially submerged
beaker of water, and a
in a harmonic
vibrating tuning fork of unknown frequency is placed
Third
near the top. The length of the air column, L, is adjusted
harmonic
by moving the tube vertically. The sound waves gener-
ated by the fork are reinforced when the length of the Fifth
(a) (b)
column corresponds to one of the resonant frequencies harmonic
of the tube. The smallest value of L for which a peak
Figure 18.13 Apparatus for demonstrating the resonance
(a)
occurs in the sound intensity is 9 cm. From this measure- of sound waves tube closed at one end. The length L of the
in a
ment, determine the frequency of the tuning fork and air column is varied by moving the tube vertically while it is

the value of L for the next two resonant modes. partially submerged in water, (b) The first three normal modes
of the system shown in (a).

Solution Since this setup represents a pipe closed at one

end, the fundamental has a frequency of v/AL (Fig.
From this information about the fundamental mode, we
= 344 m/s for the speed of sound in air see that the wavelength is given by /. = AL = 0.36 m.
18.13b). Taking v
and L = 0.09 m, we get
Since the frequency of the source is constant, we see that
the next two resonance modes (Fig.18.13b) correspond
/_«-"_ 344 m/s to lengths of 3A/4 = 0.27 m and 5A/4 = 0.45 m, respec-
" ~ 4L ~ 4(0.09 m) = 956 Hz
tive! v.

*18.6 STANDING WAVES IN RODS AND PLATES

Standing wave vibrations can also be set up in rods and plates. If a rod is
clamped in the middle and stroked at one end, it will undergo longitudinal
vibrations as described in Figure 18.1 4a. Note that the broken lines in Figure
18.14 represent longitudinal displacements of various parts of the rod. The
midpoint is a displacement node since it is fixed by the clamp, whereas the
ends are displacement antinodes since they are free to vibrate. This is analo-
gous to vibrations set up in a pipe open at each end. The broken lines in Figure
18.14a represent the fundamental mode for which the wavelength is 2L and
the frequency is v/2L, where c is the speed of longitudinal waves in the rod.

MH
4
^ N ^"^^
yy'N
V- ^
h ~k _ . 9.J
A-E-tf

Figure 18.14 Normal longitudinal vibrations of a rod of length L (a) clamped at the middle and
(b) clamped at an approximate distance of L/4 from one end.
492 CHAPTER 18 SUPERPOSITION AND STANDING WAVES

Other modes may be excited by clamping the rod at different points. For
example, the second harmonic (Fig. 18.1 4b) is excited by clamping the rod at a
point that is a distance A/4 away from one end.
Two-dimensional vibrations can be set up in a flexible membrane
stretched over a circular hoop, such as a drumhead. As the membrane is struck
at some point, wave pulses traveling toward the fixed boundary are reflected
many times. The resulting sound is not melodious, but rather explosive in
nature. This is because the vibrating drumhead and the drum's hollow interior
produce a disorganized set of waves, which creates a sound of indefinite pitch
when they reach a listener's ear. This is in contrast to wind and stringed
instruments, which produce sounds of definite pitch.
Some possible normal modes of oscillation of a vibrating, two-dimen-
sional, circular membrane are shown in Figure 18.15. Note that the nodes are
curves rather than points, which was the case for a vibrating string. The fixed
outer perimeter is one such nodal curve. Some other nodal curves are indi-
cated with arrows. The lowest mode of vibration with frequency (the funda- f
mental) is a symmetric mode with one nodal curve, the circumference of the
membrane. The other possible modes of vibration are not integral multiples of
f hence the normal frequencies do not form a harmonic series. When a drum
;

is struck, many of these modes are excited simultaneously. However, the

higher-frequency modes damp out more rapidly. With this information, one
can understand why the drum is a nonmelodious instrument.

°18.7 BEATS: INTERFERENCE IN TIME

The interference phenomena we have been dealing with so far involve the
superposition of two or more waves with the same frequency traveling in
opposite directions. Since the resultant waveform in this case depends on the
coordinates of the disturbed medium, we can refer to the phenomenon as
spatial interference. Standing waves in strings and pipes are common examples
of spatial interference.
Wenow consider another type of interference effect, one that results
from the superposition of two waves with slightly different frequencies travel-
ing in the same direction. In this case, when the two waves are observed at a
given point, they are periodically in and out of phase. That is, there is an
alternation in time between constructive and destructive interference. Thus,
we refer to this phenomenon as interference in time or temporal interference.
For example, if two tuning forks of slightly different frequencies are struck,
one hears a sound of pulsating intensity, called a beat.
A beat can therefore be defined as the periodic variation in intensity at a
Definition of beats given point due to the superposition of two waves having slightly different
frequencies.

The number of beats one hears per second, or beat frequency, equals the
difference in frequency between the two sources. The maximum beat fre-
quency that the human ear can detect is about 20 beats/s. When the beat
frequency exceeds this value, it blends indistinguishably with the compound
sounds producing the beats.
One can use beats to tune a stringed instrument, such as a piano, by
beating a note against a reference tone of known frequency. The string can
then be adjusted to equal the frequency of the reference by tightening or
loosening it until the beats become too infrequent to notice.
Figure 18.15 (a) Six normal modes of vibra-
tion of a circular membrane (drumhead) fixed
at its perimeter. Arrows indicate the nodal
lines. (From P. M. Morse, Vibration and Sound,
2nd ed.. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1948, with
permission of the publishers.) (b) Representa-
tion of some natural modes of vibration on a
circular membrane fixed at its perimeter. The
frequencies of vibration do not form a har-
monic series. (From M. L. Warren, Introduc-
tory Physics, New York, W. H. Freeman, 1979,
with permission.)

1.593/,

2.295/,

3.599/, 4.230/,
(b)

493
494 CHAPTER 18 SUPERPOSITION AND STANDING WAVES

Consider two waves with equal amplitudes traveling through a medium in

and/2 We can
the same direction, but with slightly different frequencies,/! .

represent the displacement that each wave would produce at a point as

y! =A cos 271/it and y2 =A cos 2nf2 t

Using the superposition principle, we find that the resultant displacement at

that point is given by

y = yx + y2 =A (cos 2nf t
x
+ cos 2nf2 t)
It is convenient to write this in a form that uses the trigonometric identity

(a-b\
—- (a —+—b\
cos a + cos b
,
— n
2 cos I — I cos I
- I

Letting a = 2nf t and b

x
= 2nf2 t, we find that

Resultant of two waves of

different frequencies but y=2A cos2n(£-^\cos2n(^^\ (18.13)
equal amplitude

Graphs demonstrating the individual waveforms as well as the resultant wave

are shown in Figure 18.16. From the factors in Equation 1 8 . 1 3, we see that the
resultant vibration at a point has an effective frequency equal to the average
frequency, (/i +f2 )/2, and an amplitude given by

That is,
A = 2A cos 2n

the amplitude varies in time with a frequency given by (fx

M> 2 )/2.
(18.14)

—f
When/j is close tof2 this amplitude variation is slow, as illustrated by the
,

envelope (broken line) of the resultant waveform in Figure 18.16b.

Note that a beat, or a maximum in amplitude, will be detected whenever

«,(AzA),- ± ,

Figure 18.16 Beats are formed by the combination of two waves of slightly different frequencies
traveling in thesame direction, (a) The individual waves, (b) The combined wave has an amplitude
(broken line) that oscillates in time. (From R. Resnick and D. Halliday, Physics, New York, Wiley,
1977; by permission of the publisher.)
 18.8 COMPLEX WAVES 495

That is, there are two maxima in each cycle. Since the amplitude varies with
frequency as (fx ~fa)/2, the number of beats per second, or the beat fre-
quency fh is twice this value. That is,
,

k-h-h (18.15) Beat frequency

For instance, if two tuning forks vibrate individually at frequencies of 438

Hz and 442 Hz, respectively, the resultant sound wave of the combination has
a frequency of 440 Hz (the musical note A) and a beat frequency of 4 Hz. That
the listener would hear the 440-Hz sound
is, wave go through an intensity
maximum four times every second.

M8.8 COMPLEX WAVES

The sound wave patterns produced by most instruments are very complex.
Some characteristic waveforms produced by a tuning fork, a harmonic flute,
and a clarinet, each playing the same pitch, are shown in Figure 18.17. Al-
though each instrument has its own characteristic pattern, Figure 18.17 shows
that each of the waveforms is periodic in nature. Furthermore, note that a
xAAA/ Tuning fork

struck tuning fork produces only one harmonic (the fundamental), whereas
the flute and clarinet produce many frequencies, which include the funda-
mental and various harmonics. Thus, the complex waveforms produced by a
violin or clarinet, and the corresponding richness of musical tones, are the Harmonic flute

result of the superposition of various harmonics. This is in contrast to the

drum, in which the overtones do not form a harmonic series.
It is what happens to the frequencies of a
interesting to investigate flute
and a violin during a concert as the temperature rose. A flute goes sharp
(increases in frequency) as it warms up since the speed of sound increases. On Clarinet
the other hand, a violin goes flat (decreases in frequency) as the strings expand
thermally, which causes their tension to decrease.
Figure 18.17 Waveform pro-
The problem of analyzing complex waveforms appears at first sight to be a duced by (a) a tuning fork, (b) a
rather formidable task. However, if the waveform is periodic, it can be repre- harmonic flute, and (c) a clarinet,
sented with arbitrary precision by the combination of a sufficiently large each at approximately the same
frequency. (Adapted from C. A.
number of sinusoidal waves that form a harmonic series. In fact, one can Culver, Musical Acoustics, 4th ed.,
represent any periodic function or any finite function as a series of sine and New York, McGraw-Hill, 1956, p.
3
cosine terms by using a mathematical technique based on Fourier's theorem. 128.)

The corresponding sum of terms that represents the periodic waveform is

called a Fourier series.
Let y(t) be any function that is periodic in time with period T, such that
y(t + T) = y(t). Fourier's theorem states that this function can be written

y(t) = ^ (A„ sin 2nf nt + Bn cos 2nfn t) (18.16) Fourier's theorem

where the lowest frequency is/i = 1/T.

The higher frequencies are integral multiples of the fundamental, so that
/„ = n/, The coefficients A„ and B„ represent the amplitud es of the various
.

waves. The amplitude of the nth harmonic is proportional to VA n 2 + B„ 2 and its ,

intensity is proportional to An 2 + B„ 2 .

3 Developed by Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1786-1830).

496 CHAPTER 18 SUPERPOSITION AND STANDING WAVES
 SUMMARY 497

Using modern technology, one can generate musical sounds electroni-

callyby mixing any number of harmonics with varying amplitudes. These
widely used electronic music synthesizers are able to produce an infinite
variety of musical tones.

SUMMARY
When two waves with equal amplitudes and frequencies superimpose, the
resultantwave has an amplitude that depends on the phase angle (f> between
the two waves. Constructive interference occurs when the two waves are in
phase everywhere, corresponding to (f> = 0, 2n, 4n, .... Destructive in-
terference occurs when the two waves are 180° out of phase everywhere,
corresponding to (f) = n, 3n, 5n
Standing waves are formed from the superposition of two harmonic
waves having the same frequency, amplitude, and wavelength, but travel-
ing in opposite directions. The resultant standing wave is described by the
wave function
Wave function for a standing
y = (2A sin kx) cos cot (18.3)
wave
Hence, amplitude varies as sin kx. The maximum amplitude points
its

(called antinodes) occur at x = nn/2k = nA/4 (for odd n). The points of zero
amplitude (called nodes) occur at x = nn/k = nA/2 (for integral values of n).
One can set up standing waves with specific frequencies in such sys-
tems as stretched strings, hollow pipes, rods, and drumheads. The natural
frequencies of vibration of a stretched string of length L, fixed at both ends,
have frequencies given by

Normal modes of a stretched

f*~kvji (n = l,2, 3, . .
.) (18.8) string

where F is the tension in the string and n is its mass per unit length. The
natural frequencies of vibration form a harmonic series, that is, f
x , 2/j ,

3/i,....
The standing wave patterns for longitudinal waves in a hollow pipe
depend on whether the ends of the pipe are open or closed. If the pipe is
open at both ends, the natural frequencies of vibration form a harmonic
series. If one end is closed, only odd harmonics of the fundamental are
present.
A
system capable of oscillating is said to be in resonance with some
driving forcewhenever the frequency of the driving force matches one of
the natural frequencies of the system. When the system is resonating, it
responds by oscillating with a relatively large amplitude.
The phenomenon of beats occurs from the superposition of two waves
of slightly different frequencies, traveling in the same direction. For sound
waves at a given point, one hears an alternation in sound intensity with time.
Thus, beats correspond to interference as time passes.
Any periodic waveform can be represented by the combination of the
sinusoidal waves that form a harmonic series. The process is called Fourier
synthesis and is based upon Fourier's theorem.
498 CHAPTER 18 SUPERPOSITION AND STANDING WAVES

QUESTIONS

1. For certain positions of the movable section in Figure 11. Explain why all harmonics are present in an organ

18.2, there is no sound detected at the receiver, cor- pipe open both ends, but only the odd harmonics
at

responding to destructive interference. This suggests are present in a pipe closed at one end.
that perhaps energy is somehow lost! What happens to 12. Explain how a musical instrument such as a piano may
the energy transmitted by the speaker? be tuned using the phenomenon of beats.
2. Does the phenomenon of wave interference apply 13. An airplane mechanic notices that the sound from a
only to harmonic waves? twin-engine aircraft rapidly varies in loudness when
3. When two waves interfere constructively or destruc- both engines are running. What could be causing this
tively, is there any gain or loss in energy? Explain. variation from loud to soft?
4. A standing wave is set up on a string as in Figure 18.5. 14. At certain speeds, an automobile driven on a wash-
Explain why no energy is transmitted along the string. board road will vibrate disastrously and lose traction
5. What is common to all points (other than the nodes) and braking effectiveness. At other speeds, either
on a string supporting a standing wave? lesser or greater, the vibration is more manageable.
6. Some singers claim to be able to shatter a wine glass by Explain. Why are "rumble strips," which work on this
maintaining a certain pitch in their voice over a period same principle, often used just before stop signs?
of several seconds (see photo). What mechanism 1 5. Why does a vibrating guitar string sound louder when
causes the glass to break? (The glass must be very placed on the instrument than it would if allowed to
clean in order for it to break.) vibrate in the air while off the instrument?
16. When the base of a vibrating tuning fork is placed
against a chalk board, the sound becomes louder due
to resonance. How does this affect the length of time
for which the fork vibrates? Does this agree with con-
servation of energy?
17. Stereo speakers are supposed to be "phased" when
set up. That is, the waves emitted from them should be
in phase with each other. What would the sound be
like along the center line of the speakers if one
speaker were wired up backwards, that is, out of
phase?
18. To keep bugs away from their cars, some people
mount short thin pipes on the fenders. The pipes give
out a high-pitched wail when the cars are moving.

(Question 6) Awine glass shattered by the amplified sound of a

How do they create the sound?
human voice. (© Hen Rose 1992/The IMAGE Bank) 19. If you wet your fingers and lightly run them around
the rim of a fine wine glass, a high-pitched sound is
7. What limits the amplitude of motion of a real vibrating heard. Why? How could you produce various musical
system that is driven at one of its resonant frequen- notes with a set of wine glasses?
cies? 20. When a bell is rung, standing waves are set up around
8. If the temperature of the air in an organ pipe in- the bell's circumference. What boundary conditions
what happens to the resonance frequencies?
creases, must be satisfied by the resonant wavelengths? How
9. Explain why your voice seems to sound better than does a crack in the bell, such as in the Liberty Bell,
usual when you sing in the shower. affect the satisfying of the boundary conditions and
10. What is the purpose of the slide on a trombone or the the sound emanating from the bell?
valves on a trumpet?

PROBLEMS
Section 18.1 Superposition and Interference of , m and t is in s. (a) What is the
where x, y x and y 2 are in
Harmonic Waves amplitude of the resultant wave? (b) What is the fre-
quency of the resultant wave?
1 . Two harmonic waves are described by 2. Two harmonic waves are described by
= -
yx (5 m) sin[7t(4x

-
1200*)]

-
!/i
/
(6
%
m)
/ n
sinl — x
n
1
\
1

y2 = \15
(5 m) sin[7r(4x 1200f 0.25)] 0.005 /
 PROBLEMS 499

n Section 18.2 Standing Waves

y2 = (6 m) sin t
\15 0.005 9. Two harmonic waves are described by

where x, y l and y 2 are

, in m and t is in s. (a) What is the i/j = (3 cm) sin^(x + 0.6t)

amplitude of the resultant wave when 4> = (n/6) rad? —

y2 = (3 cm) sin7r(x 0.6r)
(b) For what values of </> will the amplitude of the
resultant wave have its maximum value? Determine the maximum displacement of the motion
3. A harmonic wave is described by at (a) x = 0.25 cm, (b) x = 0.5 cm, and (c) x = 1.5 cm.
(d) Find the three smallest values of x corresponding

(/! = (8 m) sin[2^(0.1x - 80t))

to antinodes.
10. Use the trigonometric identity

where y 1 and x are in m and £ is in s. Write an expres- sin(a ± b) = sin a cos b ± cos a sin b
sion for a wave that has the same frequency, ampli-
to show that the resultant of two wave functions each
tude, and wavelength as y 1 but when added to y x will
,

give a resultant with an amplitude of 8v3 m.

of amplitude A , angular frequency ft), and propaga-
Two speakers are arranged similarly to those shown in tion number k and traveling in opposite directions can
4.
be written
Figure 18.3. The distance between the two speakers
is 2 m, and they are driven at a frequency of 1 500 Hz.
y = (2A sin kx) cos cot
An observer is initially at a point 6 m along the per-
pendicular bisector of the line joining the two 11. The wave function for a standing wave in a string is

speakers, (a) What distance must the observer move given by

along a line parallel to the line joining the two =
y (0.30 m) sin(0.25i) cos(1207rt)
speakers before reaching the first minimum in inten-
sity? (Use v = 343 m/s.) (b)
At what distance from the where x is in m and t is in s. Determine the wavelength
perpendicular bisector will the observer find the first and frequency of the interfering traveling waves.
relative maximum in intensity? 12. Two harmonic waves traveling in opposite directions
5. Two identicalsound sources are located along the y interfere to produce a standing wave described by
axis. Source S x is located at (0, 0. 1 ) m and source S 2 is
y = (1.50 m) sin(0.4x) cos(200r)
located at (0, —0.1) m. The two sources radiate iso-
tropically at a frequency of 1715 Hz and the ampli- where x is in m and t is in s. Determine the wave-
tude of each wave separately is assumed to be A. A length, frequency, and speed of the interfering waves.
listener is located along the y axis a distance of 5 m 13. A standing wave is formed by the interference of two
from source Sj (a) What is the phase difference be-
.
traveling waves, each of which has an amplitude A=
tween the sound waves at the position of the listener? n cm, propagation number k = (n/2) cm -1 and angu- ,

(b) What is the amplitude of the resultant wave at the lar frequency co = I On rad/s. (a) Calculate the dis-
location of the listener? (Use t> = 343 m/s.) tance between the first two antinodes. (b) What is the
6. A tuning fork generates sound waves with a frequency amplitude of the standing wave at x = 0.25 cm?
of 246 Hz. The waves travel in opposite directions 14. Verify by direct substitution that the wave function
along a hallway, are reflected by walls, and return. for a standing wave given in Equation 18.3,
What is the phase difference between the reflected

waves when they meet? The corridor is 47 m long and y = 2A sin kx cos cot,

the tuning fork is located 14 m from one end. The is a solution of the general linear wave equation,
speed of sound in air is 343 m/s. Equation 16.26:
7. Two speakers are driven by a common oscillator at
d2y _ 1 d2 y
800 Hz and face each other at a distance of 1.25 m.
Locate the points along a line joining the two speakers dx 2 ~ v 2 dt 2
where relative minima would be expected. (Use v =
15. Two waves which set up a standing wave in a long
343 m/s.)
string are given by
8. For the arrangement shown in Figure 18.2, let the
path length r 1 = 1.20 m and the path length r2 = y\— A sin(kx — cot + cf))

0.80 m. (a) Calculate the three lowest speaker fre-

y2 =A sin(kx + cot)
quencies that will result in intensity maxima at the
receiver, (b) What is the highest frequency within the Show that the addition of the arbitrary phase angle
audible range (20-20 000 Hz) that will result in a (a) will change only the positions of the nodes, and
minimum at the receiver? (Use v = 340 m/s.) (b) that the distance between nodes remains constant.
500 CHAPTER 18 SUPERPOSITION AND STANDING WAVES

16. Two waves in a long string are given by the harmonic that causes the string to vibrate in three
segments.

= (--40rj 26. A string of length L,mass per unit lengthy, and ten-
(/! (0.015 m) cos
sion Fis vibrating at fundamental frequency. What
its

effect will the following have on the fundamental fre-

quency? (a) The length of the string is doubled with
t/
2
= (0.015m)cos(| + 40fj
all other factors held constant, (b) The mass per unit

length is doubled with all other factors held constant.

where the y's and x are in m and t is in s. (a) Determine (c) The tension is doubled with all other factors held
the positions of the nodes of the resulting standing constant.
wave, (b) What is the maximum displacement at the 27. A 60-cm guitar string under a tension of 50 N has a
position x — 0.4 m? mass per unit length of 0.1 g/cm. What is the highest
resonant frequency that can be heard by a person ca-
Section 18.3 Standing Waves in a String Fixed at pable of hearing frequencies up to 20 000 Hz?
Both Ends 28. A stretched wire vibrates in its fundamental mode at a
frequency of 400 vibrations/s. What would be the
17. A standing wave is established in a 1 20-cm-long string
fundamental frequency if the wire were half as long,
fixed at both ends. The string vibrates in four seg-
with twice the diameter and with four times the ten-
ments when driven at 120 Hz. (a) Determine the
sion?
wavelength, (b) What isthe fundamental frequency?
29. A low C (/= 65 Hz) is sounded on a piano. If the
18. A stretched string is 160 cm long and has a linear
length of the piano wire is 2 m and its linear mass
density of 0.015 g/cm. What tension in the string will
density is 5 g/m, what is the tension in the wire?
result in a second harmonic of 460 Hz?
30. A 0.35 m and is tuned to
violin string has a length of
19. Consider a tuned guitar string of length L. At what
point along the string (fraction of length from one
concert G, fc =
392 Hz. Where must the violinist
place her finger to play concert A, fA = 440 Hz? If
end) should the string be plucked and at what point
this position is to remain correct to one half the width
should the finger be held lightly against the string in
of a finger (i.e., to within 0.6 cm), by what fraction
order that the second harmonic be the most promi-
may the string tension be allowed to slip?
nent mode of vibration?
20. A string 50 cm long has a mass per unit length of
20 X 1 -5 kg/m. To what tension should this string be
Section 18.5 Standing Waves in Air Columns
stretched if its fundamental frequency is to be (a) 20
Hz and (b) 4500 Hz? (In this section, unless otherwise indicated, assume
21. Find the fundamental frequency and the next three that the speed of sound in air is 344 m/s.)
frequencies that could cause a standing wave pattern 31. A resonance condition is set up in a pipe with a tuning
on a string that is 30 m long, has a mass per unit length fork whose frequency is/. Write an expression for the
9 X 10 -3 kg/m, and is stretched to a tension of 20 N. length of the pipe that will cause it to resonate in its

22. A string of linear density 10~ 3 kg/m and length 3 m is nth mode if open at both ends and
the pipe is (a)

stretched between two points. One end is vibrated (b) closed at one end. (Assume that the speed of sound
transversely at 200 Hz. What tension in the string will is v.)

establish a standing-wave pattern with three loops 32. If an organ pipe is to resonate at 20 Hz, what is its
along the string's length? required length if it is (a) open at both ends and

23. A string with L = 16 m and fl = 0.015 g/cm is (b) closed at one end?
stretched with a tension of 557 N (= 125 lb). What is 33. A tuning fork of frequency 512 Hz is placed near the
the highest harmonic of this string that is within the top of the tube shown in Figure 18.13a. The water
typical human's audible range (up to 20 000 Hz)? level is lowered so that the length L slowly increases
24. Two pieces of steel wire having identical cross sec- from an initial value of 20 cm. Determine the next two
tions have lengths of L and 2L. The wires are each values of L that correspond to resonant modes.
fixed at both ends and stretched such that the tension 34. A tube (open at both ends) of length L is posi-
glass
in the longer wire is four times greater than that in the tioned near an audio speaker of frequency /=
shorter wire. If the fundamental frequency in the 0.68 kHz. For what values of L will the tube resonate
shorter wire is 60 Hz, what
is the frequency of the with the speaker?
second harmonic longer wire?
in the 35. Calculate the minimum length for a pipe that has a
25. A cello A-string vibrates in its fundamental mode with fundamental frequency of 240 Hz if the pipe is
a frequency of 220 vibrations/s. The vibrating seg- (a) closed at one end and (b) open at both ends.

ment is 70 cm long and has a mass of 1.2 g. (a) Find the 36. A tunnel beneath a river is approximately 2 km long.
tension in the string, (b) Determine the frequency of At what frequencies can this tunnel resonate?
 PROBLEMS 501

37. An organ pipe open at both ends is vibrating in its frequency driving source. The lowest frequency that
third harmonic with a frequency of 748 Hz. The produces resonance is 4400 Hz. The speed of sound in
length of the pipe is 0.7 m. Determine the speed of aluminum is 5100 m/s. Determine the length of the
sound the pipe.
in air in rod.
38. The longest pipe on an organ that has pedal stops is 47. A 60-cm metal bar that is clamped at one end is struck
often 16 ft (4.88 m). What is the fundamental fre- with a hammer. If the speed of longitudinal (compres-

quency (at 0° C) if the nondriven end of the pipe is sional) waves in the bar is 4500 m/s, what is the lowest
(a) closed and (b) open? (c) What will be the frequen- frequency with which the struck bar will resonate?
cies at 20°C? 48. Longitudinal waves move with a speed v in a bar of
39. The overall length of a piccolo 32 cm. The resonat-
is length L. Write an expression for the frequencies of
ing air column vibrates as a pipe open at both ends. the longitudinal vibrations of a metal bar that is
(a)Find the frequency of the lowest note a piccolo can (a) clamped at its center, as shown in Figure 18.14a,

play, assuming the speed of sound in air is 340 m/s. and (b) clamped at one-fourth the length of the bar
(b) Opening holes in the side effectively shortens the from one end, as shown in Figure 18.14b.
length of the resonant column. If the highest note a 49. An aluminum rod 1.6 m long is held at its center. It is

piccolo can sound is 4000 Hz, find the distance be- stroked with a rosin-coated cloth to set up longitu-
tween adjacent nodes for this mode of vibration. dinal vibrations in the fundamental mode, (a) What is
40. Determine the frequency corresponding to the first the frequency of the waves established in the rod?
three resonances that produces standing waves in a (b) What harmonics are set up in the rod held in this
30-cm pipe when it is (a) open at both ends and manner? (c) What would be the fundamental fre-

(b) closed at one end. quency if the rod were copper?

41. An air column 2 m in length is open at both ends. The
frequency of a certain harmonic is 410 Hz, and the
frequency of the next higher harmonic is 492 Hz. De- 'Section 18.7 Heats: Interference in Time
termine the speed of sound in the air column. 50. In certain ranges of a piano keyboard, more than one
42. At a particular instant, the tube in Figure 18.13a is
string is tuned to the same note to provide extra loud-
adjusted so that L, the length above the water surface, ness. For example, the note at 1 10 Hz has two strings
is 40 cm. The tuning fork in the figure is replaced by a
from its normal tension
at this pitch. If one string slips
variable-frequency oscillator that has a frequency of 600 N to 540
N, what beat frequency will be heard
range between 20 and 2000 Hz. What are the (a) low- when the two strings are struck simultaneously?
est and (b) highest frequencies within this range that
|
51.| Two waves with equal amplitude but with slightly dif-
will excite resonant modes in the air column? ferent frequencies are traveling in the same direction
43. A glass tube is open at one end and closed at the other
through a medium. At a given point the separate dis-
(by a movable piston) The tube is filled with 30 ° C air,
.
placements are described by
and a 384-Hz tuning fork is held at the open end.
Resonance is heard when the piston is 22.8 cm from !/!
=A cos (o x t and y2 =A cos co 2 t
the open end and again 68.3 cm from the
when it is

open end. (a) What speed of sound is implied by these Use the trigonometric identity
data? (b) Where would the piston be for the next reso-
(a-b\
—- (a —+—b\
nance? cos a + cos b = 2 cosl — Icosl
- 1

44. The range of a certain pipe organ is from 8 Hz to

30 000 Hz. What range of pipe lengths is necessary if
they are (a) open at both ends and (b) closed at one to show that the resultant displacement due to the two
waves is given by
end? (Assume that the speed of sound is 343 m/s.)
45. A shower stall measures 86 cm X 86 cm X 210 cm.
When you sing in the shower, which frequencies will
sound the richest (resonate), assuming the shower
acts as a pipe closed at both ends (nodes at both sides)?
52. While attempting to tune a C note at 523 Hz a piano
Assume also that the human voice ranges from 130 Hz
tuner hears 3 beats per second between the oscillator
to 2000 Hz (not necessarily one person's voice, how-
and the string, (a) What are the possible frequencies
ever). Let the speed of sound in the hot shower stall be
of the string? (b) By what percentage should the ten-
355 m/s.
sion in the string be changed to bring the string into
tune?
"Section 18.6 Standing Waves in Rods and Plates
Hz. He
53. A student holds a tuning fork oscillating at 256
46. An aluminum rod is clamped at the one-quarter posi- walks towards a wall at a constant speed of 1 .33 m/s.
tion and set into longitudinal vibration by a variable- (a) What beat frequency does he observe between the
502 CHAPTER 18 SUPERPOSITION AND STANDING WAVES

tuning fork and its echo? (b) How fast must he walk same oscillator at 456 Hz. A student walks at a uni-
away from the wall to observe a beat frequency of form rate of 1 .5 m/s along the length of the room. How
5 Hz? many beats does the student hear per second?
61. To maintain a length of string under tension in a hori-
zontal position, one end of the string is connected to a
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS vibrating blade and the other end is passed over a
54. (a) What is the fundamental frequency of a steel piano pulley and attached to a mass.The mass of the string is
wire of 0.005-kg mass and 1-m length, under a tension 10 and its total length is 1.25 m. (a) When the sus-
g,
of 1350 N? (b) What is the fundamental frequency of pended mass is 10 kg, the string vibrates in three
an organ pipe, 1 m in length, closed at the bottom and equal length segments. Determine the vibration fre-
open at the top? quency of the blade. (Assume that the point where the
55. Two loudspeakers are placed on a wall 2 m
apart. A string passes over the pulley and the point where it is
listener stands directly in front of one of the speakers, attached to the blade are both nodes. Also, ignore the
3 m
from the wall. The speakers are being driven by a contribution to the tension due to the string's mass.)
single oscillator at a frequency of 300 Hz. (a) What is (b) What mass should be attached to the string if it is

the phase difference between the two waves when to vibrate in four equal segments?
they reach the observer? (b) What is the frequency 62. While waiting for Stan Speedy to arrive on a late pas-
closest to 300 Hz to which the oscillator may be ad- senger train, Kathy Kool notices beats occurring as a
justed such that the observer will hear minimal result of two trains blowing their whistles simulta-
sound? neously. One train is at rest and the other is approach-
56. On a marimba, the wooden bar that sounds a tone ing her at a speed of 20 km/h. Assume that both whis-
when struck vibrates as a transverse standing wave tles have the same frequency and that the speed of

with three antinodes and two nodes. The lowest fre- sound is 344 m/s. If Kathy hears 4 beats per second,
quency note is 87 Hz, produced by a bar 40 cm long. what is the frequency of the whistles?
(a) Find the speed of transverse waves on the bar. 63. A string (mass = 4.8 g, length = 2.0 m, and ten-
(b) The loudness and duration of the emitted sound sion = 48 N), fixed at both ends, vibrates in its second
are enhanced by a resonant pipe suspended vertically (n = 2) natural mode. What is the wavelength in air of
below the center of the bar. If the pipe is open at the the sound emitted by this vibrating string?
top end only and the speed of sound in air is 340 m/s, 64. In an arrangement like the one shown in Figure 18.2,
what is the length of the pipe required to resonate paths r 1 and r 2 are each 1.75 m in length. The top
with the bar in part (a)? portion of the tube (corresponding to r 2 ) is filled with
57. Two speakers are arranged as shown in Figure 18.3. air at 0°C (273 K). Air in the lower portion is quickly
For this problem, assume that point O is 12 along m heated to 200°C (473 K). What is the lowest speaker
the center line and the speakers are separated by a frequency that will produce an intensity maximum at
distance of 1 .5 m. As the listener moves toward point the receiver? (You may determine the speed of sound
P from point O, a series of alternating minima and in air in different temperatures by using the expres-
maxima is encountered. The distance between the sion v = 331(T/273) 1 /2 m / s w here T is in K.)
first minimum and the next maximum is 0.4 m. Using 65. Two train whistles have identical frequencies of
344 m/s as the speed of sound in air, determine the 180 Hz. When one train is at rest in the station sound-
frequency of the speakers. (Use the approximation ing its whistle, a beat frequency of 2 Hz is heard from
sin 6 = tan 6.) a moving train. What two possible speeds and direc-
58. Two pipes are each open at one end and are of adjust- tions can the moving train have?
able length. Each has a fundamental frequency of 480 66. In a major chord on the physical pitch musical scale,
Hz at 300 K. The air temperature is increased in one the frequencies are in the ratios 4:5:6:8. A set of
pipe to 305 K. (a) If the two pipes are sounded to- pipes, closed at one end, are to be cut so that when
gether, what beat frequency will result? (b) By what sounded in their fundamental mode, they will sound
percent should the length of the 305-K pipe be de- out a major chord, (a) What is the ratio of the lengths
creased to again match the frequencies? (Use v = of the pipes? (b) What length pipes are needed if the
331(T/273)'/ 2 m/s as the speed of sound in air, where lowest frequency of the chord is 256 Hz? (c) What are
T is the air temperature in K.) the frequencies of this chord?
59. If two adjacent natural frequencies of an organ pipe 67. Two wires are welded together. The wires are of the
are determined to be 0.55 kHz and 0.65 kHz, calcu- same material, but twice the diameter of the
one is

late the fundamental frequency and length of this other one. They are subjected to a tension of 4.6 N.
pipe. (Use v = 340 m/s.) The thin wire has a length of 40 cm and a linear mass
60. A speaker at the front of a room and an identical density of 2 g/m. The combination is fixed at both
speaker at the rear of the room are being driven by the ends and vibrated in such a way that two antinodes are
 CALCULATOR/COMPUTER PROBLEMS 503

present with the central node being right at the weld, light (3 X 10 8 m/s) and v the relative speed of the two
(a) What is the frequency of vibration? (b) How long objects, (a) Show that the wave that reflects back to
is the thick wire? the source has a frequency given by
68. Two identical strings, each fixed at both ends, are
(c + v)
arranged near each other. If string A starts oscillating /=/o (c-v)
in its fundamental mode, it is observed that string B
will begin vibrating in its third (n = 3) natural mode. (b) Show that the expression for the beat frequency of
Determine the ratio of the tension of string B to the the microwaves may be written as f^ = 2 v/A. (Since
tension of string A. the beat frequency is much smaller than the transmit-
69. A standing wave is set up in a string of variable length ted frequency, use the approximation — 2/„.) f+f
and tension by a vibrator of variable frequency. When (c) What beat frequency is measured for a speed of
the vibrator has a frequency fin a string of length L 30 m/s (67 mph) if the microwaves have a frequency
and tension Fthere are n antinodes set up in the string. of 10 GHz? (1 GHz = 10 9 Hz.) (d) If the beat fre-
(a) If the length of the string is doubled, by what fac- quency measurement is accurate to ± 5 Hz how accu-
tor should the frequency be changed to get the same rate is the velocity measurement?
number of antinodes? (b) If the frequency and length
are held constant, what tension will produce n + 1
antinodes? (c) If the frequency is tripled and the
CALCULATOR/COMPUTER PROBLEMS
length halved, by what factor should the tension be 71. Sketch the resultant waveform due to the interfer-
changed to get twice as many antinodes? ence of the two waves y x and y 2 in Problem 2 at t = s
70. Radar detects the speed of a car, using the Doppler for (a) <A = 0, (b) (j> = 90°, and (c) = 270°. Let x
shift of microwaves that are reflected off the moving range over the interval to 30 m.
car, by beating the received wave with the transmit- 72. A standing wave is described by the function
ted wave and measuring the difference. The Doppler
y =6 sin(mc/2) cos(1007rt)
shift for light is given by

+v
jc
where x and y are in m and t is in s. (a) Plot y(x) versus t

for r= 0.0005 s, 0.001 s, 0.0015 s, and 0.002 s.

0,
°Vc — v (b) What is the frequency of the wave? (c) What is the

where f is the transmitted frequency, c is the speed of wavelength X?

A fiery spray of molten
rock, ash, and smoke rises over the small town of
Vestmannaeyjar as a volcano erupts on Heimaey, Iceland. (© Pete Turner, The
IMAGE Bank)
 PART III

Thermodynamics
As we saw in the first part of this textbook, Newtonian mechanics explains a When dining, I had often
wide range of phenomena on a macroscopic scale, such as the motion of observed that some
baseballs, rockets, and the planets of our solar system. We now turn to the particular dishes
study of thermodynamics, which is concerned with the concepts of heat and retained their Heat much
temperature. As we shall see, thermodynamics is very successful in explaining longer than others; and
the bulk properties of matter and the correlation between these properties that apple pies, and
and the mechanics of atoms and molecules. apples and almonds
Historically, the development of thermodynamics paralleled the develop- mixed (a dish in great
ment of the atomic theory of matter. By the middle of the 19th century, repute in England)
chemical experiments provided solid evidence for the existence of atoms. At remained hot a
that time, scientists recognized that there must be a connection between the surprising length of time.
theory of heat and temperature, and the structure of matter. In 1827, the Much struck with this
botanist Robert Brown reported that grains of pollen suspended in a liquid extraordinary quality of
move erratically from one place to another, as if under constant agitation. In retaining Heat, which
1905, Albert Einstein developed a theory in which he used thermodynamics apples appeared to
to explain the cause of this erratic motion, today called Brownian motion. possess, it frequently
Einstein explained this phenomenon by assuming that the grains of pollen are occurred to my
under constant bombardment by "invisible" molecules in the liquid, which recollection; and I never
themselves undergo an erratic motion. This important experiment and Ein- burnt my mouth with
stein's insight gave scientists a means of discovering vital information con- them, or saw others meet
cerning molecular motion. It also gave reality to the concept of the atomic with the same
constituents of matter. misfortune, without
Have you ever wondered how a refrigerator is able to cool its contents or endeavouring, but in
what types of transformations occur in a power plant or in the engine of your vain, to find out some
automobile or what happens to the kinetic energy of an object when it falls to way of accounting, in a
the ground and comes to rest? The laws of thermodynamics and the concepts satisfactory manner, for
of heat and temperature enable us to answer such practical questions. this surprising
Many things can happen to an object when it is heated. Its size will change phenomenon.
slightly, but it may also melt, boil, ignite, or even explode. The outcome BENJAMIN THOMPSON
depends upon the composition of the object, the degree to which it is heated, (Count Rumford)
and its environment. In general, thermodynamics must concern itself with the
physical and chemical transformations of matter in all of its forms: solid, liquid,
gas, and plasma.

505
 19
Temperature, Thermal Expansion,
and Ideal Gases

The ceramic material being

heated by a flame is a poor
conductor of heat but is able to
withstand a large temperature
gradient; its left side is buried
in ice (0°C) while its right side
is extremely hot. (Courtesy of

Corning Glass Works)

The subject of thermal physics deals with phenomena involving en-

ergy transfer between bodies at different temperatures. In the
study of mechanics such concepts as mass, force, and kinetic energy
were carefully defined in order to make the subject quantitative.
Likewise, a quantitative description of thermal phenomena requires a careful
definition of the concepts of temperature, heat, and internal energy. The
science of thermodynamics is concerned with the study of heat flow from a
macroscopic viewpoint. The laws of thermodynamics provide us with a rela-
tionship between heat flow, work, and internal energy of a system. In practice,
suitable observable quantities must be selected to describe the overall behav-
ior of a system. For example, the macroscopic quantities, pressure, volume,
and temperature are used to characterize the properties of a gas. Thermal
phenomena can also be understood using a microscopic approach, which de-
scribes what is happening on a molecular scale. For example, the temperature
of a gas is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules.
The composition of a body is an important factor when dealing with
thermal phenomena. For example, liquids and solids expand only slightly
when heated. On the other hand, a gas tends to undergo appreciable expan-
sion when heated. If the gas is not free to expand, its pressure rises when
heated. Certain substances may melt, boil, burn, or explode, depending on
their composition and structure. Thus, the thermal behavior of a substance is
closely related to its structure.

506
 19.1 TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 507

would be far beyond the scope of this book to attempt to present

It

applications ofthermodynamics to a wide variety of substances. Instead, we

shall examine some rather simple systems, such as a dilute gas and a homoge-
neous solid. Emphasis will be placed on understanding the key principles of
thermodynamics and on providing a basis upon which the thermal behavior of
all matter can be understood.

19.1 TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF

THERMODYNAMICS
When we speak of the temperature of an object, we often associate this con-
cept with the degree of "hotness" or "coldness" of the object when we touch
it. Thus, our senses provide us with a qualitative indication of temperature.

However, our senses are unreliable and often misleading. For example, if we
remove a metal ice tray and a package of frozen vegetables from the freezer,
the ice tray feels colder to the hand even though both are at the same tempera-
ture. This is because metal is a better conductor of heat than cardboard. What
we need is a reliable and reproducible method for establishing the relative
"hotness" or "coldness" of bodies. Scientists have developed various types of
thermometers for making such quantitative measurements. Some typical ther-
mometers will be described in Section 19.2.
We are familiar with the fact that two objects at different initial tempera-
tures will eventually reach some intermediate temperature when placed in
contact with each other. For example, a piece of meat placed on a block of ice
in a well-insulated container will eventually reach a temperature near 0°C.
Likewise, if an ice cube is dropped into a container of warm water, the ice cube
will eventually melt and the water's temperature will decrease. If the process
takes place in a thermos bottle, the system (water + ice) is approximately
isolated from its surroundings.
In order to understand the concept of temperature, it is useful to first
define two often used phrases, thermal contact and thermal equilibrium. Two
objects are in thermal contact with each other if energy exchange can occur
between them in the absence of macroscopic work done by one on the other. This is a photograph of molten

steel, which has a temperature of

Thermal equilibrium is a situation in which two objects in thermal contact
about 1600°C. The properties of
with each other cease to have any net energy exchange due to a difference in various types of steel depend on
their temperatures. The time it takes the two objects to reach thermal equilib- their composition and specific pro-
cesses used in their fabrication.
rium depends on the properties of the objects and on the pathways available
(Tom Owen Edmunds, The IMAGE
for energy exchange. Bank)
Now consider two objects, A and B, which are not in thermal contact, and
a third object, C, which will be our thermometer. We wish to determine
whether or not A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other. The
thermometer (object C) is first placed in thermal contact with A until thermal
equilibrium is reached. At that point, the thermometer's reading will remain
constant. The thermometer is then placed in thermal contact with B, and its
reading is recorded after thermal equilibrium is reached. If the readings after
contact with A and B are the same, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium
with each other. We can summarize these results in a statement known as the
zeroth law of thermodynamics (the law of equilibrium)

If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third

object, C, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
508 CHAPTER 19 TEMPERATURE, THERMAL EXPANSION, AND IDEAL GASES

This statement, although may seem obvious, is most fundamental in the field
it

of thermodynamics since can be used to define temperature. We can think of

it

temperature as the property that determines whether or not an object is in

thermal equilibrium with other objects. That is, two objects in thermal equilib-
rium with each other are at the same temperature. Conversely, if two objects
have different temperatures, they cannot be in thermal equilibrium with each
other at that time.

19.2 THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURE SCALES

Thermometers are devices used to define and measure the temperature of a
system. A thermometer in thermal equilibrium with a system measures both
the temperature of the system and its own temperature. All thermometers
make use of the change some physical property with temperature. Some of
in
these physical properties are (1) the change in volume of a liquid, (2) the
change in length of a solid, (3) the change in pressure of a gas at constant
volume, (4) the change in volume of a gas at constant pressure, (5) the change
in electric resistance of a conductor, and (6) the change in color of a very hot
body. A temperature scale can be established for a given substance using any
one of these physical quantities.
The most common thermometer in everyday use consists of a glass bulb
connected to a glass capillary tube. The glass bulb is filled with a volume of
mercury that expands into the capillary tube when heated (Fig. 19.1). Thus,
the physical property in this case is the thermal expansion of the mercury. One
can now define any temperature change to be proportional to the change in
length of the mercury column. The thermometer can be calibrated by placing
it in thermal contact with some natural systems that remain at constant tem-

Figure 19.1 Schematic diagram perature (called a fixed-point temperature). One of the fixed-point tempera-
of a mercury thermometer. As a re- tures normally chosen is that of a mixture of water and ice at atmospheric
sult of thermal expansion, the level
pressure, which is defined to be zero degrees Celsius, written 0°C. (This was
of the mercury rises as the mercury
is heated from 0°C (the ice point) formerly called degrees centigrade.) Another convenient fixed point is the
to 100°C (the steam point). temperature of a mixture of water and water vapor (steam) in equilibrium at
atmospheric pressure. The temperature of this steam point is 1 00 ° C. Once the
mercury levels have been established at these fixed points, the column is
divided into 100 equal segments, each denoting a change in temperature of
one Celsius degree.
Thermometers calibrated in this way do present problems, however,
when extremely accurate readings are needed. For instance, an alcohol ther-
mometer calibrated at the ice and steam points of water might agree with a
mercury thermometer only at the calibration points. Because mercury and
alcohol have different thermal expansion properties, when one thermometer
reads a temperature of 50 °C, say, the other will indicate a slightly different
value. The discrepancies between thermometers are especially large when the
temperatures to be measured are far from the calibration points. 1 An addi-
tional practical problem of any thermometer is its limited temperature range.
A mercury thermometer, for example, cannot be used below the freezing
point of mercury, which is — 39°C. What we need is a universal thermometer
whose readings are independent of the substance used. The gas thermometer
meets this requirement.

1
Thermometers that use the same material may also give different readings. This is due in part to
difficulties in constructing uniform-bore glass capillary tubes.
 19.3 THE CONSTANT- VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER AND THE KELVIN SCALE 509

19.3 THE CONSTANT-VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

AND THE KELVIN SCALE
In a gasthermometer, the temperature readings are nearly independent of the
substance used in the thermometer. One version of this is the constant-volume
gas thermometer shown in Figure 19.2. The physical property in this device is
the pressure variation with temperature of a fixed volume of gas. As the gas is
heated, its pressure increases and the height of the mercury column shown in
Figure 19.2 increases. When the gas is cooled, its pressure decreases, so the
column height decreases. Thus, we can define temperature in terms of the
concept of pressure discussed in Chapter 15. If the variation of temperature,
Mercury
T, with pressure is assumed to be linear, then

T=aP+b (19.1)
Bath o
where a and b are constants. These constants can be determined from two environment
fixed points, such as the ice and steam points described in Section 19.2. to be measured

Now suppose that temperatures are measured with various gas thermom-
Figure 19.2 A constant-volume
eters containing different gases. Experiments show that the thermometer
gas thermometer measures the
readings are nearly independent of the type of gas used, so long as the gas pressure of the gas contained in the
pressure is low and the temperature is well above the liquefaction point. The flask on the left. The volume of gas
in the flask is kept constant by rais-
agreement among thermometers using various gases improves as the pressure ing or lowering the column on the
is reduced. This agreement of all gas thermometers at low pressure and high right such that the mercury level

temperature implies that the intercept h appearing in Equation 19.1 is the on the left remains constant.

same for all gases. This fact is illustrated in Figure 19.3. When the pressure
versus temperature curve is extrapolated to very low temperatures, one finds
that the pressure is zero when the temperature is — 273.15°C. This tempera-
ture corresponds to the constant b in Equation 1 9. 1 An extrapolation is neces-
.

sary since all gases liquefy before reaching this temperature.

Early gas thermometers made use of the ice point and steam point as
standard temperatures. However, for various technical reasons, these points
are experimentally difficult to duplicate. Hence, a new temperature scale
based on a single fixed point with b equal to zero was adopted in 1954 by the
International Committee on Weights and Measures. The triple point of water,
which corresponds to the single temperature and pressure at which water,
water vapor, and ice can coexist in equilibrium, was chosen as a convenient
and reproducible reference temperature for this new scale. The triple point of
water occurs at a temperature of about 0.01 °C and a pressure of 0.61 kPa. The
temperature at the triple point of water on the new scale was set at 273.16
510 CHAPTER 19 TEMPERATURE, THERMAL EXPANSION, AND IDEAL GASES

kelvin, abbreviated 273.16 K. 2 This choice was made so that the old tempera-
ture scale based on the ice- and steam-points would agree closely with the new
scale based on the triple point. This new scale is called the thermodynamic
temperature scale and the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature,

the kelvin, is defined as the fraction 1/273.16 of the temperature of the

triple point of water.

If we take b =
Equation 19.1 and call P3 the pressure at the triple-
in
point temperature, K, then we see that a = (273.16 K)/P3
T3 = 273.16 .

Therefore, the temperature at a measured gas pressure P for a constant-vol-

ume gas thermometer is defined to be

200 400 600 S00

(constant V) (19.2)
/'; i mm Hg)

Figure 19.4 The temperature

read with a constant-volume gas
As mentioned earlier, one finds experimentally that as the pressure P3 de-
thermometer versus P3 the pres-
, creases, the measured value of the temperature approaches the same value for
sure at the steam point of water, for all gases. An example of such a measurement is illustrated in Figure 19.4,
various gases. Note that as the
pressure is reduced, the steam-
which shows the steam-point temperature measured with a constant-volume
point temperature of water ap- gas thermometer using various gases. As P3 approaches zero, all measurements
proaches a common value of approach a common value of 373.15 K. Similarly, one finds that the ice-point
373. 15 K regardless of which gas is
temperature is 273.15 K.
used in the thermometer. Further-
more, the data for helium are In the limit of low gas pressures and high temperatures, real gases behave
nearly independent of pressure, as what is known as an ideal gas, which will be discussed in detail in Section
which suggests it behaves like an
19.6 and Chapter 21. The temperature scale defined in this limit of low gas
ideal gas over this range.
pressures is called the ideal gas temperature, T, given by

Definition of ideal gas

(constant V) (19.3)
temperature

Thus the constant-volume gas thermometer defines a temperature scale that

can be reproduced in laboratories throughout the world. Although the scale
depends on the properties of a gas, it is independent of which gas is used. In
practice, one can use a gas thermometer down to around 1 K using low-pres-
sure helium gas. Helium liquefies below this temperature; other gases liquefy
ateven higher temperatures.
It would be convenient to have a temperature scale that is independent of

the property of any substance. Such a scale is called an absolute temperature

Later we shall find that the ideal gas scale is identical
scale, or kelvin scale.
with the absolute temperature scale for temperatures above 1 K, where gas
thermometers can be used. In anticipation of this, we shall also use the symbol
T to denote absolute temperature. The absolute temperature scale will be
properly defined when we study the second law of thermodynamics in Ch. 22.
Other methods of thermometry calibrated against gas thermometers have
been used to provide various other fixed-point temperatures. The "Interna-
Temperature Scale of 1968," which was established by inter-
tional Practical
national agreement, is based on measurements in various national standard
laboratories. The assigned temperatures of particular fixed points associated

2 A second fixed point at K is implied by Equation 19.1. We shall describe the meaning of this
point in Chapter 22 when we discuss the second law of thermodynamics.
 19.4 THE CELSIUS AND FAHRENHEIT TEMPERATURE SCALES 511

TABLE 19.1 Fixed-Point Temperatures

Fixed Point Temperature (°C) Temperature (K)

Triple point of hydrogen 259.34 13.81

Boiling point of hydrogen at
33.36 kPa pressure -256.108
Boiling point of hydrogen
Triple point of neon
Triple point of oxygen
Boiling point of oxygen
Triple point of water
Boiling point of water
Freezing point of tin
Freezing point of zinc
Freezing point of silver
Freezing point of gold
512 CHAPTER 19 TEMPERATURE, THERMAL EXPANSION, AND IDEAL GASES

EXAMPLE 19.1 Converting Temperatures Solution From Equation 19.4, we see that the change in
An object has a temperature of 50 °F. What is its temper- temperature on the Celsius scale equals the change on
ature in degrees Celsius and in kelvins? the kelvin scale. Therefore,

Solution Substituting TF = 50°F into Equation 19.5, we AT= ATC = 80 -25 = 55 C° = 55 K

get

Tc = f(TF -32)=f(50-32)= 10°C From Equation 19.5, we find that the change in tempera-
ture on the Fahrenheit scale is greater than the change

we on the Celsius scale by the factor 9/5. That is,

From Equation 19.4, find that

T=TC + 273.15= 283.15 K ATF = | ATC = |(80 - 25) = 99 F°

In other words, 55 C° = 99 F°, where the notations C°

and F° refer temperature differences, not to be con-
to
EXAMPLE 19.2 Heating a Pan of Water
A pan of water is heated from 25°C to 80°C. What is the fused with actual temperatures, which are written °C

change in its temperature on the kelvin scale and on the and °F.
Fahrenheit scale?

Other Thermometers

A technique that is often used as a temperature standard in thermometry

makes use of a pure platinum wire because its electrical resistance changes
with temperature. The platinum resistance thermometer is essentially a coil
of platinum wire mounted in a strain-free glass capsule. The platinum resist-
ance changes by about 0.3% for a temperature change of 1 K. It is commonly
used for temperatures ranging from about 1 4 K to 900 K and can be calibrated
to within ±0.0003 K at the triple point of water.
One of the most useful thermometers for scientific and engineering appli-
Thermocouple cations is a device called a thermocouple. The thermocouple is essentially a
junction formed by two different metals or alloys, labeled A and B in Figure
19.6. The test junction is placed in the material whose temperature is to be

To
potentiometer

Figure 19.6 Schematic diagram of a thermocouple, which consists of two

dissimilar metals, A
and B. The reference junction is usually kept at 0°C.
 19.5 THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS 513

measured, while the opposite ends of the thermocouple wires are maintained
atsome constant reference temperature (usually in a water-ice mixture) to
form two junctions. When the reference temperature is different from the
temperature of the test junction, a voltage called the electromotive force (emf
appears between the two junctions. The value of this emf is proportional to the
temperature difference and therefore can be used to measure an unknown
temperature. An instrument called a potentiometer is used to measure the emf.
In practice, one usually uses junctions for which calibration curves are avail-
able.
One advantage of the thermocouple is its small mass, which enables it to
quickly reach thermal equilibrium with the material being probed. Some
common examples of thermocouple junction materials are copper/constantan
which is useful over the temperature range of about — 180°C to
(an alloy),
400°C, and platinum/platinum-10% rhodium, which is useful over the range 500 1000 1500
from about 0°C to 1500°C. Some typical outputs for various thermocouples
Temperature (°C)
are given in Figure 19.7. where the reference junction is at 0°C.
Another thermometer that has extremely high sensitivity is a device
called a thermistor. This device consists of a small piece of semiconductor Figure 19.7 Plot of emf (junction
voltage) versus temperature for
material whose changes with temperature. Thermistors
electrical resistance
various thermocouples: E, ehro-
are usually fabricated from oxides of various metals, such as nickel, manga- mel/constantan; J, iron/constantan;
nese, iron, cobalt, and copper, and can be encapsulated in an epoxy. A careful T, copper/constantan; K, chromel/
alumel; S, platinum/platinum-10%
measurement of the resistance serves as an indicator of temperature, with a rhodium.
typical accuracy of ±0.1 C°. Temperature changes as small as about 10~ C°
3

can be detected with these devices. Most thermistors operate reliably over the
temperature range from about — 50°C to 100°C. They are often used as
clinical thermometers (with digital readout) and in various biological applica-
tions.

19.5 THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS

Most bodies expand as their temperature increases. This phenomenon plays an
important role in numerous engineering applications. For example, thermal
expansion joints must be included in buildings, concrete highways, railroad
tracks, and bridges to compensate for changes in dimensions with temperature
variations.
The overall thermal expansion of a body is a consequence of the change in
the average separation between its constituent atoms or molecules. To under-
stand this, consider a crystalline solid, which consists of a regular array of
atoms held together by electrical forces. We can obtain a mechanical model of
these forces by imagining that the atoms are connected by a set of stiff springs
as in Figure 19.8. The interatomic forces are taken to be elastic in nature. At
ordinary temperatures, the atoms vibrate about their equilibrium positions
with an amplitude of about 10 -n m and a frequency of about 10 13 Hz. The
average spacing between the atoms is of the order of 10~ 10 m. As the tempera-
ture of the solid increases, the atoms vibrate with larger amplitudes and the
average separation between them increases. 5 Consequently, the solid as a
whole expands with increasing temperature. If the expansion of an object is
Figure 19.8 A mechanical model
sufficiently small compared with its initial dimensions, then the change in any of a crystalline solid. The atoms
(solid spheres) are imagined to be
5 attached to each other by springs,
Strictly speaking, thermal expansion arises from the asymmetric nature of the potential energy
curve for the atoms in a solid. If the oscillators were truly harmonic, the average atomic separa- which reflect the elastic nature of
tions would not change regardless of the amplitude of vibration. the interatomic forces.
514 CHAPTER 19 TEMPERATURE, THERMAL EXPANSION, AND IDEAL GASES

dimension (length, width, or thickness) is, to a good approximation, a linear

function of the temperature.
Suppose the linear dimension of a body along some direction is t at some
temperature. The length increases by an amount At for a change in tempera-
ture AT. Experiments show that the change in length is proportional to the
temperature change and to the original length when AT is small enough. Thus
the basic equation for the expansion of a solid is
At = at AT (19.6)

where the proportionality constant a is called the average coefficient of linear

expansion for a given material. From this expression, we see that

1_ At_
(19.7)
e at

In other words, the average coefficient of linear expansion of a solid is the

fractionalchange in length {At It) per degree change in temperature. The unit
-1 -6 _1
of a is deg For example, an a value of 11 X 10
. (C°) means that the
length of an object changes by 1 1 parts per million of its original length for
every Celsius degree change in temperature. It may be helpful to think of
Figure 19.9 Thermal expansion
homogeneous metal washer.
thermal expansion as an effective magnification or as a photographic enlarge-
of a
Note that as the washer is heated, ment of an object when it is heated. For example, as a metal washer is heated
alldimensions increase. The ex- (Fig. 19.9) all dimensions increase, including the radius of the hole.
pansion is exaggerated.
The coefficient of linear expansion generally varies with temperature.
Usually this temperature variation is negligible over the temperature range of

most everyday measurements. Table 19.2 lists the average coefficient of linear
expansion for various materials. Note that a is positive for these materials,
indicating an increase in length with increasing temperature. This is not
always the case. For example, some single anisotropic crystalline substances,
such as calcite (CaC0 3 ), expand along one dimension (positive a) and contract
along another (negative a) with increasing temperature.
Because the linear dimensions of a body change with temperature, it
follows that the area and volume of a body also change with temperature. The
change in volume at constant pressure is proportional to the original volume V
and to the change in temperature according to the relation
AV = pVAT (19.8)

TABLE 19.2 Expansion Coefficients for Some Materials Near Room

Temperature

Linear Expansion Volume Expansion

Material Coefficient a{C°)~ l Material Coefficient ^C")" 1

Aluminum 24X 10-6 Alcohol, ethyl 1.12 X 10-*

Brass and bronze 19X10-6 Benzene 1.24 X 10-»
-4
Copper 17X1G"6 Acetone 1.5 X 10

Glass (ordinary) 9X 10"6 Glycerine 4.85 X KT 4

Glass (pyrex) 3.2 XKT6 Mercury 1.82 X 10~ 4
Lead 29 X 10"6 Turpentine 9.0 X 10- 4
Thermal expansion: the extreme
heat of a July day in Asbury Park, Steel 11 X lfr 6 Gasoline 9.6 X 10~ 4
New Jersey, caused these railroad Invar (Ni-Fe alloy) 0.9 X 10" 6 Air at 0°C 3.67 X 10- 3
to buckle. (Wide World 3.665 X 10- 3
tracks
Concrete 12 X KT6 Helium
Photos)
 19.5 THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS 515

where /? is the average coefficient of volume expansion. For an isotropic solid,

the coefficient of volume expansion is approximately three times the linear
expansion coefficient, or /? = 3a (An isotropic solid is one in which the coeffi-
cient of linear expansion is the same in all directions.) Therefore, Equation
19.8 can be written
Change in volume of an
AV=3aVAT (19.9) isotropic solid at constant
pressure'

To show that /? = 3a for an isotropic solid, consider an object in the shape

volume at some temperature T is
of a box of dimensions £, w, and h. Its
V= ivoh. temperature changes to T+ AT, its volume changes to V +
If the
AV, where each dimension changes according to Equation 19.6. Therefore,

V + AV = (£ + A£)(w + Aw)(h + Ah)

= (e + a£ AT)(w + aw AT)(h + ah AT)

= ewh(\ +aAT) 3
= V[ 1 + 3a AT + 3(a AT) 2 + (a AT) 3 ]

Hence the fractional change in volume is

—
AV =
3a AT + 3(a AT) 2 + (a AT) 3

Since the producta AT is small compared with unity for typical values of AT
(less = 100C), we can neglect the terms 3(a AT) 2 and (a AT) 3 In this
than .

approximation, we see that

AV =
*=
n 1 „
3a
VAT
A sheet or flat plate can be described by its area. You should show (Prob-
lem 53) that the change in the area of an isotropic plate is given by

Change in area of an isotropic

AA = 2aA AT (19.10)
plate

EXAMPLE 19.3 Expansion of a Railroad Track stress set up in the rail if its temperature is raised to
A steel railroad track has a length of 30 m when the 40°C.
temperature is 0°C. (a) What is its length on a hot day
when the temperature is 40 °C? Solution From the definition of Young's modulus for a
solid (Chapter 12), we have
Solution Making use of Table 19.2 and noting that the
change in temperature is 40 C°, we find that the increase Tensile stress = — = Y—
in length is
A e

A£ = at AT = [1 1 X lO-^C)- ^*) m)(40 1

C°)
Since Y for steel is 20 X 10 10 N/m 2 we have

= 0.013 m f-(
A \
M X10»4VM13-.)-
m /\ 30 m / 2
8.67 XIO^ N/m 2'

Therefore, its length at 40°C is 30.013 m. Exercise 1 If the rail has a cross-sectional area of
(b) Suppose the ends of the rail are rigidly clamped 30 cm 2 calculate the force of compression
, in the rail.
at 0°C so as to prevent expansion. Calculate the thermal Answer 2.60 X 10 5 N or 58 500 lb!
516 CHAPTER 19 TEMPERATURE, THERMAL EXPANSION, AND IDEAL GASES

;i

p (g/cm )

40 60 80 , 4 6 8 10 12

Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

Figure 1 9. 1 The variation of density with temperature for water at atmospheric pressure. The
maximum density occurs at 4°C as can be seen in the magnified graph at the right.

Liquids generally increase in volume with increasing temperature, and

have volume expansion coefficients about ten times greater than those of
solids (Table 19.2). Water is an exception to this rule, as we can see from its
density versus temperature curve, shown in Figure 19.10. As the temperature
increases from 0°C to 4°C, the water contracts, and thus its density increases.
Above 4°C, the water expands with increasing temperature. The density of
3
water reaches a maximum value of 1000 kg/m at 4°C.
We can explain why a pond or lake freezes at the surface from this unusual
thermal expansion behavior of water. As the pond cools, the cooler, denser
water at the surface initially flows to the bottom. When the temperature
throughout the depth of the pond reaches 4°C, this flow ceases. Conse-
quently, when the surface of the pond is below 4°C, equilibrium is reached
when the coldest water is at the surface. As the water freezes at the surface, it
remains there since ice is less dense than water. The ice continues to build up
at the surface, while water near the bottom remains at 4°C. If this did not
happen, fish and other forms of marine life would not survive.

19.6 MACROSCOPIC DESCRIPTION OF AN IDEAL GAS

In this section we shall be concerned with the properties of a gas of mass m
confined to a container of volume V at a pressure P and temperature T. It is
useful to know how these quantities are related. In general, the equation that
interrelates these quantities, called the equation of state, is very complicated.
However, if the gas is maintained at a very low pressure (or low density), the
equation of state is found experimentally to be quite simple. Such a low-den-
6
sity gas is commonly referred to as an ideal gas. Most gases at room tempera-
ture and atmospheric pressure behave as ideal gases.
It is convenient to express the amount of gas in a given volume in terms of

the number of moles, n. By definition, one mole of any substance is that mass of
the substance that contains a specific number of molecules called Avogadro's
23
number, NA The value of NA is approximately 6.022 X 10 molecules/mole.
.

assumption here is that the temperature of the gas is sufficiently high

6 To be more specific, the
and its pressure sufficiently low that the gas does not condense into a liquid.
 19.6 MACROSCOPIC DESCRIPTION OF AN IDEAL GAS 517

Avogadro's number is defined to be the number of carbon atoms in 1 2 g of the

isotope carbon- 1 2. The number of moles of a substance is related to its mass m
through the expression

n (19.11)
M [)c

where M
is a quantity called the molecular weight of the substance, usually

expressed in g/mole. For example, the molecular weight of oxygen, 2 is 32.0 ,

g/mol. Therefore, the mass of one mole of oxygen is 32.0 g.

Now suppose an ideal gas is confined to a cylindrical container whose
volume can be varied by means of a movable piston, as in Figure 19.1 1. We
shall assume that the cylinder does not leak, so the mass (or the number of
moles) remains constant. For such a system, experiments provide the follow-
ing information. First, when the gas is kept at a constant temperature, its
pressure is inversely proportional to the volume (Boyle's law). Second, when
the pressure of the gas is kept constant, the volume is directly proportional to
the temperature (the law of Charles and Gay-Lussac). These observations can
be summarized by the following equation of state for an ideal gas:

Figure 19.11 An ideal gas con-

PV=nRT (19.12 tained in a cylinder with a movable
piston that allows the volume to be
varied. The state of the gas is de-
In this expression,R is a constant for a specific gas, which can be determined fined by its pressure, volume, and
from experiments, and Tis the absolute temperature in kelvin. Experiments on temperature.
several gases show that as the pressure approaches zero, the quantity PV/nT
approaches the same value of R for all gases. For this reason, R is called the
universal gas constant. In metric units, where pressure is expressed in Pa and
volume in m 3 the product PV has units of N m, or J, and R has the value
,
•

R= 8.31 J/mol-K (19.13) The universal gas constant

If the pressure is expressed in atmospheres and the volume in liters (1 L= 1

3

cm 3 = 10~ 3 m3 ), then R has the value

R = 0.0821 L-atm/mol-K
Using this value of R and Equation 19.12, one finds that the volume occupied
by 1 mole of any gasatmospheric pressure and 0°C (273 K) is 22.4 L.
at
The is often expressed in terms of the total number of
ideal gas law
molecules, N. Since the total number of molecules equals the product of the
number of moles and Avogadro's number, we can write Equation 19.12 as

RV=nRT = ^-RT
NA

PV=MT (19.14)

where k is called Boltzmann's constant, which has the value

k = —
Na
= 1.38X10" J/K (19.15) Boltzmann's constant
518 CHAPTER 19 TEMPERATURE, THERMAL EXPANSION, AND IDEAL GASES

We see from Equation 19.14 that the pressure produced by a fixed vol-
ume of gas depends only on the temperature and the number of molecules
within the volume. As we shall show in Chapter 21, this property of an ideal
gas is explained by the kinetic theory of gases.
We have defined an ideal gas as one that obeys the equation of state,
PV= nRT, under all conditions. In an ideal gas does not exist. How-
reality,
ever, the concept of an ideal gas is very useful in view of the fact that real gases
at low pressures behave as ideal gases. It is common to call quantities such as P,
V, and T the thermodynamic variables of the system. We note that if the
equation of state is known, then one of the variables can always be expressed as
some function of the other two thermodynamic variables. That is given two of ,

the variables, the third can be determined from the equation of state. Other
thermodynamic systems are often described with different thermodynamic
variables. For example, a wire under tension at constant pressure is described
by its length, the tension in the wire, and the temperature.

EXAMPLE 19.4 How Many Gas Molecules Are in a PVi i

PfVf
Container?
An idealgas occupies a volume of 100 cm 3 at 20°C and a
pressure of 100 Pa. Determine the number of moles of where and i f refer to the initial and final values. Solving
gas in the container. for Tf we
, get

Solution The quantities given are volume, pressure, and

temperature: V= 100 cm 3 = 10 -4 m 3 P = 100 Pa, and
,
'-($>
T=20°C = 293K. Using Equation 19.12, we get

_PV_ (100 Pa) (10"* m3 (350kPa)(12X 10- 3 m3 )

=
"~ RT~
)
(300 K) 420 K
(8.31 J/mol-K)(293K) (200kPa)(15X lQ- 3 m3 )

= 4.11 X 10- 6 moles

EXAMPLE 19.6 Heating a Bottle of Air
Note that you must express Tas an absolute temperature A sealed glass bottle containing air at atmospheric pres-
(K) when using the ideal gas law. sure (101 kPa) and having a volume of 30 cm 3 is at 23 °C.
It is then tossed into an open fire. When the temperature

Exercise 2 Calculate the number of molecules in the of the air in the bottle reaches 200°C, what is the pres-
container, using the fact that Avogadro's number is sure inside the bottle? Assume any volume changes of
6.02 X 10 23 molecules/mole. the bottle are negligible.
Answer 2.47 X 10 18 molecules.
Solution This example is approached in the same fashion
EXAMPLE 19.5Squeezing a Tank of Gas
as that used in Example 19.5. We start with the expres-
sion
Pure helium gas is admitted into a tank containing a mov-
able piston. The initial volume, pressure, and tempera-
-3 m 3 200 kPa, and 300 K. If PfVf
ture of the gas are 15 X lO ,

-3 m 3 and the pres- T>

the volume is decreased to 12 X 10
sure increased to 350 kPa, find the final temperature of
Since the initial and final volumes of the gas are assumed
the gas. (Assume that helium behaves like an ideal gas.)
equal, this expression reduces to
Solution If no gas escapes from the tank, the number of
moles remains constant; therefore using PV = nRT at the
initial and final points gives
 QUESTIONS 519

This gives Exercise 3 In this example, we neglected the change in

volume of the bottle. If the coefficient of volume expan-
= -6 _1
P. )= (ioikpa) i59kpa sion for glass is 27 X 10 (C°) find the magnitude of
,

>=(f:)^ (ioii) volume change.

this

Obviously, the higher the temperature, the higher Answer 0.14 cm 3 .

the pressure exerted by the trapped air. Of course, if the

pressure rises high enough, the bottle will shatter.

SUMMARY
Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with each other if they have the
same temperature.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if bodies A and B are
separately in thermal equilibrium with a third body, C, then A and B are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
The SI unit of thermodynamic temperature is the kelvin, which is
defined to be the fraction 1/273. 16 of the temperature of the triple point of
water.
When a substance is heated, it generally expands. The linear expansion
of an object is characterized by an average expansion coefficient, a, defined
by

= i Ae Average coefficient of linear

" (19.7)
7aT expansion

where £ is the initial linear dimension of the object and A£ is the change in

linear dimension for a temperature change AT. The average volume expan-
sion coefficient, /?, for a substance is equal to 3a.
An ideal gas is one that obeys the equation of state,
Equation of state for an ideal
PV=nRT (19.12)
gas
where n equals the number of moles of gas, Vis its volume, R is the universal
gas constant(8.31 J/mol K) and T is the absolute temperature in kelvins A
•
, .

real gasbehaves approximately as an ideal gas if it is far from liquefaction.

An ideal gas is used as the working substance in a constant-volume gas
thermometer, which defines the absolute temperature scale in kelvins. This
absolute temperature T is related to temperatures on the Celsius scale by
T=TC + 273.15.

QUESTIONS

1. When a hot body warms a cold one, why don't we say 4. In principle, any gas can be used in a gas thermome-
that temperature flows from one to the other? ter. Why is not possible to use oxygen for tempera-
it

2. Is it possible for two objects to be in thermal equilib- tures as low as 15 K? What gas would you use? (Look
rium if they are not in contact with each other? Ex- at the data in Table 19.1.)
plain. 5. Rubber has a negative coefficient of linear expansion.
3. A piece of copper is dropped into a beaker of water. If What happens to the size of a piece of rubber as it is

the water's temperature rises, what happens to the warmed?

temperature of the copper? Under what condition 6. Why should the amalgam used in dental fillings have
will the water and copper be in thermal equilibrium? the same coefficient of expansion as a tooth? What
would occur if they were mismatched?
520 CHAPTER 19 TEMPERATURE, THERMAL EXPANSION, AND IDEAL GASES

7. Explain why a column of mercury in a thermometer 19. An automobile radiator is filled to the brim with water
first descends slightly and then rises when placed in while the engine is cool. What happens to the water
hot water. when the engine is running and the water is heated?
8. Explain why the thermal expansion of a spherical shell What do modern automobiles have in their cooling
made
of an isotropic solid is equivalent to that of a systems to prevent the loss of coolants?
sphere of the same material.
solid 20. Metal lids on glass jars can often be loosened by run-
9. A steel wheel bearing has an inside diameter which is ning hot water over them. How is this possible?
1 mm smaller than an axle. How can it be made to fit 21 . The blade being heated in the photograph below con-
onto the axle without removing any material? sists of two different metals bonded together to form a
10. Markings to indicate length are placed on a steel tape bimetallic strip. Before being heated, the blade was
in a room that has a temperature of 22°C. Are mea- straight, (a) Why does the blade bend when heated?
surements made with the tape on a day when the tem- (b) Which way would it bend if it were cooled?
perature is 27°C too long, too short, or accurate? De-
fend your answer.
1 1. What would happen if the glass of a thermometer ex-
panded more upon heating than did the liquid inside?
12. Determine the number of grams in one mole of the
following gases: (a) hydrogen, (b) helium, and (c) car-
bon monoxide.
1 3. Why is it necessary to use absolute temperature when
using the ideal gas law?
14. An inflated rubber balloon filled with air is immersed
in a flask of liquid nitrogen that77 K. Describe
is at (Question 21). (Courtesy of CENCO)
what happens to the balloon, assuming that it remains
flexible while being cooled. 22. When the metal ring and metal sphere in the photo-
15. Two identical cylinders at the same temperature each graph below are both at room temperature, the
contain the same kind of gas. If the volume of cylinder sphere does not fit through the ring. After the ring is
A is three times greater than the volume of cylinder B, heated, the sphere can be passed through the ring.
what can you say about the relative pressures in the Whv does this occur?
cylinders?
16. The temperatureof dry air decreases about 1 C° for
every 150 m gain in altitude. Is this what is to be ex-
pected according to the gas law?
17. When you let the air out of a car's tires, the air is cool
even if the tire is warm. Explain.
18. The suspension of a certain pendulum clock is made of
brass. When the temperature increases, does the pe-
riod of the clock increase, decrease, or remain the
same? Explain your answer. (Question 22). (Courtesy of CENCO)

PROBLEMS
Section 19.3 The Constant- Volume Gas Thermometer boiling point of water, and (b) the melting point of
and the Kelvin Scale gold (1064.43°C)?
A constant-volume gas thermometer registers a pres-
1. A constant volume gas thermometer is calibrated in
sure of 50 mm Hg when it is at a temperature of
dry ice (-80°C) and in boiling ethyl alcohol (78°C).
450 K. What is the pressure at the triple point of
(a)
The two pressures are 0.900 atm and 1.635 atm. water? (b) What is the temperature when the pres-
(a) What value of absolute zero does the calibration
sure reads 2 mm Hg?
yield? (b) What pressures would be found at the
The pressure in a constant volume gas thermometer is
freezing and boiling points of water?
0.700 atm at 100°Cand0.512 atmat0°C. (a) What is
2. The gas thermometer shown in Figure 19.2 reads a
the temperature when the pressure is 0.0400 atm?
pressure of 40 mm Hg at the triple-point tempera-
(b) What is the pressure at 450°C?
ture of water. What pressure will it read at (a) the
 PROBLEMS 521

5. A constant-volume gas thermometer is filled with he- The length of the (former) Standard Meter is exactly
lium. When immersed in boiling liquid nitrogen (at a 1 m 0°C. This standard, kept at the International
at

temperature of 77.34 K), the absolute pressure is Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris, France, is
25.00 kPa. (a) What is the temperature in degrees made of a platinum-iridium alloy that has an average
coefficient of linear thermal expansion of 8.9 X 10
-6
Celsius and kelvins when the pressure is 45.00 kPa?
_1 Assuming
(b) What will the pressure be when the thermometer (C°) . that all the numerical values are
is immersed in boiling liquid hydrogen? exact (and a remains constant), find the length of the
barat37°C.
19. A I-beam is 15 m long when installed
structural steel
Section 19.4 The Celsius and Fahrenheit Temperature
at20°C. How much will its length change over the
Scales
temperature extremes — 30°C to 50°C?
6. The melting point of gold is 1064°C and the boiling 20. The New River Gorge bridge in West Virginia is a
point is 2660°C. Express these temperatures in
(a) steel arch bridge 518 m in length. How much will its
kelvins. (b) Compute the difference of these tempera- length change between temperature extremes of
tures in Celsius degrees and kelvin degrees and com- -20°Cand35°C?
pare the two numbers. The volume carbon tetra-
coefficient of expansion for
7. Liquid nitrogen has a boiling point of — 195.81 °C chloride is10- 4 (C)- 1 If a 50-gal steel con-
5.81 X .

at atmospheric pressure. Express this temperature tainer is filled completely with carbon tetrachloride
in (a) degrees Fahrenheit, (b) degrees Rankine, and when the temperature is 10°C, how much will spill
(c) kelvins. over when the temperature rises to 30°C?
8. The highest recorded temperature on Earth was 22. A metal rod made of some alloy is to be used as a
136°F, at Azizia, Libya, in 1922. The lowest recorded thermometer. At 0°C its length is 40.000 cm, and at
temperature was — 127° F, at Vostok Station, Antarc- 100°C its length is 40.060 cm. (a) What is the linear
tica, in 1960. Express these temperature extremes in expansion coefficient of the alloy? (b) What is the
degrees Celsius. temperature when its length is 39.975 cm?
9. Oxygen condenses into a liquid at approximately 23. A steel rod 4 cm in diameter is heated so that its tem-
90 K. What temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit, does perature increases by 70 C° and then is fastened be-
this correspond to? tween two rigid supports. The rod is allowed to cool to
10. The temperature of one northeastern state varies its original temperature. Assuming that Young's mod-

from 105°F in the summer to — 25°F in winter. Ex- ulus for the steel is 20.6 X 10 10 N/m 2 and that its coef-
-6
press this range of temperature in degrees Celsius. ficient of linear thermal expansion is 12X10
The boiling point of sulfur is 444.60°C. The melting -1 calculate the tension in the rod.
1 1 (C°) ,

point is 586.1 F° below the boiling point, (a) Deter- 2-4, A cm at 20°C is heated
brass ring of diameter 10.00
mine the melting point in degrees Celsius, (b) Find and slipped over an aluminum rod of diameter
the melting and boiling points in degrees Fahrenheit. 10.01 cm at 20°C. Assuming the coefficients of linear
12. The normal human body temperature is 98.6°F. A expansion are constant, to what temperature (a) must
person with a fever may record 102°F. Express these this combination be cooled to separate them? Is this
temperatures in degrees Celsius. attainable? (b) What if the aluminum rod were
13. A substance is heated from — 12°F to 150°F. What is 10.02 cm in diameter?
its change in temperature on (a) the Celsius scale and 25. The concrete sections of a certain superhighway are
(b) the kelvin scale? designed to have a length of 25 m. The sections are
14. A certain process cools a body from 350 °C to — 80 "C. poured and cured at 10°C. What minimum spacing
Express the change in temperature in (a) kelvins, and should the engineer leave between the sections to elim-
(b) Fahrenheit degrees. inate "buckling" if the concrete is to reach a tempera-
15. At what temperature are the readings from a Fahren- ture of 50°C?
heit thermometer and Celsius thermometer the 26. A square hole (8.0 cm along each side) is cut in a sheet
same? of copper. Calculate the change in the area of this hole
if the temperature of the sheet is increased by 50 K.

27 At 20°C, an aluminum ring has an inner diameter of

Section 19.5 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids
5.000 cm, and a brass rod has a diameter of 5. 050 cm.
Use Table 19.2.
(a) To what temperature must the aluminum ring be
16. An aluminum tube is 3.0000 m long at 20°C. What is heated so that it will just slip over the brass rod?
its length at (a) 100°C and (b) 0°C? (b) To what temperature must both be heated so the
1 7. A copper telephone wire is strung, with little sag, be- aluminum ring will slip off the brass rod? Would this
tween two poles that are 35 m apart. How much work?
longer is the wire on a summer day with Tc = 35 °C 28. A pair of eyeglass frames is made of epoxy plastic. At
than on a winter day with Tc = — 20°C? room temperature (assume 20.0°C) the frames have
 .

522 CHAPTER 19 TEMPERATURE, THERMAL EXPANSION, AND IDEAL GASES

circular lens holes 2.2 cm in radius. To what tempera- temperature of 10°C and a pressure of 1 atm =
ture must the frames be heated in order to insert 1 .0 1 3 X 10
s Pa. The volume of the
balloon is 400 m 3 .

lenses 2.21 cm in radius? Assume that the coefficient To what temperature must the air in the balloon be
-4 (°C) _1
of linear expansion for epoxy is 1.3 X 10 . heated before the balloon will lift off? (Air density at
29. A hollow aluminum cylinder 20 cm deep has an inter- 10°Cis 1.25 kg/m 3 .)
nal capacity of 2.000 liters at 20°C. It is completely 40. A tank with a volume of 0.1 m 3 contains helium gas at
filled with turpentine, and then warmed to 80°C. a pressure of 150 atm. How many balloons can the
(a) How much turpentine overflows? (b) If it is then tank blow up if each filled balloon is a sphere 30 cm in
cooled back to 20 °C, how far below the surface of the diameter at an absolute pressure of 1.2 atm?
cylinder's rim is the turpentine surface? 41 One mole of oxygen gas is at a pressure of 6 atm and a
30. Calculate the/racfiona/ change in the volume (AV/V) temperature of 27 °C. (a) If the gas is heated at con-
of an aluminum bar that undergoes a change in tem- stant volume until the pressure triples, what is the
perature of 30 C°. (Note that ft = 3a for an isotropic final temperature? (b) If the gas is heated such that
substance.) both the pressure and volume are doubled, what is the
31. An automobile fuel tank is filled to the brim with 45 final temperature?

liters (11.9 gal) of gasoline at 10°C. Immediately af- 42. An automobile tire is inflated using air originally at
terward the vehicle is parked in the sun where the 10°C and normal atmospheric pressure. During the
temperature is 35°C. How much gasoline overflows process, the aircompressed to 28% of its original
is

from the tank as a result of the expansion? (Neglect volume and the temperature is increased to 40°C.
the expansion of the tank.) What is the tire pressure? After the car is driven at

32. A volumetric Pyrex glass flask is calibrated at 20°C. It high speed, the tire air temperature rises to 85 °C
is filled to the 100-mL mark with 35°C acetone, and the interior volume of the tire increases by 2%.
(a) What is the volume of the acetone when it is What is the new tire pressure? Express each answer
cooled to 20°C? (b) How significant is the change in in Pa (absolute) and in lb/in. 2 (gauge). (latm =
volume of the flask itself? 14.70 lb/in. 2 )
33. The active element of a certain laser is made of a glass 43. Nine grams of water are placed into a 2-L pressure
rod 30 cm long by 1.5 cm in diameter. If the tempera- cooker and heated to 500 °C. What is the pressure
ture of the rod increases by 65°C, find the increase in inside the container? (R = 0.082 L-atm/mol-K)
(a) its length, (b) its diameter, and (c) its volume. 44. In state of the art vacuum systems, pressures as low as
(Takea = 9X lO-^C)- 1
-) 10 -11 mm Hg are being attained. Calculate the num-
ber of molecules in a 1 m 3 vessel at this pressure if the
temperature is 27 °C. (Note: One atm of pressure
Section 19.6 Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas
corresponds to 760 mm Hg.)
34. An ideal gas held in a container at constant volume.
is 45. The on a bicycle is filled with air to a gauge pres-
tire

Initially, its temperature is 10°C and its pressure is sure of 550 kPa (80 lb/in. 2 ) at 20°C. What is the
2.5 atm. What is its pressure when its temperature is gauge pressure in the tire after a ride on a hot day
80°C? when the tire air temperature is 40°C? (Assume the
35. A helium-filled balloon has a volume of 1 m 3 As it . volume does not change, and recall that the gauge
rises in the earth's atmosphere, its volume expands. pressure means absolute pressure in the tire minus
What will be its new volume (in cubic meters) if its atmospheric pressure. Furthermore, assume that the
originaltemperature and pressure are 20°C and atmospheric pressure remains constant and equal to
1 atm and its final temperature and pressure are 101 kPa.)
-40°Cand0.1 atm 46. Show one mole of any gas at atmospheric pres-
that
36. An auditorium has dimensions 10 m X 20 m X 30 m. X 10 5 N/m 2 and standard temperature
sure (1.01 )

How many molecules of air are needed to fill the audi- (273 K) occupies a volume of 22.4 L.
torium at 20°C and 1 atm pressure? 47. A cvlindrical diving bell 3 m in diameter and 4 m tall
37. A full tank of oxygen (0 2 ) contains 12.0 kg of oxygen with an open bottom is submerged to a depth of
under a gauge pressure of 40.0 atm. Determine the 220 m in the ocean. The surface temperature is 25 °C
mass of oxygen that has been withdrawn from the tank and the temperature 220 m down is 5°C. The density
when the pressure reading is 25.0 atm. Assume the of sea water is 1025 kg/m 3 How high will the sea .

temperature of the tank remains constant. water rise in the bell when it is submerged?
38. A sample of ideal gas with a molecular weight of 4.0 is 4S. A diving bell in the shape of a cylinder with a height of
in a thermodynamic state having P= 1.2 atm, V= 2.50 m is closed at the upper end and open at the
8.8 L, andT= 85°C. Determine the mass of this sam- lower end. The bell is lowered from air into sea water
(p = 1.025 g/cm ). The air in the bell is initially at a
3
ple of gas.
39. The mass of a hot air balloon and its cargo (not includ- temperature of 20°C. The bell is lowered to a depth
ing the air inside) is 200 kg. The air outside is at a (measured to the bottom of the bell) of 45.0 fathoms
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 523

or 82.3 m. At this depth the water temperature is

4°C, and the bell is in thermal equilibrium with the
water, (a) How high will sea water rise in the bell?
(b) To what minimum pressure must the air in the bell
be raised to expel the water that entered?
49.A bubble of marsh gas rises from the bottom of a fresh-
water lake at a depth of 4.2 m and a temperature of
Figure 19.13 (Problem 53).
5°C to the surface where the water temperature is
12°C. What is the ratio of the bubble diameter at the
two locations? (Assume that the bubble gas is in ther- 54. Consider an object with any one of the shapes dis-

mal equilibrium with the water at each location.) played in Table 10.2. What is the percentage increase

50 An expandable cylinder has its top connected to a in the moment of inertia of the object when it is

spring of constant 2 X 10 3 N/m (see Fig. 19.12). The heated from 0°C to 100°C, if it is composed of
with 5 L of gas with the spring re- (a) copper, (b) aluminum? (See Table 19.2. Assume
cylinder is filled

laxed at a pressure of 1 atmosphere and a temperature that the linear expansion coefficients do not vary be-

of 20°C. (a) If the lid has a cross-sectional area of tween 0°C and 100°C.)
0.01 m 2 and negligible mass, how high will the lid rise 55. A mercury thermometer is constructed as in Figure

when the temperature is raised to 250°C? (b) What is 19.14. The capillary tube has a diameter of 0.004 cm,

the pressure of the gas at 250°C? and the bulb has a diameter of 0.25 cm. Neglecting
the expansion of the glass, find the change in height of
the mercury column for a temperature change of
30 C°.

250°C

E 20°C

T+ AT
Figure 19.12 (Problem 50).
Figure 19.14 (Problems 55 and 57).

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 56. A fluid has a density p. (a) Show that the fractional

measurements are often made change in density for a change in temperature AT is

51. Precise temperature
given by Ap/p = —p AT. What does the negative sign
using the change in electrical resistance of a metal or
signify? (b) Fresh water has a maximum density of
semiconductor with temperature. The resistance
R= 1.000 g/cm 3 at 4°C. At 10°C, its density is 0.9997
varies approximately according to the expression
g/cm 3 What is /? for water over this temperature in-
Ro(l + ATC ), where Rq and A are constants and Tc is
.

terval?
the temperature in degree Celsius. A certain element
has a resistance of 50.0 ohms at 0°C and 71.5 ohms at
57. A liquid with a coefficient of volume expansion fi just

Determine fillsa spherical shell of volume V at a temperature T

the freezing point of tin (231.97°C). (a)
(Fig. 1 9 1 4) The shell is made of a material that has a
the constants A and Rq (b) At what temperature the . .

. is

ohms? coefficient of linear expansion of a. The liquid is free

resistance equal to 89.0
to expand into a capillary of cross-sectional area A at
52. A pendulum clock with a brass suspension system has
the top. (a) If the temperature increases by AT, show
a period of 1.000 s at 20°C. If the temperature in-
that the liquid rises in the capillary by an amount A/i
creases to 30 °C, (a) by how much will its period
V
change, and (b) how much time will the clock gain or
given by Ah = — - 3a) AT. (b) For a typical system,
(/?
lose in one week? A
53. The rectangular plate shown in Figure 19.13 has an such as a mercury thermometer, why is it a good ap-
area A equal to tw. If the temperature increases by proximation to neglect the expansion of the shell?
AT, show that the increase in area is given by AA = 58. (a) Derive an expression for the buoyant force on a
2aA AT, where a is the coefficient of linear expan- spherical balloon as it is submerged in water as a func-
sion. What approximation does this expression as- tion of the depth below the surface, the volume of the
sume? (Hint: Note that each dimension increases balloon at the surface, the pressure at the surface, and
according to At = at AT.) the density of the water. (Assume the water tempera-
524 CHAPTER 19 TEMPERATURE, THERMAL EXPANSION, AND IDEAL GASES

ture to be a constant.) (b) Does the buoyant force in- A vertical cylinder of cross-sectional area A is fitted

crease or decrease as the balloon is submerged? (c) At with a tight-fitting, frictionless piston of mass m (Fig.
what depth will the buoyant force decrease to one- 19.15). (a) If there are n moles of an ideal gas in the
half the surface value? cylinder at a temperature T, determine the height h at
59. (a) Show occupying a
that the density of an ideal gas which the piston will be in equilibrium under its own
volume by p = PM/RT, where
V is given is the mo- M weight, (b) What is the value for h if n = 0.2 mol, T=
lecular weight, (b) Determine the density of oxygen 400 K, A = 0.008 m 2 and m = 20 kg?
gas at atmospheric pressure and 20°C.
60. (a) Show that the volume coefficient of thermal ex-
pansion for an ideal gas at constant pressure is given
by P = 1/T, where T is the kelvin temperature. Start
with the definition of /? and use the equation of state,
PV — nRT. (b) What value does this expression pre-
dict for/? at 0°C? Compare this with the experimental
values for helium and air in Table 19.2.
61. Starting with Equation 19.12, show that the total
pressure P in a container filled with a mixture of sev-
eral different ideal gases is given by P = P + P +
l 2
P3 + where Pj P2 etc., are the pressures that
••• , , ,

each gas would exert if it alone filled the container (or Figure 19.15 (Problem 66).
the partial pressures of the respective gases). This is

known as Dalton's law of partial pressures. 67. An bubble originating from a deep sea diver has a
air

62. A sample of air with a mass of 100.00 g, collected at radius of 5 mm at some depth h. When the bubble
sealevel, is analyzed and found to consist of the follow- reaches the surface of the water it has a radius of
ing gases: 7 mm. Assuming the temperature of the air in the
bubble remains constant, determine (a) the depth h of
nitrogen (N 2 ) = 75.52 g
the diver, and (b) the absolute pressure at this depth.
oxygen (O z )
= 23.15 g 6S. The measurement of the average coefficient of vol-

= ume expansion for liquids is complicated by the fact

argon (Ar) 1.28 g
that the container also changes size with temperature.
carbon dioxide (C0 2 = 0.05
) g Figure 19.16 shows a simple means Jor overcoming
this difficulty. With this apparatus, /? for a liquid is
plus trace amounts of neon, helium, methane, and
determined by measurements of the column heights,
other gases, (a) Calculate the partial pressure of each
h and h t of the liquid columns in the U-tube. One
when the pressure is 1 atm = 1.01325 X 10 5 Pa.
,

gas
arm of the tube is maintained at 0°C in a water-ice
(b)Determine the volume occupied by the 100-g
bath, and the other arm is maintained at the tempera-
sample at a temperature of 15.00°C and a pressure of
ture T c in a thermal bath. The connecting tube is hori-
1 atm. What is the density of the air for these condi-
zontal. Derive the expression for /? in terms of /i and
tions? (c) What is the effective molecular weight of
the air sample?
K
63. A swimmer has 0.82 L of dry air in his lungs when he
dives into a lake. Assuming the pressure of the dry air
is 95% of the external pressure at all times, what is the Liquid sample
volume of the dry depth of 10.0 m?
air at a

64. A steel ball bearing is 4.000 cm in diameter at 20°C. A

bronze plate has a hole in it that is 3.994 cm in diame-
Water-ice.
bath. 0°C
1 Thermal bath
temperature T,
ter at 20°C. What common temperature must they
have in order that the ball just squeeze through the
hole?
65. At T= 0°C, a container is completely full of ethyl
expand when heated Figure 19.16 (Problem 68).
alcohol. If the container does not
(and pushed out a negligible extent when the eth-
is

anol begins to exert an outward pressure), what will 69. A cylinder, with a 40-cm radius and 50 cm deep, is
be the internal pressure when the temperature is filled with air at 20 °C and 1 atm pressure (Fig.
raised to 20 °C? Express your answer in Pa and in at- 19.17a). A 20-kg piston is now lowered into the cylin-
mospheres. (Referto Table 19.2. The bulk modulus of der, compressing the air trapped in the cylinder (Fig.
ethyl alcohol is 1 X 10 9 N/m 2
.) 19.17b). Finally, a 75-kg man stands on the cylinder,
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 525

further compressing the air (which remains at 20°C). (b) Given a rod of length 1 m and a temperature
(a) How far down (Ah) does the piston move when the change of 100 C, determine the error caused by the
man steps onto the piston? (b) To what temperature approximation when a = 2 X 10~ S (C°) -1 (the normal
should the gas be heated to raise the piston and man value for common metals) and when a = 0.02(C°) _I
back to h ? (an unrealistically large value for comparison).
73. A steel guitar string with a diameter of 1.00 mm is

stretched between supports 80 cm apart. The tem-

perature 0°C. (a) Find the mass per unit length of
is

(Use the value 7.86 X 10 3 kg/m 3 for the

this string.
density.) (b) The fundamental frequency of transverse
oscillations of the string is 200 Hz. What is the tension
in the string? (c) If the temperature is raised to 30°C,
find the resulting values of the tension and the funda-
mental frequency. [Assume that both the Young's
modulus (Table 12.1) and the coefficient of thermal
expansion (Table 19.2) of steel have constant values
between 0°C and 30°C.)
74. A steel wire and a copper wire, each of diameter
2.00 mm, are joined end to end. At 40°C, each has an
unstretched length of 2.000 m; they are connected
between two fixed supports 4 m apart on a tabletop,
so that the steel wire extends from x = —2.000 m to
x = 0, the copper wire extends from x = to x =
2.000 m, and the tension is negligible. The tempera-
ture is then lowered to 20°C, while the supports are
held fixed at a separation of 4.000 m. At this lower
(b) (c)
temperature, find the tension in the wire and the loca-
Figure 19.17 (Problem 69).
between the steel
tion (x coordinate) of the junction
and copper wires. (Refer to Tables 12.1 and 19.2)
75. A bimetallic bar is made of two thin dissimilar metals
70. An aluminum pot has the shape of a right circular
bonded together. As they are heated, the one with the
cylinder. The pot is initially at 4°C, at which tempera-
larger coefficient of linear expansion will expand
ture it has an inside diameter of 28.00 cm. The pot
more than the other, forcing the bar into an arc, with
contains 3.000 gallons of water at 4 °C. (a) What is the
the outer radius having a larger circumference (see
depth of water in the pot? (1 gallon = 3785 cm 3 )
Fig. 19.18). (a) Derive an expression for the angle of
(b) The pot and the water in it are heated to a final
bending 8 as a function of the initial length of the rods,
temperature of 90 °C. Allowing for the expansion of
their coefficients of linear expansion, the change in
the water, but ignoring the expansion of the pot, what
temperature, and the separation of centers (Ar =
is the change in depth of the water? Express the
r 2 — r x ). (b) Show that the angle of bending goes to
change as percentage of the original depth and also in
zero when AT goes to zero or the two coefficients of
millimeters. (The density of water is 1.000 g/cm 3 at
expansion become equal, (c) What happens if the bar
4°C and 0.965 g/cm 3 at 90°C.) (c) Modify your solu-
is cooled?
tion for part (b) to allow for the expansion of the pot.
(Refer to Table 19.2.)
7 1 A sphere 20 cm in diameter contains an ideal gas at
1 atm pressure and 20°C. As the sphere is heated to

100°C gas is allowed to escape. The valve is closed

and the sphere is placed in an ice water bath at 0°C.
(a) How many moles of gas escape from the sphere as

it warms? (b) What is the pressure in the sphere when

it is in the ice water?

72. The relationship L = L (l + a AT) is an approxima-

tion which works when the coefficient of expansion is
small. If a is sizable the relation dL/dT = aL must be
integrated to determine the final length, (a) Assuming
the coefficient of linear expansion is constant, deter-
mine a general expression for the final length. Figure 19.18 (Problem 75).
 20
Heat and the First Law of
Thermodynamics

Grand Prismatic Spring in

Yellowstone National Park. The
water at the surface of this hot
spring is nearly 93°C (200°F).
Microorganisms thrive in the
hot water and are the cause of
its vivid colors. A boardwalk
at the edge of the spring keeps
people at a safe distance.
(© Paul Chesley/ Photog-
raphers Aspen)

is well known that when two objects at different temperatures are

It placed in thermal contact with each other, the temperature of the

warmer body decreases while the temperature of the cooler body in-
creases. If they are left in contact for some time, they eventually reach a
common equilibrium temperature somewhere between the two initial tem-
peratures. When such processes occur, we say that heat is transferred from the
warmer to the cooler body. But what is the nature of this heat transfer? Early
investigators believed that heat was an invisible material substance called
caloric,which was transferred from one body to another. According to this
theory, caloric could neither be created nor destroyed. Although the caloric
theory was successful in describing heat transfer, it eventually was abandoned
when various experiments showed that caloric was in fact not conserved.
The first experimental observation suggesting that caloric was not con-
served was made by Benjamin Thompson (1753-1814) at the end of the 18th
century. Thompson, an American-born scientist, emigrated to Europe during
the Revolutionary War because of his Tory sympathies. Following his ap-
pointment as director of the Bavarian Arsenal, he was given the title Count
Rumford. While supervising the boring of an artillery cannon in Munich,
Thompson noticed the great amount of heat generated by the boring tool. The
water being used for cooling had to be replaced continuously as it boiled away

526
 20.1 HEAT AND THERMAL ENERGY 527

during the boring process. On the basis of the caloric theory, he reasoned that
the ability of the metal filings to retain caloric should decrease as the size of the
filings decreased. These heated filings, in turn, presumably transferred caloric
to the cooling water, causing it to boil. To his surprise, Thompson discovered
that the amount of water boiled away by a blunt boring tool was comparable to
the quantity boiled away by a sharper tool for a given turning rate. He then
reasoned that if the tool were turned long enough, an almost infinite amount of
caloric could be produced from a finite amount of metal filings. For this
reason, Thompson rejected the caloric theory and suggested that heat is not a
substance, but some form of motion that is transferred from the boring tool to
the water. In another experiment, he showed that the heat generated by
friction was proportional to the mechanical work done by the boring tool.
There are many other experiments that are at odds with the caloric
Benjamin Thompson (1753-
theory. For example, if you rub two blocks of ice together on a day when the 1814). "Being engaged, lately, in
temperature is below 0°C, the blocks will melt. This experiment was first superintending the boring of can-
conducted by Sir Humphry Davy (1778-1829). To properly account for this non, in the workshops of the mili-
tary arsenal at Munich, I was struck
"creation of caloric," we note that mechanical work is done on the system. with the very considerable degree
Thus, we see that the effects of doing mechanical work on a system and of of Heat which a brass gun acquires,
in a short time, in being bored; and
adding heat to it directly, as with a flame, are equivalent. That is, heat and work
with the still more intense Heat
are both forms of energy transfer. (much greater than that of boiling
Although Thompson's observations provided evidence that heat energy is water, as I found by experiment) of
not conserved, it was not until the middle of the 19th century that the modern
the metallic chips separated from it
by the borer."
mechanical model of heat was developed. Before this period, the subjects of
heat and mechanics were considered to be two distinct branches of science,
and the law of conservation of energy seemed to be a rather specialized result
used to describe certain kinds of mechanical systems. After the two disciplines
were shown to be intimately related, the law of conservation of energy
emerged as a universal law of nature. In this new view, heat is treated as
another form of energy that can be transformed into mechanical energy. Ex-
periments performed by the Englishman James Joule (1818-1889) and
others in this period showed that whenever heat is gained or lost by a system
during some process, the gain or loss can be accounted for by an equivalent
quantity of mechanical work done on the system. Thus, by broadening the
concept of energy to include heat as a form of energy, the law of energy
conservation was extended.

20.1 HEAT AND THERMAL ENERGY

There is a major distinction between the concepts of heat and the internal

energy of a substance. The word heat should be used only when describing
energy transferred from one place to another. That is, heat flow is an energy Definition of heat
transfer that takes place as a consequence of temperature differences only. On
the other hand, internal energy is the energy a substance has because of its
temperature. In the next chapter, we shall show that the energy of an ideal gas
is associated with the internal motion of its atoms and molecules. In other

words, the internal energy of a gas is essentially its kinetic energy on a micro-
scopic scale; the higher the temperature of the gas, the greater its internal
energy. As an analogy, consider the distinction between work and energy that
we discussed in Chapter 7. The work done on (or by) a system is a measure of
energy transfer between the system and its surroundings, whereas the me-
chanical energy (kinetic and/or potential) is a consequence of the motion and
528 CHAPTER 20 HEAT AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

James Prescott Joule, a British physicist, was born in Salford on December 24, 1818
into a wealthy brewing family. He received some formal education in mathematics,
philosophy, and chemistry from John Dalton but was in large part self-educated.
Joule's most active research period, from 1837 through 1847, led to the estab-
lishment of the principle of conservation of energy and the equivalence of heat and
other forms of energy. His study of the quantitative relationship between electrical,
mechanical, and chemical effects of heat culminated in his announcement in 1843 of
the amount of work required to produce a unit of heat:

First: that the quantity of heat produced by the friction of bodies, whether
solid or liquid, is always proportional to the quantity of energy expended.
And second: that the quantity of heat capable of increasing the tempera-
ture of water ... by 1 °
Fahr requires for its evolution the expenditure of
a mechanical energy represented by the fall of 772 lb through the distance
of one foot.

This is called the mechanical equivalent of heat (the currently accepted value is equal
to 4.186 J/cal).
Much of Joule's later work on the new science of thermodynamics was extended
James Prescott Joule by Lord Kelvin. In 1 852 the Joule - Thomson effect showed that when a gas is allowed
(1818-1889) to expand freely, its temperature drops slightly. This was an important discovery in
the field of low-temperature physics.

coordinates of the system. Thus, when you do work on a system, energy is

transferred from you to the system. makes no sense to talk about the work of
It

a system —
one can refer only to the work done on or by a system when some
process has occurred in which the system has changed in some way. Likewise,
it makes no sense to use the term heat unless the thermodynamic variables of

the system have undergone a change during some process.

It is also important to recognize that energy can be transferred between

two systems even when there is no heat flow. For example, when two objects
are rubbed together, their internal energy increases since mechanical work is
done on them. When an object slides across a surface and comes to rest as a
result of friction, its transformed into internal energy con-
kinetic energy is

work done on the system

tained in the block and surface. In such cases, the
This device, called Hero's engine, adds energy to the system. The changes in internal energy are measured by
was invented around 150 B.C. by
corresponding changes in temperature.
Hero in Alexandria. When water is
boiled in the flask, which is sus-
pended by a cord, steam exits
through two tubes at the sides of Units of Heat
the flank (in opposite directions),
creating a torque that rotates the Before it was understood that heat was a form of energy, scientists defined heat
flask. (Courtesy of CENCO) in terms of the temperature changes it produced in a body. Hence, the calorie
(cal) was defined as the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature ofl g
The calorie 1
of water from 14.5°C to lS.S^. (Note that the "Calorie," with a capital C,
used in describing the chemical energy content of foods, is actually a kilocal-
orie.) Likewise, the unit of heat in the British system was the British Thermal
Unit (Btu), defined as the heat required to raise the temperature ofl lb ofwater
from63"Fto64°F.
Since heat is now recognized as a form of energy, scientists are increas-
ingly using the SI unit of energy for heat, the joule. In this textbook, heat will

1
Originally, the calorie was defined as the heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 g of water
by 1 C°. However, careful measurements showed that energy depends somewhat on tempera-

ture; hence, a more precise definition evolved.

 20.1 HEAT AND THERMAL ENERGY 529

usuallybe given in units of joules. Some useful conversions among the com-
monly used heat units are as follows:

1 cal= 4.186 J = 3.968 X KT 3 Btu

1J
= 0.2389 cal = 9.478 X 10~ 4 Btu
1 Btu= 1055 J = 252.0 cal

The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

When the concept of mechanical energy was introduced in Chapters 7 and 8,
we found that whenever friction is present in a mechanical system, some
mechanical energy is lost, or is not conserved. Various experiments show that
this lost mechanical energy does not simply disappear, but is transformed into
thermal energy. Although this connection between mechanical and thermal
energy was first suggested by Thompson's crude cannon boring experiment, it
was Joule (pronounced "jowl" or "jool") who first established the equiva-
lence of the two forms of energy.
A schematic diagram of Joule's most famous experiment is shown in Fig-
ure 20.1. The system of interest is the water in a thermally insulated container.
Work is done on the water by a rotating paddle wheel, which is driven by
weights falling at a constant speed. The water, which is stirred by the paddles,
is warmed due to the friction between it and the paddles. If the energy lost in
the bearings and through the walls is neglected, then the loss in potential
energy of the weights equals the work done by the paddle wheel on the water.
If the two weights fall through a distance h, the loss in potential energy is
2mg/i, and it is this energy that is used to heat the water. By varying the Figure 20.1 An illustration of
conditions of the experiment, Joule found that the loss in mechanical energy, Joule's experiment for measuring
the mechanical equivalent of heat.
2mgh, is proportional to the increase in temperature of the water, AT. The The falling weights rotate the pad-
proportionality constant (the specific heat of water) was found to be equal to dles, causing the temperature of
4. 18 J/g C° Hence, 4. 1 8 J of mechanical energy will raise the temperature of
•
.
the water to increase.

1 g of water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C. One calorie is now defined to be exactly

4.186 J without reference to the heating of a substance:

1 cal = 4.186 J (20.1)

Mechanical equivalent of heat

EXAMPLE 20. 1 Losing Weight the Hard Way The work done in lifting the weight once through a dis-

A student eats a dinner rated at 2000 (food) Calories. He tance h is equal to mgh, and the work done in lifting the
wishes to do an equivalent amount of work in the gym- weight n times is nmgh. Equating this to the total work
nasium by lifting a 50-kg mass. How many times must he required gives
weight to expend this much energy? Assume
raise the
that he raises the weight a distance of 2 m each time and
W = nmgh = 8.37 X 10 6
J

that no work is done when the weight is dropped to the Since m= 50 kg and h = 2 m, we get
floor.
8.37 X 10 6 J
8.54 X 10 3 times
(50 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 )(2 m)
Solution Since 1 (food) Calorie = 10 3 cal, the work re-
X If the student is good shape and lifts the weight, say,
in
quired is 2 10 6 cal. Converting this to J, we have for
once every 5 s, it him about 12 h to perform
will take
the total work required
this feat. Clearly, it is much easier to lose weight by
W= (2 X 10 6 cal)
(4.186 J/cal) = 8.37 X 10 6 J dieting.
530 CHAPTER 20 HEAT AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

20.2 HEAT CAPACITY AND SPECIFIC HEAT

The quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a given mass
of a substance by some amount varies from one substance to another. For
example, the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1 C ° is
4186 J, but the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of copper by
1 C° is only 387 J.

Heat capacity The heat capacity, C, of a particular sample of a substance is defined as the
amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of that sample by
one Celsius degree.

From this definition, we see that if Q units of heat when added to a substance
produce a change in temperature of AT, then

Q = CAT (20.2)

The heat capacity of any object is proportional to its mass. For this reason,
it is convenient to define the heat capacity per unit mass of a substance, c,

Specific heat called the specific heat:

c =— (20.3)
m
Table 20. 1 gives specific heat values for various substances measured at room
temperature and atmospheric pressure.

TABLE 20.1 Specific Heats of Some Substances at 25°C and Atmospheric

Pressure
 20.2 HEAT CAPACITY AND SPECIFIC HEAT 531

From the definition of heat capacity given by Equation 20.2, we can

express the heat energy Q transferred between a substance of mass m and its
surroundings for a temperature change AT = T — T as f f

Q = mcAT (20.4)

For example, the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 0.5 kg of
water by 3 C° is equal to (0.5 kg)(4186 J/kg-C°)(3 C°) = 6280 J. Note that
when heat is added to the substance, Q and AT are both positive, and the
temperature increases. Likewise, when heat is removed from the substance, Q
and AT are both negative and the temperature decreases.
The molar heat capacity of a substance is defined as the heat capacity per Molar heat capacity
mole. Hence, if the substance contains n moles, its molar heat capacity is equal
to C/n. Table 20.1 also gives the molar heat capacities of various substances.
It is important to realize that the specific heats of substances vary some-

what with temperature. If the temperature intervals are not too great, the
temperature variation can be ignored and c can be treated as a constant. 2 For
example, the specific heat of water varies by only about 1 % from °C to 1 00 ° C
at atmospheric pressure. Unless stated otherwise, we shall neglect such varia-
tions.
When specific heats are measured, the values obtained are also found to
depend on the conditions of the experiment. In general, measurements made
at constant pressure are different from those made at constant volume. For
solids and liquids, the difference between the two values is usually no more
than a few percent and is often neglected. The values given in Table 20.1 were
measured at atmospheric pressure and room temperature. As we shall see in
Chapter 21, the specific heats for gases are quite different under constant
pressure conditions compared to constant volume conditions.
It is interesting to note from Table 20. 1 that water has the highest specific
heat of common earth materials. The high specific heat of water is responsible,
in part, for the moderate temperatures found in regions near large bodies of
water. As the temperature of a body of water decreases during the winter, heat
is transferred from the water to the air, which in turn carries the heat landward
when prevailing winds are favorable. For example, the prevailing winds of the
western coast of the United States are toward the land (eastward). Hence the
heat liberated by the Pacific Ocean as it cools keeps coastal areas much
warmer than they would be otherwise. This explains why the western coastal
states generally have more favorable winter weather than the eastern coastal
states, where the prevailing winds do not tend to carry the heat toward land.

Measuring Specific Heat — Calorimetry

One technique measuring the specific heat of solids or liquids is simply to
for
heat the substance to some known temperature, place it in a vessel containing

2
The definition given by Equation 20.4 assumes that the specific heat does not vary with tempera-
ture over the interval AT. In general, if c varies with temperature over the range T, to Tf the
,

correct expression for Q

is

^m cdT
\l
532 CHAPTER 20 HEAT AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

water of known mass and temperature, and measure the temperature of the
water after equilibrium is reached. Since a negligible amount of mechanical
work is done in the process, the law of conservation of energy requires that the
heat that leaves the warmer substance (of unknown specific heat) equals the
heat that enters the water. 3 Devices in which this heat transfer occurs are
called calorimeters. For example, suppose that m, is the mass of a substance
whose specific heat we wish to determine, cx its specific heat, and Tx its initial
temperature. Likewise, let m w cw and Tw represent corresponding values for
, ,

the water. If T is the final equilibrium temperature after everything is mixed,

then from Equation 20.4, we find that the heat gained by the water is
m^c^T — Tw ) and the heat lost by the substance of unknown c is
,

— m xcx (T — Tx ). Assuming that the system (water + unknown) does not lose or
gain any heat, it follows that the heat gained by the water must equal the heat
lost by the unknown (conservation of energy):

v cJT - TJ = -m c (T - T
x x x)

Solving for cx gives

m w cw (r-Tw )
(20.5)
m (Tx -T)
x

3 For precise measurements, the container for the water should be included in our calculations,
since it also exchanges heat. This would require a knowledge of its mass and composition. How-

ever, if the mass of the water is large compared with that of the container, we can neglect the heat
gained by the container. Furthermore, precautions must be taken in such measurements to
minimize heat transfer between the system and the surroundings.

EXAMPLE 20.2 Cooling a Hot Ingot EXAMPLE 20.3 Fun Time for a Cowboy
A 0.05-kg ingot of metal is heated to 200°C and then A cowboy of mass 2 g with a muzzle
fires a silver bullet

dropped into a beaker containing 0.4 kg of water initially velocity of 200 m/s into the pine wall of a saloon. Assume
at 20°C. If the final equilibrium temperature of the thatall the thermal energy generated by the impact re-

mixed system is 22.4°C, find the specific heat of the mains with the bullet. What is the temperature change of
metal. the bullet?

Solution Because the heat lost by the ingot equals the Solution The kinetic energy of the bullet is

heat gained by the water, we can write

— = m wcw (Tf — T
•i mi) 2 = -| (2 X 10~ 3 kg)(200 m/s) 2 = 40 J
mjCjfTj T{) t)

(0.05 kg)( Cl )(200°C - 22.4°C) All of this kinetic energy is transformed into heat, Q,
= - as the bullet stops in the wall. Thus,
(0.4 kg)(4186 J/kg-C°)(22.4°C 20°C)

from which we find that Q = mc AT

Since the specific heat of silver is 234J/kg-C°
cx = 453J/kg-C° (Table 20.1), we get

40 J
The ingot is most likely iron, as can be seen by com- AT--2-
mc (2X 10~ 3 kg)(234 J/kg-C°)
85.5 C°
paring this result with the data in Table 20.1.

Exercise 2 Suppose the cowboy runs out of silver bul-

Exercise 1 What is the total heat transferred to the
lets and a lead bullet of the same mass and velocity
fires
water in cooling the ingot?
into the wall. What is the temperature change of the
Answer 4020 J bullet?
Answer 156 C°.
 20.3 LATENT HEAT 533

20.3 LATENT HEAT

A substance usually undergoes a change in temperature when heat is trans-
ferred between the substance and its surroundings. There are situations, how-
ever, where the flow of heat does not result in a change in temperature. This
occurs whenever the physical characteristics of the substance change from
one form to another, commonly referred to as a phase change. Some common
phase changes are solid to liquid (melting), liquid to gas (boiling), and a change
in crystalline structure of a solid. All such phase changes involve a change in
internal energy. The energy required is called the heat of transformation.
The heat required to change the phase of a given mass m of a pure sub-
stance is given by

Q = mL (20.6)

4
where L is called the latent heat (hidden heat) of the substance and depends
on the nature of the phase change as well as on the properties of the substance.
The heat of fusion, L f is used when the phase change is from a solid to a liquid,
,

and the heat of vaporization, Lv is the latent heat corresponding to the liquid-
,

5
to-gas phase change. For example, the heat of fusion for water at atmospheric
pressure is 3.33 X 10 s J/kg, and the latent heat of vaporization of water is
2.26 X 10 6 J/kg. The latent heats ofvarious substances vary considerably, as is
seen in Table 20.2.
Phase changes can be described in terms of a rearrangement of molecules
when heat is added or removed from a substance. Consider first the liquid-to-
gas phase change. The molecules in a liquid are close together, and the forces
between them are stronger than in a gas, where the molecules are far apart.
Therefore, work must be done on the liquid against these attractive molecular

* The word latent is from the Latin latere, meaning hidden or concealed.
5 When a gas cools, eventually returns to the liquid phase, or condenses. The heat given up per
it

unit mass is called the heat ofcondensation, which equals the heat of vaporization. Likewise, when
a liquid cools it eventually solidifies, and the heat of solidification equals the heat of fusion.

TABLE 20.2 Heats of Fusion and Vaporization

Heat of
Heat of Boiling Point Vaporization
Substance Melting Point (°C) Fusion (J/kg) CC) (J/kg)

Helium
534 CHAPTER 20 HEAT AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

forces in order to separate the molecules. The heat of vaporization is the

amount of energy must be added to the liquid to accomplish this.
that
Similarly, at the melting point of a solid, we imagine that the amplitude of
vibration of the atoms about their equilibrium position becomes large enough
to overcome the attractive forces binding the atoms into their fixed positions.
The heat energy required for total melting of a given mass of solid is equal to
the work required to break these bonds and to transform the mass from the
ordered solid phase to the disordered liquid phase.
Because the average distance between atoms in the gas phase is much
larger than in either the liquid or the solid phase, we could expect that more
work is required to vaporize a given mass of a substance then to melt it.
Therefore, it is not surprising that the heat of vaporization is much larger than
the heat of fusion for a given substance (Table 20.2).
Consider, for example, the heat required to convert a 1-g block of ice at
— 30° C to steam (water vapor) at 1 20 °C. Figure 20.2 indicates the experimen-
tal results obtained when heat is gradually added to the ice. Let us examine

each portion of the curve separately.

Part A During this portion of the curve, we are changing the temperature of
the ice from — 30° C to 0°C. Since the specific heat of ice is 2090 J/kg-C°, we
can calculate the amount of heat added as follows:

Q=m iCi AT= (10" 3 kg)(2090 J/kg-C°)(30 C°) = 62.7 J

Part B When the ice reaches 0°C, the ice/water mixture remains at this
temperature — even though heat is being added —
until all the ice melts. The
heat required to melt 1 g of ice at 0°C is

Q = mL = f
(10- 3 kg)(3.33 X 10 s J/kg) = 333 J

Part C Between 0°C and 100°C, nothing surprising happens. No phase

change occurs in this region. The heat added to the water is being used to
increase its temperature. The amount of heat necessary to increase the tem-
perature from 0°C to 100°C is

Q = m^ AT= (10- 3 kg)(4.19 X 10 3 J/kg-C°)(100 C) = 4.19 X 10 2 J

Figure 20.2 A plot of temperature versus heat added when 1 g of ice initially at — 30°C is

converted to steam.
 20.3 LATENT HEAT 535

Part D At 100° C, another phase change occurs as the water changes from
water at 100°C to steam at 100°C. We can find the amount of heat required to
produce this phase change by using Equation 20.6. In this case, we must set
L = L v the heat of vaporization. Since the heat of vaporization for water is
,

2.26 X 10 6 J/kg, the amount of heat we must add to convert 1 g of water to

steam at 100°C is

Q = mL = v
(10~ 3 kg)(2.26 X 10 6 J/kg) = 2.26 X 10 3 J

Part E On this portion of the curve, is being added to the steam with no
heat
phase change occurring. Using 2.01 X
10 3 J/kg-C° for the specific heat of
steam, we find that the heat we must add to raise the temperature of the steam
to 120°Cis

Q = m c AT =(10- 3 kg)(2. 01 X
s s 10 3 J/kg-C°)(20 C°) = 40.2 J

The total amount of heat that must be added to change one gram of ice at
- 30°C to steam at 1 20 °C is about 3. 1 1 X 1 3 J. That is, if we cool one gram of
steam at 120°C down to the point at which we have ice at — 30 °C, we must
remove 3.11 X 10 3 J of heat.

EXAMPLE 20.4 Cooling the Steam

What mass of steam initially at 130°C is needed to warm m = x 1.09 X 10- 2 kg = 10.9 g
200 g of water in a 100-g glass container from 20 °C to
50°C?

Solution This is a heat transfer problem in which we

must equate the heat lost by the steam to the heat gained EXAMPLE 20.5 Boiling Liquid Helium
by the water and glass container. There are three stages Liquid helium has a very low boiling point, 4.2 K, and a
as the steam loses heat. In the first stage, the steam is very low heat of vaporization, 2.09 X 10 4 J/kg (Table
cooled to 100°C. The heat liberated in the process is 20.2). A constant power of 10 W W=
(1 1 J/s) is trans-
ferred to a container of liquid helium from an immersed
Q, = m xc AT = m x (2. 01 X 10 3 J/kg-C°)(30 C°)
s
electric heater. At this rate, how long does it take to boil
= m x (6.03 X 10 4 J/kg) away kg of liquid helium? Liquid helium has a density
1
3
of 0.125 g/cm so that 1 kg corresponds to a volume of
,

In the second stage, the steam converted to water.

8 X 10 3 cm 3 = 8 liters of liquid.
is

In this case, to find the heat removed, we use the heat of

vaporization and Q = mL v :

Solution Since L v = 2.09 X 10 4 J/kg for liquid helium,

Q 2 = m x (2.26X 10 6 J/kg) we must supply X
10 4 J of energy to boil away 1 kg.
2.09

In the last stage, the temperature of the water is

The power supplied to the helium is 1 = 1 J/s. That W
is, in Is, 10 J of energy is transferred to the helium.
reduced to 50°C. This liberates an amount of heat
Therefore, the time it takes to transfer 2.09 X 10 4 J is
Q3 = m zcw AT=m x (4.l9X 10 3 J/kg-C°)(50 C°)
_2.09X10 4 J
= m x (2.09X = 2.09X10 3 s= 35
10 5 J/kg) 10 J/s

If we equate the heat lost by the steam to the heat Since kg of helium corresponds to 8 liters, this means a
1

gained by the water and glass and use the given informa- boil-off rate of about 0.23 liter/min. In contrast, 1 kg of
tion, we find liquid nitrogen would boil away in about 5.6 h at the rate
of 10 J/s!
m x (6.03 X 10 4 J/kg) + m x (2.26 X 10 6 J/kg)

+ m x (2.09X 10 5 J/kg) Exercise 3 If 1 W of power is supplied to 1 kg of water

= at100°C, how long will it take for the water to boil away
(0.2kg)(4.19X 10 3 J/kg-C o )(30C)
completely?
+ (0.1kg)(837J/kg-C°)(30C°) Answer 62.8 h.
536 CHAPTER 20 HEAT AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

20.4 WORK AND HEAT IN THERMODYNAMIC

PROCESSES
In the macroscopic approach to thermodynamics we describe the state of a
system with such variables as pressure, volume, temperature, and internal
energy. The number of macroscopic variables needed to characterize a system
depends on the nature of the system. For a homogeneous system, such as a gas
containing only one type of molecule, usually only two variables are needed,
such as pressure and volume. However, it is important to note that a macro-
scopic state of an isolated system can be specified only if the system is in
thermal equilibrium internally. In the case of a gas in a container, internal
thermal equilibrium requires that every part of the container be at the same
pressure and temperature.
Consider gas contained in a cylinder fitted with a movable piston (Fig.
20.3). In equilibrium, the gas occupies a volume V and exerts a uniform
pressure P on the cylinder walls and piston. If the piston has a cross-sectional
area A, the force exerted by the gas on the piston is F = PA. Now let us assume
that the gas expands quasi-statically, that is, slowly enough to allow the system
to remain essentially in thermodynamic equilibrium at all times. As the piston
moves up a distance dy, the work done by the gas on the piston is

dW = F dy = PA dy
Since A dy is the increase in volume of the gas dV, we can express the work
done as

dW=PdV (20.7)

Figure 20.3 Gas contained in a cylinder at a pressure P does work on a moving piston as the
system expands from a volume V to a volume V + d V.
 20.4 WORK AND HEAT IN THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES 537

If the gasexpands, as in Figure 20.3b, then dVis positive and the work done by
the gas positive, whereas if the gas is compressed, dVis negative, indicating
is
Vrea undei
that the work done by the gas is negative. (In the latter case, negative work can
be interpreted as being work done on the system.) Clearly, the work done by
the system is zerowhen the volume remains constant. The total work done by
the gas as its volume changes from Vj to Vf is given by the integral of Equa-
tion 20.7:

W PdV (20.8)
Figure 20.4 A gas expands re-
versibly (slowly) from state i to

To evaluate this integral, one must know how the pressure varies during the state / The work done by the gas
equals the area under the PVcurve.
process. (Note that a process is not specified merely by giving the
initial and

final states. That is, change in state of the system.)

a process is a fully specified
In general, the pressure is not constant, but depends on the volume and
temperature. If the pressure and volume are known at each step of the process,
the states of the gas can then be represented as a curve on a PV diagram, as in
Figure 20.4.

The work done in the expansion from the initial state to the final state is Work equals area under the
the area under the curve in a PV diagram. curve in a PV diagram
As one can see from Figure 20.4, the work done in the expansion from the
initial state, i, to the final state, f, will depend on the specific path taken

between these two states. To illustrate this important point, consider several
different paths connecting i and f (Fig. 20.5). In the process described in
Figure 20.5a, the pressure of the gas is first reduced from P to Pf by cooling t

at constant volume Vj, and the gas then expands from Vj to Vf at constant pres-
sure Pf The work done along this path is Pf (Vf — Vj). In Figure 20.5b, the gas
.

first expands from V to Vf at constant pressure P,, and then its pressure
t

is reduced to Pf at constant volume Vf The work done along this path is

.

Pj(Vf — VJ, which is greater than that for the process described in Figure
20.5a. Finally, for the process described in Figure 20.5c, where both P and V
change continuously, the work done has some value intermediate between the
values obtained in the first two processes. To evaluate the work in this case, the
shape of the PV curve must be known. Therefore, we see that

the work done by a system depends on the process by which the system Work done depends on the
goes from the initial to the final state. In other words, the work done path between the initial and
depends on the initial, final, and intermediate states of the system. final states

p <
—9 "T
-

-
P, -if
Figure 20.5 The work done by a
gas as it is taken from an initial state
v, vt

to a final state depends on the path

(a) (b) between these states.
538 CHAPTER 20 HEAT AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Insulating
Insulating
wall
wall

Vacuum

(a)
1 (b)
, Membrane

Gas at T: Gas at T.

Heat reservoir
at T:

Figure 20.6 (a) A gas at temperature T expands slowly by absorbing heat from a reservoir at the
t

same temperature, (b) A gas expands rapidly into an evacuated region after a membrane is broken.

In a similar manner, the heat transferred into or out of the system is also
found to depend on the process. This can be demonstrated by considering the
situations described in Figure 20.6. In each case, the gas has the same initial
volume, temperature, and pressure and is assumed to be ideal. In Figure
20.6a, the gas is in thermal contact with a heat reservoir. If the pressure of the
gas is infinitesimally greater than atmospheric pressure, the gas will expand
and cause the piston to rise. During this expansion to some final volume Vf ,

sufficient heat to maintain a constant temperature T will be transferred from

(

the reservoir to the gas.

Now consider the thermally insulated system shown in Figure 20.6b.
When the membrane is broken, the gas expands rapidly into the vacuum until
it occupies a volume V In this case, the gas does no work since there is no
{ .

movable Furthermore, no heat is transferred through the thermally

piston.
insulated wall, which we call an adiahatic wall. This process is often referred to
Free expansion of a gas as adiabatic free expansion, or simply free expansion. In general, an adiabatic
process is one in which no heat is transferred between the system and its
surroundings.
The initial and of the ideal gas in Figure 20.6a are identical to
final states
the initial and Figure 20.6b, but the paths are different. In the
final states in
first case, heat is transferred slowly to the gas, and the gas does work on the

piston. In the second case, no heat is transferred and the work done is zero.
Therefore, we conclude that heat, like work, depends on the initial, final, and
intermediate states of the system. Furthermore, since heat and work depend on
the path, neither quantity is independently conserved during a thermody-
namic process.

20.5 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

When the law of conservation of energy was first introduced in Chapter 8, it
was stated that the mechanical energy of a system is conserved in the absence
of nonconservative forces, such as friction. That is, the changes in the internal
energy of the system were not included in this mechanical model.

The first law of thermodynamics is a generalization of the law of conser-

vation of energy and includes possible changes in internal energy.
 20.5 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 539

It is a universally valid law that can be applied to all kinds of processes.

Furthermore, it provides us with a connection between the microscopic and

macroscopic worlds.
We have seen that energy can be transferred between a system and its
surroundings in two ways. One is work done by (or on) the system. This mode
of energy exchange results in measurable changes in the macroscopic vari- Change in internal energ)
ables of the system, such as the pressure, temperature, and volume of a gas.
The other is heat transfer, which takes place at the microscopic level.
To put these ideas on a more quantitative basis, suppose a thermodynamic
system undergoes a change from an initial state to a final state in which Q units
of heat are absorbed (or removed) and W
is the work done by (or on) the

system. 6 For example, the system may be a gas whose pressure and volume
change from Fj,Vi to Ff,Vf If the quantity O — Wis measured for various paths
.

connecting the initial and final equilibrium states (that is, for various pro-
cesses), one finds that Q — W
is the same for all paths connecting the initial and

final states. We conclude that the quantity O — W

is determined completely

by the initial and final states of the system, and we call the quantity O — Wthe
change in the internal energy of the system. Although Q and Wboth depend on
the path, the quantity Q — W, that is, the change in internal energy, is indepen-
dent of the path. If we represent the internal energy function by the letter U,
then the change in internal energy, AU— U( — Uu can be expressed as

AU=U -U = Q-W
f i (20.9) First law of thermodynamics

where all must have the same energy units. Equation 20.9 is known
quantities
law of thermodynamics. When it is used in this form, Q is positive
as the first
when heat enters the system and W
is positive when work is done by the

system.
When a system
undergoes an infinitesimal change in state, where a small
amount of heat, dQ, transferred and a small amount of work, d W, is done, the
is

internal energy also changes by a small amount, dU. Thus, for infinitesimal
processes we can express the first law as 7
First law of thermodynamics
dU=dQ-dW (20.10)
for infinitesimal changes
Ona microscopic level, the internal energy of a system includes the
kinetic and potential energies of the molecules making up the system. In
thermodynamics, we do not concern ourselves with the specific form of the
internal energy. We simply use Equation 20.9 as a definition of the change in
internal energy. One can make an analogy here between the potential energy
function associated with a body moving under the influence of gravity without
friction. The potential energy function is independent of the path, and it is
only its change that is of concern. Likewise, the change in internal energy of a
thermodynamic system is what matters, since only differences are defined.
Any reference state can be chosen for the internal energy since absolute values
are not defined.
6
We use the convention that Q is positive if the system absorbs heat and negative if it loses heat.
Likewise, the work done is positive if the system does work on the surroundings and negative if
work is done on the system.
7
Note that dQ and dW are not true differential quantities, although dU is a true differential. In
fact, dQ and dW are inexact differentials and are often represented by dQ and dW. For further
on this point, see an advanced text in thermodynamics, such as M.
details W. Zemansky and R. H.
Dittman, Heat and Thermodynamics, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1981.
540 CHAPTER 20 HEAT AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Now let us look at some special cases. First consider an isolated system,
that one that does not interact with its surroundings. In this case, there is no
is,

heat flow and the work done is zero; hence the internal energy remains con-
stant. That is, since Q = W
= 0, AC/ = 0, and so U = Uf We conclude that
{
.

Isolated systems the internal energy of an isolated system remains constant.

Next consider a process in which the system is taken through a cyclic

is, one that originates and ends at the same state. In this case, the
process, that
change in the internal energy is zero and the heat added to the system must
equal the work done during the cycle. That is, in a cyclic process,

Cyclic process AU=0 and Q=W

Note that the net work done per cycle equals the area enclosed by the path
representing the process on a PV diagram. As we shall see in Chapter 22, cyclic
processes are very important in describing the thermodynamics of heat en-
gines, which are devices in which some part of the heat energy input is ex-
tracted as mechanical work.
If a process occurs in which the work done is zero, then the change in
internal energy equals the heat entering or leaving the system. If heat enters
the system, Q is positive and the internal energy increases. For a gas, we can
associate this increase in internal energy with an increase in the kinetic energy
of the molecules. On the other hand, if a process occurs in which the heat
transferred is zero and work is done by the system, then the change in internal
energy equals the negative of the work done by the system. That is, the
internal energy of the system decreases. For example, if a gas is compressed
with no heat transferred (by a moving piston, say), the work done is negative
and the internal energy again increases. This is because kinetic energy is
transferred from the moving piston to the gas molecules.
We have seen that there is really no distinction between heat and work on
a microscopic scale. Both can produce a change in the internal energy of a
system. Although the macroscopic quantities Q and W
are not properties of a
system, they are related to the internal energy of the system through the first
law of thermodynamics. Once a process or path is defined, Q and can be W
calculated or measured, and the change in internal energy can be found from
the first law. One of the important consequences of the first law is that there is
a quantity called internal energy, the value of which is determined by the state
of the system. The internal energy function is therefore called a state fund ion.

20.6 SOME APPLICATIONS OF THE FIRST LAW OF

THERMODYNAMICS
In order to apply the first law of thermodynamics to specific systems, it is

useful to first define some common thermodynamic processes.

Adiabatic process An adiabatic process is defined as a process for which no heat enters or
leaves the system, that is, Q = 0.
Applying the first law of thermodynamics in this case, we see that

First law for an adiabatic AU=-W (20.11)

process
 20.6 SOME APPLICATIONS OF THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 541

An adiabatic process can be achieved either by thermally insulating the system

from its surroundings (say, with Styrofoam or an evacuated wall) or by per-
forming the process rapidly. From this result, we see that if a gas expands
adiabatically , W
is positive, so At/ is negative and the gas is lowered in temper-

ature. Conversely, a gas is raised in temperature when it is compressed adia-

batically.
Adiabatic processes are very important in engineering practice. Some
common examples of adiabatic processes include the expansion of hot gases in
an internal combustion engine, the liquefaction of gases in a cooling system,
and the compression stroke in a diesel engine.
The free expansion process described in Figure 20.6b is an adiabatic pro-
cess in which no work is done on or by the gas. Since Q = and = 0, we see W
from the law that AU =
first for this process. That is, the initial and final
internal energies of a gas are equal in an adiabatic free expansion. As we shall
see in the next chapter, the internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on its
temperature. Thus, we would expect no change in temperature during an
adiabatic free expansion. This is in accord with experiments performed at low
pressures. Careful experiments at high pressures for real gases show a slight
decrease in temperature after the expansion.

A at constant pressure is called an isobaric process.

process that occurs Isobaric process
When such a process occurs, the lieat transferred and the work clone are
both nonzero. The work done is simply the pressure multiplied by the
change in volume, or P(V( — VJ.

A process that takes place at constant volume is called an isovolumetric

process. In such a process, the work done is clearly zero.

Hence from the first law we see that

First law for constant-

AU=Q (20.12) volume process
;i

This tells us that if heat is added to a system kept at constant volume, all of the
heat goes into increasing the internal energy of the system. When a mixture of
gasoline vapor and air explodes in the cylinder of an engine, the temperature
and pressure rise suddenly because the cylinder volume doesn't change ap-
preciably during the short duration of the explosion.
Isothermal process
A process that occurs at constant temperature is called an isothermal
process, and a plot of P versus Vat constant temperature for an ideal gas
Isotherm
yields a hyperbolic curve called an isotherm. The internal energy of an
ideal gas is a function of temperature only. Hence, in an isothermal pro-
cess of an ideal gas, AU= 0. PV = constant

Isothermal Expansion of an Ideal Gas

Suppose an ideal gas is allowed to expand quasi-statically at constant tempera-

ture as described by the PV diagram in Figure 20.7. The curve is a hyperbola
with the equation PV = constant. Let us calculate the work done by the gas in
the expansion from state to state f. i

The isothermal expansion of the gas can be achieved by placing the gas in Figure 20.7 The PV diagram for
an isothermal expansion of an ideal
good thermal contact with a heat reservoir at the same temperature, as in gas from an initial state to a final
Figure 20.6a. state. The curve is a hyperbola.
542 CHAPTER 20 HEAT AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The work done by the gas is given by Equation 20.8. Since the gas is ideal
and the process is quasi-static, we can apply PV = nRT for each point on the
path. Therefore, we have

w= r Pdv = r^dv
"
Jv, Jv,

But T is constant in this case; therefore it can be removed from the integral.
This gives

W = nRT f
Jv,
Vf

—
dv
V
= nRT In V
T<
Jv,

To evaluate the integral, we used I —= In x (Table B.5 in Appendix B). Thus,

we find

Work done in an
isothermal process
W = nRT\n(^f) (20.13)

Numerically, this work equals the shaded area under the PV curve in Figure
20.7. If the gas expands isothermally, then Vf > V and we see that the work f

done by the gas is positive, as we would expect. If the gas is compressed

isothermally, then Vf < V and the work done by the gas is negative. (Negative
{

work here implies that positive work must be done on the gas by some external
agent to compress it.) In the next chapter we shall find that the internal energy
of an ideal gas depends only on temperature. Hence, for an isothermal process
AU = 0, and from the first law we conclude that the heat given up by the
reservoir (and transferred to the gas) equals the work done by the gas, or
Q=W.
The Boiling Process

Suppose that a liquid of mass m vaporizes at constant pressure P. Its volume in

the liquid state is V( , and its volume in the vapor state is Vv . Let us find the
work done the expansion and the change in internal energy of the system.
in
Since the expansion takes place at constant pressure, the work done by the
system is

fV
(•V,v rVyv
fV
W-= 1 PdV=P\ dV=P(Vv -V ()
Jv, Jv,

The heat that must be transferred to the liquid to vaporize all of it is equal to
Q = mLv , where Lv is the heat of vaporization of the liquid. Using the first law

and the result above, we get

AU=Q- W=mL v -P(Vv - Vt ) (20.14)

EXAMPLE 20.6 Work Done During an Isothermal Solution Substituting these values into Equation 20.13
Expansion gives
Calculate the work done by 1 mole of an ideal gas that is
/ V
kept at 0°C in an expansion from 3 liters to 10 liters. W = nRT In — \ I £ )
 20.7 HEAT TRANSFER 543

Solution The change in volume of the copper can be

mole)(8.31 J/mole K)(273 K)
(1 •
1
(¥) calculated using Equation 19.9 and the volume expan-
sion coefficient for copper taken from Table 19.2 (re-

= membering that = 3a):

2.73 X10 3 J /?

AV = /?VAT=|5.1 X 10- 5 (C°)- 1 ](50°C-20°C)V

The heat that must be supplied to the gas from the reser-
= 1.5 X 10~ 3 V
voir to keep T constant is also 2.73 X 10 3 J.

But the volume is equal to m/p, and the density of copper

is 8.92 X 10 kg/m
3 3
Hence, .

1 kg
EXAMPLE 20.7 Boiling Water AV=(1.5X10- 3 )(
One gram of water occupies a volume of 1 cm 3 at atmos- 892x 1 kg/m3 )
pheric pressure. When this amount of water is boiled, it = 1.7 X 10- 7 m3
becomes 1671 cm 3 of steam. Calculate the change in
Since the expansion takes place at constant pressure, the
internal energy for this process.
work done is given by
Solution Since the heat of vaporization of water is W= P AV= (1.013 X 10 s N/m 2 )(1.7 X 10~7 m 3 )

2.26 X 10 6 J/kg at atmospheric pressure, the heat re-

quired to boil 1 g of water is = 1.9X10~ 2
J
Q = 7»LV = (1 X 10- 3 kg)(2.26 X 10 6 J/kg) = 2260 J
(b) What quantity of heat is transferred to the
The work done by the system is positive and equal to
copper?
W=P(VV - Ve )
Solution Taking the specific heat of copper from Table
= (1.013 X 10 5 N/m 2 )[(1671 - 1) X 10~ 6 m3 ] 20.1 and using Equation 20.4, we find that the heat
= transferred is
169 J

Hence, the change in internal energy is given by Q = mcAT=(l kg)(387J/kg-C°)(30C)

AU=Q- W=2260J- 169 = 2091

= 1.16X10 4 J
J J

The internal energy of the system increases since AU is (c) What is the increase in internal energy of the

positive. We see that most of the heat (93%) that is trans- copper?
ferred to the liquid goes into increasing the internal en-
ergy. Only a small fraction of the heat (7%) goes into
Solution From the first law of thermodynamics, the in-
crease in internal energy is found to be
external work.

AU=Q-W= 1.16X10 4 J

EXAMPLE 20.8 Heat Transferred to a Solid Note that almost all of the heat transferred goes into
The internal energy of a solid also increases when heat is increasing the internal energy. The fraction of heat en-
transferred to from its surroundings.
it ergy that is used to do work against the atmosphere is
A 1-kg bar of copper is heated at atmospheric pres- -6
only about 10 Hence, in the thermal expansion of a
!

sure. If its temperature increases from 20°C to 50°C, solid or a liquid, the small amount of work done is usually
(a) find the work done by the copper. ignored.

20.7 HEAT TRANSFER

it is important to understand the rate at which heat is transferred
In practice,
between a system and its surroundings and the mechanisms responsible for the
heat transfer. You may have used a Thermos bottle or some other thermally
insulated vessel to store hot coffee (or ice water) for a length of time. The
vessel reduces heat transfer between the outside air and the hot coffee. Ulti-
544 CHAPTER 20 HEAT AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

mately, of course, the liquid will reach air temperature since the vessel is not a
perfect insulator. There will be no heat transfer between a system and its
surroundings when they are at the same temperature.

Heat Conduction
The easiest heat transfer process to describe quantitatively is called heat con-
duction. In this process, the heat transfer can be viewed on an atomic scale as
an exchange of kinetic energy between molecules, where the less energetic
particles gain energy by colliding with the more energetic particles. For exam-
Melted snow pattern on a parking
ple, if you insert a metallic bar into a flame while holding one end, you will find
lot indicates the presence of under-
ground steam pipes used to aid that the temperature of the metal in your hand increases. The heat reaches
snow removal. Heat from the steam your hand through conduction. The manner in which heat is transferred from
is conducted to the pavement from
the flame, through the bar, and to your hand can be understood by examining
the pipes, causing the snow to melt.
(Courtesy of Dr. Albert A. Bartlett, what is happening to the atoms and electrons of the metal. Initially, before the
University of Colorado, Boulder) rod is inserted into the flame, the metal atoms and electrons are vibrating
about their equilibrium positions. As the flame heats the rod, those metal
atoms and electrons near the flame begin to vibrate with larger and larger
amplitudes. These, in turn, collide with their neighbors and transfer some of
their energy in the collisions. Slowly, metal atoms and electrons farther down
the rod increase their amplitude of vibration, until the large-amplitude vibra-
tions arrive at the end being held. The effect of this increased vibration is an
increase in temperature of the metal, and possibly a burned hand.
Although the transfer of heat through a metal can be partially explained
by atomic vibrations and electron motion, the rate of heat conduction also
depends on the properties of the substance being heated. For example, it is
possible to hold a piece of asbestos in a flame indefinitely. This implies that
very little heat is being conducted through the asbestos. In general, metals are

good conductors of heat, and materials such as asbestos, cork, paper, and fiber
glass arepoor conductors. Gases also are poor heat conductors because of their
dilute nature. Metals are good conductors of heat because they contain large
numbers of electrons that are relatively free to move through the metal and
can transport energy from one region to another. Thus, in a good conductor,
such as copper, heat conduction takes place via the vibration of atoms and via
the motion of free electrons.
The conduction of heat occurs only if there is a difference in temperature
between two parts of the conducting medium. Consider a slab of material of
thickness Ax and cross-sectional area A with its opposite faces at different
temperatures T and T2 where T2 > Tj (Fig. 20.8). One finds from experiment
2 ,

that the heat AQ transferred in a time At flows from the hotter end to the colder
end. The rate at which heat flows, AQ/Af, is found to be proportional to the
cross-sectional area, the temperature difference, and inversely proportional
Heat flow
for To>T,
\m Ax
to the thickness. That is,

AQ
At
AT
Ax

Figure 20.8 Heat transfer It is convenient to use the symbol H to represent the heat transfer rate.
through a conducting slab of cross- That is, we take H = AQ/At. Note that H has units of watts when AQ is in joules
A
sectional area
The opposite
and thickness Ax.
faces are at different and Af is in seconds (1 W
= 1 J/s). For a slab of infinitesimal thickness dx and
temperatures, T and T 2
1
. temperature difference dT, we can write the law of heat conduction
 20.7 HEAT TRANSFER 545

Figure 20.9 Conduction of heat

Heat flow through a uniform, insulated rod of
length L. The opposite ends are in
thermal contact with heat reser-
T,>T, voirs at two different tempera-
Insulation
tures.

H — kAf dx
(20.15) Law of heat conduction

where the proportionality constant k is called the thermal conductivity of the

material, and dT/dx is the temperature gradient (the variation of temperature
with position). The minus sign in Equation 20.15 denotes the fact that heat
flows in the direction of decreasing temperature. TABLE 20.3 Thermal
Conductivities
Suppose a substance is in the shape of a long uniform rod of length L, as in
Figure 20.9, and is insulated so that no heat can escape from its surface except
at the ends, which are in thermal contact with heat reservoirs having tempera-

tures Tj and T2 When a steady state has been reached, the temperature at
.

each point along the rod is constant in time. In this case, the temperature
At t
gradient is the same everywhere along the rod and is given by —
dx
=
T
.

Thus the heat transfer rate is

(r« - r,)
H = kA (20.16)

Substances that are good heat conductors have large thermal conductivity
values, whereas good thermal insulators have low thermal conductivity
values. Table 20.3 lists thermal conductivities for various substances. see We
that metals are generally better thermal conductors than nonmetals.
For a compound slab containing several materials of thicknesses L 1;
L2 , and thermal conductivities k 1} k2 the rate of heat transfer
, . . . ,

through the slab at steady state is given by

a(t2 - r.)
H= (20.17)
2 (LA)

where Tx and T2 are the temperatures of the outer extremities of the slab
(which are held constant) and the summation is over all slabs. The following
example is a proof of this result for the case of heat transfer through two slabs.
546 CHAPTER 20 HEAT AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Likewise, the rate at which heat is transferred throug

slab 2 is

(2) H - Wi r)
^2
When a steady state is reached, these two rates must be
equal; hence

k1 A(T-T _ 1 )
k 2 A(T2 -T)
Lj L2
Solving for T gives
ACiijo*! ' K 2 I-j 1
1 £
(3)
^lLj + k 2 L±

Substituting (3) into either (1) or (2), we get

ACTg-r,)
Figure 20. 1 Heat transfer by conduction through two slabs in (LJkJ + (L 2 /k 2 )
thermal contact with each other. At steady state, the rate of heat
transfer through slab 1 equals the rate of heat transfer through
An extension of this model to several slabs of materials
slab 2. leads to Equation 20.17.

"Home Insulation

If you would like to do some calculating to determine whether or not to add

some other portion of a building, what you have just
insulation to a ceiling or to
learned about conduction needs to be modified slightly, for two reasons.
(1) The insulating properties of materials used in buildings are usually ex-
pressed in engineering rather than SI units. For example, measurements
stamped on a package of fiber glass insulating board will be in units such as
British thermal units, feet, and degrees Fahrenheit.(2) In dealing with the
insulation of a building, we must
consider heat conduction through a com-
pound slab, with each portion of the slab having a different thickness and a
different thermal conductivity. For example, a typical wall in a house consists
of an array of materials, such as wood paneling, dry wall, insulation, sheathing,
and wood siding.
The houses in this thermogram In Example 20.9, we showed how to deal with heat conduction through a
look much like jack-o'-lanterns as
the heat inside them escapes. This two-layered slab. A general formula for heat transfer through a compound slab
image, made during cold weather, is given by Equation 20.17. For example, if the slab consists of three different
was produced with an infrared materials, the denominator of Equation 20.17 will consist of the sum of three
scanner. (VANSCAN 8 Thermo-
gram by Daedalus Enterprises, terms. In engineering practice, the term L/k for a particular substance is
Inc.)
 20.7 HEAT TRANSFER 547

TABLE 20.4 R Values for Some Common Building Materials

2
Material Rvalue (ft F°- h/BTU)

Hardwood siding (1 in. thick) 0.91

Wood shingles (lapped) 0.87
Brick (4 in. thick) 4.00
Concrete block (filled cores) 1.93
Fiber glass batting (3.5 in. thick) 10.90
Fiber glass batting (6 in. thick) 18.80
Fiber glass board (1 in. thick) 4.35
Cellulose fiber (1 in. thick) 3.70
Flat glass (0.125 in. thick) 0.89
Insulating glass (0.25-in. space) 1.54
Vertical air space (3.5 in. thick) 1.01
Air film 0.17
Dry wall (0.5 in. thick) 0.45
Sheathing (0.5 in. thick) 1.32

referred to as the R value of the material. Thus, Equation 20.17 reduces to

tf = (20.18)
2R,

where R — Ljk, The R values for a few common building materials are given
{
.

in Table 20.4 (note the units).

Also, near any vertical surface there is a very thin, stagnant layer of air that
must be considered when finding the total R value for a wall. The thickness of
this stagnant layer on an outside wall depends on the velocity of the wind. As a
result, heat loss from a house on a day when the wind is blowing hard is greater
than heat loss on a day when the wind velocity is zero. A representative R value
for this stagnant layer of air is given in Table 20.4.

EXAMPLE 20.10 The R Value

of a Typical Wall Solution Referring to Table 20.4, we find the total R
Calculate the total R
value for a wall constructed as value for the wall as follows:
shown in Figure 20.11a. Starting outside the house (to
Rx (outside air film) = 0. 1 7 ft
2 • F° h/BTU
•

the left in Fig. 20.11a) and moving inward, the wall con-
sists of brick, 0.5 of sheathing, a vertical air space
in. R2 (brick)
3.5 in. thick, and 0.5 in. of dry wall. Do not forget the
dead-air layers inside and outside the house.

Sheathing Insulation

Dry
wall

Brick -B

Air space
(a) (b)

Figure 20. 1 1 (Example 20. 1 0) Cross-sectional view of an ex-

terior wall containing (a) an air space and (b) insulation.
548 CHAPTER 20 HEAT AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Convection

At one time or another you probably have warmed your hands by holding them
over an open flame. In this situation, the air directly above the flame is heated
and expands. As a result, the density of the air decreases and the air rises. This
warmed mass of air heats your hands as it flows by. Heat transferred by the
movement of a heated substance is said to have been transferred by convection.
When the movement results from differences in density, as in the example of
airaround a fire, it is referred to as natural convection. When the heated
substance is forced to move by a fan or pump, as in some hot-air and hot-water
heating systems, the process is called forced convection.
The circulating pattern of air flow at a beach is an example of convection.
Likewise, the mixing that occurs as water is cooled and eventually freezes at its
surface (Chapter 19) is an example of convection in nature. Recall that the

mixing by convection currents ceases when the water temperature reaches

4°C. Since the water in the lake cannot be cooled by convection below 4°C,
and because water is a relatively poor conductor of heat, the water near the
bottom remains near 4°C for a long time. As a result, fish have a comfortable
temperature in which to live even in periods of prolonged cold weather.
If it were not for convection currents, it would be very difficult to boil
water. As water is heated in a teakettle, the lower layers are warmed first.
These heated regions expand and rise to the top because their density is
lowered. At the same time, the denser cool water replaces the warm water at
the bottom of the kettle so that it can be heated.
The same process occurs when a room is heated by a radiator. The hot
radiator warms the air in the lower regions of the room. The warm air expands
and rises to the ceiling because of its lower density. The denser regions of
Figure 20.12 Convection cur-
cooler air from above replace the warm air, setting up the continuous air
rents are set up in a room heated by
a radiator. current pattern shown in Figure 20.12.

Radiation

The third way of transferring heat is through radiation. All objects radiate
energy continuously in the form of electromagnetic waves, which we shall
discuss in Chapter 34. The type of radiation associated with the transfer of
heat energy from one location to another is referred to as infrared radiation.
Through electromagnetic radiation, approximately 1340 J of heat energy
from the sun strikes 1 m 2 of the top of the earth's atmosphere every second.
Some of this energy is reflected back into space and some is absorbed by the
atmosphere, but enough arrives at the surface of the earth each day to supply
all of our energy needs on this planet hundreds of times over —if it could be

captured and used efficiently. The growth in the number of solar houses in this
country is one example of an attempt to make use of this free energy.
Radiant energy from the sun affects our day-to-day existence in a number
of ways. It influences the earth's average temperature, ocean currents, agri-
culture, rain patterns, and so on. For example, consider what happens to the
atmospheric temperature at night. If there is a cloud cover above the earth, the
water vapor in the clouds reflects back a part of the infrared radiation emitted
by the earth and consequently the temperature remains at moderate levels. In
the absence of this cloud cover, however, there is nothing to prevent this
radiation from escaping into space, and thus the temperature drops more on a
clear night than when it is cloudy.
 20.7 HEAT TRANSFER 549

The rate at which an object emits radiant energy is proportional to the

fourth power of its absolute temperature. This is known as Stefan's law and is
expressed in equation form as

P = oAeT* (20.19) Stefan's law

where P is the power radiated by the body in watts (or joules per second), a is a
constant equal to 5.6696 X 10 -8 W/m 2 -K 4 A is the surface area of the object
,

in square meters, e is a constant called the emissivity, and Tis temperature in

kelvins. The value of e can vary between zero and unity, depending on the
properties of the surface.
An object radiates energy at a rate given by Equation 20.19. At the same
time, the object also absorbs electromagnetic radiation. If the latter process
did not occur, an object would eventually radiate all of its energy and its
temperature would reach absolute zero. The energy that a body absorbs
comes from its surroundings, which consists of other objects which radiate
energy. If an object is at a temperature Tand its surroundings are at a tempera-
ture T the net energy gained or lost each second by the object as a result of
,

radiation is given by

Pnet = crAe(T<-V) (20.20)

When an object is with its surroundings, it radiates and

in equilibrium
absorbs energy at the same rate, and so its temperature remains constant. When
an object is hotter than its surroundings, it radiates more energy than it ab-
sorbs and so it cools. An ideal absorber is defined as an object that absorbs all of
the energy incident on it. The emissivity of an ideal absorber is equal to unity.
Such an object is often referred to as a black body. An ideal absorber is also an
ideal radiator of energy. In contrast, an object with an emissivity equal to zero
absorbs none of the energy incident on it. Such an object reflects all the
incident energy and so is a perfect reflector.

The Dewar Flask

The Thermos bottle, called a Dewar flask6 in the scientific community, is a
practical example of a container designed to minimize heat losses by conduc-
tion, convection, and radiation. Such a container is used to store either cold or
hot liquids for long periods of time. The standard construction (Fig. 20.13)
consists of a double-walled pyrex vessel with silvered inner walls. The space
between the walls is evacuated to minimize heat transfer by conduction and
convection. The silvered surfaces minimize heat transfer by radiation by re-
flecting most of the radiant heat. Very little heat is lost over the neck of the
flask since glass is not a very good conductor, and the cross-section of the glass
in the direction of conduction is small. A further reduction in heat loss is

obtained by reducing the size of the neck. Dewar flasks are commonly used to
store liquid nitrogen (boiling point 77 K) and liquid oxygen (boiling point
90 K).
For another cryogenic liquid, such as liquid helium, which has a very low
specific heat (boiling point 4.2 K), it is often necessary to use a double Dewar
system in which the Dewar flask containing the liquid is surrounded by a
second Dewar flask. The space between the two flasks is filled with liquid
nitrogen.

8 Invented by Sir James Dewar (1842-1923).

550 CHAPTER 20 HEAT AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

EXAMPLE 20.11 Who Turned Down the Pne ,

= oAe(T* - V)
Thermostat? = (5.67 X 10- 8 W/m 2 -K 4 )(1.5 m 2 )
An unclothed student is in a room that is 20°C. If the skin
temperature of the student is 37°C, how much heat is X (0.90)[(310 K) 4 - (293 K) 4 ]
= 143 J/s
lost from his body in 1 min, assuming that the emissivity
of skin is 0.90? Assume that the surface area of the stu- (Why is the temperature given in kelvins?) At this rate of
dent is 1.5 m2 .
heat loss, the total heat lost by the skin in 10 min is

Solution Using Equation 20.20, the rate of heat loss

Q = ^e. X t'me = (143 J/s)(600 s) = 8.58 X 10 4 J
from the skin is

SUMMARY
Heat flow is a form of energy transfer that takes placeas a consequence of a
temperature difference only. The internal energy of a substance is a func-
tion of its state and generally increases with increasing temperature.
The calorie is the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of
1 g of water from 14.5°Cto 15. 5°C. The mechanical equivalent of heat is

defined to be 4.186 J/cal.

C, of any substance is defined as the amount of heat
The heat capacity,
energy needed to raise the temperature of the substance by one Celsius
degree. The heat required to change the temperature of a substance by AT
is

Heat required to raise the

Q = mc AT (20.4)
temperature of a substance

where m is the mass of the substance and c is its specific heat, or heat

capacity per unit mass.

The heat required to change the phase of a pure substance of mass m is
given by

Latent heat Q = mL (20.6)

The parameter L is called the latent heat of the substance and depends on
the nature of the phase change and the properties of the substance.
A quasi-static process is one that proceeds slowly enough to allow the
system to always be in a state of equilibrium.
The work done by a gas as its volume changes from some initial value Vj
to some final value Vf is

rV,

Work done by a gas W PdV (20.8)

Jv,

where P the pressure, which may vary during the process. In order to
is

evaluateW, the nature of the process must be specified that is, P and V —
must be known during each step of the process. Since the work done de-
 SUMMARY 551

pends on the and intermediate states, it therefore depends on

initial, final,

the path taken between the initial and final states.

From the first law of thermodynamics we see that when a system First law of thermodynamics
undergoes a change from one state to another, the change in its internal
energy, AU, is given by

AU=Q- W (20.9)

where Q is the heat transferred into (or out of) the system and Wis the work
done by (or on) the system. Although Q and W
both depend on the path
taken from the initial state to the final state, the quantity AUis path-inde-
pendent.
In a cyclic process (one that originates and terminates at the same
state), AU= 0, and therefore Q = W. That is, the heat transferred into the
system equals the work done during the cycle.
An adiabatic process is one in which no heat is transferred between the
system and its surroundings (Q = 0). In this case, the first law gives AU =
— W. That is, the internal energy changes as a consequence of work being
done by (or on) the system.
In an adiabatic free expansion of a gas, Q = and W
= 0, and so AU =
0. That is, the internal energy of the gas does not change in such a process.

An isovolumetric (or isochoric) process is one that occurs at constant

volume. No work is done in such a process.
An isobaric process is one that occurs at constant pressure. The work
done in such a process is simply P AV.
An isothermal process is one that occurs at constant temperature. The
work done by an ideal gas during an isothermal process is

Work done in an isothermal

W=nRTl (20.13)
process
"(t)
Heat may be transferred by three fundamentally distinct mechanisms:
conduction, convection, and radiation. The conduction process can be
viewed as an exchange of kinetic energy between colliding molecules. The
rate at which heat flows by conduction through a slab of area A is given by

dT
H = -kA (20.15) Law of heat conduction
dx

AT
where k is the thermal conductivity and -j— is the temperature gradient.
dx
Convection is a heat transfer process in which the heated substance
moves from one place to another.
All bodies radiate and absorb energy in the form of electromagnetic
waves. A body that is hotter than its surroundings radiates more energy than
it absorbs, whereas a body that is cooler than its surroundings absorbs more

energy than it radiates. An ideal radiator, or black body, is one that absorbs
all energy incident on it; an ideal radiator emits as much energy as is possi-

ble for a body of its size, shape and temperature.

 .

552 CHAPTER 20 HEAT AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

QUESTIONS

1. Ethyl alcohol has about one half the specific heat of 1 1 A tile floor in a bathroom may feel uncomfortably cold
water. If equal masses of alcohol and water in separate to your bare feet, but a carpeted floor in an adjoining
beakers are supplied with the same amount of heat, room atthe same temperature will feel warm. Why?
compare the temperature increases of the two liquids. 12. Why can potatoes be baked more quickly when a
2. Give one reason why coastal regions tend to have a skewer has been inserted through them?
more moderate climate than inland regions. 13. A Thermos bottle is constructed with double silvered-
3. A small crucible is taken from a 200 °C oven and im- glass walls, with the space between them evacuated.

mersed in a tub full of water at room temperature Give reasons for the silvered walls and the vacuum
(often referred to as quenching). What is the approxi- jacket.

mate final equilibrium temperature? 14. A piece of paper is wrapped around a rod made half of
4. What the major problem that arises in measuring
is wood and half of copper. When held over a flame, the
specific heats if a sample with a temperature above paper in contact with the wood burns but the half in
100°C is water?
placed in contact with the metal does not. Explain.
5. In a daring lecture demonstration, an instructor dips 15. Why is it necessary to store liquid nitrogen or liquid
his wetted fingers into molten lead (327 °C) and with- oxygen in vessels equipped with either Styrofoam in-

draws them quickly, without getting burned. How is sulation or a double-evacuated wall?

this possible? (Thisis a dangerous experiment, which 16. Why do heavy draperies over the windows help keep
you should not attempt.) a home warm in the winter and cool in the summer?

6. The pioneers found that a large tub of water placed in 17. If you wish to cook a piece of meat thoroughly on an
a storage cellar would prevent their food from freez- open fire, why should you not use a high flame? (Note
ing on really cold nights. Explain why this is so. that carbon is a good thermal insulator.)

7. What is wrong with the statement: "Given any two 18. When insulating a wood-frame house, is it better to
bodies, the one with the higher temperature contains place the insulation against the cooler outside wall or
more heat." against the warmer inside wall? (In either case, there

8. Why is it possible to hold a lighted match, even when an air barrier to consider.)
is

it is burned to within a few millimeters of your finger- 19. In an experimental house, Styrofoam beads were

tips? pumped into the air space between the double win-
9. The photograph below shows the pattern formed by dows at night in the winter, and pumped out to hold-
snow on the roof of a barn. What causes the alternat- ing bins during the day. How would this assist in con-
ing pattern of snow-covered and exposed roof? serving heat energy in the house?
20. Pioneers stored fruits and vegetables in underground
cellars. Discuss as fully as possible this choice for a
storage site.

21. Why
can you get a more severe burn from steam at
100°C than from water at 100°C?
22. Concrete has a higher specific heat than soil. Use this
fact to explain (partially) why cities have a higher
average night-time temperature than the surrounding
countryside. If a city is hotter than the surrounding
countryside, would you expect breezes to blow from
city to country or from country to city? Explain.
23. When camping in a canyon on a still night, one notices
that as soon as the sun strikes the surrounding peaks, a
.*V breeze begins to stir. What causes the breeze?
24. Updrafts of air are familiar to all pilots. What causes
(Question 9) Alternating pattern of snow-covered and exposed
roof. (Courtesy of Dr. Albert A. Bartlett, University of Colorado, these currents?
Boulder) 25. If water is a poor conductor of heat, why can it be

heated quickly when placed over a flame?

26. The U.S. penny is now made of copper-coated zinc.

10. Why is a person able to remove a piece of dry alumi- Can a calorimetric experiment be devised to test for
num foil from a hot oven with bare fingers, while if the metal content in a collection of pennies? If so,
there is moisture on the foil, a burn results? describe the procedure you would use.
 PROBLEMS 553

27. If you hold water in a paper cup over a flame, you can warmest coffee, should the person add the cream just
bring the water to a boil without burning the cup. after the coffee is poured or just before drinking? Ex-
How is this possible? plain.
28. When a sealed Thermos bottle full of hot coffee is 32. Two identical cups both at room temperature are
shaken, what are the changes, if any, in (a) the temper- filledwith the same amount of hot coffee. One cup
ature of the coffee and (b) the internal energy of the contains a metal spoon, while the other does not. If
coffee? you wait
for several minutes, which of the two will
29. Using the law of thermodynamics, explain why
first have the warmer coffee? Which heat transfer process
the total energy of an isolated system is always con- explains your answer?
served. 33. A warning sign often seen on highways just before a
30. Is it possible to convert internal energy to mechanical bridge is "Caution —
Bridge surface freezes before
energy? Explain with examples. road surface." Which of the three heat transfer pro-
31. Suppose you pour hot coffee for your guests, and one cesses is most important in causing a bridge surface to
of them chooses to drink the coffee after it has been in freeze before a road surface on very cold days?
the cup for several minutes. In order to have the

PROBLEMS
Section 20.1 Heat and Thermal Energy 9. A 1.5-kg iron horseshoe initially at 600°C is dropped
into a bucket containing 20 kg of water at 25 °C. What
1. Consider Joule's apparatus described in Figure 20.1.
is the final temperature? (Neglect the heat capacity of
The two masses are 1 .5 kg each, and the tank is filled
the container.)
with 200 g of water. What is the increase in the tem-
1 0. The air temperature above coastal areas is profoundly
perature of the water after the masses fall through a
influenced by the large specific heat of water (4.19
distance of 3 m?
kJ/kg-C°). One reason is that the heat released when
2. An 80-kg weight-watcher wishes to climb a mountain
1 cubic meter of water cools by 1 C° will raise the
towork off the equivalent of a large piece of chocolate
temperature of an enormously larger volume of air by
cake rated at 700 (food) Calories. How high must the
1 C°. Estimate this volume of air. The specific heat of
person climb?
air is approximately 1 .0 kj/kg °C. Take the density of
•

3. Water at the top of Niagara Falls has a temperature of

air to be 1.3kg/m 3
10°C. If it falls through a distance of 50 m and all of its
.

11. If 200 g of water is contained in a 300-g aluminum

potential energy goes into heating the water, calcu-
vessel at 10°C and an additional 100 g of water at
late the temperature of the water at the bottom of the
100°C is poured into the container, what is the final
falls.
equilibrium temperature of the system?
12. A student inhales air at a temperature of 22°C and
Section 20.2 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat
exhales air at 37 °C. The average volume of air in one
4. How many calories of heat are required to raise the breath is 200 cm 3 Make a rough estimate of the
.

temperature of 3 kg of aluminum from 20°C to 50°C? amount of heat absorbed in one day by the air
5. The temperature of a silver bar rises by 1 0.0 °C when breathed by the student. The density of air is approxi-
it absorbs 1.23 kj of heat. The mass of the bar is 525 g. mately 1.25 kg/m 3 and the specific heat of air is 1000
,

Determine the specific heat of silver. J/k g -°c.

6. A 50-g piece of cadmium is at 20°C. If 400 cal of heat 13. How much heat must be added to 20 g of aluminum at
is added to the cadmium, what is its final tempera- 20°C to melt it completely?
ture? 14. An aluminum calorimeter of mass 100 g contains
7. What is the final equilibrium temperature when 10 g 250 g of water. They are in thermal equilibrium at
of milkat 10 °C is added to 160 g of coffee at 90 °C? 10°C. Two metallic blocks are placed in the water.
(Assume the heat capacities of the two liquids are the One is a 50-g piece of copper at 80°C. The other
same as water, and neglect the heat capacity of the sample has a mass of 70 g and is originally at a temper-
container.) ature of 100°C. The entire system stabilizes at a final
8. Copper pellets, each of mass 1 g, are heated to temperature of 20° C. (a) Determine the specific heat
100°C. How many pellets must be added to 500 g of of the unknown sample, (b) Determine the material of
water initially at 20°C to make the final equilibrium the unknown, using Table 20.1.
temperature 25 °C? (Neglect the heat capacity of the 15. A Styrofoam cup contains 200 g of mercury at 0°C. To
container.) this is added 50 g of ethyl alcohol at 50 °C and 100 g
554 CHAPTER 20 HEAT AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

of water at 100°C. (a) What is the final temperature of 27. A 3-g lead bullet is traveling at a speed of 240 m/s
the mixture? (b) How much heat was gained or lost by when it embeds in a block of ice at 0°C. If all the heat

the mercury, the alcohol, and the water? (The specific generated goes into melting ice, what quantity of ice
heat of mercury' is 0.033 cal/g C°, that of ethyl alco- is melted? (The heat of fusion for ice is 80 kcal/kg and

hol, 0.58 cal/g C°. The heat capacity of the Styro-

• the specific heat of lead is 0.03 kcal/kg- °C.)
foam cup is negligible.)
16. A 1 -kg block of copper at 20°C is dropped into a large Work and Heat Thermodynamic
Section 20.4 in
vessel of liquid nitrogen at 77 K. How many kilograms
Processes
of nitrogen boil away by the time the copper reaches
1 atm = 1.013 X 10
28. Using the fact that 5 N/m 2 verify
77 K? (The specific heat of copper is 0.092 cal/g- °C. ,

The heat of vaporization of nitrogen is 48 cal/g.) the conversion L atm = 101.3 J = 24.2 cal.
1

How much heat energy is required to vaporize a 1-g 29. A gas expands from / to F along three possible paths as
ice cube 0°C? The heat of fusion of ice is 80 cal/g.
at indicated by Figure 20.14. Calculate the work in
The heat of vaporization of water is 540 cal/g. joules done by the gas along the paths IAF, IF and 1BF.
IS. One liter of water at 30 °C is used to make iced tea.
How much ice at 0°C must be added to lower the P(atm)
temperature of the tea to 10°C?
4
19. A 50 g copper calorimeter contains 250 g of water at
20°C. How much steam must be condensed into the
3
water to make the final temperature of the system
50°C?
2 -
20. If 90 g of molten lead at 327.3 °C is poured into a
300-g casting made of iron and initially at 20°C, what
is the final temperature of the system? (Assume there

are no heat losses.)

21. In an insulated vessel, 250 g of ice at 0°C is added to
600 g of water at 18°C. (a) What is the final tempera- Figure 20.14 (Problems 29
12 3 4

ture of the system? (b) How much ice remains? and 36). Vlliters)

A 50-g ice cube at — 20°C is dropped into a container

of water at 0°C. How much water will freeze onto the
30. Gas in a container is at a pressure of 1.5 atm and a
ice?
volume of 4 m 3 What is the work done by the gas if
.

23. An driven into a block of ice by a single

iron nail is
(a) it expands at constant pressure to twice its initial
blow of a hammer. The hammerhead has a mass of volume and (b) it is compressed at constant pressure
0.5 kg and an initial speed of 2.0 m/s. Nail and ham-
to one quarter its initial volume?
mer are at rest after the blow. How much ice melts? 31. An ideal gas is enclosed in a cylinder. There is a mov-
Assume the temperature of the nail is 0.0°C before
able piston on top of the cylinder. The piston has a
and after. mass of 8000 g and an area of 5 cm 2 and is free to slide
24. A beaker of water sits in the sun until it reaches an up and down, keeping the pressure of the gas con-
equilibrium temperature of 30 °C. The beaker is made
stant. How much work is done as the temperature of
oflOO gof aluminum and contains 180 gof water. In 0.2 moles of the gas is raised from 20°C to 300°C?
an attempt to cool this system down, 100 g of ice at 32. (a) Determine the work done by a fluid that expands
0°C is added to the water, (a) Determine the final from to/as indicated
i in Figure 20.15. (b) How much
temperature. If F= 0°C, determine how much ice
remains, (b) Repeat this for the case when 50 g of ice
P Pa
is used.
25. A 3-g copper penny at 25 °C drops a distance of 50 m
to the ground, (a) If 60% of its initial potential energy- 6X 10
h

goes into increasing the internal energy of the penny,

determine its final temperature, (b) Does the result 4 X 10* I I

depend on the mass of the penny? Explain.

26. Lake Erie contains roughly 4 X 10 11 m 3 of water.
(a) How much required to raise the tempera-
heat is
2 X 10* — I 1
If
I

ture of that volume of water from 11°C to 12°C?

V m3
(b) Approximately how many years would it take to 1 2 3 4
supply this amount of heat by using the full output of a
1000-MW electric power plant? Figure 20.15 (Problem 32).
 PROBLEMS 555

work is performed by the fluid if it is compressed from P (kPa)

/to along the same path?
i

33. A sample of ideal gas is expanded to twice its original

volume of 1 m 3 in a quasi-static process for which
P = aV 2 with a = 5.0 atm/m 6 as shown in Figure
, ,

20.16. How much work was done by the expanding

gas?

Figure 20. 1 7 (Problems 39 and 40).

40. Consider the cyclic process described by Figure

20.17. If Q is negative for the process BC and AU is
negative for the process CA, determine the signs of O,

Figure 20.16 (Problem 33).

W and AU associated with each process.
34. An ideal gas at STP (1 atm and 0°C) is taken through a
process where the volume is expanded from 25 L to Section 20.6 Some Applications of the First Law of
80 L. During process the pressure varies in-
this Thermodynamics
versely as the volume squared, P = 0.5 a V -2 (a) De-
41. Five moles of an ideal gas expands isothermally at
termine the constant a in standard SI units, (b) Find
127°C to four times its initial volume. Find (a) the
the final pressure and temperature,
Determine a (c)
work done by the gas and (b) the heat flow into the
general expression for the work done by the gas dur-
system, both in joules.
ing this process, (d) Compute the actual work in
42. How much work is done by the steam when 1 mole of
joules done by the gas in this process.
water at 100°C and becomes 1 mole of steam at
boils
35. One mole of an ideal gas does 3000 J of work on the
100°C at 1 atm pressure? Determine the change in
surroundings as it expands isothermally to a final pres-
internal energy of the steam as it vaporizes. Consider
sure of 1 atm and volume of 25 L. Determine (• ) the
the steam to be an ideal gas.
initial volume and (b) the temperature of the gas.
43. One mole of gas initially at a pressure of 2 atm and a
volume of 0.3 L has an internal energy equal to 91 J.
Section 20.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics In its final state, the pressure is 1 .5 atm, the volume is
0.8 L, and the internal energy equals 182 J. For the
36. A gas expands from Jto Fas in Figure 20.14. The heat three paths IAF, IBF, and /Fin Figure 20.18, calculate
added to the gas is 400 J when the gas goes from Z to F (a) the work done by the gas and (b) the net heat
along the diagonal path, (a) What is the change in in- transferred in the process.
ternal energy of the gas? (b) How much heat must be
added to the gas for the indirect path IAF to give the
same change in internal energy?
P(atm)
37. A gas is compressed at a constant pressure of 0.8 atm
from a volume of 9 L to a volume of 2 L. In the process
400 J of heat energy flows out of the gas. (a) What is
the work done by the gas? (b) What is the change in
internal energy of the gas?
38. A thermodynamic system undergoes a process in
which its internal energy decreases by 500 J. If at the
same time, 220 J of work is done on the system, find
the heat transferred to or from the system.
39. A gas is taken throughthe cyclic process described in
Figure 20.17. (a) Find the net heat transferred to the 0.3 0.8
system during one complete cycle, (b) If the cycle is V(liters)
reversed, that is, the process goes along ACBA, what is

the net heat transferred per cycle? Figure 20.18 (Problem 43).
556 CHAPTER 20 HEAT AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

44. Nitrogen gas (m = 1.00 kg) is confined in a cylinder num, (b) the heat added to the aluminum, and (c) the
with a movable piston exposed to normal atmospheric change in internal energy of the aluminum.
pressure. A quantity of heat (Q = 25 000 cal) is added 50. In Figure 20.20, the change in internal energy of a gas
to the gas in an isobaric process, and the internal en- that is taken from A to C is +800 J. The work done
ergy of the gas increases by 8000 cal. (a) How much along path ABC is +500 How much heat has to
J. (a)

work is done by the gas? (b) What is the change in be added to the system as it A through B to
goes from
volume? C? (b) If the pressure at point A is five times that of
45. An ideal gas initially at 300 K undergoes an isobaric point C, what is the work done by the system in going
expansion at a pressure of 2.5 kPa. If the volume in- from C to D? (c) What is the heat exchanged with the
creases from 1 m 3 to 3 m 3 and 12 500 J of heat is surroundings as the cycle goes from C to A? (d) If the
added to the gas, find (a) the change in internal en- change in internal energy in going from point D to

ergy of the gas and (b) its final temperature. point A is +500 J, how much heat must be added to
46. Two moles of helium gas initially at a temperature of the system as it goes from point C to point D?
300 K and pressure of 0.4 atm is compressed isother-
mally to a pressure of 1.2 atm. Find (a) the final vol-
A
ume of the gas, (b) the work done by the gas, and
(c)the heat transferred. Consider the helium to be-
have as an ideal gas.
47. One mole of argon is confined in a cylinder with a
movable piston at a pressure of 1 atm and at a tempera-
ture of 300 K. The gas is heated slowly and isobari-
cally to a temperature of 400 K. The measured value
of the molar specific heat at constant pressure for
argon in this temperature range is C = 2.5043 R, and
p
the measured value of PV/nT is 0.99967 R. Calculate
in units of R, carried to two decimals, the following
quantities: (a) the work done by the expanding gas;
(b) the amount of heat added to the gas; (c) the in-
crease in the internal energy of the gas.
48. During a controlled expansion, the pressure of a gas is
given by

1
P= 12e- fcv atm
12 m3
where the volume Vis expressed in m 3 (Fig. 20.19).
Determine the work performed when the gas expands
from V= 12 m 3 to V= 36 m 3 .

P(atm)

10 20 30 40 50 Vim 1
'

Figure 20.19 (Problem 48).

49. A 1-kg block of aluminum is heated at atmospheric

pressure such that its temperature increases from

22°C to 40°C. Find (a) the work done by the alumi-
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 557

watt-hours per day of useful energy does this source

provide? Assume that the sun shines for an average of
8 h/day. (b) If the average household user pays
6 cents/kW-h, what is the monetary saving of this
30°C
energy source per day?
62. The surface of the sun has a temperature of about
5800 K. Taking the radius of the sun to be equal to
6.96 X 10 8 m, calculate the total energy radiated by
the sun each day. (Assume e— 1.)
Figure 20.21 (Problem 55).
63. The earth's thermal gradient, as measured at the sur-
face, is 30 C°/km, and the earth's radius is 6400 km.
56. Two rods of the same length but of different materials Assume that this gradient remains the same all the
and cross sectional areas are placed side by side as in
way to the center of the earth. What is the tempera-
Figure 20.22. Determine the rate of heat flow in
ture of the earth at its center if we take the surface
terms of the thermal conductivity and area of each
temperature to be 0°C? Do you think this is a reason-
rod. Generalize this to to several rods.
able answer or is it necessary to refine our assumption
of the nature of the thermal gradient with depth?

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
64. The density of water is 999.17 kg/m 3 at 14.5°C and
999.02 kg/m 3 15.5°C. (a) Calculate the work done
at
Insulation
against the surrounding atmosphere when 2 kg of
Figure 20.22 (Problem 56). water expands as its temperature is increased from
14.5°C to 15.5°C. (b) Compare this work with the
57. The brick wall (k = 0.8 W/m-C°) of a building has required heat input of 8370 J.
dimensions of 4 mX 10 m and is 15 cm thick. How 65. Around a crater formed by an iron meteorite, 75.0 kg
much heat (in joules) flows through the wall in a 12-h of rock have melted under the impact of the meteor-
period when the average inside and outside tempera- ite. The rock has a specific heat of 0.8 kcal/kg- °C, a

tures are, respectively, 20°C and 5°C? melting point of 500°C, and a latent heat of fusion of
58 An iron rod 20 cm long with a diameter of 1 cm has 48.0 kcal/kg. The original temperature of the ground
one end immersed in an ice water bath while the other was 0.0°C. If the meteorite hit the ground with a ter-
end is in a steam tank at 100°C. Assume enough time minal speed of 600 m/s, what is the minimum mass of
has elapsed such that a uniform thermal gradient has the meteorite? Assume no heat loss to the surround-
been established along the rod. (a) Determine the ing unmelted rock or the atmosphere during the im-
rate of heat flow along the rod. (b) Compute how fast pact. Disregard the heat capacity of the meteorite.
the ice is melting at the cold end. (c) How fast is steam 66. A. flow calorimeter is an apparatus used to measure the
being condensed at the hot end to maintain this uni- specific heat of a liquid. The technique is to measure
form gradient? (d) What is the thermal gradient along the temperature difference between the input and
the rod? output points of a flowing stream of the liquid while
59 A box with a total surface area of 1.2 m 2 and a wall adding heat at a known rate. In one particular experi-
thickness of 4 cm is made of an insulating material. A ment, a liquid of density 0.78 g/cm 3 flows through the
10-W electric heater inside the box maintains the in- calorimeter at the rate of 4 cm 3 /s. At steady state, a
side temperature at a steady 15°C above the outside temperature difference of 4.8 C° is established be-
temperature. Find the thermal conductivity k of the tween the input and output points when heat is sup-
insulating material. plied at the rate of 30 J/s. What is the specific heat of
60 At high noon, the sun delivers 1000 to each square W the liquid?
meter of a blacktop road. What is the equilibrium 67. One mole of an ideal gas is contained in a cylinder with
temperature of the hot asphalt? a movable piston. The initial pressure, temperature,
61 The roof of a house built to absorb the solar radiation and volume are P V and T respectively. Find the
, , ,

incident upon it has an area of 7 m X 1 m. The solar work done by the gas for the following processes and
is 840 W/m On show each process on a PV diagram: (a) an isobaric
2
radiation at the earth's surface . the
average, the sun's rays make an angle of 60° with the compresson in which the final volume is one half the
plane of the roof, (a) If 15% of the incident energy is initial volume, (b) an isothermal compression in
converted into useful electrical power, how many kilo- which the final pressure is four times the initial pres-
558 CHAPTER 20 HEAT AND THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

sure, (c) an isovolumetric process in which the final '3. Using the data in Example 20.5 and Table 20.2, calcu-
pressure is triple the initial pressure. late the change in internal energy when 2 cm 3 of liq-
68. A gas expands from a volume of 2 m 3 to a volume of uid helium gas at 4.2 K is converted to helium gas at
6 m 3 along two different paths as described in Figure 273.15 K and atmospheric pressure. (Assume that the
20.23. The heat added to the gas along the path ZAFis molar heat capacity of helium gas is 24.9 J/mol-K,
equal to 4 X 10 s cal. Find (a) the work done by the gas and note that 1 cm 3 of liquid helium is equivalent to
along the path IAF, (b) the work done along the path 3.1 X 10- 2 moles.)
IF, (c) the change in internal energy of the gas, and '4. An ideal gas initially at pressure P, volume V and
,

(d) the heat transferred in the process along the path temperature T is taken through a cycle as described
IF. in Figure 20.24. (a) Find the net work done by the gas
per cycle, (b) What is the net heat added to the system
P(N/m2) per cycle? (c) Obtain a numerical value for the net
work done per cycle for one mole of gas initially at
0°C.

p
1X105

V(m 3 )
2 4 6

Figure 20.23 (Problem 68).

69. An aluminum rod, 0.5 m in length and of cross-sec-

tional area 2.5 cm 2 , is inserted into a thermally insu-
lated vessel containing liquid helium at 4.2 K. The rod
is initially at 300 K. (a) If one half of the rod is inserted
into the helium, how many liters of helium boil offby
the time the inserted half cools to 4.2 K? (Assume the
upper half does not cool.) (b) If the upper portion of
the rod is maintained at 300 K, what is the approxi-
mate boil-off rate of liquid helium after the lower half
has reached 4.2 K? (Note that aluminum has a thermal
conductivity of 31 J/s cm K at 4.2 K, a specific
• •

heat of 0.21 cal/g C°, and a density of 2.7 g/cm 3

• .

See Example 20.5 for data on helium.)

70. A heat pipe 0.025 m in diameter and 0.30 m long can
transfer 3600 J of heat energy per second with a tem-
perature difference across the ends of 10°C. How
does this performance compare with the heat transfer
of a solid silver bar of the same dimensions if the ther-
mal conductivity of silver is k = 427 W/m °C? Silver
is the best heat conductor of all metals.

71. A 5-g lead bullet traveling at 300 m/s strikes a flat

steel plate and stops. If the collision is inelastic, will
the bullet melt? Lead has a melting point of 327°C, a
specific heat of 0.128 J/g- °C, and a heat of fusion of
24.5 J/g.
72. An aluminum kettle has a circular cross section and is
8 cm in radius and 0.3 cm thick. It is placed on a hot
plate and filled with 1 kg of water. If the bottom of the

kettle maintained at 101 °C and the inside at 100°C,

is

find (a) the rate of heat flow into the water and (b) the
time it takes for all of the water to boil away. (Neglect
heat transferred from the sides.)
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 559

78. The inside of a hollow cylinder is maintained at a tem-

perature Ta while the outside is at a lower tempera-

ture, Tb (Fig. 20.25). The wall of the cylinder has a
thermal conductivity k. Neglecting end effects, show
that the rate of heat flow from the inner to the outer
wall in the radial direction is given by

dQ
2nLk |
T tt
-rb 1
dt Lln(fc/a)J

(Hint: The temperature gradient is given by dT/dr.

Note that a radial heat current passes through a con-
centric cylinder of area 2nrL.)

Figure 20.26 (Problem 81).

20.26). The solar power per unit area reaching the

earth at some location is 600 W/m 2 and a small solar
,

cooker has a diameter of 0.6 m. Assuming that 40% of

the incident energy is converted into heat energy,
how long would it take to completely boil off 0.5 liters
of water initially at 20 °C? (Neglect the heat capacity
of the container.)
82. A pond of water at 0°C
is covered with a layer of ice

4 cm temperature stays constant at

thick. If the air
— 10°C, how long will it be before the ice thickness is
8 cm? Hint: To solve this problem, utilize Equation
20.15 in the form
Figure 20.25 (Problem 78).
dQ
-f-
dt
= kA —
AT
x
|
79. |
The passenger section of a jet airliner is in the shape of
a cylindrical tube of length 35 m and inner radius and note that the incremental heat dQ extracted from
2.5 m. Its walls are lined with a 6 cm thickness of in- the water through the thickness x of ice is the amount
sulating material of thermal conductivity 4 X 10 -5 required to freeze a thickness dx of ice. That is, dQ =
cal/s-cm-C°. The inside is to be maintained at 25°C LpA dx, where p is the density of the ice, A is the area,
while the outside is at — 35 °C. What heating rate is and L is the latent heat of freezing.
required to maintain this temperature difference? A83. A student obtains the following data in a method-of-
(Use the result from Problem 78.) mixtures experiment designed to measure the specific
80. A Thermos bottle in the shape of a cylinder has an heat of aluminum:
inner radius of 4 cm, outer radius of 4.5 cm, and
temperature of water and calorimeter: 70°C
Initial
length of 30 cm. The insulating walls have a thermal
-5 Mass of water: 0.400 kg
conductivity equal to 2 X 10 cal/s-cnvC°. One
Mass of calorimeter: 0.040 kg
liter of hot coffee at 90°C is poured into the bottle. If
Specific heat of calorimeter: 0.63 kJ/kg-C
the outside wall remains at 20°C, how long does it
temperature of aluminum: 27 °C
Initial
take for the coffee to cool to 50 °C? (Neglectend ef-
Mass of aluminum: 0.200 kg
fects and losses by radiation and convection. Use the
Final temperature of mixture: 66.3°C
result from Problem 78 and assume that coffee has the
same properties as water.) Use these data to determine the specific heat of alumi-
81. A "solarcooker" consists ofa curved reflecting mirror num. Your result should be within 15% of the value
that focuses sunlight onto the object to be heated (Fig. listed in Table 20.1.
 21
The Kinetic Theory of Gases

Hot air balloons over the

Rocky Mountains in winter.
These colorful balloons rise as
a large gas burner heats the
air insidethem Because warm
air is dense than cool air,
less
the buoyant force upward can
exceed the total force
downward, causing the
balloons to rise. The vertical
motion cat} also be controlled
by venting hot air at the top
of the balloon. (© Nicholas
De Vore 111/ Photographers
Aspen)
 21.1 MOLECULAR MODEL FOR THE PRESSURE OF AN IDEAL GAS 561

21.1 MOLECULAR MODEL FOR THE PRESSURE OF

AN IDEAL GAS
We begin this chapter by developing a microscopic model of an ideal gas. The
model shows that the pressure that a gas exerts on the walls of its container is a
consequence of the collisions of the gas molecules with the walls. As we shall
see, the model is consistent with the macroscopic description of the preceding
chapter. The following assumptions will be made:

1 The number ofmolecules is large, and the average separation between them is Assumptions of the molecular
large compared with their dimensions. Therefore, the molecules occupy a model of an ideal gas
negligible volume compared with the volume of the container and are
considered to be structureless (that is, point masses).
2. The molecules obey Newton's laws of motion, but the individual molecules
move in a random fashion. By random fashion, we mean that the molecules
move in all directions with equal probability and with various speeds. This
distribution of velocities does not change in time, despite the collisions
between molecules.
3. The molecules undergo elastic collisions with each other. In the collisions
both kinetic energy and momentum are conserved.
4. The forces between molecules are negligible except during a collision. The
forces between molecules are short-range, so that the only time the mole-
cules interact with each other is during a collision.
5. The gas under consideration is a pure gas. That is, all molecules are iden-
tical.

6. The gas is in thermal equilibrium with the walls of the container. Hence, a
wall will eject as many molecules as it absorbs, and the ejected molecules Figure 2 1.1 A cubical box of sides
d containing an ideal gas. The mol-
will have the same average kinetic energy as the absorbed molecules.
ecule shown moves with velocity v.

Now let us derive an expression for the pressure of an ideal gas consisting
of N molecules in a container of volume V. The container is assumed to be in
the shape of a cube with edges of length d (Fig. 21.1). Consider the collision of
one molecule moving with a velocity v toward the right-hand face of the box.
The molecule has velocity components vx ,v y and v z As it collides with the
, .

wall elastically, its x component of velocity is reversed, while its y and z

components of velocity remained unaltered (Fig. 21.2). Since the x compo-
nent of momentum of the molecule is mv x before the collision and — mv x
afterward, the change in momentum of the molecule is given by

Apx = — mv x — (mv x ) = — 2mvx

The momentum delivered to the wall for each collision is 2mv x since the
,

momentum of the system (molecule + container) is conserved. In order that a

molecule make two successive collisions with the same wall, it must travel a
distance 2d along the x axis in a time At. But in a time At, the molecule moves a
distance v x At in the x direction; therefore the time between two successive
collisions is At = 2d/v x IfFis the magnitude of the average force exerted by a
.

Figure 21.2 A molecule makes an

molecule on the wall in the time At, then from the definition of impulse (which elastic collisionwith the wall of the
equals change in momentum) we have container. i component of mo-
Its
mentum is reversed, thereby im-
FAt = Ap = 2mvx parting momentum to the wall,
while its y component remains un-
changed. In this construction, we
2mv r 2mv r assume that the molecule moves in
(21.1)
At 2d/v x the xy plane.
562 CHAPTER 21 THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

The total force on the wall is the sum of all such terms for all particles. To get
the total pressure on the wall, we divide the total force by the area, d2 :

where v xl , u l2 , • • • refer to the x components of velocity for particles 1, 2,

2
etc. Since the average value of v is given by

-^ v rl 2 + v 2
+ • •

N
and the volume is given by V = d 3 we , can express the pressure in the form

Nm —5
P= (21.2)

The square of the speed for any one particle is given by

V 2
=V +V + 2 2
V 2

Since there no preferred direction for the molecules, the average values v 2
is ,

v 2
, and v 2 are equal to each other. Using this fact and the above result, we find
that

Vx2 = Vy2 = v 2 = \v
j
z
2

Hence, the pressure from Equation 21.2 can be expressed as

Pressure and molecular speed P=

^p (21.3)

The quantity Nm is the total mass of the molecules, which is equal to nM, where
n is the number of moles of the gas and M is its molecular weight. Therefore,
the pressure can also be expressed in the alternate form

(21.4)
V
By rearranging Equation 21.3, we can also express the pressure as

Pressure and molecular

P = $y(¥nv 2 ) (21.5)
kinetic energy

This equation tells us that the pressure is proportional to the number of mole-
cules per unit volume and to the average translational kinetic energy per
molecule.
With model of an ideal gas, we have arrived at an important
this simplified
result that relates themacroscopic quantities of pressure and volume to a
microscopic quantity, the average molecular speed. Thus we have a key link
between the microscopic world of the gas molecules and the macroscopic
world as measured, in this case, with a pressure gauge, a meter stick, and a
clock.
In the derivation of this result, note that we have not accounted for
collisions between gas molecules. When these collisions are considered, the
results do not change since collisions will only affect the momenta of the
particles, with no net effect on the walls. This is consistent with one of our
assumptions, namely: the distribution of velocities does not change in time. In
 21.2 MOLECULAR INTERPRETATION OF TEMPERATURE 563

addition, although our result was derived for a cubical container, it is valid for a
container of any shape.

21.2 MOLECULAR INTERPRETATION OF TEMPERATURE

We can obtain some insight into the meaning of temperature by first writing
Equation 21.5 in the more familiar form

PV = §N (^mv 2 )

Let us now compare this with the empirical equation of state for an ideal gas
(Eq. 19.14):

PV=NkT
Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906),
Recall that the equation of statebased on experimental facts concerning the
is Austrian physicist. (Courtesy of
AIP Niels Bohr Library, Lande
macroscopic behavior of gases. Equating the right sides of these expressions,
Collection)
we find that

Temperature
T-^W) (Zl .o;
tQ
is proportional

avera g e kinetic energy

Since %mv 2 is the average translational kinetic energy per molecule, we see
that temperature measure of the average molecular kinetic energy.
is a direct
By rearranging Equation 21.6, we can relate the translational molecular
kinetic energy to the temperature:

Average kinetic energy

= ikT (21.7)
per molecule

That is^the average translational kinetic energy per molecule is f kT. Since
v = $v it follows that
2 2
,

IkT (21.8) Equipartition of energy

According to this expression, the average translational kinetic energy per

molecule associated with motion in the x direction is ^kT. In a similar manner,
for the y and z motions it follows that

%mvy 2 = \kT and 2 mt >*

2 = 2^
Thus, each translational degree of freedom contributes an equal amount of
energy to the gas, namely, ^kT. (In general, the degrees of freedom refers to
the number of independent means by which a molecule can possess energy.)

A generalization of this result, known as the theorem of equipartition of

energy, says that the energy of a system in thermal equilibrium is equally
divided among all degrees of freedom.

We shall return to this important point in Section 21.6.

The total translational kinetic energy of N molecules of gas is simply N
times the average energy per molecule, which is given by Equation 21.7:

,». Total kinetic energy of

E = N (|mu 2 = %NkT = $nRT
)
^ '
q..

' .V molecules
564 CHAPTER 21 THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

where we have used k = R/NK for Boltzmann's constant and n = N/NA for the
number of moles of gas. This result, together with Equation 21.5, implies that
the pressure exerted by an ideal gas depends only on the number of molecules
per unit volume and the temperature.
The square root of v 2 is called the roof mean square (rms) speed
of the molecules. From Equation 21.7 we get for the rms speed

Root mean square speed (21.10)

The expression for the rms speed shows that at a given temperature, lighter
molecules move faster, on the average, than heavier molecules. For example,
hydrogen, with a molecular weight of 2 g/mol, moves four times as fast as
oxygen, whose molecular weight is 32 g/mol. The rms speed is not the speed at
which a gas molecule will move across a room, since such a molecule under-
goes several billion collisions per second with other molecules under standard
conditions. We shall describe this in more detail in Section 21.7.
Table 21.1 lists the rms speeds for various molecules at 20°C.

TABLE 21.1 Some rms Speeds

 21.3 HEAT CAPACITY OF AN IDEAL GAS 565

21.3 HEAT CAPACITY OF AN IDEAL GAS

We have found that the temperature of a gas is a measure of the average
translational kinetic energy of the gas molecules. This kinetic energy is asso-
ciated with the motion of the center of mass of each molecule. It does not
include the energy associated with the internal motion of the molecule,
namely, vibrations and rotations about the center of mass. This should not be
surprising, since the simple kinetic theory model assumes a structureless mol-
ecule.
In view of this, let us consider the simplest case of an ideal monatomic
first

gas, that is, one atom per molecule, such as helium, neon, or
a gas containing
argon. Essentially, all of the kinetic energy of such molecules is associated with
the motion of their centers of mass. When energy is added to a monatomic gas
in a container of fixed volume (by heating, say) all of the added energy goes
into increasing the translational kinetic energy of the atoms. 1 There is no other
way to store the energy in a monatomic gas. Therefore, from Equation 21.9 we
see that the total internal energy U of N molecules (or n moles) of an ideal
monatomic gas is given by

Internal energy of an ideal

[/=|NkT = fnRT (21.11) monatomic gas

important to note that for an ideal gas (only), U is a function of T only. If

It is

heat is transferred to the system at constant volume, the work done by the
system is zero. That is, W
= fP dV = for a constant volume process. Hence,
from the first law of thermodynamics we see that

= AC7 = fnRAT (21.12)

In other words, all of the heat transferred goes into increasing the internal

energy (and temperature) of the system. The constant-volume process from i

to /is described in Figure 21.3, where AT is the temperature difference
between the two isotherms. Substituting the value for Q given by Equation
20.2 into Equation 21.12, we get

nCv AT = fnR AT Isotherms

C=iR (21.13)

In this notation, Cv is the molar heat capacity of the gas at constant volume.
Note that this expression predicts a value of fR = 12.5 J/mol-K for all mon-
atomic gases. This is in excellent agreement with measured values of molar
heat capacities for such gases as helium and argon over a wide range of temper-
atures (Table 21.2).
The change in internal energy for an ideal gas can be expressed as
Figure 21.3 Heat is added to an
ideal gas in two ways. For the con-
A[/=nC,AT (21.14) stant-volume path if, all the heat
added goes into increasing the in-
ternal energy of the gas since no
we can use Equation 21.12 and the
In the limit of differential changes,
work is done. Along the constant-
first law of thermodynamics to express the molar heat capacity in the form pressure path if, part of the heat
added goes into work done by the
gas. Note that the internal energy is
1
If the gas is raised to sufficiently high temperatures, the atom can also be excited or even ionized. constant along any isotherm.
566 CHAPTER 21 THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
 21.3 HEAT CAPACITY OF AN IDEAL GAS 567

This expression applies to any ideal gas. It shows that the molar heat capacity

of an ideal gas at constant pressure is greater than the molar heat capacity at
constant volume by an amount R, the universal gas constant (which has the
value 8.31 J/mol K) This is in good agreement with real gases under standard
•
.

conditions, that is, 0°C and atmospheric pressure (Table 21.2).

Since Cv = $R for a monatomic ideal gas, Equation 21.16 predicts a value
Cp = f R = 20.8 J/mol K for the molar heat capacity of a monatomic gas at
constant pressure. The ratio of these heat capacities is a dimensionless quan-
tity y given by

_ Cp _ f R _ 5 _ Ratio of heat capacities for a

K^'-.lt) monatomic
~C~~2R~3~ ideal gas.

The values of Cp and y are in excellent agreement with experimental values for
monatomic gases, but in serious disagreement with the values for the more
complex gases (Table 21.2). This is not surprising since the value Cv = fR was
derived for a monatomic ideal gas, and we expect some additional contribution
to the specific heat from the internal structure of the more complex molecules.
In Section 21.6, we describe the effect of molecular structure on the specific
heat of a gas. We shall find that the internal energy and hence the specific heat
of a complex gas must include contributions from the rotational and vibra-
tional motions of the molecule.
We have seen that the heat capacities of gases at constant pressure are
greater than the heat capacities at constant volume. This difference is a conse-
quence of the fact that in a constant-volume process, no work is done and all of
the heat goes into increasing the internal energy (and temperature) of the gas,
whereas in a constant-pressure process some of the heat energy is transformed
into work done by the gas. In the case of solids and liquids heated at constant
pressure, very little work is done since the thermal expansion is small. Conse-
quently Cp and Cv are approximately equal for solids and liquids.

EXAMPLE 21.2 Heating a Cylinder of Helium (b) How much heat must be transferred to the gas at
A cylinder contains 3 moles of helium gas at a tempera- constant pressure to raise the temperature to 500 K?
ture of 300 K. (a) How much heat must be transferred to
the gas to increase its temperature to 500 K if the gas is Solution Making use of Table 21.2, we get
heated at constant volume? _ _ ._ .„ w „_ _ _, „,,,„„„„.
Q 2 = nCp AT =
, ,

(3 moles)(20.8 J/mol -K)(200 K)

Solution For the constant-volume process, the work
done is zero. Therefore from Equation 21.12, we get — 12.5 X 10 3 J

£>, = InR AT = nCv AT

iff at = n™ Exercise 2 What the work done by the gas in this
n n K tor n 200 f
io c i/ is
Butt Cv = 12.5 J/mol He andj AT .l
K; there-
process or
fore
Answer W= Q 2
-Q = x
5.00 X 10 3 J.

Q! = (3 moles)(12.5 J/mol -K)(200 K)

= 7.50 X10 3 J
568 CHAPTER 21 THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

21.4 ADIABATIC PROCESS FOR AN IDEAL GAS

Definition of an adiabatic An adiabatic process is one in which there is no heat transfer between the
process system and its surroundings.

In reality, true adiabatic processes cannot occur since a perfect heat insulator
between a system and its surroundings does not exist. However, there are
processes that are nearly adiabatic. For example, if a gas is compressed (or
expanded) very rapidly, very little heat flows into (or out of) the system, and so
the process is nearly adiabatic. Such processes occur in the cycle of a gasoline
engine, which we shall discuss in detail in the next chapter.
It is also possible for a process to be both quasi-static and For
adiabatic.
example, if a gas that is thermally insulated from its allowed to
surroundings is

expand slowly against a piston, the process is a quasi-static, adiabatic expan-

sion. In general,

is one that is slow enough to allow the

a quasi-static, adiabatic process
system to always be near equilibrium, but fast compared with the time it
takes the system to exchange heat with its surroundings.

Suppose that an ideal gas undergoes a quasi-static, adiabatic expansion. At

any time during the process, we assume that the gas is in an equilibrium state, so
that the equation of state, PV = nRT, is valid. The pressure and volume at any
time during the adiabatic process are related by the expression
Relation between P and V for
an adiabatic process involving PV = y
constant (21.18)
an ideal gas
where y = CJCV is assumed to be constant during the process. Thus, we see
that all the thermodynamic variables, P, V, and T, change during an adiabatic
process. The following represents a proof of Equation 21.18.

Proof that PV = constant for an Adiabatic Process

When a gas expands adiabatically in a thermally insulated cylinder, there is no
heat transferred between the gas and its surroundings, and so Q = 0. Let us
take the infinitesimal change in volume to be dVand the infinitesimal change
in temperature to be dT. The work done by the gas is P dV. Since the internal
energy of an ideal gas depends only on temperature, the change in internal
energy is given by dU = nCv dT. Hence, the first law of thermodynamics gives

dU=nCv dT=-PdV
From the equation of state of an ideal gas, PV = nRT, we see that

P dV +VdP= nR dT
Eliminating dT from these two equations we find that

PdV+ VdP=-—PdV
Substituting R = Cp — Cv and dividing by PV, we get

dV^dP (Cp -C \dV

v .dV
 21.5 SOUND WAVES IN A GAS 569

dP ,
dV „

I ^Isotherms
Integrating this expression gives

In P+ y In V = constant
which is equivalent to Equation 21.18:

PV = constant
The PV diagram for an adiabatic expansion is shown in Figure 21.4. Be-
cause y > 1 the PV curve for the adiabatic expansion is steeper than that for an
,

isothermal expansion. As the gas expands adiabatically, no heat is transferred

in or out of the system. Hence, from the first law, we see that At/is negative so Figure 21.4 The PV diagram for
that AT is also negative. Thus, we see that the gas cools (Tf < T,) during an an adiabatic expansion. Note that
Tf < T, in this process.
adiabatic expansion. Conversely, the temperature increases if the gas is com-
pressed adiabatically. Applying Equation 21.18 to the initial and final states,

we see that

PiV^PfV (21.19) Adiabatic process

Using PV — nRT,it is left as a problem (Problem 26) to show that Equation

21.19 can also be expressed as

T.yy-i = TfV" 1
(21.20)

Note that the above analysis is valid only in processes that are slow enough to
allow the system to always remain near equilibrium, but fast enough to pre-
vent the system from exchanging heat with its surroundings.

EXAMPLE 21.3 A Diesel Engine Cylinder Since PV = nRT is always valid during the process and
Air in the cylinder of a diesel engine at 20 °C is com- since no gas escapes from the cylinder,
pressed from an initial pressure of 1 atm and volume of
800 cm 3 to a volume of 60 cm 3 Assuming that air be-
.

haves as an ideal gas (y = 1 .40) and that the compression

is adiabatic, find the final pressure and temperature.
(293 K)
Solution Using Equation 21.19, we find that

Pf = P<(VJVf) y = 1 atm (800 cm 3 /60 cm 3 ) 1 4

= 37.6 atm
 —
570 CHAPTER 21 THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

We shall use this fact to determine an expression for the speed of sound in a
gas. First, recall from Chapter 1 7 that the speed of a longitudinal wave is given
by

-V!
where p is the density of the medium and B is its bulk modulus, given by
Equation 17.2, B = - V(AP/AV). If AP and AV are replaced by dP and dV,
respectively, we find

B= -vl

In Section 21.4, we found that if the gas is ideal, the pressure and volume
during an adiabatic process are related by the expression PV y = constant.
Differentiating this with respect to V gives

ypyy-i +V r

(£H
dP_
= _7 P
dV~ V
Substituting this into the expression for B gives

Baltic = - V I -y = yP
—J
Therefore the speed of sound in a gas is

Speed of sound in a gas u = VFyP (21.21)

Equation 21.21 can be expressed in another useful form, which uses the
equation of state of an ideal gas, PV = nRT, or

P = nRT/V = pRT/M
where R is the gas constant, M is the molecular weight (kg/mol), and n is the

number of moles of gas. Substituting this expression for Pinto Equation 21.21
gives

fyRT
Speed of sound in a gas u = ./i (21.22)
V M
It is interesting to compare t his resu lt with the rms speed of molecules in a
gas (Eq. 21.10), where oim = V3RT/M. The two results differ only by the
factors }' and 3. It is known that y lies between 1 and 1.67; hence the two speeds

are nearly the same! Since sound waves propagate through air as a result of
collisions between gas molecules, one would expect the wave speed to in-
crease as the temperature (and molecular speed) increase.
 21.6 THE EQUIPARTITION OF ENERGY 571

EXAMPLE 21.4 The Speed of Sound in Air It is interesting to note that the speed of sound in
Calculate the speed of sound in air at atmospheric pres- helium is much greater than this because of the lower
sure and at 0°C, taking P= 1.01 X 10 5 Pa,y= 1.40, and density of helium. An amusing demonstration of this fact
p= 1.29 kg/m 3 . is the variation in the human voice when the vocal cavi-
ties are partially filled with helium. The demonstrator

Solution Using Equation 21.21, we find that talks before and after taking a deep breath of helium, an
inert gas. The result is a high-pitched voice sounding a
v* t = V((1.4)(1.01) X 10 s Pa)/1.29 kg/m 3 = 331 m/s Donald Duck. The increase in frequency
bit like that of
corresponds to an increase in the speed of sound in he-
This is in excellent agreement with the measured speed lium, since frequency is proportional to velocity.
of sound in air.

21.6 THE EQUIPARTITION OF ENERGY

We have found that model predictions based on specific heat agree quite well
with the behavior of monatomic gases, but not with the behavior of complex
gases (Table 21.2). Furthermore, the value predicted by the model for the
quantity Cp — Cv = R is the same for all gases. This is not surprising, since this
difference is the result of the work done by the gas, which is independent of its
molecular structure.
In order to explain the variations in Cv and Cp in going from monatomic
gases to the more complex gases, let us explain the origin of the specific heat.
So far, we have assumed that the sole contribution to the internal energy of a
gas is the translational kinetic energy of the molecules. However, the internal
energy of a gas actually includes contributions from the translational, vibra-
tional, and rotational motion of the molecules. The rotational and vibrational
motions of molecules with structure can be activated by collisions and there-
fore are "coupled" to the translational motion of the molecules. The branch of
physics known as statistical mechanics has shown that for a large number of
particles obeying newtonian mechanics, the available energy is, on the aver-
age, shared equally by each independent degree of freedom. Recall that the
equipartition theorem states that at equilibrium each degree of freedom con-
tributes, on the average, %kT of energy per molecule.
Let us consider a diatomic gas, which we can visualize as a dumbbell-
shaped molecule (Fig. 21.5). In this model, the center of mass of the molecule
can translate in the x, y, and z directions (Fig. 21 .5a). In addition, the molecule
can rotate about three mutually perpendicular axes (Fig. 21.5b). We can
neglect the rotation about the y axis since the moment of inertia and the
rotational energy, \lco 2 about this axis are negligible compared with those
,

associated with the x and z axes. If the two atoms of the molecule are taken to
be point masses, then Iy is identically zero. Thus there are five degrees of
freedom: three associated with the translational motion and two associated
with the rotational motion. Since each degree offreedom contributes, on the
average, \kT of energy per molecule, the total energy for N molecules is

U= 3N(iJfcT) + 2N(i*T) = fNifeT = fnRT (c)

We can use this result and Equation 21.14 to get the molar heat capacity at
Figure 21.5 Possible motions of a
diatomic molecule: (a) translational
constant volume: motion of the center of mass,
(b) rotational motion about the
various axes, and (c) vibrational
n dl n dl motion along the molecular axis.
572 CHAPTER 21 THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
 21.6 THE EQUIPARTITION OF ENERGY 573

model in which the energy of an individual molecule is quantized. The energy

separation between adjacent vibrational energy levels for a molecule such as
H 2 is about ten times as great as the average kinetic energy of the molecule at
room temperature. Consequently, collisions between molecules at low tem-
peratures do not provide enough energy to change the vibrational state of the
molecule. It is often stated that such degrees of freedom are "frozen out." This
explains why the vibrational energy does not contribute to the heat capacities
of molecules at low temperatures.
The rotational energy levels are also quantized, but their spacing at ordi-
nary temperatures compared witk kT. Since the spacing between
is small
rotational levels is compared with kT, the system behaves classically.
so small
However, at sufficiently low temperatures (typically less than 50 K), where kT
is small compared with the spacing between rotational levels, intermolecular

collisions may not be energetic enough to alter the rotational states. This
25
explains why C v reduces to §R for H 2 in the range from 20 K to about 100 K. Germaniurri^--
20

Heat Capacities of Solids ?15

c

Measurements of heat capacities of solids also show a marked temperature J. 10

"" 5
dependence. The heat capacities of solids generally decrease in a nonlinear
manner with decreasing temperature and approach zero as the absolute tem-
perature approaches zero. At high temperatures (usually above 500 K), the
heat capacities of solids approach the value of about 3R ~ 25 J/mole K, a •

result known DuLong-Petit law. The typical data shown in Figure 21.7
as the
demonstrate the temperature dependence of the heat capacity for two semi-
conducting solids, silicon and germanium.
The heat capacity of a solid at high temperatures can be explained using
the equipartition theorem. For small displacements of an atom from its equi-
librium position, each atom executes simple harmonic motion in the x, y, and z
directions. The energy associated with vibrational motion in the x direction is
574 CHAPTER 21 THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

"21.7 DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR SPEEDS

Thus far we have neglected the fact that not all molecules in a gas have the
same speed and energy. Their motion is extremely chaotic. Any individual
molecule is colliding with others at the enormous rate of typically a billion
times per second. Each collision results in a change in the speed and direction
of motion of each of the participant molecules. From Equation 21.10, we see
that average molecular speeds increase with increasing temperature. What we
would like to know now is the distribution of molecular speeds. For example,
how many molecules of a gas have a speed in the range from, say, 400 to
410 m/s? Intuitively, we expect that the speed distribution depends on tem-
perature. Furthermore, we expect that the distribution peaks in the vicinity of
v rms That is, few molecules are expected to have speeds much less than or
.

much greater than v rms since these extreme speeds will result only from an
,

unlikely chain of collisions.

The development of a reliable theory for the speed distribution of a large
number of particles appears, at first, to be an almost impossible task. However,
in 1860 James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) derived an expression that de-
scribes the distribution of molecular speeds in a very definite manner. His
work, and developments by other scientists shortly thereafter, were highly
controversial, since experiments at that time were not capable of directly
detecting molecules. However, about 60 years later experiments were de-
vised which confirmed Maxwell's predictions.
One experimental arrangement for observing the speed distribution of
molecules is illustrated in Figure 21 .8. A substance is vaporized in an oven and
forms gas molecules, which are permitted to escape through a hole. The
molecules enter an evacuated region and pass through a series of slits to form a
collimated beam. The beam is incident on two slotted rotating disks separated
by a distance s. The slots in the disk are displaced from each other by an angle
6. A molecule passing through the slot in the first disk will pass through the slot

in the second disk only if its speed is v = sco/6, where co is the angular velocity
of the disks. Molecules with other speeds will necessarily collide with the
second disk and hence will not reach the detector. By varying co and d, one can
measure the number of molecules in a given range of speeds.

Figure 21.8 A schematic diagram of one apparatus used to measure the speed distribution of gas
molecules.
 •21.7 DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR SPEEDS 575

The observed speed distribution of gas molecules in thermal equilibrium

is shown in Figure 21.9. The quantity N„ (which is called the distribution
function) represents the number of molecules per unit interval of speed.
The number of molecules having a speed in the range from v to t> + Au is
equal to Nv Av, represented in Figure 2 1 .9 by the area of the shaded rectangle.
If N is the total number of molecules, then the fraction of molecules with
speeds between t; and v + At; is equal to Nv Av/N. This fraction is also equal to
the probability that any given molecule has a speed in the range from v to
t; + Au.
The total number of molecules numerically equals the total area under the
speed distribution curve. Since the abscissa ranges from v = to v = °° (classi-
cally, all molecular speeds are possible), we can express the total number of
particles as the sum of the areas of all shaded rectangles. In the limit At> — » 0, Figure 21.9 The speed distribu-
this sum is replaced by an integral: tion of gas molecules at some tem-
perature. The number of mole-
cules in the range Av is equal to the
N= *>-o
lim V N„Au)=
( Nv dv (21.23) area of the shaded rectangle,
Vjfo / Jo N„ Av. The function N v approaches
zero as v approaches infinity.
The fundamental expression (derived by Maxwell) that describes the most
probable distribution of speeds of N gas molecules is given by

Maxwell speed distribution

N„ = 4nN v 2 e -mvi/2kT (21.24) function
(iSr)
where m is mass of a gas molecule, k is Boltzmann's constant, and T is the
absolute temperature. 2 The function given by Equation 21.24 satisfies Equa-
tion 21.23. Furthermore, Nv approaches zero in the low- and high-speed
expected. Also, the speed distribution for a given gas depends only on
limits, as
temperature.
As indicated in Figure 21.9, the average speed, v, is somewhat lower than
the rms speed. The most probable speed, t> mp is the speed at which the ,

distribution curve reaches a peak. Using Equation 21.24, one finds that

v rms= VP = J3kT/m = 1.73 JkT/m (21.25) rms speed

v = J8kT/nm 1.60 JkT/m (21.26) Average speed

v mp = J2kT/m = 1.4l JkT/m (21.27) Most probable speed

The details of these calculations are left for the student (Problems 50 and 72),
but from these equations we see that c^ > v > v mp .

Figure 21.10 represents specific speed distribution curves for nitrogen

molecules. The curves were obtained by using Equation 2 1 24 to evaluate the .

distribution function, N„, at various speeds and at two temperatures (300 K

and 900 K). Note that the curve shifts to the right as T increases, indicating
that the average speed increases with increasing temperature, as expected.
The asymmetric shape of the curves is due to the fact that the lowest speed
possible is zero while the upper classical limit of the speed is infinity. Further-
more, as temperature increases the distribution curve broadens and the range
of speeds also increases.
Equation 21.24 shows that the distribution of molecular speeds in a gas
depends on mass as well as temperature. At a given temperature, the fraction

2
For the derivation of this expression, see any text on thermodynamics, such as that by M. W.
Zemansky and R. H. Dittman, Heat and Thermodynamics, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1981.
576 CHAPTER 21 THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

Figure 21.10 The Maxwell speed

distribution function for 10 5 nitro-
gen molecules at temperatures of
300 K and 900 K. The total area
under either curve is equal to the
total number of molecules, which,
in this case, equals 10 5 Note that
.
 21.8 MEAN FREE PATH 577

"21.8 MEAN FREE PATH

Most of us are familiar with thefact that the strong odor associated with a gas
such as ammonia maytake several minutes to diffuse through a room. How-
ever, since average molecular speeds are typically several hundred meters per
second atroom temperature, we might expect a time much less than one
second. To understand this apparent contradiction, we note that molecules
collide with each other, since they are not geometrical points. Therefore, they
do not travel from one side of a room to the other in a straight line. Between r, ° ° 1

collisions, the molecules move with constant speed along straight lines. 3 The
average distance between collisions is called the mean free path. The path of o o
individual molecules is random and resembles that shown in Figure 2 1 1 1 As .
Figure 21.11 A molecule moving
.

we would expect from this description, the mean free path is related to the through a gas collides with other
diameter of the molecules and the density of the gas. molecules in a random fashion.
This behavior is sometimes re-
We shall now describe how to estimate the mean free path for a gas ferred to as a random-walk process.
molecule. For this calculation we shall assume that the molecules are spheres The mean free path increases as the
of diameter d. We see from Figure 21.12a that no two molecules will collide number of molecules per unit vol-
ume decreases. Note that the mo-
unless their centers are less than a distance d apart as they approach each tion not limited to the plane of
is
other. An
equivalent description of the collisions is to imagine that one of the the paper.
molecules has a diameter 2d and the rest are geometrical points (Fig. 21.1 2b)
In a time t, the molecule having the speed that we shall take to be the average
speed, v, will same time interval, our molecule with
travel a distance vt In this .

equivalent diameter 2d will sweep out a cylinder having a cross-sectional area

of nd 2 and a length of vt (Fig. 21.13). Hence the volume of the cylinder is
nd 2 vt. If n v is the number of particles per unit volume, then the number of
particles in the cylinder is (nd 2 vt)n v The molecule of equivalent diameter 2d
.

will collide with every particle in this cylinder in the time t. Hence, the
number of collisions in the time t is equal to the number of particles in the
cylinder, which we found was (nd 2 vt)n v .

The mean free path, t, which is the mean distance between collisions,
equals the average distance vt traveled in a time t divided by the number of
collisions that occurs in the time:

/ = 13* 1

(nd 2 vt)nv nd 2 n v

3
Actually, there is a small curvature in the path because of the force of gravity at the earth's
surface. However, is small and can be neglected.
this effect

Actual
collision

Figure 21.13 In a time r, a mole-

(b) cule of effective diameter 2d will
sweep out a cylinder of length vt,
Figure 21.12 (a) Two spherical molecules, each of diameter d, collide if their centers are within where v is its average speed. In this
a distance d of each other, (b) The collision between the two molecules is equivalent to a point time, it will collide with every mol-
mass colliding with a molecule having an effective diameter of 2d. ecule within this cylinder.
578 CHAPTER 21 THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

Since the number of collisions in a time £ is (nd 2 vt)n v the number of ,

collisions per unit time, or collision frequency/, is given by

/= nd 2 vnv
The inverse of the collision frequency is the average time between collisions,
called the mean free time.
Our analysis has assumed that particles in the cylinder are stationary.
When the motion of the particles is included in the calculation, the correct
results are

1
Mean free path e = 2
(21.28)
V2 7td nv

Collision frequency /=
J V2 nd 2 vnVv = -„ A (21.29)

EXAMPLE 21.6 A Collection of Nitrogen Molecules

= 2.25 X 10~ 7 m
Calculate the mean free path and collision frequency
for nitrogen molecules at a temperature of 20 °C and a
This about 10 3 times greater than the molecular diam-
is
pressure of 1 atm. Assume a molecular diameter of
average speed of a nitrogen molecule at
eter. Since the
2 X 10- 10 m.
20°C is about 511 m/s (Table 21.1), the collision fre-
quency is
Solution Assuming the gas is ideal, we can use the equa-
tion PV = NkT to obtain the number of molecules per 511 m/s
volume under these conditions: /-T£ 2.27 X 10 9 /s
unit 2.25X10- 7 m
.N P__ 1.01 X 10 5 N/m 2 The molecule collides with other molecules at the aver-
~ (1.38 X 10- 23 J/K)(293 K)
~kf age rate of about two billion times each second!
m ° leC uleS The mean free path, t, is not the same as the average
= 2.50 X loss , separation between particles. In fact, the average sepa-
ration, d, between particles is given approximately by
~
Hence, the mean free path is n l/3 In this example, the average molecular separa-
v .

tion is
1
e =
1
<J2 nd 2 n„ 1
= 3.4X10- 9 m
D
V3 (2.5 X 10 25 ) 1 / 3

J2 *(2 X 10-^0 m) , 2 50
. X 10" ES^)
(

"21.9 VAN DER WAALS' EQUATION OF STATE

Thus far we have assumed all gases to be ideal, that is, to obey the equation of
state, PV =
nRT. To a very good approximation, real gases behave as ideal
gases at ordinary temperatures and pressures. In the kinetic theory derivation
of the ideal-gas law, we neglected the volume occupied by the molecules and
assumed that intermolecular forces were negligible. Now let us investigate the
qualitative behavior of real gases and the conditions under which deviations
from ideal-gas behavior are expected.
Consider a gas contained in a cylinder fitted with a movable piston. As
noted in Chapter 20, if the temperature is kept constant while the pressure is
 21.9 VAN DER WAALS' EQUATION OF STATE 579

measured at various volumes, a plot of P versus V yields a hyperbolic curve (an

isotherm) as predicted by the ideal-gas law (Fig. 21.14).
Now let us describe what happens to a real gas. Figure 21.15 gives some PV = Constant
typical experimental curves taken on a gas at various temperatures. At the
higher temperatures, the curves are approximately hyperbolic and the gas
behavior is close to ideal. However, as the temperature is lowered, the devia-
tions from the hyperbolic shape are very pronounced.
There are two major reasons for this behavior. First, we must account for
the volume occupied by the gas molecules. If Vis the volume of the container
and b is the volume occupied by the molecules, then V — b is the empty
volume available to the gas. The constant b is equal to the number of molecules
of gas multiplied by the volume per molecule. As V decreases for a given Figure 21.14 The PV diagram of
quantity of gas, the fraction of the volume occupied by the molecules in- an isothermal process for an ideal
gas. In this case, the pressure and
creases.
volume are related by PV =
The second important effect concerns the intermolecular forces when the constant.
molecules are close together. At close separations, the molecules attract each
other, as we might expect, since gases can condense to form liquids. There is a
potential energy associated with this attractive force, hence less of the total
energy associated with a particular degree of freedom is kinetic energy. Ac-
cording to the kinetic theory of gases, the decrease in pressure from that of an
ideal gas is due the reduction in the average kinetic energy of the molecules
colliding with the walls. The net inward force on a molecule near the wall is
proportional to the density of molecules, or inversely proportional to the
volume. In addition, the pressure at the wall is proportional to the density of
molecules. The net pressure is reduced by a factor proportional to the square Isotherms

of the density, which varies as 1/V 2 Hence, the pressure P is replaced by an

.

effective pressure P + a/V 2 where a is a constant.

,

The two effects just described can now be incorporated into a modified
equation of state proposed by J. D. van der Waals (1837 - 1923) in 1873. For
one mole of gas, van der Waals' equation of state is given by

('*) (V-b) = RT (21.30)

Figure 21.15 Isotherms for a real
The constants a and b are empirical and are chosen to provide the best fit to the gas at various temperatures. At
experimental data for a particular gas. higher temperatures, such as T4 ,

the behavior is nearly ideal. The

The experimental curves in Figure 21.16 for C0 2 are described quite behavior is not ideal at the lower
accurately by van der Waals' equation at the higher temperatures (T3 T4 and , ,
temperatures.

I I
Liquid

|
Liquid and

Figure 21.16 Isotherms for C0 2 at

various temperatures. Below the criti-
cal temperature, Tc , the substance
could be in the liquid state, the liquid-
vapor equilibrium state, or the gaseous
state, depending on the pressure and
volume. (Adapted from K. Mendels-
sohn, The Quest for Absolute Zero,
New York, McGraw-Hill, World Uni-
versity Library, 1966.)
580 CHAPTER 21 THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

T5 ) andoutside the shaded regions. Within the yellow region there are major
is used to predict the PV
discrepancies. If the van der Waals equation of state
relationship at a temperature such as Tj then a nonlinear curve is obtained
,

that is unlike the observed flat portion of the curve in the figure.
The departure from the predictions of van der Waals' equation at the
lower temperatures and higher densities is due to the onset of liquefaction.
That is, the gas begins to liquefy at the pressure Fc called the critical pressure.
,

In the region within the dotted line below Pc the gas is partially liquefied and
the gas vapor and liquid coexist. However, liquefaction cannot occur (even for
very large pressures) unless the temperature is below a critical value. In the
flat portions of the low-temperature isotherms, as the volume is decreased

more gas liquefies and the pressure remains constant. At even lower volumes,
the gas is completely liquefied. Any further decrease in volume leads to large
increases in pressure because liquids are not easily compressed.
It is now realized, because of the complex nature of the intermolecular

forces, that a real gas cannot be rigorously described by any simple equation of
state, such as Equation 21.30. Nevertheless, the basic concepts involved in
Equation 21.30 are correct. At very low temperatures, the low-energy mole-
cules attract each other and the gas tends to liquefy, or condense. A further
pressure increase will accelerate the rate of liquefaction. At the higher tem-
peratures, the average kinetic energy is large enough to overcome the attrac-
tive intermolecular forces; hence the molecules do not bind together at the
higher temperatures and the gas phase is maintained.

SUMMARY
The pressure of N molecules of an ideal gas contained in a volume Vis given
by

Pressure and molecular P=$y(imv*) (21.5)

kinetic energy

where \mv 2 is the average kinetic energy per molecule.

The temperature of an ideal gas is related to the average kinetic energy
per molecule through the expression

Temperature
to
is proportional

average kinetic energy

T-^(W) (21.6)

where k is Boltzmann's constant.

The average translational kinetic energy per molecule of a gas is given
by
Average kinetic energy per
ikT (21.7)
molecule
Each translational degree of freedom (x, y, or z) has %kT of energy
associated with it.

The equipartition of energy theorem states that the energy of a system

in thermal equilibrium is equally divided among all degrees of freedom.
 SUMMARY 581

The total energy of N molecules (or n moles) of an ideal monatomic gas

is given by
Internal energy of an ideal
U = iNkT = inRT (21.11) monatomic gas

The change in internal energy for n moles of any ideal gas that under-
goes a change in temperature AT is

Al/=nC,AT (21.14)

where C v is the molar heat capacity at constant volume.

The molar heat capacity of an ideal monatomic gas at constant volume is
Cv = §R; the molar heat capacity at constant pressure is Cp = fR. The ratio of
heat capacities is y = Cp /Cv = 5/3.
An adiabatic process is one in which there is no heat transfer between
the system and its surroundings.
an ideal gas undergoes an adiabatic expansion or compression, the
If
law of thermodynamics together with the equation of state, PV = nRT,
first

shows that

PV = constant (21.18) Adiabatic process

The speed of sound in a gas of density p and at a pressure P is

[yp
(21.21) Speed of sound in a gas

The most probable speed distribution ofN gas molecules at a tempera-

ture T is given by Maxwell's speed distribution function:

= Maxwell speed distribution

N„ 4ttN v 2 e-mv*/2kT (21.24)
(lib) function

Using this expression, one can find the rms speed, v ims the average speed, , v,
and the most probable speed, ump :

v = \ [Wf
V nm
(21.25) (21.26) (21.27)

The molecules of a gas undergo collisions with each other billions of

times each second under standard conditions. If the gas has a volume den-
sity n„ and each molecule is assumed to have a diameter d, the average
distance between collisions, or mean free path, £, is found to be

1
(21.28) Mean tree path
V2 nd 2 n„
Furthermore, the number of collisions per second, or collision frequency,/,
is given by

/- V2 nd 2 vn v = -n (21.29) Collision frequency

582 CHAPTER 21 THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

QUESTIONS

1. Dalton's law of partial pressures states: The total pres- 12. What happens to a helium-filled balloon released into
sure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the the air? Will it expand or contract? Will it stop rising
partial pressures of gases making up the mixture. Give at some height?

a convincing argument of this law based on the kinetic 13. Which

is heavier, standard dry air or air saturated

theory of gases. with water vapor? Is this why thunderheads rise?

2. One container is filled with helium gas and another 14. Why does a diatomic gas (Cl 2 ) have a greater energy
with argon gas. If both containers are at the same tem- content per mole than a mole of monatomic gas (Xe) at
perature, which molecules have the higher rms the same temperature?
speed? 15. What happens
to the van der Waals equation (Eq.
3. If you wished manufacture an after-shave lotion
to 21.30) as the volume per mole, V, increases?
with a scent that is less "likely to get there before you 16. Ideal gas is contained in a vessel at a temperature of
do," would you use a high- or low-molecular-weight 300 K. If the temperature is increased to 900 K, (a) by
lotion? what factor would the rms speed of each molecule
4. A gas consists of a mixture of He and N 2 molecules. Do change? (b) By what factor would the pressure in the
the lighter He molecules travel faster than the N 2 vessel change?
molecules? Explain. 17. At room temperature, the average speed of an air mol-
5. Although the average speed of gas molecules in ther- ecule is several hundred meters per second. A mole-

mal equilibrium at some temperature is greater than cule traveling at this speed should travel across a room
zero, the average velocity is zero. Explain. in a small fraction of a second. In view of this, why
6. Why does a fan make you feel cooler on a hot day? does it take the odor of perfume (or other smells) sev-
7. Alcohol taken internally makes you feel warmer. Yet eral seconds to travel across the room?
when it is rubbed on your body, it lowers body tem- 1 8. A vessel is filled with gas at some equilibrium pressure
perature. Explain the latter effect. and temperature. Can all molecules in the vessel have
8. A liquid partially fills a container. Explain why the the same speed?
temperature of the liquid decreases when the con- 19. Does it make any sense to use the concept of tempera-
tainer is partially evacuated. (Using this technique, it ture in describing a vacuum? Explain.
is possible to freeze water at temperatures above 20. In our model of the kinetic theory of gases, molecules
0°C.) were viewed as hard spheres colliding elastically with
9. A vessel containing a fixed volume of gas is cooled. the walls of the container. Is this model realistic? (A
Does the mean free path increase, decrease, or remain more accurate description is one in which the surface
constant in the cooling process? What about the colli- absorbs molecules and emits them later.)
sion frequency? 21 . In view of the fact that hot air rises, why does it gener-
10. A compressed at a constant temperature. What
gas is ally become cooler as you climb a mountain? (Note
happens to the mean free path of the molecules in this that air is a poor conductor of heat.)
process?
11. If a helium-filled balloon is placed in a freezer, will its
volume increase, decrease, or remain the same?

PROBLEMS
Section 21.1 Molecular Model for the Pressure of an ature is — 50 °C and the pressure has dropped to

Ideal Gas 40 mm Hg (^ atm). The volume of the balloon at this

location is 800 m 3 . Assuming the helium has the same
1. Find the mean square speed of nitrogen molecules temperature and pressure as the surrounding atmo-
under standard conditions, 0°C and 1 atm pressure. sphere, find the number of moles of helium in
Recall that 1 mole of any gas occupies a volume of the balloon.
22.4 liters under standard conditions. 4. For the previous problem, find (a) the mass of the
2. Two moles of oxygen gas are confined to a 5-liter ves- helium and (b) the volume of the balloon when it was
sel at apressure of 8 atm. Find the average transla- launched from the ground at standard pressure and
tional kineticenergy of an oxygen molecule under temperature (1 atm, 0°C). (c) What volume tank at
these conditions. (The mass of an 2 molecule is 27°C and 170 atm will supply this much helium?
5.31 X 10- 26 kg.) 5. A spherical balloon of volume 4000 cm 3 contains he-
3. A high-altitude research balloon contains helium gas. lium at an (inside) pressure of 1.2 X 10 5 N/m 2 How .

At its maximum altitude of 20 km, the outside temper- many moles of helium are in the balloon, if each
 PROBLEMS 583

helium atom has an average kinetic energy of diatomic gas in which the molecules rotate but do not
3.6X10~ 22 J? vibrate.
6. In a 30-s interval, 500 hailstones strike a glass window 19. One mole of hydrogen gas is heated at constant pres-
of area 0.6 m2 at an angle of 45° to the window sur- sure from 300 K to 420 K. Calculate (a) the heat
face. Each hailstone has a mass of 5 g and a speed of transferred to the gas, (b) the increase in internal en-
8 m/s. If the collisions are assumed to be elastic, find ergy of the gas, and (c) the work done by the gas.
the average force and pressure on the window. 20. In a constant-volume process, 209 J of heat is trans-
ferred to 1 mole of an ideal monatomie gas initially at
Section 21.2 Molecular Interpretation of Temperature 300 K. Find (a) the increase in internal energy of the
gas, (b) the work done by the gas, and (c) the final
7. A cylinder contains a mixture of helium and argon gas
temperature of the gas.
in equilibrium at atemperature of 150°C. What is the
21. What is the internal energy of 100 g of He gas at
average kinetic energy of each gas molecule?
8. Calculate the root mean square speed of an H 2 mole-
77 K? How much more energy must be supplied to
heat this gas to +24°C?
cule at a temperature of 250°C.
9. (a) Determine the temperature at which the rms
22. How much internal energy is contained in 1 m 3 of air
at0°C?
speed of an He atom equals 500 m/s. (b) What is the
23. The specific heat at constant volume for neon gas is
rms speed of He on the surface of the sun, where the
c„ = 0.149 kcal/kg-K. Calculate the mass of a neon
temperature is 5800 K?
atom.
10. Gaseous helium is in thermal equilibrium with liquid
helium at a temperature of 4.20 K. Determine the
24. How much internal energy is in the air in a 20 m3
room 0°C and 20°C? Assume that the pres-
most probable speed of a helium atom (mass =
at (a) (b)
sure remains at 1 atm.
6.65 X 10- 27 kg).
11. If the rms velocity of a helium atom at room tempera- Section 21.4 Adiabatic Process for an Ideal Gas
ture is 1 350 m/s, what is the rms velocity of an oxygen
25. Two moles of an ideal gas (y = 1.40) expand quasi-
(0 2 ) molecule at this temperature? (The molecular
weight of 2 is 32, and the molecular weight of He statically and adiabatically from a pressure of 5 atm
and a volume of 1 2 liters to a final volume of 30 liters.
is 4.)
12. A 5-liter vessel contains nitrogen gas at a temperature (a) What is the final pressure of the gas? (b) What are

of 27 °C and a pressure of 3 atm. Find (a) the total

the and final temperatures?
initial

26. Show that Equation 21.20 follows from Equation

translational kinetic energy of the gas molecules and
(b) the average kinetic energy per molecule. 21.19 for a quasi-static, adiabatic process. (Note:
13. One mole of xenon gas at 20°C occupies 0.0224 m3 PV = nRT applies during the process.)
=
.

What is the pressure exerted by the Xe atoms on the

27. An ideal gas (y 1.40) expands quasi-statically and
adiabatically. If the final temperature is one third the
walls of a container?
initial temperature, (a) by what factor does its volume
14. (a) How many atoms of helium (He) are required to fill

a balloon to diameter 30 cm at room temperature change? (b) By what factor does its pressure change?
28. One mole of an ideal monatomie gas (y = 1.67) ini-
(20°C) and 1 atm? (b) What is the average kinetic
tially at 300 K and 1 atm is compressed quasi-stati-
energy of each helium atom? (c) What is the average
cally and adiabatically to one fourth its initial volume.
speed of each helium atom?
Find its final pressure and temperature.
Section 21.3 Heat Capacity of an Ideal 29. During the compression stroke of a certain gasoline
Gas
Use data in Table 21.2. engine, the pressure increases from 1 atm to 20 atm.
Assuming that the process is adiabatic and the gas is
15. Calculate the change in internal energy of 3 moles of ideal with y = 1.40, (a) by what factor does the vol-
helium gas when its temperature is increased by 2 K. ume change and (b) by what factor does the tempera-
16. Two moles of oxygen gas are heated from 300 K to ture change?
320 K. How much heat is transferred to the gas if the 30. Helium gas at 20°C is compressed without heat loss to
process occurs at (a) constant volume and (b) constant 1/5 its initial volume, (a) What is its temperature after
pressure? compression? (b) What if the gas is dry air (77% N 2 ,

17. The heat capacity, C, of a monatomie gas measured at 23% O z )?

constant pressure is 62.3 J/k. Find (a) the number of 31. Air in athundercell expands in volume rises. If its
as it

moles of gas, (b) the heat capacity at constant volume, temperature was 300 K, and no heat is lost on
initial
and (c) the internal energy of the gas at 350 K. expansion, what is its temperature when the initial
18. Consider three moles of an ideal gas. (a) If the gas is volume is doubled?
monatomie, find the total heat capacity at constant 32. How much work is required to compress 5 moles of
volume and at constant pressure, (b) Repeat (a) for a air at 20°Cand 1 atm to 1/10 of the original volume by
 >
584 CHAPTER 21 THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

(a) an isothermal process and (b) an adiabatic pro- 43. In acrude model (Figure 21.17) of a rotating diatomic
cess? (c) What are the final pressures for the two molecule of chlorine (Cl 2 ), the two CI atoms are a
cases? distance 2X 10 -10 m apart and rotate about their
center-of-mass with angular velocity u> = 2 X 10 12
rad/s. What is the rotational kinetic energy of one
Section 21.5 Sound Waves in a Gas
molecule of Cl 2 with a molecular weight of 70?
,

33. Calculate the speed of sound in methane (CH 4 ) at

288 K, using the values y = 1.31, the molecular
weight of CH 4 and , M=
16 kg/kmol.
34. At what temperature will the speed of sound in meth-
ane equal the speed of sound in helium at 288 K? For
helium, y = 1 .67 and M
= 4 kg/kmole.
35. Compare the speed of sound in helium to that in air at
20°C. (Hint: Use Table 21.2.)
V
@
Figure 21.17 (Problem 43).
36. A worker is at one end of a mile-long section
(1.61) km) of iron pipeline when an accidental blast
44. Consider 2 moles of an ideal diatomic gas. Find the
occurs at the other end of the section. The worker
total heat capacity at constant volume and at constant
receives two sound signals from the blast, one trans-
pressure if (a) the molecules rotate but do not vibrate
mitted through the pipe and one through the sur-
and (b) the molecules rotate and vibrate.
rounding air. Use values from Table 17.1 to calculate
the elapsed time between the two signals. (Note: First
"Section 21.7 Distribution of Molecular Speeds
find the speed of sound in air at 300 K and take the
speed of sound in iron at that temperature to be 45. A vessel containing oxygen gas is at a temperature of
5200 m/s.) 400 K. Find (a) the rms speed, (b) the average speed,
37. Xenon has a density of 5.9 kg/m 3
at 0°C and 1 atm and (c) the most probable speed of the gas molecules.
pressure. Since monatomic, y = 1.67. (a) Calcu-
it is (The mass of 2 is 5.31 X 10" 26 kg.)
late the speed of sound in xenon at 0°C. (b) What is 46. Fifteen identical particles have the following speeds:
the bulk modulus of xenon? one has speed 2 m/s; two have speed 3 m/s; three
38. A sound wave propagating in air has a frequency of have speed 5 m/s; four have speed 7 m/s; three have
4000 Hz. Calculate the percent change in wave- speed 9 m/s; two have speed 12 m/s. Find (a) the
length when the wavefront, initially in a region where average speed, (b) the rms speed, and (c) the most
T= 27°C, enters a region where the air temperature probable speed of these particles.
decreases to 10°C. 47. Calculate the most probable speed, average speed,
39. A spelunker attempts to determine the depth of a pit and rms speed for nitrogen gas molecules at 900 K.
of a cave by dropping a stone into the pit
in the floor Compare your results with the values obtained from
and measuring the time interval between release and Figure 21.10.
the sound of the stone's hitting bottom. If the mea- 48. Determine the rms velocities of nitrogen (N 2 ), water
sured time interval is 10 s, what is the depth of the vapor (H 2 0), and oxygen (0 2 ) molecules at (a) 20°C
pit? (Assume a temperature of 15°C.) and(b)100°C.
49. Use Figure 21.10 to estimate the number of nitrogen
molecules with speeds between 400 m/s and 600 m/s
Section 21.6 The Equipartition of Energy
at (a) 300 K
and (b) 900 K.
40. Ifamolecule has /degrees of freedom, show that a gas 50. Show most probable speed of a gas molecule
that the
consisting of such molecules has the following proper- is given by Equation 21.27. Note that the most proba-

ties: (1) its total internal energy is fnRT/2; (2) its molar ble speed corresponds to the point where the slope of
heat capacity at constant volume is/R/2; (3) its molar the speed distribution curve, dNjdv, is zero.
heat capacity at constant pressure is (/+ 2)R/2; 51. At what temperature would the average velocity of
the ratio
(4) y=CJC
v =(/+ 2)//
helium atoms equal (a) the escape velocity from earth,
41. Examine the data for polyatomic gases in Table 21.2 1.12 X 10 4 m/s, and (b) the escape velocity from the
and explain why S0 2 has a higher Cv than the other moon, 2.37 X 10 3 m/s? (See Chapter 14 for a discus-
polyatomic gases at 300 K. sion of escape velocity, and note that the mass of he-
42. Inspecting the magnitudes of Cv and Cp for the di- lium is 6.65 X lO -27 kg.)
atomic and polyatomic gases in Table 21.2, we find 52. Using the data in Figure 21.10, estimate the fraction
that the values increase with increasing molecular of N2molecules that have speeds in the range
mass. Give a qualitative explanation of this observa- 1000 m/s to 1200 m/s at 900 K. The total number of
tion. molecules is 10 5 .
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 585

'Section 21.8 Mean Free Path cules of the two gases have masses m, and m2 , show
that the ratio of their rms speeds (or the ratio of diffu-
53. In an ultrahigh vacuum system, the pressure is mea-
sion rates) is given by
sured to be 10- 10 torr (where 1 torr = 133 N/m ). If
2

the gas molecules have a molecular diameter of

3 A = 3 X 10 -10 m and the temperature is 300 K,
(4.
find (a) the number of molecules in a volume of 1 m
3
,

(b) the mean free path of the molecules, and (e) the This process to obtain uranium enriched with
is used
collision frequency, assuming an average speed of the isotope 235 U, which is used in nuclear reactors.
500 m/s. 62. A cylinder containing n moles of an ideal gas under-
54. Show that the mean free path for the molecules of an goes a quasi-static, adiabatic process, (a) Starting with
ideal gas is given by the expression W
= /P dV and using PV = constant,
show that the work done is given by
kT
e =
42nd 2 P PfVf )

where d is the molecular diameter.

55. In a tank full of oxygen, how many molecular diame- (b) Starting with the first law in differential form,
ters d (on average) an oxygen molecule travel (at 1
will prove that the work done is also equal to nCv (Tj — Tf).
atm and 20 °C) before colliding with another O z mole- Show that this result is consistent with the equation
cule? (The diameter of the 2 molecule is about in (a).
3.6 X 10- 10 m.) 63. Twenty particles, each of mass m and confined to a
56. Argon gas at atmospheric pressure and at 20°C is con- volume V, have the following speeds: two have speed
fined in a vessel with a volume of 1 m The effective
3
. three have speed 2v; five have speed 3d; four have
V;

hard-sphere diameter of the argon atom is 3.10 X speed 4d; three have speed 5t>; two have speed 6d;
10 -10 m. (a) Determine the mean free path (. (b)Find one has speed 7v. Find (a) the average speed, (b) the
the pressure (at 20°C) when f=lm. (c) Find the rms speed, (c) the most probable speed, (d) the pres-
pressure (at 20°C) when € = 3.1 X lO" 10 m. sure they exert on the walls of the vessel, and (e) the
average kinetic energy per particle.
"Section 21.9 Van der Waals' Equation of State 64. A vessel contains 10 4 oxygen molecules at 500 K.
(a) Make an accurate graph of the Maxwell speed dis-
57. The constant b that appears in van der Waals' equa-
tribution function, N versus speed with points at
,

oxygen is measured to be equal to 3 1 .8

tion of state for
speed intervals of 100 m/s. (b) Determine the most
cm 3/mole. Assuming a spherical shape, estimate the
probable speed from this graph, (c) Calculate the
diameter of the molecule.
average and rms speeds for the molecules and label
58. Use Equation 21.22 to compute the speed of sound in
these points on your graph, (d) From the graph, esti-
a mixture of 60% oxygen and 40% nitrogen at 40°C.
mate the fraction of molecules with speeds in the
59. Consider again the situation described in Problem 36.
range 300 m/s to 600 m/s.
Show that, in general, the elapsed time interval be-
65. A vessel contains 1 mole of helium gas at a tempera-
tween sound signal through the pipe and
arrival of the
ture of 300 K. Calculate the approximate number of
through the surrounding air is
molecules having speeds in the range from 400 m/s to
t(v m - ^a) 410 m/s. (Hint: This number is approximately equal to
At
Nc Ad, where Ad is the range of speeds.)
66. On a day when the atmospheric pressure is 1 atm and
where v m is the speed of sound in the metal, u a is the the temperature is 20 °C, a diving bell in the shape of a
speed of sound in air, and ( is the length of the pipe. cylinder 4 m tall, closed at the upper end, is lowered
60. Show that the work done in expanding 1 mole of a van into water to aid in the construction of an under-
der Waals gas from an initial volume V; to final volume ground foundation for a bridge tower. The water in-

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
W=RT1
m
Vf at constant temperature is given by

+ a(VY l - v- 1
).
side the diving bell rises to within 1.5 m of the top and
the temperature drops to 8°C. (a) Find the air pres-
sure inside the
the water
air is pumped
working space
is
bell, (b)

in,
How far below the surface of
the bell located? (In actual use, additional
forcing the water out to provide
for the construction workers.)
61. A mixture of two gases will diffuse through a filter at 67. Oxygen at pressures much above 1 atm becomes toxic
rates proportional to their rms speeds. If the mole- to lung cells. What ratio, by weight, of helium gas (He)
586 CHAPTER 21 THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

to oxygen (0 2 ) must be used by a scuba diver who is to 74. By volume, composed of approximately 78%
air is

descend to an ocean depth of 50 m? nitrogen (N 2 ), 21% oxygen (0 2 and 1% other gases.

),

68. The compressibility, K, of a substance is defined as the Ignoring the 1% other gases, (a) use these facts to find
fractional change in volume of that substance for a the mass of a cubic meter of air at standard conditions
given change in pressure: (1 atm, 0°C). (b) Given this result, calculate the lift-
ing force on a helium-filled balloon with a volume of
1 dV
1 m3 at a pressure of 1 atm. (c) Show that a helium-
filled balloon has 92.6% the lifting force of a similar

(a) Explain why the negative sign in this expression hydrogen-filled balloon.
ensures that k will always be positive, (b) Show that if 75. There are roughly 10 59 neutrons and protons in an
an ideal gas is compressed isothermally, its compress- average star and about 10 n stars in a typical galaxy.
ibility is given by K l = 1/P. (c) Show that if an ideal gas Galaxies tend to form in clusters of (on the average)
is compressed adiabatically, its compressibility is
about 1 3 galaxies, and there are about 1 9 clusters in
given by K 2 = 1/yP- (d) Determine values for K x and k 2 the known part of the universe, (a) Approximately
for a monatomic ideal gas at a pressure of 2 atm. how many neutrons and protons are there in the
69. One mole of a gas obeying van der Waals' equation of known universe? (b) Suppose all this matter were com-
state is compressed isothermally. At some critical tem- pressed into a sphere of nuclear matter such that each
-45 m 3
perature, Tc , the isotherm has a point of zero slope, as nuclear particle occupied a volume of 10
in Figure 21.16. That is, at T=T (about the "volume" of a neutron or proton). What
C ,

would be the radius of this sphere of nuclear matter?

—
dV
=
dP d2P

ffV 2
= (c) How many moles of nuclear particles are there in

the observable universe?

76. (a) A molecule with sufficient kinetic energy at the
Using Equation 21.30 and these conditions, show that
surface of the earth can escape the earth's gravitation.
at the critical point, the pressure, volume, and temper-
Pc = a/27b 2 Vc = 3b, and Tc = Using energy conservation, show that the minimum
ature are given by ;

kinetic energy at the surface needed to escape is mgR,

8a/27Rb.
where m is the mass of the molecule, g is the accelera-
70. The temperature of the sun's interior is approxi-
tion of gravity at the surface, and R is the radius of the
mately 2 X 10 7 K. Find (a) the average translational
earth, (b) Calculate the temperature for which the
kinetic energy of a proton in the sun's interior and
(b) its root-mean-square speed.
minimum escape kinetic energy equals ten times the
average kinetic energy of an oxygen molecule.
71. In Equation 21.22 the temperature T must be in de-
77. Using multiple laser beams, physicists have been able
grees kelvin. (a) Starting with this equation, show that
to cool and trap sodium atoms in a small region. In one
the speed of sound in a gas can be expressed in the
experiment the temperature of the atoms was re-
form v = v + (« /546)f, where ( is the temperature in
°C and v is the speed of sound in the gas at 0°C. duced to 2.4 X 10 -4 K. (a) Determine the rms speed
Assume that t < 273°C and use the expansion of the sodium atoms at this temperature. The atoms
(Hint:
+ 1 /2 = 1 + \x - \x 2 + (b) In the case of air, can be trapped for about 1 s. The trap has a linear
(1 x) • •

dimension of roughly 1 cm. (b) Approximately how

show that this result leads to
long would it take an atom to wander out of the trap
v = (331 + 0.61*) m/s region if there were no trapping action?

72. Verify Equations 21.25 and 21.26 for the rms and
average speed of the molecules of a gas at a tempera- CALCULATOR/COMPUTER PROBLEMS
ture T. Note that the average value of v" is given by numerical value of the
78. For a Maxwellian gas, find the
ratio {Nv (v)/Nv (v for the following values of v.
v n=- J
njv dv
)}
= (v mp/50), (« mp/10), (t>mp/2), 2vmp 10t>mp) 50u mp
v
nJ , .

Give your results to three significant figures.

and make use of the integrals 79. Consider a system of 10 4 oxygen molecules at a tem-
perature T. Write a program that will enable you to
dx = calculate the Maxwell distribution function N„ as a
r 2a 2
function of the speed of the molecules and the temper-
and ature. Use your program to evaluate N„ for speeds
ranging from v = to v = 2000 m/s (in intervals of
r x*e_. dx 3
a =—4 ax
r \
-
/*
100 m/s) at temperatures of (a) 300 K and (b) 1000 K.
J 8o 2 V a
(c) Make graphs of your results (Nc versus v) and use

73. Find (a) the pressure of 10 mol of carbon dioxide gas the graph at T= 1000 K to calculate the number of
(C0 2 ) stored in a 500-L tank at 25°C and (b) the molecules having speeds between 800 m/s and
density of the gas in the tank. 1000 m/s at T= 1000 K.
 Heat Engines, Entropy
and the Second Law
of Thermodynamics

A model steam engine

equipped with a built-in
horizontal boiler. The water is
heated electrically, which
generates steam that is used to
power the electric generator at
the right. (Courtesy ofCENCO)

The first law of thermodynamics is merely the law of conservation of

energy generalized to include heat as a form of energy transfer.

This law tells us only that an increase in one form of energy must be
accompanied by a decrease in some other form of energy. The first
law places no restrictions on the types of energy conversions that can occur.
Furthermore, it makes no distinction between heat and work. According to
the first law, the internal energy of a body may be increased by either adding
heat to it or doing work on it. But there is an important difference between
heat and work that is not evident from the first law. For example, it is possible
to convert work completely into heat but, in practice, it is impossible to
convert heat completely into work without changing the surroundings.
The second law of thermodynamics establishes which processes in nature
may or may not occur. Of all processes permitted by the first law, only certain
types of energy conversions can take place. The following are some examples
of processes that are consistent with the first law of thermodynamics but
proceed in an order governed by the second law of thermodynamics. ( 1 ) When
two objects at different temperatures are placed in thermal contact with each
other, heat flows from the warmer to the cooler object, but never from the

587
588 CHAPTER 22 HEAT ENGINES. ENTROPY. AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

cooler to the warmer. (2) Salt dissolves spontaneously in water, but extracting
salt from salt water requires some external influence. (3) When a rubber ball is
dropped to the ground, it bounces several times and eventually comes to rest.
The opposite process does notoccur. (4) The oscillations of a pendulum will
slowly decrease in amplitude because of collisions with air molecules and
friction at the point of suspension. Eventually the pendulum will come to rest.
Thus, the initial mechanical energy of the pendulum is converted into thermal
energy. The reverse transformation of energy does not occur.
These are all examples of irreversible processes, that is, processes that
occur naturally in only one direction. None of these processes occur in the
opposite temporal order; if they did, they would violate the second law of
thermodynamics. 1 That is, the one-way nature of thermodynamic processes in
2
fact establishes a direction of time. You may have witnessed the humor of an
action film running in reverse, which demonstrates the improbable order of
events in a time-reversed world.
Lord Kelvin, British physicist
and mathematician (1824-1907). The second law of thermodynamics, which can be stated in many equiva-
Born William Thomson in Belfast, lent ways, has some very practical applications. From an engineering view-
Kelvin was the first to propose the point, perhaps the most important application is the limited efficiency of heat
use of an absolute scale of tempera-
ture. The kelvin scale, named in
engines. Simply stated, the second law says that a machine capable of contin-
honor of the physicist,discussed
is uously converting thermal energy completely into other forms of energy can-
in Section 19.3. Kelvin's study of not be constructed.
Carnot's theory led to the idea that
heat cannot pass spontaneously
from a colder body to a hotter
body; this is known as the second
22.1 HEAT ENGINES AND THE SECOND LAW OF
law of thermodynamics. (The Bett- THERMODYNAMICS
mann Archive)
The field of thermodynamics developed from a study of heat engines, an
application of great importance today. A heat engine is a device that converts
thermal energy into other useful forms of energy, such as mechanical and
electrical energy. More specifically, a heat engine is a device that carries a
substance through a cycle during which (1) heat is absorbed from a source at a
high temperature, (2) work is done by the engine, and (3) heat is expelled by
the engine to a source at a lower temperature. In a typical process for produc-
ing electricity in a power plant, coal or some other fuel is burned and the heat
produced is used to convert water to steam. This steam is then directed at the
blades of a turbine, setting it into rotation. Finally, the mechanical energy
associated with this rotation is used to drive an electric generator. The internal
combustion engine in your automobile extracts heat from a burning fuel and
converts a fraction of this energy to mechanical energy.
As was mentioned above, a heat engine carries some working substance
through a cyclic process, defined as one in which the substance eventually
returns to its initial state. As an example of a cyclic process, consider the
operation of a steam engine in which the working substance is water. The
water is carried through a cycle in which it first evaporates into steam in a
boiler and then expands against a piston. After the steam is condensed with
cooling water, it is returned to the boiler and the process is repeated.

1
To be more precise, we should say that the set of events in the time-reversed sense is highly
improbable. From this viewpoint, events occur with a vastly higher probability in one direction
than in the opposite direction.
2
See, for example, D. Layzer, "The Arrow of Time," Scientific American, December 1975.
 22.1 HEAT ENGINES AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 589

In the operation of any heat engine, a quantity of heat is extracted from a

high-temperature source, some mechanical work is done, and some heat is
expelled to a low-temperature reservoir. It is useful to represent a heat engine
schematically as in Fig. 22.1. The engine (represented by the circle at the
center of the diagram) absorbs a quantity of heat Q h from the high-tempera-
ture reservoir. It does work W
and gives up heat Qc to a lower-temperature
heat reservoir. Because the working substance goes through a cycle, its initial
and final internal energies are equal, so AU = 0. Hence, from the first law of
thermodynamics we see that

the nel work \V done by the engine equals the net heat flowing into the
engine.

As we can see from Figure 19.1, Q ne = Qh — Oc

, ; therefore

W=Q -Q h c (22.1)
Heat engine

where Qh and Qc are taken to be positive quantities. If the working substance is Figure 22.1 Schematic represen-
a gas, the net work done for a cyclic process is the area enclosed by the curve tation of a heat engine. The engine
representing the process on a PV diagram. This is shown for an arbitrary cyclic (inthe circular area) receives heat

process in Figure 22.2. Qh from the hot reservoir, expels

heat Qc
to the cold reservoir, and
does work W.
The thermal efficiency, e, of a heat engine is defined as the ratio of the net
work clone to the heat absorbed during one cycle:

_ W_Q h
- Qc Q c
(22.2) Thermal efficiency

We can think of the efficiency as the ratio of "what you get" (mechanical
work) to "what you pay for" (energy). This result shows that a heat engine has
100% efficiency (e = 1) only if Qc — 0, that is, if no heat is expelled to the cold
reservoir. In other words, a heat engine with perfect efficiency would have to
convert all of the absorbed heat energy Qh into mechanical work. The second V Area=W I

law of thermodynamics says that this is impossible.

In practice, it is found that all heat engines convert only a fraction of the
absorbed heat into mechanical work. For example, a good automobile engine
has an efficiency of about 20%, and diesel engines have efficiencies ranging
from 35% to 40%. On the basis of this fact, the Kelvin-Planck form of the
Figure 22.2 The PV diagram for
second law of thermodynamics states the following: an arbitrary cyclic process. The net
work done equals the area enclosed
It is impossible to construct a heat engine that, operating in a cycle,
by the curve.
produces no other effect than the absorption of thermal energy from a
reservoir and the performance of an equal amount of work.

This is equivalent to stating that it is impossible to construct a perpetual-motion

machine of the second kind, that is, a machine that would violate the second
law. 3 Figure 22.3 is a schematic diagram of the impossible "perfect" heat
engine.
A refrigerator (or heat pump) is a heat engine running in reverse. This is

shown schematically in Figure 22.4, in which the engine absorbs heat Qc from
3
A perpetual-motion machine of the first kind is one that would violate the first law of thermody-
namics (energy conservation). It is also impossible to construct this type of machine.
590 CHAPTER 22 HEAT ENGINES. ENTROPY, AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

ri
Hot reservoir
;ervoir at T
fc
^

USD

Cold reservoir atTc s> Cold reservoir at Tc J Cold reservoir atTc J

The impossible engine Refrigerator Impossible refrigerator

Figure 22.3 Schematic diagram Figure 22.4 Schematic diagram Figure 22.5 Schematic diagram
of a heat engine that receives heat for a refrigerator, which absorbs of the impossible refrigerator, that
Of, from a hot reservoir and does an heat Q c from the cold reservoir and is, one that absorbs heat
Qc from a
equivalent amount of work. It is expels heat Q\ to the hot reservoir. cold reservoir and expels an equiv-
impossible to construct a perfect Work VT is done on the refrigera- alent amount of heat to the hot res-
engine. tor. ervoir with \Y = 0.

the cold reservoir and expels heat Qh to the hot reservoir. This can be accom-
plished only work is done on the refrigerator. From the first law, we see that
if

the heat given up to the hot reservoir must equal the sum of the work done and
the heat absorbed from the cold reservoir. Therefore, we see that the refriger-
ator transfers heat from a colder body (the contents of the refrigerator) to a
hotter body (the room). In practice, it is desirable to earn- out this process with
a minimum of work. If it could be accomplished without doing any work, we
would have a "perfect" refrigerator (Fig. 22.5). Again, this is in violation of
the second law of thermodynamics, which in the form of the Clausius state-
ment 4 says the following:
It isimpossible to construct a cyclical machine that produces no other
from one body to another body at
effect than to transfer heat continuously
a higher temperature.

In simpler terms, heat will not flow spontaneously from a cold object to a hot
object. In effect, this statement of the second law governs the direction of heat
flow between two bodies at different temperatures. Heat will flow from the
colder to the hotter body only if work is done on the system. For example,
homes are cooled in summer by pumping heat out; the work done on the air
conditioner is supplied by the power company.
The Clausius and Kelvin-Planck statements of the second law appear, at
first sight, to be unrelated. They are, in fact, equivalent in all respects. Al-

though we do not prove it here, one can show that if either statement is false, so
is the other. 5

4 First expressed by Rudolf Clausius (1822-1888).

5
See, for example, F.W. Sears, Thermodynamics, The Kinetic Theory of Gases, and Statistical
Mechanics, Reading, Mass., Addison-Weslev 1953, Chapter 7.
.
 22.2 REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES 591

EXAMPLE 22.1 The Efficiency of an Engine

e=l- 1 =0 25 or25%
-i?bi
-

Find the efficiency of an engine that introduces 2000 J of <Ph

-

heat during the combustion phase and loses 1500 J at

exhaust and through friction. Exercise 1 If an engine has an efficiency of 20% and
loses 3000 J through friction, how much work is done by
Solution The efficiency of the engine is given by Equa- the engine?
tion 22.2 as Answer 750 J.

22.2 REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES

In our introductory remarks we mentioned that real processes have a pre-
ferred direction. Heat flows spontaneously from a hot to a coldbody when the
two are placed but the reverse is accomplished only with some
in contact,
Sand
external influence. When ablock slides on arough surface, it eventually comes
to rest. The mechanical energy of the block is converted into internal energy
of the block and table. Such unidirectional processes are called irreversible
processes. In general, a process is irreversible if the system and its surround-

ings cannot be returned to their initial states.

A process may be reversible if the system passes from the initial state to
the final state through a succession of equilibrium states. If a real process
occurs quasi-statically, that is, slowly enough so that each state departs only
infinitesimally from equilibrium, it can be considered reversible. For exam-
E Heat reservoir

ple, we can imagine compressing a gas quasi-statically by dropping some

Figure 22.6 A gas in thermal con-
grains of sand onto a frictionless piston (Fig. 22.6). The pressure, volume, and tact with a heat reservoir is com-
temperature of the gas are well defined during the isothermal compression. pressed slowly by dropping grains
of sand onto the piston. The com-
The process is made isothermal by placing the gas in thermal contact with a pression is isothermal and revers-
heat reservoir. Some heat is transferred from the gas to the reservoir during ible.

the process. Each time a grain of sand is added to the piston, the volume
decreases slightly while the pressure increases slightly. Each added grain of
sand represents a change to a new equilibrium state. The process can be
reversed by slowly removing grains of sand from the piston.
Since a reversible process is defined by a succession of equilibrium states,
it can be represented by a curve on a PV diagram, which establishes the path

for the process (Fig. 22.7). Each point on this curve represents one of the
intermediate equilibrium states. On the other hand, an irreversible process is
one that passes from the initial state to the final state through a series of
nonequilibrium states. In this case, only the initial and final equilibrium states
can be represented on the PV diagram. The intermediate, nonequilibrium
states may have well-defined volumes, but these states are not characterized
by a unique pressure for the entire system. Instead, there are variations in
pressure (and temperature) throughout the volume range, and these varia-
tions will not persist if left to themselves (i.e., nonequilibrium conditions). For
this reason, an irreversible process cannot be represented by a line on a PV
diagram. Figure 22.7 A reversible process
We have stated that a reversible process must take place quasi-statically. between the two equilibrium states
i and/can be represented by a line
In addition, in a reversible process there can be no dissipative effects that on the PV diagram. Each point on
produce heat. Other effects that tend to disrupt equilibrium, such as heat this line represents an equilibrium
conduction resulting from a temperature difference, must not be present. In state. An irreversible process
passes through a series of nonequi-
reality, such effects are impossible to eliminate completely, so it is not surpris-
librium states and cannot be repre-
ing that processes in nature are irreversible. Nevertheless, it is possible to sented by a line on this diagram.
 —
592 CHAPTER 22 HEAT ENGINES, ENTROPY, AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

approximate reversible processes through carefully controlled procedures. As

we shall see in the next section, the concept of reversible processes is espe-
cially important in establishing the theoretical limit on the efficiency of a heat
engine.

22.3 THE CARNOT ENGINE

In 1824 a French engineer named Sadi Carnot (1796-1832) described a
working cycle, now called a Carnot cycle, that is of great importance from both
a practical and a theoretical viewpoint. Carnot showed that a heat engine
operating in this ideal, reversible cycle between two heat reservoirs would be
the most efficient engine possible. Such an ideal engine, called a Carnot
engine, establishes an upper limit on the efficiencies of all engines. That is, the
net work done by a working substance taken through the Carnot cycle is the
largest possible for a given amount of heat supplied to the working substance.
Carnot's theorem can be stated as follows:

No real heat engine operating between two heat reservoirs can be more
efficient than a Carnot engine operating between the same two reser-
voirs.

Let us briefly describe some aspects of this theorem. First, we shall assume
that the second law is valid. Next, imagine two heat engines operating be-
tween the same heat reservoirs, one which is a Carnot engine with efficiency
ec and the other whose efficiency e is greater than e c If the more efficient
,
.

engine is used to drive the Carnot engine as a refrigerator, the net result would
be a transfer of heat from the cold to the hot reservoir. According to the second
law, this is impossible. Hence, the assumption that e > e c must be false.
To describe the Carnot cycle, we shall assume that the substance working
between temperatures Tc and Th is an ideal gas contained in a cylinder with a

Sadi Carnot, a French physicist, was the first to show the quantitative relationship
between work and heat. Carnot was born in Paris on June 1 1 796 and was educated at
,

the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris and at the Ecole Genie in Metz. Carnot's many
interests include a wide range of study and research in mathematics, tax reform,
industrial development, and the fine arts.
In 1824 he published his only work Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat —
which reviewed the industrial, political, and economic importance of the steam en-
gine. In it he defined work as "weight lifted through a height." Carnot began to study
the physical properties of gases in 1831, particularly the relationship between tem-
perature and pressure.
On August 24, 1832, Sadi Carnot died suddenly of cholera. In accordance with
the custom of his time, all of his personal effects were burned. Some of his notes which
fortunately escaped destruction indicate that Carnot had arrived at the idea that heat
Biographical is work that has changed its form. For this reason, he is considered
essentially work, or
tobe the founder of the science of thermodynamics, which states that energy can
Sketch never disappear; it can only be altered into other forms of energy. Carnot's notes led
Lord Kelvin to confirm and extend the science of thermodynamics in 1850.
Sadi Carnot
CJ 796 -1832)
 22.3 THE CARNOT ENGINE 593

Figure 22.8 The Carnot cycle. In process A^* B, the gas ex-
pands isothermally while in contact with a reservoir at Th In.

process B —» C, the gas expands adiabatically (Q = 0). In process

C — D, the gas is compressed isothermally while in contact with
Tc < Th In process D —» A, the gas is compressed
a reservoir at .

The upward arrows on the piston indicate weight

adiabatically.
being reduced during the expansions, and the downward arrows
indicate the addition of weight during the compressions.

movable piston at one end. The cylinder walls and the piston are thermally
nonconducting. Four stages of the Carnot cycle are shown in Figure 22.8, and 4
K eh
the PV diagram for the cycle is shown in Figure 22.9. The Carnot cycle consists
of two adiabatic and two isothermal processes, all reversible.

1. The process A —» B is an isothermal expansion at temperature Th in which

,

the gas placed in thermal contact with a heat reservoir at temperature Th

is

(Fig. 22.8a). During the process, the gas absorbs heat (^ from the reservoir
through the base of the cylinder and does work W^ in raising the piston.
2. In the process B—>C, the base of the cylinder is replaced by a thermally
nonconducting wall and the gas expands adiabatically, that is, no heat enters
or leaves the system (Fig. 22.8b). During the process, the temperature falls
from Th to Tc and the gas does work W^ in raising the piston.
3. In the process C —* D, the gas is placed in thermal contact with a heat
reservoir at temperature Tc (Fig. 22.8c) and is compressed isothermally at
594 CHAPTER 22 HEAT ENGINES, ENTROPY, AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

temperature Tc During this time, the gas expels heat Qc to the reservoir and
.

the work done on the gas by an external agent is CD W .

4. In the final stage, D —*A, the base of the cylinder is replaced by a noncon-
ducting wall (Fig. 22. 8d) and the gas is compressed adiabatically. The
temperature of the gas increases to Th and the work done on the gas by an
external agent is WDA .

The net work done in this reversible, cyclic process is equal to the area
enclosed by the path ABCDA of the PV diagram (Fig. 22.9). As we showed in
Section 22.1, the net work done in one cycle equals the net heat transferred
into the system, G\ — Q c since the change in internal energy is zero. Hence,
,

the thermal efficiency of the engine is given by Equation 22.2:

Efficiency of a heat engine

In Example 22.2, we show that for a Carnot cycle, the ratio of heats Q c /Qh is

given by

Ratio of heats for a Carnot

(22.3)
cycle Qh~Th
Hence, the thermal efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by

T«
ee =l--=r
1
(22.4)

According to this result,

allCarnot engines operating between the same two temperatures in a

reversible manner have the same efficiency. From Carnot's theorem the
efficiency of any reversible engine operating in a cycle between two
temperatures is greater than the efficiency of any irreversible (real) en-
gine operating between the same two temperatures. 6

Equation 22.4 can be applied to any working substance operating in a

Carnot cycle between two heat reservoirs. According to this result, the effi-
ciency is zero if Tc = Th, as one would expect. The efficiency increases as Tc is
lowered and as Th increases. However, the efficiency can only be unity (100%)
if Tc = K. Such reservoirs are not available, and so the maximum efficiency is
always less than unity. In most practical cases, the cold reservoir is near room
temperature, about 300 K. Therefore, one usually strives to increase the effi-
Model of a Stirling engine. This de-
ciency by raising the temperature of the hot reservoir. All real engines are less
vice uses a "regenerator," which efficient than the Carnot engine since they are subject to such practical difficul-
recycles some of the heat that ties as friction and heat losses by conduction.
would normally be lost back into
the system; for this reason, the
Stirling cycle has an efficiency
nearly equal to that of the Carnot 6 See, for example, F.W. Sears, Thermodynamics, The Kinetic Theory of Gases, and Statistical
cycle. (Courtesy of CENCO) Mechanics, Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley, 1953, Chapter 7.
 22.3 THE CARNOT ENGINE 595

EXAMPLE 22.2 Efficiency of the Carnot Engine Using this result and Equation 22.2, the thermal effi-
Show that the efficiency of a heat engine operating in a ciency of the Carnot engine is

Carnot cycle using an ideal gas is given by Equation 22 4.

<?c_ Tc _ Th - Tc

Solution During the isothermal expansion, A —» B (Fig.

22.8a), the temperature does not change and so the in-
ternal energy remains constant. The work done by the
gas is given by Equation 20.13. According to the first law EXAMPLE 22.3 The Steam Engine
the heat absorbed, Q^, equals the work done, so that A steam engine has a boiler that operates at 500 K. The
heat changes water to steam, which drives the piston.
V*
Qh =WAB = nRTh \n
The exhaust temperature is that of the outside air, about
300 K. What is the maximum thermal effic ency of this
steam engine?
In a similar manner, the heat rejected to the cold reser-
voir during the isothermal compression C —» D is given
by
Solution From the expression for the efficiency of a Car-
not engine, we find the maximum thermal efficiency for
Qc = \WCD = nRTc \n
\

Vr any engine operating between these temperatures:

300 K
Dividing these expressions, we find that c„= 1 :r=l ~ 0.4, or 40%
500 K
Qc _ Tc ln(Vc /VD)
(1) You should note
<? h Th HvB /vA )
that this is the highest theoretical effi-
ciency of the engine. In practice, the efficiency will be
We now show that the ratio of the logarithmic quantities considerably lower.
is unity by obtaining a relation between the ratio of vol-
umes.
For any quasi-static, adiabatic process, the pressure Exercise 2 Determine the maximum work the engine
and volume are related by Equation 21.18: can perform in each cycle of operation if it absorbs 200 J
of heat from the hot reservoir during each cycle.
PV? = constant
Answer 80 J.

During any reversible, quasi-static process, the ideal gas

must also obey the equation of state, PV = nRT. Substi-
tuting this into the above expression to eliminate the
pressure, we find that EXAMPLE 22.4 The Carnot Efficiency
The highest theoretical efficiency of a gasoline engine,
TV?' = 1
constant based on the Carnot cycle, is 30%. If this engine expels
its gases into the atmosphere, w lich has a temperature of
Applying this result to the adiabatic processes B —* C and
D— » A, we find that
300 K, what is the temperature in the cylinder immedi-
ately after combustion?
ThV- = Tc V"i1

Th V-i = Tc VD >-i The Carnot efficiency used to find Th

Solution is :

Dividing these equations, we obtain

ec =l
(Vb/V^-i = (Vc /VD)J-i

(2) ^=^ 1 - e„
300 K
1-0.3
= 429 K

Substituting (2) into (1), we see that the logarithmic

terms cancel and we obtain the relation Exercise 3 If the heat engine absorbs 837 J of heat from
the hot reservoir during each cycle, how much work can
it perform in each cycle?
<2h Answer 251 J.
596 CHAPTER 22 HEAT ENGINES, ENTROPY, AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

22.4 THE ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE SCALE

In Chapter 19 we defined temperature scales in terms of observed changes in
certain physical properties of materials with temperature. It is desirable to
define a temperature scale that is independent of material properties. The

Carnot cycle provides us with the basis for such a temperature scale. Equation
22.3 tells us that the ratio Qc jQ\, depends only on the temperatures of the two
heat reservoirs. The ratio of the two temperatures, Tc /Th can be obtained by
,

operating a reversible heat engine in a Carnot cycle between these two tem-
peratures and carefully measuring the heats Oc and Q h A temperature scale
.

can be determined with reference to some fixed-point temperatures. The

absolute, or kelvin, temperature scale is defined by choosing 273.16 K as the
absolute temperature of the triple point of water.
The temperature of any substance can be obtained in the following man-
ner: (1) take the substance through a Carnot cycle; (2) measure the heat Q
absorbed or expelled by the system at some temperature T, (3) measure the
heat 3 absorbed or expelled by the system when it is at the temperature of the
triple point of water. From Equation 22.3 and this procedure we find that the
unknown temperature is given by

T= (273.16 K)^-
V3
The absolute temperature scale is identical to the ideal-gas temperature
scale and is independent of the property of the working substance. Therefore
itcan be applied even at very low temperatures.
In the previous section, we found that the thermal efficiency of any Car-
not engine is given by e c = 1 — (Tc /Th ). This result shows that a 100% efficient
engine is possible only if a temperature of absolute zero is maintained for Tc If .

this were possible, any Carnot engine operating between Th and Tc = K

would convert all of the absorbed heat into work. 7 Using this idea, Lord Kelvin
defined absolute zero as follows: Absolute zero is the temperature of a reservoir
at which a Carnot engine will expel no heat.

22.5 THE GASOLINE ENGINE

In this sectionwe shall discuss the efficiency of the common gasoline engine.
Five successive processes occur in each cycle, as illustrated in Figure 22.10.
During the intake stroke of the piston (Fig. 22.10a), air that has been mixed
with gasoline vapor in the carburetor is drawn into the cylinder. During the
compression stroke (Fig. 22.10b), the intake valve is closed and the air-fuel
mixture is compressed approximately adiabatically. At this point a spark ig-
nites the air-fuel mixture (Fig. 22.10c), causing a rapid increase in pressure
and temperature at The burning gases expand and
nearly constant volume.
force the piston back, which produces the power stroke (Fig. 22.10d). Finally,
during the exhaust stroke (Fig. 22.10e), the exhaust valve is opened and the
rising piston forces most of the remaining gas out of the cylinder. The cycle is
repeated after the exhaust valve is closed and the intake valve is opened.

Experimentally, it is not possible to reach absolute zero. Temperatures as low as about 10~ K
7 5

have been achieved with enormous difficulties using a technique called nuclear demagnetization.
The fact that absolute zero may be approached but never reached is a consequence of a law of
nature known as the third law of thermodynamics.
 22 .5 THE GASOLINE ENGINE 597

Spark pluc

Figure 22.10 The four-stroke cycle of a conventional gasoline engine, (a) In the intake stroke,
airis mixed with fuel, (b) The intake valve is then closed, and the air-fuel mixture is compressed by

the piston, (c) The mixture is ignited by the spark plug raising it to ahigher temperature, (d) In the
power stroke, the gas expands against the piston, (e) Finally, the residual gases are expelled and
the cycle repeats.

These processes can be approximated by the Otto cycle, a PV diagram of

which is illustrated in Figure 22.11.

1. During the intake stroke —* A (the horizontal line in Fig. 22.11), air is
drawn into the cylinder at atmospheric pressure and the volume increases
from V2 to V1 .

2. In the process A^B (compression stroke), the air-fuel mixture is com-

pressed adiabatically from volume V1 to volume V2 and the temperature
,

increases from TA to TB The work done on the gas is the area under the
.

curve AB.
3. In the process B — » C, combustion occurs and heat Q h is added to the gas.
This is not an inflow of heat but rather a release of heat from the combustion Figure 22. 1 1 The PV diagram for
the Otto cycle, which approxi-
process. During this time the pressure and temperature rise rapidly, but the
mately represents the processes in
volume remains approximately constant. No work is done on the gas. the internal combustion engine.
4. In the process C-*D (power stroke), the gas expands adiabatically from V2 No heat is transferred during the
adiabatic processes A —» B and
to Vj causing the temperature to drop from Tc to TD The work done by
, .

C->D.
the gas equals the area under the curve CD.
5. In the process D — * A, heat Oc is extracted from the gas as its pressure
decreases at constant volume. (Hot gas is replaced by cool gas.) No work is
done during this process.
6. In the final process of the exhaust stroke * A—
(the horizontal line in Fig.
22.11), the residual gases are exhausted at atmospheric pressure, and the
volume decreases from V t
to V2 The
. cycle then repeats itself.

If the air-fuel mixture isassumed to be an ideal gas, the efficiency of the

Otto cycle is shown in Example 22.5 to be

1 Efficiency of the
e=l (22.5)
(vjv2 y Otto cycle

where y is the ratio of the molar heat capacities Cp /Cv and V,/V2 is called the
compression ratio. This expression shows that the efficiency increases with
increasing compression ratios. For a typical compression ratio of 8 and y= 1.4,
598 CHAPTER 22 HEAT ENGINES, ENTROPY, AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

a theoretical efficiency of 56% is predicted for an engine operating in the

idealized Otto cycle. This is much higher than what is achieved in real engines
(15% to 20%) because of such effects as friction, heat loss to the cylinder walls,
and incomplete combustion of the air-fuel mixture. Diesel engines have
higher efficiencies than gasoline engines because of their higher compression
ratios (about 16) and higher combustion temperatures.

EXAMPLE 22.5 Efficiency of the Otto Cycle the relation TV = constant. Using this condition, and
1

Show that the thermal efficiency of an engine operating the facts that VA = VD = Vj and VB = Vc = V2> we find
in an idealized Otto cycle (Fig. 22. 1 1) is given by Equa- that
tion 22.5. Treat the working substance as an ideal gas.

Solution First, let us calculate the work done by the gas

(2)
^ -T KJ
TC B

during each cycle. No work is done during the processes Substituting (2) into (1) gives for the thermal efficiency
B-+C and D^» A. Work is done on the gas during the
1
adiabatic compression A—*B, and work is done by the (3) 1
-
gas during the adiabatic expansion C —* D. The net work
(VV^-i
done equals the area bounded by the closed curve in This can also be expressed in terms of a ratio of tempera-
-1 =
Figure 22.11. Since the change in internal energy is zero tures by noting that since TA Vy TB Vy _1 it follows ,

for one cycle, we see from the first law that the net work that
done for each cycle equals the net heat into the system:

W=Q -Q h c
LvJ TB Tc
Since the processes B—*C and D ^> A take place at con- Therefore becomes
(3)
stant volume and since the gas is ideal, we find from the
definition of heat capacity that
(4) e= 1
Ia
Qh = nCv (Tc -TB ) and Oc = nCv (TD - TA )

During this cycle, the lowest temperature is TA and the

Using these expressions together with Equation 22.2, we
highest temperature is Tc Therefore the
. efficiency of a
obtain for the thermal efficiency
Carnot engine operating between reservoirs at these two
Oc. TD -TA
(1)
W_ ,

Oh TC -TB
extreme temperatures I which is given by e c = 1 — — I

would be greater than the efficiency of the Otto cycle,

We can simplify this expression by noting that the pro-
which is given by (4).
cesses A—*B and C —» D are adiabatic and hence obey

22.6 HEAT PUMPS AND REFRIGERATORS

A heat pump is a mechanical device that is finding increased acceptance for
use in heating and cooling homes and buildings. In the heating mode, a circula-
tory fluid absorbs heat from the outside and releases it to the interior of the
structure. The circulating fluid is usually in the form of a low pressure vapor
when in the coils of a unit exterior to the structure, where it absorbs heat either
from the air or the ground. This gas is then compressed and enters the struc-
ture as a hot, high-pressure vapor. In an interior unit, the gas condenses to a
liquid and releases its stored internal energy. When the heat pump is used as
an air conditioner, the cycle above is reversed.
Figure 22.12 isa schematic representation of a heat pump used to heat a
structure. The outside temperature is Tc , the inside temperature is Th and the
,
 22.7 ENTROPY 599

heat absorbed by the circulating fluid is c The compressor does work

Q . Won
the fluid, and the heat transferred from the pump into the structure is Oh .
Hot reservoir at Tk
The effectiveness of a heat pump is described in terms of a number called
the coefficient of performance, COP. This is defined as the ratio of the heat
transferred into the hot reservoir and the work required to transfer that heat:

heat transferred _ Oj,

COP(heat pump) (22.6)
work done by pump W H "'
11
pump .

If the outside temperature is 25°F or higher, the COP for a heat pump is
about 4. That is, the heat transferred into the house is about four times greater
than the work done by the motor in the heat pump. However, as the outside ft

temperature decreases, it becomes more difficult for the heat pump to extract
sufficient heat from the air and the COP drops.
Although heat pumps used in buildings are relatively new products in the Cold reservoir at Tr
heating and air conditioning field, the refrigerator has been a standard appli-
ance in homes for years. The refrigerator works much like a heat pump, except
that it cools its interior by pumping heat from the food storage compartments Figure 22.12 Schematic diagram
into the warmer air outside. During its operation, a refrigerator removes a of a heat pump, which absorbs heat

quantity of heat Q c from the interior of the refrigerator, and in the process Qc from the cold reservoir and
expels heat Oj, to the hot reservoir.
its motor does work W. The coefficient of performance of a refrigerator is

given by

COP(refrigerator) = (22.7)
W
An efficient refrigeratorone that removes the greatest amount of heat from
is

the cold reservoir for the least amount of work. Thus, a good refrigerator
should have a high coefficient of performance, typically 5 or 6. The impossible
(perfect) refrigerator would have an infinite coefficient of performance.

22.7 ENTROPY
The concept of temperature is involved in the zeroth law of thermodynamics,

and the concept of internal energy is involved in the first law. Temperature
and internal energy are both state functions. That is, they can be used to
describe the thermodynamic state of a system. Another state function related
to the second law of thermodynamics is the entropy function, S. In this section
we define entropy on a macroscopic scale as it was first expressed by Clausius
in 1865.
Consider a quasi-static, reversible process between two equilibrium
states. If dQthe heat absorbed or expelled by the system during some small
T
is

interval of the path,

the change in entropy, dS, between two equilibrium states is given by the
heat transferred, dQ r divided by the absolute temperature, T, of the
,

svstem in this interval. That is,

_dQ
= t Clausius definition of change
dS (22.8)
in entropy
 Q

600 CHAPTER 22 HEAT ENGINES, ENTROPY, AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The subscript r on the term d r

is used to emphasize that the definition applies
only to reversible processes. When heat is absorbed by the system, dQ T is
positive and hence the entropy increases. When heat is expelled by the sys-
tem, dQT is negative and the entropy decreases. Note that Equation 22.8 does
not define entropy, but the change in entropy. This is consistent with the fact
that a change always accompanies heat transfer. Hence, the meaning-
in state
ful quantity in describing a processis the change in entropy.

Entropy originally found its place in thermodynamics, but its importance

grew tremendously as the field of statistical mechanics developed because this
method of analysis provided an alternative way of interpreting the concept of
entropy. In statistical mechanics, the behavior of a substance is described in
terms of the statistical behavior of the atoms and molecules contained in the
substance. One of the main results of this treatment is that

isolated systems tend toward disorder and entropy is a measure of this

disorder.

Rudolph Clausius (1822-1888). For example, consider the molecules of a gas in the air in your room. If all the
"I propose ... to call S the en-
gas molecules moved together like soldiers marching in step, this would be a
tropy of a body, after the Greek
word 'transformation.' I have de- very ordered state. It is also an unlikely state. If you could see the molecules,
signedly coined the word 'entropy' you would see that they moved haphazardly in all directions, bumping into
to be similar to energy, for these
two quantities are analogous in
one another, changing speed upon collision, some going fast, some slowly.
their physical significance, that an This is a highly disordered state, and it is also the most likely state.
analogy of denominations seems to All physical processes tend toward the most likely state, and that state is
be helpful." (AIP Niels Bohr Li-
always one in which the disorder increases. Because entropy is a measure of
brary, Lande Collection)
disorder, an alternative way of saying this is

the entropy of the universe increases in all natural processes.

This statement is yet another way of stating the second law of thermody-
namics.
To calculate the change in entropy for a finite process, we must recognize
that Tis generally not constant. If dQ T is the heat transferred when the system

is ata temperature T, then the change in entropy in an arbitrary reversible

process between an initial state and a final state is

Changes in entropy for a dQr

AS = dS= (reversible path) (22.9)
finite process
[ [ T

Although we do not prove it here, the change in entropy of a system in going

from one state to another has the same value for all reversible paths connect-
ing the two states. 8 That is,

the change in entropy of a system depends only on the properties of the

initial and final equilibrium states.

In the case of a reversible, adiabatic process, no heat is transferred be-

tween the system and its surroundings, and therefore AS = in this case. Since

8 Note that the quantity dQ T is called an inexact differential quantity, whereas dQJT = dS is a
perfect differential. This is because heat is not a property of the system, and hence O
is not a state

function. Mathematically, we call 1/Tthe integrating factor in this case, since the perfect differen-
tial dQJT can be integrated.
 22.7 ENTROPY 601

there is no change in entropy, such a process is often referred to as an isen-

tropic process.
Consider the changes in entropy that occur in a Carnot heat engine oper-
ating between the temperatures Tc and Th In one cycle, the engine absorbs
.

heat Q h from a hot reservoir at a temperature Th and rejects heat Q c to a cold

reservoir at a temperature Tc Thus, the total change in entropy for one cycle is
.

AS &_&
7V T„

where the negative sign in the second term represents the fact that heat Qc is
expelled by the system. In Example 22.2 we showed that for a Carnot cycle,

Using this result in the previous expression for AS, we find that the total
change in entropy for a Carnot engine operating in a cycle is zero. That is,

Change in entropy for a

AS =
Carnot cycle is zero

Now consider a system taken through an arbitrary reversible cycle. Since the
entropy function is a state function and hence depends only on the properties
of a given equilibrium state, we conclude that AS = for any reversible cycle.
In general, we can write this condition in the mathematical form

dQ T AS = for any-
(22.10)
T reversible cycle

where the symbol f indicates that the integration is over a closed path.
Another important property of entropy is the fact that

the entropy of the universe remains constant in a reversible process.

This can be understood by noting that two bodies A and B that interact with
each other reversibly must always be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
That is, their temperatures must always be equal. Therefore, when a small
amount of heat dQ is transferred from A to B, the increase in entropy of B is
dQ/T, while the corresponding change in entropy of A is —dQ/T. Thus the
total change in entropy of the system (A + B) is zero, and the entropy of the
9
universe is unaffected by the reversible process.

As a special case, we next show how to calculate the change in entropy for
an ideal gas that undergoes a quasi-static, reversible process in which heat is
absorbed from a reservoir.

Quasi-static, Reversible Process for an Ideal Gas

An ideal gas undergoes a quasi-static, reversible process from an initial state
T|, V) to a final state Tf> Vf Let
. us calculate the change in entropy for this
process.

9
Alternatively, we can say that since the universe is, by definition, an isolated system, it never
gains or loses heat; hence the change in entropy of the universe is zero for a reversible process.
602 CHAPTER 22 HEAT ENGINES, ENTROPY, AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

According to the first law, dQ = dU + dW, where dW = P dV. For an

T

ideal gas, recall that dU = nCv dT and P = nRT/V. Therefore, we can express
the heat transferred as

dV
dQ = dU + PdV= nCv dT + nRT
t (22.11)

We cannot integrate this expression as it stands since the last term contains two
variables, T and V. However, if we divide each term by T, we can integrate
both terms on the right-hand side:

— d Q<
rv
= nC —
dT
+ nR —
dV n (22.12)

Assuming that Cv is constant over the interval in question, and integrating

Equation 22.12 from T { ,
V, to Tf Vf we
, , get

d Qr TU ri — V
AS — — rv
= nC In
\ — + nn In f
(22.13)
"f T T t
V,

This expression shows that AS depends only on the initial and final states and is
independent of the reversible path. Furthermore, AS can be positive or nega-
tive depending on whether the gas absorbs or expels heat during the process.
Finally, for a cyclic process (T = Tf and V, = Vf ), we see that AS = 0.
f

EXAMPLE 22.6 Change in Entropy— Melting

mLf
Process AS- clQ (22.14)
A solid substance with a heat of fusion Lf melts at a tem- J T Tj
perature Tm . Calculate the change in entropy that occurs
when m grams of this substance is melted. Note that we were able to remove Tm from the integral in
this case since the process is isothermal. Also, the quan-

Solution Let us assume that the melting process occurs tity Q is the total heat required to melt the substance and
so slowly that it can be considered a reversible process. is equal to mLf (Section 20.3).

In that case the temperature can be considered to be

constant and equal to Tm Making
. use of Equations 22.9 Exercise 4 Calculate the change in entropy when
0.30 kg of lead melts at 327°C. Lead has a heat of fusion
and the fact that the heat of fusion Q = mLf, we find that
equal to 24.5 kj/kg.
Answer AS=12.3J/K.

22.8 ENTROPY CHANGES IN IRREVERSIBLE

PROCESSES
By definition, the change in entropy for a system can be calculated only for
reversible paths connecting the initial and final equilibrium states. In order to
calculate changes in entropy for real (irreversible) processes, we must first
recognize that the entropy function (like internal energy) depends only on the
state of the system. That is, entropy is a state function. Hence, the change in
entropy of a system between any two equilibrium states depends only on the
initial and final states. Experimentally one finds that the entropy change is the

same for all processes between the initial and final states. It is possible to show
 22.8 ENTROPY CHANGES IN IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES 603

that if this were not the case, the second law of thermodynamics would be
violated.
In view of the fact that the entropy of a system depends only on the state of
the system, we can now calculate entropy changes for irreversible processes
between two equilibrium states. This can be accomplished by devising a re-
versible process (or series of reversible processes) between the same two
equilibrium states and computing JdQjT for the reversible process. The en-
tropy change for the irreversible process is the same as that of the reversible
process between the same two equilibrium states. Let us demonstrate this
procedure with a few specific cases.

Heat Conduction
Consider the transfer of heat Q from a hot reservoir at temperature Th to a cold
reservoir at temperature Tc Since the cold reservoir absorbs heat Q, its en-
.

tropy increases by Q/Tc At the same time, the hot reservoir loses heat Q and its
.

entropy decreases by Q/Th The increase in entropy of the cold reservoir is

.

greater than the decrease in entropy of the hot reservoir since Tc is less than
Th Therefore, the total change in entropy of the system (universe) is greater
.

than zero:

AS u = £-£>0

EXAMPLE 22.7 Which Way Does

the Heat Flow? The cold reservoir loses heat, and its entropy change is

A cold reservoir 273 K, and a hotter reservoir is at

is at
373 K. Show that it is impossible for a small amount of AS„
_ -8J -0.0293 J/K
273 K
heat energy, say 8 J, to be transferred from the cold res-
ervoir to the hot reservoir without decreasing the en- The net entropy change of the universe is

tropy of the universe and hence violating the second law.

ASU = ASC + ASh = -0.0079 J/K
Sol ul ion We assume here that during the heat transfer, This is in violation of the concept that the entropy of the
the two reservoirs do not undergo a temperature change. universe always increases in natural processes. That is,
The entropy change of the hot reservoir is the spontaneous transfer of heat from a cold to a hot object
cannot occur.
AS = = 00214 ^ K
- ^=37TK

Free Expansion

An ideal gas in an insulated container initially occupies a volume V

{
(Fig.
22.13). A from another evacuated region is sud-
partition separating the gas
denly broken so that the gas expands (irreversibly) to a volume Vf Let us find .

the change in entropy of the gas and the universe.

The process is clearly neither reversible nor quasi-static. The work done
by the gas against the vacuum is zero, and since the walls are insulating, no heat
is transferred during the expansion. That is, W
= and Q = 0. Using the first
law, we see that the change in internal energy is zero, therefore U = U( t

where and f indicate the initial and final equilibrium states. Since the gas is
i

ideal, U depends on temperature only, so we conclude that T = Tf t

.
604 CHAPTER 22 HEAT ENGINES, ENTROPY, AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Insulating We cannot use Equation 22.9 directly to calculate the change in entropy
wall

X since that equation applies only to reversible processes. In fact, at

one might wrongly conclude that AS = since there is no heat transferred. To
first sight

calculate the change in entropy, let us imagine a reversible process between

the same initial and final equilibrium states. A simple one to choose is an
Membrane
isothermal, reversible expansion in which the gas pushes slowly against a
jL
piston. Since Tis constant in this process, Equation 22.8 gives

Gas at T,
AS dQr
J T T} {

But / dQr is simply the work done by the gas during the isothermal expansion
Figure 22. 1 3 Free expansion of a
gas. When the partition separating
from Vj to Vf which is given by Equation 20. 13. Using this result, we find that
,

the gas from the evacuated region

is ruptured, the gas expands freely

and irreversibly so that it occupies AS = nR In f

a greater final volume. The con- ^ (22.15)

tainer is thermally insulated from
its surroundings, so Q=
0.
Since Vf > V we conclude that AS is positive, and so both the entropy and
f ,

disorder of the gas (and universe) increase as a result of the irreversible,

adiabatic expansion. This result can also be obtained from Equation 22.13,
noting that T, =T f , so In Tf/Tj = ln(l) = 0.

EXAMPLE 22.8 Free Expansion of a Gas = nR In — f

AS
Calculate the change in entropy of 2 moles of an ideal gas
that undergoes a free expansion to three times its initial

volume.
= (2 moles)(8.31 J/mole •
K) In 3

Solution Using Equation 22. 15 with n = 2 and V f

=
3Vi. = 18.3 J/K
we find that

Irreversible Heat Transfer

A substance of mass m 1 specific heat c x and initial temperature Tl is placed in
, ,

thermal contact with a second substance of mass m 2 specific heat c2 and , ,

initial temperature T2 where T2 > 7\. The two substances are contained in an
,

insulated box so no heat is lost to the surroundings. The system is allowed to

reach thermal equilibrium. What is the total entropy change for the system?
First, let us calculate the final equilibrium temperature, T{ Energy con- .

servation requires that the heat lost by one substance equal the heat gained
bv the other. Since by definition, Q = mc AT for each substance, we get
<2, = -t>2,or
mxCi AT = l
-m 2c2 AT2
miCi(T{ - T,) =-m 2 c 2 (Tf
- T2 )

Solving for Tf gives

"h^iTi + m 2 c 2 T2
Tf = (22.16)
r?i,c, + m 2c2

Note that T < T{ < T2

1 , as would be expected.
 22.8 ENTROPY CHANGES IN IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES 605

The process is irreversible since the system goes through a series of non-
equilibrium states. During such a transformation, the temperature at any time
is not well defined. However, we can imagine that the hot body at the initial

temperature T is slowly cooled to the temperature T( by placing it in contact

t

with a series of reservoirs differing infinitesimally in temperature, where the

first reservoir is at the initial temperature T and the {
last is at Tf Such a series of
.

very small changes in temperature would approximate a reversible process.

Applying Equation 22.9 and noting that dQ = mc dT for an infinitesimal
change, we get

*s=
}l
— +
h—- miCl
kT +m *c
*k
dT
T
where we have assumed that the specific heats remain constant. Integrating,
we find

AS = rriyCy In —+m 2c2 In — (22.17)

Change in
transfer process
entropy for a heat

M l 2

where Tf is given by Equation 22.16. If Equation 22.16 is substituted into

Equation 22.17, you can show that one of the terms in Equation 22.17 will
always be positive and the other negative. (You may want to verify this for
yourself). However, the positive term will always be larger than the negative
term, resulting in a positive value for AS. Thus, we conclude that the entropy
of the universe (system) increases in this irreversible process.
Finally, you should note that Equation 22 1 7 is valid when two substances
.

are placed in thermal contact with each other and no mixing occurs. If the
substances are liquids, and mixing occurs, the result applies only if the two
liquids are identical, as in the following example.

EXAMPLE
One kg
22.9
of water at
Calculating
0°C is
AS for a Mixing Process
mixed with an equal mass of
AS = ntxCj In —T + m
f
2 c 2 In
—T
l 2
f

J l

water at 100°C. After equilibrium is reached, the mix-

ture has a uniform temperature of 50°C. What is the = (lkg)(4186J/kg-K)ln(!H!)
change in entropy of the system?

(323 K\
Solution The change in entropy can be calculated
373k)
from Equation 22.17 using the values m 1 = m 2 —
lkg, Cl = c 2 = 4186J/kg -K, Tj = 0"C (= 273 K), - 602 J/K =
= 704 J/K 102 J/K
T2 = 100°C (= 373 K), and Tf = 50°C (= 323 K).
That is, the increase in entropy of the cold water is

greater than the decrease in entropy of the warm water

as a result of this irreversible process. Consequently, the
increase in entropy of the system is 102 J/K.

The cases just described show that the change in entropy of a system is
always positive for an irreversible process. In general, the total entropy (and
disorder) always increases in irreversible processes. From these considera-
tions, the second law of thermodynamics can be stated as follows: The total
entropy of an isolated system that undergoes a change cannot decrease. Further-
606 chapter :: HEAT engines, entropy, .and the second uw of thermodynamics

more, if the process is irreversible, the total entropy of an isolated system

always increases. On the other hand, in a reversible process, the total entropy
of an isolated system remains constant When dealing with interacting bodies
that are not isolated,you must remember that the system refers to the bodies
and their surroundings.When two bodies interact in an irreversible process,
the increase in entropy of one part of the system is greater than the decrease in
entropy of the other part. Hence, we conclude that

the change in entropy of the universe must be greater than zero for an
irreversible process and equal to zero for a reversible proc

Ultimately, the entropy of the universe should reach a maximum value. At this
point, the universe would be in a state of uniform temperature and density. All
physical, chemical, and biological processes would cease, since a state of
perfect disorder implies no energy available for doing work. This gloomy state
of affairs is sometimes referred to as an ultimate "heat death" of the universe.

:: ENTROPY AND DISORDER

j look around at the beauties of nature, it is easy to recognize that the
events of natural processes have in them a large element of chance For exam-
ple, the spacing between trees in a natural torest is quite random. On the other
hand, if you were to discover a forest where all the trees were equally spaced.
you would probably conclude that the forest was man-made. Likewise, leaves
fall to the ground with random arrangements. It would be highly unlikely to

find the leaves laid out in perfectly straight rows or in one neat pile We can
express the results of such observations by saying that a disorderly arrange-
ment is much more probable than an orderh one it the laws of nature are
allowed to act without interference.
One of the main results of statistical mechanics is that isolated s> stems
tend toward disorder and entrop> is a measure of that disorder. In light of this
new view of entropy. Boltzmann found that an alternative method for calcu-
lating entropy. S. is through use of the important relation

In red processes, the disorder

in the sv^stem increases
5 = : '.:•.
'- :."
:: is

where k is Boltzmanns constant, and W

^not to be confused with work) is a
number proportional to the probability of the occurrence of a particular
event.
Let us explore the meaning of this equation by presenting a specific
example. Imagine that you have a bag of 100 marbles, where 50 are red and 50
are green. You are allowed to draw four marbles from the bag according to the
following rules. Draw one marble, record its color, return it to the bag and
draw again. Continue this process until four marbles have been drawn. Note
that because each marble is returned to the bag before the next one is drawn,
the probability of drawing a red marble is always the same as that of drawing a
green one. The results of all the possible drawing sequences that could occur
areshow-n in Table 22.1. For example, the result RRGR means that you drew a
red marble on the first draw-, a red one on the second, a green one on the third,
and a red one on the fourth. This table indicates that there is only one possible
An illustration fr
noxe-1 La fin du
w av to draw- four red marbles. However, there are four possible sequences
the "beat-death" that could give one green and three red marbles, six sequences that could give
 22.9 ENTROPY AND DISORDER 607

TABLE 22.1 Possible Results of Drawing Four Marbles from a Bag

TotalNumber of
End Result Possible Draws Same Results

AllR RRRR 1

1G, 3R RRRG, RRGR, RGRR, GRRR 4

2G, 2R RRGG, RGRG, GRRG, RGGR, GRGR, GGRR 6
3G, 1R GGGR, GGRG, GRGG, RGGG 4
All G GGGG 1

two green and two red, four sequences that produce three green and one red,
and one sequence that gives all green. Thus, the most likely occurrence is that
you would draw two red and two green marbles, which corresponds to the
disordered state. There is a much lower probability that you would draw four
red and four green marbles, these being the most ordered states From Equa-
tion 22.18, we see that the state with the greatest disorder has the highest
entropy because it is the most probable state. On the other hand, the most
ordered states (all red or all green) are least likely to occur, and are states of
lowest entropy. In summary, we see that the outcome of the draw can range
from a highly ordered state (say all red marbles), which has the lowest entropy,
to a highly disordered state (two green and two red marbles), which has the
highest entropy. Thus, one can regard entropy as an index of how far the
system has progressed from an ordered to a disordered state.
As another example, suppose you were able to measure the velocities of
all the air molecules in a room at some instant. It is very unlikely that you

would find all molecules moving in the same direction with the same speed.
This would, indeed, be a highly ordered state. The most probable situation you
would find is a system of molecules moving haphazardly in all directions with a
distribution of speeds. This is a highly disordered state and also the most likely.
Let us compare this example to that of drawing marbles from a bag. Consider a A full house is a very good hand in

container of gas consisting of 10 23 molecules. If all of them were found moving the game of poker. Can you calcu-
late the probability of being dealt
in the same direction with the same speed at some instant, the outcome would
this hand in deck of
a standard
be similar to drawing marbles from the bag 1 23 times and finding a red marble 52 cards? (Tom Mareschel, The
on every draw. This is clearly an unlikely set of events. IMAGE Bank)

Degradation of Energy

The tendency of nature to move toward a state of disorder affects the ability of
a system to do work. Consider a ball thrown toward a wall. The ball has kinetic
energy, and its state is an ordered one. That is, all of the atoms and molecules of
the ball move in unison at the same speed and in the same direction (apart from
their random thermal motions). When the ball hits the wall, however, part of
this ordered energy is transformed to disordered energy. The temperature of
the ball and the wall both increase slightly as part of the ball's kinetic energy is
transformed into the random, disordered, thermal motion of the molecules in
the ball and the wall. Before the collision, the ball is capable of doing work. It
can drive a nail into the wall, for example. When part of the ordered energy is
transformed to disordered thermal energy, this capability of doing work is
reduced. That is, the ball rebounds with less kinetic energy than it had origi-
nally because the collision is inelastic.
608 CHAPTER 22 HEAT ENGINES, ENTROPY, AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Various forms of energy can be converted to thermal energy, as in the

collisionbetween the ball and the wall, but the reverse transformation is never
complete. In general, if two kinds of energy, A and B, can be completely
interconverted, we say that they are the same grade. However, if form A can be
completely converted to form B and the reverse is never complete, then form
A has a higher grade of energy than form B. In the case of a ball hitting a wall,
the kinetic energy of the ball is of a higher grade than the thermal energy
contained in the ball and the wall after the collision. Therefore, high-grade
energy which is converted to thermal energy can never be fully recovered as
high-grade energy.
This conversion of high-grade energy to thermal energy (the source of
thermal pollution) is referred to as the degradation ofenergy. The energy is said
to be degraded because it takes on a form that is less useful for doing work. In
other words, in all real processes where heat transfer occurs, the energy avail-
able for doing work decreases.

"22.10 ENERGY CONVERSION AND THERMAL

POLLUTION
The main source of thermal pollution is waste heat from electrical power
plants. In the United States, about 85% of the electric power is produced by
steam engines, which burn either fossil fuels (coal, oil, or natural gas) or
nuclear fuels (uranium-235). The remaining 15% of the electric power is
generated by water in hydroelectric plants. The overall thermal efficiency of a
modern fossil-fuel plant is about 40%. The actual efficiencies of any power
plant must be lower than the theoretical efficiencies derived from the second
law of thermodynamics. One always seeks the highest efficiency possible for
two reasons. First, higher efficiency results in lower fuel costs. Second, ther-
mal pollution of the environment is reduced since there is less waste energy in
a highly efficient power plant. Since any power plant involves several steps of
energy conversion, the inefficiency will accumulate in steps.
The burning of fossil fuels in an electrical power plant involves three
energy-conversion processes: (1) chemical to thermal energy, (2) thermal to
mechanical energy, and (3) mechanical to electrical energy. These are indi-
cated schematically in Figure 22.14.
During the first step, heat energy is transferred from the burning fuel to a
water supply, which is converted into steam. In this process about 12% of the
available energy is lost up the chimney. In the second step, thermal energy in
the form of steam at high pressure and temperature passes through a turbine
and is converted into mechanical energy. A well-designed turbine has an
efficiency of about 47%. Steam, which leaves the turbine at a lower pressure,
is then condensed into water and gives up heat in the process. Finally, in the

third step, the turbine drives an electrical generator of very high efficiency,
typically 99%. Hence, the overall efficiency is the product of the efficiencies
of each step, which for the figures given is (0.88)(0.47)(0.99) = 0.41, or 41%.
The thermal energy transferred to the cooling water amounts to about 47% of
the initial fuel energy.
In the case of nuclearpower plants, the steam generated by the nuclear
reactor is lower temperature than that of a fossil-fuel plant. This is due
at a
primarily to material limitations in the reactor. Typical water-moderated nu-
c'ear power plants have an overall efficiency of about 34%. High temperature
 22.10 ENERGY CONVERSION AND THERMAL POLLUTION 609

Steam

Warm water out Cold water in

Figure 22.14 Schematic diagram of an electrical power plant.

gas-cooled reactors operate at temperatures and efficiencies comparable to

fossil-fuel plants.
The waste heat from electrical power plants can be disposed of in various
ways. The method shown in Figure 22.14 involves passing water from a river
or lake through a condenser and returning it to that source at a higher temper-

ature. This can raise the water temperature of the river or lake by several
degrees, which can produce undesirable ecological effects, such as the in-
creased growth of bacteria, undesirable blue-green algae, and pathogenic
organisms. Fish and other marine life are also affected since they require
oxygen, and the percentage of dissolved oxygen in the water decreases with
increasing temperature. There is further demand for oxygen in the decompo-
sition of organic matter, which also proceeds at a higher rate as the tempera-
ture increases.
Cooling towers are also commonly used in disposing of waste heat. These
towers usually use the heat to evaporate water, which is then released to the
atmosphere. Cooling towers also present environmental problems since evap-

A cooling tower at a nuclear reac-

tor site inOregon. (Courtesy of
U.S. Department of Energy)
610 CHAPTER 22 HEAT ENGINES, ENTROPY, AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

orated water can cause increased precipitation, fog, and ice. Another type of
cooling tower is the dry cooling tower (nonevaporative), which transfers heat
to the atmosphere by conduction. However, this type is more expensive and
cannot cool to as low a temperature as an evaporative tower.

SUMMARY
The law of thermodynamics is a generalization of the law of conserva-
first

tion ofenergy that includes heat transfer in any process.

Real processes proceed in a direction governed by the second law of
thermodynamics.
A heat engine is a device that converts thermal energy into other useful
forms of energy The net work done by a heat engine in carrying a substance
.

through a cyclic process (A 17= 0) is given by

Work done by
a heat engine
W=Q -Q h c (22.1)

where Q the heat absorbed from a warmer reservoir and Qc is the heat
h is
rejected to a cooler reservoir.
The thermal efficiency, e, of a heat engine is defined as the ratio of the
net work done to the heat absorbed per cycle:

Thermal efficiency
_ W_ Qc (22.2)

The second law of thermodynamics can be stated in many ways:

1. No heat engine operating in a cycle can absorb thermal energy from a

reservoir and perform an equal amount of work (Kelvin-Planck state-
ment).
Statements of the 2. A perpetual-motion machine of the second kind cannot be built.
second law 3. It is impossible to construct a cyclical machine whose sole effect is to
transfer heat continuously from one body to another body at a higher
temperature (Clausius statement).

Reversible process A process is reversible if the system passes from the initial to the final
state through a succession of equilibrium states. A process can be reversible
only if it occurs quasi-statically.
Irreversible process An irreversible process is one in which the system and its surroundings
cannot be returned to their initial states. In such a process, the system
passes from the initial to the final state through a series of nonequilibrium
states.
The efficiency of a heat engine operating in the Carnot cycle is given by
Efficiency of a
= 1- (22.4)
Carnot engine

where Tc is the absolute temperature of the cold reservoir and Th is the

absolute temperature of the hot reservoir.
No real heat engine operating (irreversibly) between the temperatures
Tc and Th can be more efficient than an engine operating reversibly in a
Carnot cycle between the same two temperatures.
 QUESTIONS 611

The second law of thermodynamics states that when real (irreversible)

processes occur, the degree of disorder in the system increases. When a
process occurs in an isolated system, ordered energy is converted into
disordered energy. The measure of disorder in a system is called entropy, S.
The change in entropy, dS, of a system moving quasi-statically between
two equilibrium states is given by

*-*& (22.8)
Clausius definition of change
in entropy

The change in entropy of a system moving reversibly between two

equilibrium states is

AS
-r* (22.9)

The value of AS is the same for all reversible paths connecting the initial and
final states.
The change in entropy for any reversible, cyclic process is zero.
In any reversible process, the entropy of the universe remains constant.
The entropy of a system is a state function, that is, it depends on the
state of the system. The change in entropy for a system undergoing a real
(irreversible) process between two equilibrium states is the same as that of a
reversible process between the same states.
In an irreversible process, the total entropy of an isolated system
always increases. In general, the total entropy (and disorder) always in-
creases in any irreversible process. Furthermore, the change in entropy of
the universe is greater than zero for an irreversible process.

QUESTIONS

1. Distinguish clearly among temperature, heat, and in- 8. In practical we have more con-
heat engines, which do
ternal energy. temperature of the hot reservoir or the
trol of, the
2. When a sealed Thermos bottle full of hot coffee is temperature of the cold reservoir? Explain.
shaken, what are the changes, if any, in (a) the temper- 9. A steam-driven turbine is one major component of an
ature of the coffee and (b) its internal energy? electric power plant. Why is it advantageous to in-
3. Use the firstlaw of thermodynamics to explain why crease the temperature of the steam as much as pos-
the total energy of an isolated system is always con- sible?
served. 10. Isit possible to construct a heat engine that creates no

4. Is it possible to convert internal energy to mechanical thermal pollution?

energy? 11. Electrical energy can be converted to heat energy
5. What are some factors that affect the efficiency of with an efficiency of 100%. Why is this number mis-
automobile engines? leading with regard to heating a home? That is, what
6. The statement was made in this chapter that the first other factors must be considered in comparing the
law says we cannot get more out of a process than we cost of electric heating with the cost of hot air or hot
put in but the second law says that we cannot break water heating?
even. Explain. 12. Discuss three common examples of natural processes
7. Is it possible to cool a room by leaving the door of a that involve an increase in entropy. Be sure to account
refrigerator open? What happens to the temperature for all parts of each system
under consideration.
of a room in which an air conditioner is left running on 13. Discuss the change in entropy of a gas that expands
a table in the middle of the room? (a) at constant temperature and (b) adiabatically.
612 CHAPTER 22 HEAT ENGINES, ENTROPY, AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

14. A living system, such as a tree, takes unorganized mol-

ecules (CO z H 2 0) and combines them using sunlight
,

toproduce leaves and branches. Is this reduction of

entropy in the tree a violation of the second law of
thermodynamics?
15. A diesel engine operates with a compression ratio of
about 1 5 A gasoline engine has a compression ratio of
.

about 6. Which engine runs hotter? Which engine (at

can operate more efficiently?

least theoretically)
16. Solar ponds have been constructed in Israel where the
sun's energy is concentrated near the bottom of a salty
pond. With the proper layering of salt in the water,
convection is prevented, and temperatures of 100° C
may be reached. Can you make a guess as to the maxi-
mum efficiency with which useful energy can be ex-
tracted from the pond?
17. The vortex tube (Fig. 22.15) is a T-shaped device that
takes in compressed air at 20 atm and 20 °C and pro-
duces cold air at — 20 °C out one flared end and
+ 60°C hot air out the other flared end. Does the
operation of this device violate the second law of ther-
modynamics? (For further information, see R. Hilsch,
Rev. Sci. Instr. 18, 108, 1947 or Y. Soni and W.
Thompson, Trans. A.S.M.E., May 1975, p. 316.)

Cold
 PROBLEMS 613

PROBLEMS

Section 22.1 Heat Engines and the Second Law of system is to operate between 20 ° C (surface water tem-
Thermodynamics perature) and 5°C (water temperature at a depth of
about 1 km), (a) What is the maximum efficiency of
'
ly A heat engine absorbs 360 J of heat and performs 25 J
such a system? (b) If the power output of the plant is
^ of work in each cycle. Find (a) the efficiency of the
75 MW, how much thermal energy is absorbed per
engine and (b) the heat expelled in each cycle.
hour? (c) In view of your results to (a), do you think
2. A heat engine performs 200 J of work in each cycle
such a system is worthwhile?
and has an efficiency of 30%. For each cycle of opera-
12. A heat engine operates in a Carnot cycle between
tion, (a) how much heat is absorbed and (b) how much
80°C and 350°C. It absorbs 2 X 10 4 J of heat per
heat is expelled?
cycle from the hot reservoir. The duration of each
3. A refrigerator has a coefficient of performance equal
cycle is 1 s. (a) What is the maximum power output of
to 5. If the refrigerator absorbs 120 of heat from a
this engine? (b) How much heat does it expel in each
J
cold reservoir in each cycle, find (a) the work done in
cycle?
each cycle and (b) the heat expelled to the hot reser-
13. One of the most efficient engines ever built operates
voir.
between 430°C and 1870°C. Its actual efficiency is
4. Determine the change in the internal energy of a sys-
42%. (a) What is its maximum theoretical efficiency?
tem that (a) absorbs 500 cal of heat energy while
(b) How much power does the engine deliver if it
doing 800 J of external work, (b) absorbs 500 cal of
absorbs 1.4 X 10 5 J of heat each second?
heat energy while 500 J of external work is done on
14. In a steam turbine, steam at 800°C enters and is ex-
the system, and (c) is maintained at a constant volume
hausted at 120°C. What is the (maximum) efficiency
while 1000 cal is removed from the system.
of this turbine?
An ideal gas is compressed to half its original volume
y
5.

while its temperature is held constant, (a) If 1000 J of

15. The efficiency of a 1000 MW
nuclear power plant

energy is removed from the gas during the compres-

is 33%; that is, 2000 MW
of heat is rejected to the

sion, how much work is done on the gas? (b) What is

environment for every 1000 MW
of electrical en-
ergy produced. If a river of flow rate 10 6 kg/s
the change in the internal energy of the gas during the
were used to transport the excess heat away, what
compression?
would be the average temperature increase of the
6. In each cycle of its operation, a certain refrigerator
river?
absorbs 100 J from the cold reservoir and expels
16. An electrical generating plant has a power output of
130 J. (a) What is the power required to operate the
500 MW. The plant uses steam at 200 °C and exhausts
refrigerator if it works at 60 cycles/s? (b) What is the
water at 40°C. If the system operates with one half the
coefficient of performance of the refrigerator?
maximum (Carnot) efficiency, (a) at what rate is heat
7. An engine absorbs 1600 J from a hot reservoir and
expelled to the environment? (b) If the waste heat
expels 1000 J to a cold reservoir in each cycle, (a)
goes into a river whose flow rate is 1.2 X 10 6 kg/s,
What is the efficiency of the engine? (b) How much
whatis the rise in temperature of the river?
work is done in each cycle? (c) What is the power
17. A steam engine is operated in a cold climate where the
output of the engine if each cycle lasts for 0.3 s?
exhaust temperature is at 0°C. (a) Calculate the theo-
retical maximum efficiency of the engine using an in-
Section 22.3 The Carnot Engine
take steam temperature of 100°C. (b) If, instead, su-
8. A heat engine operates between two reservoirs at tem- perheated steam at 200°C is used, find the maximum
peratures of 20°C and 300°C. What is the maximum possible efficiency.
efficiency possible for this engine? IS. A heat engine operating between 200°C and 80°C
9. Over one cycle a Carnot engine absorbs 24 MJ of heat achieves 20%of the maximum possible efficiency.
along an isotherm at 140°C and ejects heat along a What energy input will enable the engine to perform
14°C isotherm. Determine the amount of heat 10 4 J of work?
ejected and the Carnot efficiency. 19. An ideal gas is taken through a Carnot cycle. The
10. A Carnot engine has a power output of 150 kW. The isothermal expansion occurs at 250°C, and the iso-
engine operates between two reservoirs at 20°C and thermal compression takes place at 50°C. If the gas
500°C. (a) How much heat energy is absorbed per absorbs 1 200 J of heat during the isothermal expan-
hour? (b) How much heat energy is lost per hour? sion, find (a) the heat expelled to the cold reservoir in
11. A power plant has been proposed that would make each cycle and (b) the net work done by the gas in
use of the temperature gradient in the ocean. The each cycle.
614 CHAPTER 22 HEAT ENGINES, ENTROPY, AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Section 22.5 The Gasoline Engine total entropy change if the mountain air temperature
is-3°C?
20. A gasoline engine has a compression ratio of 6 and
30. What is the entropy decrease in 1 mole of helium gas
uses a gas with y = 1.4. (a) What is the efficiency of the
which is cooled at atm from room temperature
1
engine if it operates in an idealized Otto cycle? (b) If
293 K to a final temperature 4 K? (C_ of helium =
the actual efficiency is15%, what fraction of the fuel
21 J/mole K). •

is wasted as a result of friction and avoidable heat

31. Calculate the change in entropy of 250 g of water
losses? (Assume complete combustion of the air-fuel
when it is slowly heated from 20°C to 80°C. (Hint:
mixture.)
Note that dQ = mc dT.)
21. A gasoline engine using an ideal diatomic gas (y= 1.4)
32. An 500 g of water at 0°C. Calculate
ice tray contains
operates between temperature extremes of 300 K the change in entropy of the water as it freezes com-
and 1500 K. Determine its compression ratio if it has
pletely and slowly at 0°C.
an efficiency of 20%. Compare this efficiency to that
33. One mole of an ideal monatomic gas is heated quasi-
of a Carnot engine operating between the same tem-
statically at constant volume from 300 K to 400 K.
peratures.
What is the change in entropy of the gas?
22. In a cylinder of an automobile engine, just after com-
34. At a pressure of 1 atm, liquid helium boils at 4.2 K.
bustion, the gas is confined to a volume of 50 cm 3 and ,
The 20.5 kj/kg. Deter-
latent heat of vaporization is
has an initial pressure of 3X10 6 Pa. The piston
mine the entropy change (per kilogram) resulting
moves outward to a final volume of 300 cm 3 and the
from vaporization.
gas expands without heat loss (adiabatic). If y = 1.40
what is the final pressure?
for the gas,
23. How much work is done by the gas in Problem 22 in
Section 22.8 Entropy Changes in Irreversible Processes
expanding from Vx = 50 cm 3 to V2 = 300 cm 3 ?
35. A 1500-kg car traveling at 20 m/s crashes into a con-
Section 22.6 Heat Pumps and Refrigerators crete wall. If the air temperature is 20°C, what is the

total entropy change?

24. An ideal refrigerator (or heat pump) is equivalent to a
36. The surface of the sunapproximately 5700 K and
is
Carnot engine running in reverse. That is, heat Qc is
the temperature of the earth's surfaceis about 290 K.
absorbed from a cold reservoir and heat Oj, is rejected
What entropy change occurs when 1000 J of heat en-
to a hot reservoir, (a) Show that the work that must be
ergy is transferred from the sun to the earth?
supplied to run the refrigerator is given by
37. A 100 000-kg iceberg at — 5°C breaks away from the

w=— T -a
Vc
— c
polar iceshelf and floats away into the ocean at +5°C.
What is the final change in the entropy of the system,
when the iceberg has completely melted? (The spe-
(b) Show that the coefficient of performance of the cific heat of ice is 2010 J/kg C°.) •

ideal refrigerator is given by 38. One mole of H 2 gas is contained in the left-hand-side
of the container (Figure 22.16, equal volumes left and
COP = 2— right). The right-hand-side is evacuated. When the
valve is opened, hydrogen gas streams into the right
25. What is the coefficient of performance of a refrigera- side. What is the final entropy change? Does the tem-
tor that operates with Carnot efficiency between tem- perature of the gas change?
peratures — 3°C and +27°C?
26. What is the coefficient of performance of a heat pump
that brings heat from the out-of-doors at — 3°C into a Valve
+ 22°C house? (Hint: the heat pump does work W,
which is also available to heat the house.)
27. How much work is required, using an ideal Carnot
refrigerator, to remove 1 J of heat energy from he-
lium gas at 4 K and reject this heat to a room-tempera-
ture (293 K) environment? Figure 22.16 (Problem 38).

Section 22.7 Entropy

28. What the change in entropy (AS) when one mole of

is 39. A 2-liter container has a center partition that divides it
(108 g) is melted at 961 °C?
silver into two equal parts, as shown in Figure 22.17. The
29. An avalanche of ice and snow, mass 1000 kg, slides left side contains H 2 gas and the right side contains 2

downhill a vertical distance of 200 m. What is the gas. Both gases are at room temperature and 1 atmo-
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 615

sphere. The partition is removed and the gases are

allowed to mix. What is the entropy increase?
616 CHAPTER 22 HEAT ENGINES, ENTROPY, AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

of the entire system? Compare your result with that

of (a).

53. Figure 22.19 represents n moles of an ideal mon-

atomic gas being taken through a reversible cycle
consisting of two isothermal processes at tempera-
tures 3T and T and two constant-volume processes.
For each cycle, determine in terms of n, R, and T
(a) the net heat transferred to the gas and (b) the effi-

ciency of an engine operating in this cycle.

p
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 617

maximum compression, B. Combustion occurs during body temperature would rise. Give your answer in
the expansion B — C, which is approximated as an C° per hour and in F° per hour, (c) The result of
isobaric process. The rest of the cycle is the same as in (b) indicates that ahuman who is unable to transfer
the gasoline engine, described in Figure 22.11. Show metabolic heat to the surroundings gets into serious
that the efficiency of an engine operating in this ideal- trouble quickly. Assuming now that the heat transfer
ized Diesel cycle is given by is rapid enough to maintain a constant body tempera-

U TD -T A\
ture, estimate the rate atwhich the entropy of the
universe increases due to the release and transfer of
y\Tc -TB ) metabolic heat. Express your result in cal/K/h. In
making your estimate, assume that the given heat re-
lease is the only significant avenue of entropy produc-

tion. Given this assumption, notice that there is no

entropy increase of the body itself. (Why?) Use 20 °C
(68 °F) for the temperature of the surroundings.
65. The Stirling engine described in Figure 22.22 oper-
ates between the isotherms Tl and T2 where T2 > Tl , .

Assuming that the operating gas is an ideal monatomic

gas, calculate the efficiency of an engine whose con-
stant-volume processes occur at the volumes V l
and V2 .

Figure 22.21 (Problem 61).

62. One mole of an ideal gas (y = 1.4) is carried through

the Carnot cycle described in Figure 22.9. At point A,
the pressure is 25 atm and the temperature is 600 K.

At point C, the pressure is 1 atm and the temperature

is 400 K. (a) Determine the pressures and volumes at

points A, B, C, and D. (b) Calculate the net work done

per cycle, (c) Determine the efficiency of an engine
operating in this cycle.
63. Consider one mole of an ideal gas that undergoes a
which the heat ca-
quasi-static, reversible process in
pacity C remains constant. Show that the pressure and
volume of the gas obey the relation Figure 22.22 (Problem 65).
An idealized cycle of a Stirling heat engine, patented in 1827.
PV>' = constant, /here 7
= c-cp
c-c„ 66. Onekgofwater at 10°Cis mixed with 1 kgofwaterat
(Hint: Start with the first law of thermodynamics, 30°C. The process proceeds at constant pressure.
dQ = dU+P dV, and use the fact that dQ = C dT and When the mixture has reached equilibrium, (a) what
dU = Cv dT. Furthermore, note that PV = RT applies is the temperature? (b) Take Cp = 4.19 kJ/kg-K
final

to the gas, so it follows that P d V + V dP = R dT.) for water and show that the entropy of the system
64. A typical human has a mass of 70 kg and produces increases by
about 2000 kcal (2 X 10 6 cal) of metabolic heat per
day. (a) Find the rate of heat production in watts, and AS = 4.19 1
J/293W293N1 kJ/K
also express it in cal/h. (b) If none of the metabolic L\283/ V303/J
heat were lost, and assuming that the specific heat of (c) Verify numerically that AS > 0. (d) Is the mixing
the human body is 1 cal/g •
C°, find the rate at which process irreversible?
618 CHAPTER 22 HEAT ENGINES, ENTROPY, AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Invisible barriers in the physical sciences never fail to astonish us. The edge of the

ESSAY detectable universe — the cosmological horizon — is one invisible barrier, and the
relativistic speed limit, beyond which no object can accelerate, is another. The con-
sternation they cause stems from the fact that the extremely large and the extraordi-
The Riddle of narily fast lie outside the realm of human experience. A third such barrier is the

the Third Law absolute zero of temperature, the state beyond which matter cannot be cooled, in
which molecular motion ceases. Like an invisible wall, this concept jolts us out of a
all

Hans Christian von belief thatwe understand heat and temperature, and it demands deeper reflection.
Baeyer Absolute zero, as a theoretical concept, was foreshadowed as early as 1699, in
The College of William the work of the French physicist Guillaume Amontons, who conducted experiments
and Mary in temperature and its measurement, but a century later it was still being dismissed by
the majority of scientists. In 1804, the American adventurer-turned-scientist, Benja-
min Thompson, told the Royal Society of London that "all attempts to determine the
place of absolute cold, on the scale of a thermometer, must be nugatory." And his
French colleague Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac called the notion "altogether chimeri-
cal."Not until the late 1800s was the idea revived, and today, when the finitude of
the detectable universe and the speed limit of elementary particles are taken for
granted, if not fully comprehended, the quest for the meaning of absolute zero, and
the prospect of its experimental achievement, are at the forefront of experimental
research.
The concept of absolute zero posed for nineteenth-century
difficulty that the
physicists stands in contrast to the ease with which its numerical value can be esti-
mated. When a quantity of air is kept at the same pressure and cooled from the
temperature of boiling water (100°C) to that of freezing water (0°C), it loses about a
quarter of its volume. If this trend were to continue, the volume would decrease to
half by the time it reached — 100°C, to a quarter by approximately — 200°C, and to
zero at about — 300°C. Clearly, its temperature cannot fall below that level. Al-
though, in actual practice, air liquefies before it reaches absolute zero, using the
relationship between the contraction of gases and decreasing temperature is a valid
mathematical exercise that yields the precise figure of — 273.15°C, or— 459.67°F.
The first significant step in the direction of achieving absolute zero was taken in
the 1870s, when a French mining engineer named Louis-Paul Cailetet liquefied
oxygen, at about — 200°F. Shortly afterward, he achieved the same result with nitro-
gen, which liquefies at — 319°F. Each of these advances provided low-temperature
physicists with a new liquid coolant that could, in turn, be used to liquefy other gases.
The challenge lay in devising bigger and better machines for maintaining sufficiently
large and stable quantities of the critical liquids.By the time the Dutch physicist
H. Kamerlingh Onnes liquefied helium, in 1908, at — 457 °F, cryogenics laboratories
had taken on the appearance of industrial plants, crammed with pumps and compres-
sors, tubes, and containers. Today, when temperatures of less than a degree above
absolute zero are achievable, this trend continues at the University of Florida, in
Gainesville, where a new cryogenics laboratory opened in 1989.
cylindrical pits in the laboratory's basement, three 40-ft refrigerators rise
From
like guided missiles protruding from silos through the floors to the upper stories.
Their surfaces are highly polished to reflect light and, thereby, insulate their con-
tents. Separating their double walls is a vacuum, which, lacking a medium with which
to conduct heat, provides additional thermal protection. To minimize motion (which
is synonymous with heat), 18-ft pneumatic shock absorbers, anchored in 5-ton con-

crete blocks, cradle the refrigerators. The experimental area is surrounded by steel-
and-copper shields —
to screen out radio waves that generate minute electrical
currents, which, in turn, create heat. The rooms that house the refrigerators are
soundproof. No one is allowed in the vicinity during experiments (the vibrations from
a single footstep could raise the temperature significantly). All operations are han-
dled bv remote control.
 ESSAY THE RIDDLE OF THE THIRD LAW 619

The architects of this elaborate apparatus intend to cool a piece of copper to a

millionth of a kelvin above absolute zero (a kelvin being the scientific unit of tempera-
ture and equal to nine-fifths of a degree Fahrenheit). Then they hope to reach the
Holy Grail of cryogenics —
zero itself. If the Gainesville group does, in fact, fulfill the
first of its aims, it will have exceeded the record, established in 1 987 at the University

of Bayreuth, in West Germany, by 1 1 /iK —

a considerable achievement in the cryo-
genics world. But if they complete the next step, they will have accomplished the
impossible, for the third law of thermodynamics expressly forbids an object to reach
the state of absolute zero.
Thermodynamic principles are commonly stated in terms of restrictions, which
and purposes, ironclad. The first law (also known as the law of
are, for all intents
conservation of energy) holds that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. The
second law, which governs the direction of the flow of heat, dictates that, during
every transformation of energy, a certain amount is dissipated and, so, is unavailable
for doing work. Anyone who claims to have circumvented either of these laws (by
inventing, in the first instance, a machine that creates more energy than it consumes
or, in the second instance, a device that is 100% energy-efficient) considered a fool
is

or, worse, a fraud. It seems, then, that in trying to circumvent the third article of the
thermodynamic canon, the Gainesville physicists are embarking on a monumental
misadventure.
But maybe not. The third law is not as well understood as the firsttwo; nor is it as
firmly established. Indeed, in the light of modern developments in low-temperature
physics, its dominion is more questionable than ever. And it is precisely the uncer-
tainty that surrounds the third law — its makes it pro-
potential for violation — that
vocative to scientists such as those at the University of Florida. and second The first

laws, by virtue of their intellectual elegance and explanatory strength, dominate

physics, but they are virtually barren as stimuli for experimental and theoretical
research, whereas the prohibition against absolute zero raises fruitful questions about
the ultimate nature of matter. In effect, then, the third law may turn out to be the
Cinderella of thermodynamics, outshining her older, more illustrious stepsisters.

The First and Second Laws

The first law, formulated in the 1840s by the German physicist Hermann von Helm-
holtz, is the easiest of the three to accept — in large part because it is the easiest to
understand. When home
appliances convert electricity into motion, heat, and light,
energy neither increases nor decreases; it simply changes form. The same is true of
conversions that, on first glance, seem imbalanced — producing fire by rubbing to-
gether two sticks, for example (mechanical energy is transformed into heat, which, if
vigorous enough, breaks atomic bonds in the wood, releasing chemical energy that
assumes the form of fire). With every advance
our understanding of energy (in-
in
cluding the discovery, in the late 1800s, of one of its most powerful forms, nuclear

radiation, and, shortly thereafter, of its fundamental interchangeability with matter),

the first law of thermodynamics gained strength. On no scale, from the subnuclear to
the cosmic, has there been even a hint of a violation.
The second law of thermodynamics, in its modern form at least, is much more
abstract than the first, but it is based on a commonplace observation: When two
bodies —say, a pair of copper blocks —
with unequal temperatures come into con-
tact, heat always flows from the hot one to the cold one. In fact, the second law was
conceived in 1850 by the German physicist Rudolf J. Clausius in just such opera-
tional terms, without a real understanding of the underlying mechanism. Nothing in
the first law precludes thermal energy's traveling from a cold body to a hot one,
making it hotter still; energy is conserved regardless of the direction in which it flows.
The second law, therefore, stands on its own as a separate thermodynamic principle.
620 CHAPTER 22 HEAT ENGINES, ENTROPY, AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The meaning of this law becomes apparent when the movement of thermal
energy is seen terms of the atomic activity that makes it possible. In 1872, the
in
Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann identified atomic disorder as an essential ther-
modynamic quantity and restated the second law in its modern form: In any physical
system, disorder increases naturally, and work always is required to reverse this
trend. Imagine an orderly room in which toys are stacked neatly in a closet. A child
enters and begins playing, scattering the toys with the greatest of ease. As parents
well know, restoring the room's order will require greater effort than that expended
to make the mess. The basis for this discrepancy is contained in the statistical nature of
order: there are many more ways the toys can be spread around the room than ways
they can be arranged in the closet. Considering the total number of possible configu-
rations, disorder simply is more probable than order. The same is true of the mole-
cules in, say, a cloud or even something as apparently stable as a block of copper.
Indeed, the odds against molecular order in gases, liquids, and solids are so tremen-
dously high that, as time passes, increased disorder is virtually certain.
Boltzmann's achievement was showing how disorder, as expressed on the atomic
level, relates to heat flow. He proved that the total amount of disorder in two bodies
increases if heat flows from hot to cold. The essence of this demonstration lay in the
realization that temperature is a measure of the mean kinetic energy of molecules.
The molecules of a hot object jiggle about rapidly, carrying a lot of energy of motion,
whereas those of a cold object move at a relatively sluggish pace. Think of a cold
copper block placed on top of a hot one. At the outset, the jiggling molecules consti-
tute two orderly piles —low speeds on top, high speeds below. Over the course of an
hour, the positions of the blocks' molecules do not change appreciably, but their
speeds do. Within the blocks and, especially, along the margin where they meet,
warm, fast particles bump into cool, slow ones, transferring their energy. And after
several hours, high and low velocities are mixed together helter-skelter, top and
bottom. Overall, disorder has increased.
The second law does not rule out the possibility of pushing heat uphill, as it were,
from a cold object to a hot one, or of creating order out of disorder. It merely states
that such a reversal of the natural flow requires an influx of energy —for instance, a
steady supply of electricity. Proof is no farther away than the kitchen, where a
refrigerator draws heat from its interior and dumps it, via a metal grid affixed to the
back of the machine, into the surrounding air.

The Third Law

Kitchen appliances cannot be used to demonstrate the third law of thermodynamics,
because it governs a much rarer province — the realm of the very cold — than the
first and second laws, which hold dominion over the entire span of temperatures.

Doubtless, the exotic nature of this realm is the reason the third law was the last of the
three to be proposed, in 1906, by Walther Nernst, of the University of Berlin (for
which he won the 1920 Nobel Prize in chemistry).
Physicists previously had assumed that, when cooled, molecules and atoms grad-
ually slow down until, at absolute zero, they come to rest. But the quantum-mechani-
cal theory of matter, which was emerging at the turn of the century, does not allow
that. The lowest energy available to an atom, called its ground state energy, is not
zero; there always remains a small, irreducible quivering that can be theoretically
described and experimentally measured. The energy associated with this state cannot
be shared with other objects (it cannot "flow") or be interpreted as heat, so it does not
count as disorderliness. (Think of the child's room again, this time imagining that the
toys consist solely of watches of various sizes and shapes. The turning of the watches'
gears — their internal quivering — has no bearing on the room's order, on whether
 ESSAY THE RIDDLE OF THE THIRD LAW 621

the toys are stacked in the closet or scattered across the floor.) Reasoning in this
manner, Nernst arrived at a new understanding of absolute zero: rather than the
absence of motion, it signifies the absence of disorder, or a state of perfect order —
and this became the initial version of the third law of thermodynamics.
Six years later, while surveying the specific heat — the amount of heat lost when
temperature drops by a degree —
of chemical elements, Nernst discovered a remark-
able fact: During the approach toward absolute zero, or perfect order, each step is
more difficult than the preceding one. Temperature decreases less with each succes-
sive removal of heat. He speculated that this relationship is not merely an accidental
property of particular substances but an attribute of all matter. Ascribing the phenom-
enon to the difficulty of corralling huge numbers of unruly molecules into a single
state of perfect order (the chances are astronomical that at least a few will elude
capture), Nernst proposed a stronger form of the third law: Absolute zero is unattain-
able.
Compare a similar injunction, in a different context: Einstein's claim that objects
cannot attain the speed of light. When first proposed, this law seemed strange, be-
cause the phenomenon occurred in the absence of a specific, countervailing force.
But then Einstein showed that, as an object accelerates, its mass increases (as summa-
rized in the formulaE = mc2 From this he deduced that, as an object approaches the
).

speed of light, the energy required to further accelerate it approaches infinity. A

change of variables, from speed to energy, made an incomprehensible limit appear
comprehensible. In a roughly similar way, Nernst's switch from the absence of mo-
tion to the absence of disorder as the determinant of absolute zero made his decree
appear plausible. The implication is that, as an object approaches a state of perfect
order, the effort required to remove the remaining disorder approaches infinity.
About the reality of this barrier there is no doubt; it has been confirmed repeat-
edly in the laboratory. Whether, however, in all cases, an infinite amount of effort is
necessary to reach absolute zero is less certain. Is the third law everywhere and
always binding? That is the question lingering in the wings of the drama about to
begin in Gainesville.

Can the Third Law Be Broken?

That the question can even be raised goes back to the statistical nature of order. In
principle, there is a small but finite probability that an object will reach a temperature
of a billionth of a kelvin, or even zero. For macroscopic systems, such as blocks of
copper, consisting as they do of trillions of atoms, this probability is vanishingly small.
A single atom, on the other hand, could readily jump into its ground state and, hence,
into a state of absolute zero, if such a concept were applicable. But it is not. Tempera-
ture is a measure of the random motion — the thermal energy —
of a group of parti-
cles and is meaningless with a single atom.
So whatever doubts might be raised by the third law concern matter that lies
between the macroscopic and the microscopic scales, in particular, matter that ap-
proaches the small end of the spectrum, where the statistics are the most favorable
(fewer atoms means fewer ways of being disordered). In recent years, objects of this
kind, called mesoscopic because of their intermediate status, have captured the at-
tention of physicists. Containing a small number of atoms and, therefore, being visi-
ble only under powerful microscopes, they occupy a no-man's-land where electrical
resistance, normally a fixed property of materials, shifts wildly; where a disturbance
in one side of the object can affect the other; where, in short, the ordinary laws of
physics do not seem to hold. Chances are, mesoscopic objects are the correct size to
bridge the gap between a microkelvin and zero (if the child in the nursery has only
two toys to play with, she might put them on the right shelf in the closet by pure
chance). It is on this slim statistical possibility that the Gainesville physicists pin their
hopes.
622 CHAPTER 22 HEAT ENGINES. ENTROPY, AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

\ r i

/ r* T*

(a) (c)

Magnetic cooling. At high temperature (a) atomic nuclei oscillate rapidly about their equilib-
rium positions. At lower temperature in a magnetic field (b), they oscillate less and line up in
an orderly pattern. When the field is removed (c), they lose their orientation, but their ther-
mal oscillation is also diminished.

Their refrigeration process, calledymagnetic cooling, is divided into two stages.

During the first stage, copper samples will be placed between the poles of a powerful

electromagnet and chilled to the lowest temperature attainable by conventional

means —
being bathed in liquid helium. In the crucial second stage, the magnet will
be switched off, and the temperature of the copper will spontaneously fall, within two
or three days, to an even lower level.
Magnetic cooling is based on the principle that heat represents the random
motion of an object's constituent particles. Since atomic nuclei behave like tiny
magnets, they respond to an external magnetic field by lining up in parallel
orientation —
north to north, south to south. When the field is removed, the nuclei
are jostled back into random orientations by collisions with their neighbors. Such
collisions slow down atoms, so the temperature is reduced. (Magnetic cooling is
reminiscent of the cooling of a rubber band which is stretched and held that way for a
few seconds in order to come to room temperature. When the tension is suddenly
relaxed, the band feels noticeably colder to the upper lip.)
The process can be repeated again and again, but the technical difficulties mount
with every step. A particularly insidious problem at temperatures approaching abso-
lute zero is the minute amount of heat contributed by the residual radioactivity in
construction materials. Fallout from, among other things, the atmospheric nuclear
tests of the 1950s and, presumably, from the Chernobyl accident, which occurred in
1986, now the entire surface of the Earth. This makes it difficult to find metals
salts
that are free of radioactive debris or that do not become contaminated during the
fabrication of machine parts when, in liquid form, they are exposed to the surfaces of
their containers, as well as to the atmosphere. The Gainesville scientists hope this
problem will be too small to affect their refrigerators.
Even under the best of conditions, the road to absolute zero will be neither short
nor smooth. On the experimental side, the refrigerators will become larger, more
complex, and more expensive, as the samples become smaller. Insulative measures
will become heroicas the heat leaks grow more difficult to perceive. On the theoreti-
law of thermodynamics must, at some point, be reconciled with the
cal front, the third
quantum-mechanical behavior of mesoscopic systems. The resultant formulation may
lack the concision of Nernst's statement that absolute zero is unattainable, but it will
touch on philosophical questions about the meaning of quantum mechanics (What is
the relationship between randomness in thermodynamics and randomness in quan-
tum theory?) and thermodynamics (Will what we learn about the attainability of
absolute zero have any impact on our view of the second law, which also is based on a
 ESSAY THE RIDDLE OF THE THIRD LAW 623

statistical understanding of atomic behavior?) and about the process of measurement

(What sort of thermometer will detect extraordinarily low temperatures without
itself introducing heat?).
Work along these lines just beginning. The third law could go down in the
is

history books as a mistake. could be dismissed as a trivial practical observation

It

similar to the statement that no object can have infinite energy, because there isn't
enough available in the universe. A new phenomenon could be discovered in the
submicrokelvin range that would render the whole discussion obsolete. Or, on the
contrary, Nernst's proposition could, by virtue of its intrinsically quantum-mechani-
cal nature, emerge as the most significant of all thermodynamic principles. Faced
with so many possibilities, one is reminded of a comment made by Niels Bohr, the
father of quantum mechanics:

The opposite of a correct statement is a false statement. But the opposite of a profound
truth may well be another profound truth.

Unlike the first and second laws of thermodynamics, the third law fascinates precisely
to the extent that it might yet provoke an opposing truth.
This dramatic one-minute exposure captures multiple lightning bolts illuminating Kitt
Peak National Observatory in Arizona, illustrating electrical breakdown in the
atmosphere. (© Gary Ladd 1972)
 PART IV
Electricity and Magnetism

We now begin the study of that branch of physics which is concerned with For the sake of persons
electric and magnetic phenomena. The laws of electricity and magnetism play of . . different types,
.

a central role in the operation of various devices such as radios, televisions, scientific truth should he
electric motors, computers, high-energy accelerators, and a host of electronic presented in different
devices used in medicine. However, more fundamentally, we now know that forms, and should he
the interatomic and intermolecular forces that are responsible for the forma- regarded as equally
tion of solids and liquids are electric in origin. Furthermore, such forces as the scientific, whether it

pushes and pulls between objects and the elastic force in a spring arise from appears in the robust
electric forces at the atomic level. form and the vivid
Evidence in Chinese documents suggests that magnetism was known as coloring of a physical
early as around 2000 b.c. The ancient Greeks observed electric and magnetic illustration, or in the
phenomena possibly as early as 700 b.c. They found that a piece of amber, tenuity and paleness of a
when rubbed, becomes electrified and attracts pieces of straw or feathers. The symbolic expression.
existence of magnetic forces was known from observations that pieces of a JAMES CLERK MAXWELL
naturally occurring stone called magnetite (Fe 3 4 ) are attracted to iron. (The
word electric comes from the Greek word for amber, elecktron. The work
magnetic comes from the name of a northern central district of Greece where
magnetite was found, Magnesia.)
In 1 600, William Gilbert discovered that electrification was not limited to
amber but is a general phenomenon. Scientists went on to electrify a variety of
objects, including chickens and people! Experiments by Charles Coulomb in
1785 confirmed the inverse-square force law for electricity.
It was not until the early part of the 19th century that scientists estab-

lished that electricity and magnetism are, in fact, related phenomena. In 1 820,
Hans Oersted discovered that a compass needle is deflected when placed near
a circuit carrying an electric current. In 1831, Michael Faraday, and almost
simultaneously, Joseph Henry, showed that, when a wire is moved near a
magnet (or, equivalently, when a magnet is moved near a wire), an electric
current is observed in the wire. In 1873, James Clerk Maxwell used these
observations and other experimental facts as a basis for formulating the laws of
electromagnetism as we know them today. (Electromagnetism is a name given
to the combined fields of electricity and magnetism.) Shortly thereafter
(around 1888), Heinrich Hertz verified Maxwell's predictions by producing
electromagnetic waves in the laboratory. This was followed by such practical
developments as radio and television.
Maxwell's contributions to the science of electromagnetism were espe-
cially significant because the laws he formulated are basic to all forms of
electromagnetic phenomena. His work is comparable in importance to New-
ton's discovery of the laws of motion and the theory of gravitation.

625
 23
Electric Fields

Photograph of a carbon
filament incandescent lamp.
Thomas Edison 's first light
bulb also used a piece of
carbonized cotton thread as its
filament. The carbon filament
lamp emits a different light
spectrum than that produced
by a tungsten lamp because of
its composition and because it
operates at a lower
temperature. (Courtesy of
CENCO)

The electromagnetic force between charged particles is one of the

fundamental forces of nature. In this chapter, we begin by describ-
ing some of the basic properties of electrostatic forces. We then
discuss Coulomb's law, which is the fundamental law of force be-
tween any two charged particles. The concept of an electric field associated
with a charge distribution is then introduced, and its effect on other charged
particles is described. The method for calculating electric fields of a given
charge distribution from Coulomb's law is discussed, and several examples are
given. Then the motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric field is
discussed. We conclude the chapter with a brief discussion of the oscilloscope.

23.1 PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGES

A number of simple experiments can be performed to demonstrate the exis-
tence of electrical forces and charges. For example, after running a comb
through your hair, you will find that the comb will attract bits of paper. The
attractive force is often strong enough to suspend the pieces of paper. The
same effect occurs with other rubbed materials, such as glass or rubber.
626
 23.1 PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGES 627

Charles Coulomb, the great French physicist after whom the unit of electric charge
called the coulomb was named, was born in Angouleme in 1736. He was educated at
the Ecole du Genie in Mezieres, graduating in 1 76 1 as a military engineer with a rank
of First Lieutenant. Coulomb served in the West Indies for nine years, where he
supervised the building of fortifications in Martinique.
In 1774, Coulomb became a correspondent to the Paris Academy of Science.
There he shared the Academy's first prize for his paper on magnetic compasses and
work on friction, a study that was unsurpassed
also received first prize for his classic
for 150 During the next 25 years, he presented 25 papers to the Academy on
years.
electricity, magnetism, torsion, and applications to the torsion balance, as well as
several hundred committee reports on engineering and civil projects.
Coulomb took full advantage of the various positions he held during his lifetime.
For example, his experience as an engineer led him to investigate the strengths of
materials and determine the forces that affect objects on beams, thereby contributing
He also contributed to the field of ergonomics.
to the field of structural mechanics.
Biographical His research provided a fundamental understanding of the ways in which people and
Sketch animals can best do work and greatly influenced the subsequent research of Gaspard
Coriolis (1792-1843).
Charles Coulomb Coulomb's major contribution to science was in the field of electrostatics and
(1736-1806) magnetism, in which he made use of the torsion balance he developed (see Fig. 23.2).
The paper describing this invention also contained a design for a compass using the
principle of torsion suspension. His next paper gave proof of the inverse square law
for the electrostatic force between two charges.
Coulomb died in 1806, five years after becoming president of the Institut de
France (formerly the Paris Academy of Science). His research on electricity and
magnetism brought this area of physics out of traditional natural philosophy and made
it an exact science.

(Photograph courtesy of AIP Niels Bohr Library, E. Scott Barr Collection)

Another simple experiment is to rub an inflated balloon with wool. The

balloon will then adhere to the wall or the ceiling of a room, often for hours.
When materials behave in this way, they are said to be electrified, or to have
become electrically charged. You can easily electrify your body by vigorously
rubbing your shoes on a wool rug. The charge on your body can be sensed and
removed by lightly touching (and startling) a friend. Under the right condi-
tions, a visible spark is seen when you touch one another, and a slight tingle
will be felt by both parties. (Experiments such as these work best on a dry day,
since an excessive amount of moisture can lead to a leakage of charge from the
electrified body to the earth by various conducting paths.)
In a systematic series of rather simple experiments, one finds that there
are two kinds of electric charges, which were given the names positive and
negative by Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790). To demonstrate this fact, con-
sider a hard rubber rod that has been rubbed with fur and then suspended by a
nonmetallic thread as in Figure 23.1. When a glass rod that has been rubbed
with silk is brought near the rubber rod, the rubber rod is attracted toward the
glass rod. On the other hand, if two charged rubber rods (or two charged glass
rods) are brought near each other, as in Figure 23.1b, the force between them
will be repulsive. This observation shows that the rubber and glass are in two
different states of electrification.On the basis of these observations, we con-
clude that like charges repel one another and unlike charges attract one another.
628 CHAPTER 23 ELECTRIC FIELDS

Rubber

Figure 23.1 (a) A negatively charged rubber rod, suspended by a thread, is attracted to a
positively charged glass rod. (b) A negatively charged rubber rod is repelled by another nega-
tively charged rubber rod.

Using the convention suggested by Franklin, the electric charge on the glass
rod is called positive, and that on the rubber rod is called negative. Therefore
any charged body that is attracted to a charged rubber rod (or repelled by a
charged glass rod) must have a positive charge. Conversely, any charged body
that is repelled by a charged rubber rod (or attracted to a charged glass rod)
has a negative charge on it.
Another important aspect of Franklin's model of electricity is the implica-
Charge is conserved tion that electric charge is always conserved. That is, when one body is rubbed
against another, charge is not created in the process. The electrified state is
due to a transfer of charge from one body to the other. Therefore, one body
gains some amount of negative charge while the other gains an equal amount of
positive charge. For example, when a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the silk
obtains a negative charge that is equal in magnitude to the positive charge on
the glass rod. We now know from our understanding of atomic structure that it
is the negatively charged electrons that are transferred from the glass to the silk

in the rubbing process. Likewise, when rubber is rubbed with fur, electrons
are transferred from the fur to the rubber, giving the rubber a net negative
charge and the fur a net positive charge. This is consistent with the fact that
neutral, uncharged matter contains as many positive charges (protons within
atomic nuclei) as negative charges (electrons).
In 1909, Robert Millikan (1868-1953) discovered that electric charge
always occurs as some integral multiple of some fundamental unit of charge, e.
Charge is quantized In modern terms, the charge q is said to be quantized. That is, electric charge
exists as discrete "packets." Thus, we can write q = Ne, where N is some
integer. Other experiments in the same period showed that the electron has a
charge — e and the proton has an equal and opposite charge, + e. Some elemen-
tary particles, such as the neutron, have no charge. A neutral atom must
contain as many protons as electrons.
Electric forces between charged objects were measured quantitatively by
Coulomb using the torsion balance, which he invented (Fig. 23.2). Using this
apparatus, Coulomb confirmed that the electric force between two small
 23.2 INSULATORS AND CONDUCTORS 629

charged spheres is proportional to the inverse square of their separation, that

is, F °c 1/r2 . The operating principle of the torsion balance is the same as that of
the apparatus used by Cavendish to measure the gravitational constant (Sec-
tion 14.2), with masses replacedby charged spheres. The electric force be-
tween the charged spheres produces a twist in the suspended fiber. Since the
restoring torque of the twisted fiber proportional to the angle through which
is

it rotates, a measurement of this angle provides a quantitative measure of the

electric force of attraction or repulsion. If the spheres are charged by rubbing,

the electrical force between the spheres is very large compared with the
gravitational attraction; hence the gravitational force can be neglected.
From our discussion thus far, we conclude that electric charge has the
following important properties:

1. There are two kinds of charges in nature, with the property that unlike
charges attract one another and like charges repel one another.
2. The force between charges varies as the inverse square of their separa-
tion.
3. Charge is conserved.
4. Charge is quantized.

23.2 INSULATORS AND CONDUCTORS

It is convenient to classify substances in terms of their ability to conduct Figure 23.2 Coulomb's torsion
balance, which was used to estab-
electrical charge.
lish the inverse-square law for the
electrostatic force between two
Conductors are materials in which electric charges move quite freely, charges. (Taken from Coulomb's
whereas insulators are materials that do not readily transport charge. 1785 memoirs to the French Acad-
emy of Sciences.)
Materials such as glass, rubber, and lucite
fall into the category of insulators.

When such materials are charged by rubbing, only the area that is rubbed
becomes charged and the charge is unable to move to other regions of the
material.
In contrast, materials such as copper, aluminum, and silver are good
conductors. When such materials are charged in some small region, the charge
readily distributes itself over the entire surface of the conductor. If you hold a
copper rod in your hand and rub it with wool or fur, it will not attract a small Metals are good conductors
piece of paper. This might suggest that a metal cannot be charged. On the
other hand, if you hold the copper rod by a lucite handle and then rub, the rod
will remain charged and attract the piece of paper. This
is explained by noting

that in the first case, the electric charges

produced by rubbing will readily
move from copper through your body and finally to earth. In the second case,
the insulating lucite handle prevents the flow of charge to earth.
Semiconductors are a third class of materials, and their electrical proper-
ties are somewhere between those of insulators and conductors. Silicon and
germanium are well-known examples of semiconductors commonly used in
the fabrication of a variety of electronic devices. The electrical properties of
semiconductors can be changed over many orders of magnitude by adding
controlled amounts of certain foreign atoms to the materials.
When a conductor is connected to earth by means of a conducting wire or Charging by induction
copper pipe, it is said to be grounded. The earth can then be considered an
infinite "sink" to which electrons can easily migrate. With this in mind, we can
understand how to charge a conductor by a process known as induction.
630 CHAPTER 23 ELECTRIC FIELDS

V_^ (b)

Figure 23.3
o (d)

Charging a metallic
object by induction, (a) The charge
on a neutral metallic sphere is re-
distributed when a charged rubber
rod is placed near the sphere.
(b) The sphere is grounded, and
some of the electrons leave the
conductor, (c) The ground connec-
tion is removed, and the sphere has

a nonuniform positive charge.

(d) When the rubber rod is re-
moved, the sphere becomes uni-
formly charged.

Insulator

©\
 23.3 COULOMBS LAW 631

The constant k in Equation 23.1 has a value that depends on the choice
The unit of charge in SI units is the coulomb (C). The coulomb is de-
of units.
fined in terms of a unit current called the ampere (A), where current equals
the rate of flow of charge. (The ampere will be defined in Chapter 27.)
When the current in a wire is 1 A, the amount of charge that flows past a
given point in the wire in 1 s is 1 C. The Coulomb constant in SI units has it

the value

k = 8.9875 X10 9 N-m 2/C 2 (23.2) Coulomb constant

To simplify our calculations, we shall use the approximate value

k = 9.0X 10 9 N-m 2/C 2 (23.3)

The constant k is also written

1
k =
4ne n

where the constant e is known as the permittivity offree space and has the
value

e = 8.8542 X 1(T 12 C 2 /N -m 2 (23.4)

The smallest unit of charge known in nature is the charge on an electron or

proton. 1 The charge of an electron or proton has a magnitude

Charge on an electron or
lei = 1.60219 X 1(T 19 C (23.5) proton

Therefore, 1 C of charge is equal to the charge of 6.3 X 10 electrons (that is, 18

l/e).This can be compared with the number of free electrons in 1 cm 3 of

copper, 2 which is of the order of 1 23 Note that 1 C is a substantial amount of
.

charge. In typical electrostatic experiments, where a rubber or glass rod is

charged by friction, a net charge of the order of 1 -6 C (= 1 //C) is obtained. In
other words, only a very small fraction of the total available charge is trans-
ferred between the rod and the rubbing material.
The charges and masses of the electron, proton, and neutron are given in
Table 23.1.
When dealing with Coulomb's force law, you must remember that force is
a vector quantity and must be treated accordingly. Furthermore, note that
Coulomb's law applies exactly only to point charges or particles. The electric

1
No unit of charge smaller than e has been detected as a free charge; however, some recent
theories have proposed the existence of particles called quarks having charges e/3 and 2e/3.
Although there is experimental evidence for such particles inside nuclear matter,/ree quarks have
never been detected. We
shall discuss other properties of quarks in Chapter 47 of the extended
version of this text.
2
A metal atom, such as copper, contains one or more outer electrons, which are weakly bound to
the nucleus. When many atoms combine to form a metal, the so-called
free electrons are these
outer electrons, which are not bound to any one atom. These electrons move
about the metal in a
manner similar to gas molecules moving in a container.
632 CHAPTER 23 ELECTRIC FIELDS

TABLE 23.1 Charge and Mass of the Electron,

s¥
^
^ <7i
\v
Fai

Figure 23.5 Two point charges

separated by a distance r exert a
force on each other given by Cou-
lomb's law. Note that the force on
q t is equal to and opposite the force
on q 2 (a) When the charges are of
.

the same sign, the force is repul-

sive, (b) When the charges are of
the opposite sign, the force is at-
tractive.
 23.3 COULOMBS LAW 633

The magnitude of the force on q 3 due to Qj is given If the resultant force on q 3 is zero, then F32 must be equal
by to and opposite F31 , or

— 93 92 I93II91I
Fii * _ 1 II

(Via) 1

(2-x) 2
(5X 1Q-6 C)(5X 1Q-6 C)
(9.0X10^)
9.0 X 1
2(0.1 m) 2
Since k and q 3 are common to both sides, we solve for x
and find that
= 11 N = **| 9l
(2-x)*|<fc| |

The force F31 is repulsive and makes an angle of 45° with (4 - 4x + x 2 )(6 X 10~ 6 C) = x 2 (15 X 10~ 6 C)
the x Therefore, the * and y components of F31 are
axis.

equal, with magnitude given by F31 cos 45° = 7.9 N.

Solving this quadratic equation for x, we find that x =
The force F32 is in the negative x direction. Hence, the x 0.775 m. Why is the negative root not acceptable?
and y components of the resultant force on q 3 are given
by EXAMPLE 23.3 The Hydrogen Atom
The electron and proton of a hydrogen atom are sepa-
rated (on the average) by a distance of approximately
Fr = F3 iI
+ F32 = 7.9N-9.0N= -1.1 N
5.3 X 10 -11 m. Find the magnitude of the electrical
force and the gravitational force between the two parti-
F, = F31 „= 7.9 N cles.

We can also express the resultant force on q 3 in unit-vec- Solution From Coulomb's law, we find that the attrac-
tor form as F3 = (-l.lt + 7.9;) N. tive electrical force has the magnitude

Find the magnitude and direction of the L = N-m 2 (1.6 X 1Q-19Q 2

Exercise 1 re- Fe = k f 9.0 X 1(
on q 3
sultant force .
C2 (5.3 X 10- 11 m) 2
Answer 8.0 N at an angle of 98° with the x axis.
= 8.2X10" 8 N
EXAMPLE 23.2 Where is the Resultant Force Zero?
Three charges lie along the x axis as in Figure 23.7. The Using Newton's universal law of gravity and Table
positive charge q l 1 5 fiC is at x = = 2 m, and the positive 23.1, we find that the gravitational force has the magni-
charge q 2 =
6 /^C is at the origin. Where must a negative tude
charge q 3 be placed on the x axis such that the resultant
force on it is zero? F _ G me mv

Solution Since q 3 is negative and both q 1 and q are posi- 10- 11

N-m 2 '

tive,
2
the forces F31 and F32 are both attractive, as indi-
-( 6.7 X kg 2 ,

cated in Figure 23.7. If we xbe the coordinate of q3

let ,
(9.11 X 10-31 kg)(1.67 X 10- 2 ? kg)
then the forces F31 and F32 have magnitudes given by
(5.3X10- U m) 2
l<73ll«?ll I93II92
and
(2 - x) 2 = 3.6 X 10-* 7 N

The ratio FjFg « 3 X 10 39 Thus the gravitational force

.

between charged atomic particles is negligible com-

pared with the electrical force.

EXAMPLE 23.4 Find the Charge on the Spheres

Two identical small charged spheres, each having a mass
of 3 X 10 -2 kg, hang in equilibrium as shown in Figure
23.8a. If the length of each string is 0. 15 m and the angle

6 = 5°, find the magnitude of the charge on each sphere,

Figure 23.7 (Example 23.2) Three point charges are placed assuming the spheres have identical charges.
along the x axis. The charge q 3 is negative, whereas
q x and q 2 are
positive. If the net force on q is zero, then the force on
3 q 3 due to Solution From the right triangle in Figure 23.8a, we see
(J, must be equal and opposite to the force on
q due to 3 q2 . that sin 6 = a/L. From the known length of the string and
634 CHAPTER 23 ELECTRIC FIELDS

(2) ^Fy =T cos e-mg=0

From (2), see that T = mg/cos 6, and so T can be
we
eliminated from (1) if we make this substitution. This
gives a value for the electric force, Fe :

(3) Fe = mg tan 6

= (3 X 10- 2 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 )tan(5°)

= 2.57X 10" 2 N
From Coulomb's law (Eq. 23.1), the electric force be-
tween the charges has magnitude given by
2

F=k \Q\

Figure 23.8 (Example 23.4) (a) Two identical spheres, each where r= 2a = 0.026 m and \q\ is the magnitude of the
with the same charge q, suspended in equilibrium by strings, charge on each sphere. Note that the term \q\ 2 arises here
(b) The free-body diagram for the charged spheres on the left because we have assumed that the charge is the same on
side.
both spheres. This equation can be solved for|</| 2 to give
the angle the string makes with the vertical, the distance the charge as follows:

a is calculated to be Fe r 2 (2.57 X 10- 2 N)(0.026 m) 2

a =L sin 6 = (0.15 m) sin 5° = 0.013 m M 2

k 9 X 10 9 N m 2/C 2
•

Therefore, the separation of the spheres is la =

4.4 X 10- 8 C
0.026 m. M'
The forces acting on one of the spheres are shown in
Figure 23.8b. Because the sphere is in equilibrium, the Exercise 2 If the charge on the spheres is negative, how
resultants of the forces in the horizontal and vertical di- many electrons had to be added to the spheres to give a
rections must separately add up to zero: net charge of-4.4 X 10~ 8 C?

^FX =T sin e-F Answer 2.7 X 10 11 electrons.

(1) e

23.4 THE ELECTRIC FIELD

The g at a point in space was defined in Chapter 14 to be
gravitational field
equal to the gravitational force F acting on a test mass divided by the test m
mass. That is, g = F/m In similar manner, an electric field at a point in space
.

can be defined in terms of the electric force acting on a test charge q placed at
that point. To be more precise,

the electric field vector E at a point in space is defined as the electric force
F acting on a positive test charge placed at that point divided by the
magnitude of the test charge q :

F
Definition of electric field (23.7)

Note that E is the field external to the test charge not the field produced by —
the test charge. The vector E has the SI units of newtons per coulomb (N/C).
The direction of E is in the direction of F since we have assumed that F acts on a
positive test charge. Thus, we can say that an electric field exists at a point if a
test charge at rest placed at that point experiences an electrical force. Once the
 23.4 THE ELECTRIC FIELD 635

'/>>'/!!

d>:

Figure 23.9 (a) When a small test charge q is placed near a conducting sphere of charge
q
(where q > q ), the charge on the conducting sphere remains uniform, (b) If the test charge q' is of
the order of the charge on the sphere, the charge on the sphere is nonuniform.

electric field is known at some point, the force on any charged particle placed
at that point can be calculated from Equation 23.7. Furthermore, the electric
field is said to exist at some point (even empty space) regardless of whether or
not a test charge is located at that point.
When Equation 23.7 is applied, we must assume that the test charge q is

small enough such does not disturb the charge distribution responsible
that it
3
for the electric field. For instance, if a vanishingly small test charge q is
placed near a uniformly charged metallic sphere as in Figure 23 9a, the charge .

on the metallic sphere, which produces the electric field, will remain uni-
formly distributed. Furthermore, the force Fon the test charge will have the
same magnitude at points A, B, and C, which are equidistant from the sphere. If
the test charge is large enough (q $> q ) as in Figure 23.9b, the charge on the
'

metallic sphere will be redistributed and the ratio of the force to the test
charge at point A will be different: (F'/q ¥= F/q ). That is, because of this
'

redistribution of charge on the metallic sphere, the electric field at point A set
up by the sphere in Figure 23.9b must be different from that of the field at
point A in Figure 23.9a. Furthermore, the distribution of charge on the sphere
will change as the smaller charge is moved from point A to point B or C.
Consider a point charge q located a distance r from a test charge q .

According to Coulomb's law, the force on the test charge is given by

F=k Wo
2 r

Since the electric field at the position of the test charge is defined by E = F/q ,

we find that the electric field at the position ofq due to the charge q is given by

E = k±f (23.8)

To be more precise, the test charge q should be infinitesimally small to ensure that its presence
^
does not affect the original charge distribution. Therefore, strictly speaking, we should
replace
Equation 23.7 by the expression
„
E= ..
Iim —F
lo—o q
It is impossible to follow this prescription strictly in any
experiment since no charges smaller in
magnitude than e are known to exist. However, as a practical matter, it is almost always possible to
select a sufficiently small test charge to obtain any desired degree of accuracy.
636 CHAPTER 23 ELECTRIC FIELDS

where r is is directed away from q toward q (Fig. 23 1 0) If

a unit vector that q . .

is Figure 23.10a, the field is directed radially outward from this

positive, as in
charge. If q is negative, as in Figure 23.10b, the field is directed toward q.
In order to calculate the electric field due to a group of point charges, we
first calculate the electric field vectors at the point P individually using Equa-
Qf' tion 23.8 and then add them vectorially. In other words,

the total electric field due to a group of charges equals the vector sum of
the electric fields of all the charges.

This superposition principle applied to fields follows directly from the super-
position property of electric forces. Thus, the electric field of a group of
charges (excluding the test charge q ) can be expressed as

GJ-
Figure 23.10 A test charge q at (23.9)
the point P is at a distance r from a
point charge q. (a) If q is positive,
the electric field at P points radially where r, is the distance from the ith charge, q to the point P (the location of
t
,

outward from q. (b) If q is negative,

the test charge) and r is a unit vector directed from q toward P. t
the electric field at P points radially
(

inward toward q.

EXAMPLE 23.5 Electric Force on a Proton

Find the electric force on a proton placed in an electric
field of 2 X 10 4 N/C directed along the positive x axis.

Solution Since the charge on a proton is

+ e = + 1.6Xl(r 19 C,
the electric force on it is

F= eE= (1.6 X 10- 19 C)(2 X 10 4 i N/C)

= 3.2X 10- 15 iN
0.4 m
where t is a unit vector in the positive x direction. The
weight of the proton is calculated to be equal to tng =
(1.67 X lfr27 kg)(9.8 m/s z ) = 1.6 X lO" 26 N. Hence,
we see that the magnitude of the gravitational force in
this case is negligible compared with the electric force.

Figure 23.11 (Example 23.6) The total electric field E at P

EXAMPLE 23.6 Electric Field Due to Two Charges equals the vector sum Et + E2 where Ei is the field due to
A charge q 1 = 7 fiC is located at the origin, and a second
,

the positive charge q v and E 2 is the field due to the negative

charge q 2 = — 5 fiC is located on the x axis 0.3 m from the charge q 2.

origin (Figure 23. 1 1). Find the electric field at the point
P with coordinates (0, 0.4) m.
= 3.94 X10 5 N/C
Solution First, let us find the magnitudes of the electric
N m 2 \ (5X 1Q-6C)
•

fields due to each charge. The fields E t due to the 7-fiC

charge and E 2 due to the — 5-fiC charge at P are shown in
E2 = ^=( 9 .0 X 10 9
C2 (0.5 m) 2

Figure 23.11. Their magnitudes are given by = 1.8X10 5 N/C

N m 2 \ (7X10-6
•
C) The vector E 1 has only a y component. The vector E2 has
E^k !</j

(, OX 10 9
C2 (0.4 m) an x component given by £ 2 cos 6 = |£ 2 an d a negative y
 23.5 ELECTRIC FIELD OF A CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION 637

component given by — E2 sin 8 = — |E 2 . Hence, we can

express the vectors as

Ej = 3.94 X 10 5jN/C

E2 = (11 X 10 s * - 1.4 X 10 5j) N/C

The resultant field E at P is the superposition of E l

and E2 :
p
1
E=E 1
+E2 = (1.1 X 10 5 i + 2.5 X 10 5j) N/C 1

From this result, we find that E has a magnitude of

2.7 X 10 5 N/C and makes an angle (/> of 66° with the
positive x axis.

Exercise 3 Find the electric force on a test charge of

2 X 10- 8 C placed at P.

Answer 5.4 X 10~ 3 N in the same direction as E.

EXAMPLE 23.7 Electric Field of a Dipole

An electric dipole consists of a positive charge q and a
negative charge —q
separated by a distance 2a, as in
Figure 23.12. Find the electric field E due to these
charges along the y axis at the point P, which is a distance
y from the origin. Assume that y> a.

Solution At P, the fields Ej and E2 due to the two charges

are equal in magnitude, since P is equidistant from the
two equal and opposite charges. The total field
E=E l
Jr E2 where
, the magnitudes of E l
and E2 are
given by

£i *4=* 2 + a2
y

The y components of E x and E2 cancel each other. The x

components are equal since they are both along the x
axis. Therefore, E lies along the x axis and has a magni-

tude equal to 2E X cos 6. From Figure 23.12 we see that

cos 8 = a/r = a/(y 2 + a2 )
1 /2
. Therefore,

E = 2E 1 cos 8 2k
(y
2
+ a2 ) (y
2 + a 2 ) 1 '2

2qa
= k-
(y
2
+ a 2 ) 3/ 2

Using the approximation y > a, we can neglect a 2 in the

638 CHAPTER 23 ELECTRIC FIELDS

charges. This procedure makes use of the superposition principle as applied to

the electrostatic field.
Very often the charges of interest are close together compared with their
distances to points of interest. In such situations, the system of charges can be
A continuous charge considered to be continuous. That is, we imagine that the system of closely
distribution spaced charges is equivalent to a total charge that is continuously distributed
through a volume or over some surface.
To evaluate the electric field of a continuous charge distribution, the
following procedure is used. First, we divide the charge distribution into small
elements each of which contains a small charge Aq, as in Figure 23.13. Next,
we use Coulomb's law to calculate the electric field due to one of these
elements at a point P. Finally, we evaluate the total field at P due to the charge
distribution by summing the contributions of all the charge elements (that is,
by applying the superposition principle).
The electric field at F due to one element of charge Aq is given by

AE = k^f
where r is the distance from the element to point P and f is a unit vector
directed from the charge element toward P. The total electric field at P due to
all elements in the charge distribution is approximately given by

Figure 23. 1 3 The electric field at

P due to a continuous charge distri- where the index i refers to the ith element in the distribution. If the separation
bution is the vector sum of the
fields due toall the elements Aq of
between elements in the charge distribution is small compared with the dis-
the charge distribution. tance to P, the charge distribution can be approximated to be continuous.
Therefore, the total field at P in the limit Aq —» becomes
{

Electric field of a continuous

charge distribution E ='^?7^=# (23.11)

where the integrationa vector operation and must be treated with caution.
is

We type of calculation with several examples. In these

shall illustrate this
examples, we shall assume that the charge is uniformly distributed on a line or
a surface or throughout some volume. When performing such calculations, it is
convenient to use the concept of a charge density along with the following
notations:
If a charge Q is uniformly distributed throughout a volume V, the charge
per unit volume, p, is defined by

Volume charge density (23.12)

where p has units of C/m 3 .

If a charge Q is uniformly distributed on a surface of area A, the surface

charge density, a, is defined by

Surface charge density = 0. (23.13)

A
where a has units of C/m 2
 23.5 ELECTRIC FIELD OF A CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION 639

Finally, if a charge Q is uniformly distributed along a line of length £, the

linear charge density, X, is defined by

'-* (23.14) Linear charge density

where A has units of C/m.

If the charge
nonuniformly distributed over a volume, surface, or
is line,
we would have to express the charge densities as

= dQ _dQ _dQ
p
dv ° dA
A ~ de
where dQ is the amount of charge in a small volume, surface, or length ele-
ment.

EXAMPLE 23.8 The Electric Field Due to a

Charged Rod Aq = AAi
A rod of length i has a uniform positive charge per unit
length X and a total charge Q. Calculate the electric field
at a point P along the axis of the rod, a distance d from one

end (Fig. 23.14).

Solution For this calculation, the rod

is taken to be along

the x axis. The charge on the segment

ratio of Aq, the
to Ax, the length of the segment, is equal to the ratio of Figure 23.14 (Example 23.8) The electric field at P due to a
the total charge to the total length of the rod. That is, uniformly charged rod lying along the x axis. The field at P due
Aq/Ax = Q/£ = X. Therefore, the charge Aq on the small to the segment of charge Aq is given by k Aq/x 2 The total field at.

P is the vector sum over all segments of the rod.

segment is given by Aq = X Ax.
The field AE due to this segment at the point P is in
the negative x direction, and its magnitude is given by 4
the rod (x = d) to the other (x = t + Since and X are
= k^
d). Jit

AE = k^
x* x L
constants, they can be removed from the integral. Thus,
we find that
Note that each element produces a field in the negative x
direction, and so the problem of summing their contri-
butions is particularly simple in this case. The total field
at P due segments of the rod, which are at different
to all
distances from P, is given by Equation 23.11, which in
= kk
\l~TTd)
this case becomes

u dx kQ
(23.15)
-i: d(€ + d)
where the limits on the integral extend from one end of
where we have used the fact that the total charge Q = X(
From this result we see that if the point P is far from the
rod (d > £), then I denominator can be neglected,
in the
important that you understand the procedure being used
* It is
and E ~ kQ/d 2 . This form you would expect for
is just the
to carry out integrations such as this. First, choose an element
a point charge. Therefore, at large distances from the
whose parts are all equidistant from the point at which the field
rod, the charge distribution appears to be a point charge
is being calculated. Next, express the charge element
Aq in
terms of the other variables within the integral (in this example, of magnitude Q. The use of the limiting technique
there is one variable, x.) In examples that have spherical or (d —* oo) is often a good method for checking a theoretical
cylindrical symmetry, the variable will be a radial coordinate. formula.
640 CHAPTER 23 ELECTRIC FIELDS

EXAMPLE 23.9 The Electric Field of a Uniform this point. Thus, we can easily sum over all segments to

Ring of Charge get the total field at P.

A ring of radius a has a uniform positive charge per unit
length, with a total charge Q. Calculate the electric field kx kx
along the axis of the ring at a point P lying a distance x £x = 2 Aq
"«#
+ Q (23.16)
x2 + fl
2)3/2
(
x2 fl 2)3/2

from the center of the ring (Fig. 23.15a).

This result shows that the field is zero at x = 0. Does this

Solution The magnitude of the electric field at Pdue to
surprise you?
the segment of charge Aq is
Aq Exercise 4 Show that at large distances from the ring
AE = k
> a) the electric field along the axis approaches that of
(x
a point charge of magnitude Q.
This field has an x component AEX = A£ cos 6 along the
axis of the ring and a component AE X perpendicular to
the axis. But as we see in Figure 23.15b, the resultant
EXAMPLE 23.10 The Electric Field of a Uniformly
P must lie along the x axis since the perpendicular
field at
components sum up to zero. That is, the perpendicular
Charged Disk D
A disk of radius R has a uniform charge per unit area a.
component of any element is canceled by the perpendic-
Calculate the electric field along the axis of the disk, a
ular component of an element on the opposite side of the
distance x from its center (Fig. 23.16).
ring. Since r = (x 2 + a 2 ) 1 / 2 and cos 8 = x/r, we find that

lb Solution The solution to this problem is straightforward

A£, = AE cos Aq
(**)! (x
2
+ a 2 ) 3/2 if we consider the disk as a set of concentric rings. We can
then make use of Example 23.9, which gives the field of a
In this case, all segments of the ring give the same contri- given ring of radius and sum up contributions of all
r,
bution to the field at P since they are all equidistant from rings making up the disk. By symmetry, the field on an
axial point must be parallel to this axis.
The ring of radius r and width d r has an area equal to
27rr dr (Fig. 23.16). The charge dq on this ring is equal to
the area of the ring multiplied by the charge per unit
area, or dq = '2nar dr. Using this result in Equation
23.16 (with a replaced by r) gives for the field due to the
ring the expression

dE (2nar dr)
(x
2
+ r2 ) 3 / 2

To get the total field at P, we integrate this expression

over the limits r = to r = R, noting that x is a constant,
which gives

Figure 23.15 (Example 23.9) A uniformly charged ring of

radius a. (a) The field at P on the x axis due to an element of
charge Aq. (b) The total electric field at P is along the x axis.
Note that the perpendicular component of the electric field at P Figure 23.16 (Example 23.10) A uniformly charged disk of
due to segment 1 is canceled by the perpendicular component radius R. The electric field at an axial point P is directed along
due to segment 2, which is opposite segment 1. this axis, perpendicular to the plane of the disk.
 23.6 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES 641

£ = kxna
/:

= kxna

= kxna

= 2nka
642 CHAPTER 23 ELECTRIC FIELDS

show only the field lines that lie in the plane containing the point charge. The
lines are actually directed radially outward from the charge in all directions,
somewhat needles of a porcupine. Since a positive test charge placed
like the
in this field would be repelled by the charge
q, the lines are directed radially
away from the positive charge. Similarly, the electric field lines for a single
negative point charge are directed toward the charge (Fig. 23.18b). In either
case, the lines are along the radial direction and extend all the way to infinity.
Note that the lines are closer together as they get near the charge, indicating
that the strength of the field is increasing.
The rules for drawing electric field lines for any charge distribution are as
follows:

1. lines must begin on positive charges and terminate on negative

The
charges, or at infinity in the case of an excess of charge.
Rules for drawing electric
held lines
2 ^
& num \)er f li nes drawn leaving a positive charge or approaching a
negative charge is proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
3. No two field lines can cross.

Is this visualization of the electric field in terms of field lines consistent

with Coulomb's law? To answer this question, consider an imaginary spherical
surface of radius r concentric with the charge. From symmetry, we see that the
magnitude of the electric field is the same everywhere on the surface of the
sphere. The number of lines, N, that emerge from the charge is equal to the
number that penetrate the spherical surface. Hence, the number of lines per
3
unit area on the sphere is N/Am (where the surface area of the sphere is Am ).
3

Since E is proportional to the number of lines per unit area, we see that E varies
2
as 1/r This is consistent with the result obtained from Coulomb's law, that is,
.

E= kq/i
3 .

important to note that electric field lines are not material objects.
It is

They are used only to provide us with a qualitative description of the electric
field. One problem with this model is the fact that one always draws a finite

number of lines from each charge, which makes it appear as if the field were
quantized and acted only in a certain direction. The field, in fact, is
continuous —
existing at every point. Another problem with this model is the
danger of getting the wrong impression from a two-dimensional drawing of
field linesbeing used to describe a three-dimensional situation.
Since charge is quantized, the number of lines leaving any material object

mustbeO,±C'e, ±2C'e, where . . . , C

is an arbitrary (but fixed) proportion-

ality constant. Once C

is chosen, the number of lines is not arbitrary. For

example, if object 1 has charge Q 1 and object 2 has charge Q 2 then the ratio of ,

number of lines is Nz/Ni = QJQi

The electric field lines for two point charges of equal magnitude, but
opposite signs (the electric dipole), are shown in Figure 23. 1 9. In this case, the
number of lines that begin at the positive charge must equal the number that
terminate at the negative charge. At points very near the charges, the lines are
nearly radial. The high density of lines between the charges indicates a region
of strong electric field. The attractive nature of the force between the charges
can also be seen from Figure 23.19.
Figure 23.20 shows the electric field lines in the vicinity of two equal
positive point charges. Again, the lines are nearly radial at points close to
either charge. The same number of lines emerge from each charge since the
charges are equal in magnitude. At large distances from the charges, the field
 23.7 MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD 643

Figure 23.19 (a) The electric field lines for two equal and opposite point charges (an electric
dipole). Note that the number of lines leaving the positive charge equals the number terminating
at the negative charge, (b) The photograph was taken using small pieces of thread suspended in
oil, which align with the electric field. (Photo courtesy of Harold M. Waage, Princeton University)

(a)

Figure 23.20 (a) The electric field lines for two positive point charges, (b) The photograph was
taken using small pieces of thread suspended in oil, which align with the electric field. (Photo
courtesy of Harold M. Waage, Princeton University)

is approximately equal to that of a single point charge of magnitude 2q. The

bulging out of the electric field lines between the charges indicates the repul-
sive nature of the electric force between like charges.
Finally, in Figure 23.21 we sketch the electric field lines associated with a
positive charge +2q and a negative charge — q. In this case, we see that the
number of lines leaving the charge + 2q is twice the number entering the
charge — q. Hence only half of the lines that leave the positive charge enter the
negative charge. The remaining half terminate on a negative charge we as-
!£©;-«
sume to be located at infinity. At large distances from the charges (large
compared with the charge separation), the electric field lines are equivalent to
those of a single charge +q.

23.7 MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN A

UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD Figure 23.21 The electric field
we describe the motion of lines for a pointcharge + 2q and a
In this section a charged particle in a uniform
second point charge — q. Note that
electric field. As we shall see, the motion is equivalent to that of a projectile two lines leave the charge + 2q for
moving in a uniform gravitational field. When a particle of charge q is placed in every one that terminates on — q.
644 CHAPTER 23 ELECTRIC FIELDS

an electric field E, the electric force on the charge is qE. If this is the only force
exerted on the charge, then Newton's second law applied to the charge gives

F= qE = ma
where m is the mass of the charge and we assume that the speed is small
compared with the speed of light. The acceleration of the particle is therefore
given by

qE
(23.19)

If E is uniform (that is, constant in magnitude and direction), we see that the
acceleration is a constant of the motion. If the charge is positive, the accelera-
tion will be in the direction of the electric field. If the charge is negative, the
acceleration will be in the direction opposite the electric field.

EXAMPLE 23.1 1 An Accelerating Positive Charge

A positive point charge q of mass is released from rest m
in a uniform electric field E directed along the x axis as in
Figure 23.22. Describe its motion.

*"
Solution The acceleration of the charge is constant and t=0
given by qE/m.
the x axis. Therefore,
The motion is simple linear motion along
we can apply the equations of kine-
«©©©©© •
matics in one dimension (from Chapter 3):

x — x = v t + \at2 v = v + at

o* = + V
2a(x - xQ )

Taking x = and v = gives

Figure 23.22 (Example 23.1 1) A positive point charge q in a
x =l 2 fl
,2 = BEL t
2 uniform electric field E undergoes constant acceleration in the
2m direction of the field.

qE

2qE\ K = imv 2 = im (W\ x qEx

v2 = 'lax
\ m )
m )
This result can also be obtained from the work-energy
The kinetic energy of the charge after it has moved a theorem, since the work done by the electric force is

distance x is given by Fex = qEx and W = AK.

The electric field in the region between two oppositely charged flat metal
plates is approximately uniform (Fig. 23.23). Suppose an electron of charge
— e is projected horizontally into this field with an initial velocity v i. Since the
electric field E is in the positive y direction, the acceleration of the electron is

in the negative y direction. That is,

eE .
(23.20)
 23.7 MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD 645

Figure 23.23 An electron is projected horizontally into a uniform electric field produced by two
charged plates. The electron undergoes a downward acceleration (opposite E), and its motion is
parabolic.

Because the acceleration is constant, we can apply the equations of kinematics

in two dimensions (from Chapter 4) with v^ = v and u^ = 0. The components
of velocity of the electron after it has been in the electric field a time t are
given by

vx =v = constant (23.21)

eE
v„ = at = 1 (23.22)

Likewise, the coordinates of the electron after a time t in the electric field are
given by

x =v t (23.23)

eE
(23.24)

Substituting the value t = x/v from Equation 23.23 into Equation 23.24, we
see that y is proportional to x 2 Hence, the trajectory is a parabola. After the
.

electron leaves the region of uniform electric field, it continues to move in a

straight line with a speed v > v .

Note that we have neglected the gravitational force on the electron. This
is a good approximation when dealing with atomic particles. For an electric

field of 10 4 N/C, the ratio of the electric force, eE, to the gravitational force,
mg, for the electron is of the order of 10 14 The corresponding ratio for a
.

proton is of the order of 10 11 .

EXAMPLE 23.12 An Accelerated Electron eE (1.6 X 10- 19 C) (200 N/C)

An electron enters the region of a uniform electric field m J
9.11X10- 31 kg J
as Figure 23.23, with u = 3X10 6 m/s and £ =
in
200 N/C. The width of the plates is* 0.1 m. (a) Find = = -3.51 X10 13jm/s 2
the acceleration of the electron while in the electric
field. (b) Find the time it takes the electron to travel
Since the charge on the electron has a magnitude through the region of the electric field.
of 1.60 X 10~ 19 C and m = 9.11 X 10~ 31 kg, Equation The horizontal distance traveled by the electron
23.20 gives while in the electric field is ( = 0.1 m. Using Equation
646 CHAPTER 23 ELECTRIC FIELDS

23.23 with x = £, we find that the time spent in the elec- y = {at 1 = -£(3.51 X 10 13 m/s 2 ) (3.33 X 1(T 8 s)
2

tric field is given by

m = -0.0195 m= -1.95 cm
=L= 0.1
= 3.33 X 10- 8 s
v 3 X 10 6 m/s
If the separation between the plates is smaller than this,
(c) What is the vertical displacement y of the elec-
the electron will strike the positive plate.
tron while it is inthe electric field?
Using Equation 23.24 and the results from and
(a)
Exerdse ,; F|nd the spee(J of the e , ectron ^ a emerges
(b), we find that
from the electric field.
Answer 3.22 X 10 6 m/s.

°23.8 THE OSCILLOSCOPE

The is an electronic instrument widely used in making electrical
oscilloscope
measurements. The main component of the oscilloscope is the cathode ray
tube (CRT), shown in Figure 23.24. This tube is commonly used to obtain a
visual display of electronic information for other applications, including radar
systems, television receivers, and computers. The CRT is a vacuum tube in
which electrons are accelerated and deflected under the influence of electric
fields.
The electron beam
produced by an assembly called an electron gun,
is

The assembly shown in Figure 23.24 consists of

located in the neck of the tube.
a heater (H), a cathode (C), and a positively charged anode (A). An electric
current maintained in the heater causes its temperature to rise, which in turn
heats the cathode. The cathode reaches temperatures high enough to cause
electrons to be "boiled off." Although they are not shown in the figure, the
electron gun also includes an element that focuses the electron beam and one
that controls the number of electrons reaching the anode (that is, a brightness
control). The anode has a hole in its center that allows the electrons to pass
through without striking the anode. These electrons, if left undisturbed, travel
in a straight-line path until they strike the face of the CRT. The screen at the

Vertical
deflection Horizontal
Electron deflection
p i ates plates
gun

Figure 23.24 (a) Schematic diagram of a cathode ray tube. Electrons leaving the hot cathode C
are accelerated to the anode A. The electron gun is also used to focus the beam, and the plates
deflect the beam, (b) Photograph of a "Maltese Cross" tube showing the shadow of a beam of
cathode rays falling on the tube's luminescent screen. The hot filament also produces a beam of
light and a second shadow of the cross. (Courtesy of CENCO)
 SUMMARY 647

front of the tube is coated with a material that emits visible light when bom-
barded with electrons. This results in a visible spot of light on the screen of the
CRT.
The electrons are deflected in various directions by two sets of plates
placed at right angles to each other in the neck of the tube. In order to
understand how the deflection plates operate, first consider the horizontal
deflection plates in Figure 23.24a. External electric circuits are used to con-
trol and change the amount of charge present on these plates, with positive
charge being placed on one plate and negative on the other. (In Chapter 25 we
shall see that this can be accomplished by applying a voltage across the plates.)
This increasing charge creates an increasing electric field between the plates,
which causes the electron beam to be deflected from its straight-line path. The
tube face is slightly phosphorescent and therefore glows briefly after the
electron beam moves from one point to another on the screen. Slowly increas-
ing the charge on the horizontal plates causes the electron beam to move
gradually from the center toward the side of the screen. Because of the phos-
phorescence, however, one sees a horizontal line extending across the screen
instead of the simple movement of the dot. The horizontal line can be main-
tained on the screen by rapid, repetitive tracing.
The vertical deflection plates act in exactly the same way as the horizontal
plates, except that changing the charge in them with external controlling
circuits causes a vertical line on the tube face. In practice, the horizontal and
vertical deflection plates are used simultaneously. To see how the oscilloscope
can display visual information, let us examine how we could observe the sound
wave from a tuning fork on the screen. For this purpose, the charge on the
horizontal plates changes in such a manner that the beam sweeps across the
face of the tube at a constant rate. The tuning fork is then sounded into a
microphone, which changes the sound signal to an electric signal that is ap-
plied to the vertical plates. The combined effect of the horizontal and vertical Figure 23.25 A sinusoidal wave
plates causes the beam to sweep the tube horizontally and up and down at the produced by a wave generator and
displayed on the oscilloscope.
same time, with the vertical motion corresponding to the tuning fork signal. A (Courtesy of Henry Leap and Jim
pattern such as that shown in Figure 23.25 is seen on the screen. Lehman)

SUMMARY
Electric charges have the following important properties: Properties of electric charges

1. Unlike charges attract one another and like charges repel one another.
2. Electric charge is always conserved.
3. Charge is quantized, that is, it exists in discrete packets that are some
integral multiple of the electronic charge.
4. The force between charged particles varies as the inverse square of their
separation.

Conductors are materials in which charges move quite freely. Some

examples of good conductors are copper, aluminum, and silver. Insulators
are materials that do not readily transport charge. Some examples are glass,
rubber, and wood.
648 CHAPTER 23 ELECTRIC FIELDS

Coulomb's law states that the electrostatic force between two station-
ary, charged particles separated by a distance r has a magnitude given by

killflzl
Coulomb's law (23.1)

where the constant k has the value

Coulomb constant it = 8.9875 X 10 9 N-m 2/C 2 (23.2)

The smallest unit of charge known to exist in nature is the charge on an

electron or proton. The magnitude of this charge e is given by
Charge on an electron or =
\e\ 1.60219 X1(T 19 C (23.5)
proton
The electric field E at some point in space is defined as the electric
force F that acts on a small positive test charge placed at that point divided
by the magnitude of the test charge q :

Definition of electric field E =* (23.7)

<7o

The electric field due to a point charge q at a distance r from the charge
is given by

Electric field of a point

E = k±r (23.8)
charge q

where f is a unit vector directed from the charge to the point in question.
The electric field is directed radially outward from a positive charge and is
directed toward a negative charge.
The electric field due to a group of charges can be obtained using the
superposition principle. That is, the total electric field equals the vector
sum of the electric fields of all the charges at some point:

Electric field of a group of

(23.9)
charges

a continuous charge distribution at

facont
Similarly, the electric field of some
point is given by

Electric field of a continuous

charge distribution

where dq is the charge on one element of the charge distribution and r is the
distance from the element to the point in question.
Electric field lines are useful for describing the electric field in any
region of space. The electric field vector E is always tangent to the electric
field lines at every point. Furthermore, the number of lines per unit area
through a surface perpendicular to the lines is proportional to the magni-
tude of E in that region.
A charged particle of mass m and charge q moving in an electric field E
has an acceleration a given by

Acceleration of a charge in an qE
(23.19)
electric field m
 QUESTIONS 649

If the electric field is uniform, the acceleration is constant and the

motion of the charge is similar to that of a projectile moving in a uniform
gravitational field.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY AND HINTS

1. Units: When
performing calculations that involve the use of the Coulomb
constant fc(=l/47re ) which appears in Coulomb's law, charges must be in

coulombs, and distances in meters. If they appear in other units, you must
convert them.
2. Applying Coulomb's law to point charges: It is important to remember to use
the superposition principle properly when dealing with a collection of inter-
acting charges. When several charges are present, the resultant force on any
one of the charges is the vector sum of the forces due to the individual forces.
You must be very careful in the algebraic manipulation of vector quantities. It
may be useful to review the material on vector addition in Chapter 2.
3. Calculating the electric field of point charges: Remember that the superposi-
tion principle can also be applied to electric fields, which are also vector
quantities. To find the total electric field at a given point, first calculate the
electric field at the point due to each individual charge. The resultant field at

the point is the vector sum of the

due to the individual charges.
fields
4. Continuous charge distributions: When you are confronted with problems
that involve a continuous distribution of charge, the vector sums for evaluat-
ing the total electric field at some point must be replaced by vector integrals.
The charge distribution is divided into infinitesimal pieces, and the vector
sum is carried out by integrating over the entire charge distribution. You
should review Examples 8, 9, and 10, which demonstrate such procedures.
5. Symmetry: Whenever dealing with either a distribution of point charges or a
continuous charge distribution, you should take advantage of any symmetry
in the system to simplify your calculations.
6. Motion of charged particles in uniform electric fields: The motion of a
charged particle in a uniform electric field (one that is constant in magnitude
and direction) can be described by using the equations of projectile motion
developed in Chapter 4. In this case, the uniform acceleration is given by
a = qE/m.

QUESTIONS

1. Sparks are often observed (or heard) on a dry day 7. A charged comb will often attract small bits of dry
when clothes are removed in the dark. Explain. paper that fly away when they touch the comb. Ex-
2. Explain from an atomic viewpoint why charge is usu- plain.

ally transferred by electrons. 8. Why do some clothes cling together and to your body
3. A balloon is negatively charged by rubbing and then after being removed from a dryer?
clings to a wall. Does this mean that the wall is posi- 9. A large metal sphere insulated from ground is charged
tively Why does the balloon eventually fall?
charged? with an electrostatic generator while a person stand-
4. A uncharged metal sphere suspended from a
light, ing on an insulating stool holds the sphere while it is
thread is attracted to a charged rubber rod. After being charged. Why is it safe to do this? Why wouldn't
touching the rod, the sphere is repelled by the rod. it be safe for another person to touch the sphere after

Explain. it has been charged?

5. Explain what we mean by a neutral atom. 10. What is the difference between charging an object by

6. If a suspended object A is attracted to object B, which induction and charging by conduction?

is charged, canwe conclude that object A is charged?
Explain.
 ? ,

650 CHAPTER 23 ELECTRIC FIELDS

11. What are the similarities and differences between 24. In Figure 23.21, where do the extra lines leaving the
Gm m 2
Newton's Universal Law or Gravitation, F =
1

r2
— charge +2q end?
25. Consider two equal point charges separated by some
distance d At what point (other than oc) would a third
and Coulomb's Law, F=
r1
— .

test charge experience no net force?

26. An uncharged, metallic coated, Ping -Pong ball is
1 2. Assume that someone proposes a theory that says peo-
ple are bound to the earth by electric forces rather placed in the region between two horizontal parallel
than by gravity. How could you prove this theory metal plates. If the two plates are charged, one posi-
tive and one negative, describe the motion the Ping-
wrong?
13. Would life be different if the electron were positively Pong ball will undergo.
charged and the proton were negatively charged? 27. A negative point charge— q is placed at the point P
Does the choice of signs have any bearing on physical near the positively charged ring shown in Figure

and chemical interactions? Explain. 23.15 of Example 23.9. If i <§: a, describe the motion
of the point charge if it is released from rest.
14. When defining the electric field, why is it necessary to
specify that the magnitude of the test charge be very
28. Explain the differences between linear, surface, and
small (i.e., take the limit as q — » 0)?
volume charge densities, and give examples of when
1 5. Two charged spheres each of radius a are separated by each would be used.
29. If the electron in Figure 23.23 projected into the
a distance r > 2a. Is the force on either sphere given
is

electric field with an arbitrary velocity v (at an angle

by Coulomb's law? Explain. (Hint: Refer back to
Chapter 14 on gravitation.) to E), will its trajectory still be parabolic? Explain.
30. If a metal object receives a positive charge, does its
16. When is it valid to approximate a charge distribution
by a "point charge"? mass increase, decrease, or stay the same? What hap-
17. Is it possible for an electric field to exist in empty pens to the mass if the object is given a negative
space? Explain.
charge?
31. It has been reported that in some instances people
18. Explain why electric field lines do not form closed
loops.
near where a lightning bolt strikes the earth have
19. Explain why electric field lines never cross. (Hint: E had their clothes thrown off. Explain why this might
must have a unique direction at all points.) happen.
32. Why should a ground wire be connected to the metal
20. A "free" electron and "free" proton are placed in an
identical electric field. Compare the electric forces on
support rod for a television antenna?
33. Are the occupants of a steel-frame building safer than
each particle. Compare their accelerations.
21 Explain what happens to the magnitude of the electric those in a wood-frame house during an electrical
.

field of a point charge as r approaches zero.

storm or vice versa? Explain.
22. A negative charge is placed in a region of space where 34. A light piece of aluminum foil is draped over a wooden
rod. When a rod with a positive charge is brought
the electric field is directed vertically upward. What
is the direction of the electric force experienced by close to the two parts of the foil stand apart. Why?
foil,

charge?
this
What is on the foil?
kind of charge
35. Why is it more difficult to charge an object by friction
23. A charge Aq is at a distance r from a charge —q. Com-
pare the number of electric field lines leaving the on a humid day than on a dry day?
36. How would you experimentally distinguish an elec-
charge Aq with the number entering the charge —q.
tric field from a gravitational field?

PROBLEMS
Section 23.3 Coulomb's Law 3. Two protons in a molecule are separated by a distance
-10
of 3.8 X 10 m. Find the electrostatic force exerted
1. Suppose that 1 g of hydrogen is separated into elec- , by one proton on the other.
trons and protons. Suppose also that the protons are 4. A 6.7-/iC charge is located 5.0 from a — 8.4-//C
m
placed at the Earth's north pole and the electrons are charge. Find the electrostatic force exerted by one
placed at the south pole. What is the resulting com- charge on the other.
pressional force on the Earth? 5. A 1.3-^C charge is located on the x axis at x = —0.5 m,
2. (a) Calculate the number of electrons in a small silver a 3.2-/^C charge is located on the x axis at x = 1.5 m,
mass of 1 g. Silver has
pin, electrically neutral, with a and a 2.5-//C charge is located at the origin. Find the
47 electrons per atom. The atomic weight of silver is net force on the 2.5-//C charge. All charges are posi-
107.87. (b) Electrons are added to the pin until the tive.

net chargeis 1 mC. How many electrons are added for 6. Two identical small metal spheres attract each other
every 10 9 electrons already present? with a force of 0.0853 N. The distance between the
 PROBLEMS 651

spheresis 1 1 9 m. The spheres are brought into elec-

.
tion of the net electrostatic force exerted on the
contact with each other so that the net charge is
trical charge at the lower left corner of the rectangle by the
shared equally. When returned to a separation of other three charges.
1.19 m, the spheres repel each other with a force of 10. Four arbitrary pointlike charges are located at the
0.0196 N. Find the charge originally on each sphere. corners of a rigid square plate. Prove that the net
Three point charges of 2 fiC, 7 //C, and - 4 /*C are torque about the center of the plate is zero.
located at the corners of an equilateral triangle as in 1 1. Two small silver spheres, each with a mass of 100 g,

Figure 23.26. Calculate the net electric force on the are separated by a distance of 1 m. Calculate the frac-
7-//C charge. tion of the electrons in one sphere that must be trans-
ferred to the other in order to produce an attractive
force of 10 4 N (about a ton) between the spheres.
(The number of electrons per atom of silver is 47, and
the number of atoms per gram is Avogadro's number
divided by the atomic weight of silver, 107.87.)
12. Richard Feynman once said that if two persons stood
at arm's length from each other and each person had
1% more electrons than protons, the force of repul-
sion between the two people would be enough to lift a
"weight" equal to that of the entire earth. Carry out
an order-of-magnitude calculation to substantiate this
2/iC -4/iC assertion.
13. In a thundercloud there may be an electric charge of
Figure 23.26 (Problems 7 and 24).
+ 40 C near the top of the cloud and — 40 C near the
bottom of the cloud. These charges are separated by
Four point charges are situated at the corners of a
about 2 km. What is the electric force between these
square of sides a as in Figure 23.27. Find the resultant
two sets of charges?
force on the positive charge q.

Section 23.4 The Electric Field

14. An airplane is flying through a thundercloud at a

height of 2000 m. (This is a very dangerous thing to do

because of updrafts, turbulence, and the possibility of

electric discharge.) If there is a charge concentration
of +40 C at height 3000 m within the cloud and
- 40 C at height 1 000 m, what is the electric field E at
the aircraft?
15. What are the magnitude and direction of the electric
balance the weight of (a) an electron and
field that will

+q -q proton? (Use the data in Table 23.1.)

(b) a
16. An object having a net charge of 24 fj.C is placed in a
Figure 23.27 (Problems 8 and 25).
uniform electric field of 610 N/C directed vertically.
What is the mass of this object if it "floats" in this
9. Four identical point charges (q = + lO/J.C) are lo- electric field?
cated on the corners of a rectangle as shown in Figure 17. Apoint charge of — 5.2/iC is located at the origin.
23.28. The dimensions of the rectangle are L = 60 cm Find the electric field (a) on the x axis at x = 3 m,
and W= 15 cm. Calculate the magnitude and direc- (b) on the y axis at y = — 4 m, (c) at the point with
coordinates x = 2 m, y = 2 m.
18. Find the total electric field along the line of the two
charges shown in Figure 23.29 at the point midway
between them.

-4.7nC 9.0 uC
\

Figure 23.28 (Problems 9 and 20). Figure 23.29 (Problems 18 and 27).
 .

652 CHAPTER 23 ELECTRIC FIELDS

19. Two equal point charges each of magnitude 2.0 nC 24. Three charges are at the corners of an equilateral tri-

are located on the x axis. One is at x = 1.0 m, and the angle as in Figure 23.26. Calculate the electric field
other is at i = -l,0m. (a) Determine the electric due to the
intensity at the position of the 2-//C charge
field on the y axis at y = 0.5 m. (b) Calculate the elec- 7-^C and — 4-fJ.C charges.
tric force on a third charge, of — 3.0 //C, placed on the 25. Four charges are at the corners of a square as in Figure

y axis at y — 0.5 m. 23.27. (a) Find the magnitude and direction of the
20. Four identical point charges (q = + 6 fiC) are located electric field at the position of the charge —q, the
on a rectangle as shown in Figure 23.28, with L = coordinates of which are x = a, y = a. (b) What is the
80 cm and W=
20 cm. Calculate the resultant elec- electric force on this charge?
the center of the rectangle.
tric field at 26. A charge of — 4 fiC is located at the origin, and a
21 Five equal, negative point charges — q are placed sym- charge of — 5 fiC is located along the y axis at y =
metrically around a circle of radius R as in Figure 2.0 m. At what point along the y axis is the electric
23.30. Calculate the electric field E at the center of field zero?
the circle. 27. In Figure 23.29, determine the point (other than <">) at
which the total electric field is zero.

y
Section 23.5 Electric Field of a Continuous Charge
Distribution

v
/
s 28.1 A rod
charge of
1 4 cm long
— 22/iC.
is uniformly charged and has a
Determine the magnitude and
total

direction of the electric field along the axis of the rod,

tt^ 29.
at
A
a point 36 cm from
continuous line of charge
its center.
lies along the x-axis, ex-
tending from x = +x
to positive infinity. The line
carries a uniform linear charge density X What are .

the magnitude and direction of the electric field at the

origin?

Figure 23.30 (Problem 21). 30. A line of charge starts at x = +x and extends to posi-
tive infinity. If the linear charge density is given by
A =A
x /x, determine the electric field at the origin.
22. Three identical point charges (q = +2.7 //C) are 31. uniformly charged ring of radius 10 cm has a total
A
placed on the corners of an equilateral triangle whose charge of 75 fiC. Find the electric field on the axis
sides have a length of 35 cm (see Figure 23.31). What of the ring at (a) 1 cm, (b) 5 cm, (c) 30 cm, and
is the magnitude of the resultant electric field at the (d) 100 cm from the center of the ring.
center of the triangle? 32. Show that the maximum field strength E m along the
axis of a uniformly charged ring occurs at x = a/V2
(see Fig. 23.15) and has the value Q/(6J3ne a 2 ).
33. A sphere of radius 4 cm has a net charge of + 39/iC.
(a) If this charge is uniformly distributed throughout

the volume of the sphere, what is the volume charge

density? (b) If this charge is uniformly distributed on
the sphere's surface, what is the surface charge den-
sity?
34. A uniformly charged disk of radius 35 cm carries a
charge density of 7.9 X 10" 3 C/m
2
Calculate the .

electric field on the axis of the disk at (a) 5 cm,

(b) 10 cm, (c) 50 cm, and (d) 200 cm from the center
Figure 23.31 (Problems 22 and 23).
of the disk.
35. Example 23.10 derives the exact expression for the
23. Three equal positive charges q are at the corners of an electric field at a point on the axis of a uniformly
equilateral triangle of sides a as in Figure 23.31. (a) At charged disk (see Equation 23.17). Consider a disk
what point plane of the charges (other than °°) is
in the of radius R = 3 cm, having a uniformly distributed
the electric field zero? (b) What are the magnitude charge of +5.2 //C. (a) Using the result of Example
and direction of the electric field at the point Pdue to 23.10, compute the electric field at a point on the axis
the two charges at the base of the triangle? and 3 mm from the center. Compare this answer to
 PROBLEMS 653

the field computed from the near-field approximation 42. Four equal positive point charges are at the corners of
(Equation 23.18). (b) Using the result of Example a square. Sketch the electric field lines in the plane of
23.10, compute the electric field at a point on the axis the square.
and 30 cm from the center of the disk. Compare this 43. Figure 23.33 shows the electric field lines for two
to the electric field obtained by treating the disk as a point charges separated by a small distance, (a) De-
+ 5.2 fiC point charge at a distance of 30 cm. termine the ratio q^lq^- (b) What are the signs of q x
36. The electric field along the axis of a uniformly charged and q 2 ?
disk of radius R and total charge Q was calculated in
Example 23.10. Show that the electric field at dis-
tances x that are large compared with R approaches
that of a point charge Q = onR 2 (Hint: First show that
.

+ R 2 )!/2 = (1 + R2/ x 2)-i/2 and use the binomial

x/(x 2
expansion (1 + 6)" ~ 1 + nS when 6 <§ 1.)
37. A uniformly charged ring and a uniformly charged
disk each have a charge of +25//C and a radius of
3 cm. For each of these charged objects, determine
the electric field at a point along the axis which is 4 cm
from the center of the object.
38. A 10 gram piece of Styrofoam carries a net charge of
— 0.7 /iC and "floats" above the center of a very large
horizontal sheet of plastic which has a uniform charge
density on its surface. What is the charge per unit area
Figure 23.33 (Problem 43).
on the plastic sheet?
39. A uniformly charged insulating rod of length 14 cm is
bent into the shape of a semicircle as in Figure 23.32.
If the rod has a total charge of— 7.5 //C, find the mag- Section 23.7 Motion of Charged Particles in a Uniform
nitude and direction of the electric field at O, the Electric Field
center of the semicircle.
44. An electron and a proton are each placed at rest in an
external electric field of 520 N/C. Calculate the
speed of each particle after 48 nanoseconds.
45. A proton accelerates from rest in a uniform electric
field of 640 N/C. At some later time, its speed is
1.20 X 10 6 m/s (nonrelativistic since v is much less
than the speed of light), (a) Find the acceleration of
the proton, (b) How long does it take the proton to
reach this velocity? (c) How far has it moved in this
time? (d) What is its kinetic energy at this time?
46. An electron with a speed of 3 X 10 6 m/s moves into a
uniform electric field of 1000 N/C. The field is paral-
lel to the electron's velocity and acts to decelerate the

electron. How far does the electron travel before it is

brought to rest?
Figure 23.32 (Problem 39). 47. The electrons in a particle beam each have a kinetic
energy of 1.6 X 10 -17 J. What are the magnitude and
direction of the electric field that will stop these elec-
trons in a distance of 10 cm?
Section 23.6 Electric Field Lines
48. An electron traveling with an initial velocity equal to

8.6 X10 5 i m/s enters a region of a uniform electric

40. A positively charged disk has a uniform charge per field given by E = 4. 1 X 10 3 i N/C. (a) Find the accel-
unit area as described in Example 23.10. Sketch the eration of the electron, (b) Determine the time it
electric field lines in a plane perpendicular to the takes for the electron to come to rest after it enters the
plane of the disk passing through its center. field, (c) How far does the electron move in the elec-
41. A negatively charged rod of finite length has a uni- tric field before coming to rest?
form charge per unit length. Sketch the electric field 49. A proton is projected in the positive x direction into a
lines in a plane containing the rod. region ofa uniform electric field E = —6 X 10 s * N/C.
654 CHAPTER 23 ELECTRIC FIELDS

The proton travels 7 em before coming to rest. Deter- makes a 15° angle with the vertical as indicated, what
mine (a) the acceleration of the proton, (b) its initial is the net charge on the ball?
speed, and (c) the time it takes the proton to come to
rest.

50. A proton and an electron both start from rest and from
the same point in a uniform electric field of 370 N/C.
How far apart are they after 1 ,us? (Ignore the attrac-
3
E=10 iN/C
tionbetween the electron and the proton. If you like,
you might imagine the experiment to be tried with the
proton only, and then repeated with the electron
only.)
51. A proton has an initial velocity of 4.50 X 10 5 m/s in
the horizontal direction. It enters a uniform electric
field of 9.60 X 10 3
N/C directed vertically. Ignore
m= 2 g
any gravitational effects and (a) find the time it takes
the proton to travel 5.0 cm horizontally, (b) the verti- Figure 23.35 (Problem 54).
cal displacement of the proton after it has traveled
5.0 cm horizontally, and (c) the horizontal and verti- 55. A charged cork ball of mass 1 g is suspended on alight
cal components of the proton's velocity after it has string in the presence of a uniform electric field as in
traveled 5.0 cm horizontally. Figure 23.36. When E = (3i + 5j) X 10 s N/C, the
52. An electron is projected at an angle of 30° above the ball is in equilibrium at 6 = 37°. Find (a) the charge
horizontal at a speed of 8.2 X 10 s m/s, in a region of on the ball and (b) the tension in the string.
an electric field E = 390j N/C. Neglect gravity and
find: (a) the time it takes the electron to return to its
initial height, (b) the maximum height reached by the

electron, and (c) its horizontal displacement when it

reaches its maximum height.
53. Protons are projected with an initial speed, given by
v = 9.55 X 10 3 m/s, into a region where a uniform
electric field, E = —720; N/C, is present as shown in
Figure 23.34. The protons are to hit a target that lies
at a horizontal distance of 1.27 from the point mm
where the protons are launched. Find (a) the two pro-
jection angles 6 that will result in a hit, and (b) the

total time of flight for each of these two trajectories.

Figure 23.36 (Problem 55).

E = (-720;) N/C 56. Two small spheres each of mass 2 g are suspended by
light strings 10 cm in length (Fig. 23.37). A uniform
electric field is applied in the x direction. If the
-8
spheres have charges equal to — 5 X 10 C and
+ 5 X 10 -8 C, determine the electric field intensity

Proton
beam

Figure 23.34 (Problem 53).

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
54. A small 2-g plastic ball is suspended by a 20-cm long

string in a uniform electric field as shown in Figure

23.35. If the ball is in equilibrium when the string Figure 23.37 (Problem 56).
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 655

that enables the spheres to be in equilibrium at an x axis is given by Ex = 2kp/x 3 where p

,
= 2qa is the
angle of 0= 10°. dipole moment.
57. Two small spheres of mass m are suspended from
strings of length ( that are connected at a common
point. One sphere has charge O; the other has charge
20. Assume the angles, 6 X and 2 that the strings
,

make with the vertical are small, (a) How are l and 82
related? (b) Show that the distance r between the
spheres is

1/3
__
/ 4fc<m

\ mg )

58. Three charges of equal magnitude q are fixed in posi-

tion at the vertices of an equilateral triangle (Figure
23.38). The charge located at the origin in Figure
23.38 is negative; the other two are positive. A fourth
charge O is free to move along the positive x axis
under the influence of the forces exerted by the three
fixed charges. Locate an equilibrium position for Q.

!
656 CHAPTER 23 ELECTRIC FIELDS

65. Identical thin rods of length la carry equal charges 69. A thin rod of length I and uniform charge per unit
+Q uniformly distributed along their lengths. The length X liesalong the x axis as shown in Figure 23.43.
rods lie along the x axis with their centers separated (a) Show that the electric field at the point P, a
by a distance h> 2a (Figure 23.41). Show that the distance y from the rod, along the perpendicular
force exerted on the right rod is given by bisector has no x component and is given by E =
2kX sin 6 /y. (b) Using your result to (a), show that the
field of a rod of infinite length is given by E= 2kX/y.
(Hint: First calculate the field at P due to an element of
length dx, which has a charge X dx. Then change vari-
ables from x to 6 using the facts that x = y tan 6 and
dx = 2
y sec 9 dd and integrate over 6.)

a—\
/0C
Figure 23.41 (Problem 65). /
/
/ y
66. A line of positive charge is formed into a semicircle of /
radius R = 60 cm as shown in Figure 23.42. The
charge per unit length along the semicircle is de-
scribed by the expression Figure 23.43 O dx
(Problem 69). -I
X =X cos 6

The totalcharge on the semicircle is 1 2 /j.C Calculate '0. A positive charge +q of mass Mis free to move along
the total force on a charge of 3 //C placed at the center the x axis. It is in equilibrium at the origin, midway
of curvature of the semicircle. between a pair of identical point charges, + q, located
on the x axis at i = +a and x = — a. The charge at the
origin is displaced a small distance x < a and released.
Show that it can undergo simple harmonic motion
with an angular frequency

71. A set of eight point charges, each of magnitude +q, is

located on the corners of a cube of side s as shown in

Figure 23.44. (a) Determine x,y, and z components of

Figure 23.42 (Problem 66).

67. Air will break down (lose its insulating quality) and
sparking will result if the field strength is increased to
about 3X 10 6 N/C. (This field strength is also ex-
pressed as 3 X 10 6 V/m.) What acceleration will an
electron experience in such a field? If the electron
starts from rest, in what distance will it acquire a
speed equal to 10 percent of the speed of light?
68. A line charge of length £ and oriented along the x axis
as in Figure 23.14 has a charge per unit length X,
which varies with x as X = X (x — d)/d, where d is the
distance of the rod from the origin (point P in the
figure) and X is a constant. Find the electric field at
the origin. (Hint: An infinitesimal element has a
charge dq = X dx, but note that X is not a constant.) Figure 23.44 (Problems 71 and 72).
 CALCULATOR/COMPUTES PROBLEMS 657

the resultant force exerted on the charge located at a total positive charge Q as in Example 23.9. The par-
point A by the other charges, (b) What are the magni- ticle, confined to move along
the x axis, is displaced a
tude and direction of this resultant force? small distance x along the axis (where x < a) and re-
72. Consider the charge distribution shown in Figure leased. Show that the particle oscillates with simple
23.44. (a) Show magnitude of the electric
that the harmonic motion along the x axis with a frequency
field at the center of any face of the cube has a value of given by
2 What the direction of the electric
2.18 kq/s . (b) is
J_(kqQ\
field at the center of the top face of the cube? f- '
2n \ma 3
73. Three point charges q, —2q, and q are located along
the x axis as in Figure 23.45. Show that the electric 76. In the Millikan oil drop experiment (see previous
field at the distant point P (y > a) along the y axis is problem), the droplets are so tiny that they appear
given by only as points of light in the microscope used to ob-
serve them. In order to find the radius (and hence the
3qa 2 mass) of each droplet, we allow them to fall freely
E = ~k
under gravity. The retarding force F exerted by the
viscous air on a sphere of radius r moving with speed v
This charge distribution, which is essentially that of
through air is given by Stokes' law, F = Qnrjrv, where
two electric dipoles, is called an electric quadrupole.
is the coefficient of viscosity, (a) Find the SI units for
Note that E varies as r~ 4 for the quadrupole, com- r\

(b) Show that when a falling droplet achieves a

pared with variations of r -3 for the dipole and r~ 2 for
t\.

constant "terminal" velocity (signifying that the total

the monopole (a single charge).
force on the droplet is zero), the following relation is

true, thus allowing the radius of the droplet to be

determined:

up
v = —— (A, - />«)
9t]

Here, p and/>a are the respective densities of the oil

and air.

CALCULATOR/COMPUTER PRORLEMS
Figure 23.45 |
77. A continuous charge is distributed along a rod lying
(Problem 73). -2q along the x axis as in Figure 23.14. The total charge on
the rod is Q = + 16X 10" 10 C, d=1.0m, and i =
74. An electric dipole in a uniform electric field is dis- 2.0 m. Estimate the electric field at x = by approxi-
placed slightly from its equilibrium position, as in Fig- mating the rod to be (a) a point charge at x = 2.0 m,
ure 23.46, where 6 is small. The dipole moment is (b) two point charges (each of charge 8 X 10 -10 C) at
p =
Iqa and the moment of inertia of the dipole is /. If x = 1.5 m and x = 2.5 m, and (c) four point charges
the dipole is released from this position, show that it (each of charge 4 X lO -10 C) at x = 1.25 m, x =
exhibits simple harmonic motion with a frequency 1.75 m, x = 2.25 m, and x = 2.75 m. (d) Write a pro-
given by gram that will enable you to extend your calculations
to 256 equally spaced point charges, and compare
your result with that given by the exact expression,
Equation 23.15.
|
78. Consider a uniform ring of charge located in the
|

yz plane as in Figure 23.15a, where Q = + 16X

10~ 10 C, and the radius a = 1 m. Estimate the electric
field along the x axis at x = 3 m by approximating the
ring to be (a) a point charge at x = 0, (b) two point
charges (each of charge 8 X 10~ 10 C) diametrically
opposite each other on the ring, and (c) four point
charges (each of charge 4 X 10 -10 C) symmetrically
spaced on the ring, (d) Write a program that will en-
Figure 23.46 (Problem 74). able you to extend your calculations to 64 point
charges equally spaced on the ring, and compare your
75. A negatively charged particle — q is placed at the result with that given by the exact expression, Equa-
center of a uniformly charged ring, where the ring has tion 23.16.
 24
Gauss Law

This computer-generated
picture shows the surfaces of a
manifold in a space shuttle's
—
main engine just one of the
many kinds of surfaces that
crop up in scientific and
mathematical problems.
Gaussian surfaces, described
in this chapter, are
hypothetical closed surfaces,
useful for solving many
problems in electrostatics.
(© Dale E. Boyer, Science
Source/Photo Researchers)

the preceding chapter we showed how to calculate the electric field of a

given charge distribution from Coulomb's law. This chapter describes an
In alternative procedure for calculating electric fields known as Gauss' law.
This formulation is based on the fact that the fundamental electrostatic
force between point charges is an inverse-square law. Although Gauss' law is a
consequence of Coulomb's law, it is much more convenient for calculating the
Gauss'
electric field of highly symmetric charge distributions. Furthermore,
law serves as a guide for understanding more complicated problems.

24.1 ELECTRIC FLUX

The concept of electric field lines was described qualitatively in the previous

chapter. We shall use the concept of electric flux to put this idea on a
now
quantitative basis. Electric flux is a measure of the number of electric field
lines

658
 24.1 ELECTRIC FLUX 659

penetrating some When the surface being penetrated encloses some

surface.
net charge, the net number of lines that go through the surface is proportional
to the net charge within the surface. The number of lines counted is indepen-
dent of the shape of the surface enclosing the charge. This is essentially a
statement of Gauss' law, which we describe in the next section.
First consider an electric field that is uniform in both magnitude and
direction, as in Figure 24.1. The electric field lines penetrate a rectangular
surface of area A, which is perpendicular to the field. Recall that the number of
lines per unit area is proportional to the magnitude of the electric field. There-
fore, the number of lines penetrating the surface of area A is proportional to
Figure 24.1 Field lines of a uni-
the product EA. The product of the electric field strength, E, and a surface area
form electric field penetrating a
A perpendicular to the field is called the electric flux, <J>: plane of area A perpendicular to
the field. The electric flux, 4>,

through this area is equal to EA.

<D = £A (24.1)

From the SI units of £ and A, we see that electric flux has the units of N •
m 2 /C.
under consideration is not perpendicular to the field, the
If the surface
number of lines (or the flux) through it must be less than that given by Equation
24.1. This can be easily understood by considering Figure 24.2, where the
normal to the surface of area A is at an angle 6 to the uniform electric field.
Note that the number of lines that cross this area is equal to the number that
cross the projected area A', which is perpendicular to the field. From Figure
24.2 we see that the two areas are related by A' = A cos 6. Since the flux
through the area A equals the flux through A', we conclude that the desired
flux is given by

Figure 24.2 Field lines for a uni-

<D = EA cos 6 (24.2) form electric field through an area
A that is at an angle 8 to the field.
Since the number of lines that go
From this result, we see that the flux through a surface of fixed area has the through the shaded area A' is the
maximum value, EA, when the surface is perpendicular to the field (or when same as the number that go
through A, we conclude that the
the normal to the surface is parallel to the field, that is, 6 = 0°); the flux is zero
flux through A' is equal to the flux
when the surface is parallel to the field (or when the normal to the surface is through A and is given by O = EA
perpendicular to the field, that is, 6 = 90°). cos 0.

In more general situations, the electric field may vary over the surface in
question. Therefore, our definition of flux given by Equation 24.2 has meaning
only over a small element of area. Consider a general surface divided up into a
large number of small elements, each of area AA. The variation in the electric
field over the element can be neglected if the element is small enough. It is
convenient to define a vector A A whose magnitude represents the area of the
{

tth element and whose direction is defined to he perpendicular to the surface,

as in Figure 24.3. The electric flux AO, through this small element is given by

A<D, = E AA{ {
cos 6 = E AA
{ {

where we have used the definition of the scalar product of two vectors
(AB = AB cos 6). By summing the contributions of all elements, we obtain the
total flux through the surface. 1
If we let the area of each element approach
Figure 24.3 A small element of a
surface of area AA,. The electric
1
important to note that drawings with field lines have their inaccuracies, since a small area
It is field makes an angle 6 with the nor-
(depending on its location) may happen to have too many or too few penetrating lines. At any rate, mal to the surface (the direction of
it is stressed that the basic definition of electric flux is JE-dA. The use of lines AA,), and the flux through the ele-
is only an aid for
visualizing the concept. ment is equal to E, AA, cos 6.
660 CHAPTER 24 GAUSS' LAW

zero, then the number of elements approaches infinity and the sum is replaced
by an integral. Therefore the general definition of electric flux is

Definition of electric flux 0>= lim

AA,—
V£
^ -AA =
( J {
J
E-dA (24.3)

Equation 24.3 is a surface integral, which must be evaluated over the hypo-
thetical surface in question. In general, the value of <t> depends both on the

field pattern and on the specified surface.

We be interested in evaluating the flux through a closed
shall usually
surface. (A closed surface is defined as a surface which divides space into an
inside and an outside region, so that one cannot move from one region to the
other without crossing the surface. The surface of a sphere, for example, is a
closed surface.) Consider the closed surface in Figure 24.4. Note that the
vectors AA, point in different directions for the various surface elements. At
each point, these vectors are normal to the surface and, by convention, always
point outward. At the elements labeled (J) and (2), E is outward and 8 < 90°;
hence the flux AO = E- A A through these elements is positive. On the other
hand, for elements such as ®, where the field lines are directed into the
surface, 8 > 90° and the flux becomes negative with cos 8. The total, or net,
flux through the surface is proportional to the net number of lines penetrating
the surface (where the net number means the number leaving the volume
surrounding the surface minus the number entering the surface). If there are
more lines leaving the surface than entering, the net flux is positive. If more
lines enter than leave the surface, the net flux is negative. Using the symbol $
to represent an integral over a closed surface, we can write the net flux, O c ,

through a closed surface

(24.4)

where £n represents the component of the electric field perpendicular, or

normal, to the surface and the subscript c denotes a closed surface. Evaluating
the net flux through a closed surface could be very cumbersome. However, if
the field is normal to the surface at each point and constant in magnitude, the
calculation is straightforward. The following example illustrates this point.

Figure 24.4 A closed surface in an electric

field.The area vectors AA, are, by conven-
tion, normal to the surface and point out-
ward. The flux through an area element can
be positive (elements ®
and ©) or negative
C
(element ©). AA,
 24.2 GAUSS' LAW 661

EXAMPLE 24.1 Flux Through a Cube

Consider a uniform electric field E oriented in the x di-
rection. Find the net electric flux through the surface of a
cube of edges £ oriented as shown in Figure 24.5.

Solution The net flux can be evaluated by summing up

the fluxes through each face of the cube. First, note that
the flux through four of the faces is zero, since E is per-
pendicular to dA on these faces. In particular, the orien-
tation of dA is perpendicular to E for the two faces la-
beled © and @ in Figure 24.5. Therefore, = 90°, so
that EdA = E dA cos 90° = 0. The fluxes through the
planes parallel to the yx plane are also zero for the same
reason.
Now consider the faces labeled ® and (2). The net Figure 24.5 (Example 24.1) A hypothetical surface in the
flux through these faces is given by shape of a cube in a uniform electric field parallel to the x axis.
The net flux through the surface is zero.

<D C = I E-dA+ E-dA

J

For the face labeled (D, E is constant and inward while Likewise, for the face labeled ©, E is constant and
dA is outward (8 = 180°), so that we find that the flux outward and in the same direction as dA (9 = 0°), so that
through this face is the flux through this face is

L* -L
u
= -EA = -Ee z
EdA cos 180°
A dA I

J2
E-dA=

Hence, the net

J
J2
E dA

flux
cos 0°

over all
i«- + EA
faces is zero, since
= Et 2

since the area of each face is A = (2 . <&c = -Ee z + Et 2 =

24.2 GAUSS' LAW

we describe a general relation between the net electric flux
In this section
through a closed surface (often called a gaussian surface) and the charge
enclosed by the surface. This relation, known as Gauss law, is of fundamental
importance in the study of electrostatic fields.
First, let us consider a positive point charge q located at the center of a
sphere of radius r as in Figure 24.6. From Coulomb's law we know that the
magnitude of the electric field everywhere on the surface of the sphere is
E= kq/r 2 Furthermore, the field lines are radial outward, and hence are
.

perpendicular (or normal) to the surface at each point. That is, at each
point E is parallel to the vector A A, representing the local element of area
AA Therefore
(
.

E-AA, = E„AA = EAA< (

and from Equation 24.4 we find that the net flux through the gaussian surface
is given by
Figure 24.6 A spherical surface
of radius r surrounding a point
®r=($)En dA = (bEdA = E(bdA charge q. When the charge is at the
center of the sphere, the electric
field is normal to the surface and
since E is constant over the surface and given by E = kq/r 2 Furthermore, for a .

constant in magnitude everywhere

spherical gaussian surface, f dA = A = 4nr 2 (the surface area of a sphere). on the surface.
662 CHAPTER 24 GAUSS' LAW

Hence the net flux through the gaussian surface is

H> =^j-
1
Unr 2 ) = 4nkq
r

^ Recalling that k = l/4ne , we can write this in the form

(24.5)

Note that this result, which is independent of r, says that the net flux through a
Figure 24.7 Closed surfaces of spherical gaussian surface proportional to the charge q inside the surface.
is
various shapes surrounding a
charge q. Note that the net electric
The fact that the flux is independent of the radius is a consequence of the
flux through each surface is the inverse-square dependence of the electric field given by Coulomb's law. That
is, E varies as 1/r 2but the area of the sphere varies as r 2 Their combined
, .

effect produces a independent of r.

flux that is
Now consider several closed surfaces surrounding a charge q as in Figure
24.7. Surface S x is spherical, whereas surfaces S 2 and S 3 are nonspherical. The
flux that passes through surface S, has the value q/e As we discussed in the .

previous section, the flux is proportional to the number of electric field lines
passing through that surface. The construction in Figure 24.7 shows that the
number of electric field lines through the spherical surface Sj is equal to the
number of electric field lines through the nonspherical surfaces S 2 and S 3 .

Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that the net flux through any closed
surface is independent of the shape of that surface. (One can prove that this is
the case if E <* 1/r 2 .) In fact, the net flux through any closed surface surrounding
a point charge q is given by q/e .

Now consider a point charge located outside a closed surface of arbitrary

shape, as in Figure 24.8. As you can see from this construction, some electric
field lines enter the surface, and others leave the surface. However, the num-
ber of electric field lines entering the surface equals the number leaving the
The net flux through a closed surface. Therefore, we conclude that the net electric flux through a closed
surfaceis zero if there is no surface that surrounds no charge is zero. If we apply this result to Example
charge inside 24.1, we can easily see that the net flux through the cube is zero, since it was
assumed there was no charge inside the cube.
Let us extend these arguments to the generalized case of many point
charges, or a continuous distribution of charge. We shall make use of the
superposition principle, which says that the electric field due to many charges
is the vector sum of the electric fields produced by the individual charges. That

is, we can express the flux through any closed surface as

E-dA = (I) (Ej + E2 + E3 )-dA

where E is the total electric field at any point on the surface and E1 ,E2 and E3 ,

are the fields produced by the individual charges at that point. Consider the
system of charges shown in Figure 24.9. The surface S surrounds only one
Figure 24.8 A point charge lo- charge, q 1 hence the net flux through S is q /e The flux through S due to the
;
1
.

cated outside a closed surface. In charges outside zero since each electric field line that enters S at one point
it is
this case, note that the number of
lines entering the surface equals
leaves it at another. The surface S' surrounds charges q 2 and q 3 hence the net ;

the number leaving the surface. flux through S' is (q 2 + fl 3 )/e Finally, the net flux through surface S" is zero
•
 24.3 APPLICATION OF GAUSS' LAW TO CHARGED INSULATORS 663

Figure 24.9 The net electric flux through any

closed surface depends only on the charge in-
side that surface. The net flux through surface
S is qje the net flux through surface S' is
,

(l2 + Qsl/to ar>d the net flux through surface S"

>

since there is no charge inside this surface. That is, all lines that enter S" at one
point leave S" at another.
Gauss' law, which is a generalization of the above discussion, states that
the net flux through any closed surface is given by

(24.6)

where qin represents the net charge inside the gaussian surface and E repre-
sents the electric field at any point on the gaussian surface. In words,

Gauss' law states that the net electric flux through any closed gaussian
Gauss' law
surface is equal to the net charge inside the surface divided by € .

A formal proof of Gauss' law is presented in Section 24.6. When using

Equation 24.6, you should note that although the charge qln is the net charge
inside the gaussian surface, the E that appears in Gauss' law represents the
total electric field, which includes contributions from charges both inside and
outside the gaussian surface. This point is often neglected or misunderstood.
In principle, Gauss' law can always be used to calculate the electric field of
a system of charges or a continuous distribution of charge. However, in prac-
tice, the technique is useful only in a limited number of situations where there is
a high degree ofsymmetry. As we shall see in the next section, Gauss' law can be
used to evaluate the electric field for charge distributions that have spherical,
cylindrical, or plane symmetry. If one carefully chooses the gaussian surface
surrounding the charge distribution, the integral in Equation 24.6 will be easy
to evaluate. You should also note that a gaussian surface is a mathematical
surface and need not coincide with any real physical surface.

24.3 APPLICATION OF GAUSS' LAW TO CHARGED

INSULATORS
In this section we give some examples of how to use Gauss' law to calculate E
for a given charge distribution. It is important to recognize that Gauss' law is
useful when there is a high degree of symmetry in the charge distribution, as in
the case of uniformly charged spheres, long cylinders, and plane sheets. In such
cases, it is possible to find a simple gaussian surface over which the surface
integral given by Equation 24.6 is easily evaluated.

Gauss' law is useful for

The surface should always be chosen such that it has the same symmetry as
evaluating E when the charge
that of the charge distribution.
distribution has symmetry
The following examples should clarify this procedure.
664 CHAPTER 24 GAUSS' LAW

EXAMPLE 24.2 The Electric Field Due to a Point EXAMPLE 24.3 A Spherically Symmetric Charge
Charge Distribution
Starting with Gauss' law, calculate the electric field due An insulating sphere of radius a has a uniform charge
to an isolated point charge q and show that Coulomb's density p and a total positive charge (Fig. 24.11). Q
law follows from this result. (a) Calculate the electric field intensity at a point outside

the sphere, that is, for r > a.

Solution For this situation we choose a spherical gaus-
sian surface of radius rand centered on the point charge, Solution Since the charge distribution is spherically
as in Figure 24.10. The electric field of a positive point symmetric, we again select a spherical gaussian surface
charge is radial outward by symmetry, and is therefore of radius r, concentric with the sphere, as in Figure
normal to the surface at every point. That is, E is parallel 24.11a. Following the line of reasoning given in Example
to dA at each point, and so E- dA = E dA and Gauss' law 24.2, we find that
gives

*,. E-dA = Q)EdA = ^- E= k- (for r>a) (24.7)

By symmetry, E is constant everywhere on the surface, Note that this result is identical to that obtained for a
and so it can be removed from the integral. Therefore, point charge. Therefore, we conclude that, for a uni-
formly charged sphere, the field in the region external to
EdA = E(bdA = E(4nr 2 = *- )
the sphere is equivalent to that of a point charge located
at the center of the sphere.
(b) Find the electric field intensity at a point inside
where we have used the fact that the surface area of a
the sphere, that is, for r <a.
sphere is 47rr 2Hence, the magnitude of the
. field at a
distance r from the charge q is
Solution In this case we select a spherical gaussian sur-
face with radius r < a, concentric with the charge distri-
bution (Fig. 24.11b). To apply Gauss' law in this situa-
tion, it is important to recognize that the charge q ln
within the gaussian surface of volume is a quantity less V
than the total charge Q. To calculate the charge q ia we ,
If a second point charge q is placed at a point where the
use the fact that q ia = pV, where p is the charge per unit
field is E, the electrostatic force on this charge has a
magnitude given by
volume and V is the volume enclosed by the gaussian
surface, given by V = %nr 3
for a sphere. Therefore,

F=q E= k
Wo flin =pV'=p (JTrr 3 )

As Example 24.2, the electric field is constant in mag-

in

This, of course, Coulomb's law. Note that this example

is nitude everywhere on the spherical gaussian surface and
is It does, however, demonstrate the
logically circular.
equivalence of Coulomb's law and Gauss' law.

Gaussian
l^ sphere

Figure 24.1 1 (Example 24.3) A uniformly charged insulating

sphere of radius a and total charge Q. (a) The field at a point
Figure 24.10 (Example 24.2) The point charge q is at the exterior to the sphere is kQ/r 2 (b) The field inside the sphere is
.

center of the spherical gaussian surface, and E is parallel to dA at due only to the charge within the gaussian surface and is given
every point on the surface. by (kQ/a 3 )r.
 24.3 APPLICATION OF GAUSS' LAW TO CHARGED INSULATORS 665

isnormal to the surface at each point. Therefore, Gauss'

law in the region r<a gives

E dA = E = E(4nr 2 =
(p dA )
^
Solving for E gives
Pfrr3
E=
4ne r 2 47re r 2 3e„

Since by definition p = Q/^na 3 , this can be written

-^ r (for r<a) (24.8)

Figure 24.13 (Example 24.4) The electric field inside a uni-
formly charged spherical shell is zero. The field outside is the
same as that of a point charge having a total charge Q located at
Note that this result for E differs from that obtained the center of the shell.
shows that E—» as r —» 0. as you might have
in (a). It
guessed based on the spherical symmetry of the charge
distribution. Therefore, the result fortunately eliminates a point outside the shell is equivalent to that of a point
the singularity that would exist at r = if £ varied as 1/r 2 charge Q at the center:
inside the sphere. That is, if E a 1/r 2 the field would be ,

infinite at r = 0, which is clearly a physically impossible

situation. A plot of £ versus r is shown in Figure 24.12. (forr>a)

The electric field inside the spherical shell is zero.

This also follows from Gauss' law applied to a spherical
surface of radius r < a. Since the net charge inside the
surface is zero, and because of the spherical symmetry of
the charge distribution, application of Gauss' law shows
that £= in the region r< a.
The same be obtained using Coulomb's
results can
law and integrating over the charge distribution. This
calculation is rather complicated and will be omitted.

EXAMPLE 24.5 A Cylindrically Symmetric Charge

Distribution
Figure 24.12 (Example 24.3) A plot of E versus r for a uni- Find the electric field at a distance r from a uniform
formly charged insulating sphere. The field inside the sphere positive line charge of infinite length whose charge per
(r < a) varies linearly with r. The field outside the sphere (r > a) = constant
unit length is ). (Fig. 24.14).
is the same as that of a point charge Q located at the origin.

Solution The symmetry of the charge distribution shows

that E must beperpendicular to the line charge and di-
rected outward as in Figure 24.14a. The end view of the
EXAMPLE 24.4 The E Field of a Thin Spherical line charge shown in Figure 24. 1 4b should help visualize
Shell the directions of the electric field lines. In this situation,
A thin spherical shell of radius a has a total charge Q we select a cylindrical gaussian surface of radius r and
distributed uniformly over its surface (Fig. 24.13). Find length £ that is coaxial with the line charge. For the
the electric field at points inside and outside the shell. curved part of this surface, E is constant in magnitude
and perpendicular to the surface at each point. Further-
Solution The calculation of the field outside the shell is more, the flux through the ends of the gaussian cylinder
identical to that already carried out for the solid sphere is zero since E is parallel to these surfaces.
in Example 24.3a. If we construct a spherical gaussian The total charge inside our gaussian surface is kt,
surface of radius r> a, concentric with the shell, then where is the charge per unit length and £ is the length
).

the charge inside this surface is Q. Therefore, the field at of the cylinder. Applying Gauss' law and noting that E is
666 CHAPTER 24 GAUSS' LAW

techniques necessary for this calculation are more cum-

bersome.
If the line charge has a finite length, the result for £
is not the same as that given by Equation 24.9. For points

close to the line charge and far from the ends, Equation
24.9 gives a good approximation of the actual value of
the field. It turns out that Gauss' law is not useful for
calculating E for a finite line charge. This is because the
electric field is no longer constant in magnitude over the
surface of the gaussian cylinder. Furthermore, E is not
perpendicular to the cylindrical surface at all points.
When there is little symmetry in the charge distribution,
as in this situation, it is necessary to calculate E using
Coulomb's law.
(a) It is left as aproblem (Problem 35) to show that the E
field inside a uniformly charged rod of finite thickness is
proportional to r.

EXAMPLE 24.6 A Nonconducting Plane Sheet of

Charge
Find the electric field due to a nonconducting, infinite
plane with uniform charge per unit area a.

Solution The symmetry of the situation shows that E

must be perpendicular to the plane and that the direction
of E on one side of the plane must be opposite its direc-
tion on the other side, as in Figure 24.15. It is convenient
to choose for our gaussian surface a small cylinder whose
axis is perpendicular to the plane and whose ends each
Figure 24. 14 (Example 24.5) (a) An infinite line of charge sur-
rounded by a cylindrical gaussian surface concentric with the have an area A and are equidistant from the plane. Here
line charge, (b) The field on the cylindrical surface is constant in we see that since E is parallel to the cylindrical surface,
magnitude and perpendicular to the surface. there is no flux through this surface. The flux out of each
end of the cylinder is EA (since E is perpendicular to the
ends); hence the total flux through our gaussian surface is
parallel to dA everywhere on the cylindrical surface, we
find that

<t>
c
= CD E-dA = E <2) dA = ^= xe

But the area of the curved surface is A= 2nr£\

therefore

A(
E(2nre) =

£= 2k- (24.9)
2ne r

Thus, we see that the field of a cylindrically symmetric

charge distribution varies as 1/r, whereas the field exter-
Figure 24.15 (Example 24.6) A cylindrical gaussian surface
nal to a spherically symmetric charge distribution varies
2
penetrating an infinite sheet of charge. The flux through each
as 1/r . Equation 24.9 can also be obtained using Cou- end of the gaussian surface is EA. There is no flux through the
lomb's law and integration; however, the mathematical cylinder's surface.
 24.4 CONDUCTORS IN ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM 667

2£A. Noting that the total charge inside the surface is aA, Since the distance of the surfaces from the plane
we use Gauss' law to get does not appear in Equation 24.10, we conclude that
E = ct/2c at any distance from the plane. That is, the
aA field is uniform everywhere.
cl> = 2EA = 22 =
An important configuration related to this example
isthe case of two parallel sheets of charge, with charge
densities a and —a, respectively (Problem 58). In this
(24.10) situation, the electric field is a/e between the sheets and
approximately zero elsewhere.

24.4 CONDUCTORS IN ELECTROSTATIC

EQUILIRRIUM
A good electrical conductor, such as copper, contains charges (electrons) that
are not bound any atom and are free to move about within the material.
to
When there is no net motion of charge within the conductor, the conductor is
in electrostatic equilibrium. As we shall see, a conductor in electrostatic equi- Properties of a conductor in
librium has the following properties: electrostatic equilibrium

1. The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor.

2. Any excess charge on an isolated conductor must reside entirely on its

surface.
3. The electric field just outside a charged conductor is perpendicular to
the conductor's surface and has a magnitude o~/e where o is the charge
,

per unit area at that point.

4. On an irregularly shaped conductor, charge tends to accumulate at
locations where the radius of curvature of the surface is the smallest,
that is, at sharp points.

The property can be understood by considering a conducting slab

first

placed in an external field E (Fig. 24.16). In electrostatic equilibrium, the Figure 24.16 A conducting slab
electric field inside the conductor must be zero. If this were not the case, the in an external electric field E. The
free charges would accelerate under the action of an electric field. Before the charges induced on the surfaces of
the slab produce an electric field
external field is applied, the electrons are uniformly distributed throughout
which opposes the external field,
the conductor. When the external field is applied, the free electrons acceler- giving a resultant field of zero in
ate to the left, causing a buildup of negative charge on the left surface (excess the conductor.
electrons) and of positive charge on the right (where electrons have been
removed). These charges create their own electric field, which opposes the
external field. The surface charge density increases until the magnitude of the
electric field set up by these charges equals that of the external field, giving a
net field of zero inside the conductor. In a good conductor, the time it takes the
conductor to reach equilibrium is of the order of 10~ 16 s, which for most
purposes can be considered instantaneous.
We can use Gauss' law to verify the second and third properties of a
conductor in electrostatic equilibrium. Figure 24.17 shows an arbitrarily
shaped insulated conductor. A gaussian surface is drawn inside the conductor
as close to the surface as we wish. As we have just shown, the electric field
everywhere inside the conductor is zero when it is in electrostatic equilib-
rium. Since the electric field is also zero at every point on the gaussian surface, Figure 24.17 An insulated con-
ductor of arbitrary shape. The bro-
we see that the net flux through this surface is zero. From this result and Gauss' ken line represents a gaussian sur-
law, we conclude that the net charge inside the gaussian surface is zero. Since face just inside the conductor.
668 CHAPTER 24 GAUSS' LAW

Figure 24. 1 8 A gaussian surface in the shape of a small cylinder

is used to calculate the electric field just outside a charged con-

ductor. The flux through the gaussian surface is E a A. Note that E

is zero inside the conductor.

there can be no net charge inside the gaussian surface (which is arbitrarily
close to the conductor's surface), any net charge on the conductor must reside
on its surface. Gauss' law does not tell us how this excess charge is distributed
on the surface. In Section 25.6 we shall prove the fourth property of aconduc-

o
tor in electrostatic equilibrium.
We can use Gauss' law to relate the electric field just outside the surface of
a charged conductor in equilibrium to the charge distribution on the conduc-
tor. To do this, it is convenient to draw a gaussian surface in the shape of a small
cylinder with end faces parallel to the surface (Fig. 24. 18). Part of the cylinder
is just outside the conductor, and part is inside. There is no flux through the

face on the inside of the cylinder since E= inside the conductor. Further-
more, the field is normal to the surface. If £ had a tangential component, the
free charges would move along the surface creating surface currents, and the
conductor would not be in equilibrium. There is no flux through the cylindri-
Electric field pattern of a charged cal face of the gaussian surface since E is tangent to this surface. Hence, the net
conducting plate near an oppo-
flux through the gaussian surface is £ n A, where £ n is the electric field just
sitely charged conducting cylin-
der. Small pieces of thread sus- outside the conductor. Applying Gauss' law to this surface gives
pended in oil align with the electric
field lines. Note that (1) the elec-
are perpendicular to
tric field lines
<t> £n dA = E B A = ^ oA
the conductors and (2) there are no
lines inside the cylinder (E = 0).
(Courtesy of Harold M. Waage,
We have used the fact that the charge inside the gaussian surface is q = oA, to

Princeton University) where A is the area of the cylinder's face and o is the (local) charge per unit
area. Solving for £n gives

Electric field just outside a

£„ =- (24.11)
charged conductor

EXAMPLE 24.7 A Sphere Inside a Spherical Shell from the center, we construct spherical gaussian surfaces
A conducting sphere of radius a has a net positive
solid of radius r.

charge 2Q (Fig. 24.19). A conducting spherical shell of To find E inside the solid sphere of radius a (region
inner radius b and outer radius c is concentric with the ®), we construct a gaussian surface of radius r<a. Since
solid sphere and has a net charge — Q. Using Gauss' law, there can be no charge inside a conductor in electrostatic
find the electric field in the regions labeled ®, (2), @, equilibrium, we see that q ta = 0, and so from Gauss' law
and (4) and the charge distribution on the spherical shell. £j = for r < a. Thus we conclude that the net charge
2Q on the solid sphere is distributed on its outer surface.
Solution First note that the charge distribution on both In region (2) between the spheres, where a < r <b,
spheres has spherical symmetry, since they are concen- we again construct a spherical gaussian surface of radius
tric. To determine the electric field at various distances r r and note that the charge inside this surface is + 2Q (the
 24.5 EXPERIMENTAL PROOF OF GAUSS' LAW AND COULOMB'S LAW 669

2Q _ 2kQ (for a<r<h)

4ne„r 2 r2

In region (4) outside both spheres, where r> c, the

spherical gaussian surface surrounds a total charge of
q iB = 2Q + (— Q) = Q. Therefore, Gauss' law applied to
this surface gives

E4 Q (for r>c)

Figure 24.19 (Example 24.7) A solid conducting sphere of

radius a and charge 2Q surrounded by a conducting spherical Finally, consider region (3), where h <r <c. The
shell of charge — 0.
electric field must be zero in this region since the spheri-
cal shell is also a conductor in equilibrium. If we con-
struct a Gaussian surface of this radius, we see that q in
charge on the inner sphere). Because of the spherical must be zero since E 3 = 0. From this argument, we con-
symmetry, the electric field lines must be radial outward clude that the charge on the inner surface of the spherical
and constant in magnitude on the gaussian surface. Fol- shell must be — 2Q to cancel the charge + 2Q on the solid

lowing Example 24.2 and using Gauss' law, we find that sphere. (The charge — 2Q is induced by the charge + 2Q
on the solid sphere.) Furthermore, since the net charge
_<7i.
E2A = E2 (47rr2)=^ = ^
2<? on the spherical shell is — Q, we conclude that the outer
surface of the shell must have a charge equal to + Q.

"24.5 EXPERIMENTAL PROOF OF GAUSS' LAW AND

COULOMR'S LAW
When a net charge is placed on a conductor, the charge distributes itself on the
surface in such a way that the electric field inside is zero. Since E = inside a
conductor in electrostatic equilibrium, Gauss' law shows that there can be no
net charge inside the conductor. We have seen that Gauss' law is a conse-
quence of Coulomb's law (Example 24.2). Hence, it should be possible to test
the validity of the inverse-square law of force by attempting to detect a net
charge inside a conductor. If a net charge is detected anywhere but on the
conductor's surface, Coulomb's law, and hence Gauss' law, is invalid. Many
experiments, including early work by Faraday, Cavendish, and Maxwell, have
been performed to show that the net charge on a conductor resides on its
surface. In all reported cases, no electric field could be detected in a closed
conductor. The most recent and precise experiments by Williams, Faller, and
Hill in 1971 showed that the exponent of r in Coulomb's law is (2 + S), where
<J=(2.7±3.1)X 10" 16 !

The following experiment can be performed to verify that the net charge
on a conductor resides on its surface. A positively charged metal ball at the end
of a silk thread is lowered into an uncharged, hollow conductor through a small
opening 2 (Fig. 24.20a). The hollow conductor is insulated from ground. The
charged ball induces a negative charge on the inner wall of the hollow conduc-
tor, leaving an equal positive charge on the outer wall (Fig. 24.20b). The

presence of positive charge on the outer wall is indicated by the deflection of

an electrometer (a device used to measure charge). The deflection of the

2
The experiment is often referred to as Faraday's ice-pail experiment, since it was first performed
by Faraday using an ice pail for the hollow conductor.
670 CHAPTER 24 GAUSS' LAW

electrometer remains unchanged when the ball touches the inner surface of
the hollow conductor (Fig. 24.20c). When the ball is removed, the electro-
meter reading remains the same and the ball is found to be uncharged (Fig.
24.20d). This shows that the charge transferred to the hollow conductor resides
on its outer surface. If a small charged metal ball is now lowered into the center
of the charged hollow conductor, the charged ball will not be attracted to the
hollow conductor. This shows that E = at the center of the hollow conduc-
tor. On the other hand, if a small charged ball is placed near the outside of the
conductor, the ball will be repelled by the conductor, showing that E ¥=
outside the conductor.

"24.6 DERIVATION OF GAUSS' LAW

One method that can be used to derive Gauss' law involves the concept of the
solid angle.Consider a spherical surface of radius r containing an area element
AA. The solid angle AQ subtended by this element at the center of the sphere
is defined to be

AA
AQ =

this expression, we see that AQ has no dimensions, since A A and r both

2
From
have the dimension of L 2 The unit of a solid angle is called the steradian. Since
.

the total surface area of a sphere is 47rr 2 the total solid angle subtended by the
,

sphere at the center is given by

4;rr 2
Q = An steradians

Now consider a point charge q surrounded by a closed surface of arbitrary

shape (Fig. 24.21). The total flux through this surface can be obtained by
evaluating E- AA for each element of area and summing over all elements of
the surface. The flux through the element of area A A is

AA cos 6
Figure 24.20 An experiment A<D = E AA = E cos 6 AA = kq
showing any charge trans-
that
ferred to a conductor resides on its
surface in electrostatic equilib- where we have used the fact that E= kQ/r 2 for a point charge. But the quantity
rium. The hollow conductor is in-
AA cos 6/r equal to the solid angle AQ subtended at the charge q by the
2,
is
sulated from ground, and the small
metal ball is supported by an insu- surface element AA. From Figure 24.22 we see that AQ is equal to the solid
lating thread. angle subtended by the element of a spherical surface of radius r. Since the

Figure 24.21 A closed surface of

arbitrary shape surrounds a point
Q
charge q. The net flux through the Figure 24.22 The area element AA
surface is independent of the shape subtends a solid angle Afl = (AA cos 6)1
of the surface. r 2 at the charge q.
 SUMMARY 671

total solid angle at a point is An steradians, we see that the total flux through the
closed surface is

<t> c = kq j)^^ = kq jdQ = 4nk q = f

Thus we have derived Gauss' law, Equation 24.6. Note that this result is
independent of the shape of the closed surface and independent of the position
of the charge within the surface.

SUMMARY
Electric flux is a measure of the number of electric field lines that penetrate
a surface. If the electric field uniform and makes an angle 6 with the
is

normal to the surface, the electric flux through the surface is

Flux through a surface in a
<J> = EA cos 6 (24.2) uniform electric field

In general, the electric flux through a surface is defined by the expression

<D= [ E-dA (24.3) Definition of electric flux

surface

O
Gauss' law says that the net electric flux, c through any closed gaus- ,

sian surface is equal to the net charge inside the surface divided by e :

I d)E-dA = ^ (24.6) Gauss' law

Using Gauss' law, one can calculate the electric field due to various
symmetric charge distributions. Table 24.1 lists some typical results.

TABLE 24.1 Typical Electric Field Calculations Using Gauss' Law

Charge Distribution Electric Field

Insulating sphere of radius R,

uniform charge density, and total
charge Q

Thin spherical shell of radius R and

total charge Q

Line charge of infinite length and

I
charge per unit length A

Nonconducting, infinite charged

plane with charge per unit area a

Conductor of surface charge per unit

area a
672 CHAPTER 24 GAUSS' LAW

A conductor in electrostatic equilibrium has the following properties:

1. The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor.
2. Any excess charge on an isolated conductor must reside entirely on its
surface.
Properties of a conductor in
3 The electric field just outside the con d uc tor is perpendicular to its sur-
electrostatic equilibrium
face and has & magnitu(j e a ^ w
here a is the charge per unit area at that
point.
4. On an irregularly shaped conductor, charge tends to accumulate where
the radius of curvature of the surface is the smallest, that is, at sharp
points.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY AND HINTS

Gauss' law may seem mysterious to you, and it is usually one of the most difficult
concepts to understand in introductory physics. However, as we have seen,
Gauss' law is very powerful in solving problems having a high degree of sym-
metry. In this chapter, you will only encounter problems with three kinds of
symmetry: plane symmetry, cylindrical symmetry, and spherical symmetry. It is
important to review Examples 2 through 7 and to use the following procedure:

1. First, select a gaussian surface which has the same symmetry as the charge
distribution. For point charges or spherically symmetric charge distributions,
the gaussian surface should be a sphere centered on the charge as in Examples
2, 3, 4 and 7. For uniform line charges or uniformly charged cylinders, your
choice of a gaussian surface should be a cylindrical surface that is coaxial with
the line charge or cylinder as in Example 5. For sheets of charge having plane
symmetry, the gaussian surface should be a "pillbox" that straddles the sheet
as in Example 6. Note that in all cases, the gaussian surface is selected such
same magnitude everywhere on the surface, and
that the electric field has the
is directed perpendicular to the surface. This enables you to easily evaluate

the surface integral that appears on the left side of Gauss' law, which repre-
sents the total electric flux through that surface.
2. Now evaluate the right side of Gauss' law, which amounts to calculating the
total electric charge, <7in inside the gaussian surface. If the charge density is
,

uniform as is usually the case (that is, if A, a, or pis constant), simply multiply
that charge density by the length, area, or volume enclosed by the gaussian
surface. However, if the charge distribution is nonuniform, you must integrate
the charge density over the region enclosed by the gaussian surface. For
example, if the charge is distributed along a line, you would integrate the
expression dq = A dx, where dq is the charge on an infinitesimal element dx
and A is the charge per unit length. For a plane of charge, you would integrate
dq = a dA, where a is the charge per unit area and dA is an infinitesimal
element of area. Finally, for a volume of charge you would integrate
dq = p dV, where p is the charge per unit volume and d V is an infinitesimal
element of volume.
3. Once the left and right sides of Gauss's law have been evaluated, you can
proceed to calculate the electric field on the gaussian surface assuming the
charge distribution is given in the problem. Conversely, if the electric field is
known, you can calculate the charge distribution that produces the field.
 PROBLEMS 673

QUESTIONS

1. If the net flux through a gaussian surface is zero, 10. Use Gauss' law to explain why electric field lines must
which of the following statements are true? (a) There begin and end on electric charges. (Hint: Change the
are no charges inside the surface, (b) The net charge size of the gaussian surface.)
inside the surface is The electric field is zero
zero, (c) 1 1. A point charge is placed at the center of an uncharged
everywhere on the surface, (d) The number of elec- metallic spherical shell insulated from ground. As the
tric field lines entering the surface equals the number point charge is moved off center, describe what hap-
leaving the surface. pens to (a) the total induced charge on the shell and
2. If the electric field ina region of space is zero, can you (b) the distribution of charge on the interior and exte-
conclude there are no electric charges in that region? rior surfaces of the shell.
Explain. 12. Explain why excess charge on a isolated conductor
3. A spherical gaussian surface surrounds a point charge must reside on its surface, using the repulsive nature
q. Describe what happens to the flux through the sur- of the force between like charges and the freedom of
face if (a) the charge is tripled, (b) the volume of the motion of charge within the conductor.
sphere is doubled, (c) the shape of the surface is 13. A person is placed in a large hollow metallic sphere
changed to that of a cube, and (d) the charge is moved that is insulated from ground. If a large charge is
to another position inside the surface. placed on the sphere, will the person be harmed upon
4. If there are more electric field lines leaving a gaussian touching the inside of the sphere? Explain what will
surface than there are entering the surface, what can happen if the person also has an initial charge whose
you conclude about the net charge enclosed by that sign is opposite to that of the charge on the sphere.
surface? 14. How would the observations described in Figure
5. A uniform electric field exists in a region of space in 24.20 differ if the hollow conductor were grounded?
which there are no charges. What can you conclude How would they differ if the small charged ball were
about the net electric flux through a gaussian surface an insulator rather than a conductor?
placed in this region of space? 15. What other experiment might be performed on the
6. Explain why Gauss' law cannot be used to calculate ball in Figure 24.20 to show that its charge was trans-
the electric field of (a) an electric dipole, (b) a ferred to the hollow conductor?
charged disk, (c) a charged ring, and (d) three point 1 6. What would happen to the electrometer reading if the
charges at the corners of a triangle. charged ball in Figure 24.20 touched the inner wall of
7. If the total charge inside a closed surface is known but the conductor? the outer wall?
the distribution of the charge is unspecified, can you 17. Two solid spheres, both of radius R, carry identical
use Gauss' law to find the electric field? Explain. total charges, Q. One sphere is a good conductor
8. Explain why the electric flux through a closed surface while the other is an insulator. If the charge on the
with a given enclosed charge is independent of the insulating sphere is uniformly distributed throughout
size or shape of the surface. its interior volume, how do the electric fields outside
9. Consider the electric field due to a nonconducting these two spheres compare? Are the fields identical
infinite plane with a uniform charge density. Explain inside the two spheres?
why the electric field does not depend on the distance
from the plane in terms of the spacing of the electric
field lines.

PROBLEMS
Section 24.1 Electric Flux (a) the plane is parallel to the yz plane, (b) the plane is

parallel to the xy plane, and (c) the plane contains the

1. A flat surface having an area of 3.2 m is rotated in a
2
y axis and its normal makes an angle of 40° with the x
uniform electric field of intensity £ = 6.2 X 10 5 N/C. axis.
Calculate the electric flux through this area when the 3. A uniform electric field ax + bj intersects a surface of
electric field is (a) perpendicular to the surface, area A. What is the flux through this area if the surface
(b) parallel to the surface, and (c) makes an angle of lies (a) in the yz plane? (b) in the xz plane? (c) in the
75° with the plane of the surface. xy plane?
2. An electric field of intensity 3.5 X 10 3 N/C is applied 4. Consider a closed triangular box resting within a hori-
along the x Calculate the electric flux through a
axis. zontal electric field £ = 7.8X 10 4 N/C as shown in
rectangular plane 0.35 m wide and 0.70 m long if Figure 24.23. Calculate the electric flux through
 .

674 CHAPTER 24 GAUSS' LAW

(a) the left-hand vertical surface (A'), (b) the slanted

surface (A), and (c) the entire surface of the box.

Figure 24.25 (Problem 10).

Figure 24.23 (Problem 4).

5. A 40-cm diameter loop is rotated in a uniform electric 1 1 A point charge of + 5 /iC is located at the center of a
field until the position of maximum electric flux is sphere with a radius of 1 2 cm. What is the electric flux
found. The flux in this position is measured to be through the surface of this sphere?
5.2 X 10 5 Nm 2 /C. What is the electric field strength? 1 2. The electricfield in the earth's atmosphere is E = 100
6. A nonuniform electric field is given by the expression N/C, pointing downward. Determine the electric
E = ayi + bzj + cxk, where a, b, and c are constants. charge on the earth.
Determine the electric flux through a rectangular sur- 13. A point charge of 12 fiC is placed at the center of a
face in the xy plane, extending from x = to x = w and spherical shell of radius 22 cm. What is the total elec-
from y = to y = h. through (a) the entire surface of the shell and
tric flux
7. An electric field is given by E = azi + bxk, where a (b) any hemispherical surface of the shell? (c) Do the
and b are constants. Determine the electric flux results depend on the radius? Explain.
through the triangular surface shown in Figure 24.24. 14. A charge of 1 2 fiC is at the geometric center of a cube.
What is the electric flux through one of the cube's
faces?
1 5. The following charges are located inside a submarine:
+ 5 nC - 9 //C, + 27 fiC, and - 84 fiC. Calculate the
net electric flux through the submarine. Compare the
y = h number of electric field lines leaving the submarine
with the number entering it.
16. A
point charge of 0.0462 fiC is inside a pyramid. De-
termine the total electric flux through the surface of
the pyramid.
17. Five charges are placed in a closed box. Each charge
(except the first) has a magnitude which is twice that
Figure 24.24 (Problem 7). of the previous one placed in the box. If all charges
have the same sign and if (after all charges have been
8. A cone with a circular base of radius R stands upright placed in the box) the net electric flux through the box
so that its axis is vertical. A uniform electric field E is
is 4.8 X 10
7
Nm 2 /C, what is the magnitude of the
applied in the vertical direction. Show that the flux
smallest charge in the box? Does the answer depend
through the cone's surface (not counting its base) is
on the size of the box?
given by nR 2 E.
18. The electric field everywhere on the surface of a hol-
9. A pyramid with a 6-m square base and height of 4 mis low sphere of radius 0.75 m is measured to be equal to
placed in a vertical electric field of 52 N/C. Calculate
8.90 X 10 2 N/C and points radially toward the center
the total electric flux through the pyramid's four
of the sphere, (a) What is the net charge within the
slanted surfaces.
sphere's surface? (b) What can you conclude about
the nature and distribution of the charge inside the
sphere?
Section 24.2 Gauss' Law
19. A 10-//C charge located at the origin of a cartesian
10. Four closed surfaces, S x through S 4 together with the , coordinate system is surrounded by a nonconducting
charges ~2Q, +Q, and —Q are sketched in Figure hollow sphere of radius 1 cm. A drill with a radius of
24.25. Find the electric flux through each surface. 1 mm is aligned along the z axis, and a hole is drilled in
 PROBLEMS 675

the sphere. Calculate the electric flux through the from the center of the charge distribution: (a) r =
hole. 1 cm and (b) r = 20 cm.
20. Acharge of 1 70 pC is at the center of a cube of sides 26. An inflated balloon in the shape of a sphere of radius
80 cm. (a) Find the total flux through each face of the 1 2 cm has a total charge of 7 pC uniformly distributed

cube, (b) Find the flux through the whole surface of on its surface. Calculate the electric field intensity at
the cube, (c) Would your answers to (a) or (b) change the following distances from the center of the balloon:
if the charge were not at the center? Explain. (a) 10 cm, (b) 12.5 cm, (c) 30 cm.
21. The total electric flux through a closed surface in the 27. An insulating sphere is 8 cmin diameter, and carries a
shape of a cylinder is 8.60 X 10 4 N-m 2 /C. (a) What is + 5.7 pC charge uniformly distributed throughout its
the net charge within the cylinder? (b) From the in- interior volume. Calculate the charge enclosed by a
formation given, what can you say about the charge concentric spherical surface with the following radii:
within the cylinder? (c) How would your answers to /-~-(a) r = 2 cm and (b) r = 6 cm.
(a) and (b) change if the net flux were -8.60 X 10
4
28. An insulating sphere of radius 10 has a uniform mm
N-m 2 /C? charge density 6 X 10 -3 C/m 3 Calculate the electric
.

22. A cube of sides 10 cm is centered at the origin. A point flux through a concentric spherical surface with the
charge of 2 pC is located on the y axis at y = 20 cm. following radii: (a) r = 5 mm, (b)r=10mm, and
(a) Sketch the electric lines for the point charge. (c) r = 25 mm.
(b) What is the net flux through the surface of the 29. A solid sphere of radius 40 cm has a total positive
cube? (c) Repeat (a) and (b) if a second point charge of charge of 26 pC uniformly distributed throughout its
4 pC is located at the center of the cube. (Neglect the volume. Calculate the electric field intensity at the
lines that go through the edges and corners.) following distances from the center of the sphere:
23. A point charge Q is located just above the center of (a) cm, (b) 10 cm, (c) 40 cm, (d) 60 cm.
the flat face of a hemisphere of radius R as shown in 30. An insulating sphere of 10 cm radius has a uniform
Figure 24.26. (a)What is the electric flux through the charge density throughout its volume. If the magni-
curved surface of this hemisphere? (b) What is the tude of the electric field at a distance of 5 cm from the
electric flux through the flat face of this hemisphere? center is 8.6 X 10 4 N/C, what is the magnitude of the
electric field at 1 5 cm from the center?
31. A spherically symmetric charge distribution has a
charge density given by p = a/r where a is constant.
Find the electric field as a function of r. [See the note
in Problem 54.]
32. The charge per unit length on a long, straight filament
is —90 pC/m.Find the electric field at the following
distances from the filament: (a) 10 cm, (b) 20 cm,
(c) 100 cm.

33. A uniformly charged, straight filament 7 m in length

has a total positive charge of 2 pC An uncharged
cardboard cylinder 2 cm in length and 1 cm in radius
surrounds the filament at its center, with the filament
Figure 24.26 as the axis of the cylinder. Using any reasonable ap-
(Problem 23).
proximations, find (a) the electric field at the surface
of the cylinder and (b) the total electric flux through
the cylinder.
Section 24.3 Application of Gauss' Law to Charged
Insulators
34. A cylindrical shell of radius 7 cm and length 240 cm
has charge uniformly distributed on its surface.
its
24. On a clear, sunny day, there is a vertical electrical The electric field intensity at a point 19 cm radially
field of about 1 30 N/C pointing down over flat ground outward from its axis (measured from the midpoint of
or water. (The field can vary considerably in magni- the shell) is 3.6 X 10 4 N/C. Use approximate relations
tude and may be reversed if clouds are overhead.) to find (a) the net charge on the shell and (b) the elec-
What is the surface charge density on the ground for tric field at a point 4 cm from the axis, measured from
these conditions? the midpoint.
25. Consider a thin spherical shell of radius 14 cm with a vSlOConsider a long cylindrical charge distribution of
total charge of 32 /iC distributed uniformly on its sur- radius R with a uniform charge density p. Find the
face. Find the electric field for the following distances electric field at distance r from the axis where r < R.
676 CHAPTER 24 GAUSS' LAW

36. A nonconducting wall carries a uniform charge den- sian surface with the following radii: (a) r = 1 cm,
sity of 8.6 fiC/cm 2 . What is the electric field at a dis- (b) 3 cm, (c) r = 4.5 cm, and (d) r = 7 cm.
tance of 7 cm from
the wall? Does your result change 47. A long, straight wire is surrounded by a hollow metal-
from the wall is varied?
as the distance lic cylinder whose with that of the wire.
axis coincides
37. A large plane sheet of charge has a charge per unit The solid wire has a
charge per unit length of +/., and
area of 9.0 //C/m 2 Find the electric field intensity just
. the hollow cylinder has a net charge per unit length of
above the surface of the sheet, measured from the + 2/.. From this information, use Gauss' law to find
sheet's midpoint. (a) the charge per unit length on the inner and outer

surfaces of the hollow cylinder and (b) the electric

Section 24.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium field outside the hollow cylinder, a distance r from the
axis.
38. A conducting spherical shell of radius 15 cm carries a
— 6.4,uC uniformly distributed on its 48. The electric field on the surface of an irregularly
net charge of
shaped conductor varies from 5.6X10 4 N/C to
surface. Find the electric field at points (a) just out-
2.8X10 4 N/C. Calculate the local surface charge
side the shell and (b) inside the shell.
density at the point on the surface where the ra-
39. A long, straight metal rod has a radius of 5 cm and a
dius of curvature of the surface is (a) greatest and
charge per unit length of 30 nC/m. Find the electric-
(b) smallest.
field at the following distances from the axis of the
rod: (a) 3 cm, (b) 10 cm, (c) 100 cm.
Section 24.6 Derivation of Gauss' Law
40. A square plate of copper of sides 50 cm is placed in an
extended electric field of 8 X 10 4 N/C directed per- 49. A sphere of radius R surrounds a point charge Q. lo-
pendicular to the plate. Find (a) the charge density of cated at its center, (a) Show that the electric flux
each face of the plate and (b) the total charge on each through a circular cap of half-angle 6 (see Figure
face. 24.27) is given by
41. A thin conducting plate 50 cm on a side lies in the xy
plane. If a total charge of 4 X 10 -8 C is placed on the = ^-(l -cos0)
2e
plate, find (a) the charge density on the plate, (b) the
electric field just above the plate, and (c) the electric- (b) What is the flux for 6 = 90°? (c) What is the flux
field just below the plate. for 0=180°?
42. A very large, thin, flat plate of aluminum of area A has
i total charge O uniformly distributed over its sur-
faces. If the same charge is spread uniformly over the

upper surface of an otherwise identical glass plate,

compare the electric fields just above the center of
the upper surface of each plate.
43. Asolid copper sphere 15 cm in radius has a total
charge of 40 nC. Find the electric field at the follow-
ing distances measured from the center of the sphere:
(a) 12 cm, (b) 17 cm, (c) 75 cm. (d) How would your

answers change if the sphere were hollow?

44. A hollow conducting sphere is surrounded by a larger
concentric, spherical, conducting shell. The inner
sphere has a net negative charge of— (X and the outer Figure 24.27 (Problem 49).
sphere has a net positive charge of + 30. The charges
are in electrostatic equilibrium. Using Gauss's law,
find the charges and the electric fields everywhere.
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
45. A solid conducting sphere of radius 2 cm has a posi-
tive charge of + 8 fiC. A conducting spherical shell of 50. For the configuration shown in Figure 24.28, suppose
inner radius 4 cm and outer radius 5 cm is concentric that a = 5 cm, b = 20 cm, and c = 25 cm. Further-
with the solid sphere and has a net charge of — 4 fiC more, suppose that the electric field at a point 10 cm
Find the electric field at the following distances from from the center is measured to be 3.6 X 10 3 N/C radi-
the center of this charge configuration: (a) r = 1 cm, ally inward while the electric field at a point 50 cm
(b) r = 3 cm, (c) r = 4.5 cm, and (d) r = 7 cm. from the center is 2.0 X 10 2 N/C radially outward.
46. Consider the data given in Problem 45. Calculate the From this information, find (a) the charge on the insu-
net charge enclosed by a concentric spherical gaus- lating sphere, (b) the net charge on the hollow con-
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 677

ducting sphere, and (c) the total charge on the inner pression p = Ar2
where A is a constant and r < R is
,

and outer surfaces, respectively, of the hollow con- measured from the center of the sphere, (a) Show that
ducting sphere. the electric field outside (r > R) the sphere is given by
the expression E = AR 5 /5e r2 . (b) Show that the elec-
tric field inside (r < R) the sphere given by E = Ar 3 /
is

5e (Hint: Note that the total charge Q on the sphere

.

equal to the integral of p dV, where r extends from

is

to R; also note that the charge q within a radius r < R is

less than Q. To evaluate the integrals, note that the
volume element dVfor a spherical shell of radius rand
thickness dr is equal to 4nr 2 dr.)
56. An infinitely long insulating cylinder of radius R has a
volume charge density that varies with the radius as

Figure 24.28 (Problems 50 and 51). '-'•(--J)'

51. A solid insulating sphere of radius a has a uniform

where p and b are positive constants and r is the
, a,
distance from the axis of the cylinder. Use Gauss' law
charge density p and a total charge Q. Concentric with
to determine the magnitude of the electric field at
this sphere is an uncharged, conducting hollow sphere
radial distances (a) r < R and (b) r > R.
whose inner and outer radii are b and c, as in Figure
57. The flux of any vector field V through a surface can be
24.28. (a) Find the electric field intensity in the re-
defined as
gionsr<a,a<r<b,b<r<c, and r> c. (b) Deter-
mine the induced charge per unit area on the inner
and outer surfaces of the hollow sphere. <J>
V = V-dA
52. Consider an insulating sphere of radius R and having a
uniform volume charge density p. Plot the magnitude Radial fieldswhose magnitudes vary inversely as the
of the electric field, E, as a function of the distance square of the distance, such as the gravitational field
from the center of the sphere, r. Let r range over the
interval < r < 3R and plot E in units of pR/e .
g
=
53. An early (incorrect) model of the hydrogen atom, sug-
gested by J. J. Thomson, proposed that a positive alsoobey Gauss' Law. Using Gauss' (gravitational)
cloud of charge +e was uniformly distributed law, find the gravitational field
g at a point distance r
throughout the volume of a sphere of radius R, with from the center of the earth where r < R e Pretend .

the electron an equal-magnitude negative point that the earth's density is uniform.
charge — e at the center, (a) Using Gauss' law, show 58. Two infinite, nonconducting sheets of charge are par-
that the electron would be in equilibrium at the allel toeach other as in Figure 24.29. The sheet on the
center and, if displaced from the center a distance left has a uniform surface charge density a, and the

r < R, would experience a restoring force of the form one on the right has a uniform charge density —a.
F= —Kr where K is a constant, (b) Show that the Calculate the value of the electric field at points (a) to
force constant K= ke 2 /R 3
Find an expression for
. (c)

the frequency /of simple harmonic oscillations that an

electron would undergo if displaced a short distance
(<R) from the center and released, (d) Calculate a
numerical value for R that would result in a frequency
of 2.47 X 10 15 Hz, the most intense line in the hydro-
gen spectrum.
54. Consider a solid insulating sphere of radius b with
nonuniform charge density p = Cr. Find the charge
contained within the radius when (a) r < b and
(b) r> b. (Note: The volume element d V for a spheri-
cal shell of radius r and thickness dr is equal to
4m* dr.)
55. A solid insulating sphere of radius R has a nonuniform
charge density that varies with r according to the ex- Figure 24.29 (Problems 58 and 59).
678 CHAPTER 24 GAUSS' LAW

left of, (b) in between, and (c) to the right of the

the electron exhibits simple harmonic motion with a fre-
two sheets. (Hint: See Example 24.6.) quency given by
59. Repeat the calculations for Problem 58 when both
sheets have positive uniform charge densities of
value a.

60 A closed surface with dimensions a — b = 0.4 m and 62. A slab of insulating material has a nonuniform positive
c = 0.6 m is located as Figure 24.30. The
shown in charge density given by p = Cx 2 where x is measured
,

electric field throughout the region is nonuniform and from the center of the slab as in Figure 24.31, and C is
given by a constant.The slab is infinite in the y and z directions.
Derive expressions for the electric field in (a) the exte-
E= (3 + 2x 2 )» N/C
rior regions and (b) the interior region of the slab
where x is in meters. Calculate the net electric flux (-d/2<x<d/2).
leaving the closed surface. What net charge is en- 63. A sphere of radius 2a is made of a nonconducting ma-
closed by the surface? terial that has a uniform volume charge density/?. (As-
sume that the material does not affect the electric
field.) A spherical cavity of radius a is now removed
from the sphere as shown Figure 24.32. Show that
in
the electric field within the cavity is uniform and is
given by Ez = and Ey = pa/3e (Hint: the field
.

within the cavity is the superposition of the field due

to the original uncut sphere, plus the field due to a
sphere the size of the cavity with a uniform negative
charge density —p.)

Figure 24.30 (Problem 60).

61. A slab of insulating material (infinite in two of its three

dimensions) has a uniform positive charge density p as
in theedge view of Figure 24.31. (a) Show that the
electric field a distance x from its center and inside the Figure 24.32 (Problem 63).
slab is E = px/e . (b) Suppose an electron of charge
— e and mass m is placed inside the slab. If it is released 64. A point charge Q is located on the axis of a disk of
from rest at a distance x from the center, show that the radiusR at a distance b from the plane of the disk (Fig.
24.33). Show that if one-fourth of the electric flux
from the charge threads the disk, then R = V3i>.

''0
Figure 24.31 (Problems 61 and 62). Figure 24.33 (Problem 64).
 25
Electric Potential

Jennifer is holding onto a

charged sphere that reaches a
potential of about 100,000
volts. The device that generates
this high potential is called a
Van de Graaff generator. Why
do you suppose Jennifer's hair
stands on end like the needles
of a porcupine? Why is it
important that she stand on a
pedestal insulated from
ground? (Courtesy of Henry
Leap and Jim Lehman)

The concept of potential energy was first introduced in Chapter 8 in

connection with such conservative forces as the force of gravity and
the elastic force of a spring. By using the law of energy conserva-
tion,we were often able to avoid working directly with forces when
solving various mechanical problems. In this chapter we shall see that the
energy concept is also of great value in the study of electricity. Since the
electrostatic force given by Coulomb's law isconservative, one can conve-
niently describe electrostatic phenomena in terms of an electrical potential
energy. This idea enables us to define a scalar quantity called electric potential.
Because the potential is a scalar function of position, it offers a simpler way of
describing electrostatic phenomena than does the electric field.
In later chap-
ters we concept of the electric potential is of great practical
shall see that the
value. In fact, the measured voltage between any two points in an electrical
circuit is simply the difference in electric potential between the points.

679
680 CHAPTER 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

25.1 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE AND ELECTRIC

POTENTIAL
In Chapter 14, we showed that the gravitational force is conservative. Since
the electrostatic force, given by Coulomb's law, is of the same form as the
universal law of gravity, it follows that the electrostatic force is also conserva-
tive. Therefore, it is possible to define a potential energy function associated
with this force.
When a test charge q is placed in an electrostatic field E, the electric force

on the charge is qJL. The force </„£ is the vector sum of the individual
test
forces exerted on q by the various charges producing the field E. It follows
that the force q E is conservative, since the individual forces governed by
Coulomb's law are conservative. The work done by the force q^is equal to the
negative of the work done by an external agent. Furthermore, the work done
by the electric force q„E on the test charge for an infinitesimal displacement ds
is given by

dW = F-ds = q Eds (25.1)

By definition, the work done by a conservative force equals the negative of the
change in potential energy, dU; therefore, we see that

dU=- qoE-ds (25.2)

For a finite displacement of the test charge between points A and B, the change
in the potential energy is given by

Change in potential energy AU = UB -UA = - Qo E-ds (25.3)

j^

The integral in Equation 25.3 performed along the path by which q moves
is

from A to B and is called a path q„E is

integral, or line integral. Since the force
conservative, this integral does not depend on the path taken between A and B.

The potential difference, VB — VA between

, the points A and B is

defined as the change in potential energy divided by the test charge q a :

Potential difference vR -vA = -/: E-ds (25.4)

q

Potential difference should not he confused with potential energy. The potential
difference is proportional to the potential energy, and we see from Equation
25.4 that the two are related by AU = q
AV. Because potential energy is a
scalar, electric potential is Note that the change in the
also a scalar quantity.
potential energy of the charge is the negative of the work done by the electric
force. Hence, we see that

the potential difference VB — VA equals the work per unit charge that an
external agent must perform to move a test charge from A to B without a
change in kinetic energy.

Equation 25.4 defines potential differences only. That is, only differences
in Vare meaningful. The electric potential function is often taken to be zero at
 25.2 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCES IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD 681

some convenient point. We shall usually choose the potential to be zero for a
point at infinity (that is, a point infinitely remote from the charges producing
the electric field). With this choice, we can say that the electric potential at an
arbitrary point equals the work required per unit charge to bring a positive test
charge from infinity to that point. Thus, if we take VA = at infinity in Equation
25.4, then the potential at any point P is given by

-i Eds (25.5)

In reality, VP represents the potential difference between the point P and a

point at infinity. (Equation 25.5 is a special case of Eq. 25.4.)

Since potential difference is a measure of energy per unit charge, the SI

unit of potential is joules per coulomb, defined to be equal to a unit called the

volt (V):

1 V= 1 J/C Definition of a volt

That is, 1 J of work must be done to take a 1-C charge through a potential
difference of 1 V. Equation 25.4 shows that the potential difference also has
units of electric field times distance. From this, it follows that the SI unit of
electric field (N/C) can also be expressed as volts per meter:

1 N/C = 1 V/m
A unit of energy commonly usedin atomic and nuclear physics is the
electron volt, which defined as the energy that an electron (or proton) gains
is

when moving through a potential difference of magnitude 1 V. Since 1 V =

1 J/C and since the fundamental charge is equal to 1.6 X 10~
19
C, we see
that the electron volt (eV) is related to the joule through the relation

1 eV=1.6X10- 19 C-V=1.6X10- 19 J (25.6) The electron volt

For instance, an electron in the beam of a typical TV picture tube (or cathode
ray tube) has a speed of 5 X 10 7 m/s. This corresponds to a kinetic energy of
-15
1.1 X 10 J, which is equivalent to 7.1 X 10 eV. Such an electron has to be
3

accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 7.1 kV to reach this

speed.

25.2 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCES IN A UNIFORM

ELECTRIC FIELD
In this section, wedescribe the potential difference between any two
shall
^L X
points in a uniform electric field. The potential difference is independent of
the path between these two points; that is, the work done in taking a test
charge from point A to point B is the same along all paths. This confirms that a
uniform electric field is conservative. By definition, a force is conserva-
static,

it has this property (see Section 8.1).

tive if Figure 25.1 The displacement of
a charged particle from A to B in
First, consider a uniform electric field directed along the x axis, as in
the presence of a uniform electric
Figure 25.1. Let us calculate the potential difference between two points, field E.
682 CHAPTER 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

A and B, separated by a distance d, where d is measured parallel to the field

lines. If we apply Equation 25.4 to this situation, we get

VB -VA = AV=- I E-ds =-

J
EcosO°ds = - | Eds
JA JA Ja
Since £ is constant, it can be removed from the integral sign, giving

Potential difference in a
\\ li ,/.v /:;./ (25.7)
uniform E field |

*
 25.2 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCES IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD 683

The name equipotential surface is given to any surface consisting of a An equipotential surface
continuous distribution of points having the same potential.

Note that since A [7 = q A V, no work is done in moving a test charge between

any two points on an equipotential surface. The equipotential surfaces of a
uniform electric field consist of a family of planes all perpendicular to the field
(Fig. 25.2). Equipotential surfaces for fields with other symmetries will be
described in later sections.

EXAMPLE 25.1 The Field Between Two Parallel ference between a terminal of the battery and any por-
Plates of Opposite Charge which it is connected. Therefore, the
tion of the plate to
A 1 2-V battery is connected between two parallel plates magnitude of the electric field between the plates is

as in Figure 25.3. The separation between the plates is

0.3 cm, and the electric field is assumed to be uniform.
(This assumption is reasonable if the plate separation is
E — d~~ 0.3 X
12 V
10~ 2 m
= 4.0 X 10 3 V/m

small compared to the plate size and if we do not con-

This configuration, which is called a parallel-plate capac-
sider points near the edges of the plates.) Find the elec- more
itor, will be examined in detail in the next chapter.
tric field between the plates.

EXAMPLE 25.2 Motion of a Proton in a Uniform

Electric Field
A protonis released from rest in a uniform electric field

of 8 X
10 4 V/m directed along the positive i axis (Fig.
25.4). The proton undergoes a displacement of 0.5 m in
the direction of E. (a) Find the change in the electric
potential between the points A and B.
Using Equation 25.4 and noting that the displace-
ment is in the direction of the field, we have

= VB -VA = -j I E-ds =- | Edx = -E I dx

Jo (
-Ed = - ( !0 4 —
m/
)(0.5 m)

= -4X10 4 V
Figure 25.3 (Example 25.1) A 12-Vbattery connected to two
The electric field between the plates has a mag-
parallel plates. Thus, the electric potential of the proton decreases as it

nitude given by the potential difference divided by the plate moves from A to B.
separation d.

Solution The electric field is directed from the positive

plate toward the negative We
see that the positive
plate.
plate (at the right) higher potential than the nega-
is at a
tive plate. Note that the potential difference between
plates B and A must equal the potential difference be-
tween the battery terminals. This can be understood by
noting that all points on a conductor in equilibrium are at
the same potential, 2 and hence there is no potential dif- ©-
2
The electric field vanishes within a conductor in electrostatic
equilibrium, and so the path integral fE-dt between any two
points within the conductor must be zero. A fuller discussion of Figure 25.4 (Example 25.2) A proton accelerates from A to B
this point is given in Section 25.6. in the direction of the electric field.
684 CHAPTER 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

(b) Find the change in potential energy of the pro- ple of conservation of mechanical energy in the form
ton for this displacement. AK + A(7=0; that is, the decrease in potential energy
must be accompanied by an equal increase in kinetic en-
AU=q AV=eAV ergy. Because the mass of the proton is given by the value
= (1.6 X 1(T 19 C)(-4 X 10 4 V) mp = 1.67 X l(r27 kg, we find
AK + AL/=(im p t)
2 -0)-6.4X l<r 15 J
=
= -6.4X10~ 15 J
9 _ 2(6.4 X 10-») J _„766
„„„,„„
X 10 m
° - 1.67 X 10-" kg ~ /S
The negative means that the potential energy
sign here
of the proton decreases as it moves in the direction of E.
This makes sense since as the proton accelerates in the v= 2.77X10 6 m/s
direction of E, it gains kinetic energy and at the same
time loses electrical potential energy (the total energy is
Ifan electron were accelerated under the same circum-
conserved). stances,its speed would approach the speed of light and

(c) Find the speed of the proton after it has been the problem would have to be treated by relativistic me-
displaced from rest by 0.5 m. chanics (Chapter 39).
If there are no forces acting on the proton other than
the conservative electric force, we can apply the princi-

25.3 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL

ENERGY DUE TO POINT CHARGES
Consider an isolated positive point charge q as in Figure 25.5. Recall that such
a charge produces an electric field that is radially outward from the charge. In
order to find the electric potential at a distance r from the charge, we begin
with the general expression for the potential difference given by

V.-V,
-/: E-ds
Since the electric field due to the point charge is given by E = kqf/r 2 where f ,

is a unit vector directed from the charge to the field point, the quantity E-ds

can be expressed as

= <7 *
k ds

The dot product f-ds = ds cos 6, where 6 is the angle between r and ds as in
Figure 25.5. Furthermore, note that ds cos 6 is the projection of ds onto r, so
that ds cos 6 = dr. That is, any displacement ds produces a change dr in the
Figure 25.5 The potential differ- magnitude of r. With these substitutions, we find that E-ds = (kq/r 2 ) dr, so the
ence between points A and B due to expression for the potential difference becomes
a point charge q depends only on
the initial and final radial coordi-
nates, rA and rB , respectively. V,
-^»J**--J>SI
(25.11)

The integral — /J E- ds is independent of the path between A and B, as it must

be. (We had
already concluded that the electric field of a point charge is a
conservative field, by analogy with the gravitational field of a point mass.)
 25.3 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL ENERGY DUE TO POINT CHARGES 685

Furthermore, Equation 25.1 1 expresses the important result that the poten-
tial difference between any two points A and B depends only on the radial

coordinates rA and rB It is customary to choose the reference of potential to be

.

zero at rA = °°. (This is quite natural since V a l/rA and as rA — °°, V —» 0.) With
this choice, the electric potential due to a point charge at any distance r from
the charge is given by

V=fc^ (25.12) Potential of a point charge

From this we see that Vis constant on a spherical surface of radius r. Hence, we
conclude that the equipotential surfaces (surfaces on which V remains constant)
for an isolated point charge consist of a family of spheres concentric with the
charge, as shown in Figure 25.5. Note that the equipotential surfaces are
perpendicular to the lines of electric force, as was the case for a uniform
electric field.
The electric potential of two or more point charges
is obtained by apply-

ing the superposition principle. That the total potential at some point P
is,

due to several point charges is the sum of the potentials due to the individual
charges. For a group of charges, we can write the total potential at P in the
form

The potential of several point

(25.13) charges

where the potential is again taken to be zero at infinity and r is the distance (

from the point P to the charge q,. Note that the sum in Equation 25.13 is an
algebraic sum of scalars rather than a vector sum (which is used to calculate the
electric field of a group of charges). Thus, it is much easier to evaluate Vthan
to evaluate E.
D
We now consider the potential energy of interaction of a system of
charged particles. If V: is the electric potential due to charge q 1 at a point P,
then the work required to bring a second charge, q 2 from infinity to the point
,

P without acceleration is given by q 2 Vi By definition, this work equals the

•
a 9i

potential energy, U, of the two-particle system when the particles are sepa- Figure 25.6 If two point charges
are separated by a distance r 12 the
,

rated by a distance r 12 (Fig. 25.6). potential energy of the pair of

Therefore, we can express the potential energy as charges is given by hq 1 q 2 /r l2
.

Electric potential energy of

U=q 2 V = k QiQz
1 (25.14)
two charges

Note that if the charges are of the same sign, U is positive. 3 This is consistent
with the fact that like charges repel, and so positive work must be done on the
system to bring the two charges near one another. Conversely, if the charges
are of opposite sign, the force is attractive and U is negative. This means that
negative work must be done to bring the unlike charges near one another.
3 The expression for the electric potentialenergy for two point charges, Equation 25.14, is of the
same form as the gravitational potential energy of two point masses given by Gm 1 m s /r (Chapter
1 4). The similarity is not surprising in view of the fact that both are derived from an inverse-square

force law.
686 CHAPTER 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

there are more than two charged particles in the system, the total
If

Q U for every pair of charges and

potential energy can be obtained by calculating
summing the terms algebraically. As an example, the total potential energy of
\ r 23 the three charges shown in Figure 25.7 is given by
\

•^_ u = k(^^ + ^^ + q2q3

\ (25.15)
\ r 12 r 13 r23 /

13 Physically, we
can interpret this as follows: Imagine that q Y is fixed at the
position shown
Figure 25.7, but q 2 and q3 are at infinity. The work required
in
Figure 25.7 Three point charges
to bring q 2 from infinity to its position near q 1 is kq x q 2 /r 12 which is the first ,
are fixed at the positions shown.
The potential energy of this system term in Equation 25.15. The last two terms in Equation 25.15 represent the
of charges is given by Equation work required to bring q 3 from infinity to its position near q t and q 2 (You .

25.15.
should show that the result is independent of the order in which the charges
are transported.)

EXAMPLE 25.3 The Potential Due to Two Point The total potential at P due to the two charges is

Charges given by
A 5-/J.C point charge is located at the origin, and a second
point charge of — 2 jiC is located on the x axis at the VP = k
position (3, 0) m, as in Figure 25.8a. (a) If the potential is

taken to be zero at infinity, find the total electric poten- Since r, = 4 m and r2 = 5 m, we get n,

tial due to these charges at the point P, whose coordi-

nates are (0, 4) m.
N-m 2 / 5X 10~ 6 C 2X10~ 6 C \
y
C2 \ 4 m 5m/
i 4 /xC
= 7.65X10 3 V
\
(b) How much work is required to bring a third point
charge of 4 //C from infinity to the point P?

W= q 3 VP
= (4 X 10- 6 C)(7.65 X 10 3 V)

Since 1 V= 1 J/C, W reduces to

-&-' W= 3.06X10~ 2 J
(3,0) 5 /i.C -2 ixC

(a) (b)
Exercise 1 Find the total potential energy of the system
of three charges in the configuration shown in Figure
Figure 25.8 (Example 25.3) The electric potential at the point
P due to the two point charges q x and q 2 is the algebraic sum of 25.8b.
the potentials due to the individual charges. Answer 6.0 X lCT 4 J.

25.4 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO CONTINUOUS

CHARGE DISTRIRUTIONS
The to a continuous charge distribution can be calcu-
electric potential due
lated in charge distribution is known, we can start with
two ways. If the
Equation 25.12 for the potential of a point charge. We then consider the
potential due to a small charge element dq, treating this element as a point
 25.4 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS 687

charge (Figure 25.9). The potential dV at some point P due to the charge
element dq is given by

dq
dV=k (25.16)

where r is the distance from the charge element to the point P. To get the total
potential at P, we integrate Equation 25.16 to include contributions from all
elements of the charge distribution. Since each element is, in general, at a
different distance from P and since k is a constant, we can express V as

dq
-*/* (25.17) Figure 25.9 The electric poten-
tial at the point P due to a continu-
ous charge distribution can be cal-
culated by dividing the charged
In effect, we have replaced the sum in Equation 25. 13 by an integral. Note that body into segments of charge dq
this expression for V uses a particular choice of reference: the potential is and summing the potential contri-
taken to be zero for point P located
from the charge distribution.
infinitely far butions over all segments.

The second method for calculating the potential of a continuous charge

distribution makes use of Equation 25.4. This procedure is useful when the
electric field is already known from other considerations, such as Gauss' law. If
the charge distribution is highly symmetric, we first evaluate E at any point
using Gauss' law and then substitute the value obtained into Equation 25.4 to
determine the potential difference between any two points. We then choose V
to be zero at any convenient point. Let us illustrate both methods with several
examples.

EXAMPLE 25.4 Potential Due to a Uniformly

Charged Ring
Find the electric potential at a point P located on the
axis of a uniformly charged ring of radius a and total
charge Q. The plane of the ring is chosen perpendicular
to the x axis (Fig. 25.10).

Solution Let us take the point P to be at a distance x from

the center of the ring, as in Figure 2 5.10. Th e charge
element dq is at a distance equal to Vx 2 + a 2 from the
point P. Hence, we can express V as Figure 25.10 (Example 25.4) A uniformly charged ring of
radius a, whose plane is perpendicular to the x axis. All segments
dq
V=k of the ring are at the same distance from any axial point P.
J*W Vx 2 + a2

In this case, each element dq same d istance from

is at the
the point P. Therefore, the term Vx 2 + a 2 can be re-
moved from the integral and V reduces to along the x axis E can have only an x component. There-
fore, we can use the expression E x = —dV/dx, which we

kQ shall derive in Section 25.5, to find the electric field at P:

(25.18)
V*2 + a 2
J vx 2 + a 2
ET = ~ dx
= -kQ4-(x 2 + a 2 )-V2
dx
The only variable that appears in this expression for V
= -*<?(- i)(x
2
+ a 2 )-3/ 2 (2x)
is x. This is not surprising, since our calculation is valid
only for points along the x axis, where y and z are both kQx
zero. From the symmetry of the situation, we see that
(25.19)
(x 2 + a 2 )*' 2
688 CHAPTER 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

This result agrees with that obtained by direct integra- This integral is of the form u" du and has the value
tion (see Example 23.9). Note that Ez = at x = (the u n+l j(n + 1), where n = — £ and u = r2 + x 2 This gives .

center of the ring). Could you have guessed this from the result
Coulomb's law?
V= 2nka[(x 2 + a2 )
1 '2 - x] (25.20)
Exercise 2 What is the electric potential at the center
of the uniformly charged ring? What does the field at the As in Example 25.4. we can find the electric field at any
center imply about this result? axial point by taking the negative of the derivative of V
with respect to x. This gives
Ans-vi cr V = kQ/a at x = 0. Because £ = 0. V must have
a maximum or minimum \ alue it is in fact a maximum
E, = -^ = 2nkJl --=4= (25.21)

The calculation of V and E for an arbitrary point off the

EXAMPLE 25.5 Potential of a Uniformly axis is more difficult to perform.
Charged Disk
Find the electric potential along the axis of a uniformly
charged disk of radius a and charge per unit area a (Fig. EXAMPLE 25.6 Potential of a Finite Line Charge
25.11). A rod of length < located along the x axis has a uniform
charge per unit length and a total charge Q. Find the
electric potential at a point P along the y axis at a dis-
Solution Again we choose the point Ptobe at a distance
tance d from the origin (Figure 25.12).
x from the center of the disk and take the plane of the disk
perpendicular to the x axis. The problem is simplified by
Solution The element of length dx has a charge dq given
dividing the disk into a series of charged rings. The po-
by /. where /. is the charge per unit len gth. Qj£. Since
dx.
tential of each ring is given by Equation 25.18 in Exam-
this element is at a distance r= \x 2 + d 2 from the point
ple 25.4. Consider one such ring of radius rand width dr.
P. we can express the potential at P due to this element as
as indicated in Figure 25.11. The area of the ring is
dA = 2nr dr (the circumference multiplied by the
width), and the charge on the ring is dq = a d.\ =
a'2nr dr. Hence, the potential at the point P due to this
dY- & >x 2
dx
+ d2

ring is given by To get the total potential at P. we integrate this expres-

sion over the limits x = to x = (. Noting that it, /. and d
kdq kalnr dr
are constants, we find that
dV
Vr2 + x2 vV2 + x2

To find the total potential at P. we sum over all rings Jo \

dx
x2 + d2
d
* Jo nx 2
Jx
+ a*
2

making up the disk. That is. we integrate dVfrom r =

to r = a:

V= nka 2 )-W-2r dr
k vr* + x* Jo
I •

\
dq

dA = Inrdr

Figure 25.11 (Example 25.5) A uniformly charged disk of Figure 25. 12 (Example 25.6) A uniform line charge of length c
radius a, whose plane is perpendicular to the x axis. The calcula- located along the x avis. To calculate the potential at P. the line
tion of the potential at an axial point P is simplified by dividing charge is divided into segments each of length dx. having a
the disk into rings of area 2nr dr. charge dq = '/.
dx.
 25.4 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO CONTINUOUS CHARCE DISTRIBUTIONS 689

This integral, found in most integral tables, has the value

dx
f ,
= ln(x + vx 2 + d2 )

Evaluating V, we find that

v-S^il^) <*,**,
Figure 25.13 (Example 25.7) A uniformly charged insulating
sphere of radius R and total charge Q. The electric potential at
points B and C is equivalent to that of a point charge O located at
the center of the sphere.
EXAMPLE 25.7 Potential of a Uniformly
Charged Sphere We can use this result and Equation 25.4 to evaluate the
An insulating solid sphere of radius R has a uniform posi- potential difference VD — Vc where D is an interior
,

tive charge density with total charge Q (Fig. 25.13). point:

(a) Find the electric potential at a point outside the
r r
sphere, that is, for r > R. Take the potential to be zero
at r = °°.
VD -Vc = -/ fl
Mr = -f/B ^r = ^(R-r 2
)

Substituting Vc = kQ/R into this expression and solving

Solution In Example 24.3, we found from Gauss' law
for VD we, get
that the magnitude of the electric field outside a uni-
formly charged sphere is given by
3_
E=kQ
r z
(for r>R)
Vd= S ( ^) forr<fl)
(
< 25 23 >
-

where the field is directed radially outward when Q is At r = R, this expression gives a result that agrees with
positive. To obtain the potential at an exterior point, that for the potential at the surface, that is, Vc A plot of
.

such as B Figure 25.13, we substitute this expression

in V versus r for this charge distribution is given in Figure
for E into Equation 25.5. Since E-ds = E T dr in this case, 25.14.
we get
Exercise 3 What is the electric field at the center of a
uniformly charged sphere? What is the electric potential
V*
-Jfc*--*f5 at this point?
Answer At r = 0, E= and V = 3kQ/2R.

VB = Jt^ (for r>R)

Note that the result is identical to that for the electric

potential due to a point charge. Since the potential must
be continuous at r = R, we can use this expression to
obtain the potential at the surface of the sphere. That is,
the potential at a point such as C in Figure 25.13 is
given by

Vc = *| (forr = R)

(b) Find the potential at a point inside the charged

sphere, that is, for r < R.

Solution In Example 24.3 we found that the electric

field inside a uniformly charged sphere is given by

L' (for r < R)

R3
 —
690 CHAPTER 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

°25.5 OBTAINING E FROM THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

The electric field E and the potential V are related by Equation 25.4. Both
quantities are determined by a specific charge distribution. We now show how
to calculate the electric field if the electric potential is known in a certain
region. As we shall see, the electric field is simply the negative derivative of
the electric potential.
From Equation 25.4 we can express the potential difference dVbetween
two points a distance ds apart as

dV=-E-ds (25.24)

If the electric field has only one component, Ex , then E-ds = Ez dx. Therefore,
Equation 25.24 becomes dV= —Ex dx, or
dV
F =—
h (25.25)
* dx

That is,

is equal to the negative of the derivative of the potential

the electric field
with respect to some coordinate.

Note that the potential change is zero for any displacement perpendicular to
the electric field. This is consistent with the notion of equipotential surfaces
being perpendicular to the field, as in Figure 25.15a.
If the charge distribution has spherical symmetry, where the charge den-
sity depends only on the radial distance r, then the electric field is radial. In this
case, E-ds = E T dr, and so we can express dVin the form d V = r
dr. There- ~E
fore,

Equipotential surfaces are dV

always perpendicular to the E = (25.26)
dr
electric field lines

(b) (c)

Figure 25.15 Equipotential surfaces (dashed blue lines) and electric field lines (red lines) for
(a) a uniform electric field produced by an infinite sheet of charge, (b) a point charge, and (c) an
electric dipole. In all cases, the equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to the electric field lines
at every point.
 25.5 OBTAINING £ FROM THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 691

Note that the potential changes only in the radial direction, not in a direction
perpendicular to r. Thus V (like £r) is a function only of r. Again, this is
consistent with the idea that equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to field
lines. In this case the equipotential surfaces are a family of spheres concentric

with the spherically symmetric charge distribution (Figure 25.15b). The

equipotential surfaces for the electric dipole are sketched in Figure 25.15c.
When a test charge is displaced by a vector ds that lies within any equipo-
tential surface, then by definition dV= — E-ds = 0. This shows that the equi-
potential surfaces must always be perpendicular to the electric field lines.
In general, the electric potential is a function of all three spatial coordi-
nates. If V(r) is given in terms of the rectangular coordinates, the electric field
components Ex Ey and Ez can readily be found from V(x, y, z). The field
, ,

components are given by

= dV dV
E = E„ E =
dx dy dz

In these expressions, the derivatives are called partial derivatives. This means
that in the operation dV/dx, one takes a derivative with respect to x while y and z
are held constant. For example, if V= 3x 2 y + y
2
+ yz, then

—=— (3x 2 y + y
2
+ yz) =— (3x 2 y) = 3y— (x 2 = ) 6xy

In vector notation, E is often written E = — VV= — 1

*
1-5- +Ja- + k-^z )^>
where V is called the gradient operator.

EXAMPLE 25.8 The Point Charge Revisited

Let us use the potential function for a point charge q to
derive the electric field at a distance r from the charge.

Solution The potential of a point charge is given by -&-

Equation 25.12:

v=k -q
r

Since the potential is a function of r only, it has spherical

symmetry and we can apply Equation 25.26 directly to Figure 25.16 (Example 25.9) An electric dipole located on the
obtain the electric field: 1 axis.

i~S~i(*?)~*x® Solution

i\_. 2kqa
k V = k y9i = k (_2
E- -i •^Tj \x — a x + a)
If the point Pis far from the dipole, so that x > a, then a 2
Thus, the electric field is radial and the result agrees with
can be neglected in the term x 2 — a 2 and V becomes
that obtained using Gauss' law.

EXAMPLE 25.9 The Electric Potential of a Dipole

V~^ (x>a)
An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite
Using Equation 25.25 and this result, the electric field at
charges separated by a distance 2a, as in Figure 25.16.
P is given by
Calculate the electric potential and the electric field at
the point P on the x axis and located a distance x from the
center of the dipole.
E= —dV = —
J—
ax
4kqa
r—
xJ
tOTX^>a
 25.6 POTENTIAL OF A CHARGED CONDUCTOR
In the previous chapter we found that when a solid conductor in equilibrium
carries a net charge, the charge resides on the outer surface of the conductor.
Furthermore, we showed that the electric field just outside the surface of a
conductor in equilibrium is perpendicular to the surface while the field inside
the conductor is zero. If the electric field had a component parallel to the
surface, this would cause surface charges to move, creating a current and a
nonequilibrium situation.
We shall now show that every point on the surface ofa charged conductor in
equilibrium is at the same potential. Consider two points A and B on the surface
Figure 25.17 An arbitrarily
shaped conductor with an excess of a charged conductor, as in Figure 25.17. Along a surface path connecting
positive charge. When the conduc- these points, E is always perpendicular to the displacement ds; therefore
tor
all
is in electrostatic equilibrium,

of the charge resides at the sur-

E ds = 0. Using this result and Equation 25.4, we conclude that the potential
•

face, E = inside the conductor, difference between A and B is necessarily zero. That is,
and the electric field just outside
the conductor is perpendicular to
the surface. The potential is con-
stant inside the conductor and is
V,
---/: E ds =
equal to the potential at the sur-
face. The surface charge density is
This result applies to any two points on the surface. Therefore, V is constant
nonuniform. everywhere on the surface of a charged conductor in equilibrium. That is,
the surface of any charged conductor in equilibrium is an equipotential
surface. Furthermore, since the electric field is zero inside the conductor,
we conclude that the potential is constant everywhere inside the conduc-
tor and equal to its value at the surface.

Therefore, no work required to move a test charge from the interior of a

is

charged conductor to its surface. (Note that the potential is not zero inside the
conductor even though the electric field is zero.)
For example, consider a solid metal sphere of radius R and total positive
charge Q, as shown in Figure 25.18a. The electric field outside the charged
sphere is given by kQ/r2 and points radially outward. Following Example 25.7,
we see that the potential at the interior and surface of the sphere must be kQ/R
relative to infinity. The potential outside the sphere is given by kQ/r. Figure
25. 1 8b is a plot of the potential as a function of r, and Figure 25. 1 8c shows the
variations of the electric field with r.

When a net charge is placed on a spherical conductor, the surface charge

density is uniform, as indicated in Figure 25.18a. However, if the conductor is

nonspherical, as in Figure 25. 17, the surface charge density is high where the
radius of curvature is small and convex and low where the radius of curvature is
small and concave. Since the electric field just outside a charged conductor is
proportional to the surface charge density, a, we see that the electric field is
large near points having a small convex radius of curvature and reaches very
high values at sharp points.
Figure 25.18 (a) The excess Figure 25.19 shows the electric field lines around two spherical conduc-
charge on a conducting sphere of tors, one with a net charge Q and one with zero net charge. In this case, the
radius H is uniformly distributed on
surface charge density is not uniform on either conductor. The larger sphere
its surface, (b) The electric poten-

tial versus the distance r from the

(on the right), with zero net charge, has negative charges induced on its side
center of the charged conducting that faces the charged sphere and positive charge on its side opposite the
sphere, (c) The electric field inten-
charged sphere. The blue lines in Figure 25.19 represent the boundaries of
sity versus the distance r from the
center of the charged conducting the equipotential surfaces for this charge configuration. Again, you should
sphere. notice that the field lines are perpendicular to the conducting surfaces. Fur-

692
 693

Figure 25.19 The electric field lines (in red) around two spherical conductors. The smaller
sphere on the left has a net charge Q, and the sphere on the right has zero net charge. The blue
lines represent the edges of the equipotential surfaces. (From E. Purcell, Electricity and Magne-
tism, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1965, with permission of the Education Development Center,
Inc.)
Electric field pattern of a charged
conducting plate near an oppo-
thermore, the equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to the field lines at the sitely charged pointed conductor.
boundaries of the conductor and everywhere else in space. Small pieces of thread suspended
in oil align with the electric field
lines. Note that the electric field is
A Cavity Within a Conductor
most intense near the pointed part
of the conductor and at other
Now consider a conductor of arbitrary shape containing a cavity as in Figure points where the radius of curva-
25.20. Let us assume there are no charges inside the cavity. We shall show that ture is small. (Courtesy of Harold
must be zero, regardless of the charge distri-
the electric field inside the cavity M. Waage, Princeton University)
bution on the outside surface of the conductor. Furthermore, the field in the
cavity is zero even if an electric field exists outside the conductor.
In order to prove this point, we shall use the fact that every point on the
conductor is at the same potential, and therefore any two points A and B on the
surface of the cavity must be at the same potential. Now imagine that a field E
exists in the cavity, and evaluate the potential difference VB — VA defined by
the expression

V, ---/: E •
ds

IfE is non-zero, we can always find a path between A and B for which E ds is •

always a positive number, and so the integral must be positive. However, since
VB —V =
A 0, the integral must also be zero. This contradiction can be recon-
ciled only if E= inside the cavity. Thus, we conclude that a cavity
surrounded by conducting walls is a field-free region as long as there are no
charges inside the cavity.
This result has some interesting applications. For example, it is possible to Figure 25.20 A conductor in
shield an electronic circuit or
even an entire laboratory from external fields by electrostatic equilibrium contain-
ing an empty cavity. The electric
surrounding it with conducting walls. Shielding is often necessary when per- field in the cavity is zero, regardless
forming highly sensitive electrical measurements. of the charge on the conductor.
694 CHAPTER 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Corona Discharge
A phenomenon known as corona discharge is often observed near sharp points
of a conductor raised to a high potential. This appears as a greenish glow
visible to the naked eye. In this process, air becomes a conductor as a result of
the ionization of air molecules in regions of high electric fields. At standard
temperature and pressure, this discharge occurs at electric field strengths
equal to or greater than about 3 X 10 6 V/m. Since air contains a small number
of ions (produced, for example, by cosmic rays), a charged conductor will
attract ions of the opposite sign from the air. Near sharp points, where the field
is very high, the ions in the air will be accelerated to high velocities. These

energetic ions, in turn, collide with other air molecules, producing more ions
and an increase in conductivity of the air. The discharge of the conductor is
often accompanied by a visible glow surrounding the sharp points.

EXAMPLE 25.10 Two Connected Charged Spheres

Two spherical conductors of radii r 1 and r2 are separated
by a distance much larger than the radius of either
sphere. The spheres are connected by a conducting wire
as in Figure 25.21. If the charges on the spheres in equi-
librium are q x and q 2 respectively, find the ratio of the
,

field strengths at the surfaces of the spheres.

Solution Since the spheres are connected by a con-

ducting wire, they must both be at the same potential V,
given by

v=k Bl = k Sl Figure 25.21 (Example 25.10) Two charged spherical con-

ri r2
ductors connected by a conducting wire. The spheres are at the
Therefore, the ratio of charges same potential, V.
is

Taking the ratio of these two fields and making use of (1),
(1)
Q2 r2 we find that

Since the spheres are very far apart, their surfaces are
uniformly charged and we can express the electric fields
at their surfaces as
(2) ^
= kt^2 Hence, the field is more intense in the vicinity of the
£,=fc^ and E,
smaller sphere.

"25.7 THE MILLIKAN OIL-DROP EXPERIMENT

During the period 1909 to 1913, Robert Andrews Millikan (1868-1953)
performed a brilliant set of experiments at the University of Chicago in which
he measured the elementary charge on an electron, e, and demonstrated the
quantized nature of the electronic charge. The apparatus used by Millikan,
diagrammed in Figure 25.22, contains two parallel metal plates. Oil droplets
charged by friction in an atomizer are allowed to pass through a small hole in
the upper plate. A light beam directed horizontally is used to illuminate the oil
droplets, which are veiwed by a telescope whose axis is at right angles to the
 25.7 THE MILLIKAN OIL-DROP EXPERIMENT 695

Oil droplets Pin hole Illumination

Telescope with
scale in eyepiece

Figure 25.22 A schematic view of the Millikan oil-drop apparatus.

D = Cv

beam. When the droplets are viewed in this manner, they appear as shining
stars against a dark background, and the rate of fall of individual drops may be
determined. 4
Let us assume a single drop having a mass m
and carrying a charge q is
being viewed, and that its charge is negative. If there is no electric field
present between the plates, the two forces acting on the charge are its weight,
mg, acting downward, and an upward viscous drag force D, as indicated in
Figure 25.23a. The drag force is proportional to the speed of the drop. When w = mg
the drop reaches its terminal speed v, the two forces balance each other
(mg = D). (a) Field off
Now suppose that an electric field is set up between the plates by con-
necting a battery such that the upper plate is at the higher potential. In this
case, a third force qE on the charged drop. Since q is negative and E is
acts
downward, the electric force is upward as in Figure 25.23b. If this force is
large enough, the drop will move upward and the drag force D' will act
downward. When the upward electric force, qE, balances the sum of the
weight and the drag force both acting downward, the drop reaches a new
terminal speed v'.
With the field turned on, a drop moves slowly upward, typically at rates of
A
hundredths of a centimeter per second. The rate of fall in the absence of a field
is comparable. Hence, a single droplet with constant mass and radius may be
mg
followed for hours, alternately rising and falling, by simply turning the electric Cv'
field on and off.

(b) Field on

4
At one time, the oil droplets were termed "Millikan's Shining Stars." Perhaps this description Figure 25.23 The forces on a
has lost its popularity because of the generations of physics students who have experienced charged oil droplet in the Millikan
hallucinations, near blindness, migraine headaches, etc., while repeating his experiment! experiment.
696 CHAPTER 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

After making measurements on thousands of droplets, Millikan and his

coworkers found that all drops, to within about 1% precision, had a charge
equal to some integer multiple of the elementary charge e. That is,

0,±1, :3, (25.27)

where e = 1.60 X 10~ 19 C. Millikan's experiment

is conclusive evidence that

charge is quantized. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1923 for
this work.

°25.8 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATICS

The principles of electrostatics have been used in various applications, a few of
Metal dome which we shall briefly discuss in this section. Some of the more practical
applications include electrostatic precipitators, used to reduce the level of
atmospheric pollution from coal-burning power plants, and the xerography
process, which has revolutionized imaging process technology. Scientific ap-
plications of electrostatic principles include electrostatic generators for accel-
erating elementary charged particles and the field-ion microscope, which is

used to image atoms on the surface of metallic samples.

The Van de Graaff Generator

In the previous chapter we described an experiment that demonstrates a
method charge to a hollow conductor (the Faraday ice-pail
for transferring
experiment). When a charged conductor is placed in contact with the inside of
a hollow conductor, all of the charge of the first conductor is transferred to the
hollow conductor. In principle, the charge on the hollow conductor and its
potential can be increased without limit by repeating the process.
In 1929 Robert J. Van de Graaff used this principle to design and build an
electrostatic generator. This type of generator is used extensively in nuclear
physics research. The basic idea of the Van de Graaff generator is described in
Figure 25.24. Charge is delivered continuously to a high-voltage electrode on
a moving belt of insulating material. The high-voltage electrode is a hollow
conductor mounted on an insulating column. The belt is charged at A by means
of a corona discharge between comb-like metallic needles and a grounded
4
grid. The needles are maintained at a positive potential of typically 1 V. The
positive charge on the moving belt is transferred to the high-voltage electrode
by a second comb of needles at B. Since the electric field inside the hollow
conductor is negligible, the positive charge on the belt easily transfers to the
high-voltage electrode, regardless of its potential. In practice, it is possible to
increase the potential of the high-voltage electrode until electrical discharge
occurs through the air. Since the "breakdown" voltage of air is equal to about
Ground Insulator
3 X 10 6 V/m, a sphere 1 m
in radius can be raised to a maximum potential of
3 X 10 6 V. The potential can be increased further by increasing the radius of
Figure 25.24 Schematic diagram the hollow conductor and by placing the entire system in a container filled
of a Van de Graaff generator.
Charge is transferred to the hollow
with high-pressure gas.
conductor at the top by means of a Van de Graaff generators can produce potential differences as high as 20
moving belt. The charge is depos- million volts. Protons accelerated through such potential differences receive
ited on the belt at point A and is
transferred to the hollow conduc-
enough energy to initiate nuclear reactions between the protons and various
tor at point B. target nuclei.
 25.8 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATICS 697

The Electrostatic Precipitator Insulator

One important application of electrical is a device called an

discharge in gases
electrostatic precipitator. This device used to remove particulate matter
is

from combustion gases, thereby reducing air pollution. They are especially
useful in coal-burning power plants and in industrial operations that generate
large quantities of smoke. Current systems are able to eliminate more than
99% of the ash and dust (by weight) from the smoke. Figure 25.25 shows the
basic idea of the electrostatic precipitator. A high voltage (typically 40 kV to
100 kV) ismaintained between a wire running down the center of a duct and
the outer wall, which is grounded. The wire is maintained at a negative poten-
tial with respect to the walls, and so the electric field is directed toward the Weight

wire. The electric field near the wire reaches high enough values to cause a
corona discharge around the wire and the formation of positive ions, electrons,
and negative ions, such as 2 ~. As the electrons and negative ions are acceler-
Dirt out
ated toward the outer wall by the nonuniform electric field, the dirt particles
in the streaming gas become charged by collisions and ion capture. Since most Figure 25.25 Schematic diagram
of the charged dirt particles are negative, they are also drawn to the outer wall of an electrostatic precipitator.
The high negative voltage main-
by the electric field. By periodically shaking the duct, the particles fall loose tained on the central wire creates
and are collected at the bottom. an electrical discharge in the vicin-
In addition to reducing the level of particulate matter in the atmosphere, ity of the wire.

the electrostatic precipitator also recovers valuable materials from the stack in
the form of metal oxides.

Xerography

The process of xerography is widely used for making photocopies of letters,

documents, and other printed materials. The basic idea for the process was
developed by Chester Carlson, for which he was granted a patent in 1940. In
1947, the Xerox Corporation launched a full-scale program to develop auto-
mated duplicating machines using this process. The huge success of this devel-
opment is quite evident; today, practically all modern offices and libraries
have one or more duplicating machines, and the capabilities of modern ma-
chines are on the increase.
Some features of the xerographic process involve simple concepts from
electrostatics and optics. However, the one idea that makes the process
unique is the use of a photoconductive material to form an image. (A photo-
conductor is a material that is a poor conductor in the dark but becomes a good
electrical conductor when exposed to light.)
The sequence of steps used in the xerographic process is illustrated in
Figure 25.26. First, the surface of a plate or drum is coated with a thin film of
the photoconductive material (usually selenium or some compound of sele-
nium), and the photoconductive surface is given a positive electrostatic charge
in the dark. The page to be copied is then projected onto the charged surface.
The photoconducting surface becomes conducting only in areas where light
strikes. In these areas, the light produces charge carriers in the photoconduc-
tor, which neutralize the positively charged surface. However, the charges
remain on those areas of the photoconductor not exposed to light, leaving a
latent (hidden) image of the object in the form of a positive surface charge
distribution.
698 CHAPTER 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

(a)

Figure 25.26 process: (a) The photoconductive surface is positively charged.

The xerographic
(b) Through the use of a source and lens, an image is formed on the surface in the form of
light
hidden positive charges, (c) The surface containing the image is covered with a charged powder,
which adheres only to the image area, (d) A piece of paper is placed over the surface and given a
charge. This transfers the visible image to the paper, which is finally heat-treated to "fix" the
powder to the paper.

Next, a negatively charged powder called a toner is dusted onto the

photoconducting surface. The charged powder adheres only to those areas of
the surface that contain the positively charged image. At this point, the image
becomes visible. The image is then transferred to the surface of a sheet of
positively charged paper.
Finally, the toner material is "fixed" to the surface of the paper through
the application of heat. This results in a permanent copy of the original.

The Field-Ion Microscope

In Section 25.6 we pointed out that the electric field intensity can be very high
in the vicinity of a sharp point on a charged conductor. A device that makes use
of this intense field is the field-ion microscope, which was invented in 1956 by

E. W. Mueller of the Pennsylvania State University.

The basic construction of the field-ion microscope is shown in Figure
25 27 . . A specimen to be studied is fabricated from a fine wire, and a sharp tip is
formed, usually by etching the wire in an acid. Typically, the diameter of the
tip is about 0.1 //m (= 100 nm). The specimen is placed at the center of an
evacuated glass tube containing a fluorescent screen. Next, a small amount of
helium is introduced into the vessel. A very high potential difference is ap-
plied between the needle and the screen, producing a very intense electric
field near the tip of the needle. It is important to cool the tip to at least the
temperature of liquid nitrogen to obtain stable pictures. The helium atoms in
the vicinity of this high-field region are ionized by the loss of an electron,
which leaves the helium positively charged. The positively charged He + ions
then accelerate to the negatively charged fluorescent screen. This results in a
Figure 25.27 Schematic diagram pattern on the screen that represents an image of the tip of the specimen.
of a field-ion microscope. The elec-
tric field is very intense at the tip of
Under the proper conditions (low specimen temperature and high vac-
the needle-shaped specimen. uum), the images of the individual atoms on the surface of the sample are
 SUMMARY 699

Figure 25.28 Field ion micro-

scope image of the surface of a plat-
inum crystal with a magnification
of 1 000 000 X. Individual atoms
can be seen on surface layers using
this technique. (Courtesy of Prof.
T.T. Tsong, The Pennsylvania State
University)

visible, and the atomic arrangement on the surface can be studied. Unfortu-
up large mechanical stresses near the tip
nately, the high electric fields also set
of the specimen, which limits the application of the technique to strong metal-
lic elements, such as tungsten and rhenium. Figure 25.28 represents a typical

field-ion microscope pattern of a platinum crystal.

SUMMARY
When a positive test charge q is moved between points A and B in an
electrostatic field E, the change in the potential energy is given by

Change in
AU = -q I E- ds (25.3)
potential energy

The potential difference A V between points A and B in an electrostatic

field E is defined as the change in potential energy divided by the test
charge q :

(25.4) Potential difference

<7o Ja
where the electric potential Vis a scalar and has the units of J/C, defined to
be 1 volt (V).
700 CHAPTER 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

The potential difference between two points A and B in a uniform

electric field E is given by

AV=-Ed (25.7)

where d the displacement in the direction parallel to E.

is

Equipotential surfaces are surfaces on which the electric potential

remains constant. Equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to the electric
field lines.
The potential due to a point charge q at any distance r from the charge
is given by

Potential of a point charge V=k-.9 (25.12)

The potential due to a group of point charges is obtained by summing

the potentials due to the individual charges. Since Vis a scalar, the sum is a
simple algebraic operation.
The potential energy of a pair of point charges separated by a distance
r 12 is given by
Electric potential energy of
U=k- (25.14)
two charges

This represents the work required to bring the charges from an infinite
separation to the separation r 12 The potential energy of a distribution of
.

point charges is obtained by summing terms like Equation 25.14 over all
pairs of particles.

TABLE 25.1 Potentials Due to Various Charge Distributions

Charge Distribution
 SUMMARY 701

The electric potential due to a continuous charge distribution is given

by
V _l
= k\^-
£*£ j tg^ , 7 ^
(25.17)
Electric potential due to a
continuous charge distribution

If the electric potential is known as a function of coordinates x, y, z the

components of the be obtained by taking the negative
electric field can
derivative of the potential with respect to the coordinates. For example, the
x component of the electric field is given by

*--£ (25 25 >

-

Every point on the surface of a charged conductor in electrostatic

equilibrium is at the same potential. Furthermore, the potential is constant

everywhere inside the conductor and equal to its value at the surface. Table
25.1 lists potentials due to several charge distributions.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY AND HINTS

1. When working problems involving electric potential, remember that poten-
tial is a scalar quantity (rather than a vector quantity like the electric field), so
there are no components to worry about. Therefore, when using the superpo-
sition principle to evaluate the electric potential at a point due to a system of
point charges, you simply take the algebraic sum of the potentials due to each
charge. However, you must keep track of signs. The potential for each posi-
tive charge (V = kq/r) is positive, while the potential for each negative charge
is negative.
2. Just as in mechanics, only changes in potential are significant, hence the point
where you choose the potential to be zero is arbitrary. When dealing with
point charges or a finite-sized charge distribution, we usually define V = to
be at a point infinitely far from the charges. However, if the charge distribu-
tion itself extends to infinity, some other nearby point must be selected as the
reference point.
3. The electric potential at some point P due to a continuous distribution of
charge can be evaluated by dividing the charge distribution into infinitesimal
elements of charge dq located at a distance r from the point P. You then treat
this element as a point charge, so that the potential at P due to the element is
dV = k dq/r. The total potential at P is obtained by integrating dV over the
entire charge distribution. In performing the integration for most problems, it
is necessary to express dq and r in terms of a single variable. In order to

simplify the integration, it is important to give careful consideration of the

geometry involved in the problem. You should review Examples 25.4 through
25.6 as guides for using this method.
4. Another method that can be used to obtain the potential due to a finite contin-
uous charge distribution is to start with the definition of the potential differ-
ence given by Equation 25.4. If Eis known or can be obtained easily (say from
Gauss' law), then the line integral of E ds can be evaluated. An example of
•

this method is given in Example 25.7.

5. Once you know the electric potential at a point, it is possible to obtain the
by remembering that the electric field is equal to the
electric field at that point
negative of the derivative of the potential with respect to some coordinate.
Examples 25.4 and 25.5 illustrate how to use this procedure.
702 CHAPTER 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

QUESTIONS

1. In your own words, distinguish between electric po- 10. If the potential is constant in a certain region, what is

tential and electrical potential energy. the electric field in that region?
2. A negative charge moves in the direction of a uniform 1 1. The electric field inside a hollow, uniformly charged
electric field. Does its potential energy increase or sphere is zero. Does this imply that the potential is
decrease? Does the electric potential increase or de- zero inside the sphere? Explain.
crease? 12. The potential of a point charge is defined to be zero at
3. If a proton is released from rest in a uniform electric an infinite distance. Why can we not define the poten-
field, does its electric potential increase or decrease? tial of an infinite line of charge to be zero at r = <»?
What about its potential energy? 13. Two charged conducting spheres of different radii are
4. Give a physical explanation of the fact that the poten- connected by a conducting wire as in Figure 25.21.
tial energy of a pair of like charges is positive whereas Which sphere has the greater charge density?
the potential energy of a pair of unlike charges is neg- 14. What determines the maximum potential to which the
ative. dome of a Van de Graaff generator can be raised?
5. A uniform electric field is parallel to the x axis. In what 15. In what type of weather would a car battery be more
direction can a charge be displaced in this field with- likely to discharge and why?
out any external work being done on the charge? 16. Explain the origin of the glow that is sometimes ob-
6. Explain why equipotential surfaces are always per- served around the cables of a high-voltage power line.
pendicular to electric field lines. 1 7. Why is it important to avoid sharp edges, or points, on
7. Describe the equipotential surfaces for (a) an infinite conductors used in high-voltage equipment?
line of charge and (b) a uniformly charged sphere. 1 How would you shield an electronic circuit or labora-
8.

8. Explain why, under static conditions, all points in a tory from stray electric fields? Why does this work?
conductor must be at the same electric potential. 19. Why is it relatively safe to stay in an automobile with a
9. If the electric potential at some point is zero, can you metal body during a severe thunderstorm?
conclude that there are no charges in the vicinity of 20. Walking across a carpet and then touching someone
that point? Explain. can result in a shock. Explain why this occurs.

PROBLEMS
Section 25.1 Potential Difference and 6. What potential difference is needed to stop an elec-
Electric Potential tron with an speed of 4.2 X 10 5 m/s?
initial

7. An ion accelerated through a potential difference of

1. Concentric spherical surfaces surrounding a point
115 V experiences an increase in potential energy of
charge at their center are equipotential surfaces. The
7.37 X 10 -17 J. Calculate the charge on the ion.
intersections of these surfaces with a plane through
8. In a tandem Van de Graaff accelerator a proton is ac-
their common center are equipotential lines. How
celerated through a potential difference of 14 X
much work is done in moving a charge q a distance s
10 6 V. Assuming that the proton starts from rest, cal-
along an arc of an equipotential of circular shape and
culate its (a) final kinetic energy in joules, (b) final
of radius R?
kinetic energy in MeV, and (c) final speed.
2. What change in potential energy does a 1 2-/iC charge
9. A positron, when accelerated from rest between two
experience when it is moved between two points for
points at a fixed potential difference, acquires a speed
which the potential difference is 65 V? Express the
of 30% of the speed of light. What speed will be
answer in eV.
achieved by a proton if accelerated from rest between
3. (a) Calculate the speed of a proton that is accelerated
the same two points?
from rest through a potential difference of 120 V.
(b) Calculate the speed of an electron that is acceler-
Section 25.2 Potential Differences in a Uniform
ated through the same potential difference.
Electric Field
4. Through what potential difference would one need to
accelerate an electron in order for it to achieve a ve- 10. Consider two points in an electric field. The potential
locity of 40% of the velocity of light, starting from at point Pj is Vj = — 30 V, and the potential at point
rest? (c = 3.0 X 10 8 m/s.) P2 is V2 = + 1 50 V. How much work is done by an ex-
5. A deuteron (a nucleus which consists of one proton ternal force in moving a charge q = —4.7 nC from P 2
and one neutron) is accelerated through a 2.7-kV po- to?!?
tential difference, (a) How much energy does it gain? 11. How much work is done (by a battery, generator, or
(b) How fast would it be going if it started from rest? other source of electrical energy) in moving Avoga-
 PROBLEMS 703

dro's number of electrons from an point where

initial of point B are (0.4, 0.5) m. Calculate the potential
the electric potential is 9 V to a point where the po- VB — VA
using the blue path.
tential is —5 V? (The potential in each case is mea- 19. For the situation described in Problem 18, calculate
sured relative to a common reference point.) the change in electric potential while going from
12. A capacitor consists of two parallel plates separated point A to point B along the direct red path AB. Which
by a distance of 0.3 mm. If a 20-V potential difference point is at the higher potential?

is maintained between those plates, calculate the 20. A uniform electric field of magnitude 250 V/m is di-
electric field strength in the region between the rected in the positive x direction, (a) Suppose a
plates. + 12//C charge moves from the origin to the point
1 3. The electric field between two charged parallel plates (x, y) = (20 cm, 50 cm). Through what potential dif-

separated by a distance of 1.8 cm has a uniform value ference did it move? (b) What was the change in its

of 2.4 X
10 4 N/C. Find the potential difference be- potential energy?
tween the two plates. How much kinetic energy
would be gained by a deuteron in accelerating from
the positive to the negative plate?
14. Suppose an electron is released from rest in a uniform Section 25.3 Electric Potential and Potential Energy
electric field whose strength 10 3 V/m.
is 5.9 X Due to Point Charges
(a) Through what potential difference will it have
Note: Assume a reference level for potential as V= at
passed after moving 1 cm? (b) How fast will the elec- r = oo unless the statement of the problem requires other-
tron be moving after it has traveled 1 cm?
wise.
15. An electron moving parallel to the x axis has an initial 21. At what distance from a point charge of 8 fiC would
velocity of 3.7 X 10 6 m/s at the origin. The velocity of the potential equal 3.6 X 10 4 V?
the electron is reduced to 1.4 X 10 5 m/s at the point 22. A small spherical object carries a charge of 8 nC. At
x = 2 cm. Calculate the potential difference between what distance from the center of the object is the
the origin and the point x = 2 cm. Which point is at potential equal to 100 V? 50 V? 25 V? Is the spacing
the higher potential? of the equipotentials proportional to the change in V?
16 A positron has the same charge as a proton, but the 23. At a distance r away from a point charge q, the electri-
same mass as an electron. Suppose a positron moves cal potential is V = 400 V and the magnitude of the
5.2 cm in the direction of a uniform 480 V/m electric electric field is E = 150 N/C. Determine the value of
field, (a) How much potential energy does it gain or
q and r.
lose? (b) How much kinetic energy does it gain or 24. Given two 2-fj.C charges, as shown in Figure 25.30
lose?
and a positive test charge q = 1.28 X 10 -18 C at the
1 7. A proton moves in a region of a uniform electric field. origin, (a) what is the net force exerted on q by the
The proton experiences an increase in kinetic energy two 2-//C charges? (b) What field E do the two 2-//C
of 5 X 10 -18 J after being displaced 2 cm in a direc- charges produce at the origin? (c) What is the poten-
tion parallel to the field. What is the magnitude of the tial Vproduced by the two 2-/iC charges at the origin?
electric field?
18. A uniform electric field of magnitude 325 V/m is di-
rected in the negative y direction in Figure 25.29. The
coordinates of point A are (—0.2, —0.3) m, and those
-0-
2uC
£ 2uC
-o-
Figure 25.30 (Problem 24).

25. A +2.8//C charge is located on the y axis at y =

+ 1 .6 m and a — 4.6 fiC charge is located at the origin.
Calculate the net electric potential at the point
m, 0).
(0.4
26. charge +q is at the origin. A charge — 2q is at x =
A
2.0 m on the. x axis, (a) For what finite value(s) of x is
the electric field zero? (b) For what finite value(s) of x
is the electric potential zero?

27. The three charges shown in Figure 25.31 are at the

vertices of an isosceles triangle. Calculate the electric-
Figure 25.29 (Problems 18 and 19). potential at the midpoint of the base, taking q — 7 ftC
 .

704 CHAPTER 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

energy of a hydrogen atom

late the electric potential
when the electron is allowed orbit,
in the (a) first
n= 1, (b) second allowed orbit, n = 2, and (c) when
the electron has escaped from the atom, r = °°. Ex-
press your answers in electron volts.
32. Calculate the energy required to assemble the array
of charges shown in Figure 25.33, where a — 0.20 m,
b = 0.40 m, and q = 6/;C.

Figure 25.31 (Problem 27).

Figure 25.33 (Problem 32).

28. Calculate the value of the electric potential at point P

due charge configuration shown in Figure
to the 33. Show that the amount of work required to assemble
25.32. Use the values = 5 /iC, q 2 = — 10 //C, a =
^ four identical point charges of magnitude Q at the
0.4 m, and b = 0.50 m. corners of a square of side given by 5AlkQ 2 /s.
s is
34. Four equal point charges of charge q = +5fiC are
located at the corners of a 30 cm by 40 cm rectangle.
Calculate the electric potential energy stored in this
charge configuration.
35. Four charges are located at the corners of a rectangle
as in Figure 25.34. How much energy would be ex-
a
pended in removing the two 4-/iC charges to infinity?

ta 8uC 4uC
6 cm

Figure 25.32 (Problem 28).

4 uC 2 uC
29. Two point charges, Q\ = +5 nC and Q 2 = — 3 nC, are
Figure 25.34 (Problem 35).
separated by 35 cm. (a) What is the potential energy
of the pair? What is the significance of the algebraic
sign of your answer? (b) What is the electric potential 36. How much work is required to assemble eight identi-
at a point midway between the charges? cal point charges, each of magnitude q, at the corners
30. A charge q 1 = — 9 ^C is located at the origin, and a of a cube of side s?
second charge q 2 = — \ nC is located on the x axis at
x = 0.7 m. Calculate the electric potential energy of
Section 25.4 Electric Potential Due to Continuous
this pair of charges.
Charge Distributions
3 1 The Bohr model of the hydrogen atom states that the
electron can only exist in certain allowed orbits. The 37. Consider a ring of radius R with total charge Q spread
radius of each Bohr orbit is given by the expression uniformly over its perimeter. What is the potential
r = n 2 (0.0529 nm) where n = 1, 2, 3, Calcu-
. . . . difference between the point at the center of the ring
 PROBLEMS 705

and a point on the axis of the ring at a distance 2fl from electric potential and (b) the components of the elec-
the center of the ring? the point (+
tric field at 1, 0, +2) where all distances
38. Consider a Helmholtz pair consisting of two coaxial are in meters.
rings of 30 cm radius, separated by a distance of 43. Over a certain region of space, the electric potential is
30 cm. (a) Calculate the electric potential at a point given by V= 5x — 3x 2 y + 2y; 2 Find the expressions .

on their common axis midway between the two rings, for the x, y, and z components of the electric field over
assuming that each ring carries a uniformly distrib- this region. What is the magnitude of the field at the
uted charge of + 5 fiC. (b) What is the potential at this point P, which has coordinates (in meters) (1,0, —2)?
point if the two rings carry equal and opposite 44. The electric potential in a certain region is given by

charges? V= 4x2 — 5y + 3z 2 volts. Find the magnitude of the

39 A rod of length L (Fig. 25.35) lies along the x axis with electric field at the point (+ 2, — 1 + 3) where all dis-
,

its left end at the origin and has a nonuniform charge tances are in meters.
density A = ax (where a is a positive constant), 45. The potential in a region between i = Oandx = 6 mis
(a) What are the units of the constant a? (b) Calculate given by:
the electric potential at point A, a distance d from the
V= a + bx
left end of the rod.
where a = 10 V and b = —l
V/m. Determine (a) the

h potential at x = 0, 3 m, and
6 m and (b) the magni-
tude and direction of the electric field at x = 0, 3 m,
and 6 m.
46. The electric potential in a certain region is given by

V=ax 2 + bx + c
a =12 V/m 2 b = -10V/m c = 62 V
Determine (a) the magnitude and direction of the
electric field at x = + 2 m and (b) the position where
the electric field is zero.
47. The electric potential inside a charged spherical con-
Figure 25.35 (Problems 39 and 40).
ductor of radius R is given by V = kQ/R and outside
dV
I
40. j
For the arrangement described in the previous prob- the potential is given bv V= kQ/r. Using ET = —
lem, calculate the electric potential at point B on the dr
perpendicular bisector of the rod a distance b above derive the electric field both (a) inside (r < R) and
the xaxis. Note that the rod has a nonuniform charge (b) outside (r > R) this charge distribution.
density A = ax. 4S. The electric potential inside a uniformly charged
41 . Calculate the electric potential at point P on the axis spherical insulator of radius R is given by
of the annulus shown in Figure 25.36, which has a
uniform charge density a and inner and outer radii
a and b, respectively.

Figure 25.36 (Problem 41).

'Section 25.5 Obtaining E from the Electric Potential

42. The electric potential over a certain region of space is

given by V= 3x 2 y — 4xz — 5t/ 2 volts. Find (a) the

706 CHAPTEB 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Section 25.6 Potential of a Charged Conductor (a) What is the distance to the charge? (b) What is the
magnitude of the charge?
51. How many electrons should be removed from an ini-
62. All of the corners, except one, of a 1-m cube are occu-
uncharged spherical conductor of radius 0.3 m
tially
pied by charges of + 1 fiC What is the electric poten-
produce a potential of 7.5 kV at the surface?
to
tial at the empty corner?
52. Calculate the surface charge density, a (in C/m ), for
2
63. Three point charges of magnitude + 8 //C, — 3 fiC, and
a solid spherical conductor of radius R = 0.25 m if the
+ 5 /^C are located on the corners of a triangle whose
potential at a distance 0.5 m from the center of the
sides are each 9 cm long. Calculate the electric poten-
sphere is 1300 V. the center of this triangle.
tial at
53. A spherical conductor has a radius of 14 cm and has
64. The electric potential just outside a charged conduct-
a charge of + 26 /iC Calculate the electric field and
ing sphere is 200 V, and 10 cm farther from the
the electric potential at the following distances
center of the sphere the potential is 150 V. Find
from the center of this conductor: (a) 10 cm, r =
(a) the radius of the sphere and (b) the charge on the
(b) r = 20 cm, and (c) r = 1 4 cm.
sphere.
54. Two spherical conductors of radii r 1 and r 2 are con- = + 2 fiC) are placed at 30° intervals
65. Equal charges (q
nected by a conducting wire as shown in Figure m.
around the equator of a sphere with a radius of 1 .2
25.21. If r-j = 0.94 m, r 2 = 0.47 m, and the field at
What is the electrical potential (a) at the center of the
the surface of the smaller sphere is 890 N/C, calculate north pole of the sphere?
sphere and (b) at the
the total charge on the larger sphere assuming it is shown in Figure 25.37
66. The charge distribution is re-
initially uncharged. Assume that the separation of the Find the exact
ferred to as a linear quadrupole. (a)
spheres is large compared to their radii.
a point on the x axis
expression for the potential at
55. Two charged spherical conductors are connected by a where x > d. (b) Show that the expression obtained in
long conducting wire. A total charge of + 20 //C is
(a) reduces to
placed on combination of two spheres, (a) If one
this
cm and the other has a radius of 6 cm,
has a radius of 4 2kQd*
what is the electric field near the surface of each
sphere? (b) What is the electrical potential of each
when x > d.
sphere?
56. An egg-shaped conductor has a charge of +43 nC
placed on its surface. It has a total surface area of
38 cm 2 (a) What is the average surface charge den-
,

sity? (b) What is the electric field inside the conduc-

+Q 20 +0
tor? (c) What is the (average) electric field just out-
side the conductor?
(-d,0) (d,0)

"Section 25.8 Applications of Electrostatics

Quadrupole
57. Consider the Van de Graaff generator with a 30-cm
diameterdome operating in dry air. (a) What is the Figure 25.37 (Problems 66, 67, and 75).
maximum potential of the dome? (b) What is the max-
imum charge on the dome? 67. Use the exact result from Problem 66 to evaluate the
58. (a) Calculate the largest amount of charge possible on potential for the linear quadrupole at x = 3d if d =
the surface of a Van de Graaff generator with a 40-cm 2 mm and q = 3 ,uC. Compare this answer to what you
diameter dome surrounded by air. (b) What is the po- obtain when you use the approximate result valid
tential of this spherical dome when it has the charge when x > d.
calculated above? 68. (a) Use the exact result from Problem 66 to find the
59. What charge would have be placed on the surface
to
electric field at any point along the axis of the linear
whose dome has a radius
of a Van de Graaff generator, quadrupole for x > d . (b) Evaluate E at x = 3d if d =
of 15 cm, to produce a spark across a 10-cm air gap? 2 mm and Q = 3 fiC.
60. What power in watts must a Van de Graaff generator 69. Two point charges of equal magnitude are located
deliver if it produces a 100-^ A beam of protons at an
along the y axis at equal distances above and below the
energy of 12 MeV? * axis, as shown in Figure 25.38. (a) Plot a graph of the
potential at points along the x axis over the interval
— 3a< x <3a. You should plot the potential in units
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS oikQ/a, where k is the Coulomb constant, (b) Let the
61. At a certain distance from a point charge the field charge located at —a be negative and plot the poten-
intensity is 500 V/m and the potential is -3000 V. tial along the y axis over the interval — 4a < y < 4a.
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 707

\2ne rJ
Q>0
where f is a unit vector pointing radially away from
the line, and X is the charge per meter along the line.
Derive an expression for the potential difference be-
tween r = Ty and r = r2 -

76. Consider two thin, conducting, spherical shells as in

Figure 25.39. The inner shell has a radius r l = 15 cm
and a charge of + 10 nC. The outer shell has a radius
r 2 = 30 cm and a charge of — 1 5 nC. Find (a) the elec-
tric field E and (b) the electric potential V in these

t regions, with

Region A:
V= at r = »:

inside the inner shell (r < rx )

Figure 25.38 (Problem 69).
Region B: between the shells (r 1 <r< r2 )

Region C: outside the outer shell (r > r2 )

70. The liquid-drop model of the nucleus suggests that

high-energy oscillations of certain nuclei can split the
nucleus into two unequal fragments plus a few neu-
trons. The fragments acquire kinetic energy from
their mutual Coulombic repulsion. Calculate the
Coulomb potential energy (in MeV) of two spherical
fragments from a uranium nucleus having the follow-
ing charges and radii: + 38e and radius 5.5 X
10 -15 m; + 54e and radius 6.2X10 _15 m, respec-
tively. Assume that the charge is distributed
uniformly throughout the volume of each spherical
fragment and that their surfaces are initially in contact
(The electrons surrounding the nucleus can be
at rest.
Figure 25.39 (Problem 76).
neglected.)
71. Two identical raindrops, each carrying surplus elec-
trons on its surface to make a net charge — q on each, 77. The x axis is the symmetry axis of a uniformly charged
collide and form a single drop of larger size. Before ring of radius R and charge Q (Fig. 25.40). A point
the collision, the characteristics of each drop are the charge Q of mass M is located at the center of the ring.
following: (a) surface charge density <7 ,
(b) electric When it is displaced slightly, the point charge acceler-
field £ at the surface, (c) electric potential V at the ates along the x axis to infinity. Show that the ultimate
surface (where V=0 at r = <*>). For the combined speed of the point charge is

drop, find these three quantities in terms of their origi- 2

nal values. v = /2kQ V/2
[-mr)
72. A Van de Graaff generator is operating so that the
potential difference between the high-voltage elec-
trode and the charging needles (points B and A in
Figure 25.24) is 1.5 X 10 4 V. Calculate the power re-
quired to drive the belt (against electrical forces) at an
instant when the effective current delivered to the
high-voltage electrode is 500 //A.
73. Calculate the work that must be done to charge a Uniformly
spherical shell of radius R to a total charge Q. charged ring
74. A point charge + q is located at x = —R
and a point
charge — 2q is located at the origin. Prove that the Figure 25.40 (Problem 77).

equipotential surface that has zero potential is a

sphere centered at (— 4R/3, 0, 0) whose radius r is 78. The thin, uniformly charged rod shown in Figure
given by = 2R/3. 25.41 has a length L and a linear charge density X.
75. From Gauss' law, the electric field set up by a uniform Find an expression for the electric potential at point P,
straight-line charge is a distance b along the positive y axis.
708 CHAPTER 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Figure 25.41 (Problem 78).

79. It isshown in Example 25.6 that the potential at a

point P a distance d above one end of a uniformly
charged rod of length £ lying along the x axis is

given by

_*<? (e + Je 2 + d 2 \
V=
.

'"I d J

Use this resultto derive an expression for the y compo-

nent of the electric field at the point P. (Hint: Replace
d with (/.)
SO. Figure 25.42 shows several equipotential lines each
labeled by its potential in volts. The distance between
the lines of the square grid represents 1 cm. (a) Is the
magnitude of the E field bigger at A or B? Why?
(b) What is E at B? (c) Represent what the E field looks
like by drawing at least 8 field lines.
 CALCULATOR/COMPUTER PROBLEMS 709

wire (the anode) of radius rb (Fig. 25.45). The charge enable you to extend your calculations to 256 equally
per unit length on the anode is X, while the charge per spaced point charges, and compare your result with
unit length on the cathode is — X. (a) Show that the that given by the exact expression
potential difference between the wire and the cylin-
der in the sensitive region of the detector

V= 2kX
is given by

A ring of radius
V=
m
Jt

HW)
1 86. has a uniform charge per unit
1
fe) length and a total charge of + 16 X 10 -10 C. The ring
(b) Show that the magnitude of the electric field over lies in the yz plane, and its center is at x = 0, as in

that region is given by Figure 25.10. Estimate the electric potential along
the x axis at x= 2 m by approximating the ring to be

where r is
E=
In
V
(rjrh ) ®
the distance from the center of the anode to
(a) a point charge located at the origin, (b) two point

charges (each of charge +8 X 10 -10 C) diametrically

opposite each other on the ring, and (c) four point
the point where the field is to be calculated. charges (each of charge + 4 X 10 _10 C) symmetrically
spaced on the ring, (d) Write a program that will en-
able you to extend your calculations to 64 point
charges equally spaced on the ring, and compare your
result with that given by the exact expression, Equa-
tion 25.18.
87. Three identical charges lie at the vertices of an equilat-
eral triangle having sides 2 m long (Fig. 25.46). Lo-
cate positions of electrostatic equilibrium within the
triangle.

'J

Figure 25.45 (Problem 84).

CALCULATOR/COMPUTER PRORLEMS
85. A uniformly charged rod is located along the x axis as
in Figure 23. 14. The total charge on the rod is + 16 X
1(T 10 C,(J=1.0m, and e = 2.0 m. Estimate the elec-
trical potential at x =
by approximating the rod to lni

be (a) a point charge at x = 2.0 m, (b) two point

charges (each of charge +8 X 10 -10 C) at x = 1.5 m
and x = 2.5 m, and (c) four point charges (each of
charge + 4X 10- 10 C)atx= 1.25 m,x= 1.75 m,x =
2.25 m, and x = 2.75 m. (d) Write a program that will Figure 25.46 (Problem 87).
 26
Capacitance and Dielectrics

Very large capacitors are used

as components in high-voltage
power generators. In this
photograph, a technician
installs a safety switch in the
"oil section" that contains the
Marx generators seen at the
right of the picture. This is the
main high-voltage mechanical
switch linking the Marx
generators to accelerator
modules. (Courtesy ofSandia
National Laboratories)

This chapter is concerned with the properties of capacitors, devices

that store charge. Capacitors are commonly used in a variety of
electrical circuits. For instance, they are used (1) to tune the fre-
quency of radio receivers, (2) as filters in power supplies, (3) to
eliminate sparking in automobile ignition systems, and (4) as energy-storing
devices in electronic flash units.
A capacitor basically consists of two conductors separated by an insulator.
We capacitance of a given device depends on its geometry
shall see that the
and on the material separating the charged conductors, called a dielectric. A
dielectricis an insulating material having distinctive electrical properties that

can best be understood as a consequence of the properties of atoms.

26.1 DEFINITION OF CAPACITANCE

Consider two conductors having a potential difference V between them. Let
us assume that the conductors have equal and opposite charges as in Figure
26.1. This can be accomplished by connecting the two uncharged conductors

710
 26.2 CALCULATION OF CAPACITANCE 711

to the terminals of a battery. Such a combination of two conductors is called a

capacitor. The potential difference Vis found to be proportional to the magni-
tude of the charge Q on the capacitor. 1

The capacitance, C, of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the magnitude

of the charge on either conductor to the magnitude of the potential dif-

ference between them:

(26.1) Definition of capacitance

Note that by definition capacitance is always a positive quantity. Furthermore,

since the potential difference increases as the stored charge increases, the
ratio Q/V is constant for a given capacitor. Therefore, the capacitance of a
device is a measure of its ability to store charge and electrical potential energy.
From Equation 26. 1, we see that capacitance has SI units of coulombs per
volt. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), in honor of Michael Faraday.
That is,

[Capacitance] = 1 F= 1 C/V

The farad is a very large unit of capacitance. In practice, typical devices have
capacitances ranging from microfarads (1 /iF = 10~6 F) to picofarads(1 pF =
i q-12 p) ^s a p rac tical note, capacitors are often labeled mF for microfarads
and mmF for micromicrofarads (picofarads).
As we shall show capacitance of a device depends
in the next section, the
on the geometrical arrangement of the conductors. To illustrate this point, let
us calculate the capacitance of an isolated spherical conductor of radius R and
charge Q. (The second conductor can be taken as a concentric hollow con-
ducting sphere of infinite radius.) Since the potential of the sphere is simply
kQ/R (where V=
at infinity), its capacitance is given by

(26.2)

Figure 26.1 A capacitor consists

This shows that the capacitance of an isolated charged sphere is proportional of two conductors isolated from
to its radius and is independent of both the charge and the potential differ- each other and their surroundings.
Once the capacitor is charged, the
ence. For example, an isolated metallic sphere of radius 0.15 m has a capaci- two conductors carry equal but op-
tance of posite charges.

C= 47re R= 4tt(8.85 X KT 12 C 2 /N-m 2 )(0.15 m) = 17 pF

26.2 CALCULATION OF CAPACITANCE

The capacitance of a pair of oppositely charged conductors can be calculated
in the following manner. A convenient charge of magnitude O is assumed, and
the potential difference is calculated using the techniques described in the

previous chapter. One then simply uses C = Q/V to evaluate the capacitance.

1
The proportionality between the potential difference and charge on the conductors can be
proved from Coulomb's law or by experiment.
712 CHAPTER 26 CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

As you might expect, the calculation is relatively easy to perform if the geome-
try of the capacitor is simple.
Let us illustrate this with three geometries that we are all familiar with,
namely, two parallel plates, two concentric cylinders, and two concentric
spheres. In these examples, we shall assume that the charged conductors are
separated by a vacuum. The effect of a dielectric material between the con-
ductors will be treated in Section 26.5.

The Parallel-Plate Capacitor

Two parallel plates of equal area A are separated by a distance d as in Figure

26.2. One plate has a charge + 0, the other, charge — Q. The charge per unit
area on either plate is a = Q/A. If the plates are very close together (compared
with their length and width), we can neglect end effects and assume that the
electric field is uniform between the plates and zero elsewhere. According to
Example 24.6, the electric field between the plates is given by

Co e„A

The potential difference between the plates equals Ed; therefore

Qd
V=Ed =
e„A

Substituting this result into Equation 26.1, we find that the capacitance is

given by

eg-
V Qd/e A

€„A
c= (26.3)

That is, the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is proportional to the area

of its plates and inversely proportional to the plate separation.

As you can see from the definition of capacitance, C = O/V, the amount of
charge a given capacitor is able to store for a given potential difference across
Figure 26.2 A parallel-plate ca- its plates increases as the capacitance increases. Therefore, it seems reason-
pacitor consists of two parallel able that a capacitor constructed from plates having a large area should be able
plates each of area A, separated by
to store a large charge. The amount of charge needed to produce a given
a distance d The plates carry equal
.

and opposite charges. potential difference increases with decreasing plate separation.
A careful inspection of the electric field lines for a parallel-plate capacitor
is uniform in the central region between the plates as in
reveals that the field
Figure 26.3a. However, the field is nonuniform at the edges of the plates.
Figure 26.3b is a photograph of the electric field pattern of a parallel-plate
capacitor showing the nonuniform field lines at its edges.
 26.2 CALCULATION OF CAPACITANCE 713

Figure 26.3 (a) The electric fields between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor is uniform near
its center, but is nonuniform near its edges, (b) Electric field pattern of two oppositely charged

conducting parallel plates. Small pieces of thread on an oil surface align with the electric field.
Note the nonuniform nature of the electric field at the ends of the plates. Such end effects can be
neglected if the plate separation is small compared to the length of the plates. (Courtesy of Harold
M. Waage, Princeton University)

EXAMPLE 26.1 Parallel-Plate Capacitor

A parallel-plate capacitor has an area of A = 2 cm 2 :

-4
2 X 10 2
m
and a plate separation of d = 1 mm :

10 -3 m. Find its capacitance.

Solution From Equation 26.3, we find

-H 8.85 X1(T 12
C2
N-m !
\/ 2

X
-2

1
X 10-* m 2 \
-

X IO- 3 m /

= 1.77Xl(r 12 F= 1.77 pF

Exercise 1 If the plate separation of this capacitor

is increased to 3 mm, find its capacitance. Answer:
0.59 pF.

EXAMPLE 26.2 The Cylindrical Capacitor

A cylindrical conductor of radius a and charge +Q is

concentric with a larger cylindrical shell of radius b and

charge — Q (Fig. 26.4a). Find the capacitance of this cyl-
indrical capacitor if its length is Z.

Solution If we assume that I is long compared with

a and b, we can neglect end effects. In this case, the field --<?
isperpendicular to the axis of the cylinders and is con-
fined to the region between them (Fig. 26.4b). We must

Figure 26.4 (Example 26.2) (a) A cylindrical capacitor con-

sists of a cylindrical conductor of radius a and length t sur-
rounded by a coaxial cylindrical shell of radius b. (b) The end
view of a cylindrical capacitor. The blue broken line represents
the end of the cylindrical gaussian surface of radius r and
length t. (b)
714 CHAPTER 26 CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

first calculate the potential difference between the two

nsulator
cylinders, which is given in general by

V =- E-ds

where E is the electric field in the region a < r < b. In

Chapter 24, we showed using Gauss' law that the electric
field of a cylinder of charge per unit length X is given by
2kA/r. The same result applies here, since the outer cyl-
inder does not contribute to the electric field inside it.

Using this result and noting that E is along r in Figure

26.4b, we find that

Vh - V. = -
J
£r dr = -2JU [ — = -2JU b(-J
Substituting this into Equation 26.1 and using the fact
that k = Q/e, we get Figure 26.5 (Example 26.3) A spherical capacitor consists of
an inner sphere of radius a surrounded by a concentric spherical
shell of radius b. The electric field between the spheres is radial
outward if the inner sphere is positively charged.
c=2= (26.4)
V
?»© -»(!)

V is the magnitude of the potential difference given by given by hQ/r 2 In this case,
. corresponds to the field
this
2kA In (b/a), a positive quantity. That is, V— Va — Vj, between the spheres (a < r <
(The field is zero else-
b).

is positive since the inner cylinder is at the higher po- where.) From Gauss' law we see that only the inner
tential. sphere contributes to this field. Thus, the potential dif-
Our result for C makes sense since it shows that the ference between the spheres is given by
capacitance is proportional to the length of the cylinders.
As you might expect, the capacitance also depends on
the radii of the two cylindrical conductors. As an exam-
ple, a coaxial cable consists of two concentric cylindrical
Vb - Va = -
J\
dr = -kQ
£ % = kQ [£j
conductors of radii a and b separated by an insulator. The
kQ
cable carries currents in opposite directions in the inner
and outer conductors. Such a geometry is especially use-
(K)
ful for shielding an electrical signal from external influ- given by
The magnitude of the potential difference is
ences. From Equation 26.4, we see that the capacitance
per unit length of a coaxial cable is given by
V=V -Vh =kQ-lb-a)
a
ab

«^i) Substituting this into Equation 26.1, we get

ah
EXAMPLE 26.3 The Spherical Capacitor
c= £ =

- a) (26.5)
A spherical capacitor consists of a spherical conducting V k(b
shell of radius b and charge - Q
that is concentric with a
smaller conducting sphere of radius a and charge +O
(Fig. 26.5). Find its capacitance. Exercise 2 Show that as the radius b of the outer sphere
approaches infinity, the capacitance approaches the
Solution As we showed in Chapter 24, the field outside a value ajk = 47te a. This is consistent with the result ob-
spherically symmetric charge distribution is radial and tained earlier (Eq. 26.2).
 26.3 COMBINATIONS OF CAPACITORS 715

26.3 COMBINATIONS OF CAPACITORS Capacitor

symbol
Two or more capacitors are often combined ways. The
in circuits in several
equivalent capacitance of certain combinations can be calculated using
methods described in this section. The circuit symbols for capacitors and Battery
symbol
batteries, together with their color codes, are given in Figure 26.6. The posi-
tive terminal of the battery is at the higher potential and is represented by the Figure 26.6 Circuit symbols for
longer vertical line in the battery symbol. capacitors and batteries. Note that
capacitors are in blue, while batter-
ies are in red.
Parallel Combination
Two capacitors connected as shown in Figure 26.7a are known as a parallel
combination of capacitors. The left plates of the capacitors are connected by a
conducting wire to the positive terminal of the battery and are therefore at the
same potential. Likewise, the right plates are connected to the negative termi-
nal of the battery. When the capacitors are first connected in the circuit,
electrons are transferred through the battery from the left plates to the right
plates, leaving the left plates positively charged and the right plates negatively
charged. The energy source for this charge transfer is the internal chemical
energy stored in the battery, which is converted to electrical energy. The flow
of charge ceases when the voltage across the capacitors is equal to that of the
battery. The capacitors reach their maximum charge when the flow of charge
ceases. Let us call the maximum charges on the two capacitors Q x and 2 Then .

the total charge, Q, stored by the two capacitors is

Q- Qi + <? 2 (26.6)

Suppose we wish to replace these two capacitors by one equivalent capac-

itor having a capacitance Ceq This equivalent capacitor must have exactly the
.

c =(:, + (;,

Figure 26.7 (a) A parallel connection of two capacitors, (b) The circuit diagram for the parallel
combination, (c) The potential difference is the same across each capacitor, and the equivalent
capacitance is Ceq = C t + C 2
.
716 CHAPTER 26 CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

same external effect on the circuit as the original two. That is, it must store Q
units of charge. We also see from Figure 26.7b that

the potential difference across each capacitor in the parallel circuit is the
same and is equal to the voltage of the battery, V.

From Figure 26.7c, we see that the voltage across the equivalent capacitor is

also V. Thus, we have

<?i
= C,V Q 2 = C2 V
and, for the equivalent capacitor,

<? = ceq v
Substituting these relations into Equation 26.6 gives

(parallel \
Q+Q combination/
(26.7)

If we extend this treatment to three or more capacitors connected in

parallel, the equivalent capacitance is found to be

/parallel \
c + c2 + ca +
x
\ combination/

Thus we see that the equivalent capacitance ofa parallel combination ofcapaci-
tors is larger than any of the individual capacitances.

Series Combination
Now consider two capacitors connected in series, as illustrated in Figure
26.8a.

v2
c.

vM +Q -Q +Q -Q
r-l

(a) (b)

Figure 26.8 A series connection of two capacitors. The charge on each capacitor is the same, and
the equivalent capacitance can be calculated from the relation -p— — ~pr + ~?T-
 26.3 COMBINATIONS OF CAPACITORS 717

For this series combination of capacitors, the magnitude of the charge

must be the same on all the plates.

To see why this must be true, let us consider the charge transfer process in
some detail. We start with uncharged capacitors and follow what happens just
after a battery is connected to the circuit. When the battery is connected,
electrons are transferred from the left plate of C to the right
1 plate of C2
through the battery. As this negative charge accumulates on the right plate of
C2 an equivalent amount of negative charge is forced off the left plate of C2
,
,

leaving it with an excess positive charge. The negative charge leaving the left
plate of C 2 accumulates on the right plate of C x where again an equivalent ,

amount of negative charge leaves the left plate. The result of this is that all
of the right plates gain a charge of— Q while all of the left plates have a charge
of+Q.
Suppose an equivalent capacitor performs the same function as the series
combination. After it is fully charged, the equivalent capacitor must end up with
a charge of — Q on its right plate and +Q
on its left plate. By applying the
definition of capacitance to the circuit shown in Figure 26.8b, we have

v = _2_
c
where V is the potential difference between the terminals of the battery and
Cgq is the equivalent capacitance. From Figure 26.8a, we see that

V=V! + V2 (26.9)

where V 1
and V2 are the potential differences across capacitors Q and C2 . In
general, the potential difference across any number of capacitors in series is

equal to the sum of the potential differences across the individual capacitors.
Since Q = CVcan be applied to each capacitor, the potential difference across
each is given by

V
1
C x
* C2
Substituting these expressions into Equation 26.9, and noting that V = @/Ceq ,

we have

JL=SL+SL
C<sq Ci C2
Cancelling Q, we arrive at the relationship

— = — + —C
Cgq Cj 2
(
SerieS
\ combination/
) (26
v 10)

If this analysis is applied to three or more capacitors connected in series, the

equivalent capacitance is found to be

—=—+—+—+•••
C^ Ci C C
/series \
(2611)
2 3 \ combination/

This shows that the equivalent capacitance of a series combination is always less
than any individual capacitance in the combination.
718 CHAPTER 26 CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

EXAMPLE 26.4 Equivalent Capacitance Ceq = 2//F

Find the equivalent capacitance between a and b for the
Likewise, the lower branch in Figure 26.9b consists of
combination of capacitors shown in Figure 26.9a. All
two 8-/zF capacitors in series, which give an equivalent of
capacitances are in fiF.
4 fiF. Finally, the 2-//F and 4-//F capacitors in Figure
26.9c are in parallel and have an equivalent capacitance
Solution Using Equations 26.8 and 26.11, we reduce
of 6 p.F. Hence, the equivalent capacitance of the circuit
the combination step by step as indicated in the figure.
is 6 fiF.
The 1 -^F and 3-//F capacitors are in parallel and combine
according to Ceq = C 1 + C2 . Their equivalent capaci-
Exercise 3 Consider three capacitors having capaci-
tance is 4 //F. Likewise, the 2-fj.F and 6-fiF capacitors are
tances of 3/zF, 6/zF, and 12/zF. Find their equivalent
also in parallel and have an equivalent capacitance of
capacitance if they are connected (a) in parallel, (b) in
8 fiF. The upper branch in Figure 26.9b now consists of
series.
two 4-fiF capacitors in series, which combine accord-
Answer (a) 21 ^F, (b) 1.71 fiF.
ing to

1 _ 1 , 1 _ 1
+
1 1

Ceq <VC 2 4/<F 4^F 2/iF

Figure 26.9 (Example 26.4) To find the equivalent combination of the capacitors
in (a), the various combinations are reduced in steps as indicated in (b), (c), and (d),
using the series and parallel rules described in the text.

26.4 ENERGY STORED IN A CHARGED CAPACITOR

Almost everyone that works with electronic equipment has at some time
verified that a capacitor is able to store energy. If the plates of a charged
capacitor are connected together by a conductor, such as a wire, charge will
transfer fromone plate to the other until the two are uncharged. The discharge
can often be observed as a visible spark. If you should accidentally touch the
opposite plates of a charged capacitor, your fingers would act as a pathway by
which the capacitor could discharge, which would result in an electric shock.
The degree of shock you would receive depends on the capacitance and
voltage applied to the capacitor. Such a shock could be fatal where high
voltages are present, such as in the power supply of a television set.
Consider a parallel-plate capacitor that is initially uncharged, so that the
initial potential difference across the plates is zero. Now imagine that the
capacitor is connected to a battery and develops a maximum charge O. We

shall assume that the capacitor is charged slowly so that the problem can be
 26.4 ENERGY STORED IN A CHARGED CAPACITOR 719

considered as an electrostatic system. The final potential difference across the

capacitor is V = Q/C. Since the initial potential difference is zero, the average
potential difference during the charging process is V/2 = Q/2C. From this we
might conclude that the work needed to charge the capacitor is given by
W — QV/2 = Q 2 /2C. Although this result is correct, a more detailed proof is
desirable and is now given.
Suppose the charge on the capacitor at some instant during the
that q is

charging process. At the same instant, the potential difference across the
capacitor is V = q/C. The work necessary 2 to transfer an increment of charge
dq from the plate of charge — q to the plate of charge q (which is at the higher
potential) is given by

dW= Vdq = ^dq

Thus, the total work required to charge the capacitor from q = to some final
charge q = Q is given by

W =/: %*> 2C
But the work done in charging the capacitor can be considered as potential
energy U stored in the capacitor. Using Q = CV, we can express the electro-
static energy stored in a charged capacitor in the following alternative forms:

Energy stored in a charged

U= ^ = $QV = $CV 2
(26.12) capacitor

This result applies to any capacitor, regardless of its geometry. see that the We
stored energy increases as C increases and as the potential difference in-
creases. In practice, there is a limit to the maximum energy (or charge) that can
be stored. This is because electrical discharge will ultimately occur between
the plates of the capacitor at a sufficiently large value of V. For this reason,
capacitors are usually labeled with a maximum operating voltage.
The energystored in a capacitor can be considered as being stored in the
electric field created between the plates as the capacitor is charged. This
description reasonable in view of the fact that the electric field is propor-
is

tional to the charge on the capacitor. For a parallel-plate capacitor, the poten-
tial difference is related to the electric field through the relationship V = Ed.

Furthermore, its capacitance is given by C = e A/d. Substituting these expres-

sions into Equation 26.12 gives

Energy stored
U = \^(E 2 d 2 ) \(€ Ad)E 2 (26.13)
in a parallel-
plate capacitor

Since the volume of a parallel-plate capacitor that is occupied by the electric

field is Ad, the energy per unit volume u = U/Ad, called the energy density, is

Energy density an electric

u = ie„£ 2 (26.14)
in
field

2
One mechanical analog of this process is the work required to raise a mass through some vertical
distance in the presence of gravity.
720 CHAPTER 26 CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

Although Equation 26.14 was derived for a parallel-plate capacitor, the ex-
pression is generally valid. That is, the energy density in any electrostatic field
is proportional to the square of the electric field intensity at a given point. (A
formal proof of this statement is given in intermediate and advanced courses in

electricity and magnetism.)

EXAMPLE 26.5 Rewiring Two Charged The two capacitors are now in parallel, so the final po-
Capacitors tential difference across each is the same and given by
Two capacitors Cj and C 2 (where C > C2 are charged tol )

the same potential difference V but with opposite po-

,

tery,
The charged capacitors are removed from the bat-
larity.

and their plates are connected as shown in Figure

26.10a. The switches Sj and S 2 are then closed as in
C x + C2 m>°
Figure 26.10b. (a) Find the final potential difference (b) Find the total energy stored in the capacitors

between a and b after the switches are closed. before and after the switches are closed.

Solution The charges on the left-hand plates of the ca- Solution Before the switches are closed, the total en-

pacitors before the switches are closed are given by ergy stored in the capacitors is given by

C^CjVo and Q 2 = ~C2 V u> = ic x V + KW = U<h + c V 2)

The negative After the switches are closed and the capacitors have
sign for Q2 is necessary since this capaci-
tor's polarity is opposite that of capacitor C\ . After the reached an equilibrium charge, the total energy stored in
switches are closed, the charges on the plates redistrib- the capacitors is given by
ute until the total charge Q shared by both capacitors is U( = iQV 2 + iC2 V 2 = KCi + C2 )V 2
Q = Qi + Q2 = (c -c2 )v 1

Ci Ci
o,
+ii- Therefore, the ratio of the final to the initial energy
stored is

L7f / Q-Q Y

V^= "
+1
C2
1
-
This shows that the
energy. At
tion has
first,
final energy

you might think

is

that
been violated, but this is not the case since we
less than the
energy conserva-
initial

c2 have assumed that the circuit is ideal. Part of the missing

(b)
energy appears as heat energy in the connecting wires,
(a)
which have resistance, and part of the energy is radiated
Figure 26.10 (Example 26.5). away in the form of electromagnetic waves (Chapter 34).

26.5 CAPACITORS WITH DIELECTRICS

A dielectric is a nonconducting material, such as rubber, glass, or waxed paper.
When a dielectric material is inserted between the plates of a capacitor, the
capacitance increases. If the dielectric completely fills the space between the
plates, the capacitance increases by a dimensionless factor k, called the dielec-
tric constant.
The following experiment can be performed to illustrate the effect of a
O and
dielectric in a capacitor. Consider a parallel-plate capacitor of charge
capacitance C
absence of a dielectric. The potential difference across
in the
the capacitor as measured by a voltmeter is V = Q /C (Fig. 26.1 la). Notice
 26.5 CAPACITORS WITH DIELECTRICS 721

Dielectric

This photograph illustrates dielec-

tric breakdown in air. Sparks are
produced when a large alternating
voltage is applied across the elec-
trodes using a high-voltage induc-
(a) (b)
tion coil power supply. (Courtesy
ofCENCO)
Figure 26. 1 1 When a dielectric is inserted between the plates of a charged capacitor, the charge
on the plates remains unchanged, but the potential difference as recorded by an electrostatic
voltmeter is reduced from V to V = V /k. Thus, the capacitance increases in the process by the
factor K.

that the capacitor circuit is open, that is, the plates of the capacitor are not
connected to a battery and charge cannot flow through an ideal voltmeter.
(We shall discuss the voltmeter further in Chapter 28.) Hence, there is no path
by which charge can flow and alter the charge on the capacitor. If a dielectric is
now inserted between the plates as in Figure 26.11b, it is found that the
voltmeter reading decreases by a factor K to a value V, where

Since V < V we , see that K > 1

Since the charge Q on the capacitor does not change, we conclude that the
capacitance must change to the value

c K
v V /k v

C = kC (26.15)

where C is the capacitance in the absence of the dielectric. That is, the
capacitance increases by the factor k when the dielectric completely fills the
region between the plates. 3 For a parallel-plate capacitor, where C = € A/d,
we can express the capacitance when the capacitor is filled with a dielectric as

The capacitance of a filled

(26.16) capacitor is greater than that

of an empty one by a factor K.

From Equations 26.3 and 26.16, it would appear that the capacitance
could be made very large by decreasing d, the distance between the plates. In
3
If another experiment is performed in which the dielectric is introduced while the potential
difference remains constant by means of a battery, the charge increases to a value = kQ The
Q .

additional charge is supplied by the battery and the capacitance still increases by the factor K.
722 CHAPTER 26 CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

TABLE 26.1 Dielectric Constants and Dielectric Strengths of Various

Materials at Room Temperature

Material Dielectric Constant K Dielectric Strength" (V/m)

Vacuum

A continuous electrical discharge is

produced between two electrodes
when the applied voltage produces
an electric field that exceeds the
dielectric strength of air. What
happens to the air in the vicinity of
this discharge? As the discharge
continues, the "sparks" rise to the
top. Can you explain this behavior?
(Courtesy CENCO)
 26.5 CAPACITORS WITH DIELECTRICS 723

Metal foil

Plates Case
I?

H Electrolyte

Paper
(a)
724 CHAPTER 26 CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

Dielectric But the capacitance in the presence of the dielectric is

Co
<?o
s given by C = kC and so U becomes
,

U
2/cCn

Since K> 1, we see that the final energy is less than the
energy by the factor 1//C. This missing energy can
initial
v be accounted for by noting that when the dielectric is
inserted into the capacitor, it gets pulled into the device.
(b)
The external agent must do negative work to keep the
slab from accelerating. This work is simply the difference
Figure 26.13 (Example 26.7).
U — U (Alternatively, the positive work done by the
.

system on the external agent is given by U — U.)

Exercise 5 Suppose that the capacitance in the absence

After the battery is removed and the dielectric is in-
of a dielectricis 8.50 pF, and the capacitor is charged to
serted between the plates, the charge on the capacitor
a potential difference of 12.0 V. If the battery is discon-
remains the same. Hence, the energy stored in the pres-
nected, and a slab of polystyrene (k = 2.56) is inserted
ence of the dielectric is given by
between the plates, calculate the energy difference

(7 = U-U .

2C Answer 373 pj

As we have seen, the energy of a capacitor is lowered when a dielectric is

inserted between the plates, which means that work is done on the dielectric.
This, in turn, implies that a force must act on the dielectric which draws it into
the capacitor. This force originates from the nonuniform nature of the electric
field of the capacitor near its edges as indicated in Figure 26. 14. The horizon-
tal component of this fringe field acts on the induced charges on the surface of
the dielectric, producing a net horizontal force directed into the capacitor.

Figure 26. 14 The nonuniform electric field near the edges of a parallel-plate capacitor causes a
dielectric tobe pulled into the capacitor. Note that the field acts on the induced surface charges
on the dielectric which are nonuniformly distributed.
 26.6 ELECTRIC DIPOLE IN AN EXTERNAL ELECTRIC FIELD 725

'26.6 ELECTRIC DIPOLE IN AN EXTERNAL

ELECTRIC FIELD
The electric dipole, discussed briefly in Example 23.7,
consists of two equal
and opposite charges separated by a distance 2a, Figure 26.15. Let us as in
define the electric dipole moment of this configuration as the vector p whose
magnitude is 2aq (that is, the separation 2a multiplied by the charge q).

p = 2aq (26.17) Figure 26.15 An electric dipole

consists oftwo equal and opposite
Now suppose an electric dipole is placed in a uniform external electric charges separated by a distance 2a.
field E as in Figure 26.16, where the dipole moment makes an angle with the
field. The forces on the two charges are equal and opposite as shown, each

having a magnitude of

F=qE
Thus, we is zero. However, the two forces
see that the net force on the dipole
produce a net torque on the dipole, and the dipole tends to rotate such that its
axis is aligned with the field. The torque due to the force on the positive charge
about an axis through O is given by Fa sin 0, where a sin is the moment arm of
F about O. In Figure 26.16, this force tends to produce a clockwise rotation.
The torque on the negative charge about O is also Fa sin 0, so the net torque Figure 26.16 An electric dipole
in a uniform electric field. The di-
about O is given by
pole moment p is at an angle 6 with
the field, and the dipole experi-
t = 2Fa sin
ences a torque.

Because F = qE and p = 2aq, we can express x as

t = 2aqE sin = pE sin (26.18)

It is convenient to express the torque in vector form as the cross product of the
vectors p and E:

Torque on an electric dipole

T = pXE (26.19)
in an extended electric field

We
can also determine the potential energy of an electric dipole as a
function of its orientation with respect to the external electric field. In order to
do you should recognize that work must be done by an external agent to
this,
rotate the dipole through a given angle in the field. The work done is then
stored as potential energy in the system, that is, the dipole and the external
field. The work dW required to rotate the dipole through an angle dO is given

by dW= x dd (Chapter 10). Because x = pE sin 0, and because the work is

transformed into potential energy U, we find that for a rotation from O to 0, the
change in potential energy is

U-U.0=1 xdd= I pE sin 6dd = pE \

sin dd
Je j6o Je

U-U = pE[ -cos d\

e
6o
= p£(cos O
- cos 0)

The term involving cos O is depends on the initial orienta-

a constant that
tion of the dipole. It is convenient to choose O
= 9O°, so that cos O =
cos 90° = 0. Furthermore, let us choose U = Oat0o = 90° as our reference of
potential energy. Hence, we can express [/as

U= —pE cos (26.20)

726 CHAPTER 26 CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

This can be written as the dot product of the vectors p and E:

Potential energy of an electric
dipole in an external electric- U=-pE (26.21)
field

Molecules are said to be polarized when there is a separation between the

"center of gravity" of the negative charges and that of the positive charges on
the molecule. In some molecules, such as water, this condition is always
present. This can be understood by inspecting the geometry of the water
molecule. The molecule is arranged so that the oxygen atom is bonded to the
hydrogen atoms with an angle of 105° between the two bonds (Fig. 26.17).
The center of negative charge is near the oxygen atom, and the center of
positive charge lies at a point midway along the line joining the hydrogen
atoms (point x in the diagram). Materials composed of molecules that are
permanently polarized in this fashion have large dielectric constants. For
Figure 26.17 The water mole- example, the dielectric constant of water is quite large (k = 80).
cule, H 2 0, has a permanent polar- A symmetrical molecule might have no permanent polarization, but a
ization resulting from its bent ge- by an external electric field. For example, if a
polarization can be induced
ometry.
linear molecule along the x axis, an external electric field in the positive x
lies
direction would cause the center of positive charge to shift to the right from its
initial position and the center of negative charge to shift to the left. This
induced polarization is the effect that predominates in most materials used as
dielectrics in capacitors.

EXAMPLE 26.S The H 2 Molecule tween the 90° orientation and the 0° orientation. Using
TheH 2 molecule has a dipole moment of 6.3 X 10~ 30 Equation 26.20 gives
C m. A sample contains 10 21 such molecules, whose
W=
•

L'90 - [/„ = (~pE cos 90°) - (-pE cos 0°)

dipole moments areoriented in the direction of an
all

electric field of 2.5 10 5 N/C. How much work is re-

X = pE= (6.3 X 10- 30 C m)(2.5 X 10 5 N/C)
quired to rotate the dipoles from this orientation (6 = 0°)
= 1.6X10- 24 J
to one in which all of the moments are perpendicular to
the field (0= 90°)? Since there are 10 21 molecules in the sample, the
total work required is given by
Solution The work required to rotate one molecule by
90° is equal to the difference in potential energy be- W, r (10 21 )(1.6X10- 24 J)= 1.6X10-3 J

°26.7 AN ATOMIC DESCRIPTION OF DIELECTRICS

In Section 26.5 we found that the potential difference between the plates of a
capacitor reduced by the factor k when a dielectric is introduced. Since the
is

potential difference between the plates equals the product of the electric field
and the separation d, the electric field is also reduced by the factor K. Thus, if
EQ is the electric field without the dielectric, the field in the presence of a
dielectric is

(26.22)

This can be understood by noting that a dielectric can be polarized. At the

atomic level, a polarized material is one in which the positive and negative
 26.7 AN ATOMIC DESCRIPTION OF DIELECTRICS 727

charges are slightly separated. If the molecules of the dielectric possess per-
manent electric dipole moments in the absence of an electric field, they are
called polar molecules (water is an example). The dipoles are randomly ori-
ented in the absence of an electric field, as shown in Figure 26.18a. When an
external field is exerted on the dipoles, causing them to be
applied, a torque is
^2^
partially aligned with the field, as inFigure 26.18b. The degree of alignment
depends on temperature and on the magnitude of the applied field. In general,
the alignment increases with decreasing temperature and with increasing
electric field strength. The partially aligned dipoles produce an internal elec-
tric field that opposes the external field, thereby causing a reduction of the
original field.
If the molecules of the dielectric do not possess a permanent dipole
moment, they are called nonpolar molecules. In this case, an external electric
field produces some charge separation, and the resulting dipole moments are
said to be induced. These induced dipole moments tend to align with the
external field, causing a reduction in the internal electric field.
With these ideas mind, consider a slab of dielectric material in a uni-
in E
a>;
form electric field E
Figure 26.19a. Positive portions of the molecules
as in
are shifted in the direction of the electric field, and negative portions are Figure 26.18 (a) Molecules with
shifted in the opposite direction. Hence, the applied electric field polarizes a permanent dipole moment are
randomly oriented in the absence
the dielectric. The net effect on the dielectric is the formation of an "induced"
of an external electric field.
positive surface charge density ct, on the right face and an equal negative (b) When an external field is ap-
surface charge density on the left face, as shown in Figure 26.19b. These plied, the dipoles are partially
aligned with the field.
induced surface charges on the dielectric give rise to an induced electric field
Ej which opposes the external field E
, Therefore, the net electric field E in
.

the dielectric has a magnitude given by

E=E -E{
(26.23)

In the parallel-plate capacitor shown in Figure 26.20, the external field E

is related to the free charge density a on the plates through the relation
E = a/e . The induced electric field in the dielectric is related to the induced

-
728 CHAPTER 26 CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

charge density a through the relation

{
E = aje
{
. Since £=E /k = ct/k€ , sub-
stitution into Equation 26.23 gives

(26.24)
 SUMMARY 729

Since the capacitance without the dielectric is given by

C = e A/d, we see that

" (d-a)/2
'~
(idrrr
[+ + + +~t\
''(d-a)

EXAMPLE 26.10 Effect of a Metal Slab

A
\\d-al d-uirl
A parallel-plate capacitor has a plate separation d and 1

1 °
plate area A. An uncharged metal slab of thickness a is

inserted midway between the plates, as shown in Figure

26.22a. Find the capacitance of the device.

(a) (b)
Solution This problem can be solved by noting that
whatever charge appears on one plate of the capacitor
Figure 26.22 (Example 26.10) (a) A parallel-plate capacitor of
must induce an equal and opposite charge on the metal plate separation d partially filled with a metal slab of thickness a
slab, as shown in Figure 26.22a. Consequently, the net (b) The equivalent circuit of the device in (a) consists of two
charge on the metal slab remains zero, and the field in- capacitors in series, each with a plate separation (d — a)/2.
side the slab is zero. Hence, the capacitor is equivalent to
two capacitors in series, each having a plate separation Solving for C gives
(d — a)/2 as shown in Figure 26.22b. Using the rule for
adding two capacitors in series we get

I = _L + J_ = ^_ •
+ •

e„A
(d -a)/2 (d - a)/2 Note that C approaches infinity as a approaches d. Why?

SUMMARY
A capacitor consists of two equal and oppositely charged conductors spaced
very close together compared to their size with a potential difference V
between them. The capacitance C of any capacitor is defined to be the ratio
of the magnitude of the charge Q on either conductor to the magnitude of
the potential difference V:

(26.1) Definition of capacitance

V
The SI unit of capacitance is coulomb per volt, or farad (F), and 1 F=
1 C/V.
The capacitance of several capacitors is summarized in Table 26.2.
The formulas apply when the charged conductors are separated by a vac-
uum.
If two or more capacitors are connected in parallel, the potential dif-
ference across them must be the same. The equivalent capacitance of a
parallel combination of capacitors is given by

C„- Q + C, + C3 + • • (26.8) Parallel combinations

730 CHAPTER 26 CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

TABLE 26.2 Capacitance and Geometry

Geometry
 QUESTIONS 731

The torque acting on an electric dipole in a uniform electric field E is

given by
,_„ .
Q , Torque on an electric dipole
* '
in an extended electric field

The potential energy of an electric dipole in a uniform external electric

field E is given by
Potential energy of an electric
U = -p- E (26.21) dipole in an external electric
field

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY AND HINTS

1. Be careful with your choice of units. To calculate capacitance in farads, make
sure that distances are in meters and use the SI value of e When checking
.

consistency of units, remember that the units for electric fields can be either
N/C or V/m.
2. When two or more unequal capacitors are connected in series, they carry the
same charge, but the potential differences are not the same. Their capaci-
tances add as reciprocals, and the equivalent capacitance of the combination
is always less than the smallest individual capacitor.

3. When two or more capacitors are connected in parallel, the potential differ-
ence across each is the same. The charge on each capacitor is proportional to
its capacitance, hence the capacitances add directly to give the equivalent

capacitance of the parallel combination.

4. The effect of a dielectric on a capacitor is to increase its capacitance by a factor
k (the dielectric constant) over its empty capacitance. The reason for this is
that induced surface charges on the dielectric reduce the electric field inside
the material from E to E/k.
5. Be careful about problems in which you may be connecting or disconnecting a
battery to a capacitor. important to note whether modifications to the
It is

capacitor are being made whilethe capacitor is connected to the battery or

after it is disconnected. If the capacitor remains connected to the battery, the
voltage across the capacitor necessarily remains the same (equal to the battery
voltage), and the charge will be proportional to the capacitance however it
may be modified (say by inserting a dielectric). On the other hand, if you
disconnect the capacitor from the battery before making any modifications to
the capacitor, then its charge remains the same. In this case, as you vary the
capacitance, the voltage across the plates will change in an inverse proportion
to capacitance according to V = Q/C.

QUESTIONS

1. What happens to the charge on a capacitor if the po- A pair of capacitors are connected in parallel while an
tential difference between the conductors is doubled? identical pair are connected in series. Which pair
2. The plates of a capacitor are connected to a battery. would be more dangerous to handle after being con-
What happens to the charge on the plates if the con- nected to the same voltage source? Explain.
necting wires are removed from the battery? What If you are given 3 different capacitors C ly C 2 ,C 3 how ,

happens to the charge if the wires are removed from many different combinations of capacitance can you
the battery and connected to each other? produce?
3. A farad is a very large unit of capacitance. Calculate What advantage might there be in using 2 identical
the length of one side of a square, air-filled capacitor capacitors in parallel connected in series with another
with a plate separation of 1 meter. Assume it has a identical parallel pair, rather than using a single ca-
capacitance of 1 farad. pacitor by itself?
732 CHAPTER 26 CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

7. Is always possible to reduce a combination of capaci-

it how and why the voltage reading
voltmeter. Explain
tors to one equivalent capacitor with the rules we changes when a dielectric is inserted between the
have just developed? Explain your answer. plates of the capacitor.
8. Since the net charge in a capacitor is always zero, 15. Using the polar molecule description of a dielectric,
what does a capacitor store? explain how a dielectric affects the electric field in-
9. Since the charges on the plates of a parallel-plate ca- side a capacitor.
pacitor are equal and opposite, they attract each 1 6. Explain why a dielectric increases the maximum oper-
other. Hence, it would take positive work to increase ating voltage of a capacitor although the physical size
the plate separation. What happens to the external of the capacitor does not change.
work done in this process? 17. What is the difference between dielectric strength
10. Explain why the work needed to move a charge, Q, and the dielectric constant?
through a potential, V, is given by W=
QV whereas 18. Where in a coaxial cable will electrical breakdown
the energy stored in a charged capacitor is U = %Q V. first occur if the cable is connected to an excessive
Where does the £ factor come from? potential difference?
11. If the potential difference across a capacitor is dou- 19. Explain why a water molecule is permanently polar-
bled, by what factor does the energy stored change? ized. What type of molecule has no permanent polar-
12. Why is it dangerous to touch the terminals of a high- ization?
voltage capacitor even after the applied voltage has 20. If a dielectric-filled capacitor is heated, how will its

been turned off? What can be done to make the ca- capacitance change? (Neglect thermal expansion and
pacitor safe to handle after the voltage source has assume that the dipole orientations are temperature-
been removed? dependent.)
13. If you want to increase the maximum operating volt- 21. In terms of induced charges, explain why a charged
age of a parallel-plate capacitor, describe how you can comb attracts small bits of paper.
do this for a fixed plate separation. 22. If you were asked to design a capacitor where small
14. An air-filled capacitor is charged, then disconnected size and large capacitance were required, what fac-
from the power supply, and finally connected to a tors would be important in your design?

PROBLEMS
Section 26.1 Definition of Capacitance tance of this system is 9.1 X 10 -11 F, what is the
radius of the sphere? (b) If the potential at the surface
1. The excess charge on each conductor of a parallel-
of the sphefe is 2.8 X 10 4 V, what is the correspond-
plate capacitor is 53 fiC What is the potential differ-
ing surface charge density?
ence between the conductors if the capacitance of the
7. An isolated charged conducting sphere of radius
system is 4 X 10 -3 fiF?
12 cm creates an electric field of 4.9 X 10 4 N/C at a
2. Show that the units C 2 /N m•
equal 1 F.
What
distance of 21 cm from its center, (a) is its sur-
3. Two parallel wires are suspended in a vacuum. When What capacitance?
face charge density? (b) is its
the potential difference between the two wires is
8. Two conducting spheres with diameters of 0.40 m
52 V, each wire has a charge of 73 pC (the two
and 1.0 m are separated by a distance that is large
charges are of opposite sign). Calculate the capaci-
compared with the diameters. The spheres are con-
tance of the parallel-wire system.
nected by a thin wire and are charged to 7 fiC.
4. Two conductors insulated from each other are
(a) How is this total charge shared between the
charged by transferring electrons from one conductor
spheres? (Neglect any charge on the wire.) (b) What
to the other. After 1.6 X 10
12 electrons have been
is the potential of the system of spheres relative to
transferred, the potential difference between the
V=0atr = °°?
conductors is found to be 14 V. What is the capaci-
9. Two spherical conductors with radii Rj and R 2 are
tance of the system?
separated by a sufficiently large distance that induc-
5. A parallel-plate capacitor has a capacitance of 19 //F.
tion effects are negligible. The spheres are connected
What charge on each plate will produce a potential
by a thin conducting wire and are brought to the
difference of 36 V between the plates of the capaci-
same potential V relative to V = at r = °°. (a) Deter-
mine the capacitance C of the system, where C =
tor?
6. An isolated conducting sphere can be considered as
(Qi +Qz)/V- (b) What is the charge ratio Q,/ft?
one element of a capacitor (the other element being a
concentric sphere of infinite radius), (a) If the capaci-
 PROBLEMS 733

Section 26.2 Calculation of Capacitance the total effective area of adjacent plates is 7 cm 2 .

Ignoring side effects, calculate the capacitance of the

1 0. An air-filled parallel plate capacitor is to have a capac-
unit.
itance of 1 F. If the distance between the plates is
=
1 9. One plate of a parallel-plate capacitor (with area A
1 mm, calculate the required surface area of each
1 00 cm 2 )
grounded. The ungrounded plate carries a
is
plate. Convert your answer to square miles.
fixed charge O. When the ungrounded plate is moved
11. A parallel-plate capacitor has a plate area of 12 cm 2
0.5 cm farther away from the grounded plate, the po-
and a capacitance of 7 pF. What is the plate separa-
tential difference between the plates increases by
tion?
200 V. Determine the magnitude of the charge Q.
12. The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor are separated
20. An air-filled cylindrical capacitor has a capacitance of
by 0.2 mm. If the space between the plates is air, what
1 pF and is 6 cm in length. If the radius of the outside
plate area is required to provide a capacitance of
conductor is 1 .5 cm, what is the required radius of the
9pF?
inner conductor?
13. When a potential difference of 1 50 V is applied to the
plates of a parallel-plate capacitor, the plates carry a
21. A 50-m length of coaxial cable has an inner con-

surface charge density of 30 nC/cm 2 What

. is the
ductor with a diameter of 2.58 mm
and a charge of

spacing between the plates?

+ 8.1 //C. The surrounding conductor has an inner
diameter of 7.27 and a charge of — 8.1//C.
mm
14. A small object with a mass of 350 mg carries a charge
(a) What is the capacitance of this cable? (b) What is
of 30 nC and is suspended by a thread between the
the potential difference between the two conductors?
vertical plates of a parallel-plate capacitor. The plates
22. A cylindrical capacitor has outer and inner conductors
are separated by 4 cm. If the thread makes an angle of
15° with the vertical, what is the potential difference whose radii are in the ratio of b/a = 4/1. The inner
conductor is to be replaced by a wire whose radius is
between the plates?
one half of the original inner conductor. By what fac-
15. An air-filled capacitor consists of two parallel plates,
tor should the length be increased in order to obtain a
each with an area of 7.6 cm 2 separated by a distance
,

capacitance equal to that of the original capacitor?

of 1.8 mm. If a 20-V potential difference is applied to
23. An air-filled spherical capacitor is constructed with
these plates, calculate (a) the electric field between
inner and outer shell radii of 7 and 14 cm, respec-
the plates, (b) the surface charge density, (c) the ca-
tively, (a) Calculate the capacitance of the device.
pacitance, and (d) the charge on each plate.
(b) What between the spheres
potential difference
16. A 1-megabit computer memory chip contains many
charge of 4 //C on each conductor?
will result in a
60-fF capacitors. Each capacitor has a plate area of
24. Find the capacitance of the earth. (Hint: The outer
21 //m 2 (21 X 10 -12 m 2 ). Determine the plate separa-
conductor of the "spherical capacitor" may be consid-
tion of such a capacitor (assume a parallel-plate config-
uration). The characteristic atomic diameter is
ered as a conducting sphere at infinity where 0.) V—
25. A spherical capacitor consists of a conducting ball
10 -10 m = 1 A. Express the plate separation in A.
with a diameter of 10 cm that is centered inside a
17. A circular parallel-plate capacitor with a spacing d =
grounded conducting spherical shell with an inner di-
3 mm is charged to produce an electric field strength
ameter of 1 2 cm. What capacitor charge is required to
of 3 X 10 6 V/m. What plate radius R is required if the
achieve a potential of 1000 V on the ball?
stored charge Q is 1 fiC?
26. Estimate the maximum voltage to which a smooth,
18. A capacitoris constructed of interlocking plates as
metallic sphere 10 cm in diameter can be charged
shown Figure 26.23 (a cross-sectional view). The
in
without exceeding the dielectric strength of the dry
separation between adjacent plates is 0.8 mm, and
air around the sphere.

Section 26.3 Combinations of Capacitors

27. Two capacitors, Cx = 2 fiF and C2 = 16 ^F, are con-

nected in parallel. What is the value of the equivalent

capacitance of the combination?

28. Calculate the equivalent capacitance of the two ca-
pacitors in the previous exercise if they are connected
in series.
29. (a) Determine the equivalent capacitance for the ca-
pacitor network shown in Figure 26.24. (b) If the net-
work is connected to a 12-V battery, calculate the
potential difference across each capacitor and the
Figure 26.23 (Problems 18 and 87). charge on each capacitor.
734 CHAPTER 26 CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

33. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 26.28, where

r h Cj = 6 /iF, C2 = 3 fiF, and V=
20 V. C x is first
charged by the closing of switch S x Switch Sj is then
3/jF 6^F .

opened, and the charged capacitor is connected to the

uncharged capacitor by the closing of S 2 Calculate .

2/iF the initial charge acquired by Q

and the final charge
on each of the two capacitors.
Figure 26.24 (Problem 29).

30. Evaluate the effective capacitance of the configura-

tion shown in Figure 26.25. Each of the capacitors is

identical and has capacitance C.

Figure 26.28 (Problem 33).

MHHH C C C 34. Consider the

26.29.
group of capacitors shown in Figure
Find the equivalent capacitance between
(a)

points a and b. (b) Determine the charge on each ca-

pacitor when the potential difference between a and b
Figure 26.25 (Problem 30).
is 12 V.
31 Four capacitors are connected as shown in Figure
26.26. (a) Find the equivalent capacitance between
points a and b. (b) Calculate the charge on each capac-
itor if V^ = 15 V.

15 nF 3/iF

2/iF

Figure 26.29 (Problem 34).

6/iF 35. Consider the combination of capacitors shown in Fig-

ure 26.30. (a) What is the equivalent capacitance be-
Figure 26.26 (Problems 31 and 44). tween points a and b? (b) Determine the charge on
each capacitor if V^ = 4.8 V.

32. (a) Figure 26.27 shows a network of capacitors be-

tween the terminals a and b. Reduce this network to a
single equivalent capacitor, (b) Determine the charge 20 fiF

on the 4-/iF and 8-//F capacitors when the capacitors

are fully charged by a 1 2-V battery connected to the
terminals, (c) Determine the potential difference
5/iF I 5/iF

across each capacitor.

Figure 26.30 (Problem 35).

4 /iF 6/iF

36. How many 0.25-pF capacitors must be connected in

parallel in order to store 1.2 /iC of charge when con-
24 /iF nected to a battery providing a potential difference of
10 V?
8 nF 2. /iF
37. A group of identical capacitors is connected first in
Figure 26.27 (Problem 32). series and then in parallel. The combined capacitance
 PROBLEMS 735

in parallel is 100 times larger than for the series con-

nection. How many capacitors are in the group?
38. Find the equivalent capacitance between points a and
b for the group of capacitors connected as shown in
Figure 26.31 if C x = 5fiF, C 2 =l0fiF, and C 3 =
2fiF.

c,
 736 CHAPTER 26 CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

53. Show
that the energy associated with a conducting from two strips of aluminum separated by two strips of
sphere of radius R and charge Q surrounded by a paraffin-coated paper. Each strip of foil and paper is

vacuum is given by U = kQ 2 /2R. 7 cm wide. The foil is 0.004 mm thick, and the paper
54. Use Equation 26.14 to make an explicit calculation of is 0.025 mm thick and has a dielectric constant of 3.7.
the energy stored in the field of a simple spherical What length should the strips be if a capacitor of
capacitor. Show that U= 2
/2C. 9.5 X 10~ 8 F is desired? (Use the parallel-plate for-
mula.)
"Section 26.5 Capacitors with Dielectrics and "Section 60. A detector of radiation called a Geiger tube consists of
26.7 An Atomic Description of Dielectrics a closed, hollow, conducting cylinder with a fine wire
along its axis. Suppose that the internal diameter of
55. Determine (a) the capacitance and (b) the maximum
the cylinder is 2.5 cm and that the wire along the axis
voltage which can be applied to a Teflon-filled paral-
has a diameter of 0.2 mm. If the dielectric strength of
lel-plate capacitor having a plate area of 175 cm 2 and
the gas between the central wire and cylinder is
insulation thickness of 0.04 mm. (See Table 26.1 for
1.2 X
10 6 V/m, calculate the maximum voltage V,,,,,,
other dielectric properties.)
that canbe applied between the wire and the cylinder
56. A parallel-plate capacitor is to be constructed using
before breakdown occurs in the gas.
paper as a dielectric. If a maximum voltage before
breakdown of 2500 V is desired, what thickness of
61. The plates of an isolated, charged capacitor are 1 mm
apart and the potential difference across them is
dielectric is needed? (See Table 26. 1 for other dielec-
tric properties.)
V . The plates are now separated to 4 mm (while
the charge on them is preserved) and a slab of dielec-
57. A parallel-plate capacitor has a plate area of 0.64 cm 2 .

tric material is inserted, filling the space between

When the plates are in a vacuum, the capacitance of
the plates. The potential difference across the capaci-
the device is 4.9 pF. (a) Calculate the value of the
tor is now V /2. Find the dielectric constant of the
capacitance if the space between the plates is filled
material.
with nylon, (b) What is the maximum potential differ-
62. (a) What is the capacitance of a square parallel-plate
ence that can be applied to the plates without causing
capacitor measuring 5 cm on a side with a 0.2-mm gap
breakdown, or discharge?
dielectric
between the plates if this gap is filled with Teflon?
58. A capacitor is constructed from two square metal
(b)What maximum voltage can this capacitor with-
plates of side length L and separated by a distance d
stand? (c) What maximum energy can this capacitor
(Fig. 26.35). One half of the space between the plates
store?
(top to bottom) is filled with polystyrene (k= 2.56),
and the other half is filled with neoprene rubber (k =
63. A capacitor having air between its
parallel-plate
plates charged to 31.5 V. The capacitor is then iso-
is
6.7). Calculate the capacitance of the device, taking
lated from the charging source and the volume be-
L = 2 cm and d = 0.75 mm. (Hint: The capacitor can
tween the plates is filled with Plexiglas. Determine
be considered as two capacitors connected in paral-
the new potential difference across the capacitor. The
lel.)
dielectric constant of Plexiglas is 3.12.
64. Let QQ be the greatest charge that can be placed
on the plates of an air-filled parallel-plate capacitor
without causing electrical breakdown. Let O be the
greatest charge that can be placed on the plates of
this same capacitor when the gap between the plates
is filled with neoprene rubber. What is the ratio

P/Qo?
65. A sheet of 0.1 -mm thick paper is inserted between
the plates of a 340-pF air-filled capacitor with a plate
separation of 0.4 mm. Calculate the new capaci-
tance.
66. A wafer of titanium dioxide (k= 173) has an area of
1 cm 2 and a thickness of 0.10 mm. Aluminum is evap-
orated on the parallel faces to form a parallel-plate
capacitor, (a) Calculate the capacitance, (b) When
the capacitor is charged with a 12-V battery, what is
Figure 26.35 (Problem 58).
the magnitude of charge delivered to each plate?
(c) For the situation in (b), what are the free and in-

59. A commercial capacitor is constructed as shown in duced surface charge densities? (d) What is the elec-
Figure 26.12a. This particular capacitor is "rolled" tric field strength E?
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 737

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS the energy per unit mass (J/kg) for gasoline, lead-acid
batteries, and capacitors.
67. When two capacitors are connected in parallel, the
equivalent capacitance 4 /iF. If the same capacitors
is
Gasoline: 126,000 Btu/gal; density = 670 kg/m 3 .

are reconnected in series, the equivalent capacitance Lead-acid batten/: 12 V; 100 A- h: = 16 kg.
mass
is one fourth the capacitance of one of the two capaci-
Capacitor: potential difference at full charge = 12 V;
tors. Determine the two capacitances. = =
capacitance 0.1 F; mass 0.1 kg.
68. For the system of capacitors shown in Figure 26.36,
find (a) the equivalent capacitance of the system, 75. An isolated capacitor of unknown capacitance has
each capacitor, (c) the charge
(b) the potential across been charged to a potential difference of 100 V.
on each capacitor, and (d) the total energy stored by When the charged capacitor is then connected in par-
the group. allel to an uncharged 10-//F capacitor, the voltage
across the combination is 30 V. Calculate the un-
known capacitance.
3 nF 6fiF
76. A certain electronic circuit calls for a capacitor having
1 .2 pF and a breakdown potential of
a capacitance of
1000 V. you have a supply of 6-pF capacitors each
If
having a breakdown potential of 200 V, how could
you meet this circuit requirement?
2 /±F 4 /aF
77. A 2-//F capacitor and a 3-/iF capacitor have the same
maximum voltage rating Vmax Due to this voltage limi-
.

tation, the maximum potential difference that can be

applied to a series combination of these capacitors is
90 V 800 V. Calculate the maximum voltage rating of the
individual capacitors.
Figure 26.36 (Problem 68).
78. A 2-nF parallel-plate capacitor is charged to an initial
potential difference Vj=100V and then isolated.
69. When the voltage applied to a capacitor increases The dielectric material between the plates is mica
from 80 V10 V, the charge on the capacitor in-
to 1
(k = 5). (a) How much work is required to withdraw
-5
creases by 9.0 X 10 C. Determine the capacitance. the mica sheet? (b) What is the potential difference of
70. A parallel-plate capacitor with air between its plates the capacitor after the mica is withdrawn?
has a capacitance C A slab of dielectric material with
.
79. A parallel-plate capacitor is constructed using a di-
a dielectric constant k and a thickness equal to a frac- electric material whose 3 and
dielectric constant is
tion /of the separation of the plates is inserted be- whose dielectric strength is 2 X 10 V/m. The desired 8

tween the plates in contact with one plate. Find the capacitance is 0.25 fiF, and the capacitor must with-
capacitance C in terms of/, k, and C Check your .
stand a maximum potential difference of 4000 V. Find
result by first letting/approach zero and then letting the minimum area of the capacitor plates.
it approach one.
80. A parallel-plate capacitor is constructed using three
71. When a certain air-filled parallel-plate capacitor is
different dielectric materials, as shown in Figure
connected across a battery, it acquires a charge (on 26.37. Find an expression for the capacitance of
(a)
each plate) of 1 50 //C. While the battery connection is the device in terms of the plate area A and d, k 1 k2 , ,

maintained, a dielectric slab is inserted into and fills and K3 (b) Calculate the capacitance using the values
.

the region between the plates. This results in the ac- A = 1 cm 2 d = 2 mm, Kj = 4.9, k2 = 5.6, and
,

cumulation of an additional charge of 200 fiC on each K, = 2.1.

plate. What is the dielectric constant of the dielectric
slab?
72. The energy stored in a 52-//F capacitor is used to melt
a 6-mg sample of lead. To what voltage must the capac-
itor be initially charged, assuming the initial tempera-
ture of the lead is 20°C?
7.J. Three capacitors of 8/zF, 10
//F, and 14 //F are con-
nected to the terminals of a 12-volt battery. How
much energy does the battery supply if the capacitors
are connected (a) in series and (b) in parallel?
74. When considering the energy supply for an automo-
bile, the energy per unit mass of the supply is an im-
portant parameter. Using the following data, compare Figure 26.37 (Problem 80).
738 CHAPTER 26 CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

S1 . In the arrangement shown in Figure 26.38, a potential stant K is inserted a distance x into the capacitor, as in
V is applied, and Cx is adjusted so that the electro- Figure 26.39. (a) Find the equivalent capacitance of
staticvoltmeter between points b and d reads zero. the device, (b) Calculate the energy stored in the ca-
This "balance" occurs when C 1 = 4 fiF. If C3 = 9 fiF pacitor if the potential difference is V. (c) Find the
and C4 = 1 2 fiF, calculate the value of C2 . direction and magnitude of the force exerted on the
dielectric,assuming a constant potential difference V.
Neglect friction and edge effects, (d) Obtain a numer-
ical value for the force assuming that £ = 5 cm,
V= 2000 V, d = 2 mm, and the dielectric is glass
(k = 4.5). (Hint: The system can be considered as two
capacitors connected in parallel.)

Figure 26.38 (Problem 81).

S2. It is possible to obtain large potential differences by

Figure 26.39 (Problem 85).
first charging a group of capacitors connected in paral-
lel and then activating a switch arrangement that in
effect disconnects the capacitors from the charging
source and from each other and reconnects them in a 86. Capacitors C 1 = 6 fiF and C2 = 2 fiF are charged as a
series arrangement. The group of charged capacitors combination across a 250-V battery. The ca-
parallel

is then discharged in series. What is the maximum pacitors are disconnected from the battery and from

potential difference that can be obtained in this man- each other. They are then connected positive plate to
ner by using ten capacitors each of 500 //F and a charg- negative plate and negative plate to positive plate.
ing source of 800 V? Calculate the resulting charge on each capacitor.

83. A parallel-plate capacitor of plate separation d is 87. A stack of N plates has alternate plates connected to
charged to a potential difference V A dielectric slab .
form a capacitor similar to Figure 26.23. Adjacent
of thickness d and dielectric constant K is introduced plates are separated by a dielectric of thickness d. The

between the plates while the battery remains con- dielectric constant is K and the area of overlap of adja-

nected to the plates, (a) Show

that the ratio of energy cent plates is A. Show that the capacitance of this stack
«€ n A
stored after the dielectric introduced to the energy
is
of plates is C =
,. .
*— (N - 1).— ,

stored in the empty capacitor is given by U/U = K. d

Give a physical explanation for this increase in stored 88. A coulomb balance is constructed of two parallel

energy, (b) What happens to the charge on the capaci- plates, each being 10 cm square. The upper plate is
tor? (Note that this situation is not the same as Exam- movable. A 25-mg mass is placed on the upper plate
ple 26.7, in which the battery was removed from the and the plate is observed to lower and the mass is then
circuit before introducing the dielectric.) removed. When a potential difference is applied to
84. A parallel-plate capacitor is to be constructed using the plates, it is found that the applied voltage must be
Pyrex glass as a dielectric. If the capacitance of the 375 V to cause the upper plate to lower the same
device is to be 0.2 /zF and it is to be operated at amount as it lowered when the mass was on it. If the
6000 V, (a) calculate the minimum plate area re- force exerted on each plate by the other is given by
quired, (b) What is the energy stored in the capacitor F = Q 2/2eQ A, calculate the following, assuming an ap-
at the operating voltage? For Pyrex, use K=5.6. plied voltage of 375 V: (a) The charge on the plates.
(Note: Each dielectric material has a characteristic (b) The electric field between the plates, (c) The sepa-
dielectric strength. This is the maximum voltage per ration distance of the plates, (d) The capacitance of
unit thickness the material can withstand without this capacitor.

electrical breakdown or rupture. For Pyrex, the die- 89. The inner conductor of a coaxial cable has a radius of
14 X 10 6 V/m.)
lectric strength is 0.8 mmand the outer conductor's inside radius is
85. A capacitor is constructed from two square plates of 3.0 mm. The space between the conductors is filled
sides £ and separation d. A material of dielectric con- with polyethylene, which has a dielectric constant of
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 739

2.3 and a dielectric strength of 18 X 10 6 V/m. What is 93. Consider two long, parallel, and oppositely charged
the maximum potential difference that this cable can wires of radius d with their centers separated by a
withstand? distance D. Assuming the charge is distributed uni-
90 You are optimizing coaxial cable design for a major formly on the surface of each wire, show that the ca-
manufacturer. Show that for a given outer conductor pacitance per unit length of this pair of wires is given
radius b, maximum potential difference capability is by the following expression:
attained when the radius of the inner conductor is
given by a — bje where e is the base of natural loga-
C_~ 7T£

e
rithms.
91. Calculate the equivalent capacitance
points a and b in Figure 26.40. Note
between the
that this is not a
"(^
simple series or parallel combination. (Hint: Assume a
potential difference V between points a and b. Write
expressions for Vah in terms of the charges and capaci-
tances for the various possible pathways from a to b,
and require conservation of charge for those capacitor
plates that are connected to each other.)

4/uF

2 fiF 4 fiF

2MF I

Figure 26.40 (Problem 91).

92. Determine the effective capacitance of the combina-

tion shown in Figure 26.41. (Hint: Consider the sym-
metry involved!)

C 2C

T
C 2C

Figure 26.41 (Problem 92). "But we just don't have the technology to carry it out."
 27
Current and Resistance

The first integrated circuit,

tested on September 12, 1958.
(Courtesy of Texas
Instruments)

Thus far our discussion of electrical phenomena has been confined to

charges at rest, or electrostatics. We shall now consider situations
involving electric charges in motion. The term electric current, or
simply current, is used to describe the rate of flow of charge
through some region of space. Most practical applications of electricity deal
with electric currents. For example, the battery of a flashlight supplies current
to the filament of the bulb when the switch is turned on. A variety of home
appliances operate on alternating current. In these common situations, the
flow of charge takes place in a conductor, such as a copper wire. However, it is
possible for currents to exist outside of a conductor. For instance, a beam of
electrons in a TV picture tube constitutes a current.
In this chapter we shall first discuss the battery, one source of continuous
current, followed by a definition of current and current density. A microscopic
description of current will be given, and some of the factors that contribute to
the resistance to the flow of charge in conductors will be discussed. Mecha-
nisms responsible for the electrical resistance of various materials depend on
the composition of the material and on temperature. A classical model is used
to describe electrical conduction in metals, and some of the limitations of this
model are pointed out.

740
 27.1 THE BATTERY 741

27.1 THE BATTERY

Although electrical phenomena were known before 1 800, electrical machines

of that era were limited to devices that could produce static charge and large
potential differences by means of friction. Such machines were capable of
producing large sparks, but were of little practical value.
The electric battery, invented in 1800 by Alessandro Volta (1745-
1827), was one of the most important practical discoveries in science. This
invention represented the basis for a wide range of subsequent developments
in electrical technology.
It is some important events that led to
interesting to describe briefly
Volta's invention. In 1786, Luigi Galvani (1737-1798) found that when a
copper hook was inserted into the spinal cord of a frog, which in turn was hung
from an iron railing, the leg muscles contracted. Galvani observed the same
effect when other dissimilar metals were used. In reporting this unusual phe-
nomenon, he proposed that the source of the charge was the muscle or nerve
of the frog. Hence, he termed the source "animal electricity."
After hearing of Galvani's results, Volta proceeded to confirm and expand
these experiments. He then offered the idea that the source of the charge was
not the animal, but the contact between the two dissimilar metals, iron and
copper. During his investigations, Volta recognized that the contact between
the two metals required a moist conductor (such as the frog's muscle) to obtain
a sizable effect. He eventually proved his point conclusively by showing that
the effect occurred (although weakly) when the frog muscle was replaced by
an inorganic substance. Further, he showed that certain pairs of metals pro-
duced a larger effect than others.
Volta then proceeded to invent a continuous source of electricity, the first

battery. His original device, called the Voltaic pile, consisted of alternate disks
of silver and zinc, as in Figure 27.1. Adjacent layers were separated by a cloth
that had been soaked in a salt solution or dilute acid. The layered structure
provided a continuous potential difference between the two ends, with an
excess of positive charge at the silver end and an equal amount of negative
charge at the zinc end. In effect, the pile was an energy converter, where
internal chemical energy was converted into electric potential energy. Al-
though this battery produced small potential differences compared to those
produced by friction machines, it was able to provide a large electric charge,
^P
Figure 27.1
original pile.
Diagram of
The
Volta's
cloth separating
the plates is soaked in a salt solu-
and hence proved to be of great practical importance. These early sources tion. A potential difference is pro-
were very important for experiments because they provided a nearly constant duced between the two end plates.

potential difference.
There are many different kinds of batteries in use today. One of the most
common types is the ordinary flashlight battery. These batteries are produced Carbon
in a variety of shapes and sizes, but they all work in basically the same way.
Figure 27.2 is a diagram of the interior of such a battery. In this particular
battery, often referred to as a dry cell, the zinc case serves as the negative
terminal, while the carbon rod down
center serves as the positive terminal.
its

The space between the two terminals containsa paste-like mixture of manga-
nese dioxide, ammonium chloride, and carbon.
When these materials are assembled in this fashion, two chemical reac-
tions take place; one occurs at the zinc case, the other at the manganese
dioxide layer surrounding the carbon rod. Positive charged zinc ions (Zn z+ )
Figure 27.2 Cross-sectional view
leave the case and enter the ammonium chloride paste, where they combine of a dry cell.
742 CHAPTER 27 CURRENT AND RESISTANCE
_
with chloride ions (Cl ). (The chloride ions are present because a small per-
centage of the ammonium chloride dissociates, leaving some free chloride ions
in the solution.) As each zinc ion is removed from the case, it leaves behind two
electrons. As additional zinc ions leave the case, more electrons accumulate,
leaving the zinc case with a net negative charge.
When a chloride ion breaks free from the ammonium chloride molecule,
the remnant portion of the molecule becomes singly ionized. This positively
charged ion is neutralized by the manganese dioxide, which supplies the
needed electrons. As a result, the carbon rod surrounded by its manganese
dioxide layer ends up with a net positive charge.
These chemical reactions and thus the charge separation do not continue
without limit. The zinc case ultimately achieves such a strong negative charge
that the zinc ions can no longer escape. A similar charge saturation occurs at

the carbon rod.

27.2 ELECTRIC CURRENT

Whenever move, a current is said to exist. To
electric charges of like sign
define current more moving perpendicular
precisely, suppose the charges are
to a surface of area A as in Figure 27.3. This area could be the cross-sectional
area of a wire, for example. The current is tlie rate at which charge flows
through this surface. If AQ is the amount of charge that passes through this area
in a time interval Af, the average current, 7av is
, equal to the ratio of the charge
to the time interval:
Figure 27.3 Charges in motion
through an area A. The time rate of
flow of charge through the area is
(27.1)
defined as the current /. The direc-
tion of the current is in the direc-
tion in which positive charge
would flow if free to do so. which charge flows varies in time, the current also varies in time
If the rate at
and we define the instantaneous current, 7, as the differential limit of the
expression above:

Electric current 1 = dQ (27.2)

dt

The SI unit of current is the ampere (A), where

The direction of
A= C/s
1 1 (27.3)
the current

That is, 1 A of current is equivalent to 1 C of charge passing through the

surface in 1 s. In practice, smaller units of current are often used, such as the
-6
A) and the microampere (1 //A = 10
-3
milliampere (1 mA = 10 A).
When charges flow through the surface in Figure 27.3, they can be posi-
tive, negative, or both. If is conventional to choose the direction oftlie current to
be in the direction offlow of positive charge. In a conductor such as copper, the
current is due to the motion of the negatively charged electrons. Therefore,
when we speak of current in an ordinary conductor, such as a copper wire, tlxe
direction of the current will be opposite the direction offlow ofelectrons. On the
other hand, if one considers a beam of positively charged protons in an acceler-
ator, the current is in the direction of motion of the protons. In some cases, the
 27.2 ELECTRIC CURRENT 743

current is the result of the flow of both positive and negative charges. This U Ax J
occurs, for example, in semiconductors and electrolytes. It is common to refer
to a moving charge (whether it is positive or negative) as a mobile charge
carrier. For example, the charge carriers in a metal are electrons.
It is instructive to relate current to the motion of the charged particles. To
illustrate this point,consider the current in a conductor of cross-sectional
area A (Fig. 27.4). The volume of an element of the conductor of length Ax (the
shaded region in Fig. 27.4) is A Ax. If n represents the number of mobile
charge carriers per unit volume, then the number of mobile charge carriers in
Figure 27.4 A section of a uni-
the volume element is given by nA Ax. Therefore, the charge AQ in this form conductor of cross-sectional
element is given by area A. The charge carriers move
with a speed t>,j, and the distance
AQ = number of charges X charge per particle = (nA Ax)q they travel in a time At is given by
Ax = t)j At. The number of mobile
where q is the charge on each particle. If the charge carriers move with a speed charge carriers in the section of
D d the distance they
, move in a time At is given by Ax = u d At. Therefore, we length Ax is given by mAdj Af
where n is the number of mobile
can write AQ in the form carriers per unit volume.

AQ = (nAv A At)q

If we divide both sides of this equation by At, we see that the current in the
conductor is given by

Ir = —=
A<?
a
nqVdA (27.4) Current in a conductor

The velocity of the charge carriers, t>d is actually an average velocity and
,

is called the drift velocity. To understand the meaning of drift velocity, con-
sider a conductor in which the charge carriers are free electrons. In an isolated
conductor, these electrons undergo random motion similar to that of gas mole-
cules. When a potential difference is applied across the conductor (say, by
means of a battery), an electric field is set up in the conductor, which creates
an electric force on the electrons and hence a current. In reality, the electrons
do not simply move in straight lines along the conductor. Instead, they un-
dergo repeated collisions with the metal atoms, which results in a complicated
zigzag motion (Fig. 27.5). The energy transferred from the electrons to the
metal atoms causes an increase in the vibrational energy of the atoms and a
corresponding increase in the temperature of the conductor. However, de-
spite the collisions, the electrons move slowly along the conductor (in a direc-
tion opposite E) with an average velocity called the drift velocity, vd The field .

does work on the electrons that exceeds the average loss due to collisions,
which results in a net current. As we shall see in an example that follows, drift
velocities are much smaller than the average speed between collisions. We Figure 27.5 A schematic repre-
sentation of the zigzag motion of a
shall discuss this model in more detail in Section 27.6. One can think of the
charge carrier in a conductor. The
collisions of the electrons within a conductor as being an effective internal changes in direction are due to col-
friction (or drag force), similar to that experienced by the molecules of a liquid lisions with atoms in the conductor.
Note that the net motion of elec-
flowing through a pipe stuffed with steel wool.
trons is opposite the direction of
The following quotation is an interesting and amusing description by the electric field. The zig-zag paths
W.F.G. Swann of electronic conduction in telephone cables. 1 are actually parabolic segments.

Think of the cables which carry the telephone current in the form of electrons. In
the absence of the current the electrons are moving in all directions. As many are

1
W.F.G. Swann, Physics Today, June 1951, p. 9.
744 CHAPTER 27 CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

moving from left to right as are moving from right to left; and the nothingness
which is there is composed of two equal and opposite halves, about a million
million amperes per square centimeter in one direction, and a million million
amperes per square centimeter in the other direction. The telephone current
constitutes an upsetting of the balance to the extent of one hundredth of a
millionth of an ampere per square centimeter, or about one part in a hundred
million million million. Then if this one part in a hundred million million million
is at fault by one part in a thousand, we ring up the telephone company and

complain that the quality of the speech is faulty.

EXAMPLE 27. 1 The Drift Velocity in a Copper Wire _ 6.02 X 10 23 electrons

-6
A copper wire of cross-sectional area 3 X 10 m 2 car- 7.09 cm 3
ries a current of 10 A. Find the drift velocity of the elec-
3 = 8 48
' X l0 ™ electrons/cm 3
trons in this wire. The density of copper is 8.95 g/cm

(„„
.

electrons \/,„. cm 3 \
8.48X10--^3-)(lO«^ rj
Solution From the periodic table of the elements, we
find that the atomic weight of copper is 63.5 g/mole. = 8.48 X 10 28 electrons/m 3
Recall that one atomic mass of any substance contains
From Equation 2 7A, we find that the drift velocity is
Avogadro's number of atoms, 6.02 X 10 23
atoms. Know-
ing the density of copper enables us to calculate the vol- I

ume occupied by 63.5 g of copper: nqA

nq/\

,_m_= 63.5 g lOC/s

_,
= 7 °9 Cr" 3 X10 28 m- 3 )(1.6X10- 19 C)(3X 10- 6 m2
8.95 g/cm 3 (8.48 )
P
If we now assume that each copper atom contributes . o4cyin-4 /

one free electron to the body of the material, we have

Example 27.1 shows that typical drift velocities are very small. In fact, the
drift velocityis much smaller than the average velocity between collisions. For

instance, electrons traveling with this velocity would take about 68 min to
travel 1 m! In view of this low speed, you might wonder why a light turns on
almost instantaneously when a switch is thrown. This can be explained by
considering the flow of water through a pipe. If a drop of water is forced in one
end of a pipe that is already filled with water, a drop must be pushed out the
other end of the pipe. While it may take individual drops of water a long time
to make it through the pipe, a flow initiated at one end produces a similar flow
at the other end very quickly. In a conductor, the electric field that drives the
free electrons travels through the conductor with a speed close to that of light.
Thus, when you flip a light switch, the message for the electrons to start
moving through the wire (the electric field) reaches them at a speed of the
order of 10 8 m/s.

27.3 RESISTANCE AND OHM'S LAW

Earlier, we found thatthere can be no electric field inside a conductor. How-
ever, this statement is true only if the conductor is in static equilibrium. The
purpose of this section is to describe what happens when the charges are
allowed to move in the conductor.
Charges move in a conductor to produce a current under the action of an
electric field inside the conductor. An electric field can exist in the conductor
in this case since we are dealing with charges in motion, a nonelectrostatic
 27.3 RESISTANCE AND OHMS LAW 745

situation. This is with the situation in which a conductor in electro-

in contrast
static equilibrium (where the charges are at rest) can have no electric field
inside.
Consider a conductor of cross-sectional area A carrying a current /. The
current density / in the conductor is defined to be the current per unit area.
Since I = nqvd A, the current density is given by

J ™ A = nqVd (27.5) Current density

where/ has SI units of A/m 2 This expression

. is valid only if the current density

is uniform and the surface is perpendicular to the direction of the current. In

general, the current density is a vector quantity. That is,

J=nqvd (27.6)

From this definition, we see once again that the current density, like the
current, is in the direction of motion of the charges for positive charge carriers

and opposite the direction of motion for negative charge carriers.

A current density J and an electric field E are established in a conductor
when a potential difference is maintained across the conductor. If the potential
difference is constant, the current in the conductor will also be constant. Very
often, the current density in a conductor is proportional to the electric field in
the conductor. That is,

J = oE (27.7) Ohm's law

where the constant of proportionality a is called the conductivity of the con-

ductor. 2 Materials that obey Equation 27.7 are said to follow Ohm's law,
named after Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854). More specifically,
Ohm's law states that for many materials (including most metals), the ratio
of the current density and electric field is a constant, a, which is indepen-
dent of the electric field producing the current.

Materials that obey Ohm's law, and hence demonstrate this linear behavior
between E and/, are said to be ohmic. The electrical behavior of most materials
is quite linear for very small changes in the current. Experimentally, one finds

that not all materials have this property. Materials that do not obey Ohm's law
are said to be nonohmic. Ohm's law is not a fundamental law of nature, but an
empirical relationship valid only for certain materials.
A form of Ohm's law that is more directly useful in practical applications
can be obtained by considering a segment of a straight wire of cross-sectional
area A and length £, as in Figure 27.6. A potential difference Vh — Va is
maintained across the wire, creating an electric field in the wire and a current.
If the electric field in the wire is assumed to be uniform, the potential differ-
ence V = V — V is related to the electric field through the relationship 3

2
fc

v = Ee
Do not confuse the conductivity a with the surface charge density, for which the same symbol is
W3
Figure 27.6 A uniform conductor
used. of length ( and cross-sectional area
1
This result follows from the definition of potential difference: A. A potential difference Vh — V„
maintained across the conductor
sets up an electric field E in the
Vb - V„ =- E d* =E ( dx = Et conductor, and this field produces
K
J
Jo a current /.
746 CHAPTER 27 CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

Therefore, we can express the magnitude of the current density in the wire as

Since / = I/A, the potential difference can be written

*-!'-(a>
The quantity £/oA is called the resistance R of the conductor:

Resistance of
R-
R ' -V (27.8)
a conductor ~^A~1
From this result we see that resistance has SI units of volts per ampere. One
volt per ampere is defined to be one ohm (Q):

1 Q= 1 V/A
That is, if a potential difference of 1 V across a conductor causes a current
of 1 is 1 Q. For example,
A, the resistance of the conductor if an electrical
appliance connected to a 120-V source carries a current of 6 A, its resistance is

20 Q.
The inverse of the conductivity of a material is called the resistivity p:

1
Resistivity
P= (27.9)

Using this definition and Equation 27.8, the resistance can be expressed as

Resistance of a uniform
conductor (27.10)

where p has the units ohm-meters (Q m). (The symbol p for resistivity should
•

not be confused with the same symbol used earlier in the text for mass density
or charge density.) Every ohmic material has a characteristic resistivity, a
parameter that depends on the properties of the material and on temperature.
On the other hand, as you can see from Equation 27.10, the resistance of a
substance depends on simple geometry as well as on the resistivity of the
substance. Good electrical conductors have very low resistivity (or high con-
ductivity), and good insulators have very high resistivity (low conductivity).
Table 27.1 gives the resistivities of a variety of materials at 20 °C.
Equation 27. 10 shows that the resistance of a given cylindrical conductor
is proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional

area. Therefore, if the length of a wire is doubled, its resistance doubles.

An assortment of resistors used for

Furthermore, if its cross-sectional area is doubled, its resistance drops by
various applications in electronic one-half. The situation is analogous to the flow of a liquid through a pipe. As
circuits. (Courtesy of Henry Leap the length of the pipe is increased, the resistance to liquid flow increases. As its
and Jim Lehman)
cross-sectional area is increased, the pipe can more readily transport liquid.
All electric appliances such as toasters, heaters, and light bulbs have a
fixed resistance. Most electric circuits make use of devices called resistors to
control the current level in the various parts of the circuit. Two common types
of resistors are the "composition" resistor containing carbon, which is a semi-
 27.3 RESISTANCE AND OHMS LAW 747

TABLE 27.1 Resistivities and Temperature Coefficients of Resistivity

for Various Materials
748 CHAPTER 27 CURRENT AND RESISTANCE
 27.4 THE RESISTIVITY OF DIFFERENT CONDUCTORS 749

Exercise 2 Calculate the current density and electric tween the inner and outer tubes must pass radially
field in the wire assuming that it carries a current of through such elements, and the area through which it
2.2 A. passes is A = 2nrL. (This would be the surface area of our
Answer 6.7 X 10 6 A/m 2 10 N/C.
;
hollow cylinder neglecting the area of its ends.) Hence,
we can write the resistance of our hollow cylinder as

EXAMPLE 27.4 The Resistance of a Coaxial Tube D

The gap between a pair of coaxial tubes is completely
filledwith silicon as in Figure 27.9a. The inner radius of Sincewe wish to know the total resistance of the silicon,
the tube is a = 0.500 cm, the outer radius, h—
1 .75 cm,
we must integrate this expression over dr from r = a to
and its length, L=15.0 cm. Calculate the total resist- r = b. This gives
ance of the silicon when measured between the inner
and outer tubes.

Solution The resistivity of copper is small compared 640 Q m

Substituting in the values given, and using/?
.si
•

with that of silicon, so its resistance can be neglected. for silicon gives
In this type of problem, we must divide the conductor
into elements of infinitesimal thickness over which the 640 Q m•
/ 1.75 cm \
n 851 Q
area may be considered constant. We can start by using 2tt(0.150 m) \0-500cm/
the differential form of Equation 27.10, which is dR =
/>df/A, where dR is the resistance of a section of the Exercise 3 If a potential difference of 12.0 V is applied
conductor of thickness d( and area A. In this example, we between the inner and outer copper tube, calculate the
take as our element a hollow cylinder of thickness dr and total current that passes between them.
length L as in Figure 27.9b. Any current that passes be- Answer 14.1 mA

Silicon

End view
Figure 27.9 (Example 27.4). (b)

27.4 THE RESISTIVITY OF DIFFERENT CONDUCTORS

The conductor depends on a number of factors, one of which is
resistivity of a
temperature. For most metals, resistivity increases with increasing tempera-
ture. The resistivity of a conductor varies in an approximately linear fashion
with temperature over a limited temperature range according to the ex-
pression

Variation of p with
p = p [l+a(T-T )] (27.11) temperature
750 CHAPTER 27 CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

where p is the resistivity at some temperature T (in °C), p is the resistivity at

some reference temperature T (usually taken to be 20°C), and a is called the
temperature coefficient of resistivity. From Equation 27.11, we see that the
temperature coefficient of resistivity can also be expressed as

Temperature coefficient of
(27.12)
resistivity

where Ap =p—p is the change in resistivity in the temperature interval

AT=T-T .

The resistivities and temperature coefficients for various materials are

given in Table 27.1. Note the enormous range in resistivities, from very low
values for good conductors, such as copper and silver, to very high values for
good insulators, such as glass and rubber. An ideal, or "perfect," conductor
would have zero resistivity, and an ideal insulator would have infinite resis-
tivity.
Since the resistance of a conductor is proportional to the resistivity ac-
cording to Equation 27.10, the temperature variation of the resistance can be
written

R = R [l+a(T-TJ] (27.13)

Precise temperature measurements are often made using this property, as

shown in the following example.

EXAMPLE 27.5 A Platinum Resistance Thermometer Solution Using Equation 27.13 and solving for AT, we
A thermometer made from platinum has a re-
resistance get
sistance of 50.0 Q at 20°C. When immersed in a vessel
... i.. . j. .. • . „, ri — H„ ib.Bli — oU.Uli
containing melting indium, its resistance increases to AT
76.8 Q. From this information, find the melting point of
aRo I
3 92
- X 10 3
C °) ^(SO.O
(
Q.)
-3
indium. For platinum, a = 3.92 X 10
_1
(C°) . = 137 C°

Since AT=T-T and To = 20°C, we find that T=

157°C.

As mentioned above, many ohmic materials have resistivities that in-

crease linearly with increasing temperature, as shown in Figure 27.10. In
reality, however, there is always a nonlinear region at very low temperatures,
and the resistivity usually approaches some finite value near absolute zero (see
magnified insert in Fig. 27.10). This residual resistivity near absolute zero is
due primarily to collisions of electrons with impurities and imperfections in
the metal. In contrast, the high-temperature resistivity (the linear region) is
dominated by collisions of electrons with the metal atoms. We shall describe
this process in more detail in Section 27.6.
Semiconductors, such as silicon and germanium, have intermediate
values of resistivity. The resistivity of semiconductors generally decreases
with increasing temperature, corresponding to a negative temperature coeffi-
cient of resistivity (Fig. 27.11). This is due to the increase in the density of
charge carriers at the higher temperatures. Since the charge carriers in a
 27.5 SUPERCONDUCTORS 751

Figure 27.10 Resistivity versus

temperature for a normal metal,
such as copper. The curve is linear
over a wide range of temperatures,
and p increases with increasing Figure 27.11 Resistivity versus
temperature. As T approaches ab- temperature for a pure semicon-
solute zero (insert), the resistivity ductor, such as silicon or germa-
approaches a finite value p„ nium.

semiconductor are often associated with impurity atoms, the resistivity is very
sensitive to the type and concentration of such impurities. The thermistor is a
semiconducting thermometer that makes use of the large changes in its resis-
tivity with temperature. We shall return to the study of semiconductors in the
extended version of this text. Chapter 43.

27.5 SUPERCONDUCTORS
There is a class of metals and compounds whose resistance goes virtually to
zero below a certain temperature, Tc called the critical temperature. These
, R(Q
materials are known as superconductors. The resistance-temperature graph 0.15

for a superconductor follows that of a normal metal at temperatures above Tc

(Fig. 27.12). When the temperature is at or below Tc the resistivity drops
,

suddenly to zero. This phenomenon was discovered in 1911 by the Dutch Hg

physicist H. Kamerlingh Onnes when he was working with mercury, which is a
0.10
superconductor below 4.2 K. Recent measurements have shown that the re-
sistivities of superconductors below Tc are less than 4 X 10~
25
Q m, which is
around 10 17 times smaller than the resistivity of copper and considered to be
zero in practice.
Today there are thousands of known superconductors. Such common
metals as aluminum, tin, lead, zinc, and indium are superconductors. Table
27.3 lists the critical temperatures of several superconductors. The value of Tc
is sensitive to chemical composition, pressure, and crystalline structure. It is
interesting to note that copper, silver, and gold, which are excellent conduc-
tors, do not exhibit superconductivity.
One
of the truly remarkable features of superconductors is the fact that
once a current is set up in them, it will persist without any applied voltage
(since R = 0). In fact, steady currents have been observed to persist in super-
conducting loops for several years with no apparent decay!
One of the most important recent developments in physics that has
created much excitement in the scientific community has been the discovery
of high temperature copper-oxide-based superconductors. The excitement
752 CHAPTER 27 CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

TABLE 27.3 Critical

Temperatures for Various
Superconductors

Material
 27.6 A MODEL FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION 753

Figure 27.13 (a) A schematic diagram of the random motion of a charge carrier in a conductor in
the absence of an electric field. Note that the drift velocity is zero, (b) The motion of a charge
carrier in a conductor in the presence of an electric field. Note that the random motion is modified
by the field, and the charge carrier has a drift velocity.

average velocity of the free electrons is zero. That is, on the average, just as
many electrons move in one direction as in the opposite direction, and so there
isno net flow of charge.
The situation is modified when an electric field is applied to the metal. In
addition to the random thermal motion just described, the free electrons drift
slowly in a direction opposite that of the electric field, with an average drift
-4
speed u d which is much smaller (typically 10 m/s) than the average speed
,

between collisions (typically 10 6 m/s). Figure 27. 13 provides a crude descrip-

tion of the motion of free electrons in a conductor. In the absence of an electric
field, there is no net displacement after many collisions (Fig. 27.13a). An

electric field E modifies the random motion and causes the electrons to drift in
a direction opposite that of E (Fig. 27.1 3b)The slight curvature in the paths in
.

Figure 27.13b results from the acceleration of the electrons between colli-
sions, caused by the applied field. One mechanical system somewhat analo-
gous to this situation is a ball rolling down a slightly inclined plane through
an array of closely spaced, fixed pegs (Fig. 27.14). The ball represents a con-
duction electron, the pegs represent defects in the crystal lattice, and the
component of the gravitational force along the incline represents the elec-
tric force eE.
In our model, we assume that the excess energy acquired by the
shall
is lost to the conductor in the collision process.
electrons in the electric field
The energy given up to the atoms in the collisions increases the vibrational Figure 27.14 A mechanical sys-
energy of the atoms, causing the conductor to heat up. The model also assumes tem somewhat analogous to the
motion of charge carriers in the
that the motion of an electron after a collision is independent of its motion
presence of an electric field. The
before the collision. collisions of the ball with the pegs
We are now an expression for the drift velocity.
in a position to obtain represent the resistance to the
motion down the
When a mobile charged particle of mass m
and charge q is subjected to an ball's incline.

electric field E, it experiences a force qE. Since F = ma, we conclude that the
acceleration of the particle is given by

qE
(27.14)

This acceleration, which occurs for only a short time between collisions, en-
ables the electron to acquire a small drift velocity If t is the time since the last
.
754 CHAPTER 27 CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

collision and r is the initial velocity, then the velocity of the electron after a
time f is given by

qE
v = v + at = v H t (27.15)

We now take all possible times t and all possible

the average value of c over
values of v . assumed to be randomly distributed in
If the initial velocities are
space, we see that the average value of v is zero. The term (qE/m)t is the
velocity added by the field at the end of one trip between atoms. If the electron
starts with zero velocity, the average value of the second term of Equation
27.15 is (qE/m)r, where T is the average time between collisions. Because the
average of v is equal to the drift velocity, 4 we have

Drift velocity „ - qE r (27.16)

Substituting this result into Equation 27.6, we find that the magnitude of the
current density is given by

nq 2 E
Current density J = nqvd = T (27.17)

Comparing this expression with Ohm's law, / = aE, we obtain the following
relationships for the conductivity and resistivity:

no2 !
Conductivity (27.18)
m

Resistivity
_ 1 _ m (27.19)
a nqH

The average time between collisions is related to the average distance be-
tween collisions £ (the mean free path, see Section 21.8) and the average
thermal speed c through the expression 5

= _£ (27.20)

According to this classical model, the conductivity and resistivity do not

depend on the electric field. This feature is characteristic of a conductor
obeying Ohm's law. The model shows that the conductivity can be calculated
from a knowledge of the density of the charge carriers, their charge and mass,
and the average time between collisions.

4
Since the collision process is random, each collision event is independent of what happened
earlier. Thisis analogous to the random process of throwing a die. The probability of rolling a

particular number on one throw is independent of the result of the previous throw. On the
average, it would take six throws to come up with that number, starting at any arbitrary time.
5 Recall that the thermal speed is the speed a particle has as a consequence of the temperature of
its surroundings (Chapter 20).
 27.7 ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND POWER 755

EXAMPLE 27.6 Electron Collisions in Copper

=
(a) Using the data and results from Example 27.1 and the
2.5 X 10-

classical model of electron conduction, estimate the

average time between collisions for electrons in copper ( b Assuming the mean thermal speed
)
for free elec-

at 20°C trons in copper to be 1.6 X

10 6 m/s and using the result
from ( a )> calculate the mean free path for electrons in
From Equation 27.19 we see that
copper.

£ =m= (1.6 X 10 6 m/s)(2.5 X KT 14 s)

nq 2p

where p = 1.7 X 10 8 m for copper and the carrier

Ci. _ 4 q X 10
-8
m
density n = 8.48 X 10 28 electrons/m 3 for the wire de-
scribed in Example 27.1. Substitution of these values
whjch g equivalent t0 40 nm (compare d with atomic
.

into the expression above gives

spadngs of about Q2 nm) Thus although the time be .

— (9.1 1 X 10~ 31 kg) tween collisions is very short, the electrons travel about
T
(8.48 X 10 28 m _3 )(1.6 X 10~ 19 C) 2 (1.7 X 10 -8 Q m) 200 atomic distances before colliding with an atom.

Although this classical model of conduction is consistent with Ohm's law,

it is not satisfactory for explaining some important phenomena. For example,
classical calculations for v using the ideal-gas model are about a factor of 10
smaller than the true values. Furthermore, according to Equations 27.19 and
27.20, the temperature variation of the resistivity is predicted to vary as
v, which, according to an ideal-gas model (Chapter 21), is proportional to Jf.
This is in disagreement with the linear dependence of resistivity with tempera-

ture for pure metals (Fig. 27.8). It is possible to account for such observations
only by using a quantum mechanical model, which we shall describe briefly.
According to quantum mechanics, electrons have wavelike properties. If
the array of atoms is regularly spaced (that is, periodic), the wavelike character
of the electrons makes it possible for them to move freely through the conduc-
tor, and a collision with an atom is unlikely. For an idealized conductor, there
would be no collisions, the mean free path would be infinite, and the resistivity
would be zero. Electron waves are scattered only if the atomic arrangement is
irregular (not periodic) as a result of, for example, structural defects or impur-
ities.At low temperatures, the resistivity of metals is dominated by scattering
caused by collisions between the electrons and impurities. At high tempera-
tures, the resistivity is dominated by scattering caused by collisions between
the electrons and the atoms of the conductor, which are continuously dis-
placed as a result of thermal agitation. The thermal motion of the atoms causes
the structure to be irregular (compared with an atomic array at rest), thereby
reducing the electron's mean free path.

27.7 ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND POWER

If a is used to establish an electric current in a conductor, there is a
battery
continuous transformation of chemical energy stored in the battery to kinetic
energy of the charge carriers. This kinetic energy is quickly lost as a result of
collisions between the charge carriers and the lattice ions, resulting in an
increase in the temperature of the conductor. Therefore, we see that the
chemical energy stored in the battery is continuously transformed into ther-
mal energy.
756 CHAPTER 27 CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

Consider a simple circuit consisting of a battery whose terminals are

connected to a resistor R, as shown in Figure 27.15. The symbol H U is used to
designate a battery (or any other direct current source), and resistors are
designated by the symbol -w^— The positive terminal of the battery (the
.

longer plate) is at the higher potential, while the negative terminal (the
shorter plate) is at the lower potential. Now imagine following a positive
quantity of charge AQ moving around the circuit from point a through the
battery and resistor and back to a. Point a is a reference point that is grounded
(ground symbol ), and its potential is taken to be zero. As the charge moves

from a to b through the battery, its electrical potential energy increases by an

amount V AQ (where V is the potential at h) while the chemical potential
energy in the battery decreases by the same amount. (Recall from Chapter 25
that AU = q AV.) However, as the charge moves from c to d through the
Figure 27.15 A circuit consisting
of a battery of emf £ and resistance resistor, it loses this electrical potential energy as it undergoes collisions with
R. Positive charge flows in the atoms in the resistor, thereby producing thermal energy. Note that if we
clockwise direction, from the nega-
neglect the resistance of the interconnecting wires there is no loss in energy
tive to the positive terminal of the
battery. Points a and d are for paths be and da. When the charge returns to point a, it must have the same
6
grounded. potential energy (zero) as it had at the start.

The rate at which the charge AQ loses potential energy in going through
the resistor is given by

At At
where the current in the circuit. Of course, the charge regains this energy
I is
when it passes through the battery. Since the rate at which the charge loses
energy equals the power P lost in the resistor, we have

Power P=IV (27.21)

In this case, thepower is supplied to a resistor by a battery. However, Equa-

tion 27.21 can be used to determine the power transferred to any device
carrying a current 7 and having a potential difference Vbetween its terminals.
Using Equation 27.21 and the fact that V=/R for a resistor, we can
express the power dissipated in the alternative forms

V 2
Power
a conductor
loss in
r-n- T (27.22)

When I is in amperes, Vin volts, and R in ohms, the SI unit of power is the watt
(W). The power lost as heat in a conductor of resistance R is called joule
heating 7 however, it is often referred to as an PR loss.
;

A battery or any other device that provides electrical energy is called an

electromotive force, usually referred to as an emf. The concept of emf will be
discussed in more detail in Chapter 28. (The phrase electromotive force is an
unfortunate one, since it does not describe a force but actually refers to a
potential difference in volts.) Neglecting the internal resistance of the battery,
the potential difference between points a and b is equal to the emf £ of the

no change with time in the

6 Note that when the current reaches its steady-state value, there is

kinetic energy associated with the current.

7
It is called joule heating even though its dimensions are energy per unit time, which are dimen-
sions of power.
 27.8 ENERGY CONVERSION IN HOUSEHOLD CIRCUITS 757

battery. That is, V = Vb — Va = 6, and the current in the circuit is given by

/ = V/R = G/R. Since V = 6, the power supplied by the emf can be expressed
as P = 18, which, of course, equals the power lost in the resistor, I 2 R.

EXAMPLE 27.7 Power in an Electric Heater EXAMPLE 27.8 Electrical Rating of a Lightbulb
An electric heater isconstructed by applying a potential A light bulb is rated at 1 20 V/75 W. That is, its operating
difference of 1 1 V to a nichrome wire of total resistance voltage is 120 V and it has a power rating of 75 W. The
8 Q. Find the current carried by the wire and the power bulb is powered by a 120-V direct-current power sup-
rating of the heater. ply. Find the current in the bulb and its resistance.

Solution Since V= 7R, we have Solution Since the power rating of the bulb is 75 W and
the operating voltage is 120 V, we can use P = ZVto find
,_ V_110V_ the current:
r—sir - 138A _P 75 W 0.625 A
V 120V
We can find the power rating using P= 2
I R:
Using Ohm's law, V=/R, the resistance is calculated
to be
P=/ R=(13.8 A)
2 2
(8Q) = 1.52 kW

If we were to double the applied voltage, the current

would double but the power would quadruple. Exercise 4 What would the resistance be in a lamp
rated at 120 V and 100 W?
Answer 144 £1.

'27.8 ENERGY CONVERSION IN HOUSEHOLD

CIRCUITS
The heat generated when current passes through a resistive material is used in
many common devices. A cross-sectional view of the spiral heating element of
an electric range is shown in Figure 27.16a. The material through which the
current passes is surrounded by an insulating substance in order to prevent the
current from flowing through the cook to the earth when he or she touches the
pan. A material that is a good conductor of heat surrounds the insulator.

Heating coils

Heating coil

(a)

Figure 27.16 (a) The cross-section of a heating element used in an electric range, (b) In a hair
dryer, warm air is produced by blowing air from a fan past the heating coils, (c) In a steam iron,
water is turned into steam by heat from a heating coil.
758 CHAPTER 27 CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

Figure 27.16b shows a common hair dryer, in which a fan blows air past
heating coils. In this case the warm air can be used to dry hair, but on a broader
scale thissame principle is used to dry clothes and to heat buildings.
A example of a household appliance that uses the heating effect of
final
electric currents is the steam iron shown in Figure 27.16c. A heating coil
warms the bottom of the iron and simultaneously turns water to steam, which
is sprayed from jets located in the bottom of the iron.

The unit of energy the electric company uses to calculate energy con-
sumption, the kilowatt-hour, is defined in terms of the unit of power. One
kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the energy converted or consumed in 1 h at the con-
stant rate of 1 kW. The numerical value of 1 kWh is

1 kWh = (10
3
W)(3600 s) = 3.6 X 10 6 J (27.23)

On your electric bill, the amount of electricity used is usually stated in multi-
ples of kWh.

EXAMPLE 27.9 The Cost of Operating a Lightbulb electric devices. This is true not only because they are
How much does it cost to burn a 100-W lightbulb for becoming more expensive to operate but also because,
24 h if electricity costs eight cents per kilowatt-hour? with the dwindling of the coal and oil resources that
ultimately supply us with electrical energy, increased
Solution A 100-W is equivalent to a 0.1-kW
lightbulb awareness of conservation becomes necessary. On every
bulb. Since the energy consumed equals power X time, electric appliance is a label that contains the information
the amount of energy you must pay for, expressed in you need power requirements of the
to calculate the
kWh, is appliance. The power consumption in watts is often
stated directly, as on a lightbulb. In other cases, the
Energy = (0.10 kW)(24 h) = 2.4 kWh
amount of current used by the device and the voltage at
If energy is purchased at eight cents per kWh, the cost is which it operates are given. This information and Equa-
tion 27.21 are sufficient to calculate the operating cost of
Cost = (2.4 kWh)($0.08/kWh) = $0.19
any electric device.
That is, it will cost 19 cents to operate the lightbulb for
one day. This is a small amount, but when larger and Exercise 5 If electricity costs eight cents per kilowatt-
more complex devices are being used, the costs go up hour, what does it cost to operate an electric oven, which
rapidly. operates at 20 A and 220 V, for 5 h?
Demands on our energy supplies have made it nec- Answer $1.76.
essary to be aware of the energy requirements of our

SUMMARY
The electric current J in a conductor is defined as

dQ
Electric current 1 = (27.2)
dt

where dQ is the charge that passes through a cross section of the conductor
in a time dt. The SI unit of current is the ampere (A), where 1 A = 1 C/s.
The current in a conductor is related to the motion of the charge
carriers through the relationship

Current in a conductor I = nqv d A (27 A)

 SUMMARY 759

where n is the density of charge carriers, q is their charge, v d is the drift

velocity, and A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor.

The current density/ in a conductor is defined as the current per unit

area:

/ = nqvd (27.6)

The current density in a conductor is proportional to the electric field

according to the expression

J=oE (27.7) Ohm's law

The constant a is called the conductivity of the material. The inverse of a is

called the resistivity, p. That is, p = 1/a.
A material is said to obey Ohm's law if its conductivity is independent of
the applied field.
The resistance R of a conductor is defined as the ratio of the potential
difference across the conductor to the current:

B-I (27.8) Resistance of a conductor

If the resistance is independent of the applied voltage, the conductor obeys

Ohm's law.
If the conductor has a uniform cross-sectional area A and a length £, its
resistance is given by

Resistance of a uniform
(27.10)
aA A conductor

The SI unit of resistance is volt per ampere, which is defined to be 1 ohm

(Q). That is, 1 H=1V/A.
The resistivity of a conductor varies with temperature in an approxi-
mately linear fashion, that is
Variation of/? with
p = p \l+a(T-T )) (27.11)
temperature
where a is the temperature coefficient of resistivity and/?„ is the resistivity
at some reference temperature T .

In a classical model of electronic conduction in a metal, the electrons

are treated as molecules of a gas. In the absence of an electric field, the
average velocity of the electrons is zero. When an electric field is applied,
the electrons move (on the average) with a drift velocity »d which is oppo- ,

site the electric field. The drift velocity is given by

qE
(27.16) Drift velocity

where t is the average time between collisions with the atoms of the metal.
The resistivity of the material according to this model is given by

P = (27.19) Resistivity
nq z x

where n is the number of free electrons per unit volume.

760 CHAPTER 27 CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

If a potential difference Vis maintained across a resistor, the power, or

rate at which energy is supplied to the resistor,is given by

Power P = IV (27.21)
Since the potential difference across a resistor is given by V = IR, we can
express the power dissipated in a resistor in the form

Power loss in V2
a resistor p-ra-if (27.22)

The electrical energy supplied to a resistor appears in the form of

internal energy (thermal energy) in the resistor.

QUESTIONS

1. Explain the chemistry involved in the operation of a 16. What would happen to the drift velocity of the elec-
"dry cell" battery. trons in a wire and to the current in the wire if the
2. In an analogy between traffic flow and electrical cur- electrons could move freely without resistance
rent, what would correspond to the charge Q? What through the wire?
would correspond to the current I? 17. If charges flow very slowly through a metal, why does
3. What factors affect the resistance of a conductor? it not require several hours for a light to come on

4. What is the difference between resistance and resis- when you throw a switch?
tivity? 18. In a conductor, the electric field that drives the elec-
5. We have seen that an electric field must exist inside a trons through the conductor propagates with a speed
conductor that carries a current. How is this possible close to the speed of light, although the drift velocity
in view of the fact that in electrostatics, we concluded of the electrons is very small. Explain how these can
that E must be zero inside a conductor? both be true. Does the same electron move from one
6. Two wires A and B of circular cross-section are made end of the conductor to the other?
of the same metal and have equal lengths, but the 19. Two conductors of the same length and radius are
resistance of wire A is three times greater than that of connected across the same potential difference. One
wire B. What is the ratio of their cross-sectional areas? conductor has twice the resistance of the other.
How do their radii compare? Which conductor will dissipate more power?
7. What is required in order to maintain a steady current 20. When incandescent lamps burn out, they usually do so
in a conductor? just after they are switched on. Why?
8. Do all conductors obey Ohm's law? Give examples to 21. If you were to design an electric heater using
justify your answer. nichrome wire as the heating element, what parame-
9. When the voltage across a certain conductor is dou- ters of the wire could you vary to meet a specific
bled, the current is observed to increase by a factor power output, such as 1000 W?
of 3. What can you conclude about the conductor? 22. Two light bulbs both operate from 1 10 V, but one has
10. In the water analogy of an electric circuit, what corre- a power rating of 25 W
and the other of 100 W.
sponds to the power supply, resistor, charge, and po- Which bulb has the higher resistance? Which bulb
tential difference? carries the greater current?
11. Why might a "good" electrical conductor also be a 23. A typical monthly utility rate structure might go
"good" thermal conductor? something like this: $1.60 for the first 16 kWh, 7.05
12. Use the atomic theory of matter to explain why the cents/kWh for the next 34 kWh used, 5.02 cents/kWh
resistance of a material should increase as its tempera- for the next 50 kWh, 3.25 cents/kWh for the next
ture increases. 100 kWh, 2.95 cents/kWh for the next 200 kWh,
13. How does the resistance change with temperature for 2.35 cents/kWh for all in excess of 400 kWh. Based on
copper and silicon? Why are they different? these rates, what would be the charge for 327 kWh?
14. Explain how a current can persist in a superconductor From the standpoint of encouraging conservation of
without any applied voltage. energy, what is wrong with this pricing method?
15. What single experimental requirement makes super-
conducting devices expensive to operate? In princi-
ple, can this limitation be overcome?
 PROBLEMS 761

PROBLEMS
Section 27.2 Electric Current

1. Calculate the current in the case for which 3 X 10 12

electrons pass a given cross section of a conductor
each second.
2. measured beam
In a particular cathode ray tube, the
current 30 /i\. How many electrons strike the tube
is
Figure 27. 1 7 (Problem 1 0)
screen every 40 s?
3. A small sphere that carries a charge of 8 nC is whirled 1 1. A coaxial conductor with a length of 20 m consists of
in a circle at the end of an insulating string. The rota- an inner cylinder with a radius of 3.0 mm and a con-
tion frequency islOOn rad/s. What average current centric outer cylindrical tube with an inside radius of
does this rotating charge represent? 9.0 mm. A uniformly distributed leakage current of
4. The quantity of charge q (in C) passing through a 10 [lA flows between the two conductors. Determine
surface of area 2 cm 2 varies with time as q = 4t 3 + the leakage current density (in A/m 2 ) through a cylin-
5t + 6, where t is in s. (a) What is the instantaneous drical surface (concentric with the conductors) that
current through the surface at t = 1.0 s? (b) What is has a radius of 6.0 mm.
the value of the current density?
Section 27.3 Resistance and Ohm's Law
5. The current I (in A) in a conductor depends on time as
/ = 2t — 3t + 7, where t is in s. What quantity of A cm
2 12. conductor of uniform radius 1.2 carries a
charge moves across a section through the conductor current of 3 A produced by an electric field of 120
during the interval f = 2sto£ = 4s? V/m. What is the resistivity of the material?
6. Suppose that the current through a conductor de- 1 3. An electric field of 2 1 00 V/m is applied to a section of
creases exponentially with time according to silver of uniform cross section. Calculate the resulting
current density if the specimen is at a temperature of
7(f) =I e-*/* 20°C.
14. A solid cube of silver (specific gravity = 10.50) has a
where I is the intial current (at t = 0), and t is a con- mass of 90 g. (a) What is the resistance between op-
stant having dimensions of time. Consider a fixed ob- posite faces of the cube? (b) If there is one conduction
servation point within the conductor, How much (a) electron for each silver atom, find the average drift
charge passes this point between t = and t = T? speed of electrons when a potential difference of
(b) How much charge passes this point between t = 10 -5 V is applied to opposite faces. The atomic num-
and t = 10t? (c) How much charge passes this point ber of silver is 47, and its atomic mass is 107.87.
between t = and t = <*>? 15. Calculate the resistance at 20°C of a 40-m length of
7. Calculate the number of free electrons per cubic wire having a cross-sectional area of 0.4
silver
2
mm .

meter assuming one free electron per atom.

for gold, 16. Eighteen-gauge wire has a diameter of 1.024 mm.
8. Calculate the average drift speed of electrons travel- Calculate the resistance of 15 m of 18-gauge copper
ing through a copper wire with a cross-sectional area wire at 20 °C.
of 1 mm 2 when carrying a current of A (values simi- 1 17. A 2.4-m length of wire that is 0.031 cm 2 in cross sec-
lar to those for the electric wire to your study lamp). It tion has a measured resistance of 0.24 Q. Calculate
is known that about one electron per atom of copper the conductivity of the material.
contributes to the current. The atomic weight of cop- 18. What is the resistance of a tungsten filament 15 cm in
per is 63.54, and its density is 8.92 g/cm 3 . length and 0.002 cm
diameter at 20°C?
in
9. A copper bus bar has a cross section of 5 cm X 15 cm 19. What diameter copper wire has a resistance per unit
and carries a current with a density of 2000 A/cm 2 . length of 3.28 X 10~ 3 il/m at 20 °C?
(a) What is the total current in the bus bar? 20. Determine the resistance at 20°Cofa 1.5-m length of
(b) What amount of charge passes a given point in platinum wire that has a diameter of 0.10 mm.
the bar per hour? 21. A wire with a resistance R is lengthened to 1.25 times
10. Figure 27.17 represents a section of a circular con- its original length by pulling it through a small hole.

ductor of nonuniform diameter carrying a current of Find the resistance of the wire after it is stretched.
5 A. The radius of cross section A] is 0.4 cm. 22. Aluminum and copper wires of equal length are found
(a) What is the magnitude of the current density to have the same resistance. What is the ratio of their
across Ax ? (b) If the current density across A2 is one radii?
fourth the value across Ax , what is the radius of the 23. Suppose that you wish to fabricate a uniform wire out
conductor at A ? of 1 g of copper. If the wire is to have a resistance of
762 CHAPTER 27 CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

R= 0.5 £2, and all of the copper is to be used, what 33. If a copper wire has a resistance of 18Qat 20°C, what
will be (a)the length and (b) the diameter of this wire? resistance will have at 60 °C? (Neglect any change in
it

24. What is the resistance of a device that operates with a length or cross-sectional area due to the change in
current of 7 A when the applied voltage is 1 10 V? temperature.)
25. A 0.9-V potential difference is maintained across a 34. An aluminum rod has a resistance of 1.234 CI at 20°C.
1.5-m length of tungsten wire that has a cross-sec- Calculate the resistance of the rod at 120°C by ac-
tional area of 0.6 mm
2 What is the current in the
. counting for the change in both the resistivity and
wire? dimensions of the rod.
26. The electron beam emerging from a certain high-en- 35. At what temperature will tungsten have a resistivity
ergy electron accelerator has a circular cross-section four times that of copper? (Assume that the copper is
of radius 1 mm. (a) If the beam current is 8 fiA, find at 20°C.)
the current density in the beam, assuming that it is 36. A segment of nichrome wire is initially at 20°C. Using
uniform throughout, (b) The speed of the electrons is the data from Table 27.1, calculate the temperature
so close to the speed of light that their speed can be to which the wire must be heated to double its resist-

taken as c = 3 X 10 8 m/s with negligible error. Find ance.

the electron density in the beam, (c) How long does it 37. At 45°C, the resistance of a segment of gold wire is

take for an Avogadro's number of electrons to emerge 85 Q. When placed in a liquid bath, the
the wire is

from the accelerator? resistance decreases to 80 Q. What is the temperature

27. A resistor is constructed of a carbon rod that has a of the bath?
uniform cross-sectional area of 5 mm 2 When a poten- . 38. A 500-W heating coil designed to operate from 110 V
tial difference of 15 V is applied across the ends of is made of nichrome wire 0.5 mm
in diameter, (a) As-

current of X 10
-3 A in the rod. suming that the resistivity of the nichrome remains
the rod, there is a 4
Find (a) the resistance of the rod and (b) the rod's constant at its 20 °C value, find the length of wire
length. used, (b) Now consider the variation of resistivity
28. A current density of 6 X 10 -13 A/m 2 exists in the at- with temperature. What power will the coil of part (a)
mosphere where the electric field (due to charged actually deliver when it is heated to 1200°C?
thunderclouds in the vicinity) is 100 V/m. Calculate
the electrical conductivity of the earth's atmosphere Section 27.6 A Model for Electrical Conduction
in this region.
39. Calculate the current density in a gold wire in which
an electric field of 0.74 V/m exists.
Section 27.4 The Resistivity of Different Conductors 40. If the drift velocity of free electrons in a copper wire is
-4
7.84 X 10 m/s, calculate the electric field in the
29. An aluminum wire with a diameter of 0.1 has a mm conductor.
uniform electric of 0.2 V/m imposed along its
field
41. Use data from Example 27.6 to calculate the collision
entire length. The temperature of the wire is 50°C.
mean free path of electrons in copper if the average
Assume one free electron per atom, (a) Use the infor- thermal speed of conduction electrons is 8.6 X
mation in Table 27.1 and determine the resistivity.
10 s m/s.
(b) What isthe current density in the wire? (c) What dou-
42. If the current through a given conductor is
isthe total current in the wire? (d) What is the drift
bled, what happens to the (a) charge carrier density?
speed of the conduction electrons? (e) What potential current density? (c) electron drift velocity?
(b)
difference must exist between the ends of a 2-m
(d) average time between collisions?
length of the wire to produce the stated electric field
strength? Power
Section 27.7 Electrical Energy and
30. Calculate the percentage change in the resistance of a
carbon filament when it is heated from room tempera- 43. A 10-V batten' is connected to a 120-Q resistor. Ne-
ture to 160°C. glecting the internal resistance of the batten', calcu-
31. What is the fractional change in the resistance of an late the power dissipated in the resistor.
iron filament when its temperature changes from 44. How much current is being supplied by a 200- V gener-
25°Cto50°C? ator delivering 100 kW of power?
32. The resistance of a platinum wire is to be calibrated 45. Suppose produces 140 V for a
that a voltage surge

forlow-temperature measurements. A platinum wire moment. By what percentage will the output of a 120-
with resistance 1 Q at 20°C is immersed in liquid ni- V, 100-W light bulb increase, assuming its resistance

trogen at 77 K (— 196°C). If the temperature re- does not change?

sponse of the platinum wire is linear, what is the ex- 46. A particular type of automobile storage battery is
pected resistance of the platinum wire at — 196°C? characterized as "360-ampere-hour, 12 V." What
(apuan un .
= 3.92X10-3rc) total energy can the batten- deliver?
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 763

47. If a 55-ii resistor is rated at 125 W (the maximum tomer's house for a load current of 110 A. For this
allowed power), what is the maximum allowed oper- load current, find (b) the power the customer is re-
ating voltage? ceiving and (c) the power dissipated in the copper
48. In a hydroelectric installation, a turbine delivers wires.
1 500 hp to a generator, which in turn converts 80% of 57. The potential difference across the filament of a lamp
the mechanical energy into electrical energy. Under is maintained at a constant level while equilibrium
these conditions, what current will the generator de- temperature is being reached. It is observed that the
liver at a terminal potential difference of 2000 V? steady-state current in the lamp is only one tenth of
49. Suppose that you want to install a heating coil that will the current drawn by the lamp when it is first turned
convert electric energy to heat at a rate of 300 for a W on. If the temperature coefficient of resistivity for the
current of 1.5 A. (a) Determine the resistance of the lamp at 20°C is 0.0045 (C°) _1 and , if the resistance
coil, (b) The resistivity of the coil wire is 10
-6 £2-m,
increases linearly with increasing temperature, what
and its diameter is 0.3 mm. Determine its length. is the final operating temperature of the filament?
50. An electric heater with a resistance of 20 Q requires 58. The current in a resistor decreases by 3 A when the
100 V across its terminals. A built-in switching circuit voltage applied across the resistor decreases from
repetitively turns the heateron for 1 s and off for 4 s. 12 V Find the resistance of the resistor.
to 6 V.
(a) How much energy is produced by the heater in 59. An is designed to run off a bank of 12-V
electric car
1 h? (b) What is the average power delivered by the batteries with total energy storage of 2 X 10 7 J. (a) If
heater over a period of one cycle? the electric motor draws 8 kW, what is the current
delivered to the motor? (b) If the electric motor
Section 27.8 Energy Conservation draws 8 kW as the car moves at a steady speed of
in Household Circuits 20 m/s, how far will the car travel before it is "out of
juice"?
51. What is the required resistance of an immersion
-8
60. (a) A sheet of copper (p = 1 7 X 1 Q •
m) is 2 mm
heater that will increase the temperature of kg of .

1 .5

water from 10°Cto50°Cin 10 min while operating at

thick and has surface dimensions of 8 cm X 24 cm. If
the long edges are joined to form a hollow tube 24 cm
110 V?
in length, what is the resistance between the ends?
52. The heating element of maker operates at a coffee
120 V and Assuming that all
carries a current of 2 A.
(b) What mass of copper would be required to manu-
of the heat generated is absorbed by the water, how
facture a spool of copper cable 1500 m in length and
having a total resistance of 4.5 Q?
long does it take to heat 0.5 kg of water from room
temperature (23 °C) to the boiling point? 61. A Wheatstone bridge can be used to measure the
strain (A L/L ) of a wire (see Section 12.4), where L is
53. Compute the cost per day of operating a lamp that
the length before stretching, L is the length after
draws 1.7 A from a 1 10-V line if the cost of electrical
stretching, and AL = L — L Let a = AL/L . Show .

energy is 6 cents/kWh.
that the resistance is R = Rq (1 + 2a + a 2 ) for any
54. An electric heater operating at full power draws a
current of 8 A from a 1 10-V circuit, (a) What is the length where R = . Assume that the resistivity
resistance of the heater? (b) Assuming the resistance
R remains constant, at what voltage and current would and volume of the wire stay constant.
the heater dissipate 750 W? 62. The current in a wire decreases with time according to
the relation / = 2.5e -of mA where a = 0.833 s
_1
55. A certain toaster has a heating element made of De- .

nichrome resistance wire. When first connected to a termine the total charge that has flowed through the
1 20- V voltage source (and the wire is at a temperature wire by the time the current has diminished to zero.
of 20°C) the initial current is 1.8 A, but the current 63. A resistor is constructed by forming a material of resis-
begins to decrease as the resistive element heats up. tivity/? into the shape of a hollow cylinder of length L

When the toaster has reached its final operating tem- and inner and outer radii ra and rb , respectively (Fig.
perature, the current has dropped to 1.53 A. (a) Find 27.18). In use, a potential difference is applied be-
the power the toaster consumes when it is at its oper-
ating temperature, (b) What is the final temperature
of the heating element?

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
56. An electric utility company supplies a customer's
house from the main power lines (120 V) with two
copper wires, each 50 m long and having a resistance
of 1 08 ft per 300 m (a) Find the voltage at the cus-
. .
Figure 27. 1 8 (Problems 63 and 64).
 .

764 CHAPTER 27 CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

Face A
tween the ends of the cylinder, producing a current
parallel to the axis, (a) Find a general expression for
the resistance of such a device in terms of L, p, ra ,
FaceB
and rj,. (b) Obtain a numerical value for fi when
L = 4 cm, ra = 0.5 cm, rb = 1.2 cm, and the resistiv-
ity ^=3.5 X 10 Q
5 m. •

64. Consider the device described in Problem 63. Sup-

pose now that the potential difference is applied be-
tween the inner and outer surfaces so that the result-
ing current flows radially outward, (a) Find a general
expression for the resistance of the device in terms of
and rb (b) Calculate the value of R using the
L, p, r„, .

Figure 27.19 (Problem 67).

parameter values given in (b) of Problem 63.
65. A more general definition of the temperature coeffi- A material of resistivity p is formed into the shape of a
|
68.|
cient of resistivity is
truncated cone of altitude h as in Figure 27.20. The
1 dp bottom end has a radius b and the top end has a ra-
a=
-p-dT dius a. Assuming a uniform current density through
any circular cross section of the cone, show that the
where p is the resistivity at temperature T. (a) Assum-
resistance between the two ends is
ing that a is constant, show that

p=p e°«-™
where^ is the resistivity at temperature T . (b) Using
the series expansion (e * 1 + i; i
1
1), show that <
the resistivity is given approximately by the expres-
sion p = p [l + a(T - T )] for a(T - T ) <c 1
66. There is a close analogy between the flow of heat

because of a temperature difference (Section 20.7)

and the flow of electrical charge because of a potential
difference. The thermal energy dQ and the electrical
charge dq are both transported by free electrons in
the conducting material. Consequently, a good elec-
trical conductor is usually also a good heat conductor.
Consider a thin conducting slab of thickness dx, area Figure 27.20 (Problem 68).
A, and electrical conductivity u, with a potential dif-
ference dV between opposite faces. Show that the
A69. An experiment is conducted to measure the electrical
current /= dq/dt is given by resistivity of nichrome in the form of wires with dif-

ferent lengths and cross-sectional areas. For one set of

Charge conduction Analogous heat conduction
(Eq. 20.15)
measurements, a student uses #30 gauge wire, which
-8
has a cross sectional area of 7.3 X 10 m 2 The volt-
.

dq . dV
-r = —oA-r- age across the wire and the current in the wire are
dt dx at dx measured with a voltmeter and ammeter, respec-
tively. For each of the measurements given in the
In the analogous heat conduction equation, the rate of
of joules per second) table below taken on wires of three different lengths,
heat flow dQ/dt (in SI units is

in a material of calculate the resistance of the wires and the corre-

due to a temperature gradient dT/dx,
thermal conductivity k. What is the origin of the sponding values of the resistivity. What is the average
minus sign in the charge conduction equation? value of the resistivity, and how does it compare with
the value given in Table 27.1?
67. Material with uniform resistivity p is formed into
a wedge as shown in Figure 27.19. Show that the re-
Urn) V(V) 7(A) R(Q) p(Q-m)
sistance between face A and face B of this wedge is

given by 0.54

R=p
">(</2 - y i) \!/i/
 28
Direct Current Circuits

This versatile circuit enables

the experimenter to examine
the properties of circuit
elements such as capacitors
and resistors andtheir effect
on circuit behavior. (Courtesy
ofCENCO)

This chapter is concerned with the analysis of some simple circuits

whose elements include batteries, resistors, and capacitors in var-
ious combinations. The analysis of these circuits is simplified by the
use of two rules known as Kirchhoff's rules. These rules follow from
the laws of conservation of energy and conservation of charge.
Most of the
circuits analyzed are assumed to be in steady state, where
the currents are
constant in magnitude and direction. In one section we discuss circuits con-
taining resistorsand capacitors, for which the current varies with time. Fi-
nally, a number of common electrical devices and
techniques are described for
measuring current, potential differences, resistance, and emfs.

765
766 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

28.1 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

In the previous chapter we found that a constant current can be maintained in
^1H> a closed circuit through the use of a source of energy, called an electromotive
force (abbreviated emf). A source of emf is any device (such as a battery or
generator) that will increase the potential energy of charges circulating in a
circuit. One can think of a source of emf as a "charge pump" that forces
electrons to move in a direction opposite the electrostatic force on these
negative charges inside the source. The emf, £, of a source describes the work
done per unit charge, and hence the SI unit of emf is the volt.
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 28.1, consisting of a battery con-
nected to a resistor. We
shall assume that the connecting wires have no resist-
ance. The positive terminal of the battery is at a higher potential than the
negative terminal. If we were to neglect the internal resistance of the battery
Batten itself, then the potential difference across the battery (the terminal voltage)
would equal the emf of the battery. However, because a real battery always
Figure 28.1 A circuit consisting
has some internal resistance r, the terminal voltage is not equal to the emf of
of a resistor connected to the termi-
nals of a battery. the battery. The circuit shown in Figure 28.1 can be described by the circuit
diagram in Figure 28.2a. The battery within the dotted rectangle is repre-
sented by a source of emf, £, in series with the internal resistance, r. Now
imagine a positive charge moving from a to h in Figure 28.2a. As the charge
passes from the negative to the positive terminal of the battery, its potential
increases by £. However, as it moves through the resistance r, its potential
decreases by an amount Ir, where I is the current in the circuit. Thus, the
terminal voltage of the battery, V= Vb — Va , is given by 1

V=6-Ir (28.1)

From this expression, note that £ is equivalent to the open-circuit voltage, that
is,the terminal voltage when the current is zero. Figure 28.2b is a graphical
representation of the changes in potential as the circuit is traversed in the
clockwise direction. By inspecting Figure 28.2a we see that the terminal
voltage V must also equal the potential difference across the external resist-
ance R, often called the load resistance. That is, V = IR. Combining this with
Equation 28.1, we see that
£ r R
£ = ZR + 7r (28.2)

Solving for the current gives

Tj^-rTTir
7 = (28.3)
R+ r

This shows that the current in this simple circuit depends on both the resist-
ance external to the battery and the internal resistance. If the load resistance R
is much greater than the internal resistance r, we can neglect r in this analysis.
(b)
In many circuits we shall ignore this internal resistance.
Figure 28.2 (a) Circuit diagram If we multiply Equation 28.2 by the current /, the following expression is
of a source of emf £ of internal re- obtained:
sistance r connected to an external
resistor R. (b) Graphical represen- IE = PR + Pr (28.4)
tationshowing how the potential
changes as the series circuit in (a) is
traversed clockwise. 1
The terminal voltage in this case is less than the emf by an amount Ir. In some situations, the
terminal voltage may exceed the emf by an amount Ir. This happens when the direction of the
current is opposite that of the emf, as in the case of charging a battery with another source of emf.
 28.2 RESISTORS IN SERIES AND IN PARA I,I EI. 767

This equation tells us that the total power output of the source of emf, 16, is
converted into power dissipated PR, plus
as joule heat in the load resistance,
power dissipated in the internal resistance, Pr. Again, if r « R, then most of
the power delivered by the battery is transferred to the load resistance.

EXAMPLE 28.1 Terminal Voltage of a Battery EXAMPLE 28.2 Matching the Load
A battery has an emf of 12 V and an internal resistance of Show that the maximum power lost in the load resistance
0.05 Q. Its terminals are connected to a load resistance R in Figure 28.2a occurs when R = r, that is, when the
of 3 £2. (a) Find the current in the circuit and the terminal load resistance matches the internal resistance.
voltage of the battery.
Using Equations 28.1 and 28.3, we get Solution The power dissipated in the load resistance is

equal to PR, where I is given by Equation 28.3:

= e i2v
/ = 3.93 A
R+ r 3.05 Q em
P=PR = (R + r)
2
V=£-7r=12 V-(3.93 A)(0.05 £1) = 11.8V
When P is plotted versus R as in Figure 28.3, we find that
As a check of this result, we can calculate the voltage P reaches a maximum value of £2 /4r at R = r. This can
drop across the load resistance R. This gives also be proved by differentiating P with respect to R,
setting the result equal to zero, and solving for R. The
V= IR = (3.93 A)(3£2) = 11.8 V details are left as a problem (Problem 79).

(b) power dissipated in the load resis-

Calculate the
tor, the power dissipated by the internal resistance of the
battery, and the power delivered by the battery.
The power dissipated by the load resistor is

PR = PR= (3.93 A) 2 (3 Q.) = 46.3 W

The power dissipated by the internal resistance is

Pr = Pr= (3.93 A) 2 (0.05ft) = 0.772 W

Hence, the power delivered by the battery is the sum of Figure 28.3 Graph of the power P delivered to a load resistor
these quantities, or 47.1 W. This can be checked using as a function of R. Note that the power into R is a maximum when
the expression P= 16. R equals r, the internal resistance of the battery.

28.2 RESISTORS IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL

When two or more resistors are connected together such that they have only For a series connection of
one common point per pair, they are said to be in series. Figure 28.4 shows two resistors, the current is the
resistors connected in series. Note that same in each resistor

the currentis the same through each resistor since any charge that flows

through R, must equal the charge that flows through R 2 .

Since the potential drop from a to b in Figure 28.4b equals IR 1 and the
potential drop from b to c equals 7R 2 the potential drop from a to c is given by
,

V=7R + 7R 2 = 7(R + R 2
1 1 )
 '

768 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

—V/V— —V/v—
• •

(b)

A series connection of three lamps, Figure 28.4 Series connection of two resistors, R! and R 2 The
. current in each resistor is the
allrated at 120 V, with power rat- same.
ings of 60 W, 75 W, and 200 W.
Why are the intensities of the
lamps different? Which lamp has
the greatest resistance? How
would their relative intensities
Therefore, we can replace the two resistors in series by a single equivalent
differ if they were connected in resistance R„, whose value is the sum of the individual resistances:
parallel? (Courtesy of Henry Leap
and Jim Lehman)
R«, — Ri + R 2 (28.5)

The resistance R eq is equivalent to the series combination R + R 2 in the sense t

that the circuit current is unchanged when R^ replaces R + R 2 The equiva- x

.

lent resistance of three or more resistors connected in series is simply

Req = R + R 2 + R 3 +
1 (28.6)

Therefore, the equivalent resistance of a series connection of resistors is always

greater than any individual resistance.
Note that if the filament of one light bulb in Figure 28.4 were to break, or
"burn out," the circuit would no longer be complete (an open-circuit condi-
tion) and the second bulb would also go out. Some Christmas tree light sets
(especially older ones) are connected in this way, and the agonizing experi-
ence of determining which bulb is burned out is a familiar one. Frustrating
experiences such as this illustrate how inconvenient it would be to have all
appliances in a house connected in series. In many circuits, fuses are used in
series with other circuit elements for safety purposes. The conductor in the
fuse is designed to melt and open the circuit at some maximum current, the
value of which depends on the nature of the circuit. If a fuse is not used,
excessive currents could damage circuit elements, overheat wires, and per-
haps cause a fire. In modern home construction, circuit breakers are used in
place of fuses. When the current in a circuit exceeds some value (typically
15 A), the circuit breaker acts as a switch and opens the circuit.
Now consider two resistors connected in parallel as shown in Figure 28.5.
In this case, there is an equal potential difference across each resistor.

However, the current in each resistor is in general not the same. When the
current I reaches point a (called a. junction), it splits into two parts, Z x going
 28.2 RESISTORS IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL 769

Figure 28.5 Parallel connection of two resistors, R t and R 2 The potential difference across each
• Three incandescent lamps with
resistor is the same, and the equivalent resistance of the combination is given by R = R!R 2 / power ratings of 25 W, 75 W, and
(R,+fl 2 ). 1 50 W, connected in parallel to a

voltage source of about 100 V. All

lamps are rated at the same voltage.
through Rj and I2 going through R2 IfR, is greater than R 2 then/, will be less
.
,
Why do the intensities of the lamps
than I2 That is, the charge will tend to take the path of least resistance.
.
differ? Which lamp draws the most
Clearly, since charge must be conserved, the current I that enters point a must current? Which has the least resist-
ance? (Courtesy of Henry Leap and
equal the total current leaving this point, I x + l 2 :

Jim Lehman)
I = h+I2
Since the potential drop across each resistor must be the same, Ohm's law
gives

_ _V V _ / 1 !\_ v
Rj R2 VRi R2 / Rg,,

From this result, we see that the equivalent resistance of two resistors in
parallel is given by

(28.7)

This can be rearranged to give

fll R2
Rj + R2 Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854),
German physicist. (Courtesv of
An extension of this analysis to three or more resistors in parallel gives the AIP Niels Bohr Library, E. Scott
Barr Collection)
following general expression:

Several resistors

h-i+i+i + (28.8)
in parallel
770 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

It can be seen from this expression that the equivalent resistance of two or
more resistors connected in parallel is always less than the smallest resistance
in the group.
Household circuits are always wired such that the light bulbs (or appli-
ances, etc.) are connected in parallel, as in Figure 28.5a. In this manner, each
device operates independently of the others, so that if one is switched off,
the others remain on. Equally important, each device operates on the same
voltage.
Finally, it is interesting to note that parallel resistors combine in the same
way that series capacitors combine, and vice versa.

EXAMPLE 28.3 Find the Equivalent Resistance

Four resistors are connected as shown in Figure 28.6a.
(a) Find the equivalent resistance between a and c.

The circuit can be reduced in steps as shown in Fig-

ure 28.6. The 8-Q and 4-Q resistors are in series, and so
the equivalent resistance between a and b is 12 Q (Eq.
28.5). The 6-Q and 3-Q resistors are in parallel, and so
from Equation 28.7 we find that the equivalent resist-
ance from b to c is 2 Q. Hence, the equivalent resistance
from a to c is 14 Q.

(b) What is the current in each resistor if a potential

difference of 42 V is maintained between a and c?
The current I in the 8-Q and 4-il resistors is the same
since they are in series. Using Ohm's law and the results
from (a), we get

Vac _
I
fi eq
 28.3 K1RCHHOFFS RULES 771

'-£-
772 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

2. The algebraic sum of the changes in potential across all of the elements
around any closed circuit loop must be zero.

The first rule is a statement of conservation of charge. That is, whatever

current enters a given point in a circuit must leave that point, since charge
cannot build up at a point. If we apply this rule to the junction shown in Figure
(a)
28.9a, we get

h=h + h
Figure 28.9b represents a mechanical analog to this situation, in which water
Flow out flows through a branched pipe with no leaks. The flow rate into the pipe equals
the total flow rate out of the two branches.
The second rule follows from conservation of energy. That is, any charge
that moves around any closed loop in a circuit (it starts and ends at the same
point) must gain as much energy as it loses. Its energy may decrease in the form
of a potential drop, — IR, across a resistor or as the result of having the charge
Figure 28. 9 (a) A schematic dia-
go the reverse direction through a source of emf. In a practical application of
gram illustrating Kirchhoff's junc-
tion rule. Conservation of charge the latter case, electrical energy is converted into chemical energy when a
requires that whatever current battery is charged; similarly, electrical energy may be converted into mechan-
enters a junction must leave that
icalenergy for operating a motor.
junction. Therefore, in this case,
l l — l 2 + I3 (b) A mechanical ana-
.
As an aid in applying the second rule, the following calculational tools
log of the junction rule: the flow should be noted. These points are summarized in Fig. 28.10.
out must equal the flow in.

1. If a resistor is traversed in the direction of the current, the change in

potential across the resistor is —IR (Fig. 28.10a).

2. If a resistor is traversed in the direction opposite the current, the change in

potential across the resistor is +IR (Figure 28.10b).

3. If a source of emf is traversed in the direction of the emf (from — to + on

the terminals), the change in potential is + 8 (Fig. 28.10c).
4. If a source of emf is traversed in the direction opposite the emf (from +
to —
— on the terminals), the change in potential is 8 (Fig. 28.10d).
(a) -**-
AV=Vb -Va = -IR There are limitations on the number of times you can use the junction rule
and the loop rule. The junction rule can be used as often as needed so long as
1
each time you write an equation, you include in it a current that has not been
(b) used in a previous junction rule equation. In general, the number of times the
AV=Vh -Va = + IR junction rule must be used is one fewer than the number of junction points in
the circuit. The loop rule can be used as often as needed so long as a new circuit
element (resistor or battery) or a new current appears in each new equation. In
e
-.1 + general, the number of independent equations you need must at least equal the
(o)
number of unknowns in order to solve a particular circuit problem.
AV=vb -va = +e Complex networks with many loops and junctions generate large num-
bers of independent, linear equations and a corresponding large number of
unknowns. Such situations can be handled formally using matrix algebra.
8 Computer programs can also be written to solve for the unknowns.
(d)
+1.-
The following examples illustrate the use of Kirchhoff's rules in analyzing
AV=Vb -Va = -8 circuits. In all cases, it is assumed that the circuits have reached steady-state
conditions, that is, the currents in the various branches are constant. If a

Figure 28.10 Rules for determin- capacitor included as an element in one of the branches, it acts as an open
is
ing the potential changes across a
circuit, that is, the current in the branch containing the capacitor will be zero
resistor and a battery, assuming the
battery has no internal resistance. under steady-state conditions.
 28.3 KIRCHHOFF'S RULES 773

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY AND HINTS: KIRCHHOFF'S RULES

1. First, draw the circuit diagram and assign labels and symbols to all the known
and unknown quantities. You must assign a direction to the currents in each
part of the circuit. Do not be alarmed if you guess the direction of a current
incorrectly; the result will have a negative value, but its magnitude will be
correct. Although the assignment of current directions is arbitrary, you must
adhere rigorously to the assigned directions when applying Kirchhoff's rules.
2. Apply the junction rule (Kirchhoff's first rule) to any junction in the circuit
which provides a relation between the various currents. (This step is easy!)
3. Now apply Kirchhoff's second rule to as many loops in the circuit as are
needed to solve for the unknowns. In order to apply this rule, you must
correctly identify the change in potential as you cross each element in tra-
versing the closed loop (either clockwise or counterclockwise). Watch out for
signs! We suggest that you follow the four "rules-of-thumb" listed above and
summarized in Figure 28.10.
4. Finally, you must solve the equations simultaneously for the unknown quanti-
ties. Be careful in your algebraic steps, and check your numerical answers for

consistency.

EXAMPLE 28.6 A Single-Loop Circuit Solving for 7 and using the values given in Figure 28.1 1,
A single-loop circuit contains two external resistors and we get
two sources of emf as shown in Figure 28.11. The inter-

= e - 2 _ 6V-12V
nal resistances of the batteries have been neglected.
7
l -I A
(a)Find the current in the circuit. R, +R, 8fi+10fi 3
There are no junctions in this single-loop circuit,
and so the current is the same in all elements. Let us The negative sign for 7 indicates that the direction of the
assume that the current is in the clockwise direction as
current is opposite the assumed direction, or counter-
shown in Figure 28.11. Traversing the circuit in the clockwise.
clockwise direction, starting at point a, we see that a —* b
represents a potential increase of +6 1 ,b —» c represents (b) What is the power lost in each resistor?
a potential decrease of — 7Rj , c —* d represents a poten-
tial decrease of — £ 2 ar, d d—* a represents a potential
»
P1 = I2R1 = (iA)*(8«) = |w
decrease of — 7R 2 Applying Kirchhoff's second rule
.

gives
7 2 R, (*A)«(ion) = -yW
2AV, =
Hence, the total power lost is P r + P2 = 2 W. Note that
£j - m -e -m
v 2 2
= o the 12-V battery delivers power I6 2 = 4 W. Half of this
power is delivered to the external resistors. The other
half is delivered to the 6-V battery, which is being

charged by the 12-V battery. included the If we had

internal resistances of the batteries, some of the power
would be dissipated as heat in the batteries, so that less
power would be delivered to the 6-V battery.

EXAMPLE 28.7 Applying Kirchhoff's Rules

Find the currents Zj, 7 2 and 73 in the circuit shown in
,

Figure 28.12.
We shall choose the directions of the currents as
shown in Figure 28.12. Applying Kirchhoff's first rule to
Figure 28.1 1 (Example 28.6) A series circuit containing two junction c gives
batteries and two resistors, where the polarities of the batteries
are in opposition to each other. (1) I, + 7, = 7,
774 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

The fact that 7 2 and 73 are both negative indicates only

/ that we chose the wrong direction for these currents.
However, the numerical values are correct.

Exercise 2 Find the potential difference between

I" points b and c.

Answer Vb - Vc = 2 V.

EXAMPLE 28.8 A Multi-Loop Circuit

The multiloop 28.13 contains three re-
circuit in Figure
sistors, three batteries, and one capacitor, (a) Under
Figure 28.12 (Example 28.7) A circuit containing three loops. steady-state conditions, find the unknown currents.
Firstnote that the capacitor represents an open cir-
cuit, and hence there is no current along path ghab under
There are three loops in the circuit, ahcda, befcb, and steady-state conditions. Therefore, I^ = I 1 Labeling the .

aefda (the outer loop). We need only two loop equations currents as shown in Figure 28.13 and applying Kirch-
to determine the unknown currents. The third loop hoff's first rule to junction c, we get
equation would give no new information. Applying
Kirchhoff's second rule to loops abcda and befcb and (1) h+h = h
traversing these loops in the clockwise direction, we ob- Kirchhoff's second rule applied to loops defcd and cfgbc
tain the following expressions: gives

(2) Loop abcda: 10 V - (6 Q)7, - (2 ft)73 = (2) Loop defcd: 4V-(3 Q)I2 - (5 Q)I 3 =
(3) Loop befcb: -14V-10V+(6 Q)7 t - (4 Q)7 2 = (3) Loop cfgbc: 8 V - (5 Q)7j + (3 Q)72 =
Note that in loop befcb, a positive sign is obtained when From (1) we see that 7, = 73 — 72 which when substi-
,

traversing the 6-Q resistor since the direction of the path tuted into (3) gives
isopposite the direction of the current 7j A third loop
V- =
.

8 (5 Q)7 3 + (8 Q)7 2
equation for aefda gives — 14 = 27 3 + 4 7 2 which is just
(4)
,

the sum of (2) and (3). Expressions (1), (2), and (3) repre- Subtracting (4) from (2), we eliminate 7 3 and find
sent three linear, independent equations with three un-
knowns. We can solve the problem as follows: Substitut- h = —ft A = -0.364 A
ing (1) into (2) gives

10-6/j-2(/i + 72 ) =
(4) 10 = 8I 1 + 2/2

Dividing each term in (3) by 2 and rearranging the equa-

tion gives

(5) -12 = -37, + 27 2

Subtracting (5) from (4) eliminates 7 2 ,

giving

22= 111,

7, =2 A
Using this value of 7j in (5) gives a value for 7 2 :

27 2 = 37,- 12 = 3(2)- 12 = -6
72 = -3A
Finally, 73 = 7X + 72 =—1 A. Hence, the currents have
the values
Figure 28.13 (Example 28.8) A multiloop circuit. Note that
2 A -3 A U= 1 A Kirchhoff's loop equation can be applied to any closed loop,
including one containing the capacitor.
 28.4 RC CIRCUITS 775

Since I 2 is negative, we conclude that Z 2 is from c to f -8V+V -3V = C

through the 3-fJ resistor. Using this value of J 2 in (3) and
Vc = 11.0 V
(1) gives the following values for It and /3 :

Since Q = CVC we find that the charge on

, the capacitor
1.38 A /,= 1.02 A is equal to
h

Under state-steady conditions, the capacitor represents g= (6//F)(11.0V)= 66.0 ^C

an open circuit, and so there is no current in the branch
ghab. Why is the left side of the capacitor positively charged?
(b) What is the charge on the capacitor?
We can apply Kirchhoff's second rule to loop abgha Exercise 3 Find the voltage across the capacitor by tra-

(or any loop that contains the capacitor) to find the po- versing any other loop, such as the outside loop.
tential difference Vc across the capacitor: Answer 11.0 V.

2S.4 RC CIRCUITS
So far we have been concerned with circuits with constant currents, or so-
called steady-state circuits. We shall now consider circuits containing capaci-
which the currents may vary in time. When a potential difference is
tors, in
applied across a capacitor, the rate at which it charges depends on its
first

capacitance and on the resistance in the circuit.

Charging a Capacitor

Consider the series circuit shown in Figure 28.14. Let us assume that the
capacitor is initially uncharged. There is no current when the switch S is open
(Fig. 28.14b). If the switch is closed at t = 0, charges will begin to flow, setting
up a current in the circuit, and the capacitor will begin to charge (Fig. 28.1 4c).
Note that during the charging process, charges do not jump across the plates of
the capacitor since the gap between the plates represents an open circuit.
Instead, charge is transferred from one plate to the other through the resistor,
switch, and battery until the capacitor is fully charged. The value of the
maximum charge depends on the emf of the battery. Once the maximum
charge is reached, the current in the circuit is zero.

Resistor

BID

&
Battery

Figure 28.14 (a) A capacitor in series with a resistor, battery, and switch, (b) Circuit diagram
representing this system before the switch is closed, t < 0. (c) Circuit diagram after the switch is
closed, t > 0.
776 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

To put this discussion on a quantitative basis, let us apply Kirchhoff's

second rule to the circuit after the switch is closed. This gives

£ - IR - ^ = (28.9)

where IR the potential drop across the resistor and q/C is the potential drop
is

across the capacitor.Note that q and 7 are instantaneous values of the charge
and current, respectively, as the capacitor is being charged.
We
can use Equation 28.9 to find the initial current in the circuit and the
maximum charge on the capacitor. At f = 0, when the switch is closed, the
charge on the capacitor is zero, and from Equation 28.9 we find that the initial
current in the circuit, I , is a maximum and equal to

Maximum current In = (current at f = 0) (28.10)

R

At this time, the potential drop is entirely across the resistor. Later, when the
capacitor is charged to its maximum value Q, charges cease to flow, the current
in the circuit is zero, and the potential drop is entirely across the capacitor.
Substituting 1=0 into Equation 28.9 gives the following expression for Q:

Maximum charge on the

Q= C£ (maximum charge) (28.11)
capacitor

To determine analytical expressions for the time dependence of the charge

and current, we must solve Equation 28.9, a single equation containing two
variables, q and I. In order to do this, let us differentiate Equation 28.9 with
respect to time. Since £ is a constant, dE/dt = and we get

dt\ C ) Cdt dt

Recalling that / = dq/dt, we can express this equation in the form

dl I

dl
dt (28.12)
I RC
Since R and C are constants, this can be integrated using the initial condition
that at f = 0, / =J :

k I RC Jo

Current versus time I(t) =I RC

e-*' = - e-"RC (28.13)
ft

/here e is the base of the natural logarithm and /„ = £/R is the initial current.
 28.4 RC CIRCUITS 777

In order to find the charge on the capacitor as a function of time, we can

substitute J = dq/dt into Equation 28.13 and integrate once more:

dq
= §. p-tlRC
dt

dq = - e- RC dt
fl

H
We can integrate this expression using the condition that q = at t = 0:

f"dq =| f e-"RC dt

In order to integrate the right side of this expression, we use the fact that

e "di = e ". The result of the integration gives

/
,- Charge versus time for a
q(t) = C£[l - e-»/RC = ] Q[l - <T*/HC ] V
R
0-14;
,

capacitor being charged

where Q = C6 is the maximum charge on the capacitor.

Plots of Equations 28.13and 28.14 are shown in Figure 28.15. Note that
the charge is zero at t = and approaches the maximum value of C£ as t —> °°
(Fig. 28.15a). Furthermore, the current has its maximum value of Z = E/R at
t = and decays exponentially to zero as t—* °° (Fig. 28.15b). The quantity
RC, which appears in the exponential of Equations 28.13 and 28.14, is called
the time constant, T, of the circuit. It represents the time it takes the current to
decrease to 1/e of its initial value; that is, in a time x,l = e~ l I = 0.377 In a .

time2r, / = e~ 2 I = 0.135/ and so forth. Likewise, in a time T the charge will

,

increase from zero to C£[l — e^ 1 = 0.63C6. ]

The following dimensional analysis shows that t has the unit of time:

™=[t4H^]- [T]

Figure 28. 1 5 (a) Plot of capacitor charge versus time for the circuit shown in Figure 28.14. After
one time constant, T, the charge is 63% of the maximum value, C£. The charge approaches its
maximum value as t approaches infinity, (b) Plot of current versus time for the RC circuit shown in
Figure 28. 14. The current has its maximum value, /„ = fi/R, at t = and decays to zero exponen-
tially as t approaches infinity. After one time constant, T, the current decreases to 37% of its initial
value.
778 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

The work done by the battery during the charging process is Q6 = C6 2 .

After the capacitor is charged, the energy stored in the capacitor is

fully
\Q£ = |C£ 2 which is just half the work done by the battery. It is left as a
,

problem to show that the remaining half of the energy supplied by the battery
goes into joule heat in the resistor (Problem 82).

Discharging a Capacitor

f<0 Now consider the circuit in Figure 28.16, consisting of a capacitor with an
initialcharge Q, a resistor, and a switch. When the switch is open (Fig.
28.16a), there is a potential difference of Q/C across the capacitor and zero
potential difference across the resistor since 1=0. If the switch is closed at
t= 0, the capacitor begins to discharge through the resistor. At some time
during the discharge, the current in the circuit is J and the charge on the
capacitor is q (Fig. 28.16b). From Kirchhoff's second rule, we see that the
potential drop across the resistor, IR, must equal the potential difference
f>0 across the capacitor, q/C:

-q
m-l (28.15)

(b) However, the current in the circuit must equal the rate of decrease of charge
on the capacitor. That is, / = —dq/dt, and so Equation 28.15 becomes
Figure 28.16 (a) A
charged ca-
pacitor connected to a resistor and
a switch, which is open at t < 0.
(b) After the switch is closed, a
-^^1 = 1
nonsteady current is set up in the dt C
direction shown and the charge on
the capacitor decreases exponen- dq
tially with time. dt (28.16)
RC

Integrating this expression using the fact that q = Q at t = gives

k1 RC J°

Charge versus time for a

discharging capacitor q(t) = Q e~"RC (28.17)

Differentiating Equation 28.17 with respect to time gives the current as a

function of time:

T(t)
Ht) =— —=—
dtRC
€
e~'/
RC = lL° e<T*/HC (28.18)

= Q/RC. Therefore, we see that both the charge on

where the initial current I
the capacitor and the current decay exponentially at a rate characterized by
the time constant t = RC.
 28.4 RC CIRCUITS 779

EXAMPLE 28.9 Charging a Capacitor in an

RC Circuit
An uncharged capacitor and a resistor are connected in
series to a battery as in Figure 28.17. If 6=12 V, C =
5 fiF, and R = 8 X
10 5 Q, find the time constant of the
circuit, the maximum charge on the capacitor, the maxi-
mum current in the circuit, and the charge and current as
a function of time.

R
-wv

tJ-=

Figure 28.17 (Example 28.9) The switch of this series RC cir-

cuit is closed at t = 0.

Solution The time constant of the circuit is t = RC =

(8X10 5 £2)(5X10-6 F) = 4s. The maximum charge
on the capacitor is Q = CS = (5 X KT6 F)(12 V) =
60 fiC The maximum current in the circuit is 7 =
e/R = (12 V)/(8 X 10 5 Q) = 15 M- Using these values
and Equations 28.13 and 28.14, we find that

q(t)= 60[l-e"'/4 ]/iC

I(t) = 15 <r*/ 4 //A

Graphs of these functions are given in Figure 28.18.

</(mO

z(M)

15

Figure 28.18 (Example

28.9) Plots of (a) charge
versus time and (b) current
versus time for the RC cir-
cuit shown in Figure 28.17,
with £=12V, R = 8X
10 s £i, andC=5/iF.
780 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

Exercise 5 After how many time constants will the cur- generated in the resistor (or the power loss) is given by
rent in the RC circuit drop to one-half of its initial value? RI 2 where I is the instantaneous current given by Equa-
,

Answer 0.693RC tion 28.18. Since the power is defined as the rate of
change of energy, we conclude that the energy lost in the
resistor in the form of heat must equal the time integral

EXAMPLE 28.1 1 Heat Loss in a Resistor ofRJ 2 df. That is

A 5-^F capacitor is charged to a potential difference of

800 V and is then discharged through a 25-kii resistor, Energy = | RI 2 dt = J
R(I e-" RC ) 2 dt
Jo Jo
as in Figure 28.16. What is the total energy which has
been lost as joule heating in the resistor when the capaci- To evaluate this integral, we note that the initial current
tor is fully discharged? 7 = £/R, and all parameters are constants except for t.
Thus, we find
Solution We shall solve this problem in two ways. The g2 r«
firstmethod, which is actually quite simple, is to note Energy : :
e -2t/RC dt
R Jo
that the initial energy in the system equals the energy
stored in the capacitor, given by C£ 2 /2. Once the capaci- The integral in the expression above has a value of RC/2,
tor is fully discharged, the energy stored in it is zero. so we find
Since energy is conserved, the initial energy stored in
Energy = 1C£ 2
the capacitor is transformed into thermal energy dissi-
pated in the resistor. Using the given values of C and 8, which agrees with the simpler approach, as it must. Note
we find that this second approach can be used to find the energy
lost as heat at any time after the switch is closed by simply
Energy = \C& 2 = |(5 X 10~ 6 F)(800 V) 2 = 1.60 J replacing the upper limit in the integral by that specific
value oft.
The second method, which is more difficult but per-
haps more instructive, is to note that as the capacitor Exercise 6 Show that the integral given in this example
discharges through the resistor, the rate at which heat is has the value of RC/2.

"28.5 ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS

The Ammeter
Current one of the most important quantities that one would like to measure
is

in A device that measures current is called an ammeter. The

an electric circuit.
current to be measured must pass directly through the ammeter, so that the
ammeter is in series with the current it is to measure, as in Figure 28.19. The
wires usually must be cut in order to make connections to the ammeter. When
using an ammeter to measure direct currents, you must be sure to connect it
Figure 28. 19 The current in a cir-
cuit can be measured with an am-
such that current enters the positive terminal of the instrument and exits at the
meter connected in series with the negative terminal. Ideally, an ammeter should have zero resistance so as not
and battery. An ideal am-
resistor
to alter the current being measured. In the circuit shown in Figure 28.19, this
meter has zero resistance.
condition requires that the ammeter's resistance be small compared to
R t + R 2 Since any ammeter always has some resistance, its presence in the
.

circuit will slightly reduce the current from its value when the ammeter is not
present.

The Voltmeter
A device that measures potential differences is called a voltmeter. The poten-
tialdifference between any two points in the circuit can be measured by
simply attaching the terminals of the voltmeter between these points without
breaking the circuit, as in Figure 28.20. The potential difference across resis-
 28.5 ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS 781

tor R2 ' s measured by connecting the voltmeter in parallel with R2 . Again, it is

necessary to observe the polarity of the instrument. The positive terminal of

the voltmeter must be connected to the end of the resistor at the higher
potential, and the negative terminal to the low-potential end of the resistor.
An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance so that no current will pass through
it. In Figure 28.20, this condition requires that the voltmeter must have a
resistance that is very large compared to R 2 In practice, if this condition is not
.

met, one should make corrections for the known resistance of the voltmeter.

The Galvanometer
The galvanometer is the main component used in the construction of am- Figure 28.20 The potential dif-
ference across a resistor can be
meters and voltmeters. The essential features of a common type, called the
measured with a voltmeter con-
D'Arsonval galvanometer, are shown in Figure 28.21. It consists of a coil of nected in parallel with the resistor.
wire mounted such that it is free to rotate on a pivot in a magnetic field An ideal voltmeter has infinite re-
sistance and does not affect the cir-
provided by a permanent magnet. The basic operation of the galvanometer
cuit.
makes use of the fact that a torque acts on a current loop in the presence of a
magnetic field. (The reason for this is discussed in detail in Chapter 29.) The
torque experienced by the coil is proportional to the current through it. This
means that the larger the current, the larger the torque and the more the coil
will rotate before the spring tightens enough to stop the rotation. Hence, the
amount of deflection is proportional to the current. Once the instrument is
properly calibrated, it can be used in conjunction with other circuit elements
to measure either currents or potential differences.
A typical off-the-shelf galvanometer is often not suitable for use as an
ammeter. One of the main reasons for this is that a typical galvanometer has a
resistance of about 60 Q. An ammeter resistance this large would considerably
alter the current in the circuit in which it is placed. This can easily be under-
stood by considering the following example. Suppose you were to construct a
simple series circuit containing a 3-V battery and a 3-D resistor. The current in
such a circuit is 1 A. However, if you insert a 60-Q galvanometer in the circuit
Spring Coil
to measure the current, the total resistance of the circuit would now be 63 Q,
and the current would be reduced to 0.048 A. Figure 28.21 The principal com-
A second factor that limits the use of a galvanometer as an ammeter is the ponents of a D'Arsonval galvanom-
eter. When current passes through
fact that a typical galvanometer will give a full-scale deflection for very low
the coil, situated in a magnetic
currents, of the order of 1 mA or less. Consequently, such a galvanometer field, the magnetic torque causes

cannot be used directly to measure currents greater than this. However, one the coil to twist. The angle through
which the coil rotates is propor-
can convert a galvanometer into an ammeter by simply placing a resistor, Rp,
tional to the current through it be-
in parallel with the galvanometer as in Figure 28.22a. The value of Rp, some- cause of the spring's torque.

Galvanometer

Galvanometer
Figure 28.22 (a) When a galva-
,6on nometer is to be used as an am-
-wv-
meter, a resistor, Rp, is connected
in parallel with the galvanometer.
(b) When the galvanometer is used
as a voltmeter, a resistor, R s is con-
,

nected in series with the galvanom-

(b) eter.
 R

782 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

times called the shunt resistor, must be very small compared to the resistance
of the galvanometer so that most of the current to be measured passes through
the shunt resistor. For example, if you wish to measure a current of 2 A with a
galvanometer whose resistance is 60 Q, the shunt resistance should have a
value of about 0.03 Q.
A
galvanometer can also be used as a voltmeter by adding an external
resistor, R,, in series with it, as in Figure 28.22b. In this case, the external
resistor must have a value which is very large compared to the resistance of the
galvanometer. This will insure that the galvanometer will not significantly
alter the voltage to be measured. For example, if you wish to measure a
maximum voltage of 100 V with a galvanometer whose resistance is 60 Q, the
5
external series resistor should have a value of about 10 Q.
When a voltmeter is constructed with several available ranges, one selects
Large-scale model of a galvanome- various values of r^ by using a switch that can be connected to a preselected set
ter movement. Why does the coil
of resistors. The required value of R, increases as the maximum voltage to be
rotate about the vertical axis after
the switch is closed? (Courtesy of measured increases.
Henry Leap and Jim Lehman)

"28.6 THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

Unknown resistances can be accurately measured using a circuit known as a
Wheatstone bridge This circuit consists of the unknown resist-
(Fig. 28.23).
ance, Rj, three known resistors, R 1; R 2 and R 3 (where Rj is a calibrated
,

variable resistor), a galvanometer, and a source of emf. The principle of its

operation is quite simple. The known resistor R x is varied until the galvanome-
ter reading is zero, that is, until there is no current from a to b. Under this

condition the bridge is said to be balanced. Since the potential at point a must
equal the potential at point b when the bridge is balanced, the potential
difference across Rj must equal the potential difference across R 2 Likewise, .

the potential difference across R 3 must equal the potential difference across
R, . From these considerations, we see that

(1) IjH, = 12R 2

(2) 1^3 = I 2 R*

Dividing (1) by (2) eliminates the currents, and solving for R, we find

The strain gage, a device used for (28.19)

experimental stress analysis, con-
sists of a thin coiled wire bonded to
a flexible plastic backing. Stresses
are measured by detecting changes
in resistance of the coil as the strip
bends. Resistance measurements
are made with the gage as one ele-
ment of a Wheatstone bridge.
These devices are commonly used
in modern electronic balances to
measure the mass of an object.
Figure 28.23 Circuit diagram for
a Wheatstone bridge. This circuit is
often used to measure an unknown
resistance fl x in terms of known re-
sistances R, R.2 and 3 When the
, , .

bridge is balanced, there is no cur-

rent in the galvanometer.
 28.7 THE POTENTIOMETER 783

Since R R 2 and R 3 are known quantities, Rx can be calculated. There are a

x , ,

number of similar devices that use the null measurement, such as a capacitance
bridge (used to measure unknown capacitances). These devices do not require
the use of calibrated meters and can be used with any source of emf.
When very high resistances are to be measured (above 10 5 Q), the
Wheatstone bridge method becomes difficult for technical reasons. As a result
of recent advances in the technology of such solid state devices as the field-ef-
Voltages, currents, and resistances
fect transistor, modern electronic instruments are capable of measuring resist-
are frequently measured by digital
ances as high as 10 12 Such instruments are designed to have an extremely
CI. multimeters like the one shown in
high effective resistance between their input terminals. For example, input this photograph. (Courtesy of
Henry Leap and Jim Lehman)
resistances of 10 10 £2 are common in most digital multimeters.

'28.7 THE POTENTIOMETER

A potentiometer is a circuit that is used to measure an unknown emf, Ex by ,

comparison with a known emf. Figure 28.24 shows the essential components
of the potentiometer. Point d represents a sliding contact used to vary the
resistance (and hence the potential difference) between points a and
d. In a
common version of the potentiometer, called a slide-wire potentiometer, the
variable resistor is a wire with the contact point d at some position on the wire.
The other required components in this circuit are a galvanometer, a power
source with emf £ a standard reference battery, and the unknown emf, 6X
, .

With the currents in the directions shown in Fig. 28.24, we see from
Kirchhoff 's first rule that the current through the resistor R, is J — Ix where I is
,

the current in the lower branch (through the battery of emf £ ) and Ix is the
current in the upper branch. Kirchhoff's second rule applied to loop abed
gives

-6X +(I-IX)RX =
where R^ is the resistance between points a and d. The sliding contact at d is

now adjusted until the galvanometer reads zero (a balanced circuit). Under
this condition, the current in the galvanometer and in the unknown cell is zero
(Ix = 0), and the potential difference between a and d equals the unknown

emf, 6 X That is,

.
Figure 28.24 Circuit diagram for
a potentiometer. The circuit is
£I = ZR I used to measure an unknown emf
Es in terms of a known emf £ s pro-
,

Next, the cell of unknown emf is replaced by a standard cell of known emf, vided by a standard cell.
£$ and the above procedure is repeated. That is, the moving contact at d is
,

varied until a balance is obtained. If R s is the resistance between a and d when

balance is achieved, then

e s
= /R s

where it is assumed that I remains the same.

Combining this expression with the previous equation, 6X = 7R,, we see
that

e.=^e. (28.20)

This result shows that the unknown emf can be determined from a knowledge
of the standard-cell emf and the ratio of the two resistances.
784 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

If the resistor is a wire of resistivity p, its resistance can be varied using

sliding contacts to vary the length of the circuit. With the substitutions R =
s

pLjA and Rx = pLjA, Equation 28.20 reduces to

£
-=r £ - (28.21)

According to this result, the unknown emf can be obtained from a measure-
ment of the two wire lengths and the magnitude of the standard emf.

"28.8 HOUSEHOLD WIRING AND ELECTRICAL SAFETY

Household circuits represent a very practical application of some of the ideas
we have presented chapter concerning circuit analysis. In our world of
in this
electrical appliances, useful to understand the power requirements and
it is

limitations of conventional electrical systems and the safety measures that

should be practiced to prevent accidents.
In a conventional installation, the utilities company distributes electrical
power to individual homes with a pair of power lines. Each user is connected in
120 V parallel to these lines, as shown in Figure 28.25. The potential difference
between these wires is about 1 20 V. The voltage alternates in time, but for the
present discussion we shall assume a steady direct current (dc) voltage. (Alter-
nating voltages and currents will be discussed in Chapter 33.) One of the wires
is connected to ground, and the potential on the "live" wire oscillates relative
2
to ground.
A meter and circuit breaker (or in older installations, a fuse) are connected
in series with the wire entering the house as indicated in Figure 28.25. The
circuit breaker is a device that protects against too large a current, which can
cause overheating and fires. When the current exceeds some safe value (typi-
cally 15 A or 30 A), the circuit breaker disconnects the voltage source from
the load. Some circuit breakers make use of the principle of the bimetallic strip
discussed in Chapter 19.
The wire and circuit breaker are carefully selected to meet the current
demands for that circuit. If a circuit is to carry currents as large as 30 A, a heavy
wire and appropriate circuit breaker must be selected to handle this current.
Other individual household circuits, which are normally used to power lamps
Figure 28.25 Wiring diagram for and small appliances, often require only 15 A. Therefore, each circuit has its
a household circuit. The resist-
ances R] and R 2 represent appli- own circuit breaker to accommodate various load conditions.
ances or other electric devices As an example, consider a circuit in which a toaster, a microwave oven,
which operate with an applied volt- and a heater are in the same circuit (corresponding to R x R 2 in Fig. , , . . .

age of 120V.
28.25). We can calculate the current through each appliance using the ex-
pression P = 7 V. The toaster, rated at 1 000 W, would draw a current of 1 000/
1 20 = 8.33 A. The microwave oven, rated at 800 W, would draw a current of

6.67 A, and the electric heater, rated at 1300 W, would draw a current of
10.8 A. If the three appliances are operated simultaneously, they will draw a
total current of 25.8 A. Therefore, the circuit should be wired to handle at
least this much current In order to accommodate a small additional load, such
.

as a 1 00-W lamp, a 30-A circuit should be installed. Alternatively, one could

2The phrase live wire is common jargon for a conductor whose potential is above or below
ground.
 28.8 HOUSEHOLD WIRING AND ELECTRICAL SAFETY 785

operate the toaster and microwave oven on one 20-A circuit and the heater on
a separate 20-A circuit.
Many heavy-duty appliances, such as electric ranges and clothes dryers,
require 240 V for their operation. The power company supplies this voltage
by providing a third live wire, 120 V below ground potential (Fig.
which is

28.26). Therefore, the potential difference between this wire and the other
live wire (which is 1 20 V above ground potential) is 240 V. An appliance that
operates from a 240-V line requires half the current of one operating from a
120-V line; therefore smaller wires can be used in the higher-voltage circuit
without overheating becoming a problem.

Electrical Safety Figure 28.26 Power connections

for a 240-V appliance.
When the live wire of an electrical outlet is connected directly to ground, the
circuit is completed and a short-circuit condition exists. When this happens
accidentally, a properly operating circuit breaker will "break" the circuit. On
the other hand, a person can be electrocuted by touching the live wire of a
frayed cord or other exposed conductors while in contact with ground. An
exceptionally good ground contact might be made
by the person's
either
touching a water pipe (which is normally at ground potential) or by standing
on ground with wet feet, since water is not a good insulator. Such situations
should be avoided at all costs.
Electrical shock can result in fatal burns, or it can cause the muscles of
vital organs, such as the heart, to malfunction. The degree of damage to the
body depends on the magnitude of the current, the length of time it acts, the
location of the contact, and the part of the body through which the current
passes. Currents of 5 mA or less can cause a sensation of shock, but ordinarily
do little or no damage. If the current is larger than about 10 mA, the hand
muscles contract and the person may be unable to release the live wire. If a
current of about 100 mA passes through the body for only a few seconds, the
result could be fatal. Such large currents will paralyze the respiratory muscles
and prevent breathing. In some cases, currents of about 1 A through the body
can produce serious (and sometimes fatal) burns. In practice, no contact with
live wires should be regarded as safe.

Many 120-V outlets are designed to take a three-pronged power cord.

(This feature required in all new electrical installations.) One of these prongs
is

is the live wire and two are common with ground. The additional ground

connection is provided as a safety feature. Many appliances contain a three-

pronged 1 20-V power cord with one of the ground wires connected directly to
the casing of the appliance. If the live wire is accidentally shorted to the casing
(which often occurs when the wire insulation wears off), the current will take
the low-resistance path through the appliance to ground. In contrast, if the
casing of the appliance is not properly grounded and a short occurs, anyone in
contact with the appliance will experience an electric shock since his or her
body will provide a low-resistance path to ground.
Special power outlets called ground-fault interrupters (GFI's) are now
being used in kitchens, bathrooms, basements, and other hazardous areas of
new homes. These devices are designed to protect persons from electrical
shock by sensing small currents (~5 mA) leaking to ground. When an exces-
sive leakage current is detected, the current is shut off (interrupted) in less
than one millisecond.
786 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

SUMMARY
The emf of a battery is equal to the voltage across its terminals when the
current is zero. That is, theemf is equivalent to the open-circuit voltage of
the battery.
The equivalent resistance of a set of resistors connected in series is
given by

Resistors in series Req = R + R 2 + R 3 +

1
•
(28.6)

The equivalent resistance of a set of resistors connected in parallel is

given by

1
+
K+
Resistors in parallel * 1 * (28 8 )
.

a. R l R2
Complex circuits involving more than one loop are conveniently ana-
Kirchhoff's rules lyzed using two simple rules called Kirchhoff's rules:

1. The sum of the currents entering any junction must equal the sum of the
currents leaving that junction.
2. The sum of the potential differences across each element around any
closed-circuit loop must be zero.

The first rule is a statement of conservation of charge. The second rule

is equivalent to a statement of conservation of energy.
When a resistor is traversed in the direction of the current, the change
in potential, AV, across the resistor is — IR. If a resistor is traversed in the
direction opposite the current, AV= +IR.
If a source of emf is traversed in the direction of the emf (negative to
positive) the change in potential is +6. If it is traversed opposite the emf
(positive to negative), the change in potential is —£.
If a capacitor ischarged with a battery of emf £ through a resistance R,
the current in the circuit and charge on the capacitor vary in time according
to the expressions

Current versus time 7(f) = -§ e-«/RC (28.13)

R
Charge versus time q(t) = Q[l - e-*lRC \
(28.14)

where Q = C6 is the maximum charge on the capacitor. The product RC is

called the time constant of the circuit.
If a charged capacitor is discharged through a resistance fl, the charge
and current decrease exponentially in time according to the expressions

q(t) = Q e-«RC (28.17)

I(t) =I e-«RC (28.18)

where Z = Q/RC is the initial current in the circuit and Q is the initial
charge on the capacitor.
A Wheatstone bridge is a particular circuit that can be used to measure
an unknown resistance.
A potentiometer is a circuit that can be used to measure an unknown
emf.
 QUESTIONS 787

QUESTIONS

Explain the difference between load resistance and

internal resistance for a battery.
Under what condition does the potential difference
across the terminals of a battery equal its emf ? Can
the terminal voltage ever exceed the emf? Explain.
Is the direction of current through a battery always
from negative to positive on the terminals? Explain.
Two different sets of Christmas-tree lights are avail-
able. set A, when one bulb is removed (or burns
For
out), theremaining bulbs remain illuminated. For set
B, when one bulb is removed, the remaining bulbs will +
Switch
not operate. Explain the difference in wiring for the Batten
two sets of lights.
Figure 28.27 (Question 16).
How would you connect resistors in order for the
equivalent resistance to be larger than the individual 18. What are a Wheatstone bridge and potentiometer
resistances? Give an example. used to measure?
How would you connect resistors in order for the 19. Although the internal resistance of the unknown and
equivalent resistance to be smaller than the individual known emfs was neglected in the treatment of the
resistances? Give an example. potentiometer (Section 28.7), it is really not neces-
Given three lightbulbs and a battery, sketch as many sary to make this assumption. Explain why the internal
you can.
different electric circuits as resistances play no role in this measurement.
When resistors are connected in series, which of the 20. Why is it dangerous to turn on a light when you are in
following will be the same, for each resistor: potential the bathtub?
difference, current, power? 21. Why is it possible for a bird to sit on a high-voltage

When resistors are connected in parallel, wfcch of the wire without being electrocuted?
following will be the same for each resistor: potential 22. Suppose you fall from a building and on the way down
difference, current, power? grab a high-voltage wire. Assuming that the wire
What advantage might there be in using two identical holds you, will you be electrocuted? If the wire then
resistors in parallel connected in series with another breaks, should you continue to hold onto an end of the
identical parallel pair, rather than just using a single wire as you fall?
resistor? 23. Would a fuse work successfully if it were placed in
Are the two headlights on a car wired in series or in parallel with the device supposed to protect?
it is

parallel? How can you tell? 24. What advantage does 120-V operation offer over
An incandescent lamp connected to a 120-V source 240 V? What disadvantages?
with a short extension cord will provide more illumi- 25. When electricians work with potentially live wires,
nation than if it were connected to the same source they often use the backs of their hands or fingers to
with a very long extension cord. Explain. movewires. Why do you suppose they use this tech-
Embodied in Kirchhoff's rules are two conservation nique?
laws. What are they? 26. What procedure would you use to try to save a person
When can the potential difference across a resistor be who is "frozen" to a live high-voltage wire without
positive? endangering your own life?
With reference to Figure 28.13, suppose the wire be- 27. At what levels of current do you experience (a) the
tween points g and h is replaced by a 10-Q resistor. sensation of shock, (b) involuntary muscle contrac-
Explain why this change will not affect the currents of respiratory muscle, and (d) seri-
tions, (c) paralysis
calculated in Example 28.8. ous and possibly fatal burns? In practice what current
With reference to Figure 28.27, describe what hap- level is regarded as safe?
pens to the bulb after the switch is closed. As-
light 28. If it is the current flowing through the body that de-
sume the capacitor has a large capacitance and is ini- termines how serious a shock will be, why do we see
tially uncharged, and assume that the light will warnings of high voltage rather than high current near
illuminate when connected directly across the battery equipment?
electric
terminals. 29. Suppose you are flying a kite when it strikes a high-
17 What would be the internal resistance of an ideal am- voltage wire. What factors determine how great a
meter and voltmeter? Why would these become ideal shock you receive?
meters?
 . -
788 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

30. A series circuit consists of three identical lamps con-

nected to a battery as in the circuit shown at the right.
When the switch S is closed, (a) what happens to the
intensities of lamps A and fl? What happens to the
(b)
intensity of lamp C? (c) What happens to the current
in the circuit? (d) What happens to the voltage drop
across the three lamps? Does the power dissipated
(e)

in the circuit increase, decrease, or remain the same? e

(Question 30).

PROBLEMS

Section 28. 1 Electromotive Force Section 28.2 Resistors in Series and in Parallel

1. A emf of 12 V and internal resistance

battery with an 10. Two circuit elements with fixed resistances R and R 2
x

of 0.9 Q. connected across a load resistor R. If

is are connected in series with a 6-V battery and a
the current in the circuit is 1.4 A, what is the value switch. The battery has an internal resistance of 5 Q,
ofR? Rj = 132 £2, and R 2 = 56 Q. (a) What is the current
2. What power is dissipated in the internal resistance of through Rj when the switch is closed? (b) What is the
the battery in the circuit described in Problem 1? voltage across R 2 when the switch is closed?
3. (a) What is the current in a 5.6-Q resistor connected 11. Using only three resistors — 2 Q, 3 £2, and 4 £2 — find
to a battery with an 0.2-fi internal resistance if the all 1 may be obtained
7 different resistance values that
terminal voltage of the battery is 10 V? (b) What is by various combinations of one or more resistors. Tab-
the emf of the battery? ulate the values in order of increasing resistance.
4. If the emf of a battery is 1 5 V and a current of 60 A is 12. A television repairman needs a 100-£2 resistor to re-
measured when the battery is shorted, what is the pair a malfunctioning set. He is temporarily out of
internal resistance of the battery? resistors of this value. All he has in his tool box is a
5. The current in a loop circuit that has a resistance of Rj 500-£2 resistor and two 250-£2 resistors. How can the
is 2 A. The current is reduced to 1 .6 A when an addi- desired resistance be obtained from the resistors on
tional resistor R2 = 3 Q is added in series with Rj hand?
What is the value of Rj ? 13. in a circuit is tripled by connecting a
The current
6. A typical fresh AA dry cell has an emf of 1 .50 V and an 500-£2 resistor in parallel with the resistance of the
internal resistance of 0.311 Q. (a) Find the terminal circuit. Determine the resistance of the circuit in the

voltage of the battery when it supplies 58 mA to a absence of the 500-£2 resistor.

circuit, (b) What is the resistance R of the external 14. Find the equivalent resistance between points a and b
circuit? in Figure 28.28.
7. A battery has an emf of 15 V. The terminal voltage of
the battery is 11.6 V when it is delivering 20 W of
power to an external load resistor R. (a) What is the
value of R? (b) What is the internal resistance of the
battery?
8. What potential difference will be measured across a
18-fl load resistor when connected across a bat-
it is

tery of emf 5 V and internal resistance 0.45 £2?

9. Two 1.50-V batteries — with their positive terminals
in the same direction — are inserted in series into the Figure 28.28 (Problems 14 and 15).
barrel of a flashlight. One battery has an internal re-
sistance of 0.255 il, the other an internal resistance of 15. A potential difference of 34 V is applied between
0.153 Q. When the switch is closed, a current of points a and b in Figure 28.28. Calculate the current
0.6 A occurs in the lamp, (a) What is the lamp's resist- in each resistor.
ance? (b) What fraction of the power dissipated is dis- 1 6. Find the equivalent resistance between points a and b
sipated in the batteries? in Figure 28.29.
 PROBLEMS 789

3.5 Q

3.8 n
Figure 28.29 (Problem 16).
Figure 28.32 (Problem 20).

17. Evaluate the effective resistance of the network of

identical resistors, each having resistance R, shown in 10 Q 5V
,|_£'
Figure 28.30.

R
-Wv-
20 £1

R R
-MV-

Figure 28.33 (Problem 21).

Figure 28.30 (Problem 17).

22. In Figure 28.34, each resistor has a resistance of 1 £2.

Suppose that a given current J enters at a and comes

18. In Figures 28.4 and 28.5, let R t = 11 Q, R 2 = 22 Q,
out at b. By utilizing arguments based upon the sym-
and the battery have a terminal voltage of 33 V. (a) In
metry of the network, show that the equivalent resist-
the parallel circuit shown in Figure 28.5, which resis-
ance R eq of the network from a to b isf Q. (Hint: What
tor uses more power? (b) Verify that the sum of the
would the resistance be if the vertical resistors were
power (I 2 R) used by each resistor equals the power
absent?)
supplied by the battery (IV). (c) In the series circuit,
Figure 28.4, which resistor uses more power? (d) Ver-
ify that the sum of the power (I 2 R) used by each resis-

tor equals the power supplied by the battery (P = IV).

(e) Which circuit configuration uses more power?
19. Calculate the power dissipated in each resistor in the
circuit of Figure 28.31.

Figure 28.34 (Problem 22).

18V

23. Two resistors connected in series have an equivalent

4ii
(combined) resistance of 690 CI. When they are con-
Figure 28.31 (Problem 19). nected in parallel, their equivalent resistance is

150 CI. Find the resistance of each of the resistors.

24. Three 100-fi resistors are connected as shown in Fig-
Determine the equivalent resistance between the ter- ure 28.35. The maximum power that can be dissi-
pated in any one of the resistors is 25 W. (a) What is
It. minals a and b for the network illustrated in Figure
28.32. the maximum voltage that can be applied to the termi-
1. Consider the circuitshown in Figure 28.33. Find nals a and b? (b) For the voltage determined in (a),
(a) the current in the 20-Q resistor and (b) the poten- what is the power dissipation in each resistor? What is
tial difference between points a and b. the total power dissipation?
 —
790 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

ioo n 2Q
100 Q
—VW- -vW 1

_>w\

ioo n 15 V 3 a
-vW '

Figure 28.35 (Problem 24).

Figure 28.38 (Problem 28).

Section 28.3 Kirchhoff's Rules 29. A dead battery is "charged" by connecting it to the

The currents are not necessarily in the direction shown live battery of another car (Fig. 28.39). Determine
for some circuits. the current in the starter and in the dead battery.

25. Find the potential difference between points a and b

in the circuit in Figure 28.36.

Figure 28.39 (Problem 29).

h h 30. For the network shown in Figure 28.40, show that the
resistance R^ = (27/17) £2.
Figure 28.36 (Problems 25 and 26).

26. Find the currents lx , I2 , and /3 in the circuit shown in

Figure 28.36.
27. Determine the current in each of the branches of the
circuit shown in Figure 28.37.

Figure 28.40 (Problem 30).

31 . Calculate each of the unknown currents l x , Z2 , and J3

for the circuit of Figure 28.41.
1 n

Figure 28.37 (Problem 27).

28. Two batteries and two resistors are connected in the

single loop shown in Figure 28.38. Given that the
potential at point d equals zero, determine the poten-
tials at points (a) a, (b) b, (c) c. Figure 28.41 (Problem 31).
 PROBLEMS 791

32. The ammeter in the circuit shown in Figure 28.42 ion

reads 2 A. Find the currents Ix and I2 and the value -VW-
of£.
6*1
-'.-..
-VvV

30 V

Figure 28.45 (Problem 36).

37. For the circuit shown in Figure 28.46, calculate

(a) 2-Q resistor and (b) the potential
the current in the
Figure 28.42 (Problem 32). difference between points a and b.

33. Using Kirchhoff's rules, (a) find the current in each of 4ft
the resistors in the circuit shown in Figure 28.43.
(b) Find the potential difference between points c and
/. Which is at the higher potential?

80 V
Figure 28.46 (Problem 37).

3S. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 28.47. Find the

current in each of the resistors using KirchhofPs
rules.

Figure 28.43 (Problem 33).

fii>6Q K2 < 4ii
34. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 28.44. Find the
value of Jj , I2 , and I3 .

3*1
T^ 9*1

9*1
8V 16 V Figure 28.47 (Problem 38).

J 39. Calculate the power dissipated in each resistor in the

circuit shown in Figure 28.48.
Figure 28.44 (Problems 34 and 35).

35. (a) Find the value of Ij and 7 3 in the circuit of Figure

28.44 if the 4-V battery is replaced by a 5-^F capaci-

tor, (b) Determine the charge on the 5-/iF capacitor.
36 In Figure 28.45, calculate (a) the equivalent resist-
ance of the network outside the battery, (b) the
current through the battery, and (c) the current in the
6-*l resistor. Figure 28.48 (Problem 39).
792 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

•40. Calculate the power dissipated in each resistor in the 46. A 750-pF capacitor has an initial charge of 6 fiC It is
circuit of Figure 28.49. then connected to a 150-MA resistor and allowed to
discharge through the resistor, (a) What is the time
constant for the circuit? (b) Express the current in the
circuit and the charge on the capacitor as functions of
time.
47. The circuit has been connected as shown in Figure
28.51 a "long" time, (a) What is the voltage across the
capacitor? (b) If the battery is disconnected, how long
does it take for the capacitor to discharge to 1/10 of its
initial voltage?

Figure 28.49 (Problem 40). i n .

Section 2S.4 RC Circuits

41. A J of energy
fully-charged capacitor has 12 stored.
How much energy remains stored when its charge
has decreased to half its original value during a dis-
charge?
42. Consider a series RC circuit (Fig. 28.14) for which
R = 1 MQ, C=5fiF, and £ = 30 V. Find (a) the time
constant of the circuit and (b) the maximum charge on
the capacitor after the switch is closed.
43 The switch in the RC circuit described in Problem 42
is closed at t = 0. Find the current in the resistor R at a
time 10 s after the switch is closed.
44 At t = 0, an uncharged capacitor of capacitance C is
connected through a resistance R to a battery of con-
stant emf £ (Figure 28.50). (a) How long does it take
for the capacitor to reach one half of its final charge?
(b) How long does it take for the capacitor to become
fully charged?

Close at t =

Figure 28.50 (Problem 44).

45. A 4-MQ resistor and a 3-//F capacitor are connected in

series with a 12-V power supply, (a) What is the time
constant for the circuit? (b) Express the current in the
circuit and the charge on the capacitor as functions of
time.
 PROBLEMS 793

rent will then flow through the shunt resistor. Calcu- "Section 28.6 The Wheatstone Bridge
late the value of theshunt resistor that enables the
60. A Wheatstone bridge of the type shown in Figure
meter to be used to measure a current of 1 A at full-
28.23 used to make a precise measurement of the
is
Use KirchhofiF's laws.)
scale deflection. (Hint:
resistance of a wire connector. The resistor shown in
53. The same galvanometer movement as used in the pre-
the circuit as R 3 is 1 kQ. If the bridge is balanced by
vious problem may be used to measure voltages. In
adjusting R t such that R x = 2.5R 2 what is the resist-
,

this case a large resistor is wired in series with the

ance of the wire connector, Rj?
meter movement similar to Figure 28.22b, which in
61. Consider the case when the Wheatstone bridge
effect limits the current that flows through the move-
shown in Figure 28.23 is unbalanced. Calculate the
ment when large voltages are applied. Most of the
current through the galvanometer when R, = R 3 =
potential drop occurs across the resistor placed in
7 CI, R 2 = 21 CI, and R, = 14 CI. Assume the voltage
series. Calculate the value of the resistor that enables
across the bridge is 70 V, and neglect the galvanome-
the movement to measure an applied voltage of 25 V
ter's resistance.
at full-scale deflection.
62. Consider the Wheatstone bridge shown in Figure
54. Consider a galvanometer with an internal resistance
of 60 galvanometer deflects full scale when it
CI. If the
28.23. When the Wheatstone bridge is balanced the
voltage drop across Rj is 3.2 V and /j = 200 n\. If the
carries a current of 0.5 mA, what value series resist-
total current drawn from the power supply is 500 fiA,
ance must be connected to the galvanometer if this
what is the resistance, R,?
combination is to be used as a voltmeter having a full-
63. The Wheatstone bridge in Figure 28.23 is balanced
scale deflection for a potential difference of 1.0 V?
when R x = 10 CI, R 2 = 20 CI, and R 3 = 30 CI. Calcu-
55. Assume that a galvanometer has an internal resistance
of 60 CI and requires a current of 0.5 mA to produce
late the value of Rx .

full-scale deflection. What value of resistance must be "Section 28.7 The Potentiometer
connected in parallel with the galvanometer if the
combination is to serve as an ammeter with a full-scale 64. Consider the potentiometer circuit shown in Figure
deflection for a current of 0.1 A? 28.24. When a standard cell of emf 1.0186 V isused
56. An ammeter is constructed with a galvanometer (see in the circuit,and the resistance between a and d is
Fig. 28.22a) that requires a potential difference of 36 Q, the galvanometer reads zero. When the stan-
50 mV across the meter movement and a current of dard cell is replaced by an unknown emf, the galva-
1 mA through the movement to cause a full-scale de- nometer reads zero when the resistance is adjusted to
flection. Find the shunt resistance R that will produce 48 CI. What is the value of the unknown emf?
a full-scale deflection when a current of 5 A enters the
"Section 28.8 Household Wiring and Electrical Safety-
ammeter.
57. A galvanometer with a full-scale sensitivity of 1 mA 65. An electric heater is rated at 1500 W, a toaster is
requires a 900-Q series resistor to make a voltmeter rated at 750 W, and an electric grill is rated at
reading full scale when 1 V is measured across the 1000 W. The three appliances are connected to a
terminals (see Fig. 28.22b). What series resistor is common 120-V circuit, (a) How much current does
required to make the same galvanometer into a 50-V each appliance draw? (b) Is a 25-A circuit sufficient in
(full-scale) voltmeter? this situation? Explain.
58. A current of 2.5 mA causes a given galvanometer 66. A 1000-W toaster, an 800-W microwave oven, and a
movement to deflect full scale. The resistance of the 500-W coffee pot are all plugged into the same 1 20-V
movement is 200 CI. (a) Show by means of a circuit outlet. If the circuit is protected by a 20-A fuse, will
diagram, using two resistors and three external jacks, the fuse blow these appliances are used at once?
if all
how the meter movement may be made into a dual- 67. An 8-foot extension cord has two 18-gauge copper
range voltmeter, (b) Determine the values of the re- wires, each having a diameter of 1.024 mm. (a) How
sistorsneeded to make the high range 0-200 V and much power does cord dissipate when carrying a
this
the low range 0-20 V. Indicate these values on the current of 1 A? (b) How much power does this cord
diagram. dissipate when carrying a current of 10 A?
>''• The same meter movement is given as in the previous 68. Sometimes aluminum wiring is used instead of copper
problem, (a) Show by means of a circuit diagram, for economic reasons. According to the National Elec-
using two resistors and three external jacks, how the trical Code, the maximum allowable current for 12-
meter movement may be made into a dual-range am- gauge copper wire with rubber insulation is 20 A.
meter, (b) Determine the values of the resistors What should be the maximum allowable current in a
needed to make the high range 0- 10 A and the low 12-gauge aluminum wire if it is to dissipate the same
range 0- 1 A. Indicate these values on the diagram. power per unit length as the copper wire?
 . —
794 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

69. A 4-kW heater is wired for 240-V operation with 3fi 3fl
nichrome wire having a total mass M. (a) How much
current does the heater require? (b) How much cur-
rent would a 120-V, 4-kW heater require? (c) If a
240-V, 4-kW heater and a 120-V, 4-kW heater have
the same length resistance wires in them, how does
the mass of the resistance wire in the 120-V heater
compare to the mass of the resistance wire in the
240-V heater?
(b)-

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
70. Calculate the potential difference between the points 3n
a and b for the circuit shown in Figure 28.52 and Figure 28.54 (Problem 73).
identify which point is at the higher potential.

74. (a) Calculate the current through the 6-V battery in

fl, = 2Q E. = 4V Figure 28.55.(b) Determine the potential difference
between points a and b.

R2 = 10 ii
2V
Figure 28.52 (Problem 70).

7 1 When two unknown resistors are connected in series

with a battery, 225 W
are dissipated with a total
current of 5 A. For the same total current, 50 are W Figure 28.55 (Problem 74).
dissipated when the resistors are connected in paral-
lel. Determine the values of the two resistors.
Three 60-W, 1 20-V light bulbs are connected across a
72. Before the switch is closed in the circuit in Figure
120-V power source, as shown in Figure 28.56. Find
28.53 there is no charge stored by the capacitor. De-
(a) the total power dissipation in the three light bulbs
termine the currents in fij fi 2 and C (a) at the instant
, -

and (b) the voltage across each of the bulbs. Assume

the switch is closed (that is, t = 0), and (b) after the
that the resistance of each bulb conforms to Ohm's
switch is closed for a long period of time (that is, as
law (even though in reality the resistance increases
markedlv with current).

fl^lOkQ
VW
R, = 5 kii
-±-£ = 10 V C = 10 uF

Figure 28.53 (Problem 72).

Figure 28.56 (Problem 75).

73. Three each of value 3 Q, are arranged in two

resistors, Consider the circuit shown in Figure 28.57. Calculate
different arrangements as shown in Figure 28.54. If (a) the current in the A-Q resistor, (b) the potential
the maximum allowable power for each individual re- difference between points a and b, (c) the terminal
sistor is 48 W, calculate the maximum power that can potential difference of the 4-V battery, and (d) the
be dissipated by (a) the circuit shown in Figure 28.54a thermal energy expended in the 3-fi resistor during
and (b) the circuit shown in Figure 28.54b. 10 min of operation of the circuit.
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 795

SO. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 28.59. (a) Cal-

culate the current in the 5-Q resistor, (b) What power
is dissipated by the entire circuit? (c) Determine the

potential difference between points a and b. Which

point is at the higher potential?

5Q

Figure 28.57 (Problem 76).

The value of a resistor R is to be determined using the

ammeter-voltmeter setup shown in Figure 28.58. The

ammeter has a resistance of 0.5 ft, and the voltmeter
has a resistance of 20 000 fi. Within what range of
actual values of R will the measured values be correct
to within 5% if the measurement is made using the
circuit shown in (a) Figure 28.58a and (b) Figure
28.58b?

(a)

<*>

(b)

Figure 28.58 (Problem 77).

7S. A dc power supply has an open-circuit emf of 40 V

and an internal resistance of 2 £1. It is used to charge
two storage batteries connected in series, each having
an emf of 6 V and internal resistance of 0.3 Q. If the
charging current is to be 4 A, (a) what additional re-
sistance should be added in series? (b) Find the power
lost in the supply, the batteries, and the added series
resistance, (c) How much power is converted to chem-
ical energy in the batteries?

79. A battery has an emf 6 and internal resistance r. A

variable resistor R is connected across the terminals of
the battery. Find the value of R such that (a) the po-
tential difference across the terminals is a maximum,

(b) the current in the circuit is a maximum, (c) the

power delivered to the resistor is a maximum.
 ^96 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

84. Design a multirange dc voltmeter that is capable of a 90. (a) Using symmetry arguments, show that the current

full-scale deflection for the following divisions of volt- through any resistor in the configuration of Figure
age: (a) 20 V, (b) 50 V, and (c) 1 00 V. Assume a meter 28.63 is either 1/3 or 7/6. All resistors have the same
movement which has a coil resistance of 60 £2 and resistance r. (b) Show that the equivalent resistance
gives a full-scale deflection for a current of 1 mA. between points A and B is (5/6)r.

85. Design a multirange dc ammeter that capable of a is

full-scale deflection for the following divisions of cur-

25 mA, (b) 50 mA, and (c) 100 mA. Assume
rent: (a) S\ Wv-
meter movement which has a coil resistance of 25 Q
a
and gives a full-scale deflection for a current of 1 mA.
86. A particular galvanometer serves as a 2-V full-scale
voltmeter when a 2500-Q resistor is connected in
series with it. It serves as a 0.5-A full-scale ammeter
when a 0.22-Q resistor is connected in parallel with it.
Determine the internal resistance of the galvanome-
ter and the current required to produce full-scale de-
Figure 28.63 (Problem 90).
flection.
87. In Figure 28.61, suppose that the switch has been
closed sufficiently long for the capacitor to become A91. The circuit shown in Figure 28.64 is set up in the

fully charged. Find (a) the steady-state current laboratory to measure an unknown capacitance C
through each resistor and (b) the charge Q on the using a voltmeter of resistance R = 10 MQ and a bat-
capacitor, (c) The switch is now opened at ( = 0. tery whose emf is 6.19 V. The data given in the table

Write an equation for the current i„ 2 through R 2 as a

function of time and (d) find the time that it takes for
s
the charge on the capacitor to fall to i of its initial
value.

c 12 kn

R. C=j=N>nF

— 15kQ<R,
T9 V > R,^ 3 kQ

Figure 28.61 (Problem 87).

A 10/zF capacitor is charged by a 10-V battery

through a resistance R. The capacitor reaches a po-
tential difference of 4 V in a period of 3 s after the
charging began. Find the value of R.
89. (a) Determine the charge on the capacitor in Figure
28. 62 when R=
10 £1. (b) For what value of R will the
charge on the capacitor be zero?

Figure 28.62 (Problem 89).

 ESSAY EXPONENTIAL GROWTH 797

Ifsomething is growing at a constant rate, such as P = 5% per year, we refer to the

growth as steady growth. It is also called exponential growth because the size, N, of
the growing quantity at some time t in the future is related to its present size, N (at
ESSAY
time t = 0), by the exponential function
Exponential
N=N ekt (E.l) Growth
Albert A. Bartlett
where e — 2.718 is the base of the natural logarithims and k
. . . is the annual per-
University of Colorado
cent growth rate P divided by 100:
Boulder

fc
= (E.2)
100

Note that positive, N increases exponentially with time (exponential growth). If

if A- is

h is negative, N decreases exponentially with time (exponential decay). Some exam-

Figure 1 If you try to draw an

ordinary graph of the size versus
time of anything that is growing
steadily, the graph will go right
through the ceiling.
798 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

Figure 2 Exponential growth

curve N/N = e kl Note, N/N has
.
t (yea
the value 1 at t = 0.

pies of exponential decay are radioactive decay (Section 45.4) and the decay of the
quantity of charge on the plates of a capacitor as the capacitor is discharging through a
resistor (Section 28.4). Figures 1 and 2 are representative graphs of exponential
growth. This essay describes several examples of exponential growth.
The condition of steady growth is represented by the simple differential equa-
tion

—
dN
dt
= kN ,
(E.3)

In words, this equation says that the rate of change of the quantity N is proportional to
N We can rearrange Equation E.3 to give
-—-I
N dt~
In this form see that the fractional change of N per unit time is constant. An
we
example would be the case where the quantity N is growing 6% per year. In this case
P= 6% per year and k = 0.06% per year.
The solution of the Equation E.3 is Equation E. 1 If we can show that a quantity N
.

changes with time according to Equation E.3 it follows automatically that N will obey
Equation E.l.
For example, the fundamental concept of compound interest on a savings ac-
count in the bank is that the interest AN added to the number N of dollars in the
account in the time interval At is proportional to the number of dollars in the account.
The constant of proportionality is the interest rate. If N = $250, P = 8% per year, and
At = 1 year, then we have simple compounding once a year. The interest in that year
is AN = 0.08 X $250 = $20 so that the value of N at the end of the year would be

$250 + $20 = $270. In the next year AN = 0.08 X $270 = $21.60, and at the end of
the second year, N = $270 + $21.60 = $291.60. Suppose the interest were 8% per
year, compounded semiannually. half year AN = (0.08/2) X $250 = $10,
In the first

and at the end of the $260. In the second half year, AN = 0.04 X
first half-year, N=
$260 = $10.40, and at the end of the first full year, N = $270.40. At the end of the
first year, compounding once gave N=$270. Compounding twice gave N
=
$270.40. This suggests a very fundamental fact. The more frequently we compound
the interest, the more rapid is the increase in the size of N. Equation E.3 represents
 ESSAY EXPONENTIAL GROWTH 799

the limiting case where Af approaches zero and the interest is compounded contin-
uously. In this case at the end of one year we use Equation E. 1

N= $250e008xl = $250 X 1.08329 = $270.82

Many banks calculate interest by compounding continuously. This leads to newpaper

ads such as one that says"9.54% annual yield" which corresponds to a "9. 1 1% annual
rate." What means is that the rate of 9.1 1% compounded continuously for one
this
year gives the same result (yield) as a rate of 9.54% compounded once. In other words

e o.09iixi = 1.0954 (E.4)

It has been shown that the number of miles of highway in the United States obeys
Equation E.3 so that the number of miles of highway will grow exponentially accord-
ing to Equation E. 1
In steady growth, it takes a fixed length of time for a quantity to grow by a fixed
fraction such as 5%. From this it follows that it takes a fixed longer length of time for
that quantity to grow by 100%. Let us calculate the time required for the quantity N
to double in value, which is called the doubling time, T2 We can obtain an expression .

for T2 by writing Equation E. 1 as N/N = e** and taking the natural logarithm of each
side:

K£H
If we set N = 2N (that is, we double N ), then T2 (which is the time t when N = 2N ) is

_ ln(2N /N _ In 2 _ 0.693
T2_
it
)

"1 k~
Since k = P/100, this becomes

~ 70
2 (E.5)
P

Likewise, if we wanted the time for N to triple in size, we would use the natural
logarithm of 3, to find

100 In 3 110
T,=
P

EXAMPLE E.l Compound Interest— The Eighth Wonder

Suppose you put $15 in a savings account at 9%
annual interest to be compounded
continuously. How large a sum of money would be in the account at the end of 200
years?

Solution N = $15.; k = 9/100 = 0.09 per year and t = 200 years. Therefore, from
Equation E. 1 we have
N= $15 X e«>.09X200) = $15 x e is = $15 x 6 57 x ifj? = $985 million!

Now you can see why a famous financier once said that he could not name the seven
wonders of the ancient world but surely the eighth wonder would have to be com-
pound interest! (Continued)
800 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

$2,000

SI. 000

Figure 3 Price of a S 4
ticket with 14% annual
inflation. The cost at t (years)
t = 0is\ = S4.

No.
 ESSAY EXPONENTIAL GROWTH 801

Therefore,in 40 years the amount of power consumed would be 2 4 = 16 times the

amount used today. That is, 40 years from now we would need 16 times as many
electric generating plants as we have at the present. Furthermore, if those additional
plants are similar to today's, then each day they would consume 1 6 times as much fuel
as our present plants use, and there would be 16 times as much pollution and waste
heat to contend with!

EXAMPLE E.4 Annual Increase in World Population

Populations tend to grow steadily. In July of 1 987 we saw reports that the population
of the earth had reached 5 X 1 9 people. The world birth rate was estimated to be 28
per 1000 each year while the annual death rate was estimated to be 11 per 1000.
Thus, for every 1000 people, the population increase each year is 28 — 11 = 17. For
this growth rate we find

17
k = = 0.017 per year
'
1000
P=100k= 1.7% per year

This growth rate seems so small that many people regard it as trivial and inconse-
quential. A proper perspective of this rate appears only when we calculate the dou-
bling time:

70
T2 = = 41 years

This simple calculation indicates that it is most likely that the world population will
double within the life expectancy of today's students! At the most elemental level,
this means that we have approximately 41 years to double world food production.
What is the annual increase in the earth's population? Since for one year AN <§:

N we can get a good answer from Equation E.3:

AN
= 0.017 X 5 X 10 9 = 85 million per year
Af

This annual increase in the world population is roughly one third of the population of
the United States.
Some
illuminating calculations can be made based on the assumption that this
rate ofgrowth has been constant and will remain constant. These calculations will
demonstrate that the growth rate has not been constant at this value in the past and
cannot remain this high for very long.

EXAMPLE E.5 When did Adam and Eve Live?

When we use Equation E.l, setting N = 5 X 10 9 N , 2 (Adam and Eve) and k
0.017 (from Example E.4), we have

5 X 10 9 = 2e 0017 '

This gives t = 1273 years ago, or about 714

This result proves that through
a.d.!
essentially all of human growth rate was very much smaller
history the population
than it is today. It must have been near zero through most of human history.

EXAMPLE E.6 Growth of Population Density

The land area of the continents (excluding Antarctica) is 1.24 X 10 14 m 2 If this .

modest annual growth rate of 1.7% were to continue steadily in the future, how long (Continued)
802 CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

would it take for the population to reach a density of one person per square meter on
the continents?

1.24X10 14 = 5X10V> 017 '

Solving, we find t is slightly less than 600 years.

EXAMPLE E.7 Growth of the Mass of People

very low rate of growth continued,
If this how long would it take for the mass of
people to equal the mass of the earth (5.98 X 10 24 kg)? (Assume that the mass of an
average person is 65 kg.)

5.98 X 10 24 = (5 X 10 9 X 65)e 0017 '

This gives a value of t of about 1800 years! We have assumed that the mass of a person
is 65 kg.

The two examples prove that the growth rate of world population cannot stay
last

as high as it is for any extended period of time. Although world agricultural

presently
production has been just barely keeping pace with world population growth, millions
are malnourished and many people are starving. However, we will not have to double
food production in 41 years if we can lower the worldwide birth rate. If we fail to
double world food production in 41 years, then the death rate will rise. Dramatic
increases in world food production in recent decades are due almost exclusively to
the rapid growth of the use of petroleum for powering machinery and for manufac-
turing fertilizers and insecticides. Indeed, it has been noted that "modern agriculture
is the use of land to convert petroleum into food." The student must wonder how

much longer we can continue the long history of approximately steady population
growth when our food supplies are tied so closely to dwindling supplies of petroleum.
This brief introduction to the arithmetic of steady growth enables us to under-
stand that, in all biological systems, the normal condition is the steady-state condi-
where the birth rate is equal to the death rate. Growth is a short-term transient
tion,
phenomenon that can never continue for more than a short period of time. Yet in the
United States, business and government leaders at all levels, from local communities
to Washington, D.C., would have us believe that steady growth forever is a goal we
can achieve. They would have us believe that we should continue our population
growth (the U.S. population increases by about 2 million people per year) and the
 ESSAY EXPONENTIAL GROWTH 803

growth our rates of consumption of natural resources. We now hear about "sus-
in
tainable growth"
as though the addition of the adjective "sustainable" would render
inoperable the laws of nature.
In contrast to all this optimism, please remember that someone once noted that
"The greatest shortcoming of the human race is our inability to understand the
exponential function."

Suggested Readings
Bartlett, A. A., Civil Engineering, December 1969, pp. 71-72.
Bartlett, A. A., "The Exponential Function," The Physics Teacher, October 1976 to
January 1979.
Bartlett, A. A., "The Forgotten Fundamentals of the Energy Crisis," Am. ]. Physics
46:876, 1978.
Kerr, R. A., "Another Oil Resource Warning," Science, January 27, 1984, p. 382.

Essay Problems
1. In the year 1626 Manhattan Island was purchased for $24. Assuming a contin-
ually compounded interest rate of 4.4%, calculate the current land valuation of
the island.
2. The following "mystery" was taken from Deborah Hughes-Hallett: Elementary
Functions, W. W. Norton, 1980, p. 264.

The police were baffled by what seemed to be the perfect murder of a girl who
had been found, apparently suffocated, in her kitchen. Finally, Sherlock Holmes
was called in. With the aid of Dr. Watson's knowledge of botany, the mystery was
solved and the following story told. The girl had been making bread in her
kitchen, whose dimensions were 6 ft by 10 ft by 10 ft. She had formed the dough
into a ball of volume 1/6 cubic feet and turned away to wash some dishes. At that
moment Holmes' enemy, Professor Moriarty, had added a particularly virulent
strain of yeast to the bread. As a result, the bread immediately started to rise,
tripling in volume every 4 minutes. Before long, the dough filled the room,
stopping the clock at 3:48 and squashing the girl to death against the wall. By the
time Inspector Lestrade of Scotland Yard reached the scene the next day, the
yeast had worked itself out and the dough returned to its original size.

At what time did Professor Moriarty add the yeast?

 29
Magnetic Fields

The blue arc in this photograph

indicates the circular path
followed by an electron beam
moving in a magnetic field.
The vessel contains gas at very
low pressure, and the beam is
made visible as the electrons
collide with the gas atoms,
which in turn emit visible light.
The magnetic field is produced
by two coils (not shown). The
apparatus can be used to
measure the ratio ofe/mfor
the electron. {Courtesy of
CENCO)

The behavior of bar magnets is well known to anyone who has stud-
ied science. Permanent magnets, which are usually made of alloys
containing iron, will attract or repel other magnets. Furthermore,
they will attract other bits of iron, which in turn can become mag-
netized. The list of important technological applications of magnetism is ex-
tensive. For instance, large electromagnets are used to pick up heavy loads.
Magnets are also used in such devices as meters, transformers, motors, particle
accelerators, and loudspeakers. Magnetic tapes are routinely used in sound
recording, TV recording, and computer memories. Intense magnetic fields
generated by superconducting magnets are currently being used as a means of
8
containing the plasmas (heated to temperatures of the order of 10 K) used in
controlled nuclear fusion research.

804
 29.1 INTRODUCTION 805

29.1 INTRODUCTION
The phenomenon of magnetism was known to the Greeks as early as around
800 b.c. They discovered that certain stones, now called magnetite (Fe 3 4 ),
attract pieces of iron. Legend ascribes the name magnetite to the shepherd
Magnes, "the nails of whose shoes and the tip of whose staff stuck fast in a
magnetic field while he pastured his flocks." In 1269 Pierre de Maricourt,
using a spherical natural magnet, mapped out the directions taken by a needle
when placed at various points on the surface of the sphere. He found that the
directions formed lines that encircle the sphere passing through two points
diametrically opposite each other, which he called the poles of the magnet.
Subsequent experiments showed that every magnet, regardless of its shape,
has two poles, called north and south poles, which exhibit forces on each other
in a manner analogous to electrical charges. That is, like poles repel each other
and unlike poles attract each other.
In 1 600 William Gilbert extended these experiments to a variety of mate-
rials. Using the fact that a compass needle orients in preferred directions, he

suggested that the earth itself is a large permanent magnet. In 1750 John
Michell (1724-1793) used a torsion balance to show that magnetic poles An assortment of commercially
exert attractive or repulsive forces on each other and that these forces vary as available magnets. The four red
magnets and the large black mag-
the inverse square of their separation. Although the force between two mag-
net on the left are made of an alloy
netic poles is similar to the force between two electric charges, there is an of iron, aluminum, and cobalt. The
important difference. Electric charges can be isolated (witness the electron or six horseshoe magnets on the right
are made of different nickel alloy
proton), whereas magnetic poles cannot be isolated. That is, magnetic poles are
steels.The rectangular magnets on
always found in pairs. All attempts thus far to detect an isolated magnetic the lower right are ceramics made
monopole have been unsuccessful. No matter how many times a permanent of iron, nickel, and beryllium
oxides. (Courtesy of CENCO)
magnet is cut, each piece will always have a north and a south pole.
The relationship between magnetism and electricity was discovered in
1819 when, during a lecture demonstration, the Danish scientist Hans
Oersted found that an electric current in a wire deflected a nearby compass

Magnetic field patterns surround-

ing two bar magnets as displayed
Magnetic field pattern of a bar with iron filings. This demonstrates This demonstrates the magnetic
magnet as displayed by iron filings the magnetic field pattern between field pattern between two like
on a sheet of paper. (Courtesy of unlike poles. (Courtesy of Henry poles. (Courtesy of Henry Leap
Henry Leap and Jim Lehman) Leap and Jim Lehman) and Jim Lehman)
806 CHAPTER 29 MAGNETIC FIELDS

needle. 1 Shortly thereafter,Andre Ampere (1775-1836) obtained quantita-

tive laws of magnetic force between current-carrying conductors. He also
suggested that electric current loops of molecular size are responsible for all
magnetic phenomena. This idea is the basis for the modern theory of mag-
netism.
In the 1820's, further connections between electricity and magnetism
were demonstrated by Faraday and independently by Joseph Henry (1797-
1878). They showed that an electric current could be produced in a circuit
either by moving a magnet near the circuit or by changing the current in
another, nearby circuit. These observations demonstrate that a changing mag-
netic field produces an electric field. Years later, theoretical work by Maxwell
showed that a changing electric field gives rise to a magnetic field.
This chapter examines forces on moving charges and on current-carrying
wires in the presence of a magnetic field. The source of the magnetic field
Hans Christian Oersted (1777- itself will be described in Chapter 30.
1851), Danish physicist. (TheBett-
mann Archive)
29.2 DEFINITION AND PROPERTIES OF THE
MAGNETIC FIELD
The electric field E at a point in space has been defined as the electric force per
unit charge acting on a test charge placed at that point. Similarly, the gravita-
tional field g at a point in space is the gravitational force per unit mass acting on
a test mass.
We now define a magnetic field vector B (sometimes called the magnetic
induction or magnetic flux density) at some point in space in terms of a mag-
netic force that would be exerted on an appropriate test object. Our test object
istaken to be a charged particle moving with a velocity v. For the time being,
let us assume that there are no electric or gravitational fields present in the
region of the charge. Experiments on the motion of various charged particles
moving in a magnetic field give the following results:
1. The magnetic force is proportional to the charge q and speed t; of the
particle.
2. The magnitude and direction of the magnetic force depend on the velocity
of the particle and on the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field.
3. When a charged particle moves in a direction parallel to the magnetic field
Properties of the magnetic vector, the magnetic force F on the charge is zero.
force on a charge moving in a 4. When the velocity vector makes an angle 6 with the magnetic field, the
B field magnetic force acts in a direction perpendicular to both v and B, that is, Fis
perpendicular to the plane formed by v and B (Fig. 29.1a).
5. The magnetic force on a positive charge is in the direction opposite the
direction of the force on a negative charge moving in the same direction
(Fig. 29.1b).
6. If the velocity vector makes an angle 8 with the magnetic field, the magni-
tude of the magnetic force is proportional to sin 6.

These observations can be summarized by writing the magnetic force in the

form
Magnetic force on a charged
particle moving in a magnetic F=qvXB (29.1)
field

It is interesting to note that the same discovery was reported in 1802 by an Italian jurist. Gian
1

Dominico Romognosi. but was overlooked, probably because it was published in a newspaper,
Gazetta de Trentino, rather than in a scholarly journal.
 29.2 DEFINITION AND PROPERTIES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD 807

(a) (b)

Figure 29. 1 The direction of the magnetic force on a charged particle moving with a velocity v in
the presence of a magnetic field, (a) When v is at an angle 6 to B, the magnetic force is perpendicu-
lar to both v and B. (b) In the presence of a magnetic field, the moving charged particles are
deflected as indicated by the dotted lines.

where the direction of the magnetic force is in the direction of v X B, which,

by definition of the cross product, is perpendicular to both v and B.
Figure 29.2 gives a brief review of the right-hand rule for determining the
direction of the cross product vX B. You point the four fingers of your right
hand along the direction oft?, and then turn them until they point along the
direction of B. The thumb then points in the direction of v X B. Since F =
qv X B,Fis in the direction of v X B ifq is positive (Fig. 29. 2a) and opposite the
direction of v X B ifq is negative (Fig. 29.2b). The magnitude of the magnetic
force has the value

F=qvB sin 6 (29.2)

where 6 is the angle between v and B. From this expression, we see that F is
zerowhen v is parallel to B (6 = or 180°). Furthermore, the force has its
maximum value, F = qvB, when v is perpendicular to B (6 = 90°).

<%</

&C
Figure 29.2 The right-hand rule for determining the direction of the magnetic force Fading on
a charge q moving with a velocity c in a magnetic field B. If q is positive, F is upward in
the
direction of the thumb. If q is negative, Fis downward.
 .

808 CHAPTER 29 MAGNETIC FIELDS

We can regard Equation 29.1 as an operational definition of the magnetic

field at a point in space. That is, the magnetic field
defined in terms of a is

sideways force acting on a moving charged particle. There are several impor-
tant differences between electric and magnetic forces:

1 The electric force is always in the direction of the electric field, whereas the
magnetic force is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
2. The electric force actson a charged particle independent of the particle's
Differences between electric velocity, whereas the magnetic force acts on a charged particle only when
and magnetic fields the particle is in motion.
3. The work in displacing a charged particle, whereas the
electric force does
magnetic force associated with a steady magnetic field does no work when a
particle is displaced.

statement is a consequence of the

This last fact that when a charge moves
in a steadymagnetic field, the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the
displacement. That is,

F-ds = (F-v)dt =
since the magnetic force is a vector perpendicular to t;. From this property and
the work-energy theorem, we conclude that the kinetic energy of a charged
particle cannot be altered by a magnetic field alone. In other words,

A magnetic field cannot when a charge moves with a velocity v, an applied magnetic field can alter
change the speed of a particle the direction of the velocity vector, but it cannot change the speed of the
particle.

The SI unit of the magnetic field the weber per square meter (Wb/m 2 ),
is

also called the tesla (T). This unit can be related to the fundamental units by
usingEquation 29.1: a 1 -coulomb charge moving through a field of 1 tesla with

a velocity of 1 m/s perpendicular to the field experiences a force of 1 newton:

N N
W-T-5' C-m/s A-m
(29.3)

In practice, the cgs unit for magnetic field, called the gauss (G), is often used.
The gauss is related to the tesla through the conversion

1T= 10 4 G (29.4)

Conventional laboratory magnets can produce magnetic fields as large as

about 25 000 G, or 2.5 T. Superconducting magnets that can generate mag-
netic fields as high as 250 000 G, or 25 T, have been constructed. This can be
compared with the earth's magnetic field near its surface, which is about
0.5 G, or 0.5 X 1Q- 4 T.

EXAMPLE 29. 1 A Proton Moving in a Magnetic Field Solution From Equation 29.2, we get
A proton moves with a speed of 8 X 10 6 m/s along the x
F = qvB sin 6
axis. It enters a region where there is a field of magnitude
2.5 T, directed at an angle of 60° to the x axis and lying in = (1.6 X 10" 19 C)(8 X 10 6 m/s)(2.5 T)(sin 60°)
the xy plane (Fig. 29.3). Calculate the initial magnetic
force and acceleration of the proton. = 2.77X10- 12 N
 29.3 MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR 809

Since v XB is in the positive z direction and since the

charge is positive, the force F is in the positive z direc-
tion.
Since the mass of the proton is 1.67 X 10 -27 kg, its

initial acceleration is

_ F_ 2.77 X IP-' 2 N
" 1.66 X 10 ,5 m/s 2
m 1.67X10- 27 kg

in the positive z direction.

Exercise 1 Verify that the units of Fin the above calcu-

lation for the magnetic force reduce to newtons.

Figure 29.3 (Example 29.1) The magnetic force F on a proton

is in the positive z direction when v and B lie in the xy plane.

29.3 MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING

CONDUCTOR
If a force is exerted on a single charged particle when it moves through a
magnetic field, it should not surprise you that a current-carrying wire also
experiences a force when placed in a magnetic field. This follows from the fact
that the current represents a collection of many charged particles in motion;
hence, the resultant force on the wire is due to the sum of the individual forces
on the charged particles.
The force on a current-carrying conductor can be demonstrated by hang-
ing a wire between the faces of a magnet as in Figure 29.4. In this figure, the
magnetic field is directed into the page and covers the region within the
shaded circle. When the current in the wire is zero, the wire remains vertical
as in Figure 29.4a. However, when a current is set up in the wire directed
upwards as in Figure 29.4b, the wire deflects to the left. If we reverse the
current, as in Figure 29.4c, the wire deflects to the right. This apparatus demonstrates the
force on a current-carrying con-
ductor in an external magnetic-
field. Why does the bar swing into
the magnet after the switch is
closed? (Courtesy of Henry Leap
and Jim Lehman)

/ =

Figure 29.4 A flexible vertical wire which is partially stretched between the faces of a magnet
with the field (blue crosses) directed into the paper, (a) When there is no current in the wire, it
remains vertical, (b) When the current is upwards, the wire deflects to the left, (c) When the
current is downwards, the wire deflects to the right.
810 CHAPTER 29 MAGNETIC FIELDS

Let us quantify this discussion by considering a straight segment of wire of

length £ and cross-sectional area A, carrying a current I in a uniform external
magnetic field B as in Figure 29.5. The magnetic force on a charge q moving
with a drift velocity t'd is given by qvt X B. The force on the charge carriers is
transmitted to the "bulk" of the wire through collisions with the atoms making
up the wire. To find the total force on the wire, we multiply the force on one
charge, qv^ X B, by the number of charges in the segment. Since the volume of
the segment is A£, the number of charges in the segment is nA£, where n is the
number of charges per unit volume. Hence, the total magnetic force on the
wire of length £ is
Figure 29.5 A section of a wire
containing moving charges in an
external magnetic field B. The F=(qvt XB)nA£
magnetic force on each charge is
qVj X B, and the net force on a This can be written in a more convenient form by noting that, from Equation
straight element It X B.
27.4, the current in the wire is given by /= nqv d A. Therefore, F can be
is

expressed as

F=I€XB (29.5)

where £ is a vector in the direction of the current I; the magnitude off equals
the length £ of the segment. Note that this expression applies only to a straight
segment of wire in a uniform external magnetic field. Furthermore, we have
neglected the field produced by the current itself. (In fact, the wire cannot
produce a force on itself.)

Now consider an arbitrarily shaped wire of uniform cross section in an

external magnetic field, as in Figure 29.6. It follows from Equation 29.5 that

the magnetic force on a very small segment ds in the presence of a field B is

given by

dF=IdsXB (29.6)

where dFis directed out of the page for the directions assumed in Figure 29.6.
We can consider Equation 29.6 as an alternative definition of B. That is, the
fieldB can be defined in terms of a measurable force on a current element,
where the force is a maximum when B is perpendicular to the element and zero
Figure 29.6 A wire of arbitrary when B is parallel to the element.
shape carrying a current / in an ex-
ternal magnetic field B experiences
To get the total force F on the wire, we integrate Equation 29.6 over the
a magnetic force. The force on any length of the wire:
segment ds is given by J ds X B and
is directed out of the page.

(29.7)

In this expression, a and b represent the end points of the wire. When this
integration carried out, the magnitude of the magnetic field and the direc-
is

tion the field makes with the vector ds (that is, the element orientation) may
vary at each point.
Now let us consider two special cases involving the application of Equa-
tion 29.7. In both cases, the external magnetic field is taken to be constant in
magnitude and direction.
 29.3 MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR 811

Figure 29.7 (a) A curved conductor earning a current / in a uniform magnetic field. The mag-
netic forceon the conductor is equivalent to the force on a straight segment of length (' running
between the ends of the wire, a and b. (b) A current-carrying loop of arbitrary shape in a uniform
magnetic field. The net magnetic force on the loop is 0.

Case I

Consider a curved wire carrying a current J; the wire is located in a uniform

external magnetic field B as in Figure 29.7a. Since the field is assumed to be
uniform (that is, B has the same value over the region of the conductor), B can
be taken outside the integral in Equation 29.7, and we get

XB (29.8)
-'(J»
But the quantity /„ ds represents the vector sum of all the displacement ele-
ments from a to b as described in Figure 29.6. From the law of addition of
many vectors (Chapter 2), the sum equals the vector/', which is directed from
a to b. Therefore, Equation 29.8 reduces to
uniform
F= WXB (29.9)
Force on a wire
field
in a

Case II

An arbitrarily shaped, closed loop carrying a current J is placed in a uniform

external magnetic field B as in Figure 29.7b. Again, we can express the force in
the form of Equation 29.8. In this case, the vector sum of the displacement
vectors must be taken over the closed loop. That is,

=M<P ds) XB
Since the set of displacement vectors forms a closed polygon (Fig. 29.7b), the
vector sum must be zero. This follows from the graphical procedure of adding
vectors by the polygon method (Chapter 2). Since fds = 0, we conclude that
F=0 (29.10)
That is,

the total magnetic force on any closed current loop in a uniform magnetic
field is zero.
812 CHAPTER 29 MAGNETIC FIELDS

EXAMPLE 29.2 Force on a Semicircular

Conductor ,

A wire bent into the shape of a semicircle of radius R

forms a closed circuit and carries a current 7. The circuit
lies in the xy plane, and a uniform magnetic field is
present along the positive y axis as in Figure 29.8. Find
the magnetic forces on the straight portion of the wire
and on the curved portion.

Solution The force on the straight portion of the wire

has a magnitude given by Fx = UB = 2IRB, since t = 2R
and the wire is perpendicular to B. The direction of F t is

out of the paper since t XB

outward. (That is, t is to
is

the right in the direction of the current, and so by the

rule of cross products, £ X B is outward.)
To find the force on the curved part, we must first

write an expression for the force dF2 on

the element ds.
If 6 is the angle between B and ds in Figure 29 8 then the . ,

magnitude of dF2 is given by

dF2 = I\ds XB\ = IB sin 6 ds

where ds the length of the small element measured

is

along the circular arc. In order to integrate this expres-

sion, we must express ds in terms of the variable 6. Since
s = R6, ds =R dd, and the expression for dF2 can be
written
dFs = IRB sin 6 d6

To get the total force F2 on the curved portion, we

can integrate this expression to account for contributions
from all elements. Note that the direction of the force on
every element is the same: into the paper (since ds X B is
inward). Therefore, the resultant force F2 on the curved
 29.4 TORQUE ON A CURRENT LOOP IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FTELD 813

about point O, we see that these two forces produce a torque about O that
rotates the loop clockwise. The magnitude of this torque, !„„,, is

T max = F ^ + F2 ^ =
1
(IbB)^ + (IbB)^ = IabB

where the moment arm about O is a/2 for each force. Since the area of the loop
is A = ab, the torque can be expressed as

x = LAB (29.11)

Remember that this result is valid only when the field B is parallel to the plane
of the loop. The sense of the rotation is clockwise when viewed from the
bottom end, as indicated in Figure 29.9b. If the current were reversed, the
forces would reverse their directions and the rotational tendency would be
counterclockwise.
Now suppose the uniform magnetic field makes an angle 8 with respect to
a line perpendicular to the plane of the loop, as in Figure 29.10a. For conve-
nience, we shall assume that the field B is perpendicular to the sides of length
b.In this case, the magnetic forces F3 and F4 on the sides of length a cancel each
other and produce no torque since they pass through a common origin. How- Figure 29.9 (a) Front view of a
ever, the forces Fx and F2 acting on the sides of length b form a couple and rectangular loop in a uniform mag-
hence produce a torque about any point. Referring to the end view shown in netic field.There are no forces on
the sides of width a parallel to B,
Figure 29.10b, we note that the moment arm of the force F1 about the point O but there are forces acting on the
is equal to (a/2) sin 8. Likewise, the moment arm of F about O is also (a/2) sin 8. sides of length h. (b) Bottom view
2
Since F1 = F2 — IbB, the net torque about O has a magnitude given by of the rectangular loop shows that
the forces F t and F2 on the sides of
length b create a torque that tends
T = F, — sin 8 + F,2 — sin
1
8 to twist the loop clockwise as
2 2 shown.

= IbB ( | sin 8j + IbB (| sin 8 = IabB sin 8

J

= TAB sin 8

where A= ab is the area of the loop. This result shows that the torque has the
maximum value LAB when the field is parallel to the plane of the loop (8 = 90°)

Figure 29.10 (a) A rectangular

current loop whose normal makes
an angle with a uniform magnetic
field. The forces on the sides of
length a cancel while the forces on
the sides of width b create a torque
on the loop, (b) An end view of the
loop. The magnetic moment fi is in
the direction normal to the plane of
the loop.
814 CHAPTER 29 MAGNETIC FIELDS

and is zero when the field is perpendicular to the plane of the loop (0=0). As

we see in Figure 29.10, the loop tends to rotate to smaller values of (that is,
such that the normal to the plane of the loop rotates toward the direction of the
magnetic field).
A convenient vector expression for the torque is the following cross-prod-
uct relationship:

T = ZAXB (29.12)

where A, a vector perpendicular to the plane of the loop, has a magnitude

equal to the area of the loop. The sense of A is determined by the right-hand
rule as described in Figure 29. 1 1 By rotating the four fingers of the right hand
.

in the direction of the current in the loop, the thumb points in the direction of

Figure 29.11 A right-hand rule

A. The product IA is defined to be the magnetic moment^ of the loop. That is,
for determining the direction of
the vector A. The magnetic mo- = IA
fi (29.13)
ment ft is also in the direction of A.

The SI unit of magnetic moment is ampere-meter 2 (A •

m2 ). Using this defini-
tion, the torque can be expressed as

Torque on a current loop T=/iXB (29.14)

Note is analogous to the torque acting on an electric dipole

that this result
moment p presence of an external electric field E, where T = p X E
in the
(Section 26.6). If a coil has N turns all of the same dimensions, the magnetic
moment and the torque on the coil will clearly be N times greater than in a
single loop.
Although the torque was obtained for a particular orientation of B with
respect to the loop, the equation T = /iXBis valid for any orientation. Fur-
thermore, although the torque expression was derived for a rectangular loop,
the result is valid for a loop of any shape.
It is interesting to note the similarity between the tendency for rotation of
a current loop in an external magnetic field and the motion of a compass needle
(or pivoted bar magnet) in such a field. Like the current loop, the compass
needle and bar magnet can be regarded as magnetic dipoles. The similarity in
their magnetic field lines is described in Figure 29.12. Note that one face of

(a)

Figure 29.12 The similarity between the magnetic field patterns of (a) a bar magnet and (b) a
current loop, (c) Photograph courtesy of Education Development Center, Newton, MA.
 29.5 MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD 815

the current loop behaves as the north pole of a bar magnet while the opposite
face behaves as the south pole. The field lines shown in Figure 29.12 are the
patterns due magnet (Fig. 29.12a) and the current loop (Fig.
to the bar
29.12b). There no external field present in these diagrams. Furthermore,
is

the diagrams are a simplified, two-dimensional description of the field lines.

EXAMPLE 29.3 The Magnetic Moment of a Coil Solution In general, the torque is given by T = fiX B,
A rectangular coil of dimensions 5.40 cm X 8.50 cm where the vector;/ is directed perpendicular to the plane
consists of25 turns of wire. The coil carries a current of of the loop. In this case, B is perpendicular to fi coii ,

15 mA. (a) Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic mo- so that

ment of the coil.
* = Aco,|B = (1-72 X lO- 3 j/t)(0.350 T)
Solution The magnitude of the magnetic moment of a
current loop is given by fi = IA (see Eq. 29.13), where
A is the area of the loop. In this case, A = = 6.02X10-4 N-m
(0.0540 m)(0.0850 m) = 4.59 X lO" 3 m 2 Since the coil .

has 25 turns, and assuming that each turn has the same
Note that this is the basic principle behind the operation
area A, we have
of a galvanometer coil discussed in Chapter 28.
/< coi , = NIA = (25)(15 X IO- 3 A)(4.59 X 10" 3 m 2
)

= 1.72 X lO- 3 A-m 2 = 1.72 X 10-3 J/T

Exercise 3 Calculate the magnitude of the torque on
(b) Suppose a magnetic field of magnitude 0.350 T is the coil when the 0.350 T magnetic field makes angles of
applied parallel to the plane of the loop. What is the (a) 60° and (b) 0° with fi.

magnitude of the torque acting on the loop? Answer (a) 5.21 X 10~ 4 J (b) zero

29.5 MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN A

MAGNETIC FIELD
In Section 29.2 we found that the magnetic force acting on a charged particle
moving in a magnetic field is always perpendicular to the velocity of the
particle. From this property, it follows that

the work done by the magnetic force is zero since the displacement of the
charge is always perpendicular to the magnetic force. Therefore, a static
magnetic field changes the direction of the velocity but does not affect the
speed or kinetic energy of the charged particle.

Consider the special case of a positively charged particle moving in a

uniform external magnetic field with its initial velocity vector perpendicular to
the field. Let us assume that the magnetic field is into the page (this is indicated
by the crosses in Fig. 29.13). The crosses are used to represent the tail of B,
since B is directed into the page. Later, we shall use dots to represent the tip of
a vector directed out of the page. Figure 29.13 shows that the

charged particle moves in a circle whose plane is perpendicular to the Figure 29.13 When the velocity
of a charged particle is perpendicu-
magnetic field.
lar to a uniform magnetic field, the
particle moves in a circular path
This is because the magnetic force F is at right angles to v and B and has a
whose plane is perpendicular to B,
constant magnitude equal to qvB. As the force F deflects the particle, the which is directed into the page (the
directions off and F change continuously, as shown in Figure 29.13. There- blue crosses represent the tail of
the vector). The magnetic force, F,
fore the force F is a centripetal force, which changes only the direction oft?
on the charge is always directed
while the speed remains constant. The sense of the rotation, as shown in toward the center of the circle.
816 CHAPTER 29 MAGNETIC FIELDS

Figure 29. 1 3, is counterclockwise for a positive charge. If q were negative, the

sense of the rotation would be reversed, or clockwise. Since the resultant force
F in the radial direction has a magnitude of qvB, we can equate this to the
required centripetal force, which is the mass m multiplied by the centripetal
acceleration v 2 /r. From Newton's second law, we find that

d = mv2
c = qvB
F

(29.15)
qB

That is, the radius of the path is proportional to the momentum mv of the
particle and is inversely proportional to the magnetic field. The angular fre-
quency of the rotating charged particle is given by

to
ti
=-= —
qB
(29.16)

The period of its motion (the time for one revolution) is equal to the
circumference of the circle divided by the speed of the particle:

Inr _2n _ 2nm

T= (29.17)
V) ~^B
These results show that the angular frequency and period of the circular
motion do not depend on the speed of the particle or the radius of the orbit.
The angular frequency co is often referred to as the cyclotron frequency since
charged particles circulate at this frequency in one type of accelerator called a
cyclotron, which will be discussed in Section 29.6.
If a charged particle moves in a uniform magnetic field with its velocity at
some arbitrary angle to B, its path is a helix. For example, if the field is in the x
direction as in Figure 29. 14, there is no component of force in the x direction,
and hence a x — and the x component of velocity, v x remains constant. On the
,

other hand, the magnetic force qvX B causes the components v y and v z to

Figure 29.14 (a) A charged particle having a velocity vector that has a component parallel to a
uniform magnetic field moves in a helical path, (b) Photograph of the helical path followed by an
electron beam when the beam is directed at an arbitrary angle to the magnetic field. (Photo
courtesy of Henry Leap and Jim Lehman)
 29.5 MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD 817

change in time, and the resulting motion is a helix having its axis parallel to the
B field. The projection of the path onto the yz plane (viewed along the x axis)
is a circle. (The projections of the path onto the xy and xz planes are sinusoids!)

Equations 29.15 to 29.17 still apply, provided that v is replaced by

EXAMPLE 29.4 A Proton Moving Perpendicular to

a Uniform Magnetic Field
A proton is moving in a circular orbit of radius 1 4 cm in a
uniform magnetic field of magnitude 0.35 T directed
perpendicular to the velocity of the proton. Find the
oribital speed of the proton.

Solution From Equation 29.15, we get

_ qBr _ (1.60 X 10-19 c)(0.35 T)(14 X 1Q-* m)

V
m 1.67X10- 27 kg

= Figure 29.15 The bending of an electron beam in an external

4.69 X 10 6 m/s
magnetic field. The tube contains gas at very low pressure, and
the beam is made visible as the electrons collide with the gas
atoms, which in turn emit visible light. The apparatus used to
Exercise 4 If an electron moves perpendicular to the
take this photograph is part of a system used to measure the ratio
same magnetic fieldwith this speed, what is the radius of elm. (Courtesy of Henry Leap and Jim Lehman)
its circular orbit?
Answer 7.63 X 10 -5 m.
We can now use Equation 29.15 to find the strength of
EXAMPLE 29.5 The Bending of an Electron Beam the magnetic field:
In an experiment designed to measure the strength of a
uniform magnetic produced by a set of coils, the
field
electrons are accelerated from rest through a potential
B= —=
|e|r
(9- 11 x 10
~ 31
k g) (1-11
(1.60X10- 19 C)(0.075m)
x 1Q7 m/s )

difference of 350 V, and the beam associated with the

electrons is measured to have a radius of 7.5 cm as in = 8.43X10-4 T
Figure 29.15. Assuming the magnetic field is perpendic-
ular to the beam, (a) what is the magnitude of the mag-
(b) What is the angular frequency of revolution of the
netic field?
electrons?

Solution First, we must calculate the speed of electrons Solution Using Equation 29.16, we find
using the fact that the increase in kinetic energy of the
electrons must equal the change in their potential en- v 1.11 X 10 7 m/s
CO =—=
ergy, \e\V (because of conservation of energy). Since r 0.075 m
Kj = and Kf = mu 2 /2, we have

\mv 2 = \e\V = 1.48X10 8 rad/s

2(1.60 X 10- 19 C)(350 V)

What
V 9.11 X 10- 31 kg Exercise 5
trons?
is the period of revolution of the elec-

= 1.11 X 10 7 m/s Answer T = 42.5 ns.

When charged particles move in a nonuniform magnetic field, the motion

is rather complex. For example, in a magnetic field thatis strong at the ends

and weak the middle, as in Figure 29.16, the particles can oscillate back and
in
forth between the end points. Such a field can be produced by two current
818 CHAPTER 29 MAGNETIC FIELDS

loops as in Figure 29. 1 6. In this case, a charged particle starting at one end will
spiral along the field lines until it reaches the other end, where it reverses its
path and spirals back. This configuration is known as a magnetic bottle because
charged particles can be trapped in it. This concept has been used to confine
very hot gases (T greater than 10 6 K) consisting of electrons and positive ions,
known as plasmas. Such a plasma-confinement scheme could play a crucial
role in achieving a controlled nuclear fusion process, which could supply us
with an almost endless source of energy. Unfortunately, the magnetic bottle
has its problems. If a large number of particles is trapped, collisions between
Figure 29.16 A charged particle the particles cause them to eventually "leak" from the system.
moving in anonuniform magnetic The Van Allen radiation belts consist of charged particles (mostly elec-
field represented by the blue lines
(a magnetic bottle) spirals about
trons and protons) surrounding the earth in doughnut-shaped regions (Fig.
the field (red path) and oscillates 29.17a). These radiation belts were discovered in 1958 by a team of re-
between the end points. searchers under the direction of James Van Allen, using data gathered by
instrumentation aboard the Explorer I satellite. The charged particles,

trapped by the earth's nonuniform magnetic field, spiral around the earth's
field lines from pole to pole. These particles originate mainly from the sun, but
some come from stars and other heavenly objects. For this reason, these
particles are given the name cosmic rays. Most cosmic rays are deflected by the
earth's magnetic field and never reach the earth. However, some become
trapped, and these make up the Van Allen belts. When these charged particles
are in the earth's atmosphere over the poles, they often collide with other
atoms, causing them to emit visible light. This is the origin of the beautiful
Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights (Fig. 29.17b). A similar phenomenon
seen in the southern hemisphere is called the Aurora Australis.

Figure 29.17 (a) The Van Allen belts are made up of charged particles (electrons and protons)
trapped by the earth's nonuniform magnetic field. The field lines are in blue and the particle paths
in red. (b) Aurora borealis, the Northern Lights, photographed near Fairbanks, Alaska. Auroras
occur when cosmic rays — electrically charged particles originating mainly from the sun —
become trapped in the earth's atmosphere over earth's magnetic poles and collide with other
atoms, resulting in the emission of visible light. (Jack Finch/Science Photo Library)
 29.6 APPLICATIONS OF THE MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN A MAGNETIC FIELD 819

"29.6 APPLICATIONS OF THE MOTION OF

CHARGED PARTICLES IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
In this section we describe some important devices that involve the motion of
charged particles in uniform magnetic fields. For many situations, the charge
under consideration will be moving with a velocity v in the presence of both an
electric field E and a magnetic field B. Therefore, the charge will experience
both an electric force qE and a magnetic force qv X B, and so the total force on
the charge will be given by

F=qE+qvXB (29.18) Lorentz force

The force described by Equation 29.18 is known as the Lorentz force.

Velocity Selector

In many experiments involving the motion of charged particles, it is important

to have a source of particles that move with essentially the same velocity. This
can be achieved by applying a combination of an electric field and a magnetic
field oriented as shown in Figure 29.18. A uniform electric field vertically
downward is provided by a pair of charged parallel plates, while a uniform
magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the page (indicated by the crosses).
Assuming that q is positive, we see that the magnetic force qv X B is upward
and the electric force qE is downward. If the fields are chosen such that the
electric force balances the magnetic force, the particle will move in a straight
horizontal line and emerge from the slit at the right. If we equate the upward
magnetic force qvB to the downward electric force qE, we find qvB = qE, from
which we get

° =B (29.19)

Note that only those particles having this velocity will pass undeflected
through the perpendicular electric and magnetic fields. In practice, E and B
are adjusted to provide this specific velocity. The magnetic force acting on
particles with velocities greater than this will be stronger than the electric
force, and these particles will be deflected upward. Those with velocities less
than this will be deflected downward.

11
| + H
820 CHAPTER 29 MAGNETIC FIELDS

ft

Velocity selector
B„

Figure 29.19 A mass spectrometer. Charged particles are first sent through a velocity selector.
They then enter a region where the magnetic field B (inward) causes positive ions to move in a
semicircular path and strike a photographic film at P.

The Mass Spectrometer

The mass spectrometer is an instrument that separates atomic and molecular
ions according to their mass-to-charge ratio. In one version, known as the
Bainbridge mass spectrometer, a beam of ions first passes through a velocity
selector and then enters a uniform magnetic field B directed into the paper
(Fig. 29.19). Upon entering the magnetic field B the ions move in a semicir-
,

cle of radius r before striking a photographic plate at P. From Equation 29.15,

we can express the ratio m/q as

rBn
(29.20)

Assuming that the magnitude of the magnetic field in the region of the
velocity selector is B and using Equation 29.19, which gives the speed of the
particle, we find that

™ = ?M (29.21)

Therefore, one can determine m/q by measuring the radius of curvature and
knowing the fields B, B and E. In practice, one usually measures the masses of
,

various isotopes of a given ion with the same charge q. Hence, the mass ratios
can be determined even if q is unknown.
A variation of this technique was used by Joseph John Thomson (1856-
1 940) in 1 897 to measure the ratio e/m for electrons. Figure 29.20a shows the

basic apparatus used by Thomson in his measurements. Electrons are acceler-

ated from the cathode to the anodes, collimated by slits in the anodes, and then
allowed to drift into a region of crossed (perpendicular) electric and magnetic
fields. The simultaneously applied E and B fields are first adjusted to produce
an undeflected beam. If the B field is then turned off, the E field alone pro-
duces a measurable beam deflection on the phosphorescent screen. From the
size of the deflection and the measured values of E and B, the charge to mass
ratio, e/m, may be determined. The results of this crucial experiment repre-
sent the discovery of the electron as a fundamental particle of nature.
 29.6 APPLICATIONS OF THE MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN A MAGNETIC FIELD 821

r*h
822 CHAPTER 29 MAGNETIC FIELDS

dees. The dees are evacuated in order to minimize energy losses resulting from
collisions ions and air molecules. A high-frequency alternating
between the
voltage applied to the dees, and a uniform magnetic field provided by an
is

electromagnet is directed perpendicular to the dees. Positive ions released at

P near the center of the magnet move in a semicircular path and arrive back at
the gap in a time T/2, where T is the period of revolution, given by Equation
29.17. The frequency of the applied voltage Vis adjusted such that the polar-
ity of the dees is reversed in the same time it takes the ions to complete one half
of a revolution. If the phase of the applied voltage is adjusted such that D 2 is at
a lower potential than D by an amount V, the ion will accelerate across the gap
l

to D2 and its kinetic energy will increase by an amount qV. The ion then
continues to move in D2 in a semicircular path of larger radius (since its

velocity has increased). After a time T/2, it again arrives at the gap. By this
time, the potential across the dees is reversed (so that x
is now negative) andD
the ion is given another "kick" across the gap. The motion continues such that
for each half revolution, the ion gains additional kinetic energy equal to q V.
When the radius of its orbit is nearly that of the dees, the energetic ions leave
the system through an exit slit as shown in Figure 29.21.

important to note that the operation of the cyclotron is based on the

It is

fact that the time for one revolution is independent of the speed (or radius) of
the ion.
Wecan obtain the maximum kinetic energy of the ion when it exits from
the cyclotron in terms of the radius R of the dees. From Equation 29.15 we find
that v = qBR/m. Hence, the kinetic energy is given by

Q R
K = ±mv 2 = ^ (29.22)
2m
When the energy of the ions exceeds about 20 MeV, relativistic effects
come and the masses of the ions no longer remain constant. (Such
into play
effects will be discussed in Chapter 39.) For this reason, the period of the orbit
increases and the rotating ions do not remain in phase with the applied voltage.
Accelerators have been built which solve this problem by modifying the pe-
riod of the applied voltage such that it remains in phase with the rotating ion.
In 1977, protons were accelerated to 400 GeV(l GeV = 1 9 eV) in an acceler-
ator in Batavia, Illinois. The system incorporates 954 magnets and has a cir-
cumference of 6.3 km (4.1 miles)!

EXAMPLE 29.6 A Proton Accelerator _ — e

Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of protons in a J •

cyclotron of radius 0.50 m in a magnetic field of 0.35 T.

In this calculation, we have used the conversions 1 eV =
~
6 X 10 19 J and 1 MeV = 1()6 « V The kinetic ene r gy
Solution Using Equation 29.22, we find that *
,
-

u
acquired by the protons is equivalent to the energy they
= q
2
BW 2 = (1.6 X 1Q-' 9 C) 2 (0.35 T) 2 (0.50 m) 2 would gain if they were accelerated through a potential
2m 2(1.67 X 10- 27 kg) difference of 1.46 MV!

"29.7 THE HALL EFFECT

In 1879 Edwin Hall discovered that when a current-carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, a voltage is generated in a direction perpendicular
to both the current and the magnetic field. This observation, known as the Hall
 29.7 THE HALL EFFECT 823

Figure 29.22 To observe the Hall effect, a magnetic field is applied to a current-carrying
conductor. When / is in the x direction and B in the y direction as shown, both positive and
negative charge carriers are deflected upward in the magnetic field. The Hall voltage is measured
between points a and c.

effect, arises from the deflection of charge carriers to one side of the conductor
as a result of the magnetic force experienced by the charge carriers. A proper
analysis of experimental data gives information regarding the sign of the
charge carriers and their density. The effect also provides a convenient tech-
nique for measuring magnetic fields.
The arrangement for observing the Hall effect consists of a conductor in
the form of a flat strip carrying a current I in the x direction as in Figure 29.22.
A uniform magnetic field B is applied in the y direction. If the charge carriers
are electrons moving in the negative x direction with a velocity vd they will ,

experience an upward magnetic force F. Hence, the electrons will be de-

flected upward, accumulating at the upper edge and leaving an excess positive
charge at the lower edge (Fig. 29.23a). This accumulation of charge at the
edges will continue until the electrostatic field set up by this charge separation
balances the magnetic force on the charge carriers. When this equilibrium
condition reached, the electrons will no longer be deflected upward. A
is

sensitive voltmeter or potentiometer connected across the sample as shown in

Figure 29.23 can be used to measure the potential difference generated across

* . 1,
.
824 CHAPTER 29 MAGNETIC FIELDS

the conductor, known VH If the charge carriers are posi-

as the Hall voltage .

tive, and hence move the positive x direction as in Figure 29.23b, they will
in
also experience an upward magnetic force qvt X B. This produces a buildup of
positive charge on the upper edge and leaves an excess of negative charge on
the lower edge. Hence, the sign of the Hall voltage generated in the sample is
opposite the sign of the voltage resulting from the deflection of electrons. The
sign of the charge carriers can therefore be determined from a measurement of
the polarity of the Hall voltage.
To find an expression for the Hall voltage, first note that the magnetic
force on the charge carriers has a magnitude qv d B. In equilibrium, this force is

balanced by the electrostatic force qEH where £H is the electric field due to
,

the charge separation (sometimes referred to as the Hall field). Therefore,

qv d B = qEH

If d is taken to be the width of the conductor, then the Hall voltage VH

measured by the potentiometer is equal to EH d, or

VH = EH d = v d Bd (29.23)

Thus, we see that the measured Hall voltage gives a value for the drift velocity
of the charge carriers if d and B are known.
The number of charge carriers per unit volume (or charge density), n, can
be obtained by measuring the current in the sample. From Equation 27.4, the
drift velocity can be expressed as

*-£ (2924)

where A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor. Substituting Equation

29.24 into Equation 29.23 we obtain

The Hall voltage VH = (29.25)

Since A= td, where t is the thickness of the sample, we can also express
Equation 29.25 as

VH = —
nqt
IB
(29.26)

The quantity l/nq is referred to as the Hall coefficient R H Equation 29.26 .

shows that a properly calibrated sample can be used to measure the strength of
an unknown magnetic field.
Since all quantities appearing in Equation 29.26 other than nq can be
measured, a value for the Hall coefficient is readily obtained. The sign and
magnitude of R H give the sign of the charge carriers and their density. In most
metals, the charge carriers are electrons and the charge density determined
from Hall effect measurements is in good agreement with calculated values for
monovalent metals, such as Li, Na, Cu, and Ag, where n is approximately equal
to the number of valence electrons per unit volume. However, this classical
 29.8 THE QUANTUM HALL EFFECT 825

model is Cd or for semiconductors such

not valid for metals such as Fe, Bi, and
and germanium. These discrepancies can be explained only by using
as silicon
a model based on the quantum nature of solids.

EXAMPLE 29.7 The Hall Effect for Copper

A rectangular copper strip 1 .5 cm wide and 0. 1 cm thick V„ = 0.442 fi\
carries a current of 5 A. A 1.2-T magnetic field is applied
perpendicular to the strip as in Figure 29.23. Find the Hence, the Hall voltage is quite small in good conduc-
resulting Hall voltage. tors. Note that the width of this sample is not needed in
this calculation.

Solution If we assume there is one electron per atom In semiconductors, where n is much smaller than in
available for conduction, then we
can take the charge monovalent metals, one finds a larger Hall voltage since

density to be n = 8.48 X 10 28 electrons/m 3 (Example VH varies as the inverse of n. Current levels of the order
27.1). Substituting this value and the given data into of 1 mA are generally used for such materials. Consider a
Equation 29.26 gives piece of silicon with the same dimensions as the copper
strip, with n = 10
20 electrons/m 3 Taking B = 1.2 T and
.

IB = mA, we VH = mV. Such

VH = J 0.1 find that 7.5 a voltage is
nqt readily measured with a potentiometer.

(5A)(1.2T)
.48 X 10 28 nr 3 )(1.6 X KT 19 C)(0.1 X 10~ 2 m)

'29.8 THE QUANTUM HALL EFFECT

Although the Hall effect was discovered over one hundred years ago, it con-
tinues to be one of the most valuable techniques for helping scientists under-
stand the electronic properties of metals and semiconductors. For example, in
1980, scientists reported that at low temperatures and very strong magnetic
fields, a two-dimensional system of electrons in a semiconductor exhibits a
conductivity given by a = i(e 2 /h), where t is a small integer, e is the electronic
charge, and h is an atomic constant called Planck's constant. This behavior
manifests itself as a series of plateaus in the Hall voltage as the applied mag-
netic field is varied. The quantized nature of this two-dimensional conductiv-
ity (or resistivity) was totally unanticipated. As its discoverer, Klaus von Klitz-
ing stated, "It is quite astonishing that it is the total macroscopic conductance
of the Hall device which is quantized rather than some idealized microscopic
conductivity."
One of the important consequences of the quantum Hall effect is the
ability to measure the ratio of fundamental constants, e 2 /h, to an accuracy of at
least one part in 10 5 This provides a very accurate measure of the dimension-
.

less fine structure constant, given by a = e 2 /hc ~ 1/137, since c is an exactly

defined quantity (the speed of light). In addition, the quantum Hall effect
provides scientists with a new and convenient standard of resistance. The
1985 Nobel Prize in physics was awarded to von Klitzing for this fundamental
discovery.
Another great surprise occurred in 1982 when scientists announced that
in some nearly
ideal samples at very low temperatures, the Hall conductivity
could take on both integer values of e 2 /h and fractional values of e 2 /h. Un-
doubtedly, future discoveries in this and related areas of science will continue
to improve our understanding of the nature of matter.
826 CHAPTER 29 MAGNETIC FIELDS

SUMMARY
The magnetic force that acts on a charge q moving with a velocity v in an
external magnetic field B is given by
Magnetic force on a charged
particle moving in a magnetic F=qvXB (29.1)
field
That is, the magnetic force is in a direction perpendicular both to the
velocity of the particle and to the field. The magnitude of the magnetic force
is given by

F = qvB sin 6 (29.2)

where 6 the angle between t; and B. From this expression, we see that
is

F = when v is parallel to (or opposite) B. Furthermore, F = qvB when v is

perpendicular to B.
The SI unit of B is the weber per square meter (Wb/m 2 ), also called the
tesla (T), where

=T=
Wb N
[B] (29.3)

If a straight conductor of length £ carries a current 7, the force on that

conductor when placed in a uniform external magnetic field B is given by
Force on a straight wire
carrying a current
F = I€XB (29.5)

where the direction of/ is in the direction of the current and \t\ = £.

If an arbitrarily shaped wire carrying a current / is placed in an external

magnetic field, the force on a very small segment ds is given by

Force on a current element dF=Id*XB (29.6)

To determine the total force on the wire, one has to integrate Equation
29.6, keeping in mind that both B and ds may vary at each point.
The net magnetic force on any closed loop carrying a current in a
uniform external magnetic field is zero.
The force on a current-carrying conductor of arbitrary shape in a uni-
form magnetic field is given by
Force on a wire in a uniform
field
F=l€'XB (29.9)

where €' is a vector directed from one end of the conductor to the opposite
end.
The magnetic moment ft of a current loop carrying a current I is

Magnetic moment of a
ft = IA (29.13)
current loop
where A is perpendicular to the plane of the loop and \A\ is equal to the area
of the loop. The SI unit of/* is A m 2 •
.

The torque x on a current loop when the loop is placed in a uniform

external magnetic field B is given by

Torque on a current loop x = flXB (29.14)

When a charged particle moves in an external magnetic field, the work

done by the magnetic force on the particle is zero since the displacement is
 QUESTIONS 827

always perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic force. The external

magnetic field can alter the direction of the velocity vector, but it cannot
change the speed of the particle.
If a charged particle moves in a uniform external magnetic field such
that its initial velocity is perpendicular to the field, the particle will move in
a circle whose plane is perpendicular to the magnetic field. The radius r of
the circular path is given by

(29.15)
qB
where m is the mass of the particle and q is its charge. The angular frequency
(cyclotron frequency) of the rotating charged particle is given by

qB
(29.16) Cyclotron frequency

If a charged particle is moving in thepresence of both a magnetic field

and an electric field, the total force on the charge is given by the Lorentz
force,

F = qE + qvXB (29.18) Lorentz force

That is, the charge experiences both an electric force qE and a magnetic
force qv X B.

QUESTIONS

1. At a given instant, a proton moves in the positive x 9. In view of the above statement, what is the role of a
direction in a region where there is a magnetic field in magnetic field in a cyclotron?
the negative z direction. What is the direction of the 10. A current-carrying conductor experiences no mag-
magnetic force? Will the proton continue to move in netic force when placed in a certain manner in a uni-
the positive x direction? Explain. form magnetic field. Explain.
2. Two charged particles are projected into a region 11. Is it possible to orient a current loop in a uniform
where there is a magnetic field perpendicular to their magnetic field such that the loop will not tend to ro-
velocities. If the charges are deflected in opposite di- tate? Explain.
rections, what can you say about them? 12. How can a current loop be used to determine the pres-
3. If a charged particle moves in a straight line through ence of a magnetic field in a given region of space?
some region of space, can you say that the magnetic 13. What is the net force on a compass needle in a uniform
field in that region is zero? magnetic field?
4. Suppose an electron is chasing a proton up this page 14. What type of magnetic field is required to exert a
when suddenly a magnetic field is formed perpendic- resultant force on a magnetic dipole? What will be the
ular to the page. What will happen to the particles? direction of the resultant force?
5. Why does the picture on a TV screen become dis- 15. A proton moving horizontally enters a region where
torted when a magnet is brought near the screen? there is a uniform magnetic field perpendicular to the

6. How can the motion of a moving charged particle be proton's velocity, as shown in Figure 29.24. Describe
used to distinguish between a magnetic field and an
electric field? Give a specific example to justify your
argument.
7. List several similarities and differences in electric and
magnetic forces.
8. Justify is impossible for a
the following statement: "It
constant time independent) magnetic field to
(i.e.,

alter the speed of a charged particle."

Figure 29.24 (Question 15).
 .

828 CHAPTER 29 MAGNETIC FIELDS

its subsequent motion. How would an electron be- 21. The electron beam in the photograph below is pro-
have under the same circumstances? jected to the right. The beam deflects downward in
16. In a magnetic bottle, what reverses the direction of the presence of a magnetic field produced by a pair of
the velocity of the confined charged particles at the current-carrying coils, (a) What is the direction of the
ends of the bottle? (Hint: Find the direction of the magnetic field? (b) What would happen to the beam if
magnetic force on these particles in a region where the current in the coils were reversed?
the field becomes stronger and the field lines con-
verge.)
17. In the cyclotron, why do particles of differing veloci-
tiestake the same amount of time to complete one half
of a revolution?
18. The bubble chamber is a device used for observing
tracks of particles that pass through the chamber,
which is immersed in a magnetic field. If some of the
tracks are spirals and others are straight lines, what
can you say about the particles?
19. Can a magnetic field set a resting electron into mo-
tion? If so, how?
20. You are designing a magnetic probe that uses the Hall
effect to measure magnetic fields. Assume that you
are restricted to using a given material and that you
have already made the probe as thin as possible.
What, if anything, can be done to increase the Hall

voltage produced for a given magnetic field strength? (Courtesy of CENCO)

PROBLEMS
Section 29.2 Definition and Properties of the Magnetic 6. An electron is accelerated through 2400
and then V
Field enters a region where there is mag-
a uniform 1.7-T
netic field. What are (a) the maximum and (b) the
1. Consider an electron near the magnetic equator. In minimum values of the magnetic force this charge can
which direction will it tend to be deflected if its veloc- experience?
ity is directed (a) downward, (b) northward, (c) west- 7. The magnetic field over a certain region is given by
ward, or (d) southeastward? B = (At —1 1/') T. An electron moves in the field with a
2. An electron moving along the positive i axis perpen- velocity v = (— 2i + 3j — 7Jk) m/s. Write out in unit-
dicular to a magnetic field experiences a magnetic vector notation the force exerted on the electron by
deflection in the negative y direction. What is the the magnetic field.

direction of the magnetic field over this region? 8. An electron is projected into a uniform magnetic field
3. An alpha particle (which is the nucleus of a helium given by B = (1.4i + 2.1/) T. Find the vector expres-
atom) is moving with a northward velocity of 3.8 X sion for the force on the electron when its velocity is
10 m/s in a region where the magnetic field is 1.9 T
5 » = 3.7X 10 5jm/s.
and points horizontally to the east. What are the mag- 9. A proton moves with a velocity of v = (2i — Aj + k)
nitude and direction of the magnetic force on this m/s in a region in which the magnetic field is given by
alpha particle? B= (i + 2j- 3k) T. What is the magnitude of the

4. What force of magnetic origin is experienced by a magnetic force this charge experiences?
proton moving north to south with a speed equal to 10. A proton moves perpendicular to a uniform magnetic
4.8 X 10 6 m/s at a location where the vertical compo- field B with a speed of 10 7 m/s and experiences an
nent of the earth's magnetic field is 75 /vT directed acceleration of 2 X 10 13 m/s 2 in the +x direction
downward? In what direction is the proton deflected? when its velocity is in the +z direction. Determine
5. A proton moving with a speed of 4 X 10 6 m/s through the magnitude and direction of the field.
a magnetic field of 1 . 7 T experiences a magnetic force 1 1 Show that the work done by the magnetic force on a
of magnitude 8.2 X
10~ 13 N. What is the angle be- charged particle moving in a magnetic field is zero for
tween the proton's velocity and the field? any displacement of the particle.
 PROBLEMS 829

Section 29.3 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying tion of the loop is immersed in a magnetic field con-
Conductor fined to a circular region (Fig. 29.26). If a current of
3 A is maintained in the loop in the direction shown,
12. Calculate the magnitude of the force per unit length
what are the direction and magnitude of the magnetic
exerted on a conductor carrying a current of 22 A in a -2 N in
field required to produce a tension of 4 X 10
region where a uniform magnetic field has a magni-
the supporting string? (Neglect the mass of the loop.)
tude of 0.77 T and is directed perpendicular to the
wire 2.8 m in length carries a current of 5 A in a
17. A
conductor.
region where a uniform magnetic field has a magni-
13. A wire carries a steady current of 2.4 A. A straight
tude of 0.39 T. Calculate the magnitude of the mag-
section of the wire, with a length of 0.75 m along the
netic force on the wire if the angle between the mag-
x axis, lies within a uniform magnetic field, B =
netic field and the direction of the current in the wire
(1.6 k)T. If the current flows in the + x direction, what is (a) 60°, (b) 90°, (c) 120°.
is the magnetic force on the section of wire?
18. In Figure 29.27, the cube is 40 cm on each edge. Four
14. A conductor suspended by two flexible wires as in
— —
straight segments of wire ab, be, cd, and da form
Figure 29.25 has a mass per unit length of 0.04 kg/m.
a closed loop that carries a current 7 = 5 A as shown. A
What current must exist in the conductor in order for
uniform magnetic field B = 0.02 T is in the positive y
the tension in the supporting wires to be zero if the
direction. Make a table showing the magnitude and
magnetic field over the region is 3.6 T into the page?
direction of the force on each segment, listing them in
What is the required direction for the current?
the above order.

Figure 29.25 (Problem 14).

Figure 29.27 (Problem 18).

15. Awire with a mass of 0.5 g/cm carries a 2-A current
horizontally to the south.What are the direction and
magnitude of the minimum magnetic field needed to
lift this wire vertically upward?

16. A rectangular loop with dimensions 10 cm X 20 cm is 19. A current I = 1 5 A is directed along the positive x axis
suspended by a string, and the lower horizontal sec- in a wire perpendicular to a magnetic field. The cur-
rent experiences a magnetic force per unit length of
0.63 N/m in the negative y direction. Calculate the
magnitude and direction of the magnetic field in the
region through which the current passes.
-4
20. The Earth has a magnetic field of 0.6 X 10 T, point-
ing 75° below the horizontal in a north-south plane. A
10-m-long straight wire carries a 15-A current, (a) If
the current is directed horizontally toward the east,
what are the magnitude and direction of the magnetic
force on the wire? (b) What are the magnitude and
direction of the force if the current is directed verti-
cally upward?
21 . A strong magnet is placed under a horizontal conduct-
ing ring of radius r which carries a current J as shown
in Figure 29.28. If the magnetic lines of force make an
angle 6 with the vertical at the ring's location, what

are the magnitude and direction of the resultant force

Figure 29.26 (Problem 16). on the ring?
830 CHAPTER 29 MAGNETIC FIELDS

25. A rectangular coil of 225 turns and area 0.45 m 2 is in a

uniform magnetic Measurements indi-
field of 0.21 T.
cate that the maximum torque exerted on the loop by
the field is 8 X 10 -3 N •
m. (a) Calculate the current
in the coil, (b) Would the value found for the required
current be different if the 225 turns of wire were used
to form a single-turn coil with the same shape of larger
area? Explain.
26. A wire is formed into a circle with a diameter of 1 cm
and placed in a uniform magnetic field of 3 X 10~ 3 T.
A current of 5 A passes through the wire. Find (a) the
maximum torque that can be experienced by the
current-carrying loop and (b) the range of potential
energy the loop possesses for different orientations.
27. A circular coil of 100 turns has a radius of 0.025 mand
carries a current of 0.1 A while in a uniform external
Figure 29.28 (Problem 21).
magnetic field of 1 .5 T. How much work must be done
to rotate the coil from a position where the magnetic
moment is parallel to the field to a position where the
magnetic moment is opposite the field?
Section 29.4 Torque on a Current Loop in a Uniform
Magnetic Field

22. A current of 17 mA is maintained in a single circular

Section 29.5 Motion of a Charged Particle in a
loop of 2 m circumference. An external magnetic field
Magnetic Field
of 0.8 T is directed parallel to the plane of the loop.
(a) Calculate the magnetic moment of the current 28. The magnetic field of the earth at a certain location is

loop, (b) What is the magnitude of the torque exerted directed vertically downward and has a magnitude of
on the loop by the magnetic field? 0.5X10 _4 T. A proton is moving horizontally
23. A rectangular loop consists of 100 closely wrapped towards the west in this field with a velocity of 6.2 X
turns and has dimensions 0.4 m by 0.3 m. The loop is 10 6 m/s. (a) What are the direction and magnitude of
hinged along the y axis, and the plane of the coil makes the magnetic force the field exerts on this charge?
an angle of 30° with the x axis (Fig. 29.29). What is the (b) What is the radius of the circular arc followed by
magnitude of the torque exerted on the loop by a proton?
this
uniform magnetic field of 0.8 T directed along the x 29. A singly charged positive ion has a mass of 3.2 X
axis when the current in the windings has a value of
-26
10 kg. After being accelerated through a potential
1.2 A in the direction shown? What is the expected difference of 833 V, the ion enters a magnetic field of
direction of rotation of the loop? 0.92 T along a direction perpendicular to the direc-
tion of the field. Calculate the radius of the path of the
ion in the field.

30. A 2-keV electron moving perpendicular to the earth's

magnetic field of 50 //T has a circular trajectory. De-
termine (a) the radius of the trajectory and (b) the
time required for the electron to complete one circle.
(c) Show that your answer to (b) is consistent with the

cyclotron frequency of the electron.

31. What magnetic field would be required to constrain
an electron whose energy is 725 eV to a circular path
of radius 0.5 m?
32. A beam of protons (all with velocity v) emerges from a
particle accelerator and is deflected in a circular arc
Figure 29.29 (Problem 23). with a radius of 0.45 m by a transverse uniform mag-
netic field of 0.80 T. (a) Determine the speed v of the
24. A smallbar magnet is suspended in a uniform 0.25-T protons in the beam, (b) What time is required for the
magnetic field. The maximum torque experienced by deflection of a particular proton through an angle of
the bar magnet is 4.6 X 10~ 3 N m. Calculate the
• 90°? (c) What is the energy of the particles in the
magnetic moment of the bar magnet. beam?
 PROBLEMS 831

33. A proton, a deuteron, and an alpha particle (|He nu- their velocities. Determine the radius of the circular
cleus) are accelerated through a common potential path followed by these ions assuming that they are
(a) U
difference V. The particles enter a uniform magnetic 238
ions and (b) U 235 ions. How does the ratio of
field B along a direction perpendicular to B. The pro- these path radii depend on the accelerating voltage
ton moves in a circular path of radius r . Find the and the magnetic field strength?
value of the radii of the orbits of the deuteron, rd and , 43. Consider the mass spectrometer shown schematically
the alpha particle, ra in terms of r
, . in Figure 29.19. The electric between the plates
field
p
34. Calculate the cyclotron frequency of a proton in a of the velocity selector is 2500 V/m, and the magnetic
magnetic field of 5.2 T. both the velocity selector and the deflection
field in
35. A cosmic-ray proton in interstellar space has an en- chamber has a magnitude of 0.035 T. Calculate the
ergy of 10 MeV and executes a circular orbit with a radius of the path in the system for a singly charged
radius equal to that of Mercury's orbit around the Sun ion with a mass m = 2.18 X 10
-26 kg.
(5.8 X 10 10 m). What is the galactic magnetic field in 44. What is the required radius of a cyclotron designed to
that region of space? accelerate protons to energies of 34 MeV using a mag-
36. A singly charged ion of mass m is accelerated from rest netic field of 5.2 T?
7
by a potential difference V It is then deflected by a
. 45. What is the minimum size of a cyclotron designed to
uniform magnetic field (perpendicular to the ion's ve- accelerate protons to an energy of 18 MeV with a
locity) into a semicircle of radius R. Now a doubly- cyclotron frequency of 3 X 10 7
Hz?
charged ion of mass m' is accelerated through the 46. At the Fermilab accelerator in Weston, Illinois, pro-
same potential difference and deflected by the same tons with momentum 4.8 X 10 -16 kg-m/s are held in
magnetic field into a semicircle of radius R' = 2R. a circular orbit of radius 1 km by an upward magnetic-
What is the ratio of the ions' masses? field. What upward magnetic field must be used to
37. A singly charged positive ion moving with a speed of maintain the protons in this orbit?
4.6 X 10 s m/s leaves a spiral track of radius 7.94 mm 47. A cyclotron designed to accelerate protons is pro-
in a photograph along a direction perpendicular to the vided with a magnetic field of 0.45 T and has a radius
magnetic field of a bubble chamber. The magnetic of 1.2 m. (a) What is the cyclotron frequency?
field applied for the photograph has a magnitude of (b) What is the maximum speed acquired by the pro-
1 .8 T. Compute the mass (in atomic mass units) of this tons?
particle, and, from that, identify the particle. 48. (a) What must be the magnetic field strength within a
3S. The accelerating voltage that is applied to an electron 60-inch diameter cyclotron if that cyclotron is to ac-
gun is 15 kV, and the horizontal distance from the gun celerate protons to a maximum kinetic energy of 10.5
to a viewing screen is 35 cm. What is the deflection MeV? At what frequency must the oscillator in the
(b)
caused by the vertical component of the Earth's mag- cyclotron operate? (c) If the frequency of the oscilla-
netic field (4 X 10 -s T), assuming that any change in tor is maintained at the value found in (b), to what
the horizontal component of the beam velocity is neg- value must the magnetic field strength be altered if
ligible? the cyclotron is to accelerate deuterons? (Note: A
deuteron is a deuterium nucleus, consisting of a pro-
'Section 29.6 Applications of the Motion of Charged ton and a neutron bound together.) (d) After the cy-
Particles in a Magnetic Field clotron is adjusted to accelerate deuterons, what is

39. A crossed-field velocity selector has a magnetic field

the maximum kinetic energy of the deuterons pro-
duced?
of 10 -2 T. What electric field strength is required if
10-keV electrons are to pass through undeflected?
49. The picture tube in a television uses magnetic deflec-
tion coils rather than electric deflection plates. Sup-
40. A velocity filter consists of magnetic and electric
pose an electron beam is accelerated through a 50-kV
fields described by E=£Jk and B = Bj. If B =
potential difference and then passes through a uni-
0.015 T, find the value of E such that a 750-eV elec-
form magnetic field produced by these coils foi 1 cm.
tron moving along the positive x axis will be unde-
flected.
The screen is located 10 cm from the center of the
coils and is 50 cm wide. When the field is turned off.
41. At the equator, near the surface of the earth, the mag-
netic field approximately 50 fiY northward, and the
is
the electron beam hits the center of the screen. What
electric field is about 100 N/C downward. Find the
field strength is necessary to deflect the beam to the
side of the screen?
gravitational, electric, and magnetic forces on a 100-
eV electron moving eastward in a straight line in this
•Section 29.7 The Hall Effect
environment.
42. Singly charged uranium ions are accelerated through 50. A ribbon of silver with a thickness r = 0.20
flat is mm
a potential difference of 2 kV and enter a uniform used for a Hall-effect measurement of a uniform mag-
magnetic field of 1.2 T directed perpendicular to netic field that is perpendicular to the ribbon, as
 832 CHAPTER 29 MAGNETIC FIELDS

shown Figure 29.30. The Hall coefficient for silver

in ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
is 0.84 X lO -10 m 3 /C. (a) What is the effective
RH =
57. A wire with a mass of 1 g/cm isplaced on a horizontal
density of charge carriers, n, in silver? (b) If a current
surface with a coefficient of friction of 0.2. The wire
Z = 20 A produces a Hall voltage V H = 1 5 /jV, what is
carries a current of 1 .5 A toward the east, and moves
the magnitude of the applied magnetic field?
horizontally to the north. What are the magnitude and
the direction of the smallest magnetic field that en-
B ables the wire to move in this fashion?
58. Indicate the initial direction of the deflection of the
Ti
charged particles as they enter the magnetic fields as
J. shown in Figure 29.31.
I

T (a) (b)
Figure 29.30 (Problem 50).

51. A section of conductor 0.4 cm in thickness is used as

the experimental specimen in a Hall effect measure-
ment. If a Hall voltage of 35 //V is measured for a
current of 21 A in a magnetic field of 1.8 T, calculate
the Hall coefficient for the conductor.
52. Suppose the conductor shown in Figure 29.22 is cop-
per and is carrying a current of 10 A in a magnetic
field of 0.5 T. The width of the conductor d is 1 cm
and the thickness is 1 mm. Find the Hall potential
across the width of the conductor.
53. In an experiment designed to measure the earth's mag-
netic field using the Hall effect, a copper bar
0.5 cm in thickness is positioned along an east-west
A in the conductor results in
direction. If acurrent of 8
a measured Hall voltage of 5.1 X 10 -12 V, what is the
calculated value of the earth's magnetic field? (As-
sume that n = 8.48 X 10 28 electrons/m 3 and that the
plane of the bar is rotated to be perpendicular to the
direction of B.)
54. A flat copper ribbon with a thickness of J mm carries a
steady current of 50 A and is located within a uniform
magnetic field of 1 .3 T that is directed perpendicular 60
to the plane of the ribbon. If a Hall voltage of 9.6 fiV is

measured across the ribbon, what is the charge den-

sity of free electrons in the copper ribbon? What ef-
fective number of free electrons per atom does this
result indicate?
55. The Hall effect can be used to measure the number of
conduction electrons per unit volume n for an un-
known sample. The sample is 15 thick, and whenmm
placed in a 1.8-T magnetic field produces a Hall volt-
age of 0.122 fiV while carrying a 12-A current. What
is the value of n?
56. A Hall-effect probe for measuring magnetic fields is
designed to operate with a 120-mA current in the
probe. When the probe is placed in a uniform field of
0.08 T, it produces a Hall voltage of 0.7 fiV. (a) When
it is measuring an unknown field, the Hall voltage

is 0.33 ^V. What is the unknown field strength?

(b) If the thickness of the probe in the direction of

B is 2 mm, find the charge-carrier density (each of
charge e).
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 833

65. A mass spectrometer of the Bainbridge type is used to

examine the isotopes of uranium. Ions in the beam
emerge from the velocity selector with a speed equal
to 3 X 10 5 m/s and enter a uniform magnetic field of
0.6 T directed perpendicular to the velocity of the
ions.What is the distance between the impact points
formed on the photographic plate bv singly charged
ionsof 235 Uand 238 U?
66. A cyclotron designed to accelerate deuterons has a
magnetic field with a uniform intensity of 1 .5 T over a
region of radius 0.45 m. If the alternating potential
Figure 29.32 (Problem 61). applied between the dees of the cyclotron has a maxi-
mum value of 15 kV, what time is required for the
deuterons to acquire maximum attainable energy?
field, (b) the radius of curvature of the path of the
67. A singly charged heavy ion is observed to complete
proton while magnetic field, (c) the distance
in the
five revolutions in a uniform magnetic field of magni-
traveled by the proton while in the magnetic field,
tude 5 X 10 -2 T in 1.50 ms. Calculate the (approxi-
and (d) the time spent bv the proton in the magnetic
mate) mass of the ion in kg.
field.
6S. A uniform magnetic field of 0.15 T is directed along
Sodium melts at 210°F. Liquid sodium, an excellent
the positive x axis. A positron moving with a speed of
thermal conductor, is used in some nuclear reactors to
5 X 10 6 m/s enters the field along a direction that
remove thermal energy from the reactor core. The
makes an angle of 85° with the x axis (Fig. 29.34). The
liquid sodium can be moved through pipes by pumps
motion of the particle is expected to be a helix, as
that exploit the force on a moving charge in a mag-
described in Section 29.5. Calculate (a) the pitch p
netic field. The principle is as follows: imagine the
and (b) the radius r of the trajectory.
liquid metal to be in a pipe having a rectangular cross
section of width w and height h. A uniform magnetic
field perpendicular to the pipe affects a section of
length L (Fig. 29.33). An electric current directed
perpendicular to the pipe and to the magnetic field
produces a current density /. (a) Explain why this ar-
rangement produces a force on the liquid that is di-
rected along the length of the pipe, (b) Show that the
section of liquid in the magnetic field experiences a /^S
pressure increase equal to JLB. (c) Calculate the
current density required to produce a pressure in-
//\ >
crease equal to JLB.

Figure 29.34 (Problem 68).

69. Consider an electron orbiting a proton and main-

tained in a fixed circular path of radius equal to R =
5.29 X 10 -11 m
by the Coulomb force of mutual at-
traction. Treating the orbiting charge as a current
Figure 29.33 (Problem 63).
loop, calculate the resulting torque when the system
isin an external magnetic field of 0.4 T directed per-
pendicular to the magnetic moment of the orbiting
64. A thin rod of length ( is made of a nonconducting electron.
material and carries a uniform charge per unit length 70. A proton moving in the plane of the page has kinetic
A. The rod is rotated with angular velocity co about an energy of 6 MeV. It enters a magnetic field B = 1 T
axis through its center, perpendicular to the length of (into the page) at an angle 0=45° to the linear
the rod. Show that the magnetic dipole moment is boundary of the field as shown in Figure 29.35.
toA^ 3 /24. (Hint: consider the charge dq located within (a) Find x, the distance from the point of entry to
the element dx a distance x from the axis.) where the proton will leave the field, (b) Determine
834 CHAPTER 29 MAGNETIC FIELDS

6', the angle between the boundary and the proton's

velocity vector as it leaves the field.

/ill!
Figure 29.35 (Problem 70).

(Courtesy of CENCO)

'
1 Protons with kinetic energy of 5 MeV are moving in
.

A72. Table 29.1 shows measurements of a Hall voltage and

the positive x direction and enter a magnetic field
corresponding magnetic field for a probe used to mea-
B= directed out of the plane of the page and
(0.5 T)Jfc
sure magnetic fields, (a) Make a plot of these data, and
extending from x = to x = 1 mas shown in Figure
deduce a relationship between the Hall voltage and
(a) Calculate the y component of the protons'
29.36.
magnetic field, (b) If the measurements were taken
momentum as they leave the magnetic field at x = with a current of 0.2 A and the sample is made from a
1 m. Find the angle a between the initial veloc-
(b)
material having a charge-carrier density of 10 26 /m 3 ,

ity vector of the proton beam and the velocity vec- what is the thickness of the sample?
tor after the beam emerges from the field. (Hint: Ne-
glect relativistic effects and note that 1 eV = 1.60 X
10" 19 J.) TABLE 29.1

V„(/A0

Figure 29.36 (Problem 71).

 30
Sources of the Magnetic Field

An assortment of commercially
available magnets. The four
red magnets and the large
black magnet on the left are
made of an alloy of iron,
aluminum, and cobalt. The six
horseshoe magnets on the right
are made of different nickel
alloy steels. The rectangular
magnets on the lower right are
ceramics made of iron, nickel,
and beryllium oxides. (Cour-
tesy ofCENCO)

The preceding chapter treated a class of problems involving the

magnetic force on a charged particle moving in a magnetic field. To
complete the description of the magnetic interaction, this chapter
deals with the origin of the magnetic field, namely, moving charges
or electric currents. We begin by showing how to use the law of Biot and Savart
to calculate the magnetic field produced at a point by a current element. Using
this formalism and the superposition principle, we then calculate the total
magnetic field due to a distribution of currents for several geometries. Next,
we show how to determine the force between two current-carrying conduc-
tors, which leads to the definition of the ampere. We shall also introduce
Ampere's law, which is very useful for calculating the magnetic field of highly
symmetric configurations carrying steady currents. We apply Ampere's law to
determine the magnetic field for several current configurations, including that
of a solenoid.
This chapter is also concerned with some aspects of the complex processes

that occur in magnetic materials. All magnetic effects in matter can be ex-
plained on the basis of effective current loops associated with atomic magnetic
dipole moments. These atomic magnetic moments can arise both from the
orbital motion of the electrons and from an intrinsic, or "built-in," property of
the electrons known as spin. Our description of magnetism in matter will be
based in part on the experimental fact that the presence of bulk matter gener-
ally modifies the magnetic field produced by currents. For example, when a
material is placed inside a current-carrying solenoid, the material sets up its
own magnetic field, which adds (vectorially) to the field previously present.
835
836 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

30.1 THE BIOT-SAVART LAW

Shortly after Oersted's discovery in 1 8 1 9 that a compass needle is deflected by
a current-carrying conductor, Jean Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart reported
that a conductor carrying a steady current produces a force on a magnet. From
their experimental results, Biot and Savart were able to arrive at an expression
that gives the magnetic field at some point in space in terms of the current that
produces the field. The Biot-Savart law says that if a wire carries a steady
current the magnetic field dB at a point
/, P associated with an element ds (Fig.
30.1) has the following properties:
Figure 30.1 The magnetic field
dB at a point P due to a current 1. The vector dB is perpendicular both to ds (which is in the direction of

element ds is given by the Biot-Sa- the current) and to the unit vector r directed from the element to the
vart law. Equation 30. 1 The field is
. point P.
out of the paper at P.
2. The magnitude of dB is inversely proportional to r 2 where r is the ,

distance from the element to the point P.

Properties of the magnetic 3. The magnitude of dB is proportional to the current and to the length ds
field due to a current element of the element.
4. The magnitude of dB is proportional to sin 9, where is the angle
between the vectors ds and f.

The Biot-Savart law can be summarized in the following convenient form:

Biot-Savart law (30.1)

-7
where km is a constant that in SI units is exactly 10 Wb/A m. The constant km •

is usually written n /4n, where ]u is another constant, called the permeability

of free space. That is,

Mo =
^- =10-7 Wb/A-m
fc (30.2)
4n
Permeability of free space /*
= 47rfc m = 47rX10- 7 Wb/A-m (30.3)

Hence, the Biot-Savart Law, Equation 30.1, can also be written

I dsXr
dB =
fi
Biot-Savart law (30.4)
4n r2

important to note that the Biot-Savart law gives the magnetic field at a
It is

point only for a small element of the conductor. To find the total magnetic field
B at some point due to a conductor of finite size, we must sum up contributions
from all current elements making up the conductor. That is, we must evaluate
B by integrating Equation 30.4:

dsXr
»-£/ (30.5)

where the integralis taken over the entire conductor. This expression must be

handled with special care since the integrand is a vector quantity.

There are interesting similarities between the Biot-Savart law of magne-
tism and Coulomb's law of electrostatics. That is, the current element / ds
 30.1 THE BIOT-SAVART LAW 837

produces a magnetic field, whereas a point charge q produces an electric field.

Furthermore, the magnitude ofthe magnetic field varies as the inverse square of
the distance from the current element, as does the electric field due to a point
charge.
However, the directions of the two fields are quite different. The electric
field due to a point charge is radial. In the case of a positive point charge, E is
directed from the charge to the field point. On the other hand, the magnetic
field due to a current element is perpendicular to both the current element
and the radius vector. Hence, if the conductor lies in the plane of the paper, as

inFigure 30. 1 dB points out of the paper at the point Pand into the paper at F.
,

The examples that follow illustrate how to use the Biot-Savart law for
calculating the magnetic induction of several important geometric arrange-
ments. It is important that you recognize that the magnetic field described in
these calculations is the field due to a given current-carrying conductor. This is
not to be confused with any external field that may be applied to the con-
ductor.

EXAMPLE 30.1 Magnetic Field of a Thin Straight Solution An element ds is at a distance r from P. The
Conductor direction of the field at P due to this element is out of the
Consider a thin, straight wire carrying a constant current paper, since ds X f is out of the paper. In fact, all ele-

/ and placed along the x axis as in Figure 30.2. Let us ments give a contribution directly out of the paper at P.
calculate the total magnetic field at the point P located at Therefore, we have only to determine the magnitude of
a distance a from the wire. the field at P. In fact, taking the origin at O and letting P
be along the positive y axis, with k being a unit vector
pointing out of the paper, we see that
I ds I
= dx -I
dsXr= k\ds X f\ = k(dx sin 0)

Substitution into Equation 30.4 gives dB = k dB, with

UqI dx sin
(1) dB

i
'~4n r^

In order to integrate this expression, we must relate the

variables and r. One approach is to express x and r in
0, x,

terms of 0. From the geometry in Figure 30.2a and some

simple differentiation, we obtain the following relation-
ship:

(2)
sin 6

Since tan = — a/x from the right triangle in Figure

30.2a,

x = —a cot

(3) dx = a esc 2 dd
6l Substitution of (2) and (3) into (1) gives

u l a esc 2 sin dd _ u I
(b)
(4) dB 2
sin d0
4n 2 Ana
Figure 30.2 (Example 30.1) (a) A straight wire segment carry-
ing a current /. The magnetic field at Pdue to each element ds is Thus, we have reduced the expression to one involving
out of the paper, and so the net field is also out of the paper. only the variable 0. We can now obtain the total field at P
(b) The limiting angles 8 X and 8 2 for this geometry. by integrating (4) over all elements subtending angles
838 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

ranging from 6 l to 9 2 as defined in Figure 30.2b. This EXAMPLE 30.2 Field of a Current Loop
gives Calculate the magnetic field at the point for the O
current loop shown in Figure 30.4. The loop consists of
B -I sin 9 d8 = ^- (cos 0. - cos 2) (30.6) two straight portions and a circular arc of radius R, which
subtends an angle 8 at the center of the arc. We shall
We can apply this result to find the magnetic field of any ignore the contribution of the current in the short arcs
straight wire if we know the geometry and hence the near O.
angles 6 X and 8 2
Consider the special case of an infinitely long, Solution First, note that the magnetic field at O due to
straight wire. In this case, 0| = and 8 2 = it, as can be the straight segments OA and OC is identically zero,
seen from Figure 30.2b, for segments ranging from since ds is parallel to f along these paths and therefore
x = — =o to x = + x Since (cos 8 X — cos 62 )
.
= (cos — ds X f= This simplifies the problem because now we
0.
cos n) = 2, Equation 30.6 becomes need to be concerned only with the magnetic field at O
due to the curved portion AC. Note that each element
along the path AC is at the same distance R from O, and
(30.7) each gives a contribution dB, which is directed into the
paper at O. Furthermore, at every point on the path AC,
A three-dimensional view of the direction of B for a we see that ds is perpendicular to r, so that \ds X r\ = ds.
long, straight wire shown in Figure 30.3. The field lines
is
Using this information and Equation 30.4, we get the

are circles concentric with the wire and are in a plane

following expression for the field at O due to the seg-

perpendictdar to the wire. The magnitude of B is constant

ment ds:

on any circle of radius a and is given by Equation 30.7. A _ nj ds

convenient rule for determining the direction of B is to
grasp the wire with the right hand, with the thumb along Since I and R are constants, we can easily integrate this
the direction of the current. The four fingers wrap in the expression, which gives
direction of the magnetic field.
Our result shows that the magnitude of the magnetic B (30.8)
field is proportional to the current and decreases as the
distance from the wire increases, as one might intuitively
where we have used the fact that s = R8, where 9 is
expect. Notice that Equation 30.7 has the same mathe-
measured in radians. The direction of B is into the paper
matical form as the expression for the magnitude of the
at O since
ds X f is into the paper for every segment.
electric field due to a long charged wire (Eq. 24.9).
For example, if an arc subtends an angle 8 = n/2 rad,
we find from Equation 30.8 that B=fi I/8R.
Exercise 1 Calculate the magnetic field of a long,
straight wire carrying a current of 5 A, at a distance of
Exercise 2 A current loop in the form of a full circle of
4 cm from the wire.
radius R carries a current I. What is the magnitude of the
Answer 2.5X1Q- 5 T.
magnetic field at its center?
Answer HqLIIR.
y

Figure 30.3 The right-hand rule for determining the direction Figure 30.4 (Example 30.2) The magnetic field at due to the O
of the magnetic field due to a long, straight wire. Note that the current loop is into the paper. Note that the contribution to the
magnetic field lines form circles around the wire. field at O due to the straight segments OA and OC is zero.
 30.1 THE BIOT-SAVART LAW 839

EXAMPLE 30.3 Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Since 6, x, and R are constants for all elements of the loop
Circular Current Loop and since cos 6 = R/(x 2 + R 2 ) 1 /2 we get ,

Consider a circular loop of wire of radius R located in the

MqIR
yz plane and carrying a steady current 7, as in Figure
30.5. Let us calculate the magnetic field at an axial point
P a distance x from the center of the loop.
Br
4tt(x 2 + R2 )
3/ 2
^wfh* (309)

where we have used the fact that $ ds = 2nR (the cir-

cumference of the loop).
Solution In this situation, note that any element da is To find the magnetic field at the center of the loop,
perpendicular to r. Furthermore,
elements around all we set x = in Equation 30.9. At this special point, this
the loop are at the same distance r from P, where r2 = gives
x 2 + R 2 Hence, the magnitude oidB due to the element
.

ds is given by
_/V
R= (at x = 0) (30.10)
2R
H I \ds X f\ fi I ds
dB It is also interesting to determine the behavior of the
4?r r2
'

~4n (x 2 + R2 )
magnetic field at large distances from the loop, that is,
The direction of the magnetic field dB due to the when x is large compared with we can
R. In this case,
element da is perpendicular to the plane formed by rand neglect the term R 2
in the denominator of Equation 30.9
da, as shown in Figure 30.5. The vector dB can be re- and get
solved into a component dBx along the x axis, and a
HqIR 2
,

component dBy which is perpendicular to the x axis.

, R= 3
(for x > R) (30.11)
2x
When the components perpendicular to the x axis are
summed over the whole loop, the result is zero. That is, Since the magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment
by symmetry any element on one side of the loop will set H of the loop is defined as the product of the current and
up a perpendicular component that cancels the compo- the area (Eq. 29.13), fi = I(nR 2 ) and we can express
nent set up by an element diametrically opposite it. Equation 30.11 in the form
Therefore, we see that the resultant field at P must be
along the x axis and can be found by integrating the com- R= ^^r
In x 3
(30.12)
ponents dB x = dB cos 6, where this expression is ob-
tained from resolving the vector dB into its components This result is similar in form to the expression for the
as shown in Figure 30.5. That is, B = iB x where Bx is ,
due to an electric dipole, E = kp/y3 (Eq.
electric field
given by 23.10), where p is the electric dipole moment. The pat-
tern of the magnetic field lines for a circular loop is
ds cos 6
BT dBcos6 = ^- shown Figure 30.6. For clarity, the lines are drawn
in
4n T x 2 + R2
only for one plane which contains the axis of the loop.
where the integral must be taken over the entire loop. The field pattern is axially symmetric.

Figure 30.5 (Example 30.3) The geometry for calculating the Figure 30.6 Magnetic field lines for a current loop. Far from
magnetic field at an axial point P for a current loop. Note that by the loop, the field lines are identical in form to those of an
symmetry the total field B is along the x axis. electric dipole.
840 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

30.2 THE MAGNETIC FORCE BETWEEN TWO

PARALLEL CONDUCTORS
In the previous chapter we described the magnetic force that acts on a cur-
rent-carrying conductor when the conductor is placed in an external magnetic
field. Since a current in a conductor sets up its own magnetic field, it is easy to
understand that two current-carrying conductors will exert magnetic forces
upon each other. As we shall see, such forces can be used as the basis for
defining the ampere and the coulomb. Consider two long, straight, parallel
wires separated by a distance a and carrying currents Ij and l2 in the same
Figure 30.7 Two parallel wires direction, as in Figure 30.7. We can easily determine the force on one wire
each carrying a steady current
due to a magnetic field set up by the other wire. Wire 2, which carries a
exert a force on each other. The
field B2 at wire 1 due to wire 2 pro-
current l 2 sets up a magnetic field B 2 at the position of wire 1 The direction of
, .

duces a force on wire 1 given by B2 is perpendicular to the wire, as shown in Figure 30.7. According to Equa-
F[ = I^B 2 The force is attractive
tion 29.5, the magnetic force on a lengths of wire 1 isF l = Iji X B 2 Since /is .

if the currents are parallel as shown

and repulsive if the currents are an-
perpendicular to B 2 the magnitude of FL is given by F2 = \ x iB 2 Since the field
, .

tiparallel. due to wire 2 is given by Equation 30.7,

B,=
2na

that

1121 \2na) 2na

We can rewrite this in terms of the force per unit length as

F1 _ M0IJ2
(30.13)
f 2na

The direction of F, is downward, toward wire 2, since ( X B 2 is downward. If

one considers the field set up at wire 2 due to wire 1, the force F2 on wire 2 is
found to be equal to and opposite Fx This is what one would expect, because
.

Newton's third law of action-reaction must be obeyed. 1 When the currents are
in opposite directions, the forces are reversed and the wires repel each other.
Hence, we find that

parallel conductors carrying currents in the same direction attract each

other, whereas parallel conductors carrying currents in opposite direc-
tions repel each other.

The force between two parallel wires each carrying a current is used to
define the ampere as follows:
If two long, parallel wires 1 m apart carry the same current and the force
per unit length on each wire is 2 X 10~ 7 N/m, then the current is defined
to be 1 A.

The numerical value of 2 X 10 -7 N/m is obtained from Equation 30.13, with

Zj = I2 = 1 A and a = 1 m. Therefore, a mechanical measurement can be used

1
Although the total force on wire 1 is equal to and opposite the total force on wire 2, Newton's
when one considers two small elements of the wires that are not opposite
third law does not apply
each other. This apparent violation of Newton's third law and of conservation of momentum is
described in more advanced treatments on electricity and magnetism.
 30.3 AMPERES LAW 841

to standardize the ampere. For instance, the National Bureau of Standards

uses an instrument called a current balance for primary current measurements.
These results are then used to standardize other, more conventional instru-
ments, such as ammeters.
The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, can now be defined in terms of
the ampere as follows:

If a conductor carries a steady current of 1 A, then the quantity of charge

that flows through a cross section of the conductor in 1 s is 1 C.

30.3 AMPERES LAW

A simple experiment first carried out by Oersted in 1 820 clearly demonstrates
the fact that a current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field. In this
experiment, several compass needles are placed in a horizontal plane near a
long vertical wire, as in Figure 30.8a. When there is no current in the wire, all
compasses in the loop point in the same direction (that of the earth's field), as
one would expect. However, when the wire carries a strong, steady current,
the compass needles will all deflect in a direction tangent to the circle, as in

Figure 30.8b. These observations show that the direction of B is consistent

with the right-hand rule described in Section 30.1.

If thewire is grasped in the right hand with the thumb in the direction of
the current, the fingers will wrap (or curl) in the direction of B.

When the current is reversed, the compass needles in Figure 30.8b will also
reverse.
Since the compass needles point in the direction of B, we conclude that
the lines of B form circles about the wire, as we discussed in the previous
section. By symmetry, the magnitude of B is the same everywhere on a circular
path that is centered on the wire and lying in a plane that is perpendicular to
the wire. By varying the current and distance r from the wire, one finds that B
is proportional to the current and inversely proportional to the distance from

the wire.

Figure 30.8 (a) When there is no current in the vertical wire, all compass needles point in the
same direction, (b) When the wire carries a strong current, the compass needles deflect in a
B
direction tangent to the circle, which is the direction of due to the current, (c) Circular magnetic
surrounding a current-carrying conductor as displayed with iron filings. The photograph
field line
was taken using 30 parallel wires each carrying a current of £ A. (Photo courtesy of Henry Leap
and Jim Lehman)
842 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

Andre-Marie Ampere was a French mathematician, chemist, and philosopher who

founded the science of electrodynamics. The unit of measure for electric current was
named in his honor.
Ampere's genius, particularly in mathematics, became evident early in his life:
he had mastered advanced mathematics by the age of 12. In his first publication,
Considerations on the Mathematical Theory of Games, an early contribution to the
theory of probability, he proposed the inevitability of a player's losing a game of
chance to a player with greater financial resources.
Ampere is credited with the discovery of electromagnetism — the relationship
between electric current and magnetic fields. His work in this field was influenced by
the findings of Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted. Ampere presented a series of
papers expounding the theory and basic laws of electromagnetism, which he called
electrodynamics, to differentiate it from the study of stationary electric forces, which
he called electrostatics.
The culmination of Ampere's studies came in 1 827 when he published his Mathe-
matical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena Deduced Solely from Experiment, in
which he derived precise mathematical formulations of electromagnetism, notably
Ampere's law.
Many stories are told of Ampere's absent-mindedness, a trait he shared with
Andre-Marie Ampere
Newton. In one instance, he forgot to honor an invitation to dine with the Emperor
(1775-1836)
Napoleon.
Ampere's personal life was filled with tragedy. His father, a wealthy city official,
was guillotined during the French Revolution, and his wife's death in 1803 was a
major blow. Ampere died at the age of 63 of pneumonia. His judgment of his life is
clear from the epitaph he chose for his gravestone: Tandem felix (Happy at last).

(Photo courtesy of AIP Niels Bohr Library)

Now let us evaluate the product B-ds and sum these products over the
closed circular path centered on the wire. Along this path, the vectors ds and B
are parallel at each point (Fig. 30.8b), so that B- ds = B ds. Furthermore, B is
constant in magnitude on this circle and given by Equation 30.7. Therefore,
the sum of the products B ds over the closed path, which is equivalent to the
line integral of B-ds, is given by

Bds = B ds =
£r
(2nr)=n I (30.14)

where $ ds = 2nr is the circumference of the circle.

This result, known as Ampere's law, was calculated for the special case of a
circular path surrounding a wire. However, the result can be applied in the
general case in which an arbitrary closed path is threaded by a steady current.
That is,

Ampere's law says that the line integral of B-ds around any closed path
equals /i Z, where J is the total steady current passing through any surface
bounded by the closed path.

Ampere's law B-ds= fl l (30.15)

Ampere's law is valid only for steady currents. Furthermore, Ampere's law
is useful only for calculating the magnetic field of current configurations with a
 30.3 AMPERES LAW 843

high degree of symmetry, just as Gauss' law is useful only for calculating the
electric field of highly symmetric charge distributions. The following exam-
ples illustrate some symmetric current configurations for which Ampere's law
is useful.

EXAMPLE 30.4 The B Field of a Long Wire / _ nr3 -

A long, straight wire of radius R carries a steady current l kR2

/ that is uniformly distributed through the cross section
r2
of the wire (Figure 30.9). Calculate the magnetic field at I=
a distance r from the center of the wire in the regions R^
r > R and r < R. Following the same procedure as for path 1, we can now
apply Ampere's law to path 2. This gives

<£ Bds= B(2nr)=n I = » (jpIo)

<

(for r<R) (30.17)

The magnetic field versus r for this configuration is

sketched in Figure 30.10. Note that inside the wire,
B » as r —» 0. This result is similar in form to that of the
—
Figure 30.9 (Example 30.4) A long, straight wire of radius R electric field inside a uniformly charged rod.
carrying a steady current 1 uniformly distributed across the
wire. The magnetic field at any point can be calculated from
Ampere's law using a circular path of radius r, concentric with
the wire.

Solution In region 1, where r^R, let us choose a circu-

larpath of radius reentered at the wire. From symmetry,

we see that B must be constant in magnitude and parallel
to ds at every point on the path. Since the total current
passing through by path 1 is J , Ampere's law applied to
the path gives

ds = B(2nr) = /z 7
Figure 30.10 A sketch of the magnetic field versus r for the
wire described in Example 30.4. The field is proportional to r
inside the wire and varies as 1/r outside the wire.
(for r>R) (30.16)

EXAMPLE 30.5 The Magnetic Field

which is identical in meaning to Equation 30.7.
of a Toroidal Coil
Now consider the interior of the wire, that is, region The toroidal coil consists of N turns of wire wrapped
2, where r < R. In this case, note that the current / en- around a doughnut-shaped structure as in Figure 30.11.
closed by the path than the total current, 7 Since
is less .

Assuming that the turns are closely spaced, calculate the

the current is assumed to be uniform over the cross sec-
magnetic field inside the coil, a distance r from the
tion of the wire, we see that the fraction of the current
center.
enclosed by the path of radius r < R must equal the ratio
of the area nr2 enclosed by path 2 and the cross-sectional Solution To calculate the field inside the coil, we evalu-
area 7rR 2 of the wire. 2 That is, By
ate the line integral of B-ds over a circle of radius r.

2 symmetry, we see that the magnetic field is constant in

by path 2 must equal the
Alternatively, the current linked
product of the current density, / = I /nR 2 and the area nr2 ,
magnitude on this path and tangent to it, so that B-d» =
enclosed by path 2. B ds. Furthermore, note that the closed path threads N
844 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

/ s (out of paper)

T
B

Figure 30.11 (Example 30.6) A toroidal coil consists of many

turns of wire wrapped around a doughnut-shaped structure
1 JJ il
(torus). If the coils are closely spaced, the field inside the toroi-
dal coil is tangent to the dashed circular path and varies as 1/r,
and the exterior field is zero.

Figure 30.12 A top view of an infinite current sheet lying in

loops of wire, each of which carries a current I. There- the yz plane, where the current is in the y direction (out of the
fore, the right side of Ampere's law, Equation 30.15, is paper). This view shows the direction of B on both sides of the
ft NI in this case. Ampere's law applied to this path then sheet.

gives
B ds= B($)ds = B(2nr) = figNI
length of the rectangle). Hence, applying Ampere's law
over the loop and noting that the paths of length w do not
contribute to the line integral (because the component of
(30.18)
Inr B along the direction of these paths is zero), we get

This result shows that B varies as 1/r and hence is non-

uniform within the coil. However, if r is large compared
2B£ = n ]J
with a, where a is the cross-sectional radius of the toroid,
then the field will be approximately uniform inside the
coil. Furthermore, for the ideal toroidal coil, where the
B
turns are closely spaced, the external fieldis zero. This ^2 (30.19)

can be seen by noting that the net current threaded by

any circular path lying outside the toroidal coil is zero The result shows that the magnetic field is independent of
(including the region of the "hole in the doughnut"). the distance from the current sheet. In fact, the magnetic
Therefore, from Ampere's law one finds that B = in the field uniform and is everywhere parallel to the plane of
is

regions exterior to the toroidal coil. In reality, the turns the sheet. This is reasonable since we are dealing with an

of a toroidal coil forms a helix rather than circular loops infinite sheet of current. The result is analogous to the
(the ideal case). As a result, there is always a small field uniform electric field associated with an infinite sheet of
external to the coil. charge. (Example 24.6.)

EXAMPLE 30.6 Magnetic Field of an Infinite EXAMPLE 30.7 The Magnetic Force on a Current
Current Sheet Segment
An plane carries a surface
infinite sheet lying in the yz A long straight wire oriented along the y axis carries a
current of density /, . The current
is in the y direction, steady current Zj as in Figure 30.13. A rectangular cir-

and Js represents the current per unit length measured cuit located to the right of the wire carries a current I2 .

along the z axis. Find the magnetic field near the sheet. Find the magnetic force on the upper horizontal segment
of the circuit that runs from x =a to x = a + b.
Solution To evaluate the line integral in Ampere's law,
letus take a rectangular path around the sheet as in Fig- Solution In this problem, you may be tempted to use
ure 30.12. The rectangle has dimensions £ and w, where Equation 30.13 to obtain the force. However, this result
the sides of length £ are parallel to the surface. The net applies only to two parallel wires, and cannot be used
current through the loop is Js £ (that is, the net current here. The correct approach is to start with the force on a
equals the current per unit length multiplied by the small segment of the conductor given by dF = I ds X B
 30.4 THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF A SOLENOID 845

"
846 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

Figure 30.15 (a) Magnetic field lines for a tightly wound solenoid of finite length carrying a
steady current. The field inside the solenoid is nearly uniform and strong. Note that the field lines
resemble those of a bar magnet, so that the solenoid effectively has north and south poles.
(b) Magnetic field pattern of a bar magnet, as displayed by small iron filings on a sheet of paper.
(Courtesy of Henry Leap and Jim Lehman)

noid (Fig. 30.16) carries a current /. For the ideal solenoid, B inside the
solenoid is uniform and parallel to the axis and B outside is zero. Consider a

rectangular path of length £ and width w as shown in Figure 30.16. We can

apply Ampere's law to this path by evaluating the integral of B ds over each of
the four sides of the rectangle. The contribution along side 3 is clearly zero,
since B = in this region. The contributions from sides 2 and 4 are both zero
since B is perpendicular to ds along these paths. Side 1 whose length is £, gives
,

a contribution B£ to the integral since B is uniform and parallel to ds along this

path. Therefore, the integral over the closed rectangular path has the value

<T)B-ds = \B-ds = B \ds = Bi

path 1 path 1

The right side of Ampere's law involves the total current that passes
through the area bound by the path of integration. In our case, the total
current through the rectangular path equals the current through each turn
multiplied by the number of turns. If N is the number of turns in the length £,
then the total current through the rectangle equals NI. Therefore, Ampere's
law applied to this path gives
I I

Figure 30.16 A cross-sectional

B-ds = Be =n m
view of a tightly wound solenoid. If
the solenoid is long relative to its

radius, we can assume that the field (30.20)

inside uniform and the field out-
is

side is Ampere's law applied

zero.
to the red dashed rectangular path
can then be used to calculate the where n = N/£ is the number of turns per unit length (not to be confused
field inside the solenoid. with N).
 30.5 THE MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF A SOLENOID 847

We also could obtain this result in a simpler manner by reconsidering the

magnetic field of a toroidal coil (Example 30.5). If the radius r of the toroidal
coil containing N turns is large compared with its cross-sectional radius a, then
a short section of the toroidal coil approximates a solenoid with n = N/2nr. In
this limit, we see that Equation 30.18 derived for the toroidal coil agrees with
Equation 30.20.
Equation 30.20 is valid only for points near the center of a very long
solenoid. As you might expect, the field near each end is smaller than the value
given by Equation 30.20. At the very end of a long solenoid, the magnitude of
the field is about one half that of the field at the center. The field at arbitrary
axial points of the solenoid is derived in Section 30.5.

"30.5 THE MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF

A SOLENOID
Consider a solenoid of length I and radius R containing N closely spaced turns
and carrying a steady current J. Let us determine an expression for the mag-
netic field at an axial point P inside the solenoid, as indicated in Figure 30.17.
Perhaps the simplest way to obtain the desired result is to consider the
solenoid as a distribution of current loops. The field of any one loop along
the axis is given by Equation 30.9. Hence, the net field in the solenoid is the
superposition of fields from all loops. The number of turns in a length dx of the
solenoid is (N/£) dx; therefore the total current in a width dx is given by
I(N/e) dx. Then, using Equation 30.9, we find that the field at P due to the
section dx is given by

2
MoR
dB = dx (30.21)
2(x 2 + R2 )
3/2
(?)
This expression contains the variable x, which can be expressed in terms of the
variable 0, defined in Figure 30.17. That is, x = R tan </>, so that we have
dx =R sec 2 </> d<j>. Substituting these expressions into Equation 30.21 and in-
tegrating from (f> 1 to 2 , we get
°

B=t cos <t>d4>=f (sin

^~ sin 0i) (3022)
2rj ^r

Figure 30.17 The geometry for

calculating the magnetic field at an
axial point P inside a tightly wound
solenoid.
848 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

If Pis at the midpoint of the solenoid and if we assume that the solenoid is

long compared with R, then <f> 2 ~ 90° and </>, = — 90°; therefore

»-aSa + i). (at the center)

which isagreement with our previous result, Equation 30.20.

in
the end of a long solenoid (say, the bottom), then fa
If Pis a point at « 0°,

fa « 90°, and

B«^p(l + O) = i0onl (at the ends)

This shows that the field at each end of a solenoid approaches one half the
value at the solenoid's center as the length £ approaches infinity.
A sketch of the field at axial points versus x for a solenoid is shown in
Figure 30.18. If the length £ is large compared with R, the axial field will be
quite uniform over most of the solenoid and the curve will be quite flat except
at points near the ends. On the other hand, if I is comparable to R, then the
have a value somewhat less than fi nl
field will at the middle and will be
uniform only over a small region of the solenoid.
Figure 30.18 A sketch of the
magnetic field along the axis versus
x for a long, tightly wound sole- 30.6 MAGNETIC FLUX
noid. Note that the magnitude of
the field at the ends is about one The with a magnetic field is defined in a manner similar to that
flux associated
half the value of the center.
used to define the electric flux. Consider an element of area dA on an arbitrar-
ily shaped surface, as in Figure 30. 19. If the magnetic field at this element is B,
then the magnetic flux through the element is B dA, where dA is a vector
perpendicular to the surface whose magnitude equals the area dA. Hence, the
total magnetic flux <& m through the surface is given by

Magnetic flux <J> B dA (30.23)

/
Consider the special case of a plane of area A and a uniform field B, which
makes an angle 8 with the vector dA. The magnetic flux through the plane in
this case is given by

<D m = BA cos 6 (30.24)

If the magnetic field lies in the plane as in Figure 30.20a, then 6 = 90° and the
flux is zero. If the field is perpendicular to the plane as in Figure 30.20b, then
6 = 0° and the flux is BA (the maximum value).

dA

dA

Figure 30.19 The magnetic flux

through an area element dA is (a) (b)

given by BdA = BdA cos 6. Note

Figure 30.20 The flux is zero when the magnetic field is parallel to the surface of the plane (an
that dA is perpendicular to the sur- (a)

edge view), (b) The flux is a maximum when the magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane.
face.
 30.7 GAUSS' LAW IN MAGNETISM 849

Since B has units of Wb/m 2 , or T, the unit of flux is the weber (Wb), where
lWb = lT-m 2 .

EXAMPLE 30.8 Flux Through a Rectangular Loop Solution From Ampere's law, we found that the mag-

A rectangular loop of width a and length b is located a netic field due to the wire at a distance r from the wire is
distance c from a long wire carrying a current / (Fig. given by
30.21). The wire is parallel to the long side of the loop.
Find the total magnetic flux through the loop. B
Inr

dr That is, the field varies over the loop and is directed into
the page as shown in Figure 30.21. Since B is parallel to
dA, we can express the magnetic flux through an area
I I 1
element dA as
I

^=j BdA -j^r dA

-: —
I .

Note that since B is not uniform, but depends on r, it cannot

be removed from the integral. In order to carry out the
integration, we first express the area element (the blue
region in Fig. 30.21) as dA = b dr. Since r is the only
variable that now appears in the integral, the expression
for <t>_ becomes
-< c —*-* a »-

m 2n
2n Jc r
Figure 30.21 (Example 30.8) The magnetic field due to the
jiolb
wire carrying a current I is not uniform over the rectangular
loop. In *?)
30.7 GAUSS' LAW IN MAGNETISM
In Chapter 24 we found that the flux of the electric field through a closed
surface surrounding a net charge is proportional to that charge (Gauss' law). In
other words, the number of electric field lines leaving the surface depends
only on the net charge within it. This property is based in part on the fact that
electric field lines originate on electric charges.
The situation is quite different for magnetic fields, which are continuous
and form closed loops. Magnetic field lines due to currents do not begin or end
at any point. The magnetic field lines of the bar magnet in Figure 30.22
illustrate this point. Note that for any closed surface, the number of lines
entering that surface equals the number leaving that surface, and so the net
magnetic flux is zero. This is in contrast to the case of a surface surrounding one
charge of an electric dipole (Fig. 30.23), where the net electric flux is not zero.

Gauss' law in magnetism states that the net magnetic flux through any
closed surface is always zero:

B-dA = (30.25) Figure 30.22 The magnetic field

lines of a bar magnet form closed
loops. Note that the net flux
through the closed surface sur-
This statement based on the experimental fact that isolated magnetic poles
is
rounding one of the poles (or any
(or monopoles) have not been detected, and perhaps do not even exist. The only other closed surface) is zero.
850 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

Figure 30.23 (a) The electric field lines of an electric dipole begin on the positive charge and
terminate on the negative charge. The electric flux through a closed surface surrounding one of
the charges is not zero, (b) Magnetic field pattern of a bar magnet. (Courtesy of Henry Leap and
Jim Lehman)

known sources of magnetic fields are magnetic dipoles (current loops), even in
magnetic materials. In fact, all magnetic effects in matter can be explained in
terms of magnetic dipole moments (effective current loops) associated with
electrons and nuclei. This will be discussed further in Section 30.9.

30.8 DISPLACEMENT CURRENT AND THE

GENERALIZED AMPERE'S LAW
We have seen that charges in motion, or currents, produce magnetic fields.

When a current-carrying conductor has high symmetry, we can calculate the

Path P magnetic field using Ampere's law, given by Equation 30.15:

B-ds = nj

where the line integral is over any closed path through which the conduction
current passes. If Q is the charge on the capacitor at any instant, the conduction
current is defined by

7 = dQ
dt

Figure 30.24 The surfaces S, (in We shall now show that Ampere's law in this form is valid only ifthe conduction
blue) and S 2 (in red) are bounded
by the same path P. The conduc- isconstant in time. Maxwell recognized this limitation and modified Ampere's
tion current passes only through law to include all possible situations.
Si This leads to a contradictory sit-
.

uation in Ampere's law which is re-

We can understand this problem by considering a capacitor being
solved only if one postulates a dis- charged as in Figure 30.24. The argument given here is equivalent to Max-
placement current through S 2 . well's original reasoning. When the current I changes with time (for example,
 30.8 DISPLACEMENT CURRENT AND THE GENERALIZED AMPERES LAW 851

when an ac voltage source is used), the charge on the plate changes, but no
conduction current passes between the plates. Now consider the two surfaces Sj
and S 2 bounded by the same path P. Ampere's law says that the line integral of
B ds around this path must equal // i where / is the total current through any
,

surface bounded by the path P.

When the path P is considered to bound Sj the result of the integral is// / ,

since the current passes through Si However when the path bounds S 2 the
. ,

result is zero since no conduction current passes through S 2 Thus, . we have a

contradictory situation which arises from the discontinuity of the current!
Maxwell solved this problem by postulating an additional term on the right
side of Equation 30.15, called the displacement current, Zd defined as ,

h = e. (30.26) Displacement current

dt

e is the flux of the electric field, defined as O e

Recall that <J> = SE-dA.
As the capacitor is being charged (or discharged), the changing electric
field between the plates may be thought of as a sort of current that bridges the
discontinuity in the conduction current. When this expression for the current
(Eq. 30.26) is added Ampere's law, the difficulty repre-
to the right side of
sented by Figure 30.24 is resolved. No matter what surface bounded by the
path P is chosen, some combination of conduction and displacement current
will passthrough it. With this new term Zd we can express the generalized ,

form of Ampere's law (sometimes called the Ampere-Maxwell law) as 3

(30.27) Ampere-Maxwell law

The meaning of this expression can be understood by referring to Figure

30.25. The electric flux through S 2 is <t> e = fE-dA = EA, where A is the area of
the plates and E is the uniform electric field strength between the plates. If Q is
the charge on the plates at any instant, then one finds that E= Q/e A (Section
26.2). Therefore, the electric flux through S 2 is simply

O.

Hence, the displacement current Zd through S 2 is

dO, _ dQ Figure 30.25 The conduction

h = ^o dt dt
(30.28)
current I = dQ/dt passes through
S t The displacement current 7d =
.

That is, the displacement current is precisely equal to the conduction current I € d<t>Jdt passes through S 2 The•

two currents must be equal for con-

passing through Sj
tinuity. In general, the total cur-
The central point of this formalism is the fact that rent through any surface bounded
by some path is / + fd .

magnetic fields are produced both by conduction currents and by chang-

ing electric fields.

3
Strictly speaking, this expression is valid only in a vacuum. If a magnetic material is present, one
must also include a magnetizing current lm on the right side of Equation 30.27 to make Ampere's
law fully general. On a microscopic scale, Im is a current that is as real as the conduction current 7.
852 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

EXAMPLE 30.9 Displacement Current in a Capacitor We can make use of Equation 30.28 and of the fact that
An ac voltage is applied directly across an 8-fiF capacitor. the charge on the capacitor is given by Q - CV to find
The frequency of the source is 3 kHz, and the voltage the displacement current:
amplitude is 30 V. Find the displacement current be-
dv
tween the plates of the capacitor. !-«-£.
'^^Tt icv) dt

Solution The angular frequency of the source is given by

= = X 10" 6 X 10 3 r)l
co 2nf= 2n(3 X 10 3 Hz) = 6n X 10 3 s"1 Hence, the .
(8 ) -j [30 sin(67r

voltage across the capacitor in terms of t is

= (4.52 A) cos(6;r X 10 3 r)
V = Vm sin cot = (30 V) sin(67r X 10 3
Hence, the displacement current varies sinusoidally with
time and has a maximum value of 4.52 A.

"30.9 MAGNETISM IN MATTER

The magnetic field produced by a current in a coil of wire gives us a hint as to
what might cause certain materials to exhibit strong magnetic properties.
Earlier we found that a coil like that shown in Figure 30.26 has a north and a
south pole. In general, any current loop has a magnetic field and a correspond-
ing magnetic moment. Similarly, the magnetic moments in a magnetized sub-
stance are associated with internal atomic currents. One can view these cur-
rents as arising from electrons orbiting around the nucleus and protons
orbiting about each other inside the nucleus.
We shall begin this section with a brief discussion of the magnetic mo-
ments due to electrons. As we shall see, the net magnetic moment of an
electron is due to a combination of its orbital motion and an intrinsic property
called spin. The mutual forces between these magnetic dipole moments and
their interaction with an external magnetic field are of fundamental impor-
tance in understanding the behavior of magnetic materials. We shall describe
Figure 30.26 Magnetic field lines
for a tightly wound solenoid of fi- three categories of materials, paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, and diamagnetic.
nite length carrying a steady cur- Paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials are those that have atoms with
rent.
permanent magnetic dipole moments. Diamagnetic materials are those whose
atoms have no permanent magnetic dipole moments. For materials whose
atoms have permanent magnetic moments, the diamagnetic contribution to
the magnetism is usually overshadowed by paramagnetic or ferromagnetic
effects.

The Magnetic Moments of Atoms

It is model of the atom in
instructive to begin our discussion with a classical
which electrons are assumed to move in circular orbitsmuch more about the
massive nucleus. In this model, an orbiting electron is viewed as a tiny current
loop, and the atomic magnetic moment is associated with this orbital motion.
Although this model has many deficiencies, its predictions are in good agree-
ment with the correct theory from quantum physics.
Figure 30.27 An electron moving Consider an electron moving with constant speed v in a circular orbit of
in a circular orbit of radius r has an radius r about the nucleus, as in Figure 30.27. Since the electron travels a
angular momentum L and a mag-
netic moment// which are in oppo- distance of 2nr (the circumference of the circle) in a time T, where Tis the time
site directions. for one revolution, the orbital speed of the electron is v = 2nr/T. The effective
 30.9 MAGNETISM IN MATTER 853

Oxygen, a paramagnetic substance, is attracted to a magnetic field. The liquid oxygen in this
photograph is suspended between the poles of the magnet. (Courtesy of Leon Lewandowski)

current associated with this orbiting electron equals its charge divided by the
time for one revolution. Using T = 2n/co and a = v/r we have

r _ e — e0} _ ev
~T~Jn~2nr~
The magnetic moment associated with this effective current loop is given by
= IA, where A = nr 2 is the area of the orbit. Therefore,
fi

M = IA
(£)— (30.29) Orbital magnetic moment

Since the magnitude of the orbital angular momentum of the electron is given
by L = mvr, the magnetic moment can be written as

*"(=) (30.30)

This result says that the magnetic moment of the electron is proportional to its
orbital angular momentum. Note that since the electron is negatively charged,
the vectors// and L point in opposite directions. Both vectors are perpendicu-
the plane of the orbit as indicated in Figure 30.27.
lar to
Afundamental outcome of quantum physics is that the orbital angular Angular momentum is
momentum must be quantized, and is always some integer multiple of ft = quantized
h/2n = 1.06 X 10~ 34 J-s, where h is Planck's constant. That is

L= 0, h,2h,3h, . . .
854 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

1 1 Hence, the smallest nonzero value of the magnetic moment is

(30.31)

Since all substances contain electrons, you may wonder why all substances are
not magnetic. The main reason is that in most substances, the magnetic mo-
ment of one electron in an atom is canceled by the moment of another electron
Figure 30.28 Model of a spinning
electron. The magnetic moment in the atom orbiting in the opposite direction. The net result is that the mag-
can be viewed as arising from
ft spin netic effectproduced by the orbital motion of the electrons is either zero or very
the effective current loops asso- small for most materials.
ciated with a spinning charged
sphere.
So far we have only considered the contribution to the magnetic moment
of an atom from the orbital motion of the electron. However, an electron has
another intrinsic property called spin which also contributes to the magnetic
moment. In this regard, one can view the electron as a sphere of charge
spinning about its axis as it orbits the nucleus, as in Figure 30.28. (This classical
description of a spinning electron should not be taken literally. The property
of spin can be understood only through a quantum mechanical model.) This
spinning motion produces an effective current loop and hence a magnetic
moment which is of the same order of magnitude as that due to the orbital
motion. The magnitude of the spin angular momentum predicted by quantum
theory is

Spin angular momentum S =—= 5. 2729X10- Js

2

The intrinsic magnetic moment associated with the spin of an electron has the
value

Bohr magneton (30.32)

TABLE 30.1 Magnetic

Moments of Some Atoms
and Ions

Atom Magnetic moment

(or ion) (10- M J/T)

H
 30.9 MAGNETISM IN MATTER 855

Magnetization and Magnetic Field Strength

The magnetic state of a substance is described by a quantity called the magne- Magnetization
tization vector, Af. The magnitude of the magnetization vector is equal to the
magnetic moment per unit volume of the substance. As you might expect, the
total magnetic field in a substance depends on both the applied (external) field
and the magnetization of the substance.
Consider a region where there exists a magnetic field B produced by a
current-carrying conductor, such as the interior of a toroidal winding. If we
now fill that region with a magnetic substance, the total field B in that region
will be given by B = B + Bm where B m is the field produced by the magnetic
substance. This contribution can be expressed in terms of the magnetization
vector as B m = n^i; hence the total field in the substance becomes

B^Bo + fioM (30.33) Magnetic field strength

It is convenient to introduce another field quantity H, called the magnetic

field strength. This vector quantity is defined by the relation — (B//u ) — Af
H ,

B = n (H + M) (30.34)

In SI units, the dimensions of both and H

are A/m. M
To
better understand these expressions, consider the region inside a to-
roidal coil which carries a current /. If the interior region is a vacuum, then
Af = 0, and B = B = f*oH- Since B = fi nl inside a toroid, where n is the
number of turns per unit length in its windings, then H = B //i = /u nl/fi or ,

H = nl (30.35)

That is, the magnetic field strength inside the toroid is due to the current in the
its windings.
If the toroid core is now filled with some substance, and the current / is
kept constant, then H
inside the substance will remain unchanged, with a
magnitude nl. This is because the magnetic field strength His due solely to the
current in the coil. The total field B, however, changes when the substance is
introduced. From Equation 30.34, we see that part of B arises from the term
HoH associated with the toroidal current; the second contribution to B is the
term //qM due to the magnetization of the substance.
For a large class of substances, specifically paramagnetic and diamagnetic
substances, the magnetization Af is proportional to the magnetic field strength
H. In these linear substances, we can write

M = XH (30.36) Magnetic susceptibility

where x is a dimensionless factor called the magnetic susceptibility. If the

sample is paramagnetic, x is positive, in which case Af is in the same direction as

H. If the substance is diamagnetic, x is negative, and Af is opposite It is H .

important to note that this linear relationship does not apply to ferromagnetic
substances. The susceptibilities of some substances are given in Table 30.2.
856 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

TABLE 30.2

Permeability
 30.9 MAGNETISM IN MATTER 857

B = Km H = 5000/i H This value of B is 5000 times larger than the field in the
absence of iron!
Wb
ir7 xr-)l3oo— A- turns \
•-'<><><>l

X'
Exercise 4 Determine the magnitude and direction of
the magnetization inside the iron core.
Answer M= 1.5 X 10 6 A/m; Mis in the direction of H.

Ferromagnetism

Iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium, and dysprosium are strongly magnetic mate-
rials and are said to be ferromagnetic. Ferromagnetic substances are used to
fabricate permanent magnets. Such substances contain atomic magnetic mo-
ments that tend to align parallel to each other even in a weak external magnetic
field. Once the moments are aligned, the substance will remain magnetized
after the external field is removed. This permanent alignment is due to a strong
coupling between neighboring moments, which can only be understood in
quantum mechanical terms.
All ferromagnetic materials contain microscopic regions called domains,
within which magnetic moments are aligned. These domains have volumes
all

of about 10~ 12 to 10~ 8 m 3 and contain 10 17 to 10 21 atoms. The boundaries

between the various domains having different orientations are called domain
walls. In an unmagnetized sample, the domains are randomly oriented such
j \ \ \

that the net magnetic moment is zero as shown in Figure 30.29a. When the
sample is placed in an external magnetic field, the domains tend to align with
the field by rotating slightly, which results in a magnetized sample, as in
Figure 30.29b. Observations show that domains initially oriented along the
external field will grow in size at the expense of the less favorably oriented
domains. When the external field is removed, the sample may retain a net -», _» -^ _* —^ _,.
magnetization in the direction of the original field. 5 At ordinary temperatures, »- ^_^_ _^ ~^ __^ __^
thermal agitation is not sufficiently high to disrupt this preferred orientation ^ «^, _^ -^ _^
of magnetic moments. ^. __^ —^ -- ~^
A typical experimental arrangement used to measure the magnetic prop-
erties of a ferromagnetic material consists of a toroid-shaped sample wound
with N turns of wire, as in Figure 30.30. This configuration is sometimes
referred to as the Rowland ring. A secondary coil connected to a galvanometer
is used to measure the magnetic flux. The magnetic field B within the core of »
the toroid is measured by increasing the current in the toroid coil from zero
to I. As the current changes, the magnetic flux through the secondary coil
changes by BA, where A is the cross-sectional area of the toroid. Because of this Figure 30.29 (a) Random orien-
changing flux, an emf is induced in the secondary coil that is proportional to tation of atomic magnetic dipoles

the rate of change in magnetic flux. If the galvanometer in the secondary ™ unmagnetized substance.
} When
• . f w% V / ncid MSq sp-
<in t?xt(?rn£il is
circuit is properly calibrated, one can obtain a value tor B corresponding to
i i i >i i • i i

plied, the atomic magnetic dipoles

any value of the current in the toroidal coil. The magnetic field B is measured tend to align with the field, giving
first in the empty coil and then with the same coil filled with the magnetic
the sam P le a net m ag" etization M
substance. The magnetic properties of the substance are then obtained from a
comparison of the two measurements.

5
It is possible to observe the domain walls directly and follow their motion under a microscope. In
this technique, a liquid suspension of finely powdered ferromagnetic substance is applied to the
sample. The fine particles tend to accumulate at the domain walls and shift with them.
858 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

Now consider a toroidal coil whose core consists of unmagnetized iron. If

the current in the windings is increased from zero to some value J, the field
intensity H
increases linearly with J according to the expression = nl. Fur- H
thermore, the total field B also increases with increasing current as shown in
Figure 30.31. At point O, the domains are randomly oriented, corresponding
to B m = 0. As the external field increases, the domains become more aligned
until all are nearly aligned at point a. At this point, the iron core is approaching
saturation. (The condition of saturation corresponds to the case where all
domains are aligned in the same direction.) Next, suppose the current is re-
duced to zero, thereby eliminating the external field. The B versus H curve,
called a magnetization curve, now follows the path ah shown in Figure 30.31.
Note that at point b, the field B is not zero, although the external field is
B = 0. This is explained by the fact that the iron core is now magnetized due
to the alignment of a large number of domains (that is, B = Bm ). At this point,
the iron is said to have a remanent magnetization. If the external field is re-
Figure 30.30 Cross section of a versed in direction and increased in strength by reversing the current, the
toroidal winding arrangement used
to measure the magnetic proper- domains reorient until the sample is again unmagnetized at point c, where
ties of a substance. The material B = 0. A further increase in the reverse current causes the iron to be magne-
under study fills the core of the tor- tized in the opposite direction, approaching saturation at point d. A similar
oid, and the secondary circuit con-
taining the galvanometer measures sequence of events occurs as the current is reduced to zero and then increased
the magnetic flux. in the original (positive) direction. In this case, the magnetization curve fol-
lows the path def. If the current is increased sufficiently, the magnetization
curve returns to point a, where the sample again has its maximum magnetiza-
tion.
The effect just described, called magnetic hysteresis, shows that the mag-
netization of a ferromagnetic substance depends on the history of the sub-
stance as well as the strength of the applied field. (The word hysteresis literally
means to "lag behind.") One often says that a ferromagnetic substance has a
"memory" since it remains magnetized after the external field is removed.
The closed loop in Figure 30.3 1 is referred to as a hysteresis loop. Its shape and
size depend on the properties of the ferromagnetic substance and on the
strength of themaximum applied field. The hysteresis loop for "hard" ferro-
magnetic materials (used in permanent magnets) is characteristically wide as
in Figure 30.32a, corresponding to a large remanent magnetization. Such
materials cannot be easily demagnetized by an external field. This is in con-
Figure 30.31 Hysteresis curve trast to "soft" ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, that have a very narrow
for a ferromagnetic material.

Figure 30.32 Hysteresis curves for (a) a hard ferromagnetic material and (b) a soft ferromagnetic
material.
 30.9 MAGNETISM IN MATTER 859

hysteresis loop and a small remanent magnetization (Fig. 30.32b.) Such mate-
rials are easily magnetized and demagnetized. An ideal soft ferromagnet
would and hence would have no remanent magnetiza-
exhibit no hysteresis
tion. Aferromagnetic substance can be demagnetized by carrying the sub-
stance through successive hysteresis loops, gradually decreasing the applied
field as in Figure 30.33.
The magnetization curve is useful for another reason. The area enclosed by
the magnetization curve represents the work required to take the material
through the hysteresis cycle. The energy acquired by the sample in the magne-
tization process originates from the source of the external field, that is, the emf
in the circuit of the toroidal coil. When the magnetization cycle is repeated,
dissipative processes within the material due to realignment of the domains
Figure 30.33 Demagnetizing a
result in a transformation of magnetic energy into internal thermal energy,
ferromagnetic material by carrying
which raises the temperature of the substance. For this reason, devices sub- it through successive hysteresis
jected to alternating fields (such as transformers) use cores made of soft ferro- loops.

magnetic substances, which have narrow hysteresis loops and a correspond-

ingly small energy loss per cycle.

Paramagnetism

Paramagnetic substances have a positive but small susceptibility (0 <^<^ 1),

which is due to the presence of atoms (or ions) with permanent magnetic dipole Paramagnetic
moments. These dipoles interact only weakly with each other and are ran-
domly oriented in the absence of an external magnetic field. When the sub-
stance is placed in an external magnetic field, its atomic dipoles tend to line up
with the field. However, this alignment process must compete with the effects
of thermal motion, which tends to randomize the dipole orientations.
Experimentally, one finds that the magnetization of a paramagnetic sub-
stance is proportional to the applied field and inversely proportional to the Figure 30.34 Plot of the magneti-
absolute temperature under a wide range of conditions. That is, zation versus absolute temperature
for a ferromagnetic substance. The
magnetic moments are aligned
M <! (30.39) (ordered) below the Curie temp-
erature Tc where the substance is
,

ferromagnetic. The substance be-

This is known as Curie's law after discoverer Pierre Curie (1859-1906),
its comes paramagnetic (disordered)
and the constant C is called Curie's constant. This shows that the magnetiza- above T..

tion increases with increasing applied field and with decreasing temperature.
When B = 0, is zero, corresponding to a random orienta-
the magnetization
tion of dipoles. At very high fields or very low temperatures, the magnetiza-
tion approaches its maximum, or saturation, value corresponding to a com-
plete alignment of its dipoles and Equation 30.39 is no longer valid. TABLE 30.3 Curie
It is interesting to note when the temperature of a ferromagnetic sub- Temperature for Several
Ferromagnetic Substances
stance reaches or exceeds a critical temperature, called the Curie tempera-
ture, the substance loses its spontaneous magnetization and becomes para-
Substance
magnetic (see Fig. 30.34). Below the Curie temperature, the magnetic
moments are aligned and the substance is ferromagnetic. Above the Curie
temperature, the thermal energy is large enough to cause a random orienta-
tion of dipoles, hence the substance becomes paramagnetic. For example, the
Curie temperature for iron is 1043 K. A list of Curie temperatures for several
ferromagnetic substances is given in Table 30.3.
860 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

Diamagnetism
A diamagnetic substance is one whose atoms have no permanent magnetic
dipole moment. When an external magnetic field is applied to a diamagnetic
substance such as bismuth or silver, a weak magnetic dipole moment is induced
in the direction opposite the applied field. Although the effect of diamagne-
tism is present in all matter, it is weak compared to paramagnetism or ferro-
magnetism.
We can obtain some understanding of diamagnetism by considering two
electrons of an atom orbiting the nucleus in opposite directions but with the
same speed. The electrons remain in these circular orbits because of the
attractive electrostatic force (the centripetal force) of the positively charged
nucleus. Because the magnetic moments of the two electrons are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction, they cancel each other and the dipole
moment of the atom is zero. When an external magnetic field is applied, the
electrons experience an additional force qv X B. This added force modifies the
centripetal force so as to increase the orbital speed of the electron whose
magnetic moment is antiparallel to the field and decreases the speed of the
electron whose magnetic moment is parallel to the field. As a result, the
magnetic moments of the electrons no longer cancel, and the substance ac-
quires a net dipole moment that opposes the applied field.
A small permanent magnet levi- As you from Chapter 27, superconductors are substances whose dc
recall
tated above a disk of the super- resistance is some critical temperature characteristic of the sub-
zero below
conductor YBa 2 Cu 3 7 cooled to
stance. Certain types of superconductors also exhibit perfect diamagnetism in
liquid nitrogen temperature.
(Courtesy of IBM Research) the superconducting state. As a result, an applied magnetic field is expelled by
the superconductor so that the field is zero in its interior. This phenomenon of
flux expulsion is known as the Meissner effect. If a permanent magnet is
brought near a superconductor, the two substances will repel each other. This
is illustrated in the photograph, which shows a small permanent magnet levi-

tated above a superconductor maintained at 77 K. A more detailed description

of the unusual properties of superconductors is presented in Chapter 44 of the
extended version of this text.

EXAMPLE 30.11 Saturation Magnetization molecular weight of iron is 55 g/mole and its density is
Estimate the maximum magnetization in a long cylinder 7.9 g/cm 3 the value of n is 8.5 X 10 28 atoms/m 3 Assum-
, .

of iron, assuming there is one unpaired electron spin per ing each atom contributes one Bohr magneton (due to
atom. one unpaired spin) to the magnetic moment, we get

atoms\/ . . „„ A-m 2 \
Solution The maximum magnetization, called the satu-
M. "( 8.5 X 10 28
)(
9.27 X1CT 24 -

atom /
ration magnetization, is obtained when all the magnetic
moments in the sample are aligned. If the sample con- = 7.9 X 10 5 A/m
tains n atoms per unit volume, then the saturation mag-
netization M s
has the value This is about one half the experimentally determined
saturation magnetization for annealed iron, which indi-
M s
= nfi
cates that there are actually two unpaired electron spins
where n is the magnetic moment per atom. Since the per atom.

°30.10 MAGNETIC FIELD OF THE EARTH

When we speak of a small bar magnet's having a north and a south pole, we
should more properly say that it has a "north-seeking" and a "south-seeking"
 30.10 MAGNETIC FIELD OF THE EARTH 861

pole. By this we mean that if such a magnet compass, one end will
is used as a
seek, or point to, the north geographic pole of the earth. Thus, we conclude
that a north magnetic pole is located near the south geographic pole, and a south
magnetic pole is located near the north geographic pole. In fact, the configura-
tion of the earth's magnetic field, pictured in Figure 30.35, is very much like
that which would be achieved by burying a bar magnet deep in the interior of
the earth.
If a compass needle is suspended in bearings that allow it to rotate in the
vertical plane as well as in the horizontal plane, the needle is horizontal with
respect to the earth's surface only near the equator. As the device is moved
northward, the needle rotates such that it points more and more toward the
surface of the earth. Finally, at a point just north of Hudson Bay in Canada,
the north pole of the needle would point directly downward. This location,
first found in 1832, is considered to be the location of the south-seeking

magnetic pole of the earth. This site is approximately 1300 mi from the earth's
geographic north pole and varies with time. Similarly, the north-seeking mag-
netic pole of the earth is about 1200 miles away from the earth's geographic
south pole. Thus, it is only approximately correct to say that a compass needle
points north. The difference between true north, defined as the geographic
north pole, and north indicated by a compass varies from point to point on the
earth, and the difference is referred to as magnetic declination. For example,
along a line through Florida and the Great Lakes, a compass indicates true
north, whereas in Washington state, it aligns 25° east of true north.
Although the magnetic field pattern of the earth is similar to that which
would be set up by a bar magnet deep within the earth, it is easy to understand
why the source of the earth's field cannot be large masses of permanently
magnetized material. The earth does have large deposits of iron ore deep
beneath its surface, but the high temperatures in the earth's core prevent the
iron from retaining any permanent magnetization. It is considered more likely
that the true source is charge-carrying convection currents in the earth's core.

North geographic
t • , pole
south magnetic pole

North magnetic pole

South geographic pole

Figure 30.35 The earth's magnetic field lines. Note that a magnetic south pole is at the north
geographic pole and a magnetic north pole is at the south geographic pole.
862 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

Charged ions or electrons circling in the liquid interior could produce a mag-
netic field, just as a current in a loop of wire produces a magnetic field. There is
also strong evidence to indicate that the strength of a planet's field is related to
the planet's rate of rotation. For example, Jupiter rotates faster than the earth,
and recent space probes indicate that Jupiter's magnetic field is stronger than
ours. Venus, on the other hand, rotates more slowly than the earth, and its
magnetic field is found to be weaker. Investigation into the cause of the earth's
magnetism remains open.
There is an interesting sidelight concerning the earth's magnetic field. It
has been found that the direction of the field has been reversed several times
during the last million years. Evidence for this is provided by basalt (a type of
rock that contains iron) that is spewed forth by volcanic activity on the ocean
floor. As the lava cools, it solidifies and retains a picture of the earth's magnetic
field direction. The rocks can be dated by other means to provide the evidence
for these periodic reversals of the magnetic field.

SUMMARY
The Biot-Savart law says that the magnetic field dB at a point P due to a
current element ds carrying a steady current / is

I dsXf
Biot-Savart law dB = km (30.1)
r2

where k^ = 10 -7 Wb/A*m and r is the distance from the element to the

point P. To find the total field at P due to a current-carrying conductor, we
must integrate this vector expression over the entire conductor.
The magnetic field at a distance a from a long, straight wire carrying a
current J is given by

Magnetic field of an
(30.7)
infinitely long wire 2710

= 4n X -7
where // 1 Wb/A m is the permeability of free space. The field
•

lines are circles concentric with the wire.

The force per unit length between two parallel wires separated by a
distance a and carrying currents Ij and Z2 has a magnitude given by

Force per unit length

(30.13)
between two wires 2na

The force is attractive if the currents are in the same direction and repulsive
ifthey are in opposite directions.
Ampere's law says that the line integral of B ds around any closed path
equals n I, where I is the total steady current passing through any surface
bounded by the closed path. That is,

Ampere's law B-ds = HqL (30.15)

 SUMMARY 863

Using Ampere's law, one finds that the fields inside a toroid and sole-
noid are given by

Magnetic field inside

B= (30.18)
a toroid
2nr

Magnetic field inside a

B=fi jI = H nI (30.20)
solenoid

where N is the total number of turns.

The magnetic flux <J> m through a surface is defined by the surface
integral

<>.-/ B dA (30.23) Magnetic flux

Gauss' law of magnetism states that the net magnetic flux through any
closed surface is zero. That is, isolated magnetic poles (or magnetic mono-

poles) do not exist.

A displacement current 7d arises from a time-varying electric flux and is
defined by

(30.26) Displacement current

dt

The generalized form of Ampere's law, which includes the displace-

ment current, is given by

d<t> e
B-d8 = HoI + n e (30.27) Ampere-Maxwell law
dt

This law describes the fact that magnetic fields are produced both by con-
duction currents and by changing electric fields.
The fundamental sources of all magnetic fields are the magnetic dipole
moments associated with atoms. The atomic dipole moments can arise both
from the orbital motions of the electrons and from an intrinsic property of
electrons known as spin.
The magnetic properties of substances can be described in terms of
their response to an external field. In abroad sense, materials can be de-
scribed as being ferromagnetic, paramagnetic, or diamagnetic. The atoms of
ferromagnetic and paramagnetic materials have permanent magnetic mo-
ments. Diamagnetic materials consist of atoms with no permanent magnetic
moments.
When a paramagnetic or ferromagnetic material is placed in an exter-
nal magnetic field, its dipoles tend to align parallel to the field, and this
aligning in turn increases the net field. The increase in the field is quite
small in the case of paramagnetic substances. This because the magnetic
is

dipoles in paramagnetic materials are randomly oriented in the absence of a

magnetic field. The dipoles are partially aligned in the presence of an
applied field.
864 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

QUESTIONS

1. Is the magnetic field due to a current loop uniform? Will a nail be attracted to either pole of a magnet?
Explain. Explain what happening inside the nail.
is

2. A current in a conductor produces a magnetic field The north-seeking pole of a magnet is attracted
which can be calculated using the Biot-Savart law. toward the geographic north pole of the earth. Yet,
Since current is defined as the rate of flow of charge, like poles repel. What is the way out of this dilemma?
what can you conclude about the magnetic field due A Hindu ruler once suggested that he be entombed in
to stationary charges? What about moving charges? a magnetic coffin with the polarity arranged such that
3. Two parallel wires carry currents in opposite direc- he would be forever suspended between heaven and
tions. Describe the nature of the resultant magnetic earth. Is such magnetic levitation possible? Discuss.
fielddue to the two wires at points (a) between the Why is M= in a vacuum? What is the relationship
wires and (b) outside the wires in a plane containing between B and H in a vacuum?
the wires. Explain why some atoms have permanent magnetic
4. Explain why two parallel wires carrying currents in dipole moments and others do not.
opposite directions repel each other. What factors can contribute to the total magnetic di-

5. Two wires carrying equal and opposite currents are pole moment of an atom?
twisted together in the construction of a circuit. Why Why is the susceptibility of a diamagnetic substance
does technique reduce stray magnetic fields?
this negative?
6. Is Ampere's law valid for all closed paths surrounding Why can the effect of diamagnetism be neglected in a
a conductor? Why is it not useful for calculating B for paramagnetic substance?
all such paths? Explain the significance of the Curie temperature for
7. Compare Ampere's law with the Biot-Savart law. a ferromagnetic substance.
Which is the more general method for calculating B Discuss the difference between ferromagnetic, para-
for a current-carrying conductor? magnetic, and diamagnetic substances.
8. Is the magnetic field inside a toroidal coil uniform? What is the difference between hard and soft ferro-

Explain. magnetic materials?

9. Describe the similarities between Ampere's law in Should the surface of a computer disk be make from a
magnetism and Gauss' law in electrostatics. "hard" or a "soft" ferromagnetic substance?
10. A hollow copper tube carries a current. Why is B = Explain why it is desirable to use hard ferromagnetic
inside the tube? Is B nonzero outside the tube? materials to make permanent magnets.
11. Why is B nonzero outside a solenoid? Why is B = Why is an ordinary, unmagnetized steel nail attracted
outside a toroid? (The lines of B must form closed to a permanent magnet?
paths.) Would you expect the tape from a tape recorder to be
12. Describe the change in the magnetic field inside a attracted to a magnet? (Try it, but not with a recording
solenoid carrying a steady current I if (a) the length of you wish to save.)
the solenoid doubled, but the number of turns re-
is Given only a strong magnet and a screwdriver, (a) how
mains the same and (b) the number of turns is dou- would you magnetize the screwdriver, and (b) how
bled, but the length remains the same. would you then demagnetize the screwdriver?
13. A plane conducting loop is located in a uniform mag- The photograph below shows two permanent mag-
netic field that is directed along the x axis. For what nets with holes through their centers. Note that the
orientation of the loop is the flux through it a maxi-
mum? For what orientation is the flux a minimum?
14. What new concept did Maxwell's generalized form of
Ampere's circuital law include?
15. A magnet The iron can then
attracts a piece of iron.
another piece of iron. On the basis of align-
attract
ment of the domains, explain what happens in each
piece of iron.
16. You are an astronaut stranded on a planet with no test
equipment or minerals around. The planet does not
even have a magnetic field. You have two bars of iron
in your possession; one is magnetized, one is not. How
could you determine which is magnetized?
17. Why will hitting a magnet with a hammer cause its Question 34. Magnetic levitation using two ceramic magnets.
magnetism to be reduced? (Courtesy of CENCO)
 PROBLEMS 865

upper magnet is levitated above the lower magnet. of the magnets from this observation? (d) If the up-
(a) How does this occur? (b) What purpose does the per magnet were inverted, what do you suppose
pencil serve? (c) What can you say about the poles would happen?

PROBLEMS
Section 30.1 The Biot-Savart Law
1. Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic field at a
point 100 cm from a long, thin conductor carrying a
current of 1 A.
2. A long, thin conductor carries a current of 10 A. At
what distance from the conductor is the magnitude of
the resulting magnetic field equal to 10
-4
T?
3. A wire in which there is a current of 5 A is to be
formed into a circular loop of one turn. If the required
value of the magnetic field at the center of the loop is
10 f/T, what is the required radius of the loop?
4. In Neils Bohr's 1913 model of the hydrogen atom, an
electron circles the proton at a distance of 5.3 X
10""m with a speed of 2 . 2 X 1
6 m/s.
Compute the
magnetic field strength produced by the electron's
motion at the location of the proton.
5. A conductor in the shape of a square of edge length
£ = 0.4m carries a current 7=10 A (Fig. 30.36).
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the mag-
netic field produced at the center of the square.

Figure 30.36 (Problems 5 and 7).

6. A 12 cm X 16 cm rectangular loop of superconduct-

ing wire carries a current of 30 A. What is the mag-
netic field at the center of the loop?
7. If the totallength of the conductor in Problem 5 is
formed into a single circular turn with the same
current, what is the value of the magnetic field at the
center of the turn?
8. How many turns should be in a flat circular coil of
radius 0.1 m in order for a current of 10 A to produce
a magnetic field of 3 X 10 -3 T at its center?
9. Determine the magnetic field at a point P that is a
distance x from the corner of an infinitely long wire
that is bent at a right angle, as shown in Figure 30.37.
The wire carries a steady current J.
866 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

12. Consider the current-carrying loop shown in Figure 17. Two parallel copper rods are 1 cm apart. Lightning
30.40, formed of radial lines and segments of circles sends a 10 000-ampere pulse of current along each
whose centers are at point P. Find the magnitude and conductor. Calculate the force per unit length on one
direction of the magnetic field B at P. conductor. Is the force attractive or repulsive?
1 S. Compute the magnetic force per unit length between
two adjacent windings of a solenoid if each carries a
current I = 100 A, and the center-to-center distance
between the wires is 4 mm.
19. For the arrangement shown in Figure 30.42, the cur-
rent in the long, straight conductor has the value /j
=
5 A and lies in the plane of the rectangular loop,
which carries a current I 2 — 1 A. The dimensions are
c = 0.1 m, a = =
0.45 m. Find the
0.15 m, and t
Figure 30.40 (Problem 12).
magnitude and direction of the net force exerted on
the rectangle by the magnetic field of the straight
13. A circular coil of wire whose radius is 10 cm has 100 current-carrying conductor.
turns. The current in the coil is 0.3 A. (a) Calculate
the magnetic field at the center of the coil, (b) How
far above or below the center of the coil are the points
where the magnetic field has dropped to half its value
at the center of the coil?
14. Recalling that the current density/ = nqv d (Eq. 27.6),
show that the Biot-Savart law can be written

Ho q*>d x *
dB n dV
An r2

where dVis the volume element of the conductor and h

the drift velocity v d is as defined in Chapter 27.

Section 30.2 The Magnetic Force Between

Two Parallel Conductors

15. Two long parallel conductors, separated by a distance

a= 10 cm, carry currents in the same direction. If
Ji = 5 A and 7 2 = 8 A, what is the force per unit length
exerted on each conductor by the other?
16. Two long parallel wires, each having a mass per unit
length of 40 g/m, are supported in a horizontal plane
by strings 6 cm long as shown in Figure 30.41. Each
wire carries the same current 7, causing the wires to
repel each other so that the angle 9 between the sup-
porting strings is 16°. (a) Are the currents in the same
or opposite directions? (b) Find the magnitude of
each current.
 PROBLEMS 867

2 1 . Two long, parallel conductors carry currents I 1 = 3 A the magnetic field strength along (a) the inner radius
and Z2 = 3 A, both directed into the page in Figure of the toroid and (b) the outer radius of the toroid.
30.44. The conductors are separated by a distance of 28. A cylindrical conductor of radius R = 2.5 cm carries a
13 cm. Determine the magnitude and direction of the current 7 = 2.5 A along its length; this current is uni-
resultant magnetic field at point P, located 5 cm from formly distributed throughout the cross section of
7j and 1 2 cm from I2 .
the conductor. Calculate the magnetic field midway
along the radius of the wire (that is, at r = R/2).
29. For the conductor described in Problem 28, find the
distance beyond the surface of the conductor at which
5 cm the magnitude of the magnetic field has the same
value as the magnitude of the field at r = R/2.
>P 30. Niobium metal becomes a superconductor (with elec-
13 cm trical resistanceequal to zero) when cooled below
9 K. If superconductivity is destroyed when the sur-
/ 12 cm face magnetic field exceeds 0.1 T, determine the
maximum current a 2-mm diameter niobium wire can
carry and remain superconducting.
3 1 . A packed bundle of 1 00 long straight insulated wires
forms a cylinder of radius R = 0.5 cm. (a) If each wire
Figure 30.44 (Problem 21).
carries a 2 A current, what are the magnitude and
direction of the magnetic force per unit length acting
Section 30.3 Ampere's Law and Section 30.4 on a wire located 0.2 cm from the center of the bun-
The Magnetic Field of a Solenoid dle? (b) Would a wire on the outer edge of the bundle
experience a greater or a smaller force compared to
22. A closely wound long solenoid of overall length 30 cm the wire 0.2 cm from the center?
-4
has a magnetic field B = 5 X 10 T at its center due 32. In Figure 30.45, assume that both currents are in the
to a current / = 1 A. How many turns of wire are on negative x direction, (a) Sketch the magnetic field
the solenoid? pattern in the yz plane, (b) At what distance d along
23. A superconducting solenoid is to be designed to gen-
the z axis is the magnetic field a maximum?
erate a magnetic field of 10 T. (a) If the solenoid
winding has 2000 turns/meter, what is the required
current? (b) What force per unit length is exerted on
the solenoid windings by this magnetic field?
24. What current is required in the windings of a long
solenoid that has 1000 turns uniformly distributed
over a length of 0.4 m in order to produce a magnetic
-4
field of magnitude 1 .0 X 10 T at the center of the
solenoid?
25. Some superconducting alloys at very low tempera-
tures can carry very high currents. For example,
Nb 3 Sn wire at 10 K can carry 10 3 A and maintain its Figure 30.45 (Problem 32).
superconductivity. Determine the maximum B field
which can be achieved in a solenoid of length 25 cm if
1000 turns of Nb 3 Sn wire are wrapped on the outside
"Section 30.5 The Magnetic Field Along the Axis
surface.
of a Solenoid
26. A toroidal winding (Fig. 30. 1 1) has a total of 400 turns
on a core with inner radius a = 4 cm and outer radius 33. A short solenoid, with a length of 10 cm and a radius of
b = 6 cm. Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic 5 cm, consists of 200 turns of fine wire that carries a
field at a point midway between the inner and outer current of 1 5 A. What is the magnetic field strength B
when, there is a current of 0.5 A
walls of the core at the center of the solenoid? For the same number of
maintained in the windings. turns per unit length, what value of B would result for
27. The magnetic coils of a Tokamak fusion reactor are in
the shape of a toroid having an inner radius of 0.7 m 34. A solenoid has 900 turns, carries a current of 3 A, has
and outer radius of 1.3 m. Inside the toroid is the a length of 80 cm, and a radius of 2.5 cm. Calculate
plasma. If the toroid has 900 turns of large diameter the magnetic field along its axis at (a) its center and
wire, each of which carries a current of 1 4 000 A, find (b) a point near the end.
868 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

35. A solenoid has 500 turns, a length of 50 cm, a radius of through the blue area defined by an annulus with an
5 cm, and carries a current of 4 A. Calculate the mag- inner radius of 0.4 cm and outer radius of 0.8 cm.
netic field at an axial point, a distance of 15 cm from
the center (that is, 10 cm from one end).

Section 30.6 Magnetic Flux

36. A toroid is constructed from N rectangular turns of

wire. Each turn has height h. The toroid has an inner
radius a and outer radius b. (a) If the toroid carries a
current 7, show that the total magnetic flux through
the turns of the toroid is proportional to \n(b/a).
(b) Evaluate N = 200 turns, h = 1.5 cm,
this flux if
a = 2 cm, b = 5 cm, and / = 2 A.
37. A cube of edge length £ = 2.5 cm is positioned as
shown in Figure 30.46. There is a uniform magnetic Figure 30.48 (Problem 39).
field throughout the region given by the expression
B= (5t + 4§ + 3k) T. (a) Calculate the flux through
the shaded face of the cube, (b) What is the total flux 40. A circular loop of wire of radius R is placed in a uni-
through the six faces of the cube? form magnetic field B
and is then spun at constant
angular velocity 01 about an axis through its diameter.
Determine the magnetic flux through the loop as a
function of time if the axis of rotation is (a) perpendicu-
lar to B, and (b) parallel to B.

Section 30.8 Displacement Current and the

Generalized Ampere's Law
41. The applied voltage across the plates of a 4-,uF capaci-
tor varies in time according to the expression

V w= (8 V)(l -*•-</<)

where t is in s. Calculate (a) the displacement current

as a function of time and (b) the value of the current at

Figure 30.46 (Problem 37).

f= 4 s.
42. A capacitor of capacitance C has a charge Q at t = 0.
At that time, a resistor of resistance R is connected to
38, Asolenoid2.5 cmin diameter and 30 cm in length has the plates of the charged capacitor, (a) Find the dis-
300 turns and carries a current of 1 2 A. Calculate the placement current in the dielectric between the
flux through the surface of a disk of 5-cm radius that is
plates of the capacitor as a function of time, (b) Evalu-
positioned perpendicular to and centered on the axis ate this displacement current at time t = 0.1 s if C=
of the solenoid, as in Figure 30.47. 2.0 fiF, Q = 20 nC and R = 500 kil. (c) At what rate
is the electric flux between the capacitor plates chang-
ing at f= 0.1 s?
43. A 0.1 A current is charging a capacitor with square
plates, 5 cm on a side. If the plate separation is 4 mm,
change of electric flux d<i>E /dt be-
find (a) the rate of
tween the plates and (b) the displacement current 7d
between the plates.
44. A 0.2-A current is charging a capacitor with circular
plates, 10 cm in radius. If the plate separation is
Figure 30.47 (Problem 38). 4 mm. (a) what is the rate of increase of electric field
dE/dt between the plates? (b) What is the magnetic
39. Figure 30.48 shows an enlarged end view of the sole- field between the plates at a radius of 5 cm from the
noid described in Problem 38. Calculate the flux center?
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 869

Section 30.9 Magnetism In Matter zontal circle, what is the direction of this magnetic
moment vector?
45. What is the relative permeability of a material that has
-4 57. At saturation, the alignment of spins in iron can con-
a magnetic susceptibility of 10 ?
tribute as much as 2 Tesla to the total magnetic field B.
46. An iron-core toroid is wrapped with 250 turns of wire
If each electron contributes a magnetic moment of
per meter of its length. The current in the winding
9.27 X 10 -24 A-m 2 (one Bohr magneton), how many
is 8 A. Taking the magnetic permeability of iron to
electrons per atom contribute to the saturated field of
be K m = 5000/i calculate (a) the magnetic field
iron? (Hint: There are 8.5 X 10 28 iron atoms/m .)
,
3
strength, H
and (b) the magnetic flux density, B.
47. A toroidal winding with a mean radius of 20 cm and
630 turns (as in Figure 30.30) is filled with powdered "Section 30.10 Magnetic Field of the Earth
steel whose magnetic susceptibility x is 100. If the
58. A circular coil of 5 turns and a diameter of 30 cm is
current in the windings is 3 A, find B (assumed uni-
oriented in a vertical plane with its axis perpendicular
form) inside the toroid.
to the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic
4S. A toroid has an average radius of 9 cm. The current in
field. A horizontal compass placed at the center of the
the coil is 0.5 A. How many turns are required to pro-
coil is made to deflect 45° from magnetic North by a
duce a magnetic field strength of 700 A-turns/m
current of 0.60 A in the coil, (a) What is the horizontal
within the toroid?
component of the earth's magnetic field? (b) If a com-
49. A magnetic field of flux density 1 .3 T is to be set up in
pass "dip" needle oriented in a vertical north-south
an iron-core toroid. The toroid has a mean radius of
plane makes an angle of 13° from the vertical, what is
10 cm, and magnetic permeability of 5000/^ What .

the total strength of the earth's magnetic field at this

is required if there are 470 turns of wire in the
current
location?
winding?
59. The magnetic moment of the earth is approximately
50. A toroidal solenoid has an average radius of 10 cm and
8.7 X 10 22 A-m 2 (a) If this were caused by the com-
.

a cross-sectional area of 1 cm 2 There are 400 turns of

.

plete magnetization of a huge iron deposit, how many

wire on the which has a permeability of
soft iron core,
unpaired electrons would this correspond to? (b) At 2
800/i Calculate the current necessary to produce a
.

-4 unpaired electrons per iron atom, how many kilo-

magnetic flux of 5 X 10 Wb through a cross section grams of iron would this correspond to? (The density
of the core.
of iron is 7900 kg/m 3 and there are approximately
A m=
,

51. coil of 500 turns is wound on an iron ring (K

8.5 X 10 28 iron atoms/m 3 .)
750/z ) of 20 cm mean radius and 8 cm 2 cross-sec-
tional area. Calculate the magnetic flux <J> in this Row-
land ring when the current in the coil is 0.5 A.
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
52. Show that the product of magnetic field strength H
and magnetic flux density B has SI units of J/m 3 . 60. A lightning bolt may carry a current of 10 4 A for a
53. In the text, we found that an alternative description short period of time. What is the resulting magnetic
for magnetic B in terms of magnetic field
field 100 m from the bolt?
field at a point
strength H and
magnetization is B = //qH + HoM. M 61 . Measurements of the magnetic field of a large tornado
Relate the magnetic susceptibility x to |H| and \M\ for were made at the Geophysical Observatory in Tulsa,
paramagnetic or diamagnetic materials. Oklahoma in 1962. If the tornado's field was B =
magnetic field strength H of a magne- 1.5 X 10
-8 T pointing north when the tornado
54. Calculate the was
tized substance characterized by a magnetization of 9 km east of the observatory, what current was
0.88 X 10 6 A-turns/m and a magnetic field of flux carried up/down the funnel of the tornado?
density 4.4 T. (Hint: See Problem 53.) 62. The core of a solenoid having 250 turns per meter is
55. A magnetized cylinder of iron has a magnetic field filled with a material of unknown composition. When
B = 0.04 T in its interior. The magnet is 3 cm in diam- the current in the solenoid is 2 A, measurements re-
eter and 20 cm long. If the same magnetic field is to be veal that the magnetic field within the core is 0.13 T.
produced by a 5-A current carried by an air-core sole- Determine the magnetic susceptibility of the material
noid having the same dimensions as the cylindrical and classify it magnetically.
magnet, how many turns of wire must be on the sole- 63. Two long, parallel conductors are carrying currents in
noid? the same direction as in Figure 30.49. Conductor A
56. In Bohr's 1913 model of the hydrogen atom, the elec- carries a current of 150 A and is held firmly in posi-
tron in a circular orbit of radius 5.3
is 10~ m, and X n tion.Conductor B carries a current 7B and is allowed to
its speed is 2.2 X
10 6 m/s. (a) What is the magnitude slide freelyup and down (parallel to A) between a set
of the magnetic moment due to the electron's motion? of nonconducting guides. If the linear density of con-
(b) If the electron orbits counterclockwise in a hori- ductor B is 0.10 g/cm, what value of current 7B will
 870 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FTELD

result in equilibrium when the distance between the

two conductors is 2.5 cm?

Figure 30.49 (Problem 63).

Figure 30.51 (Problem 65).

64. Two parallel conductors carry current in opposite di-

rections as shown in Figure 30.50. One conductor
carries a current of 10 A. Point A is at the midpoint
between the wires and point C is a distance d/2 to the
right of the 10-A current. If d — 18 cm and I is ad-
justed so that the magnetic field at C is zero, find
(a) the value of the current / and (b) the value of the

magnetic field at A.

Figure 30.52 (Problem 66).

67. A straight wire located at the equator is oriented par-

allel to the earth along the east-west direction. The
earth's magnetic field at this pointis horizontal and

has a magnitude of 3.3 X 10~ 5 T. If the mass per unit

length of the wire is 2 X 10 -3
kg/m, what current
must the wire carry in order that the magnetic force
balance the weight of the wire?
68. The earth's magnetic field at either pole is about
0.7 G = 7 X 10~ 5 T. Using a model in which you as-
sume that this field is produced by a current loop
Figure 30.50 (Problem 64). around the equator, determine the current that would
generate such a field. (R e = 6.37 X 10 6 m.)
65. Avery long, thin strip of metal of width w carries a 69. A nonconducting ring of radius R is uniformly charged
current /along its length as in Figure 30.51. Find the with a total positive charge q. The ring rotates at a
magnetic field in the plane of the strip (at an external constant angular velocity co about an axis through its
point P) a distance b from one edge. center, perpendicular to the plane of the ring. If R =
66. A large nonconducting belt with a uniform surface 0.1 m, q = 10 fiC, and co = 20 rad/s, what is the re-
charge density a moves with a speed v on a set of sulting magnetic field on the axis of the ring a distance
rollers as shown in Figure 30.52. Consider a point just of 0.05 m from the center?
above the surface of the moving belt, (a) Find an ex- 70. Consider a thin disk of radius R mounted to rotate
pression for the magnitude of the magnetic field B at about the x axis in the yz plane. The disk has a positive
this point, (b) If the belt is positively charged, what is uniform surface charge density a and angular veloc-
the direction of B? (Note that the belt may be consid- ity co. Show that the magnetic field at the center of the
ered as an infinite sheet.) disk is given by B = ^fi acoR.
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 871

7 1 . Two circular coils of radius R are each perpendicular by a string. A

uniform external magnetic field is ap-
to a common axis. The coil centers are a distance R plied horizontally, as shown in Figure 30.55. The
apart and a steady current I flows in the same direc- magnet is in equilibrium, making an angle 8 with the
tion around each coil as shown in Figure 30.53. horizontal. If 6 = 5°, determine the strength of the
(a) Show that the magnetic field on the axis at a dis- applied magnetic field.
tance x from the center of one coil is

_
B=
now r i i

2 L (R
2
+ * 2 ) 3/2 (2R 2 + x2 - 2R*) 3 / 2 .

(b) Show that

dB
——
ax
and —B
d 2
- are both zero
ax 2
at a point

midway between the coils. This means the magnetic

field in the region midway between the coils is uni-

form. Coils in this configuration are called Helmholtz

coils.

Figure 30.55 (Problem 74).

75. Two and almost in

circular loops are parallel, coaxial,
contact, 1 mm apart Each loop is 10 cm
(Fig. 30.56).
in radius. The top loop carries a current of 140 A
clockwise. The bottom loop carries 140 A counter-
clockwise, (a) Calculate the magnetic force that the

bottom loop exerts on the top loop, (b) The upper

loop has a mass of 0.021 kg. Calculate its acceleration,
Figure 30.53 (Problem 71).
assuming that the only forces acting on it are the force
in part (a) and its weight.

72. Two
identical, flat, circular coils of wire each have
100 turns and a radius of 0.50 m. If these coils are
arranged as a set of Helmholtz coils and each coil
carries a current of 10 A, determine the magnitude of
the magnetic field at a point half way between the
coils and on the axis of the coils. (See Figure 30.53.)
140 A
73. A long cylindrical conductor of radius R carries a
current I as in Figure 30.54. The current density J, Figure 30.56 (Problem 75).
however, is not uniform over the cross section of the
conductor but is a function of the radius according to
] = br, where b is a constant. Find an expression for 76. For a research project, a student needs a solenoid that
the magnetic field B (a) at a distance r 1 < R and (b) at a produces an interior magnetic field of 0.03 T. She de-
distance r 9 > R, measured from the axis. cides to use a current of 1 .0 A and a wire 0.50 mm in
diameter. She winds the solenoid as layers on an insu-
lating form 1.0 cm in diameter and 10.0 cm long. De-
termine the number of layers of wire needed and the
total length of the wire.
77. A toroidal winding filled with a magnetic substance
carries a steady current of 2 A. The coil contains a
total of 1505 turns, has an average radius of 4 cm, and
the core has a cross-sectional area of 1.21 cm 2 The
.

total magnetic through a cross-section for the tor-

flux
oid is measured as 3 X 10
-5 Wb. Assume the flux
Figure 30.54 (Problem 73). density is constant, (a) What is the magnetic field
strength H within the core? (b) Determine the perme-
core material.
ability of the
74. A bar magnet (mass = 39.4 g, magnetic moment = 78. A paramagnetic substance achieves 10% of its satura-
7.65 J/T, length =10 cm) is connected to the ceiling tion magnetization when placed in a magnetic field of
872 CHAPTER 30 SOURCES OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

5.0 T temperature of 4.0 K. The density of mag-

at a
is S X 10
27 atoms/m 3 and
netic atoms in the sample .

the magnetic moment per atom is 5 Bohr magnetons.

Calculate the Curie constant for this substance.
79. The density of a specimen of a suspected new element
3 The saturation mag-
is determined to be 4.15 g/cm .

netism of the material is found to be 7.6 X 10 4 A/m.

and the measured atomic magnetic moment is 1.2
Bohr magnetons. Calculate the expected value of the
atomic weight of the element based on these values.
SO. The force on a magnetic dipole aligned with a non- M
uniform magnetic field in the x direction is given by

Fr = M— Suppose that 2 flat loops of wire each have

.

dx
radius R and carry current 7. (a) If the loops are ar-
Figure 30.58 (Problem 82).
ranged coaxially and separated by a large variable dis-
tance x. show that the magnetic force between them
curve r =f[0) is related to the function in the follow-
varies as 1/x 4 (b) Evaluate the magnitude of this force
.

ing wav:
if 7= 10 A. R = 0.5 cm. and x = 5.0 cm.

81. A wire is formed into the shape of a square of edge

length L (Fig. 30.57). Show that when the current in
dr/de
the loop is /. the magnetic field at point P a distance x
from the center of the square along its axis is given by In this case r= e6 thus tan
.
= 1 and P = n/4. There-
fi
fore, the angle between da and f is n — ft = 3n/4. Also
B dr
L2 d* ^2dr
2n[ x 2 + ;
2 + -
sin 7T, 4

Figure 30.57 (Problem SI).

Figure 30.59 (Problem 83).

82, A wire is bent into the shape shown in Figure 30.58a.
and the magnetic field P l when the
is measured at S4. A long cylindrical conductor of radius a has two cylin-
current in the wire is 7. The same wire
then formed is drical cavities of diameter a through its entire length.
into the shape shown in Figure 30.58b. and the mag-
netic field measured at point P2 when the current is
again 7. If the total length of wire is the same in each
case, what is the ratio of B /B 2 ? 1

S3. A wire carrying a current 7 is bent into the shape of an

exponential spiral, r = e6 from = to 6 = In as in
.

Figure 30.59. To complete a loop, the ends of the

spiral are connected by a straight wire along the x axis.
Find the magnitude and direction of B at the origin.
(Hints: Use the Biot-Savart Law. The angle /? between
a radial line and its tangent line at any point on the Figure 30.60 (Problems S4 and 85).
 CALCULATOR/COMPUTER PROBLEMS 873

as shown in Figure 30.60. A current, /, is directed out A88. Table 30.4 is data taken on a ferromagnetic material.

of the page anduniform through a cross-section of

is (a) Construct a magnetization curve from the data.
the conductor. Find the magnitude and direction of Remember that B=B +p M. (b) Determine the
the magnetic field at point P, in terms of/i /, r, and a. , ratio B/B for each pair of values of B and B and ,

85. Given the same conductor as described in Problem construct a graph of B/B versus fi . (B/B is called the
84, find the magnitude and direction of the magnetic relative permeability, and it is a measure of the in-
field at point P2 as shown in Figure 30.60 in terms of duced magnetic field.)

U I, r, and a.
,

I
86. j
Consider a flat circular current loop of radius R carry-
ing current /. Choose the x axis to be along the axis of
the loop with the origin at the center of the loop. Plot
TABLE 30.4
a graph of the ratio of the magnitude of the magnetic
field at coordinate x to that at the origin for x = to B(T)
x = 5R. It may be useful to use a programmable calcu-
lator or small computer to solve this problem.
87. A sphere of radius R has a constant volume charge
density p. Determine the magnetic field at the center
of the sphere when it rotates as a rigid body with
angular velocity to about an axis through its center
(Fig. 30.61).
 31
Faraday's Law

Michael Faraday in his

laboratory at the Royal Insti-
tute, London, in 1860. (Cour-
tesy of The Bettmann Archive)

Our studies so far have

stationary charges
been concerned with the electric fields due to
and the magnetic fields produced by moving
charges. This chapter deals with electric fields that originate from
changing magnetic fields.
Experiments conducted by Michael Faraday in England in 1 83 1 and inde-
pendently by Joseph Henry in the United States that same year showed that an
electric current could be induced in a circuit by a changing magnetic field. The
results of these experiments led to a very basic and important law of electro-
magnetism known as Faraday's law of induction. This law says that the magni-
tude of the emf induced in a circuit equals the time rate of change of the
magnetic flux through the circuit.
As we shall see, an induced emf can be produced in many ways. For
instance, an induced emf and an induced current can be produced in a closed
loop of wire when the wire moves into a magnetic field. We shall describe such
experiments along with a number of important applications that make use of
the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.
With the treatment of Faraday's law, we complete our introduction to the
fundamental laws of electromagnetism. These laws can be summarized in a set
of four equations called Maxwell's equations. Together with the Lorentz force
law, which we shall discuss briefly, they represent a complete theory for
describing the interaction of charged objects. Maxwell's equations relate
electric and magnetic fields to each other and to their ultimate source, namely,
electric charges.

874
 31.1 FARADAY'S LAW OF INDUCTION 875

Joseph Henry, an American physicist who carried out early experiments in electrical
induction, was born in Albany, New York, in 1797. The son of a laborer, Henry had
little schooling and was forced to go to work at a very young age. After working his

way through Albany Academy to study medicine, then engineering, Henry became
professor of mathematics and physics in 1826. He later became professor of natural
philosophy at New Jersey College (now Princeton University).
In 1848, Henry became the first director of the Smithsonian Institute, where he
introduced a weather-forecasting system based on meteorological information re-
ceived by the electric telegraph. He was also the first president of The Academy of
Natural Science, a position he held until his death in 1878.
Many of Henry's early experiments were with electromagnetism. He improved
the electromagnet of William Sturgeon and made one of the first electromagnetic
Biographical motors. By 1830, Henry had made powerful electromagnets by using many turns of
fine insulated wire wound around iron cores. He discovered the phenomenon of
Sketch self-induction but failed to publish his findings; as a result, credit was given to Michael

Joseph Henry Faraday.

(1797-1878) Henry's contribution to science was ultimately recognized: in 1893 the unit of
inductance was named the henry.

(Courtesy of AIP Niels Bohr Library, E. Scott Barr Collection)

31.1 FARADAY'S LAW OF INDUCTION

We begin by describing two simple experiments that demonstrate that a cur-
rent can be produced by a changing magnetic field. First, consider a loop of
wire connected to a galvanometer as in Figure 31.1. If a magnet is moved
toward the loop, the galvanometer needle will deflect in one direction, as in
Figure 31.1a. If the magnet is moved away from the loop, the galvanometer
needle will deflect in the opposite direction, as in Figure 31.1b. If the magnet
is held stationary relative to the loop, no deflection is observed. Finally, if the

magnet is held stationary and the coil is moved either toward or away from the

magnet, the needle will also deflect. From these observations, one concludes

- (a)

Galvanometer

Galvanometer

Figure 31.1 (a) When a magnet is moved toward a loop of wire connected to a galvanometer, the
galvanometer deflects as shown. This shows that a current is induced in the loop, (b) When the
magnet is moved away from the loop, the galvanometer deflects in the opposite direction, indicat-
ing that the induced current is opposite that shown in (a).
876 CHAPTER 31 FARADAY'S LAW

Switch

Galvanometer

Figure 31.2 Faraday's experiment. When the switch in the primary circuit at the left is closed,
the galvanometer in the secondary circuit at the right deflects momentarily. The emf induced in
the secondary circuit is caused by the changing magnetic field through the coil in this circuit.

that a current is set up in the circuit as long as there is relative motion between
the magnet and the coil. 1
These results are quite remarkable in view of the fact that a current is set
up even though there are no batteries in the circuit!
in the circuit We
call such a

current an induced current, which is produced by an induced emf.

Now let us describe an experiment, first conducted by Faraday, that is
A demonstration of electromag- illustrated in Figure 31 .2. Part of the apparatus consists of a coil connected to a
netic induction. An ac voltage is ap-
switch and a battery. We shall refer to this coil as the primary coil and to the
plied to the lower coil. A voltage is
induced in the upper coil as indi- corresponding circuit as the primary circuit. The coil is wrapped around an
cated by the illuminated lamp con- iron ring to intensify the magnetic field produced by the current through the
nected to the upper coil. What do
you think happens to the lamp's in-
coil.A second coil, at the right, is also wrapped around the iron ring and is
tensity as the upper coil is moved connected to a galvanometer. We shall refer to this as the secondary coil and to
over the vertical tube? (Courtesy the corresponding circuit as the secondary circuit. There is no battery in the
ofCENCO) secondary circuit and the secondary coil is not connected to the primary coil.
The only purpose of this circuit is to detect any current that might be produced
by a change in the magnetic field.
At first sight, you might guess that no current would ever be detected in
the secondary circuit. However, something quite amazing happens when the
switch in the primary circuit is suddenly closed or opened. At the instant the
switch in the primary circuit is closed, the galvanometer in the secondary
circuit deflects in one direction and then returns to zero. When the switch is
opened, the galvanometer deflects in the opposite direction and again returns
to zero. Finally, the galvanometer reads zero when there is a steady current in
the primary circuit.
As a result of these observations, Faraday concluded that an electric cur-
rent can be produced by a changing magnetic field. A current cannot be pro-
duced by a steady magnetic field. The current that is produced in the second-
ary circuit occurs for only an instant while the magnetic field through the
secondary coil is changing. In effect, the secondary circuit behaves as though
there were a source of emf connected to it for a short instant. It is customary to
say that

an induced emf is produced in the secondary circuit by the changing

magnetic field.

These two experiments have one thing in common. In both cases, an emf is
induced in a circuit when the magnetic flux through the circuit changes with

1
The exact magnitude of the current depends on the particular resistance of the circuit, but the
existence of the current (or the algebraic sign) does not.
 31.1 FARADAY'S LAW OF INDUCTION 877

time. In fact, a general statement that summarizes such experiments involving

induced currents and emfs is as follows:

The emf induced in a circuit is directly proportional to the time rate of

change of magnetic flux through the circuit.

This statement, known as Faraday's law of induction, can be written

e = - d<t>„ (31.1) Faraday's law

dt

where <J> m is the magnetic flux threading the circuit (Section 30.6), which can
be expressed as

»„=/ B-dA (31.2)

The integral given taken over the area bounded by the

by Equation 31.2 is

circuit. The meaning of the negative sign in Equation 3 1 1 is a consequence of .

Lenz's law and will be discussed in Section 31.3. If the circuit is a coil consist-
ing of N loops all of the same area and if the flux threads all loops, the induced
emf is given by

e = -N-d<t> (31.3)
dt

Suppose the magnetic field is uniform over a loop of area A lying in a plane
as inFigure 31.3. In this case, the flux through the loop is equal to BA cos 6;
hence the induced emf can be expressed as

£ = —-=- (BA cos (31.4)

From this expression, we see that an emf can be induced in the circuit in
several ways: (1) The magnitude of B can vary with time; (2) the area of the
circuitcan change with time; (3) the angle 8 between B and the normal to the
plane can change with time; and (4) any combination of these can occur. Figure 31.3 A conducting loop of
area A in the presence of a uniform
The following examples illustrate cases where an emf is induced in a magnetic field B, which is at an
circuit as a result of a time variation of the magnetic field. angle 6 with the normal to the loop.

EXAMPLE 31.1 Application of Faraday's Law B= 0. At t = 0.8 s, the magnetic flux through the loop is
A coil is wrapped with 200 turns of wire on the perimeter <D m = BA = (0.5 Wb/m 2 )(0.0324 m 2 = 0.0162 Wb. )

of a square frame of sides 18 cm. Each turn has the same Therefore, the magnitude of the induced emf is
area, equal to that of the frame, and the total resistance of
the coil is 2 Q. A uniform magnetic field is turned on NAO m 200(0.0162 Wb - Wb)
=
perpendicular to the plane of the coil. If the field id- 4.05 V
At 0.8 s
changes linearly from to 0.5 Wb/m 2 in a time of 0.8 s,
find the magnitude of the induced emf in the coil while (Note that 1 Wb = 1 V-s.)
the field is changing.
Exercise 1 What is the magnitude of the induced cur-
Solution The area of the loop is (0.18 m) 2 = 0.0324 m2 . rent in the coil while the field is changing?
The magnetic flux through the loop at r = is zero since Answer 2.03 A.
878 CHAPTER 31 FARADAY'S LAW

EXAMPLE 31.2 An Exponentially Delaying B Field

A plane loop of wire of area A is placed in a region
where the magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane.
The magnitude of B varies in time according to the ex-
pression B=B e~ at That
. is, at ( = the field is B , and
for / > 0, the field decreases exponentially in time (Fig.
31.4). Find the induced emf in the loop as a function of
time.

Solution Since B is perpendicular to the plane of the

loop, the magnetic flux through the loop at time f > is

given by Figure 31.4 (Example 31.2) Exponential decrease of the mag-

netic field with time. The induced emf and induced current
<P m = BA = AB e~ at
have similar time variations.
Also, since the coefficient AB Q and the parameter a are
constants, the induced emf can be calculated from Equa-
tion 31.1: That is, the induced emf decays exponentially in time.
Note that the maximum emf occurs at t = 0, where
d<i> w d £ mal = aAB Why is this true? The plot of 8 versus t is
£= -ABOJf e- aAB e .

dt similar to the B versus t curve shown in Figure 31.4.

Michael Faraday was a British physicist and chemist who is often regarded as the
greatest experimental scientist of the 1800s. His many contributions to the study of
electricity include the invention of the electric motor, electric generator, and trans-
former, as well as the discovery of electromagnetic induction, the laws of electrolysis,
the discovery of benzene, and the theory that the plane of polarization of light is
rotated in an electric field.

Faraday was born in 1791 in rural England, but his family moved to London
shortly thereafter. One often children and the son of a blacksmith, Faraday received
a minimal education and became apprenticed to a bookbinder at age 14. He was
fascinated by articles on electricity and chemistry and was fortunate to have an
employer who allowed him to read books and attend scientific lectures. He received
some education in science from the City Philosophical Society.
When Faraday finished his apprenticeship in 1812, he expected to devote him-
self to bookbinding rather than to science. That same year, Faraday attended a lec-
ture by Humphry Davy, who made many contributions in the field of heat and ther-
modynamics. Faraday sent 386 pages of notes, bound in leather, to Davy; Davy was
impressed and appointed Faraday his permanent assistant at the Royal Institution.
Faraday toured France and Italy from 1813 to 1815 with Davy, visiting leading
Michael Faraday scientists of the time such as Volta and Vauquelin.
(1791-1867) Despite his limited mathematical ability, Faraday succeeded in making the basic
discoveries on which virtually all our uses of electricity depend. He conceived the
fundamental nature of magnetism and, to a degree, that of electricity and light.
A modest man who was content to serve science as best he could, Faraday de-
clined a knighthood and an offer to become president of the Royal Society. He was
also a moral man; he refused to take part in the preparation of poison gas for use in the
Crimean War.
Faraday died in 1867. His many achievements are recognized by the use of his
name. The Faraday constant is the quantity of electricity required to deliver a stan-
dard amount of substance in electrolysis, and the SI unit of capacitance is the farad.

(Courtesy of AIP Niels Bohr Library)

 31.2 MOTIONAL EMF 879

31.2 MOTIONAL EMF

In Examples 31.1 and 31.2, we considered cases in which an emf is produced
in a circuit when the magnetic field changes with time. In this section we
describe the so-called motional emf, which is the emf induced in a conductor
moving through a magnetic field.
First, consider a straight conductor of length ( moving with constant
velocity through a uniform magnetic field directed into the paper as in Figure
31.5. For simplicity, we shall assume that the conductor is moving perpendic-
ular to the field. The electrons in the conductor will experience a force along
the conductor given by F = qv X B. Under the influence of this force, the
electrons will move to the lower end and accumulate there, leaving a net
positive charge at the upper end. An electric field is therefore produced Figure 31.5 A straight conduct-
within the conductor as a result of this charge separation. The charge at the ing bar of length ( moving with a
velocity v through a uniform mag-
ends builds up until the magnetic force qvB is balanced by the electric force
netic field B directed perpendicu-
qE. At this point, charge stops flowing and the condition for equilibrium lar to v. An emf equal to BCv is in-
requires that duced between the ends of the bar.
qE = qvB or E = vB
Since the electric field is constant, the electric field produced in the conductor

is related to the potential difference across the ends according to the relation
V=E£. Thus,
V = E£ = Btv
where the upper end is at a higher potential than the lower end. Thus, a

potential difference is maintained as long as there is motion through the field. If

the motion is reversed, the polarity of V is also reversed.
A more interesting situation occurs if we now consider what happens
when the moving conductor is part of a closed conducting path. This situation
is particularly useful for illustrating how a changing magnetic flux can cause an
induced current in a closed circuit. Consider a circuit consisting of a conduct-
ing bar of length £ sliding along two fixed parallel conducting rails as in Figure
31.6a. For simplicity, we assume that the moving bar has zero resistance and
that the stationary part of the circuit has a resistance R. A uniform and constant
magnetic field B is applied perpendicular to the plane of the circuit. As the bar
is pulled to the right with a velocity v, under the influence of an applied force

Fgpp free charges in the bar experience a magnetic force along the length of
,

the bar. This force, in turn, sets up an induced current since the charges are
free to move in a closed conducting path. In this case, the rate of change of
magnetic flux through the loop and the corresponding induced emf across the
moving bar are proportional to the change in area of the loop as the bar moves
through the magnetic field. As we shall see, if the bar is pulled to the right with 6 = BQc
a constant velocity, the work done by the applied force is dissipated in the
form of joule heating in the circuit's resistive element.
Since the area of the circuit at any instant tx, the external magnetic flux
is

through the circuit is given by

Om = Btx Figure 31.6 (a) A conducting bar
sliding with a velocity v along two
where x is the width of the circuit, which changes with time. Using Faraday's conducting rails under the action of
law, we find that the induced emf is an applied force F^p. The mag-
netic force Fm opposes the motion,
and a counterclockwise current is
d<t>„
e = (Bex) = -Be induced in the loop, (b) The equiv-
dt dt alent circuit of (a).
 }

880 CHAPTER 31 FARADAY'S LAW

6 = -Btv (31.5)

If the resistance of the circuit is R, the magnitude of the induced current is

given bv

The equivalent circuit diagram for this example is shown in Figure 31.6b.
Let us examine the system using energy considerations. Since there is no
real battery in the circuit, one might wonder about the origin of the induced
current and the electrical energy in the system. We can understand this by
noting that the external force does work on the conductor, thereby moving
charges through a magnetic field. This causes the charges to move along the
conductor with some average drift velocity, and hence a current is established.
From the viewpoint of energy conservation, the total work done by the ap-
plied force during some time interval should equal the electrical energy that
the induced emf supplied in that same period. Furthermore, if the bar moves
with constant speed, the work done must equal the energy dissipated as heat in
the resistor in this time interval.
As the conductor of length 6 moves through the uniform magnetic field B,
it experiences a magnetic force Fm of magnitude MB
(Section 29.3). The
direction of this force is opposite the motion of the bar, or to the left in Figure
31.6a.
If the bar is to move with a constant velocity, the applied force must be
equal to and opposite the magnetic force, or to the right in Figure 31 .6a. If the
magnetic force acted in the direction of motion, it would cause the bar to
accelerate once it was in motion, thereby increasing its velocity. This state of
affairs would represent a violation of the principle of energy
conservation.
Using Equation 31.6 and the fact that Fapp = UB, we find that the power
delivered by the applied force is

P = Fapp . = (J^)» =
^r = ^ (31.7)

This power is equal to the rate at which energy is dissipated in the resistor, PR,
as we would expect. It is also equal to the power 16 supplied by the induced
emf. This example is a clear demonstration of the conversion of
mechanical
energy into electrical energy and finally into thermal energy (joule heating).

EXAMPLE 31.3 Emf Induced in a Rotating Bar d£ = Bv dr

A conducting bar oflength/ rotates with a constant an-
gular velocity to about a pivot at one end. A uniform
^
tQ so there
nt
an
fa
(1)

of the bar fa movmg perpendicular

^ rated across each se g me nt;
magnetic field B is directed perpendicular to the plane of
rotation, as in Figure 31.7. Find the emf induced be-
^ ^^ of thjs emf is gjven by ( : gumming up the emfs
^
e i em ents, which are in series, gives the
induced across
tween the ends of the bar. total emf between the ends of the bar Tna t is, .

Solution Consider a segment of the bar of length dr, g_ f

g^ ^
whose velocity is v. According to Equation 3 1 .5, the emf J
induced in a conductor of this length moving perpendic-
ular to a field B is given by In order to integrate this expression, note that the linear
 31.3 LENZS LAW 881

Figure 31.8 (Example 31.4) A conducting bar of length t slid-

ing on two fixed conducting rails is given an initial velocity c to
Figure 31.7 (Example 31.3) A conducting bar rotating about a the right.
pivot at one end in a uniform magnetic field that is perpendicu-
lar to the plane of rotation. An emf is induced across the ends of
the bar.
dv
speed of an element is related to the angular speed u> dt
through the relationship v = rco. Therefore, since B and
a) are constants, we find that
dv
= _( BW dt
v \ mR )

£=B I v dr = Bio I r ±Boje 2 Integrating this last equation using the initial condition
that t> = v at t = 0, we find that

fdv -| dt
EXAMPLE Magnetic Force on a Sliding Bar
31.4 mR Jo
A bar of mass m and length £ moves on two frictionless
/ B2 e 2 \ _t_
parallel rails in the presence of a uniform magnetic field =
directed into the paper (Fig. 31.8). The bar is given an
{mR/* x

initial velocity v to the right and is released. Find the where the constant t = mR/B 2 £ 2 From this, we see that .

velocity of the bar as a function of time. the velocity can be expressed in the exponential form

=v e~*> T
Solution First note that the induced current is counter-
clockwise and the magnetic force is Fm = —I£B, where Therefore, the velocity of the bar decreases exponen-
the negative sign denotes that the force is to the left and tially with time under the action of the magnetic retard-
retards the motion. This is the only horizontal force act- ing force. Furthermore, if we substitute this result into
ing on the bar, and hence Newton's second law applied Equations 31.5 and 31.6, we find that the induced emf
to motion in the horizontal direction gives and induced current also decrease exponentially with
time. That is,
dv
F.1 = ma = m—r = — UB
dt
I = -Biv Btv
Since the induced current given by Equation 31.6,
is
R R
I = B£v/R, we can write this expression as 6 = IR = Bev e-'l*

31.3 LENZS LAW

The direction of the induced emf and induced current can be found from
Lenz's law, 2 which can be stated as follows:

The polarity of the induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current
that will create a magnetic flux to oppose the change in magnetic flux
through the loop.
2
Developed by the German physicist Heinrich Lenz (1804-1865).
882 CHAPTER 31 FARADAY'S LAW

That is, the induced current tends to keep the original flux through the circuit
from changing. The interpretation of this statement depends on the circum-
stances. As we shall see, this law is a consequence of the law of conservation of
energy.
In order to obtain a better understanding of Lenz's law, let us return to the
example of a bar moving to the right on two parallel rails in the presence of a
uniform magnetic field directed into the paper (Fig. 31.9a). As the bar moves
to the right, the magnetic flux through the circuit increases with time since the
area of the loop increases. Lenz's law says that the induced current must be in a
direction such that the flux it produces opposes the change in the external
(a) magnetic flux. Since the flux due to the external field is increasing into the
paper, the induced current, if it is to oppose the change, must produce a flux
out of the paper. Hence, the induced current must be counterclockwise when
the bar moves to the right to give a counteracting flux out of the paper in the
region inside the loop. (Use the right-hand rule to verify this direction.) On the
other hand, if the bar is moving to the left, as in Figure 31.9b, the magnet flux
through the loop decreases with time. Since the flux is into the paper, the
induced current has to be clockwise to produce a flux into the paper inside the
loop. In either case, the induced current tends to maintain the original flux
through the circuit.
Let us look at this situation from the viewpoint of energy considerations.
Suppose that the bar is given a slight push to the right. In the above analysis, we
(b) found that this motion leads to a counterclockwise current in the loop. Let us
see what happens if we assume that the current is clockwise. For a clockwise
Figure 31.9 (a) As the conducting
bar slides on the two fixed conduct- current I, the direction of the magnetic force on the sliding bar would be
ing rails, the magnetic flux through to the right. This force would accelerate the rod and increase its velocity. This,
the loop increases in time. By would cause the area of the loop to increase more rapidly, thus in-
in turn,
Lenz's law, the induced current
must be counterclockwise so as to creasing the induced current, which would increase the force, which would
produce a counteracting flux out of increase the current, which would. ... In effect, the system would acquire
the paper, (b) When the bar moves
energy with no additional input energy. This is clearly inconsistent with all
to the left, the induced current
must be clockwise. Why? experience and with the law of conservation of energy. Thus, we are forced to
conclude that the current must be counterclockwise.
Consider another situation, one in which a bar magnet is moved to the
right toward a stationary loop of wire, as in Figure 31.10a. As the magnet
moves to the right toward the loop, the magnetic flux through the loop in-

Figure 31.10 (a) When the magnet is moved toward the stationary conducting loop, a current is
induced in the direction shown, (b) This induced current produces its own flux to the left to
counteract the increasing external flux to the right.
 31.3 LENZS LAW 883

creases with time. To counteract this increase in flux to the right, the induced
current produces a flux to the left, as in Figure 31.10b; hence the induced
current is in the direction shown. Note that the magnetic field lines associated
with the induced current oppose the motion of the magnet. Therefore, the left
face of the current loop is a north pole and the right face is a south pole.
On the other hand, if the magnet were moving to the left, its flux through
the loop, which is toward the right, would decrease in time. Under these

circumstances, the induced current in the loop would be in a direction such as

to set up a field through the loop directed from left to right in an effort to
maintain a constant number of flux lines. Hence, the induced current in the
loop would be opposite that shown in Figure 31.10b. In this case, the left face
of the loop would be a south pole and the right face would be a north pole.

EXAMPLE 31.5 Application of Lenz's Law EXAMPLE 31.6 A Loop Moving Through a B Field
A coil of wire is placed near an electromagnet as shown in A rectangular loop of dimensions t and w and resistance
Figure 3 1 . 1 1 a. Find the direction of the induced current R moves with constant speed to the right, as in Figure
in the coil (a) at the instant the switch is closed, (b) after 31.12a. Itcontinues to move with this speed through a
the switch has been closed for several seconds, and region containing a uniform magnetic field B directed
(c) when the switch is opened. into the paper and extending a distance 3w. Plot the flux,
the induced emf, and the external force acting on the
Solution (a) When the switch is closed, the situation loop as a function of the position of the loop in the field.
changes from a condition in which no lines of flux pass
through the coil to one in which lines of flux pass through
in the direction shown in Figure 31.1 lb. To counteract
this change in the number of lines, the coil must set up a
field from left to right in the figure. This requires a cur-
rent directed as shown in Figure 31.11b.

(b)
onds, there
After the switch has been closed for several sec-
is no change in the number of lines through
c
iii i
btztjw 3u 4u
L Tr J
the loop; hence the induced current is zero.
L- l
x«--v-
J «
(b)

(c) Opening the switch causes the magnetic field to

change from a condition in which flux lines thread

through the coil from right to left to a condition of zero B(v
flux. The induced current must then be as shown in Fig-

ure 31.1 lc, so as to set up its own field from right to left.

tt
tu
c

'T LA u
d
3tr 4ir
-
x

Figure 31.12 (Example 31.6) (a) A conducting rectangular

loop of width u.' and length t moving with a velocity c through a
uniform magnetic field extending a distance 3u\ (b) A plot of the
flux as a function of the position of the loop, (c) A plot of the
induced emf versus the position of the leading edge, (d) A plot of
the force versus position such that the velocity of the loop re-
Figure 31.11 (Example 31.5). mains constant.
884 CHAPTER 31 FARADAY'S LAW

Solution Figure 31.12b shows the flux through the loop The external force that must act on the loop to main-
as a function of loop position. Before the loop enters the tain this motion is plotted in Figure 3 1.1 2d. When the
field, the flux is zero. As it enters the field, the flux in- loop is not in the field, there is no magnetic force on it;
creases linearly with position. Finally, the flux decreases hence the external force on it must be zero if v is con-
linearly to zero as the loop leaves the field. stant. When the right side of the loop enters the field, the
Before the loop enters the field, there is no induced external force necessary to maintain constant speed must
emf since there is no field present (Fig. 31.12c). As the be equal to and opposite the magnetic force on that side,
right side of the loop enters the field, the flux inward given by Fm = -UB = -B 2 £ 2 v/R. When the loop is en-
begins to increase. Hence, according to Lenz's law, the tirely in the field, the flux through the loop is not chang-
induced current is counterclockwise and the induced ing with time. Hence, the net emf induced in the loop is
emf is given by —B£v. This motional emf arises from the zero, and the current is also zero. Therefore, no external
magnetic force experienced by charges in the right side force is needed to maintain the motion of the loop. (From
of the loop. When the loop is entirely in the field, the another point of view, the right and left sides of the loop
change in flux is zero, and hence the induced emf van- experience equal and opposite forces; hence, the net
ishes. force is zero.) Finally, as the right side leaves the field, the
From another point of view, the right and left sides external force must be equal to and opposite the mag-
of the loop experience magnetic forces that tend to set netic force on the left side of the loop. From this analysis,
up currents one another. As the right side of
that cancel we conclude that power is supplied only when the loop is
the loop leaves the the flux inward begins to de-
field, either entering or leaving the field. Furthermore, this
crease, a clockwise current is induced, and the induced example shows that the induced emf in the loop can be
emf is B£v. As soon as the left side leaves the field, the zero even when there is motion through the field! Again,
emf drops to zero. it is emphasized that an emf is induced in the loop only

when the magnetic flux through the loop changes in time.

31.4 INDUCED EMFS AND ELECTRIC FIELDS

We have seen that a changing magnetic flux induces an emf and a current in a
conducting loop. We therefore must conclude that an electricfield is created in
the conductor as a result of the changing magnetic flux. In fact, the law of
electromagnetic induction shows that an electric field is always generated by a
changing magnetic flux, even in free space where no charges are present.
However, this induced electric field has properties that are quite different
from those of an electrostatic field produced by stationary charges.
We can illustrate this point by considering a conducting loop of radius r
situated in a uniform magnetic field that is perpendicular to the plane of the
loop, as in Figure 31.13. If the magnetic field changes with time, then Fara-
day's law tells us that an emf given by £ = — dQ> m /dt is induced in the loop The .

induced current that is produced implies the presence of an induced electric

field E, which must be tangent to the loop since all points on the loop are
equivalent. The work done in moving a test charge q once around the loop is
equal to q6. Since the electric force on the charge is qE, the work done by this
force in moving the charge once around the loop is given by qE(2nr), where
2nr is the circumference of the loop. These two expressions for the work must
be equal; therefore we see that

q8 = qE(2nr)

Figure 31.13 Aloopofradiusrin

a uniform magnetic field perpen-
E=
2nr
dicular to the plane of the loop. If B
changes in time, an electric field is
induced in a direction tangent to Using this result, Faraday's law, and the fact that 4>m = BA = nr^B for a circular
the loop. loop,we find that the induced electric field can be expressed as
 31.4 INDUCED EMFS AND ELECTRIC FIELDS 885

1 d<t> n r^dB
E=- (31.8)
2nr dt 2 dt

If the time variation of the magnetic field is specified, the induced electric
field can easily be calculated from Equation 31.8. The negative sign indicates
that the induced electric field E opposes the change in the magnetic field. It is
important to understand that this result is also valid in the absence ofa conduc-
tor. That is, a free charge placed in a changing magnetic field will also experi-

ence the same electric field.

The emf for any closed path can be expressed as the line integral of E-ds
over that path. In more general cases, E may not be constant, and the path may
not be a circle. Hence, Faraday's law of induction, 6 = —d<3>m/dt, can be
written as

E-ds = - d^ (31.9) Faraday's law

dt

It is important to recognize that the induced electric field E that appears in

Equation 31.9 is a nonconservative, time-varying field that is generated by a

changing magnetic field. The field E that satisfies Equation 31.9 could not
possibly be an electrostatic field for the following reason. If the field were
and hence conservative, the line integral of E
electrostatic, •
ds over a closed
loop would be zero, contrary to Equation 31.9.

EXAMPLE 31.7 Electric Field Due to a Solenoid

A long solenoid of radius R has n turns per unit length and
carries a time-varying current that varies sinusoidally as
/ = / cos cot, where I is the maximum current and co is
the angular frequency of the current source (Fig. 31.14).
(a) Determine the electric field outside the solenoid, a
distance r from its axis.

First, let us consider an external point and take the

path for our line integral to be a circle centered on the
solenoid, as in Figure 31.14. By symmetry we see that
the magnitude of E is constant on this path and tangent to
it. The magnetic flux through this path is given by BA —
B(jiR 2 ), and hence Equation 31.9 gives Figure 3 1. 1 4 (Example 31.7) A long solenoid carrying a time-
varying current given by / = / cos cot. An electric field is in-

E-ds = -4: [B(nR 2 = -nR 2

dt
)] ^dt
duced both inside and outside the solenoid.
(b) What is the electric field inside the solenoid, a
distance r from its axis?
E(2nr) = -nR 2 ^- For an interior point (r < R), the flux threading an
dt
integration loop is given by B(7rr2 ). Using the same pro-
Since the magnetic field inside a long solenoid is given by cedure as in (a), we find that
Equation 30.20, B = u nl, and 1= I cos tot, we find that

E(27rr) = — nR 2n nI -r-(cos cot) = 7tR 2 u nI co sin cot

E(27rr) -
nr 2 —= nr^UonloCO sin cot

u nl co
r<R)
.

_ u nI coR 2 r sin cot (for

n n
E = ?2—2
, c
sin cot (for r > R)
This shows that the amplitude of the electric field inside
Hence, the electric field varies sinusoidally with time, the solenoid increases linearly with r and varies sinusoi-
and its amplitude falls off as 1/r outside the solenoid. dally with time.
886 CHAPTER 31 FARADAY'S LAW

Figure 31.15 (a) Schematic diagram of an ac generator. An emf is induced in a coil that rotates by
some external means in a magnetic field, (b) The alternating emf induced in the loop plotted
versus time.

°31.5 GENERATORS AND MOTORS

Generators and motors are important devices that operate on the principle of
electromagnetic induction. First, let us consider the alternating current gen-
erator (or ac generator), a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy. In its simplest form, the ac generator consists of a loop of wire rotated
by some external means in a magnetic field (Fig. 31.15a). In commercial
power plants, the energy required to rotate the loop can be derived from a
variety of sources. For example, in a hydroelectric plant, falling water directed
against the blades of a turbine produces the rotary motion; in a coal-fired
plant, the heat produced by burning coal is used to convert water to steam and
this steam is directed against the turbine blades. As the loop rotates, the
magnetic flux through it changes with time, inducing an emf and a current in
an external circuit. The ends of the loop are connected to slip rings that rotate
with the loop. Connections to the external circuit are made by stationary
brushes in contact with the slip rings.
To put our discussion of the generator on a quantitative basis, suppose
that the loop has N turns (a more practical situation), all of the same area A, and
suppose that the loop rotates with a constant angular velocity co. If 8 is the
angle between the magnetic field and the normal to the plane of the loop as in
Figure 31.16, then the magnetic flux through the loop at any time t is given by

O m = BA cos 8 = BA cos cot

where we have used the relationship between angular displacement and angu-
lar velocity, 8 = cot. (We have set the clock so that = t when 8 = 0.) Hence,
the induced emf in the coil is given by

6 = -N—r = -NAB — (cos

1
cot) = NABco sin cot (31.10)
at at

This result shows that the emf varies sinusoidally with time, as plotted in
Figure 31.15b. From Equation 31.10 we see that the maximum emf has the
Figure 31.16 A loop of area A value
containing N turns, rotating with
constant angular velocity u> in the
£m„ = NABco (31.11)
presence of a magnetic field. The
emf induced in the loop varies si- which occurs when cot = 90° or 270°. In other words, 6 = 6,^, when the
nusoidallv in time. magnetic field is in the plane of the coil, and the time rate of change of flux is a
 31.5 GENERATORS AND MOTORS 887

maximum. Furthermore, the emf is zero when cot — Oor 180°, that is, whenB
isperpendicular to the plane of the coil, and the time rate of change of flux is
zero. The frequency for commercial generators in the United States and Can-
ada is 60 Hz, whereas in some European countries, 50 Hz is used. (Recall that
CO = 2nf, where/is the frequency in hertz.)

EXAMPLE 31.8 Emf Induced in a Generator From Ohm's law and the results to (a), we find that
An ac generator consists of 8 turns of wire each of area the maximum induced current is
A= 0.09 m and total resistance 12 Q. The loop rotates
2

in amagnetic field B = 0.5 T at a constant frequency of

60 Hz. (a) Find the maximum induced emf.
L
W _ 12DV =
R
136
11. 3A
-1
First note that co = 2nf= 2n(60 Hz) = 377 S .
Exercise 2 Determine the time variation of the induced
Using Equation 31.11 with the appropriate numerical
emf and induced current when the output terminals are
values gives
connected by a low-resistance conductor.
Answers:
em„ = NABco = 8(0.09 m 2 )(0.5 T)(377 s" 1 ) = 136 V
£= fimax si" cot = (136 V) sin 377f

(b) What is the maximum induced current? / = 7m„ sin cot =(11.3 A) sin 377r

The direct current (dc) generator is illustrated in Figure 31.17a. Such

generators are used, for instance, to charge storage batteries used in older
style cars. The components are essentially the same as those of the ac genera-
tor, except that the contacts to the rotating loop are made using a split ring, or
commutator.
In this configuration, the output voltage always has the same polarity and
the current is a pulsating direct current as in Figure 3 1 1 7b. . The reason for this
can be understood by noting that the contacts to the split ring reverse their
roles every half cycle. At the same time, the polarity of the induced emf
reverses; hence the polarity of the split ring (which is the same as the polarity
of the output voltage) remains the same.
A pulsating dc current is not suitable for most applications. To obtain a
more steady dc current, commercial dc generators use many armature coils

Brush

kww
(a) (b)

Figure 31.17 (a) Schematic diagram of a dc generator, (b) The emf versus time fluctuates in
magnitude but always has the same polarity.
 —

CHAPTER 31 FARADAY'S LAW

and commutators distributed so that the sinusoidal pulses from the various
coils are out of phase. When these pulses are superimposed, the dc output is
almost free of fluctuations.
Motors are devices that convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Essentially, a motor is a generator operating in reverse. Instead of generating a
current by rotating a loop, a current is supplied to the loop by a battery and the
torque acting on the current-carrying loop causes it to rotate.
Useful mechanical work can be done by attaching the rotating armature to
some external device. However, as the loop rotates, the changing magnetic
flux induces an emf in the loop; this induced emf always acts to reduce the
current in the loop. If this were not the case, Lenz's law would be violated. The
back emf increases in magnitude as the rotational speed of the armature in-
creases. (The phrase back emf is used to indicate an emf that tends to reduce
the supplied current.) Since the voltage available to supply current equals the
difference between the supply voltage and the back emf, the current through
the armature coil is limited by the back emf.
When a motorturned on, there is initially no back emf and the
is first

current very large because it is limited only by the resistance of the coil. As
is

the coils begin to rotate, the induced back emf opposes the applied voltage and
the current in the coils is reduced. If the mechanical load increases, the motor
will slow down, which causes the back emf to decrease. This reduction in the
back emf increases the current in the coils and therefore also increases the
power needed from the external voltage source. For this reason, the power
requirements are greater for starting a motor and for running it under heavy
loads. If the motor is allowed to run under no mechanical load, the back emf
reduces the current to a value just large enough to overcome energy losses due
to heat and friction.

EXAMPLE The Induced Current in a Motor

31.9 (b) At the maximum speed, the back emf has its max-
motor having coils with a resistance of imum value. Thus, the effective supply voltage is now
Assume that a
10 fi is supplied by a voltage of 120 V. When the motor that of the external source minus the back emf. Hence,
is running at its maxiumum speed, the back emf is 70 V. the current is reduced to

Find the current in the coils (a) when the motor is first R — Rback
turned on and (b) when the motor has reached maximum / = = 120 ——
V 70 V
=
50 V
n= 5 A
speed.

. 3
i-.*en.i»c j
Exercise If the current in the motor is 8 A at some
the u
„ / ,„, .
c .
j on, lU
,
Solution
.

(a)
\
When the motor is first turned back l

T , ., ..i ^.r,,! .i„„„,. what is the back emt

instant, at this timer
emfc is
. ,

zero. (The coils are motionless.) Thus the current

Answer 40 V.
in the coils is a maximum and equal to

e =:i2ov =
1 l
R lOfl

°31.6 EDDY CURRENTS

As we have seen, an emf and a current are induced in a circuit by a changing
magnetic flux. In the same manner, circulating currents called eddy currents
are set up in bulk pieces of metal moving through a magnetic field. This can
easily be demonstrated by allowing a flat metal plate at the end of a rigid bar to
swing as a pendulum through a magnetic field (Fig. 31.18). The metal should
 31.6 EDDY CURRENTS 889

be a material such as aluminum or copper. As the plate enters the field, the
changing flux creates an induced emf in the plate, which in turn causes the free
electrons in the metal to move, producing the swirling eddy currents. Accord-
ing to Lenz's law, the direction of the eddy currents must oppose the change
that causes them. For this reason, the eddy currents must produce effective
magnetic poles on the plate, which are repelled by the poles of the magnet,
thus giving rise to a repulsive force that opposes the motion of the pendulum.
(If the opposite were true, the pendulum would accelerate and its energy

would increase after each swing, in violation of the law of energy conserva-
tion.) Alternatively, the retarding force can be "felt" by pulling a metal sheet
through the field of a strong magnet.
As indicated in Figure 31.19, with B into the paper the eddy current is
counterclockwise as the swinging plate enters the field in position 1 This is .

because the external flux into the paper is increasing, and hence by Lenz's law
the induced current must provide a flux out of the paper. The opposite is true
as the plate leaves the field in position 2, where the current is clockwise. Since
the induced eddy current always produces a retarding force Fwhen the plate
enters or leaves the field, the swinging plate eventually comes to rest.
Figure 31.18 An apparatus that
the metal plate as in Figure 31 .20, the eddy currents and
If slots are cut in demonstrates the formation of
the corresponding retarding force are greatly reduced. This can be under- eddy currents in a conductor mov-
ing through a magnetic field. As the
stood since the cuts in the plate result in open circuits for any large current
plate enters or leaves the field, the
loops that might otherwise be formed. changing flux sets up an induced
The braking systems on many subway and rapid transit cars make use of emf, which causes the eddy cur-
rents.
electromagnetic induction and eddy currents. An electromagnet, which can
be energized with a current, is positioned near the steel rails. The braking
action occurs when a large current is passed through the electromagnet. The
relative motion of the magnet and rails induces eddy currents in the rails, and
the direction of these currents produces a drag force on the moving vehicle.
The loss in mechanical energy of the vehicle is transformed into joule heat.
Since the eddy currents decrease steadily in magnitude as the vehicle slows
down, the braking effect is quite smooth. Eddy current brakes are also used in
some mechanical balances and in various machines.

Figure 31.19 As the conducting

plate enters the field in position 1,
the eddy currents are counter-
clockwise. However, in position 2, Figure 31.20 When slots are cut
the currents are clockwise. In ei- in the conducting plate, the eddy
ther case, the plate is repelled by currents are reduced and the plate
the magnet and eventually comes swings more freely through the
to rest. magnetic field.
890 CHAPTER 31 FARADAY'S LAW

Eddy currents are often undesirable since they dissipate energy in the
form of heat. To reduce this energy loss, the moving conducting parts are often
laminated, that is, built up in thin layers separated by a nonconducting mate-
rial such as lacquer or a metal oxide. This layered structure increases the
resistance of the possible paths of the eddy currents and effectively confines
the currents to individual layers. Such a laminated structure is used in the
cores of transformers and motors to minimize eddy currents and thereby
increase the efficiency of these devices.

31.7 MAXWELL'S WONDERFUL EQUATIONS

We conclude this chapter by presenting four equations that can be regarded as

the basis of all electrical and magnetic phenomena. These equations, known as
Maxwell's equations, after James Clerk Maxwell, are as fundamental to elec-
tromagnetic phenomena as Newton's laws are to the study of mechanical
phenomena. In fact, the theory developed by Maxwell was more far-reaching
than even he imagined at the time, because it turned out to be in agreement
with the special theory of relativity, as Einstein showed in 1905. As we shall
see, Maxwell's equations represent laws of electricity and magnetism that
have already been discussed. However, the equations have additional impor-
tant consequences. In Chapter 34 we shall show that these equations predict
the existence of electromagnetic waves (traveling patt erns of electric and
magnetic fields), which travel with a speed c = l/^ € ~ 3 X 10 m/s,
8

the speed of light. Furthermore, the theory shows that such waves are radiated
by accelerating charges.
For simplicity, we present Maxwell's equations as applied to free space,
that is, in the absence of any dielectric or magnetic material. The four equa-
tions are:

Gauss' law A)E-dA = (31.12)

Gauss' law in magnetism (31.13)

Faraday's law (31.14)

Ampere-Maxwell law (31.15)

Let us discuss these equations one at a time Equation 3 1 1 2 is Gauss law,

. . '

which states that the total electric flux through any closed surface equals the net
charge inside that surface divided by e This law relates the electric field to the
.

charge distribution, where electric field lines originate on positive charges

and terminate on negative charges.
Equation 31.13, which can be considered Gauss' law in magnetism, says
that the net magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero. That is, the number
of magnetic field lines that enter a closed volume must equal the number that
leave that volume. This implies that magnetic field lines cannot begin or end at
any point. If they did, this would mean that isolated magnetic monopoles
 SUMMARY 891

existed at those points. The fact that isolated magnetic monopoles have not
been observed in nature can be taken as a confirmation of Equation 31.13.
Equation 31.14 is Faraday's law of induction, which describes the rela-
tionship between an electric field and a changing magnetic flux. This law states
that the line integral of the electric field around any closed path (which equals
the emf) equals the rate of change of magnetic flux through any surface area
bounded by that path. One consequence of Faraday's law is the current in-
duced in a conducting loop placed in a time-varying magnetic field.
Equation 31.15 is the generalized form of Ampere's law, which describes
a relationship between magnetic and electric fields and electric currents. That
is, the line integral of the magnetic field around any closed path is determined by

the sum of the net conduction current through that path and the rate ofchange of
electric flux through any surface bounded by that path.
Once the electric and magnetic fields are known at some point in space,
the force on a particle of charge q can be calculated from the expression

F=qE + qvXB (3 1 1 6)
.
The Lorentz force

This is called the Lorentz force. Maxwell's equations, together with this force
law, give a complete description of all classical electromagnetic interactions.
It is symmetry of Maxwell's equations. Equations
interesting to note the
31.12 and 31.13 are symmetric, apart from the absence of a magnetic mono-
pole term in Equation 31.13. Furthermore, Equations 31.14 and 31.15 are
symmetric in that the line integrals of E and B around a closed path are related
to the rate of change of magnetic flux and electric flux, respectively. "Max-
well's wonderful equations," as they were called by John R. Pierce, 3 are of
fundamental importance not only to electronics but to all of science. Heinrich
Hertz once wrote, "One cannot escape the feeling that these mathematical
formulas have an independent existence and an intelligence of their own, that
they are wiser than we are, wiser even than their discoverers, that we get more
out of them than we put into them."

3
John R. Pierce, Electrons and Waves, New York, Doubleday Science Study Series, 1964. Chap-
ter 6 of this interesting book is recommended as supplemental reading.

SUMMARY
Faraday's law of induction states that the emf induced in a circuit is directly
proportional to the time rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit.
That is,

dd> m
£ = ~77~ (31.1) Faraday's law

where <J> m is the magnetic flux, given by

°m = B-dA
]

/
892 CHAPTER 31 FARADAY'S LAW

When a conducting bar of length t moves through a magnetic field B

with a speed v such that B is perpendicular to the bar, the emf induced in the
bar (the so-called motional emf) is given by

Motional emf e = -B£v (31.5)

Lenz's law states that the induced current and induced emf in a con-
ductor are in such a direction as to oppose the change that produced them.
A general form of Faraday's law of induction is
Faraday's law cfO„
e = (S)E-ds = (31.9)
in general form
dt

where E is a nonconservative, time-varying electric field that is produced

by the changing magnetic flux.
When used with the Lorentz force law, F = qE + qv X B, Maxwell's
equations, given below in integral form, describe all electromagnetic phe-

Gauss' law (electricity) EdA = Q (31.12)

Gauss' law (magnetism) B-dA = (31.13)

E-ds = — d$>a (31.14)

Faraday's law dt

Ampere-Maxwell law B-ds=/i 7 +^ e (31.15)

dt

The last two equations are of particular importance for the material dis-
cussed in this chapter. Faraday's law describes how an electric field can be
induced by a changing magnetic flux. Similarly, the Ampere-Maxwell law
describes how a magnetic field can be produced by both a conduction
current and a changing electric flux.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between magnetic flux and

magnetic field?
2. A circular loopis located in a uniform and constant

magnetic field. Describe how an emf can be induced

in the loop in this situation.
3. A loop of wire is placed in a uniform magnetic field.
For what orientation of the loop is the magnetic flux a
maximum? For what orientation is the flux zero?
4. As the conducting bar in Figure 31.21 moves to the
right, an electric field is set up directed downward. If
the bar were moving to the left, explain why the elec-
tric field would be upward.
5. As the bar in Figure 31.21 moves perpendicular to the
field, is an external force required to keep it moving
with constant velocity? Figure 31.21 (Questions 4 and 5).
 PROBLEMS 893

The bar in Figure 31.22 moves on rails to the right 12. In a beam balance scale, an aluminum plate is some-
with a velocity v, and the uniform, constant magnetic times used to slow the oscillations of the beam near
field is outward. Why is the induced current clock- equilibrium. The plate is mounted at the end of the
wise? If the bar were moving to the left, what would beam, and moves between the poles of a small horse-
be the direction of the induced current? shoe magnet, attached to the frame. Why are the
oscillations of the beam strongly damped near equilib-
rium?
13. What happens when the coil of a generator is rotated
at a faster rate?
14 Could a current be induced in a coil by rotating a
magnet inside the coil? If so, how?
15 When the switch in the circuit shown in Figure
31.23a is closed, a current is set up in the coil and the
metal ring springs upward (see Fig. 31.23b). Explain
this behavior.

Iron core
Metal ring
Figure 31.22 (Questions 6 and 7).

7. Explain why an external force is necessary to keep the

bar Figure 31.22 moving with a constant velocity.
in
8. A large circular loop of wire lies in the horizontal
plane. A bar magnet is dropped through the loop. If
the axis of the magnet remains horizontal as it falls,
describe the emf induced in the loop. How is the situa-
tion altered if the axis of the magnet remains vertical Figure 31.23 (Questions 15 and 16). (Courtesy of CENCO)
as it falls?
9. When a small magnet is moved toward a solenoid, an 16. Assume that the battery in Figure 31.23a is replaced
emf is induced in the coil. However, if the magnet is by an alternating current source and the switch S is
moved around inside a toroidal coil, there is no in- held closed. If the metal ring on top of the solenoid is
duced emf. Explain. held down, it will become hot. Why?
10. Will dropping a magnet down a long copper tube pro- 17. Identify the individual generally associated with each
duce a current in the tube? Explain. of Maxwell's four equations.
11. How is electrical energy produced in dams (that is, 18. Do Maxwell's equations (Section 31.7) allow for the
how is the energy of motion of the water converted existence of magnetic "charges," that is, isolated N or
into ac electricity)? S poles?

PROBLEMS
Section 31.1 Faraday's Law of Induction turns with a total resistance of 20 £2 around the elec-
tromagnet, and then turn off the power to the electro-
1. A 50-turn rectangular coil of dimensions 5 cm X
magnet in 0.02 s, what will be the induced current in
10 cm is "dropped" from a position where B — to a
the coil?
new position where B = 0.5 T and is directed perpen-
dicular to the plane of the coil. Calculate the resulting
4. m
A square, single-turn coil 0.20 on a side is placed
with its plane perpendicular to a constant magnetic
average emf induced in the coil if the displacement
field. An emf of 1 8 mV is induced in the winding when
occurs in 0.25 s.
the area of the coil decreases at a rate of 0.1 m /s.
2
2. A plane loop of wire consisting of a single turn of
What is the magnitude of the magnetic field?
cross-sectional area 8.0 cm 2 is perpendicular to a
5. The plane of a rectangular coil of dimensions 5 cm by
magnetic field that increases uniformly in magnitude
8 cm is perpendicular to the direction of a magnetic
from 0.5 T to 2.5 T in a time of 1.0 s. What is the
field B. If the coil has 75 turns and a total resistance of
resulting induced current if the coil has a total resist-
8 £2, at what rate must the magnitude of B change in
ance of 2 £2?
order to induce a current of 0.1 A in the windings of
3. A powerful electromagnet has a field of 1.6 T and a
the coil?
cross sectional area of 0.2 m 2 If we place a coil of 200
.
894 CHAPTER 31 FARADAY'S LAW

6. A tightly woundcircular coil has 50 turns, each of 12. A magnetic field of 0.2 T exists within a solenoid of
radius 0.1 m. A
uniform magnetic field is turned on 500 turns and a diameter of 10 cm. How rapidly (that
along a direction perpendicular to the plane of the is, within what period of time) must the field be re-

coil. If the field increases linearly from to 0.6 T in a duced to zero magnitude if the average magnitude of
time of 0.2 s, what emf is induced in the windings of the induced emf within the coil during this time inter-
the coil? val is be 10 kV?
to
7. A 30-turn circular coil of radius 4 cm and resistance 1 3. A formed by wrapping 50 turns of wire in the
coil,

1 Qis placed in a magnetic field directed perpendicu- shape of a square, is positioned in a magnetic field so
lar to the plane of the coil. The magnitude of the mag- that the normal to the plane of the coil makes an angle
netic field varies in time according to the expression of 30° with the direction of the field. It is observed
B= + 0.04r2 where t is in s and B is in T. Calcu-
O.Olr ,
that if the magnitude of the magnetic field is increased
late the induced emf in the coil at t = 5 s. uniformly from 200 /iT to 600 nl in 0.4 s, an emf of
8. A plane loop of wire of 10 turns, each of area 14 cm 2 ,
80 mV is induced in the coil. What is the total length
is perpendicular to a magnetic field whose magnitude of the wire?
changes in time according to B = (0.5 T)sin(607rt). 14. A long straight wire carries a current I=Io
What is the induced emf in the loop as a function of sin(a)f + 8) the plane of a rectangular loop
and lies in

time? of N turns of wire, as shown in Figure 31.25. The

9. A plane loop of wire of area 14 cm 2 with 2 turns is quantities I CO, and S are all constants. Determine the
,

perpendicular to a magnetic field whose magnitude emf induced in the loop by the magnetic field due to

decays in time according to B = (0.5 T)e~'l' What is

7
. the current in the straight wire. Assume I = 50 A,
the induced emf as a function of time? w = 2007rs _1 N=100, a = b=5ctn, and £ =
,

10 A rectangular loop of area A is placed in a region 20 cm.

where the magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane
of the loop. The magnitude of the field is allowed to
vary in time according to B = B e~'^, where B and x
are constants. The field has a value of B at t s 0.
(a)Use Faraday's law to show that the emf induced in
the loop is given by

ABn
e=

(b) Obtain a numerical value for 6 at t = 4 s when N turns

A= 0.16 m 2 B = 0.35 T, and T = 2 s. (c) For the
,
(Problem
Figure 3 1 .25 14).
values of A, B and t given in (b), what is the maxi-
,

mum value of 8?
A long solenoid has n turns per meter and carries a 1 5. A circular loop with a radius R consists of N tight turns
current / = 7 (1 - e _ort ), with 7 = 30 A and a = of wire and is penetrated by an external magnetic field
1.6 s~ J Inside the solenoid and coaxial with it is a loop
.
directed perpendicular to the plane of the loop. The
that has a radius R = 6 cm and consists of a total of N magnitude of the field in the plane of the loop is B =
turns of fine wire. What emf is induced in the loop by Bo(l
— r/2R) cos cot, where R is the radius of the loop,
the changing current? Take n = 400 turns/m and N = and where r is measured from the center of the loop,
250 turns. (See Fig. 31.24.) as shown in Figure 31.26. Determine the induced emf
in the loop.

B = B„ (l -&)
n turns/m

N turns

Figure 31.24 (Problem 11). Figure 31.26 (Problem 15).

 PROBLEMS 895

16. A toroid with a rectangular cross section (a = 2 cm by (a) Calculate the applied force required to move the
b = 3 cm) and inner radius R = 4 cm consists of 500 bar to the right at a constant speed of 2 m/s. (b) At
turns of wire that carries a current I—Iq sin <yf, with what rate is energy dissipated in the resistor?
/ = 50 A and a frequency /= a>/2n = 60 Hz. A loop 20. A conducting rod of length £ moves on two horizontal
that consists of20 turns of wire links the toroid, as frictionless rails as shown in Figure 31.28. If a con-
shown Figure 31.27. Determine the emf induced in
in stant force of 1 N moves the bar at 2 m/s through a
the loop by the changing current /. magnetic field B which is into the paper, (a) what is

the current through an 8-Q resistor R? (b) What is the

rate of energy dissipation in the resistor? (c) What is
the mechanical power delivered by the force F?
2 1 Over a region where the vertical component of the
N = 500 earth's magnetic field is 40 f/T directed downward, a
5-m length of wire is held along an east-west direction
and moved horizontally to the north with a speed of
10 m/s. Calculate the potential difference between
the ends of the wire and determine which end is posi-
tive.
22. A small airplane with a wing span of 1 4 m is flying due
north at a speed of 70 m/s over a region where the
verticalcomponent of the earth's magnetic field is
1.2 fiT. (a) What potential difference is developed
Figure 31.27 (Problem 16). between the wing tips? (b) How would the answer to
(a) change if the plane were flying due east?

23. A helicopter has blades of length 3 m, rotating at 2

Section 31.2 Motional emf and Section 31.3 Lenz's Law component of
rev/s about a central hub. If the vertical
-4 T, what is the
17. A measured average emf of 30 mV is induced in a the earth's magnetic field is 0.5 X 10
small circular coil of 600 turns and 4 cm diameter emf induced between the blade tip and the center
under the following condition: It is rotated in a uni- hub?
form magnetic field in 0.05 s from a position where 24. A metal blade spins at a constant rate in the magnetic
the plane of the coil is parallel to the field to a position field of the earth as in Figure 31.7. The rotation
where the plane of the coil is at an angle of 45° to the occurs in a region where the component of the earth's
field. What is B within the region where
the value of magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of rotation
-5 m
the measurement is made? is 3.3 X 10 T. If the blade is 1.0 in length and its

18. Consider the arrangement shown in Figure 31.28. As- angular velocity 5n rad/s, what potential difference
is

sume that R = 6 Q, t = 1.2 m, and that a uniform is developed between its ends?
2.5-T magnetic field is directed into the page. At what 25. A rigid thin conducting rod of length L is mechani-
speed should the bar be moved to produce a current cally rotated at constant angular velocity co about an
of 0.5 A in the resistor? axis perpendicular to the rod and through its center. If
a uniform magnetic field exists parallel to the rotation
axis of the rod, (a) show that the induced emf between
the center of the rod and one of its ends is propor-
tional to L 2 (b) Evaluate the magnitude of this emf for
.

L = 0.2 m, co = 60 rad/s, and \B\ = 1.2 T.

26. A 200-turn circular coil of radius 10 cm is located in a
uniform magnetic field of 0.8 T such that the plane of
the coil perpendicular to the direction of the field.
is

The rotated at a constant rate (uniform angular

coil is

velocity) through 90° in a time of 1.5 s, so that the

plane of the coil is finally parallel to the direction of
Figure 31.28 (Problems 18, 19, and 20). the field, (a) Calculate the average emf induced in the
coil as a result of the rotation, (b) What is the instanta-
neous value of the emf in the coil at the moment the
19. In the arrangement shown Figure 31.28, a con-
in plane of the coil makes an angle of 45° with the mag-
ducting bar moves to the right along parallel, friction- netic field?
less conducting rails connected on one end by a 6-Q 27. Use Lenz's law to answer the following questions con-
resistor. A 2.5-T magnetic field is directed into the cerning the direction of induced currents, (a) What is
paper. Let I = 1.2 m and neglect the mass of the bar. the direction of the induced current in resistor R in
896 CHAPTER 31 FARADAY'S LAW

Figure 31.29a whenthe bar magnet is moved to the -S- A conducting rectangular loop of mass M, resistance
left? (b) What the direction of the current induced
is R. and dimensions of w wide by t long falls from rest
in the resistor R right after the switch S in the circuit of into a magnetic field B as shown in Figure 31.30. The
Figure 31.29b is closed? (c) What is the direction of loop accelerates until it reaches terminal speed, v t .

the induced current in R when the current / in Figure (a) Show that
31.29c decreases rapidly to zero? (d) A copper bar is

moved to the right while its axis is maintained perpen-

dicular to a magnetic field, as in Figure 31.29d. If the
top of the bar becomes positive relative to the bottom, Why is t, proportional to R? (c) Why is
(b) it inversely
what is the direction of the magnetic field? proportional to B2 ?

Figure 31.30 (Problems 25 and 29).

29. A 0.1 5-kg wire in the shape of a closed rectangle 1 m

wide and 1.5 m long has a total resistance of 0.75 fi.
The rectangle is allowed to fall through a magnetic
field directed perpendicular to the direction of mo-
tion of the wire (Fig. 31.30). The rectangle acceler-
ates downward until it acquires a constant speed of
2 m/s with the top of the rectangle not yet in that
region of thefield. Calculate the magnitude of B.

Section 31.4 Induced emfs and Electric Fields

F 30. The current in a solenoid is increasing at a rate of

10 As. The cross-sectional area of the solenoid is n
cm 2 and there are 300 turns on its 1 5-cm length. What
is the induced emf which acts to oppose the increasing

current?
31. A single-turn, circular loop of radius R is coaxial with a
long solenoid of radius r and length i and having N
turns (Fig. 31.31). The variable resistor is changed so
that the solenoid current decreases linearly from
7.2 A to 2.4 A in 0.3 s. If r = 0.03 m. ( = 0.75 m. and
N= 1500 turns, calculate the induced emf in the cir-
Figure 31.29 (Problem 27). cular loop.
 PROBLEMS 897

37. An aluminum ring of radius 5 cm and resistance 3 X

-4 Q. is placed on top of long air-core solenoid
10 a
with 1000 turns per meter and radius 3 cm as shown
in Figure 31.33. At the location of the ring, the mag-
netic field due to the current in the solenoid is one-
half that at the center of the solenoid. If the current in
the solenoid is increasing at a rate of 270 A/s, (a) what
is the induced current in the ring? (b) At the center of
the ring, what is the magnetic field produced by the
induced current in the ring? (c) What is the direction
Variable resistor of the field in (b)?

Figure 31.31 (Problem 31).

32. A coil cm surrounds a long

of 15 turns and radius 10
solenoid of radius 2 10 3 turns/meter. If the
cm and
current in the inner solenoid changes as / = (5 A)
sin(120r), what is the induced emf in the 15-turncoil?
33. A magnetic field directed into the page changes with
time according to B = (Q.03t 2 +1.4) T, where* is ins.
The field has a circular cross-section of radius R =
2.5 cm (Fig. 31.32). What are the magnitude and di-
rection of the electric field at point Pj when t =3 s

and 7-j = 0.02 m?

3 cm
Figure 31.33 (Problem 37).

Figure 31.32 (Problems 33 and 34). 38. A circular coil, enclosing an area of 100 cm 2 , is made
of 200 turns of copper wire as shown in Figure 31 .34.
Initially, a 1.1 -T uniform magnetic field points per-
34. For the situation described in Figure 31.32, the mag- pendicularly upward through the plane of the coil.
netic field varies as B= (2fi - 4r z + 0.8) T, and r2 = The direction of the field then reverses so that the
2fi = 5 cm. (a) Calculate the magnitude and direction
final magnetic field has a magnitude of 1 . 1 T pointing
of the force exerted on an electron located at point P2 downward through the coil. During the time the field
when t = 2 s. (b) At what time is the force equal to
ischanging its direction, how much charge flows
zero?
through the coil if the coil is connected to a 5-Q resis-
35. A long solenoid with 1000 turns/meter and radius
tor as shown?
2 cm carries an oscillating current given by the ex-
pression /=(5A) sin(lOOwr). What is the electric
field induced at a radius r = 1 cm from the axis of the 1 .1 T (upward)
solenoid? What is the direction of this electric field
when the current is increasing counterclockwise in
the coil?
36. A solenoid has a radius of 2 cm and has lOOOturns/m.
The current varies with time according to the expres-
sion / = 3e° 2
', where / is in A and t is in s. Calculate the
electric field at a distance of 5 cm from the axis of the
solenoid at t = 10 s. Figure 31.34 (Problem 38).
 . .

898 CHAPTER 31 FARADAY'S LAW

"Section 31.5 Generators and Motors flux through the loop as a function of time, (b) the emf
induced in the loop, (c) the current induced in the
39. A square coil (20 cm X 20 cm) that consists of 100
loop for a loop resistance of 1.0 Q, (d) the power dis-
turns of wire rotates about a vertical axis at 1 500 rpm,
sipated in the loop, and (e) the torque that must be
as indicated in Figure 31.35. The horizontal compo-
exerted to rotate the loop.
nent of the earth's magnetic field at the location of the
-5 T. Calculate the maximum emf in- (a) What is the maximum torque delivered by an elec-
loop is 2 X 10
tric motor if it has 80 turns of wire wrapped on a
duced in the coil bv the earth's field.
rectangular coil, of dimensions 2.5 cm by 4 cm? As-
sume that the motor uses 10 A of current and that a
uniform 0.8-T magnetic field exists within the motor.
(b) If the motor rotates at 3600 rev/min, what is the
(peak) power produced by the motor?
46, A semicircular conductor of radius R = 0.25 m is ro-
tated about the axis AC at a constant rate of 1 20 revo-
lutions per minute (Fig. 31.36). A uniform magnetic
field in all of the lower half of the figure is directed out
of the plane of rotation and has a magnitude of 1 3 T. .

(a) Calculate the maximum value of the emf induced

in the conductor, (b) What is the value of the average

induced emf for each complete rotation? (c) How
would the answers to (a) and (b) change if the uniform
field B were allowed to extend a distance fi above the
axis of rotation? (d) Sketch the emf versus time in each
case.

Figure 3 1 .35 (Problem 39)

40. A 400-turn circular coil of radius 15 cm is rotating

about an axis perpendicular to a magnetic field of
0.02 T. What angular velocity will produce a maxi-
B..„,
mum induced emf of 4 V? Figure 31.36 (Problem 46).
I

4 1 .
A loop of area 0. 1 m 2 is rotating at 60 rev/s with the
axis of rotation perpendicular to a 0.2-T magnetic
there are 1000 turns on the loop, what is
47. A small rectangular coil composed of 50 turns of wire
field, (a) If
has an area of 30 cm 2 and carries a current of 1.5 A.
maximum voltage induced in the loop? (b) When
,

the
When the plane of the coil makes an angle of 30° with
the maximum induced voltage occurs, what is the ori-
a uniform magnetic field, the torque on the coil is
entation of the loop with respect to the magnetic
0.1 N m. What is the strength of the magnetic field?
•

field?
4S. A bar magnet is spun at constant angular velocity co
42. The coil of a simple ac generator develops a sinusoidal
about an axis as shown in Figure 31.37. A flat rectan-
emf of maximum value 90.4 V and frequency 60 Hz.
dimensions of 10 cm by 20 cm and ro-
If the coil has
magnetic field of 1 .0 T, how many turns are
tates in a
in the winding?
43. A long solenoid, whose axis coincides with the r axis,
consists of 200 turns per meter of wire that carries a
steady current of 15 A. A coil is formed by wrapping
30 turns of thin wire around a frame that has a radius
of 8 cm. The coil placed inside the solenoid and
is

mounted on an axis that is a diameter of the coil and

coincides with the y axis. The coil is then rotated with
an angular speed of 4ft radians per second. (The plane
of the coil is in the yz plane at t = 0.) Determine the
emf developed in the coil.

44 Let the rectangular loop generator of Figure 3 1 1 5 be .

a square 10 cm on aside. It is rotated at a frequency of

60 Hz in a uniform field of 0.80 T. Calculate (a) the Figure 31.37 (Problem 48).
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 899

gular conducting loop surrounds the magnet, and at (0.2i + 0.3j + 0.4Jfc) T. Determine the acceleration of
r = 0, the magnetoriented as shown. Sketch the
is the proton when it has a velocity of v = 200« m/s.
induced current in the loop as a function of time, plot- 52. An electron moves through a uniform electric field
ting counterclockwise currents as positive and clock- E= (2.5i + 5.0j) V/m and a uniform magnetic field
wise currents as negative. B= 0.4k T. Determine the acceleration of the elec-
tron when it has a velocity of v = 1 0* m/s.
'Section 31.6 Eddy Currents
49. A rectangular loop with resistance R has N turns, each ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
of length t and width w as shown in Figure 31 .38. The
53. A conducting rod moves with a constant velocity v
loop moves into a uniform magnetic field B with ve- perpendicular to a long, straight wire carrying a cur-
locity v. What the magnitude and direction of the
is
rent / as in Figure 31.40. Show that the emf generated
resultant force on the loop (a) as it enters the mag- between the ends of the rod is given by
netic field? (b) as it moves within the magnetic field?
(c) as it leaves the magnetic field? =
|£|
2nr
In this case, note that the emf decreases with increas-
ing r, as you might expect.

Figure 31.38 (Problem 49)

50. A dime is suspended from a thread and hung between

the poles of a strong horseshoe magnet as shown in
Figure 31.39. The dime rotates at constant angular
speed to about a vertical axis. Let 6 be the angle be-
tween the direction of B and the normal to the face of
the dime, and sketch a graph of the torque due to
induced currents as a function of 6 for s < 2n. Figure 3 1 .40 (Problem 53)

54. A circular loop of wire 5 cm in radius is in a spatially

uniform magnetic field, with the plane of the circular
loop perpendicular to the direction of the field (Fig.
31.41). The magnetic field varies with time:

B(t)=a + bt a = 0.20T b = 0.32 T/s

(a) Calculate the magnetic flux through the loop at

t = 0. (b) Calculate the emf induced in the loop, (c) If
the resistance of the loop is 1.2 Q, what is the induced
current? (d) At what rate is electric energy being dis-
sipated in the loop?

Figure 31.39 (Problem 50).

Section 31.7 Maxwell's Wonderful Equations

51 . A proton moves through a uniform electric field given

by E = 50j V/m and a uniform magnetic field B = Figure 31.41 (Problem 54).
900 CHAPTER 31 FARADAY'S LAW

55. Consider a long solenoid of length £ containing a core

of permeability ji. The core material is magnetized by
increasing the current in the coil, so as to produce a B (out of page) "i"£
changing field dB/dt. (a) Show that the rate at which
work done against the induced emf in the coil is given
by

HAi —
dW = „ =
—- dB Figure 31.43 (Problem 58).
16
dt dt
page. If the wire starts from rest, show that at time t it

where A is the area of the solenoid. (Hint: Use Fara- moves with a speed
£ and make use of Equation 30.34.)
day's law to find
Use the result of part (a) to show that the total
(b)
work done in a complete hysteresis cycle equals the -4c
Bd
area enclosed by the B versus H curve (Fig. 30.31).
56. In Figure 3 1.42, a uniform magnetic field decreases at 59. A solenoid wound with 2000 turns/m is supplied
a constant rate dB/dt = — K, where K is a positive con- with current that varies in time according to
stant. A circular loop of wire of radius a containing a 1=4 sin(1207rt), where / is in A and t is in s. A small
resistance R and a capacitance C is placed with its coaxial circular coil of 40 turns and radius r = 5 cm is

plane normal to the field, (a) Find the charge Q on the located inside the solenoid near Derive
its center, (a)
capacitor when it is fully charged, (b) Which plate of an expression that describes the manner in which the
the capacitor is at the higher potential? (c) Discuss the emf in the small coil varies in time, (b) At what average
force that causes the separation of charges. rate is energy dissipated in the small coil if the wind-
ings have a total resistance of 8 Q.?
60. To monitor the breathing of a hospital patient, a thin
B into paper
belt is girded about the patient's chest. The belt is a
X X X X
200-turn coil. During inhalation, the area within the
coil increases by 39 cm 2 The earth's magnetic field is
.

50 fiT and makes an angle of 28° with the plane of the

a patient takes 1.80 s to inhale, find the aver-
coil. If

age induced emf in the coil while the patient is in-

haling.
61. An automobile has a vertical radio antenna 1.2 m
long. The automobile travels at 65 km/h on a horizon-
talroad where the earth's magnetic field is 50 //T di-
X X X X
rected downward (toward the north) at an angle of
Figure 31.42 (Problem 56). 65° below the horizontal, (a) Specify the direction
that the automobile should move in order to generate
the maximum motional emf in the antenna, with the
57. A rectangular coil of N turns, dimensions ( and w, and top of the antenna positive relative to the bottom.
total resistance R rotates with angular velocity CO (b) Calculate the magnitude of this induced emf.
about the y axis in a region where a uniform magnetic
62. A long straight wire is parallel to one edge and is in the
field B is directed along the x axis (Fig. 31.15a). The plane of a single turn rectangular loop as in Figure
rotation is initiated so that the plane of the coil is
31.44. (a) If the current in the long wire varies in time
perpendicular to the direction of B = 0. Let CO =
at t
as 7 = Io e_^T show that the induced emf in the loop is
w = 0.20 m, R =
>

30 rad/s, N = 60 turns, i = 0.10 m, given by

10 Q, and B = 1.0 T. Calculate (a) the maximum in-
duced emf in the coil, (b) the maximum rate of change
of magnetic flux through the coil, (c) the value of the dl
271 t V
induced emf at t = 0.05 s, and (d) the torque exerted
on the loop by the magnetic field at the instant when (b) Calculate the value for the induced emf at t =5 s

the emf is a maximum. taking 7 = 10 A, d = 3 cm, a = 6 cm, b = 15 cm, and

58. A wire of mass m, length d, and resistance R slides T =
5 s.
without friction on parallel rails as shown in Figure 63. A conducting rod of length I moves with velocity v
31.43. A battery that maintains a constant emf £ is along a direction parallel to a long wire carrying a
connected between the rails, and a constant magnetic steady current /. The axis of the rod is maintained
field B is directed perpendicular to the plane of the perpendicular to the wire with the near end a distance
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 901

65. A square loop of wire with edge length a = 0.2 m is

perpendicular to the earth's magnetic field at a point
where B = 15 //T, as in Figure 31.47. The total resist-
ance of the loop and the wires connecting the loop to
the galvanometer is 0.5 fi. If the loop is suddenly col-
lapsed by horizontal forces as shown, what total
charge will pass through the galvanometer?

Figure 31.44 (Problem 62).

r away, as shown in Figure 31 .45. Show that the emf

induced in the rod is given by

m-
Voll„( l+ l)
Figure 31.47 (Problem 65).

66. Magnetic field values are often determined by using a

device known as a search coil. This technique depends
on the measurement of the total charge passing
through a coil in a time interval during which the mag-
netic flux linking the windings changes either because
r .+. (. of the motion of the coil or because of a change in the
value of B. (a) Show that if the flux through the coil
changes from <!>, to <J> 2 the charge transferred
,

through the coil between f, and t will be given by

2
Q= N(<J> 2 - OjVR where R is the resistance of the
Figure 31.45 (Problem 63). coil and associated circuitry (galvanometer), (b) As a
specific example, calculate B when
a 100-turn coil of
64. A rectangular loop of dimensions £ and w moves with resistance 200 Q and cross-sectional area 40 cm 2 pro-
a constant velocity v away from a long wire that car- duces the following results: A total charge of 5 X
ries a current Jin the plane of the loop (Fig. 31.46). 10 -4 C passes through the coil when it is rotated in a
The total resistance of the loop is R. Derive an expres- uniform field from a position where the plane of the
sion that gives the current in the loop at the instant the coil is perpendicular to the field into a position where
near side is a distance r from the wire. the coil's plane is parallel to the field.
67. The magnetic flux threading a metal ring varies with
time t according to

<D m = 3(af 3 -bt 2 ) Tm 2

a = 2 s~ 3 b = 6 s~ 2
The resistance of the ring is3 fl Determine the maxi-
mum current induced in the ring during the interval
from f = to f = 2 s.
6S. Figure 31.48 illustrates an arrangement similar to
that discussed in Example 31.4, except in this case the
bar is pulled horizontally across the set of parallel rails
by a string (assumed massless) that passes over an
ideal pulley and is attached to a freely suspended mass
M. The uniform magnetic field has a magnitude B, the
Figure 31.46 (Problem 64). sliding bar has mass m, and the distance between the
 .

902 CHAPTER 31 FARADAY'S LAW

rails is £ . The
rails are connected at one end by a load noids have radii of 0.1 m
and 0.15 m, respectively.
resistor R. Derive an expression that gives the value of The magnitude of B is the same and is
inside each
the horizontal speed of the bar as a function of time, increasing at the rate of 100 T/s. What is the current
assuming that the suspended mass was released with in each resistor?
the bar at rest at t = 0. Assume no friction between 7 1 . Figure 31.51 shows a circular loop of radius r that has
the rails and the bar. a resistance R spread uniformly throughout its length.
The loop's plane is normal to the magnetic field B that
decreases at a = — K, where K is a
constant rate: dBjdt
positive constant, (a) What
the direction of the in-
is

duced current? (b) Find the value of the induced

current, (c) Which point, a or b, is at the higher po-
tential? Explain, (d) Discuss what force causes the
current in the loop.

B (out of paper)

Figure 31.48 (Problem 68).

69 In Figure 31.49, the rolling axle, 1.5 m long, is

pushed along horizontal rails at a constant speed v =

3 m/s. A resistor R = 0.4 Q is connected to the rails at
points a and b, directly opposite each other. (The
wheels make good electrical contact with the rails, so
the axle, rails, and R form a complete, closed-loop Figure 31.51 (Problem 71).
circuit. The only significant resistance in the circuit is

R.) There is a uniform magnetic field B = 0.08 T ver- 72. A wire 30 cm long is held parallel to and at a distance
tically downward, (a) Find the induced current I in of 80 cm above a long wire carrying current of 200 A
the resistor, (b) What horizontal force F is required to that rests on the floor of a room (Fig. 31.52). The
keep the axle speed? (c) Which end
rolling at constant 30-cm wire is released and falls, remaining parallel
of the resistor, a or
b, is at the higher electric poten- with the current-carrying wire as it falls. Assume that
After the axle rolls past the resistor, does the
tial? (d) the falling wire accelerates at a constant rate of
current in R reverse direction? 9.80 m/s 2 and derive an equation for the emf induced
in the falling wire. Express your result as a function of
the time t after the wire was dropped. What is the
induced emf 0.30 s after the wire is released?

-430 cm|«-

Figure 31.49 (Problem 69).

70. Two infinitely long solenoids (seen in cross section)

-
7 = 200 A
thread the circuit as shown in Figure 31.50. The sole-
Figure 31.52 (Problem 72). Figure 3 1 .53 (Problem 73)

73. (a) A loop of wire in the shape of a rectangle of width

w and length L and a long straight wire carrying a
current / lie on a tabletop as shown in Figure 31.53.
(a) Determine the magnetic flux through the loop.

(b) Suppose that the current is changing with time

according to I = a + bt, where a and b are constant.
Determine the induced emf in the loop if b = 10 A/s,
'i = 1 cm, w = 10 cm, and L = 100 cm.

Figure 31.50 (Problem 70).

 32
Inductance

Hydroelectric power is
generated using the mechanical
energy of water and electro-
magnetic induction. (© Tomas
D. Friedmann 1971/Photo
Researchers, Inc.)

we saw that currents and emfs are induced in a

the previous chapter,

In when the magnetic flux through the circuit changes with time.
circuit
This phenomenon of electromagnetic induction has some practical con-
sequences, which we shall describe in this chapter. First, we shall de-
scribe an effect known as self-induction, in which a time-varying current in a
conductor induces an emf in the conductor that opposes the external emf that
set up the current. This phenomenon is the basis of the element known as the
inductor, which plays an important role in circuits with time-varying currents.
We shall discuss the concepts of the energy stored in the magnetic field of an
inductor and the energy density associated with a magnetic field.
Next, we shall study how an emf can be induced in a circuit as a result of a
changing flux produced by an external circuit, which is the basic principle of
mutual induction. Finally, we shall examine the characteristics of circuits con-
taining inductors, resistors, and capacitors in various combinations. For exam-
ple, we shall find that in a circuit containing only an inductor and a capacitor,
the charge and current both oscillate in simple harmonic fashion. These oscil-
lations correspond to a continuous transfer of energy between the electric
field of the charged capacitor and the magnetic field of the current-carrying
inductor.
903
904 CHAPTER 32 INDUCTANCE

32.1 SELF-INDUCTANCE
Consider an isolated circuit consisting of a switch, resistor, and source of emf,
as in Figure 32. 1 When the switch is closed, the current doesn't immediately
.

jump from zero to its maximum value, 8/R. The law of electromagnetic induc-
tion (Faraday's law) prevents this from occurring. What happens is the follow-
ing: As the current increases with time, the magnetic flux through the loop due
to this current also increases with time. This increasing flux induces an emf in
the circuit that opposes the change in the net magnetic flux through the loop.
By Lenz's law, the induced electric field in the wires must therefore be oppo-
Figure 32.1 After the switch in site the direction of the conventional current, and this opposing emf results in
the circuit is closed, the current
produces a magnetic flux through a gradual increase in the current. This effect is called self-induction since the
the loop. As the current increases changing flux through the circuit arises from the circuit itself. The emf that is
toward its equilibrium value, the set up in this case is called a self-induced emf. Later, in Section 32.4, we shall
flux changes in time and induces an
emf in the loop. The unlabelled describe a related effect called mutual induction in which an emf is induced in
battery is a symbol for the self-in- one circuit as a result of a changing magnetic flux set up by another circuit.
duced emf. To obtain a quantitative description of self-induction, we recall from
Faraday's law that the induced emf is given by the negative time rate of change
of the magnetic flux. The magnetic flux is proportional to the magnetic field,
which in turn is proportional to the current in the circuit. Therefore, the
self-induced emf is always proportional to the time rate of change of the current.
For a closely spaced coil of N turns of fixed geometry (a toroidal coil or the
ideal solenoid), we find that

Indi e = -N d<t>„ = -L (32.1)

dt

where L is a proportionality constant, called the inductance of the device, that

depends on the geometric features of the circuit and other physical character-
istics. From this expression, we see that the inductance of a coil containing N
turns is given by

Inductance of an N-turn coil L= (32.2)

/

where it is assumed that the same flux passes through each turn. Later we shall

use this equation to calculate the inductance of some special current geome-
tries.
From Equation 32.1, we can also write the inductance as the ratio

e
Inductance L= (32.3)
dl/dt

This is usually taken to be the defining equation for the inductance of any coil,
regardless of its shape, size, or material characteristics. Just as resistance is a
measure of the opposition to current, inductance is a measure of the opposi-
tion to the change in current.
The SI unit of inductance is the henry (H), which, from Equation 32.3, is

seen to be equal to 1 volt-second per ampere:

1 H=l Vs
 32.2 RL CIRCUITS 905

As we shall see, the inductance of a device depends on its geometry. How-

ever, the calculation of a device's inductance can be quite difficult for compli-
cated geometries. The examples below involve rather simple situations for
which inductances are easily evaluated.

EXAMPLE 32. 1 Inductance of a Solenoid EXAMPLE 152.2 Calculating Inductance and Emf
Find the inductance of a uniformly wound solenoid with (a) Calculate the inductance of a solenoid containing
N turns and length (. Assume that ( is long compared 300 turns if the length of the solenoid is 25 cm and its

with the radius and that the core of the solenoid is air. cross-sectional area is 4 cm 2 = 4 X 10~ 4 m2 .

Solution In this case, we can take the interior field to be Solution Using Equation 32.4 we get
uniform and given by Equation 30.20:
_/VV A 2
(300) 2 (4 X 10~ 4 m 2 )
(4ti X 10- 7 Wb/A-m)
N 25 X 10- 2 m
B=(i nI = Hojl

where n is the number of turns per unit length, N/£. The = 1.81 X 10- 4 Wb/A= 0.181 mH
flux through each turn is given by
(b) Calculate the self-induced emf in the solenoid

O m = BA=// described in (a) if the current through decreasing at

^/ the rate of 50 A/s.
it is

where A is the cross-sectional area of the solenoid. Using

Solution Using Equation 32.1 and given that dljdt —
this expression and Equation 32.2 we find that
50 A/s, we get

L=
N<D m _ n WA
(32.4)
i e £= -L^
at
= -(1.81 X10-"H)(-50A/s)
This shows that L depends on geometric factors and is

proportional to the square of the number of turns. Since = 9.05 mV

N = n£, we can also express the result in the form

(n£) 2
L = fi ^- A = u n At = /vi (volume)
2 2
(32.5)

where At is the volume of the solenoid.

32.2 RL CIRCUITS
A such as a solenoid, has a self-inductance that
circuit that contains a coil,
prevents the current from increasing or decreasing instantaneously. A circuit
element that has a large inductance is called an inductor. The circuit symbol
for an inductor is Q 0_Q_ We shall always assume that the self-inductance of
the remainder of the circuit is negligible compared with that of the inductor.
-W£
Consider the circuit consisting of a resistor, inductor, and battery shown
in Figure 32.2. The internal resistance of the battery will be neglected. Sup-
pose the switch S is closed at t = 0. The current will begin to increase, and due
to the increasing current, the inductor will produce an emf (sometimes re-
ferred to as a back emf) that opposes the increasing current. In other words,
the inductor acts like a battery whose polarity is opposite that of the real
battery in the circuit. The back emf produced by the inductor is given by Figure 32.2 A series RL circuit.
As the current increases toward its
maximum value, the inductor pro-
Er =-L duces an emf that opposes the in-
creasing current.
906 CHAPTER 32 INDUCTANCE

Since the current is increasing, dl/dt is positive; therefore 8 L is negative. This

corresponds to the fact that there is a potential drop in going from a to b across
the inductor. For this reason, point a is at a higher potential than point b, as
illustrated in Figure 32.2.
With this in mind, we can apply Kirchhoff's loop equation to this circuit:

6 - IR -L -=- = (32.6)
at

where IR is the voltage drop across the resistor. must now look for a We
solution to this differential equation, which is seen to be similar in form to that
of the RC circuit (Section 28.4).
To obtain a mathematical solution of Equation 32.6, it is convenient to
g
change variables by letting x = — — 7, so that dx = — dl. With these substitu-
R
tions, Equation 32.6 can be written

Ldx „
R dt

—
dx
= —R-
x L
.

dt

Integrating this last expression gives

,
In —x = -—R f
x L
where the integrating constant is taken to be — In x . Taking the antilog of this
result gives

x =x e~ Rt/L

Since at t =
0, 1 = 0, we note that x = E/R. Hence, the last expression is

equivalent to

6
1 =
R
 32.2 RL CIRCUITS 907

Figure 32.3 represents a graph of the current versus time, where / = at

f = 0. Note that the final equilibrium value of the current, which occurs at
t = oo,is given by 6/R. This can be seen by setting dl/dt equal to zero in

Equation 32.6 (at equilibrium, the change in the current is zero) and solving e/R

for the current. Thus, we see that the current rises very fast initially and then
gradually approaches the equilibrium value E/R as t —» °°.
0.63
|
One can show that Equation 32.7 is a solution of Equation 32.6 by com-
puting the derivative dl/dt and noting that / = at r = 0. Taking the first time
derivative of Equation 32.7, we get

(32.9)
dt L
Substitution of this result together with Equation 32.7 will indeed verify that
our solution satisfies Equation 32.6. That is,

e-IR-L-^ =
dt

e--(l-e-^)R-L
(M"
and the solution is verified.
From Equation 32.9 we see that the rate of increase of current, dl/dt, is a
maximum (equal to E/L) at t = and falls off exponentially to zero as t —» oo
(Fig. 32.4).
Now consider the RL circuit arranged as shown in Figure 32.5. The circuit
contains two switches that operate such that when one is closed, the other is
opened. Now suppose that Sjclosed for a long enough time to allow the
is

current to reach its equilibrium value, E/R. If S x is now opened and S 2 is closed
at t = 0, we have a circuit with no battery (6 = 0). If we apply Kirchhoff 's
circuit law to the upper loop containing the resistor and inductor, we obtain
the expression

IR + L -^ = (32.10)
dt

Figure 32.4 Plot of dl/dt versus

time for the RL circuit shown in
Figure 32.2. The rate of change of
current is a maximum at t = when
the switch is closed. The rate dl/dt
decreases exponentially with time
as / increases toward its maximum
value.
908 CHAPTER 32 INDUCTANCE

It is left as a problem (Problem 1 8) to show that the solution of this differential

equation is

6/R

I(t) = -e-"* = IQ e-*<* (32.11)

where the current at t = is given by I = 6/R and r = L/R.

Figure 32.6 Current versus time The graph of the current versus time (Fig. 32.6) shows that the current is
for the circuit shown in Figure continuously decreasing with time, as one would expect. Furthermore, note
32.5. At t < 0, Sj is closed and S 2 is that the slope, dl/dt, is always negative and has its maximum value at t = 0. The
open. At t = 0, S 2 is closed, Sj is
open, and the current has its maxi-
negative slope signifies that S L = —L (dl/dt) is now positive; that is, point a is at
mum value 6/R. a lower potential than point b in Figure 32.5.

EXAMPLE 32.3 Time Constant of an RL Circuit D Solution Using Equation 32.7 for the current as a func-
The circuit shown Figure 32.7a consists of a 30-mH
in tion of time (with t and t in ms), we find that at t = 2 ms
inductor, a 6-fi resistor, and a 1 2-V battery. The switch is
12 V
closed at t = 0. (a) Find the time constant of the circuit. r=-(i-«r*) 0.659 A

Solution The time constant is given by Equation 32.8 A plot of Equation 32.7 for this circuit is given in
Figure 32.7b.
L 30 X l<r 3 H= „ „„
T= = 5 °° mS
R 6fl
Exercise 1 Calculate the current in the circuit and the
(b) Calculate the current in the circuit at r = 2 ms. voltage across the resistor after one time constant has
elapsed.
Answer 1.26 A, 7.56 V.

1(A)

Figure 32.7 (Example 32.3) (a)

The switch in this RL circuit is

closed at t = 0. (b) A graph of the 2 4 6 8 10 ((ms)

current versus time for the circuit
in (a). (b)

32.3 ENERGY IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

In the previous section we found that the induced emf set up by an inductor
prevents a battery from establishing an instantaneous current. Hence, a bat-
tery has to do work against an inductor to create a current. Part of the energy
supplied by the battery goes into joule heat dissipated in the resistor, while the
remaining energy is stored in the inductor. If we multiply each term in Equa-
tion 32.6 by the current I and rearrange the expression, we get
 32.3 ENERGY IN A MAGNETIC FIELD 909

= pr + li dl
ie (32.12)
dt

This expression tells which energy is supplied by the battery,

us that the rate at
IE, equals the sum of the
which joule heat is dissipated in the resistor,
rate at
PR, and the rate at which energy is stored in the inductor, LI (dl/dt). Thus,
Equation 32.12 is simply an expression of energy conservation. If we let Um
denote the energy stored in the inductor at any time, then the rate dUjdt at
which energy is stored in the inductor can be written

dUm dl
dt dt

To find the total energy stored in the inductor, we can rewrite this expression
as dUm = LI dl and integrate:

Um = I dUm = I LI dl
Jo Jo

Um = iLP (32.13) Energy stored in an inductor

where L is constant and has been removed from the integral. Equation 32.13
represents the energy stored as magnetic energy in the field of the inductor
when the current is I. Note that it is similar in form to the equation for the
energy stored in the electric field of a capacitor, Q 2 /2C. In either case, we see
that it takes work to establish a field.
We can also determine the energy per unit volume, or energy density,
stored in a magnetic field. For simplicity, consider a solenoid whose induc-

tance is given by Equation 32.5:

L = ju n 2A£

The magnetic field of a solenoid is given by

R=n nl

Substituting the expression for L and / = Rlfi n into Equation 32.13 gives

(_R_Y = R^
Um = \LP = &i n 2At (At) (32.14)
V/W 2//

Because A£ is the volume of the solenoid, the energy stored per unit volume in
a magnetic field is given by

"m
= Vm R2
(32. 15) Magnetic energy density
Ae 2/i

Although Equation 32. 15 was derived for the special case of a solenoid, it

isvalid for any region of space in which a magnetic field exists. Note that
Equation 32.15 is similar in form to the equation for the energy per unit
volume stored in an electric field, given by \€ E2 . In both cases, the energy
density is proportional to the square of the field strength.
910 CHAPTER 32 INDUCTANCE

EXAMPLE 32.4 What Happens to the Energy in

the Inductor?
Consider once again the RL circuit shown in Figure 32.5,
in which switch S 2 is closed at the instant Sj is opened (at

f = 0). Recall that the current in the upper loop decays

exponentially with time according to the expression 7 =
I e~'/ T , where I = £/R is the initial current in the circuit
and t = L/R is the time constant. The energy stored in
the magnetic field of the inductor gradually dissipates as
thermal energy in the resistor. Let us show explicitly that
all the energy stored in the inductor gets dissipated as

heat in the resistor.

Solution Thewhich energy is dissipated in the

rate at
power) is equal to J 2 R, where /is
resistor, dU/dt, (or the
the instantaneous current. That is,

dU
= I2 R= (V-k^R = /o 2R^ 2H /L '
(1)
dt

To find the total energy dissipated in the resistor, we

integrate this expression over the limits t = to t = a: .
Figure 32.8 (Example 32.5) Section of a long coaxial cable.
(The upper limit of x is used because it takes an infinite
The inner and outer conductors carry equal and opposite cur-
time for the current to reach zero.) Hence, rents.

U= f" IU L
I 2 Re-* / dt = I 2
R I'trW-dt (2)
from Ampere's law, $B ds = 0. The field is zero inside
•

the inner conductor since it is hollow and there is no

The value of the definite integral is L/2R, so U becomes current within a radius r < a.

The magnetic field is perpendicular to the shaded

rectangular strip of length t and width (b — a). This is the
cross section of interest. Dividing this rectangle into
strips of width dr, we see that the area of each strip is £dr
Note that this is equal to the initial energy stored in the
and the flux through each strip is B dA = B£ dr. Hence,
magnetic field of the inductor, given by Equation 32.13,
the total flux through any cross section is
as we set out to prove.

Exercise 2 Evaluate the integral on the right hand side

of Equation (2) and show that it has the value L/2R. J Ja ~ nr ~n )a r 2n VW
Using this result, we find that the self-inductance of the
cable is
EXAMPLE 32.5 The Coaxial Cable
A two concentric cylindri-
long coaxial cable consists of
cal conductors of radii a and b and length I, as in Figure
7 In \a)
32.8. The inner conductor is assumed to be a thin cylin-
drical shell. Each conductor carries a current I (the outer
one being a return path), (a) Calculate the self-induc- Furthermore, the self-inductance per unit length is

tance L of this cable. given by (Ho/2n) \n(b/a).

(b) Calculate the total energy stored in the magnetic

Solution To obtain L, we must know the magnetic flux
field of the cable.
through any cross section between the two conductors.
From Ampere's law (Section 30.3), it is easy to see that Solution Using Equation 32.14 and the results to (a), we
the magnetic field between the conductors is given by get
B = n^llnr. Furthermore, the field is zero outside the
conductors and zero inside the inner hollow conductor.
The field is zero outside since the net current through a
circular path surrounding both wires is zero, and hence
An 0
 32.4 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE 911

•32.4 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

Very often the magnetic flux through a circuit varies with time because of
varying currents in nearby circuits. This gives rise to an induced emf through a
process known as mutual induction, so called because it depends on the
interaction of two circuits.
Consider two closely wound coils as shown in the cross-sectional view of
Figure 32.9. The current Zj in coil 1 which has N x turns, creates magnetic field
,

lines, some of which pass through coil 2, which has N 2 turns. The correspond-
ing flux through coil 2 produced by coil 1 is represented by 21 We define the .

M
mutual inductance 21 of coil 2 with respect to coil 1 as the ratio of N2 <I> 21 and
the current 7^

N,<D 2 Definition of
Mo (32.16) mutual inductance

No

Coil 2
The mutual inductance depends on the geometry of both circuits and on their
orientation with respect to one another. Clearly, as the circuit separation
increases, the mutual inductance decreases since the flux linking the circuits
decreases.
If the current Zj varies with time, we see from Faraday's law and Equation
32.16 that the emf induced in coil 2 by coil 1 is given by

£2 = -n, (32.17)

Figure 32.9 A cross-sectional

Similarly, if the current I2 varies with time, the induced emf in coil 1 due view of two adjacent coils. A cur-
to coil 2 is given by rent in coil 1 sets up a flux, part of
which passes through coil 2.

£i
= (32.18)

These results are similar in form to the expression for the self-induced emf
£ = —L (dl/dt). The emf induced by mutual induction in one coil is always
proportional to the rate of current change in the other coil. If the rates at which
the currents change with time are equal (that is, if dljdt = dljdt), then one
finds that £, = £ 2 Although the proportionality constants
.
12 and 21 appear M M
to be different, one can show that they are equal. Thus, taking l2
= 21 = M, M M
Equations 32.17 and 32.18 become

£, = -M dh £, = -M dh (32.19)
dt dt

The unit of mutual inductance is also the henry.

912 CHAPTER 32 INDUCTANCE

EXAMPLE 32.6 Mutual Inductance of (An X 10-7 Wb/A-m)(500)(8)(3 X 10~3 m 2)

M-
Two Solenoids 0.5 m
A long solenoid of length ? has N] turns, carries a current
/,and has a cross-sectional area A. A second coil contain-
30.2 X 10-6 H = 30.2/iH
ing N2 turns is wound around the center of the first coil,
as in Figure 32.10. Find the mutual inductance of the
system.

Solution If the solenoid carries a current Ix , the mag-

netic field at its center is given by

X\h
B=
t*

Since the flux 2 i through

coil 2 due to coil 1 is BA, the
mutual inductance is

No*. N2 BA _ h\N2A
M= Figure 32.10 (Example
32.6) Asmall coil of .\' 2 turns
For example, if Nj = 500 turns, A= 3 X 10" 3 m2 , wrapped around the center of a
£ = 0.5 m, and N2 = 8 turns, we get long solenoid of N| turns.

32.5 OSCILLATIONS IN AN LC CIRCUIT

When charged capacitor is connected to an inductor as in Figure 32.1 1 and
a
is then closed, oscillations will occur in the current and charge on
the switch
the capacitor. If the resistance of the circuit is zero, no energy is dissipated as
joule heat and the oscillations will persist. In this section we shall neglect the
resistance in the circuit.
In the following analysis, let us assume that the capacitor has an initial
Figure 32. 11 A simple LC circuit. charge Qmand that the switch is closed at t = 0. It is convenient to describe
The capacitor has an initial charge
and the switch is closed at
what happens from an energy viewpoint.
Qm .

r= 0. When the capacitor is fully charged, the total energy U in the circuit is
stored in the electric field of the capacitor and is equal to Q m 2 /2C. At this time,
the current is zero and so there is no energy stored in the inductor. As the
capacitor begins to discharge, the energy stored in its electric field decreases.
At the same time, the current increases and some energy is now stored in the
magnetic field of the inductor. Thus, we see that energy is transferred from the
electric field of the capacitor to the magnetic field of the inductor. When the
capacitor is fully discharged, it stores no energy. At this time, the current
reaches its maximum value and all of the energy is now stored in the inductor.
The process then repeats in the reverse direction. The energy continues to
transfer between the inductor and capacitor indefinitely, corresponding to
oscillations in the current and charge.
A graphical description of this energy transfer is shown in Figure 32.12.
The circuit behavior is analogous to the oscillating mass-spring system studied
2
in Chapter 13. The potential energy stored in a stretched spring, $kx is ,

analogous to the potential energy stored in the capacitor, Qm 2 /2C. The kinetic
energy of the moving mass, |mt' 2 is analogous to the energy stored in the
,

inductor, $LP, which requires the presence of moving charges. In Figure

32.12a, all of the energy is stored as potential energy in the capacitor at t =
(since I = 0). In Figure 32.12b, all of the energy is stored as "kinetic" energy
 32.5 OSCILLATIONS IN AN LC CIRCUIT 913

Thin
+ <>n 1:

0 tttt
I
(a)

g=o
43
(b)
x=

/ =

(c)
914 CHAPTER 32 INDUCTANCE

in the inductor, ^Ll^, where Im is the maximum current. At intermediate

points, part of the energy is potential energy and part is kinetic energy.
Consider some arbitrary time t after the switch is closed, such that the
capacitor has a charge Q and the current is J. At this time, both elements store
energy, but the sum of the two energies must equal the total initial energy U
stored in the fully charged capacitor at t = 0. That is,

LC
Total energy stored in the
circuit
U=UC +UL = ^ + ±LI 2
(32.20)

Since we have assumed the circuit resistance to be zero, no energy is dissi-

pated and hence the total energy must remain constant in time.
as joule heat
This means that dU/dt = 0. Therefore, by differentiating Equation 32.20 with
respect to time while noting that Q and I vary with time, we get

The total
circuit
energy in an LC
remains constant;
therefore, dl'/dt =
We can reduce
dt dt\2C
this to a differential
+ ILP
B dQ
-f
dt
+ LI — =
rT dI
dt

equation in one variable by using the

„
(32.21)

relationship between Q and namely, I = dQ/dt. From this, it follows that

/,

dl/dt = d 2 Q/dt2 . Substitution of these relationships into Equation 32.21 gives

L + °
dt2 C

LC V
(32.22)
dt 2

We can solve for the function Q by noting that Equation 32.22 is of the same
form as that of the mass-spring system (simple harmonic oscillator) studied in
Chapter 13. For this system, the equation of motion is given by

d2x
x = — arx
dt2

where k is the spring constant, m is the mass, and a> = -Jk/m. The solution of
this equation has the general form

x =A cos(cot + S)
where the angular frequency of the simple harmonic motion, A is the
CO is
amplitude of motion (the maximum value of x), and^is the phase constant; the
values of A and 5 depend on the initial conditions. Since Equation 32.22 is of
the same form as the differential equation of the simple harmonic oscillator, its

solution is

Charge versus time for the LC

circuit Q = Qm cos(cot + 6) (32.23)

where Q m is the maximum charge of the capacitor and the angular frequency co
is given by

Angular frequency of
(32.24)
oscillation JLC
 32.5 OSCILLATIONS IN AN LC CIRCUIT 915

Note that the angular frequency of the oscillations depends solely on the induc-
tance and capacitance of the circuit.
Since Q varies periodically, the current also varies periodically. This is

easily shown by differentiating Equation 32.23 with respect to time, which

gives

dQ Current versus time for the

—coQm sin(cot + 8) (32.25)
LC current
dt

To determine the value of the phase angle S, we examine the initial

conditions, which in our situation require that at t = 0, I = and Q = Qm .

Setting / = at t = in Equation 32.25 gives

= —coQ m sin S

which shows that 3=0. This value for S is also consistent with Equation 32.23
and the second condition that Q = Q m at t = 0. Therefore, in our case, the time
variation of Q and that of/ are given by

Q = Qm cos wt (32.26)

I = —coQ m sin cot =— m sin cot (32.27)

where Im = coQ m is the maximum current in the circuit.

Graphs of Q versus t and /versus rare shown in Figure 32.13. Note that T T 3T 2T
2 2
the charge on the capacitor oscillates between the extreme values Q m and
— Q m and the current oscillates between /m and —Im Furthermore, the current
, . Figure 32.13 Graphs of charge
is 90° out of phase with the charge. That is, when the charge reaches an versus time and current versus
time for a resistanceless LC circuit.
extreme value, the current is zero, and when the charge is zero, the current Note that O and J are 90° out of
has an extreme value. phase with each other.
Let us return to the energy of the LC circuit. Substituting Equations 32.26
and 32.27 in Equation 32.20, we find that the total energy is given by

U =Uc +UL = Q±r cos* cot + ^g sin

2
cot (32.28) uc

This expression contains all of the features that were described qualitatively at
the beginning of this section. It shows that the energy of the system contin-
uously oscillates between energy stored in the electric field of the capacitor
and energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor. When the energy
stored in the capacitor has its maximum value, Q m 2 /2C, the energy stored in
the inductor is zero. When the energy stored in the inductor has its maximum
value, i^/m 2 the energy stored in the capacitor is zero.
,

Plots of the time variations of l/c and UL are shown in Figure 32.14. Note
that the sum Uc + UL is a constant and equal to the total energy, 2
m /2C. An Q
analytical proof of this is straightforward. Since the maximum energy stored in
the capacitor (when / = 0) must equal the maximum energy stored in the
inductor (when Q = 0), Figure 32.14
and UL versus /
Plots of Uc versus
for a resistanceless
t

LC circuit. The sum of the two

2=! = \L1„ (32.29) cu rves is a constant and equal to the
2C total energy stored in the circuit.
 .

916 CHAPTER 32 INDUCTANCE

Substitution of this into Equation 32.28 for the total energy gives

o
^ = o2C
* 2

U= (C0S2 Wt + Sin2 (32.30)

2C~

because cos 2 cot + sin 2 at = 1

You should note that the total energy if energy U remains constant only
losses are neglected. In actual circuits, there will always be some resistance
and so energy will be lost in the form of heat. (In fact, even when the energy
losses due to wire resistance are neglected, energy will also be lost in the form
of electromagnetic waves radiated by the circuit.) In our idealized situation,
the oscillations in the circuit persist indefinitely.

EXAMPLE 32.7 An Oscillatory LC Circuit (b) What are the maximum values of charge on the capac-
An LC circuit has an inductance of 2 8 1 mH and a capac- . itor and current in the circuit?
itance of 9 pF (Fig. 32.15). The capacitor is initially
Solution The initial charge on the capacitor equals the
charged with a 12-V battery when the switch S x is open
maximum charge, and since C = Q/V, we get
and switch S 2 is closed. S x is then closed at the same
instant that S 2 is opened so that the capacitor is shorted Qm = CV= (9 X 10- 12 F)(12 V) = 1.08 X lO" 10 C
across the inductor, (a) Find the frequency of oscillation.
From Equation we see that the maximum current
32.27,
Solution Using Equation 32.24 gives for the frequency is related to the maximum charge:

1
J m= wOm = 2nfQm
/ = X 10- 10 C)
2* 2WLC (2tt X 10 6 s- 1 )(1.08
1
6 Hz
10
2*1(2.81 X 10- 3 H)(9 X 1(T 12 F)} 1 ' 2 = 6.79 X 10- 4 A

(c) Determine the charge and current as functions of

time.

Solution Equations 32.26 and 32.27 give the following

9pF
expressions for the time variation of Q and I:

O = Qm cos cot = (1.08 X 10~ 10 C) cos cot

I = -Im sin cot = (-6.79 X 10~ 4 A) sin cot

2.81 mH
V where
co = 2nf= 2n X 10 6 rad/s
kMSU '

Exercise 3 What is the total energy stored in the cir-

Figure 32.15 (Example 32.7) First the capacitor is fully

charged with the switch S, open and S 2 closed. Then, S[ is closed cuit?
at the same time that S 2 is being opened. Answer 6.48 X lO -10 J.

°32.6 THE RLC CIRCUIT

We now turn our attention to a more realistic circuit consisting of an inductor,
a capacitor, and a resistor connected in series, as in Figure 32.16. We shall
^l A RLC
assume that the capacitor has an initial charge Qm before the switch is closed.
Figure 32.16 series cir-
Once closed and a current is established, the total energy stored
the switch is
cuit. The capacitor has a charge Qm in the circuit at is given, as before, by Equation 32.20. That is, the
any time
at t = when the switch is being
closed. energy stored in the capacitor is 2 /2C, and the energy stored in the inductor
 32.6 THE RLC CIRCUIT 917

is\Ll 2 However, the total energy is no longer constant, as it was in the LC

.

circuit,because of the presence of a resistor, which dissipates energy as heat.

2
Since the rate of energy dissipation through a resistor is 7 R, we have

dU
= -I 2 R (32.31)
dt

where the negative sign signifies that U is decreasing in time. Substituting this
result into the time derivative of Equation 32.20 gives

LI —
dl QdQ
+ ^ -f = -PR Oscilloscope pattern showing the
(32.32)
dt C dt decay in the oscillations of an RLC
circuit. The parameters used were
Using the fact that I dQ/dt and dl/dt = d 2 Qjdt 2 and dividing Equation
,
R= 75ii, L=10 mH, C = 0.19
and /= 300 Hz. (Courtesy of
32.32 by J, we get ftF,

J. Rudmin)

'?««+«- (32.33)

Note that the RLC circuit is analogous to the damped harmonic oscillator
discussed in Section 13.6 and illustrated in Figure 32.17. The equation of
motion for this mechanical system is

—r-r + b~r + kx (32.34)

dP dt

Comparing Equations 32.33 and 32.34, we see that Q corresponds to x, L

corresponds to m, R corresponds to the damping constant b, and C corre-
sponds to l/k, where k is the force constant of the spring.
The analytical solution of Equation 32.33 is rather cumbersome and is
usually covered in courses dealing with differential equations. Therefore, we
shall give only a qualitative description of the circuit behavior.
In the simplest case, when R = 0, Equation 32.33 reduces to that of a
simple LC circuit, as expected, and the charge and the current oscillate sinus- Figure 32.17 A mass-spring sys-
tem moving in a viscous medium
oidally in time. with damped harmonic motion is

Next consider the situation where R is reasonably small. In this case, the analogous to an RLC circuit.
solution of Equation 32.33 is given by

Q = <?m e_R /2L cos

'
(o d t (32.35)

where

(32.36)
°"=Br(£)]
That is, the charge will oscillate with damped harmonic motion in analogy with
a mass-spring syste m mov ing in a viscous medium. From Equation 32.35, we
see that when R < -J4L/C the frequency a>d of the damped oscillator will be
undamped oscillator, 1/VEC. Since 7 = dQ/dt, it follows that
close to that of the
the current will also undergo damped harmonic motion. A plot of the charge
versus time for the damped oscillator is shown in Figure 32.18. Note that the
maximum value of Q decreases after each oscillation, just as the amplitude of a Figure 32.18 Charge versus time
for a damped RLC circuit. This
damped harmonic oscillator decreases in time.
occurs for R < V4L/C. The Q
When we consider larger values of R, we find that the oscillations damp versus t curve represents a plot of
out more rapidly; in fact, there exists a critical resistance value R c above which Equation 32.35.
918 CHAPTER 32 INDUCTANCE

no oscillations occur. The critical value is given by R c = V4L/C. A system with

R = Rc is said to be critically damped. When R exceeds R c the system is said to ,

be overdamped (Fig. 32.19).

SUMMARY
When the current in a coil changes with time, an emf is induced in the coil
Figure 32. 19 Plot ofQ versus t for according to Faraday's law. The self-induced emf is defined by the expres-
an overdamped KLC circuit, which
occurs for values of R> -J4L/C.

Induced emf (32.1)

dt

where L is the inductance of the coil. Inductance is a measure of the opposi-

tion of a device to a change in current. Inductance has the SI unit of henry
(H), where 1 H = l V-s/A.
The inductance of any coil, such as a solenoid or toroid, is given by the
expression

N<t>„
Inductance of an JV-turn coil L= (32.2)

where <J> m is the magnetic flux through the coil and N is the total number of
turns.
The inductance of a device depends on its geometry. For example, the
inductance of a solenoid (whose core is a vacuum), as calculated from Equa-
tion 32.2, is given by

Inductance of a solenoid L= (32.4)

where N is the number of turns, A is the cross-sectional area, and ( is the

length of the solenoid.
If a resistor and inductor are connected in series to abattery of emf £ as
shown in Figure 32.2 and a switch in the circuit is closed at t = 0, the
current in the circuit varies in time according to the expression

/r
Current in an RL circuit I(t)
f(l-*-' ) (32.7)

where t = L/R is the time constant of the RL circuit. That is, the current rises
to an equilibrium value of £/R long compared to T.
after a time that is

If the battery is removed from an RL Figure 32.5 with Si

circuit, as in
open and S 2 closed, the current decays exponentially with time according to
the expression

Z(r) = |e^ (32.11)

where £/R is the initial current in the circuit.

The energy stored in the magnetic field ofan inductor carrying a current
/ is given by

Energy stored in an inductor Um = \LP (32.13)

 SUMMARY 919

This result is obtained by applying the principle of energy conservation to

the RL circuit.
The energy per unit volume (or energy density) at a point where the
magnetic field is B is given by

(32.15) Magnetic energy density

2/^0

That is, the energy density is proportional to the square of the field at that
point.
If two coils are close to each other, a changing current in one coil can
induce an emf in the other coil. If dl^/dt is rate of change of current in the
first coil, the emf induced in the second is given by

e2 = -M^ dt
(32.19)

where M is a constant called the mutual inductance of one coil with respect
to the other.
If <J> 21 is the magnetic flux through coil 2 due to the current ^ in coil 1
and N2 is the number of turns in coil 2, then the mutual inductance of coil 2
is given by

N
M„ = 9 <I) 5
(32.16) Mutual inductance

In an LC circuit with zero resistance, the charge on the capacitor and

the current in the circuit vary in time according to the expressions

Q = Qm cos(cot + S) (32.23)
Charge and current versus
time in an LC circuit
l = -f- = - coQm sin(eof + S) (32.25)
dt

where Qm is the maximum charge on the capacitor, S is a phase constant, and

co is the angular frequency of oscillation, given by

1 Frequency of oscillation in an
(32.24) LC circuit
/LC
The energy in an LC circuit continuously transfers between energy
stored in the capacitor and energy stored in the inductor. The total energy
of the LC circuit at any time t is given by

O 2

+ —r
LI
U=Uc +UL = ¥£r
2C
cos 2
cot
2
sin
2
cot (32.28) Energy of an LC circuit

where Im is the maximum current in the circuit. At t = 0, all of the energy is

stored in the electric field of the capacitor (U = Qm 2/2C). Eventually, all of

thisenergy is transferred to the inductor (U= LJm 2 /2). However, the total
energy remains constant since the energy losses are neglected in the ideal
LC circuit.
The charge and current in an RLC circuit exhibit a damped harmonic
behavior for small values of R. This is analogous to the damped harmonic
motion of a mass-spring system in which friction is present.
920 CHAPTER 32 INDUCTANCE

QUESTIONS

1. Why is the induced emf that appears in an inductor 7. Suppose the switch in the RL circuit in Figure 32.20
called a "counter" or "back" emf? has been closed for a long time and is suddenly
2. A circuit containing a coil, resistor, and battery is in opened. Does the current instantaneously drop to
steady state, that the current has reached a constant
is, zero? Why does a spark tend to appear at the switch
value. Does the coil have an inductance? Does the coil contacts when the switch is opened?
affect the value of the current in the circuit? 8. If the current in an inductor is doubled, by what factor

3. Does the inductance of a coil depend on the current in does the stored energy change?
the coil? What parameters affect the inductance of a 9. Discuss the similarities between the energy stored in
coil? the electric field of a charged capacitor and the en-
4. How can a long piece of wire be wound on a spool so ergy stored in the magnetic field of a current-carrying
that has a negligible self-inductance?
it coil.

5. A long fine wire is wound as a solenoid with a self-in- 10 What is the effective inductance of two isolated in-
ductance L. connected directly across the
If this is ductors, connected in series?
terminals of a battery, how does the maximum current 11 Discuss how the mutual inductance arises between
depend on L? the primary and secondary coils in a transformer.
6. For the series RL circuit shown in Figure 32.20, can 12. The centers of two circular loops are separated by a
the back emf ever be greater than the battery emf? fixed distance. For what relative orientation of the
Explain. loops will their mutual inductance be a maximum? For
what orientation will it be a minimum?
13. Two solenoids are connected in series such that each
same current at any instant. Is mutual in-
carries the
R duction present? Explain.
AW- 14. In the LC circuit shown in Figure 32. 12, the charge on
the capacitor is sometimes zero, even though there is

current in the circuit. How is this possible?

15. If the resistance of the wires inan LC circuit were not
zero,would the oscillations persist? Explain.

^l Switch
16. How can you tell whether an RLC circuit will be over-
or underdamped?
17. What is the significance of "critical damping" in an
Figure 32.20 (Questions 6 and 7). RLC circuit?

PROBLEMS
Section 32.1 Self-Inductance 6. Calculate the magnetic flux through a 300-turn, 7.2-

1. A 2-H inductor carries a steady current of 0.5 A. mH coil when the current in the coil is 10 mA.

When the switch in the circuit is opened, the current 7. A 40-mA current is carried by a uniformly wound air-
core solenoid with 450 turns, a 15-mm diameter, and
disappears in 0.01 s. What is the induced emf that
12-cm length. Compute (a) the magnetic field inside
appears in the inductor during this time?
the solenoid, (b) the magnetic flux through each turn,
2. A "Slinky toy" spring has a radius of 4 cm and an
and (c) the inductance of the solenoid, (d) Which of
inductance of 125 //H when extended to a length of
these quantities depends on the current?
2 m. What is the total number of turns in the spring?
3. What is the inductance of a 510-turn solenoid that has
S. A 0.388-mH inductor has a length that is four times its

diameter. If it is wound with 22 turns per centimeter,

a radius of 8 cm and an overall length of 1 .4 m?
what is its length?
4. A small air-core solenoid has a length of 4 cm and a
9. An emf of 36 mV is induced in a 400-turn coil at an
radius of 0.25 cm. If the inductance is to be 0.06 mH,
instant when the current has a value of 2.8 A and is
how many turns per cm are required?
changing at a rate of 12 A/s. What is the total mag-
5. Show that the two expressions for inductance given by
netic flux through the coil?
10. The current in a 90-mH inductor changes with time as
and L=- I = r
2 — 6t (in SI units). Find the magnitude of the
dl/dt
induced emf at (a) t = 1 s and (b) t = 4 s. (c) At what
have the same units. time is the emf zero?
 PROBLEMS 921

1 1 . A current / = I sin lot, with 7 = 5 A and dijln = Section 32.2 RI. Circuits
60 Hz, flows through an inductor whose inductance is
17. Verify by direct substitution that the expression for
10 mH. What is the back emf as a function of time?
current given in Equation 32.7 is a solution of Kirch-
12. Three solenoidal windings of 300, 200, and 100 turns
hoff 's loop equation for the RL circuit as given by
are wrapped at well-spaced positions along a card-
Equation 32.6.
board tube of radius 1 cm. Each winding extends for
Show / =
T
1 8. that / e~^ is a solution of the differential
5 cm along the cylindrical surface. What is the equiva-
equation
lent inductance of the 600 turns when the three sets of
+L—=
windings are connected in series? dl
IR 0,
1 3. Two coils, A and B, are wound using equal lengths of dt
wire. Each coil has the same number of turns per unit
where t = L/R and 7 = £/R is the value of the current
length, but coil A has twice as many turns as coil B.
at t = 0.
What is the ratio of the self-inductance of A to the
self-inductance of B? (Note: The radii of the two coils
19. Calculate the inductance in an RL circuit in which
R= 0.5 CI and the current increases to one fourth its
are not equal.)
final value in 1.5 s.
14. A toroid has a major radius R and a minor radius r, and
is tightly wound with N turns of wire, as shown in
20. A 12-V battery is connected in series with a resistor
and an inductor. The circuit has a time constant of
Figure 32.21. If R> r, the magnetic field inside the
500 /is, and the maximum current is 200 mA. What is
toroid is essentially that of a long solenoid that has
the value of the inductance?
been bent into a large circle of radius R. Using the
21 . Show that the inductive time constant T has SI units of
uniform field of a long solenoid, show that the self-in-
seconds.
ductance of such a toroid is given (approximately) by
22. An inductor with an inductance of 15 H and resist-
ance of 30 Q is connected across a 100-V battery.
L=
2nR (a) What is the initial rate of increase of current in the
circuit? (b) At what rate is the current changing at
(An exact expression for the inductance of a toroid
f=1.5s?
with a rectangular cross-section is derived in Problem
23. A 12-V battery is about to be connected to a series
78.)
circuit containing a 10-Q resistor and a 2-H inductor.
(a) How long will it take the current to reach 50% of

its final value? (b) How long will it take to reach 90%
of its final value?
24. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 32.22, taking
£=6 L=
8 mH, and R = 4 £2. (a) What is the in-
V,
ductive time constant of the circuit? (b) Calculate the
current in the circuit at a time 250 [is after the switch
S t is closed, (c) What is the value of the final steady-
state current? (d) How long does it take the current to
reach 80% of its maximum value?

-T51P 1

Figure 32.21 (Problem 14).

15. A solenoid has 120 turns uniformly wrapped around a

wooden core, which has a diameter of 10 mm and a
length of 9 cm.
solenoid, (b)
(a)

The wooden core

Calculate the inductance of this
is replaced with a soft
Figure 32.22
27, and 28).
(Problems 24,
>-_
iron rod with the same dimensions, but a magnetic
permeability Km = 800/z . What is the new induc- A 140-mH inductor and a 4.9-fi resistor are con-
— tance? nected with a switch to a 6-V battery as shown in
Hi A 420 turns, is 16 cm in
solenoidal inductor contains Figure 32.23. (a) If the switch is thrown to the left
length,and has a cross-sectional area of 3 cm 2 What . (connecting the battery), how much time elapses be-
uniform rate of decrease of current through the in- fore the current reaches 220 mA? (b) What is the
ductor will produce an induced emf of 175 fiV? current through the inductor 10 s after the switch is
922 CHAPTER 32 INDUCTANCE

closed? (c) Now the switch is quickly thrown from A position A? (b) Now the switch is thrown quickly from
to B. How much time elapses before the current falls A to B. Compute the initial voltage across each resis-
to 160 mA? tor and the inductor, (c) How much time elapses be-
fore the voltage across the inductor drops to 12 V?

A S

^ 2H
1 200 Q.

Figure 32.23 (Problem 25).

12Q
26. When the switch in Figure 32.24 is closed, the cur-
rent takes 3.0 ms to reach 98% of its final value. If Figure 32.25 (Problem 31).

R= 10 Q, what is the inductance L?

Section 32.3 Energy in a Magnetic Field

S 32. Calculate the energy associated with the magnetic

200-turn solenoid in which a current of
field of a
-4
1 .75 A produces a flux of 3.7 X
10 in each turn. Wb
33. An air-core solenoid with 68 turns is 8 cm long and has
a diameter of 1 .2 cm. How much energy is stored in its
magnetic field when it carries a current of 0.77 A?
34. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 32.26. What
energy is stored in the inductor when the current
R reaches its final equilibrium value after the switch is
closed?
Figure 32.24 (Problems 26, 29, 30, 35).
8 a
27. Let the following values be assigned to the compo-
VA
nents in the circuit shown in Figure 32.22. 6 = 6 V,
L = 24 mH, and R = 10 Q. (a) Calculate the current
in the circuit at a time 0.5 ms after switch S x is closed,
(b) What is the maximum value of the current in the
circuit? Figure 32.26 (Problems
28. Assume that switch S : in the circuit of Figure 32.22 34 and 42).
has been closed long enough for the current to reach
its maximum value. If switch Si is now opened and 35. A 10-V battery, a 5-fl resistor, and a 10-H inductor
switch S 2 closed at t = 0, after what time interval will are connected in series. After the current in the cir-
the current in R be 25% of the maximum value? (Use cuit has reached its maximum value, calculate (a) the

the numerical values given in Problem 27.) power supplied to the circuit by the battery, (b) the
29. For the RL circuit shown in Figure 32.24, let L = 3 H, power dissipated in the resistor, (c) the power dissi-
R = 8 fi, and £ = 36 V. (a) Calculate the ratio of the pated in the inductor, and (d) the energy stored in the
potential difference across the resistor to that across magnetic field of the inductor.
the inductor when J =
2 A. (b) Calculate the voltage 36. At t = 0, a source of emf, 6 = 500 V, is applied to a
across the inductor when / = 4.5 A. coil that has an inductance of 0.80 H and a resistance

30. In the circuit shown in Figure 32.24 let L = 7 H, R = of 30 Q. (a) Find the energy stored in the magnetic
9 Q, and 6 = 120 V. What is the self-induced emf field when the current reaches half its maximum

0.2 s after the switch is closed? value, (b) How long after the emf is connected does it
31. One application of an RL circuit is the generation of take for the current to reach this value?
high-voltage transients from a low-voltage dc source, 37. The magnetic field inside a superconducting solenoid
as shown in Figure 32.25. (a) What is the current in is 4.5 T. The solenoid has an inner diameter of 6.2 cm

the circuit a long time after the switch has been in and a length of 26 cm. (a) Determine the magnetic
 PROBLEMS 923

energy density in the field, (b) Determine the mag- same length as the first and lies entirely within the
netic energy stored in the magnetic field within the first solenoid, with their axes parallel, (a) Assume sole-
solenoid. noid 1 and compute their mutual
carries a current J
38. A uniform electric field of magnitude 6.8 X V/m 10 5 inductance, (b) Now assume that solenoid 2 carries
throughout a cylindrical vo'ume results in a total en- the same current / (and solenoid 1 carries no current)
ergy due to the electric fiela of 3.4 fi]. What magnetic and compute their mutual inductance. Do you obtain
field over this same region will store the same total the same result?
energy? 49. A coil of 50 turns is wound on a long solenoid as shown
39. On a clear day, there is a vertical electric field near the Figure 32.10. The solenoid has a cross-sectional
in
earth's surface with amagnitude about 100 V/m. At X 10 -3 m 2 and is wrapped uniformly with
area of 8.8
the same time, the earth's magnetic field has a magni- 1000 turns per meter of length. Calculate the mutual
tude approximately 0.5 X 10 -4 T. Compute the en- inductance of the two windings.
ergy density of the two fields. 50. A 70-turn solenoid is 5 cm long, 1 cm in diameter, and
40. A battery for which 6 = 15 V is connected to an RL carries a2-A current. A single loop of wire, 3 cm in
circuit for which L = 0.6H and R = 7fi. When the diameter, is held perpendicular to the axis of the sole-

current has reached one half of its final value, what is noid. What is the mutual inductance of the two if the
the total magnetic energy stored in the inductor? plane of the loop passes through the center of the
41. Two inductors (L 1 = 85 fiH, and L 2 = 200/zH) are solenoid?
connected in series with an 850-mA dc power supply. 51. Two nearby solenoids, A and B, sharing the same cy-
Calculate the energy stored in each inductor. lindrical axis,have 400 and 700 turns, respectively. A
42. The switch in the circuit of Figure 32.26 is closed at current of 3.5 A in coil A produces a flux of 300 /AVb
f = 0. (a) Calculate the rate at which energy is being at the center of A and a flux of 90 /yWb at the center of
stored in the inductor after an elapsed time equal to B. (a) Calculate the mutual inductance of the two sole-
the time constant of the circuit, (b) At what rate is noids, (b) What is the self-inductance of coil A? (c)
energy being dissipated as joule heat in the resistor at What emf will be induced in coil B when the current in
this time? (c) What is the total energy stored in the coil A increases at the rate of 0.5 A/s?
inductor at this time? 52. Two single-turn circular loops of wire have radii R and
43. An RL circuit in which L = 4 H and R = 5 Q is con- r, with R>
The loops lie in the same plane and are
r.

nected to a battery with 8 = 22 V at time t = 0. concentric, Show that the mutual inductance of the
(a)
(a) What energy is stored in the inductor when the pair is M = n nr 2 /2R. (Hint: Assume that the larger
current in the circuit is 0.5 A? (b) At what rate is en- loop carries a current I and compute the resulting flux
ergy being stored in the inductor when 7 = 1 A? through the smaller loop.) (b) Evaluate Affor r = 2 cm
(c) What power is being delivered to the circuit by the and R = 20 cm.
battery when / = 0.5 A?
44. The magnitude of the magnetic field outside a sphere Section 32.5 Oscillations in an LC Circuit
of radius R is given by B=B (R/r) 2 , where B is a
constant. Determine the total energy stored in the
53. A charged by a 40-V dc power
1.0-fiF capacitor is

supply. The fully-charged capacitor is then dis-

magnetic field outside the sphere and evaluate your
charged through a 10-mH inductor. Find the maxi-
result for B = 5 X lO" 5 T and R = 6 X 10 6 m, values
appropriate for the earth's magnetic field.
mum current that occurs in the resulting oscillations.
54. An LC circuit consists of a 20-mH inductor and a
'Section 32.4 Mutual Inductance
0.5-//F capacitor. If the maximum instantaneous cur-
rent in this circuit is 0. 1 A, what is the greatest poten-

45. Two nearby coils, A and B, have a mutual inductance tial difference that appears across the capacitor?
M— 28 raH. What is the emf induced in coil A as a 55. An LC circuit ofthe type shown in Figure32. 11has an
function of time when the current in coil B is given by inductance of 0.57 mH
and a capacitance of 15 pF.
1= 3t2 — 4t + 5, where I is in A when t is in s? The capacitor is charged to its maximum value by a
46. Two coils, held in fixed positions, have amutual in- 32-V battery. The battery is then removed from the
ductance of 100 /iH. What is the peak voltage in one circuit and the capacitor discharged through the in-
of the coils when a sinusoidal current is given by ductor, (a) If all resistance in the circuit is neglected,
I(t) = (10 A) sin(1000t) flows in the other coil? determine the maximum value of the current in the
47. An emf of 96 mV is induced in the windings of a coil oscillating circuit, (b) At what frequency does the cir-
when the current in a nearby coil is increasing at the cuit oscillate? (c) What is the maximum energy stored
rate of 1.2 A/s. What is the mutual inductance of the in the magnetic field of the inductor?
two coils? 56. Calculate the inductance of an LC circuit that oscil-
4S. A long solenoid consists of N l
turns with a radius Rj . A lates at a frequency of 1 20 Hz when the capacitance is
second solenoid, with N2 turns of radius R2 , has the 8//F.
924 CHAPTER 32 INDUCTANCE

57. A fixed inductance L = 1.05 /iH is used in series with elapses before the current amplitude in the circuit
a variable capacitor in the tuning section of a radio. falls off to 50% of its initial value? (b) How long does it
What capacitance will tune the circuit into the signal take for the energy in the circuit to decrease to 50% of
from a station broadcasting at a frequency of its initial value?
96.3MHz? 67. (a)Show that the ratio of the oscillation frequency of a
58. An LC circuit (shown in Figure 32.11) contains an damped LC oscillator (a»j) to that of an undamped
82-mH inductor and a 1 7-//F capacitor, which initially oscillator (a> ) may be expressed as
carries a 180-//C charge. The switch closed at = 0.
Find the frequency (in Hz) of the resulting oscilla-
is t
«d I Wc
(a)

tions. At the instant t — 1.0 ms, find (b) the charge on

the capacitor and (c) the current in the circuit. (b) What happens to this ratio if L < 4R 2 C?
59. (a) What capacitance must be combined with a 45-mH 68. Consider an RLC series circuit consisting of a charged
inductor in order to achieve a resonant frequency of 500-fiF capacitor connected to a 32-mH inductor and
125 Hz? (b) What time interval elapses between ac- a resistor R. Calculate the frequency of the oscilla-
cumulations of maximum charge of the same sign on a tions (in Hz) that result for the following values of R:
given plate of the capacitor? (a) R = (n o dam ping); (b) R = 16 Q (critical damp-
60. An LC circuit carries a current that is oscillating with a ing: R = V4L/C); (c) R = 4 Q. (underd amped :

period T. If the charge on the capacitor is at a maxi- R < V4L/C); (d) R = 64 Q. (overdamped: R > V4L/C).
mum at t = 0, when will the energy stored in the elec-
of the capacitor equal the energy stored in
tric field ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
the magnetic field of the inductor? (Express your an-
69. An inductor that has a resistance of 0.5 Q is connected
swer as a fraction of T.)
to a 5-V battery. One second after the switch is closed,
61. An LC circuit consists of a 3. 3-H inductor and an 840-
the current through the circuit is 4 A. Calculate the
pF capacitor, initially carrying a 105-^iC charge. At
inductance.
f = the switch in Figure 32.11 is closed. Compute
70. A soft iron rod = 800// is used as the core of a
the following quantities at the instant t = 2.0 ms:
(/z )

solenoid.The rod has a diameter of 24 mm and is

(a) the energy stored in the capacitor; (b) the energy
10 cm long. A 10-m piece of 22-gauge copper wire
stored in the inductor; (c) the total energy in the cir-
(diameter = 0.644 mm) is wrapped around the iron
cuit.
rod in a single uniform layer, except for a 10-cm
62. A 6-V battery is used to charge a 50-fiF capacitor. The
length at each end, to be used for connections.
capacitor then discharged through a 0.34-mH in-
is
(a) How many turns of this wire can be wrapped
ductor, (a) Find the maximum charge on the capaci-
around the rod? (Hint: The diameter of the wire adds
tor, (b) Compute the maximum current in the circuit,
to the diameter of the rod in determining the circum-
(c) Compute the maximum energy stored in each of
ference of each turn. Also, the wire spirals diagonally
these components.
along the surface of the rod.) (b) What is the resist-
ance of this inductor? (c) What is its inductance?
71. A time-varying current / is applied to an inductance of
"Section 32.6 The RLC Circuit
5 H, as shown in Figure 32.27. Make a quantitative
63. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 32.16. Let R = graph of the potential at point a relative to that at
7.6 Q, L= 2.2 mH, and C = 1.8 fj.F. (a) Calculate the point b. The current arrow indicates the direction of
frequency of the damped oscillation of the circuit, conventional current.
(b) What is the value of the critical resistance in the
circuit? 7(mA)
64. Consider a series LC circuit (L = 2.18 H, C= 6 nF).
What is the maximum value of a resistor that, if in-
serted in series with L and C, will allow the circuit to
continue to oscillate? Current
65. Consider an LC circuit with L = 500 mH and C= f(ms)
source

0. 1 /zF. (a) What is the resonant frequency (a) ) of this

circuit? (b) If a resistance of 000 Q is introduced into
1

this circuit, what would be the frequency of the

(damped) oscillations? (c) What is the percent differ-

ence between the two frequencies? Figure 32.27 (Problem 71).

66. Electrical oscillations are initiated in a series circuit
with a capacitance C, inductance L, and resistance R. 72. A series LR circuit has L = 0.1 H and R = 6 il. At a
(a) If R < V4L/C (weak damping), how much time certain moment the current is 5 A. (a) What is the
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 925

potential difference across the inductor? (b) Calcu- side the wires, show that the inductance of a length x
time rate of change of current.
late the of this type of lead-in is

73. The inductor in the circuit in Figure 32.28 has negligi-

ble resistance. When the switch is opened after hav- ^ln(^)
ing been closed for a long time, the current in the
inductor drops to 0.25 A in 0.15 s. What is the induc- where a is the radius of the wires and w is the center-
tance of the inductor? to-center separation of the wires.
77. Att = 0, the switch in Figure 32.31 is closed. By using

Kirchhoff's laws for the instantaneous currents and

S A"
voltages in this two-loop circuit, show that the current
through the inductor is given by
1£2 c=\L

iy«f]

Figure 32.28 (Problem 73). where R' = R R 2 /(fi + R 2

1 1 ).

74. A platinum wire 2.5 mm in diameter is connected in

series to a 100-//F capacitor and a 1.2 X 10 _3 -//H in-
ductor to form an RLC circuit. The resistivity of plati-
num is 11 X 10 -8 Q m. Calculate the maximum
length of wire for which the current in the circuit will
oscillate.
75. Assume that the switch in the circuit shown in Figure
32.29 is initially in position 1. Show that if the switch
is thrown from position 1 to position 2, all the energy

stored in the magnetic field of the inductor will be

dissipated as thermal energy in the resistor.

Figure 32.29 (Problem 75).

76. The lead-in wires from a TV antenna are often con-

structed in the form of two parallel wires (Fig. 32.30).
926 CHAPTER 32 INDUCTANCE

after t = 0. (c) How long after t = does the magni- the armature. If the motor is suddenly unplugged
tude of the current in fi 2 drop exponentially to 2 mA? while running, this resistor limits the voltage that ap-
pears across the armature coils. Consider a 12-V dc
motor that has an armature with a resistance of 7.5 fl
and an inductance of 450 mH. Assume the counter
emf in the armature coils is 10 V when the motor is
running at normal speed. (The equivalent circuit for
the armature is shown in Figure 32.35.) Calculate the
maximum resistance R that will limit the voltage
across the armature to 80 V when the motor is un-
plugged.
Figure 32.33 (Problem 79).

SO. The switch in the circuit in Figure 32.34 is closed at

t — Before the switch is closed, the capacitor is un-
0.
charged, and all currents are zero. Determine the
currents in L, C, and R and the potential differences
across L, C, and R (a) the instant after closing the
switch, (b) long after the switch is closed.
/

L
nnnr

Figure 32.35 (Problem 83).

84. A battery is in series with a switch and a 2-H inductor

whose windings have a resistance R. After the switch
is closed, the current rises to 80% of its final value in
Figure 32.34 (Problem 80). 0.4 s. Find the value of R.
85. A flat coil of wire has an inductance of 2 H and a
81. Two long parallel wires, each of radius a, have their resistance of 40 fl. At f = 0, a battery of emf, 6=
centers a distance d apart and carry equal currents in 60 V, connected to the coil. Consider the state of
is

opposite directions. Neglecting the flux within the affairs one time constant later. At this instant, find

wires themselves, calculate the inductance per unit (a) the power delivered by the battery, (b) the Joule

length of such a pair of wires. power developed in the resistance of the windings,
82. An air-core solenoid 0.5 m in length contains 1000 and (c) the instantaneous rate at which energy is
1 cm
2 being stored in the magnetic field.
turns and has a cross-sectional area of (a) Ne- ,

glectingend effects, what is the self-inductance? (b) A 86. A toroidal solenoid has two separate sets of windings
secondary winding wrapped around the center of the that are each spread uniformly around the toroid,
solenoid has 100 turns. What is the mutual induc- with total turns Nj and N 2 respectively. The toroid
,

tance? (c) A constant current of 1 A flows in the sec- has a circumferential length ( and a cross-sectional
ondary winding, and the solenoid is connected to a area A. (a) Write expressions for the self-inductances
load of 10 3 £2. The constant current is suddenly L l andL 2 respectively, when each coil is used alone.
,

stopped. How much charge flows through the load (b) Derive an expression for the mutual inductance M
resistor? of the two coils, (c) Show that M2 = L X
L2 - (This ex-

83. To prevent damage from arcing in an electric motor, a pression is true only when all the flux linking one coil
discharge resistor is sometimes placed in parallel with also links the other coil.)
 33
Alternating Current Circuits

High-voltage transmission
lines at a power station in Ox-
fordshire, England. (© E.
Nagele, FPG International)

n this chapter, we shall describe the basic principles of simple alternating

current (ac) circuits.We shall investigate the characteristics of circuits
containing familiar elements and driven by a sinusoidal voltage. Our
I . discussion will be limited to analyzing simple series circuits containing a
resistor, inductor, and capacitor, both individually and in combination with
each other. We shall make use of the fact that these elements respond linearly;
that is, the ac current through each element is proportional to the instanta-

neous ac voltage across the element. We shall find that when the applied
voltage of the generator is sinusoidal, the current in each element is also
sinusoidal, but not necessarily in phase with the applied voltage. We conclude
the chapter with two sections concerning the characteristics of RC filters,
transformers, and power transmission.

33.1 AC SOURCES AND PHASORS

An ac circuit consists of combinations of circuit elements and a generator
which provides the alternating current. The basic principles of the ac genera-
tor were described in Section 31.5. By rotating a coil in a magnetic field with

927
 . 7

928 CHAPTER 33 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

constant angular velocity to, a sinusoidal voltage (emf) is induced in the coil.
This instantaneous voltage, t>, is given by

v=Vm sin tot (33.1)

where Vm is the peak voltage of the ae generator, or the voltage amplitude. The
angular frequency, to, is given by

271
2nf=

where /is the frequency of the source and Tis the period. Commercial elec-
tric-power plants in the United States use a frequency off = 60 Hz (cycles per
second), which corresponds to an angular frequency of to = 377 rad/s.
The primary aim of this chapter can be summarized as follows: Consider
an ac generator connected to a series circuit containing R, L, and C elements. If
the voltage amplitude and frequency of the generator are given, together with
the values of R, L, and C, find the resulting current as specified by its ampli-
tude and its phase constant. In order to simplify our analysis of more complex
circuits containing two or more elements, we shall use graphical constructions
called phasor diagrams. In these constructions, alternating quantities, such as
current and voltage, are represented by rotating vectors called phasors. The
length of the phasor represents the amplitude (maximum value) of the quan-
tity, while the projection of the phasor onto the vertical axis represents the

instantaneous value of that quantity. Phasors rotate counterclockwise. As we

shall see, the method of combining several sinusoidally varying currents or
voltages with different phases is greatly simplified using this procedure. We

phasor diagrams in Chapters 37 and 38, which concern interfer-

will also use
ence and diffraction of light waves.

33.2 RESISTORS IN AN AC CIRCUIT

Consider a simple ac circuit consisting of a resistor and an ac generator (desig-
nated by the symbol —©—
), as in Figure 33.1. At any instant, the algebraic

sum of the potential increases and decreases around a closed loop in a circuit
must be zero (KirchhofPs loop equation). Therefore, v — vR = 0, or
v = v R = Vm sin tot (33.2)

where vR is the instantaneous voltage drop across the resistor. Therefore, the
^ = V™ sin cot
instantaneous current is equal to

Figure 33.1 A circuit consisting

of a resistor R connected to an ac 'n
=— 1
sin tot = 7m sin tot (33.3)
generator, designated by the sym- R
bol—©—
where Im is the peak current, given by

Maximum current in a resistor <-* (33.4)

From Equations 33.2 and 33.3, we see that the instantaneous voltage drop
across the resistor is

vR = Im R sin tot (33.5)

 33.2 RESISTORS IN AN AC CIRCUIT 929

(b)

Figure 33.2 (a) Plots of the current and voltage across a resistor as functions of time. The current
is in phase with the voltage, (b) A phasor diagram for the resistive circuit, showing that the current

is in phase with the voltage. The projections of the rotating arrows (phasors) onto the vertical axis

represent the instantaneous values v R and i H .

Since i R and v R both vary as sin cot and reach their peak values at the same
time, they are said to be in phase. Graphs of the voltage and current as func-
tions of time (Fig. 33.2a) show that they each reach their peak and zero values
at the same instant.
A phasor diagram may be used to represent the phase relationship be-
tween current and voltage. The lengths of the arrows correspond to Vm and
L m The projections of the arrows onto the vertical axis give u R and iR In the
. .

case of the single-loop resistive circuit, the current and voltage phasors lie
along the same line, as in Figure 33.2b, since i R and v R are in phase with each The current is in phase with
other. the voltage for a resistor
Note that the average value ofthe current over one cycle is zero. That is, the
current is maintained in one direction (the positive direction) for the same

amount of time and at the same magnitude as in the opposite direction (the
negative direction). However, the direction of the current has no effect on the
behavior of the resistor in the circuit. This can be understood by realizing that
collisions between electrons and the fixed atoms of the resistor result in an
increase in the temperature of the resistor. Although this temperature in-
crease depends on the magnitude of the current, it is independent of the
direction of the current.
This discussion can be made quantitative by recalling that the rate at
which electrical energy is converted to heat in a resistor, which is the power F,
is given by

P=t 2 R Power

where i is the instantaneous current in the resistor. Since the heating effect of a
current is proportional to the square of the current, it makes no difference

whether the current is direct or alternating, that whether the sign asso-
is,

ciated with the current is positive or negative. However, the heating effect
produced by an alternating current having a maximum value of m is not the
same as that produced by a direct current of the same value. This is because the
alternating currentis at this maximum value for only a very brief instant of time

during a cycle. What is of importance in an ac circuit is an average value of

current referred to as the rms current. The term rms refers to root mean
square, which simply means that one takes the square root of the average value
930 CHAPTER 33 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

of the square of the current. P varies as sin 2 tot, and one can show 1 that the
average value of i 2 is £Zm 2 (Fig. 33.3). Therefore, the rms current, /„, is
related to the peak value of the alternating current, Zm as ,

rms current (33.6)

This equation says that an alternating current whose maximum value is 2 A will
produce the same heating effect in a resistor as a direct current of
(0.707)(2) = 1.414 A. Thus, we can say that the average power dissipated in a
resistor that carries an alternating current is Pav = Ims z R-
Alternating voltages are also best discussed in terms of rms voltages, and
the relationship here is identical to the above, that is, the rms voltage, V^,, is

related to the peak value of the alternating voltage, Vm , as

rms voltage Vrms = ^=

V2
0.707 Vw (33.7)

one speaks of measuring an ac voltage of 120 V from an electric

When
outlet,one is really referring to an rms voltage of 120 V. A quick calculation
using Equation 33.7 shows that such an ac voltage actually has a peak value of
about 1 70 V. In this chapter we shall use rms values when discussing alternat-
ing currents and voltages. One reason for this is that ac ammeters and volt-
meters are designed to read rms values. Furthermore, we shall find that if we
use rms values, many of the equations we use will have the same form as those
Figure 33.3 Plot of the square of used in the study of direct current (dc) circuits. Table 33.1 summarizes the
the current in a resistor versus notation that will be used in this chapter.
time. The rms current is the square
root of the average of the square of
the current.
TABLE 33.1 Notation Used in This
Chapter

Voltage Current

Instantaneous value
Peak value
rms value

1
The fact that the square root of the average value of the square of the current is equal to 1^*% can
be shown as follows. The current in the circuit varies with time according to the expression i
=
so that i 2 = 7m 2 sin 2 cot. Therefore we can find the average value of i by calculating the
2
/ m sin cot,
2
average value of sin 2 cot. Note that a graph of cos 2 cot versus time is identical to a graph of sin cot
2
versus time, except that the points are shifted on the time axis. Thus, the time average of sin cot is
equal to the time average of cos 2 cot when taken over one or more complete cycles. That is,

(sin 2 cor) av = (cos 2 «>f) av

With this fact and the trigonometric identity sin 2 6 + cos 2 6 = 1, we get

(sin 2 tot) av + (cos 2 cot) av = 2(sin 2 cot) av = 1

(sin 2 tot) av = |

When this result is substituted in the expression 2 = Jm 2 sin 2 tot, we get (i 2 )„v = /„„* = /„, 2/2, or
i

Inm = Im /42, where 1^ is the rms current. The factor of 1/V2 is only valid for sinusoidally varying
currents. Other waveforms such as sawtooth variations have different factors.
 33.3 INDUCTORS IN AN AC CIRCUIT 931

EXAMPLE 33.1 What is the rms Current?

Vrm5
= ^200V =141V
An ac voltage source has an output given by the expres- 72 V2
sion t> = 200 sin tot. This source connected to a 100-fi
is

resistor as in Figure 33.1. Find the rms current in the Ohm's law can be used in resistive ac circuits as well
circuit. as in dc circuits. The calculated rms voltage can be used
with Ohm's law to find the rms current in the circuit:

\\. 141 V
Solution Compare the expression for the voltage output K, 1.41 A
given above with the general form, sin cot. We v = Vm
100 Q
see that the peak output voltage of the device is 200 V. Exercise 1 Find the peak current in the circuit.
Thus, the rms voltage output of the source is Answer 2 A.

33.3 INDUCTORS IN AN AC CIRCUIT

Now consider an ac circuit consisting only of an inductor connected to the
terminals of an ac generator as in Figure 33.4. If v L is the instantaneous voltage
drop across the inductor, then Kirchhoff's loop rule applied to this circuit gives
v + vL = 0, or

di
v-L—
dt
r
=n

When we rearrange this equation and substitute v = Vm sin cot, we get

Figure 33.4 A circuit consisting
L ~
dt
= Vm sin cot (33.8) of an inductor L connected to an ac
generator.

Integrating this expression 2 gives the current as a function of time

V = V,
= tI sin cot dt
coL
cos cot (33.9)

Using the trigonometric identity cos cot = sin(cot 7r/2), Equation 33.9 can
also be expressed as

^-k^-v (33.10)

Comparing this Equation 33.8 clearly shows that the current is out
result with
of phase with the voltage by n/2 rad, or 90°. A plot of the voltage and current
versus time is given in Figure 33.5a. The voltage reaches its peak value at a
time that is one quarter of the oscillation period before the current reaches its
peak value. The corresponding phasor diagram for this circuit is shown in
Figure 33.5b. Thus we see that

for a sinusoidal applied voltage, the current always lags behind the voltage The current in an inductor
across an inductor l>y 90°. lags the voltage by 90°

This can be understood by noting that since the voltage across the inductor is
proportional to di/dt, the value of v L is largest when the current is changing
most rapidly. Since i versus t is a sinusoidal curve, di/dt (the slope) is maximum
when the curve goes through zero. This shows that v L reaches its maximum
value when the current is zero.

2
The constant of integration is neglected here since it depends on the initial conditions, which are
not important for this situation.
932 CHAPTER 33 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

Figure 33.5 (a) Plots of the current and voltage across the inductor as functions of time. The
voltage leads the current by 90°. (b) The phasor diagram for the inductive circuit. Projections of
the phasors onto the vertical axis give the instantaneous values v L and i L .

From Equation 33.9 we see that the peak current Im is

Maximum current in an vHL= v_m

m (33.11)
inductor coL X T

where the quantity XL , called the inductive reactance, is given by

Inductive reactance coL (33.12)

The rms current is given by an expression similar to Equation 33.11, with Vm

replaced by Vrms .

The term reactance is used so that it is not confused with resistance.

Reactance is distinguished from resistance by the phase difference between v
and i. Recall that i and v are always in phase in a purely resistive circuit,
whereas i lags behind v by 90° in a purely inductive circuit.
Using Equations 33.8 and 33.11, we find that the instantaneous voltage
drop across the inductor can be expressed as

vL = Vm sin cot = lm XL sin cot (33.13)

We can think of Equation 33. 13 as Ohm's law for an inductive circuit. It is left
as a problem (Problem 8) to show that XL has the SI unit of ohm.
Note that the reactance of an inductor increases with increasing fre-
quency. This is because at higher frequencies, the current must change more
rapidly, which in turn causes an increase in the induced emf associated with a
given peak current.

= 2nf= = 377 _1
EXAMPLE 33.2 A Purely Inductive AC Circuit Solution First, note that to 2n(60) s .

In a purely inductive ac circuit (Fig. 33.4), L = 25 mH Equation 33.12 then gives

and the rms voltage is 150 V. Find the inductive reac-
XL =wL = (377 s-!)(25X IO- 3 H)= 9.43 £2
tance and rms current in the circuit if the frequency is
60 Hz.
 33.4 CAPACITORS IN AN AC CIRCUIT 933

The rms current is given by Exercise 2 Calculate the inductive reactance and rms
current in the circuit if the frequency is 6 kHz.
= _^ = 150V = 15.9 A Answers X,. = 943 £3, !„„, = 0.159 A.
XL 9.43 Q.

33.4 CAPACITORS IN AN AC CIRCUIT

Figure 33.6 shows an ac circuit consisting of a capacitor connected across the
terminals of an ac generator. KirchhofPs loop rule applied to this circuit gives
u — vc = 0, or

v = vc = Vm sin cot (33.14)

where v c the instantaneous voltage drop across the capacitor. But from the
is

definition of capacitance, v c = Q/C, which when substituted into Equation

33.14 gives

Q = CVm sin OJt (33.15) Figure 33.6 A circuit consisting

of a capacitor C connected to an ac
Since i = dQ/dt, differentiating Equation 33.15 gives the instantaneous generator,

current:

_dQ _
lc ~ dt~ coCVm cos cot (33.16)

Again, we see that the current is not in phase with the voltage drop across the
capacitor, given by Equation 33.14. Using the trigonometric identity

cos cot = sinl cot + — 1, we can express Equation 33. 16 in the alternative form

i c = coCVm sinl cot +— (33.17)

Comparing this expression with Equation 33.14, we see that the current is 90 °
out of phase with the voltage across the capacitor. A plot of the current and
voltage versus time (Fig. 33.7a) shows that the current reaches its peak value

Figure 33.7 (a) Plots of the current and voltage across the capacitor as functions of time. The
voltage lags behind the current by 90°. (b) Phasor diagram for the purely capacitive circuit.
Projections of the phasors onto the vertical axis gives the instantaneous values v c and i c .
934 CHAPTER 33 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

one quarter of a cycle sooner than the voltage reaches it peak value. The
corresponding phasor diagram in Figure 33.7b also shows that

The current leads the voltage for a sinusoidally applied emf, the current always leads the voltage across
across the capacitor by 90° a capacitor by 90°.

From Equation 33.17, we see that the peak current in the circuit is

V„
Zm = coCVm = (33.18)

where X c is called the capacitive reactance.

1
Capacitive reactance (33.19)
coC

The rms current is given by an expression similar to Equation 33.18, with Vm

replaced by Vras .

Combining Equations 33.14 and 33.18, we can express the instantaneous

voltage drop across the capacitor as

vc = Vm sin cot = Im X c sin cot (33.20)

The SI unit of X c is also the ohm. As the frequency of the circuit increases, the
current increases but the reactance decreases. For a given maximum applied
voltage Vm the current increases as the frequency increases. As the frequency
,

approaches zero, the capacitive reactance approaches infinity. Therefore, the

current approaches zero. This makes sense since the circuit approaches dc
conditions as co — * 0. Of course, a capacitor passes no current under steady-
state dc conditions.

EXAMPLE 33.3 A Purely Capacitive AC Circuit Hence, the rms current is

An 8-fiF capacitor connected to the terminals of an ac

is
_ 150 V
generator whose rms voltage is 150 V and whose fre-
quency is 60 Hz. Find the capacitive reactance and the
F
™_ Vnns
Xr 332 Q
,

0.452 A

rms current in the circuit.

Exercise 3 If the frequency is doubled, what happens
and the current?
Solution Using Equation 33.19 and the fact that w= to the capacitive reactance
_1 Answer Xc is halved, and I is doubled.
2nf= 377 s gives

1
332 Q
wC (377s- 1 )(8X10-6 F)

33.5 THE RLC SERIES CIRCUIT

In the previous sections,we examined the effects that an inductor, a capacitor,
and a have when placed separately across an ac-voltage source. We
resistor
shall now consider what happens when combinations of these devices are
used.
 33.5 THE RLC SERIES CIRCUIT 935

Figure 33.8a shows a circuit containing a resistor, an inductor, and a

capacitor connected in series across an ac-voltage source. As before, we as-
sume that the applied voltage varies sinusoidally with time. It is convenient to
assume that the applied voltage is given by

v = Vm sin cot

while the current varies as

i = Im sm(cot — 4>)
The quantity is (/> between the current and the applied
called the phase angle
voltage. Our aim determine (/> and Zm Figure 33.8b shows the voltage
is to .

versus time across each element in the circuit and their phase relations.
In order to solve this problem, we must construct and analyze the phasor
diagram for this circuit. First, note that since the elements are in series, the
current everywhere in the circuit must be the same at any instant. That is, the
ac current at all points in a series ac circuit has the same amplitude and phase.
Therefore, as we found in the previous sections, the voltage across each ele-
ment will have different amplitudes and phases, as summarized in Figure 33.9.
In particular, the voltage across the resistor is in phase with the current (Fig-
ure 33.9a), the voltage across the inductor leads the current by 90° (Fig. (b)

33.9b), and finally, the voltage across the capacitor lags behind the current by
90° (Fig. 33.9c). Using these phase relationships, we can express the instanta- Figure 33.8 (a) A series circuit
consisting of a resistor, an inductor,
neous voltage drops across the three elements as and a capacitor connected to an ac
generator, (b) Phase relations in
Vr Im R sin cot = VR sin cot (33.21) the series RLC circuit shown in
part (a).

vL = ImX sin(<yr + = VL cos cot (33.22)

-^J

vr = Im X r sin
inl cot — — = — Vc cos cot (33.23)
J

where VH VL
, , and Vc are the peak voltages across each element, given by

Vr = Im R (33.24)

VL = /m XL (33.25)

Vc = /m X c (33.26)

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 33.9 Phase relationships between the peak voltage and current phasors for (a) a resistor,
(b) an inductor, and (c) a capacitor.
936 CHAPTER 33 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

At this point, we could proceed by noting that the instantaneous voltage v

across the three elements equals the sum
v = t>„ + vL + v c (33.27)

Although this analytical approach is correct, it is simpler to obtain the sum by

examining the phasor diagram.
Because the current in each element is the same at any instant, we can
obtain the resulting phasor diagram by combining the three phasors shown in
Figure 33.9. This gives the diagram shown in Figure 33.10a, where a single
phasor lm is used to represent the current in each element. To obtain the vector
sum of these voltages, it is convenient to redraw the phasor diagram as in
Figure 33.10b. From this diagram, we see that the vector sum of the voltage
vL - vc , amplitudes VR VL and Vc equals a phasor whose length is the peak applied
, ,

voltage, Vm where the phasor Vm makes an angle (/> with the current phasor,
,

/ m Note that the voltage phasors VL and Vc are in opposite directions along the
.

same line, and hence we are able to construct the difference phasor VL — Vc ,

which is perpendicular to the phasor VR From the right triangle in Figure .

33.10b, we see that

vm = VvB 2 + (vL - vc 2 = ALR) 2 +) (im xL - zm xc )

2

Figure 33.10 (a) The phasor dia-

gram for the series RLC circuit Vm = Zm VR 2 + (X L - Xc (33.28)
shown in Figure 33.8. Note that
the phasor VB is in phase with the
current phasor 7m the phasor VL
, where X L = coL and Xc = 1/coC. Therefore, we can express the maximum
leads the phasor 7 m by 90°, and the current as
phasor Vc lags behind the phasor
Jm by 90°. The total voltage Vm
V„
makes an angle 4> with the cur- Im =
rent phasor I m (b) Simplified ver-
. VR 2 + (X L - Xc )
sion of the phasor diagram shown
in (a). The impedance Z of the circuit is defined to be

Z - VR 2 + (X L - Xc )
2
(33.29)

Therefore, we can write Equation 33.28 in the form

Vm = IJl (33.30)

Impedance also has the SI unit of ohm. We can regard Equation 33.30 as a
generalized Ohm's law applied to an ac circuit. Note that the current in the
circuit depends upon the resistance, the inductance, the capacitance, and the
Figure 33.11 The impedance frequency since the reactances are frequency dependent.
triangle for a series RLC circuit
By removing the common factor Jm from each phasor in Figure 33.10, we
which gives the relationship Z =
can also construct an impedance triangle, shown in Figure 33.11. From this
VR* + (X L - X c)*.
phasor diagram, we find that the phase angle 4> between the current and
voltage is given by

Phase angle <f>

tan <b = (33.31)

For example, when L X >

X c (which occurs at high frequencies), the phase
angle is positive, signifying that the current lags behind the applied voltage, as
 33.5 THE RLC SERIES CIRCUIT 937

Circuit
Elements Impedance, Z Phase angle,

o°

Xc -90°

Xl + 90°

Negative,
between —90° and 0"
Positive,
JW+xJ between 0° and 90°

Negative if X c >X L
y/R 2 + (X L -X c y Positive if X c <X

Figure 33.12 The impedance values and phase angles for various circuit element combinations.
In each case, an ac voltage (not shown) is applied across the combination of elements (that is,

across the dots).

in Figure 33.10. On the other hand, if XL c the phase angle is negative, <X ,

signifying that the current leads the applied voltage. Finally, when X L Xc = ,

the phase angle is zero. In this case, the ac impedance equals the resistance and
the current has its peak value, given byVm/R. The frequency at which this
occurs is called the resonance frequency, which will be described further in
Section 33.7.
Figure 33.12 gives impedance values and phase angles for various series
circuits containing different
combinations of circuit elements.

EXAMPLE 33.4 Analyzing a Series RLC Circuit VB = 7m R = (0.255 A)(250 Q) = 63.8 V

Analyze a series RLC ac circuit for which R = 250 Q,
Vl = l m X L = (0.255 A)(226 Q) = 57.6 V
L = 0.6 H, C = 3.5 /iF, a> = 377 s~\ and Vm = 150 V.
Vc = Im Xc = (0.255 A)(758 CI) = 193 V
Solution The reactances are given by XL = u>L = 226 Q Using Equations 33.21, 33.22, and 33.23, we find that
and X c = l/a>C = 758 Q. Therefore, the impedance is
the instantaneous voltages across the three elements can
equal to
be written
Z=JR 2 + (X L - Xc )
2
vR = (63.8 V) sin 377*
= 7(250 Q.)
2
+ (226 Q- 758 Q.)
2 = 588 Q.
vL = (57.6 V) cos 377f
The maximum current is given by
uc =(-193 V)cos377f
7
-
= Vm = 150 V =
^ 588n
„
-
_
255A ,
and the applied voltage is v = 150 sin(u>t — 64.8°). The
sum of the peak voltages is VH + V^ + Vc = 314 V,
The phase angle between the current and voltage is
which is much larger than the maximum voltage of the
generator, 150 V. The former is a meaningless quantity.
, JXL -XC \ ,/226-758\ This is because when harmonically varying quantities are
added, both their amplitudes and their phases must be
= -64.8° taken into account and we know that the peak voltages
across the different circuit elements occur at different
Since the circuitis more capacitive than inductive, (f> is times. That is, the voltages must be added in a way that
negative and the current leads the applied voltage. takes account of the different phases. When this is done,
The peak voltages across each element are given by Equation 33.28 is satisfied. You should verify this result.
 V

938 CHAPTER 33 ALTERNATING CURRENT CmCUITS

33.6 POWER IN AN AC CIRCUIT

As we shall see in this section, there are no power losses associated with pure
capacitors and pure inductors in an ac circuit. (A pure inductor is defined as one
with no resistance or capacitance.) First, let us analyze the power dissipated in
an ac circuit containing only a generator and a capacitor.
When the current begins to increase in one direction in an ac circuit,
charge begins to accumulate on the capacitor and a voltage drop appears
across it. When the voltage drop across the capacitor reaches its peak value,
2
the energy stored in the capacitor is |CVm However, this energy storage is
.

only momentary. The capacitor is charged and discharged twice during each
cycle. In this process, charge is delivered to the capacitor during two quarters
of the cycle, and is returned to the voltage source during the remaining two
quarters. Therefore, the average power supplied by tlie source is zero. In other
words, a capacitor in an ac circuit does not dissipate energy.
Similarly, the source must do work against the back emf of the inductor,
which carries a current. When the current reaches its peak value, the energy
stored in the inductor is a maximum and is given by \LI^ When the current .

begins to decrease in the circuit, this stored energy is returned to the source as
the inductor attempts to maintain the current in the circuit.
When we studied dc circuits in Chapter 27, we found that the power
delivered by a battery to an external circuit is equal to the product of the
current and the emf of the battery. Likewise, the instantaneous power deliv-
ered by an ac generator to any circuit is the product of the generator current
and the applied voltage. For the RLC circuit shown in Figure 33.8, we can
express the instantaneous power P as

P= iv = Im sin(a>t — m sin cot]

<f))[

= Im Vm sin cot sin(cot - cp) (33.32)

Clearly this result is a complicated function of time and, in itself, is not very
useful from a practical viewpoint. What is generally of interest is the average
power over one or more cycles. Such an average can be computed by first

using the trigonometric identity sin(cot — cp) = sin cot cos <p — cos cot sin cp.

Substituting this into Equation 33.32 gives

P = Im Vm sin 2 cot cos cf>

— Im Vm sin cot cos cot sin cp (33.33)

We now take the time average of P over one or more cycles, noting that /m Vm , ,

cp, and co are all constants. The time average of the first term on the right of
Equation 33.33 involves the average value of sin 2 cot, which is £, as shown in
footnote 1 The time average of the second term on the right of Equation 33.33
.

is identically zero because sin cot cos cot = £ sin 2cot whose average value is ,

zero.
Therefore, we can express the average power Pav as

P„ = tt»Vn cos cp (33.34)

It is convenient to express the average power in terms of the rms current

and rms voltage defined by Equations 33.6 and 33.7. Using these defined
quantities, the average power becomes

Average power Pav = ITms VTms cos cp (33.35)

 33.7 RESONANCE IN A SERIES RLC CIRCUIT 939

where the quantity cos (f)

is called the power factor. By inspecting Figure
33.10, we see that the maximum voltage drop across the resistor is given by
V„ = Vm cos = Im R. Using Equations 33.6 and 33.7 and the fact that
cos = Im R/Vm we find that P can be expressed as
,
ttV

P„v = Irm <V m * cos <£ = /„,.-£-£- = /.

In/2/ Vm 42

^av = JLsR (33.36)

In other words, the average power delivered by the generator is dissipated as

heat in the resistor, just as in the case of a dc circuit. There is no power loss in an
ideal inductor or capacitor. When the load is purely resistive, then </> = 0,
cos (f)= 1, and from Equation 33.35 we see that Pav = I^V^.

EXAMPLE RLC Series

Circuit
33.5 Average Power in a
U = -p = VJZ =
Im

V2
-**=-
41
0.255
4i
—A = „
0.
„
180 A
Calculate the average power delivered to the series RLC
circuit described in Example 33.4. Since </> = -64.8°, the power factor, cos </>, is 0.426,
and hence the average power is
Solution First, let us calculate the rms voltage and rms Pav = J V cos </> = (0.180 A)(106 V)(0. 426)
current:

_ Vm _ 150 V = 8.13W
42 V2 The same result can be obtained using Equation 33.36.

33.7 RESONANCE IN A SERIES RLC CIRCUIT

A series RLC circuit is be in resonance when the current has
said to its peak
value. In general, the rms current can be written

Us = ~y ( 33 37
-
)

where Z is the impedance. Substituting Equation 33.29 into 33.37 gives the
relationship

/rms (33 38)

'

V R' + xT-Xc) 2
(

Because the impedance depends on the frequency of the source, we see that
the current in the RLC circuit will also depend on the frequency. Note that the
current reaches its peak when X L = X C corresponding to Z = R. The fre- ,

quency to at which this occurs is called the resonance frequency of the circuit.
To find co we use the condition XL = Xc from which we get
, ,

co
.
L= —— 1

co C

1
(33.39) Resonance frequency
Ilc
940 CHAPTER 33 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

Note that this frequency also corresponds to the natural frequency of oscilla-
tion of an LC circuit (Section 32.5). Therefore, the current in a series RLC
circuit reaches peak value when the frequency of the applied voltage
its

matches the natural oscillator frequency, which depends only on L and C.

Furthermore, at this frequency the current is in phase with the applied
voltage.
A rms current versus frequency for a series RLC circuit is
plot of the
shown Figure 33.13a. The data that are plotted assume a constant rms
in
voltage of 5 mV, L = 5 //H, and C = 2 nF. The three curves correspond to
three different values of R. Note that in each case, the current reaches its peak
value at the resonance frequency, (o Furthermore, the curves become nar-
.

rower and taller as the resistance decreases.

By inspecting Equation 33.38, one must conclude that the current would
become infinite at resonance when R = 0. Although the equation predicts this,
real circuits always have some resistance, which limits the value of the current.
Mechanical systems can also exhibit resonances. For example, when an un-
damped mass-spring system is driven at its natural frequency of oscillation, its
amplitude increases with time, as we discussed in Chapter 13. Large-ampli-
tude mechanical vibrations can be disastrous, as in the case of the Tacoma
Narrows Bridge collapse. (See the essay in Chapter 13.)
It is also interesting to calculate the average power as a function of fre-
quency for a series RLC circuit. Using Equation 33.36 together with Equation
33.37, we find that

V2^ = V2 R
P„„ = JL,R R (33.40)
z 2
R + (Xt - Xc) 2
2

1.4
 33.7 RESONANCE IN A SERIES RLC CIRCUIT 941

Since XL = coL, X c = —— , and co

2 = 1/LC, the factor (X L — Xc )
2
can be ex-
coL
pressed as

Using this result in Equation 33.40 gives

= VL.Rw 2
F.» (33.41) Power in an RLC circuit
R 2 co 2 + L2 (co 2 - coQ
2
)
2

This expression shows that at resonance, when co = co the average power is a ,

maximum and has the value V^^/R. A plot of the average power versus the
frequency co of the applied voltage is shown in Figure 33.13b for the series
RLC circuit described in Figure 33.13a, taking R = 3.5 and R = 10 Q. As Q
the resistance is made smaller, the curve becomes sharper in the vicinity of the
resonance. The sharpness of the curve is usually described by a dimensionless
parameter known as the quality factor, denoted by Q (not to be confused with
the symbol for charge), which is given by the ratio 3

(Op
<2o (33.42)
Aco

where Aco is the width of the curve measured between the two values of co for
which Pav has half its maximum value (half-power points, see Figure 33.13b).
It is left as a problem (Problem 87) to show that the width at the half-power

points has the value Aco = R/L, so that

Qo = (33.43) Quality factor

R

That is,
Q is equal to the ratio of the inductive reactance to the resistance
evaluated at the resonance frequency, co . Note that Q is a dimensionless Small R,
high Qo
quantity.
The curves plotted in Figure 33.14 show that a high-() circuit responds
to a very narrow range of frequencies, whereas a low-Q circuit responds to a
much broader range of frequencies. Typical values of Q in electronic circuits
range from 10 to 100. For example, Q = 14.3 for the circuit described in
Figure 33.13 when R = 3.5 Q.
The receiving circuit of a radio is an important application of a resonant
circuit. The radio is tuned to a particular station (which transmits a specific
radio frequency signal) by varying a capacitor, which changes the resonant
frequency of the receiving circuit. When the resonance frequency of the
Figure 33. 1 4 Plots of the average
circuit matches that of the incoming radio wave, the current in the receiving power versus frequency for a series
circuit increases. This signal is then amplified and fed to a speaker. Since many RLC circuit (see Eq. 33.41). The
signals are often present over a range of frequencies, it is important to design a upper, narrow curve is for a small
value of B, and the lower, broad
high-Qo circuit in order to eliminate unwanted signals. In this manner, stations curve is for a large value of R. The
whose frequencies are near but not at the resonance frequency will give width A(u of each curve is mea-
sured between points where the
3
The quality factor is also defined as the ratio 2nE/AE, where E is the energy stored in the power is half its maximum value.
oscillating system and AE is the energy lost per cycle of oscillation. One can also define the quality The power is a maximum at the res-
factor for a mechanical system such as a damped oscillator. onance frequency, u> .
942 CHAPTER 33 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

negligibly small signals at the receiver relative to the one that matches the
resonance frequency.

EXAMPLE 33.6 A Resonating Scries RLC Circuit 5X lO^- 1

1

Consider a series RLC circuit for which R = 150 £2, L = fLC

20 mH, Vms = 20 V, and to = 5000 sT 1 Determine the
.

value of the capacitance for which the current has its C=

peak value. (25 X 1(

Solution The current has its peak value at the resonance 2.00 fiF
(25 x io 6 s~ 2 )(20 x 10- 3 h;
frequency co which should be made to match the "driv-
,

ing" frequency of 5000 s

_1
in this problem: Exercise 4 Calculate the maximum value of the rms
current in the circuit.
Answer 0.133 A.

°33.S FILTER CIRCUITS

In this section, we give a brief description of RC filters, which are commonly
used in ac circuits to modify the characteristics of a time-varying signal. A filter
circuit can be used to smooth out or eliminate a time-varying voltage. For
example, radios are usually powered by a 60-Hz ac voltage. The ac voltage is
converted to dc using a rectifier circuit. After rectification, however, the volt-
age will still contain a small ac component at 60 Hz (sometimes called ripple),
which must be filtered. This 60-Hz ripple must be reduced to a value much
smaller than the audio signal to be amplified. Without filtering, the resulting
audio signal includes an annoying hum at 60 Hz.
First, consider the simple series RC circuit shown in Figure 33.15a. The
input voltage is across the two elements and is represented by Vm sin cot. Since
we shall be interested only in peak values, we can use Equation 33.30, which
shows that the peak input voltage is related to the peak current by

=," z=
W" +(j_)' s

Ifthe voltage across the resistor is considered to be the output voltage, Vout ,

then from Ohm's law the peak output voltage is given by

V„„, = 7m R

V„ ut /Vi

Figure 33. 15 (a) A simple RC high-pass filter, (b) Ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage
for an RC high-pass filter.
 33.9 THE TRANSFORMER AND POWER TRANSMISSION 943

(a)

Figure 33. 16 (a) A simple RC low-pass filter, (b) Ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage
for an RC low-pass filter.

Therefore, the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage is given by

VoHl = R

A
frequencies, , is small
V,

compared with
^m
plot of Equation 33.34, given in Figure 33.15b,
Vou V
high frequencies the
in , whereas at
shows that
(33.44)

at low
High-pass filter

two voltages are equal. Since the circuit preferentially passes signals of higher
frequency while low frequencies are filtered (or attenuated), the circuit is
called an RC high-pass filter. Physically, the high-pass filter is a result of the
"blocking action" of the capacitor to direct current or low frequencies.
Now consider the RC series circuit shown in Figure 33.16a, where the
output voltage is taken across the capacitor. In this case, the peak voltage
equals the voltage across the capacitor. Since the impedance across the capaci-
tor is Xc = 1/coC,

Im
V„., = 7m Xr =
coC

Therefore, the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage is given by

V™.
Y
out 1/coC
(33.45) Low-pass filter

v^w
This ratio, plotted in Figure 33.16b, shows that in this case the circuit prefer-
entially passes signals of low frequency. Hence, the circuit is called an RC
low-pass filter.
We have considered only two simple filters. One can also use a series RL
circuit as a high-pass or low-pass filter. It
is also possible to design filters, called
band-pass filters, that pass only a narrow range of frequencies.

°33.9 THE TRANSFORMER AND POWER TRANSMISSION

When power is transmitted over large distances, it is economical to
electrical
use a high voltage and low current to minimize the PR heating loss in the
transmission lines. For this reason, 350-kV lines are common, and in many
 ,

944 CHAPTER 33 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

areas even higher-voltage (765 kV) lines are under construction. Such high-
voltage transmission systems have met with considerable public resistance
because of the potential safety and environmental problems they pose. At the
receiving end of such lines, the consumer requires power at a low voltage and
high current (for safety and efficiency in design) to operate such things as
appliances and motor-driven machines. Therefore, a device is required that
will increase (or decrease) the ac voltage V and current I without causing
appreciable changes in the product IV. The ac transformer is the device used
for this purpose.
Soft iron In its simplest form, the ac transformer consists of two coils of wire wound
around a core of soft iron as in Figure 33.17. The coil on the left, which is
connected to the input ac voltage source and has N l turns, is called the primary
winding (or primary). The coil on the right, consisting of N2 turns and con-
nected to a load resistor R, is called the secondary. The purpose of the common
Secondary iron core is to increase the magnetic flux and to provide a medium in which
(output) nearly all the flux through one coil passes through the other coil. Eddy current
4
losses are reduced by using a laminated iron core. Soft iron is used as the core
Figure 33.17 An ideal trans-
former consists of two coils wound
material to reduce hysteresis losses. Joule heat losses due to the finite resist-
on the same soft iron core. An ac ance of the coil wires are usually quite small. Typical transformers have power
voltage V! is applied to the primary efficiencies ranging from 90% to 99%. In what follows, we shall assume an
coil, and the output voltage V2 is
ideal transformer, for which there are no power losses.
across the load resistance R.
First, let us consider what happens in the primary circuit when the switch
in the secondary circuit of Figure 33.17 is open. If we assume that the resist-
ance of the primary coil is negligible relative to its inductive reactance, then
the primary circuit is equivalent to a simple circuit consisting of an inductor
connected to an ac generator (described in Section 33.3). Since the current is
90° out of phase with the voltage, the power factor, cos (f), is zero, and hence
the average power delivered from the generator to the primary circuit is zero.
Faraday's law tells us that the voltage V, across the primary coil is given by

V,=-N, (33.46)
dt

where Om is the magnetic flux through each turn. If we assume that no flux

leaks out of the iron core, then the flux through each turn of the primary equals
the flux through each turn of the secondary. Hence, the voltage across the
secondary coil is given by

V.--N. (33.47)
dt

Since d<£>Jdt is common to Equations 33.46 and 33.47, we find that

(33.48)

When N2 is greater than N, the output voltage V2 exceeds the input

,

voltage V This is referred to as a step-up transformer. When N2 is less than N,

x
.

4 Losses in the core are present even under the condition of no load, that is, when the secondary
circuit is open. Most of the power loss in this case is in the form of hysteresis losses as the
core is
magnetized cyclically.
 33.9 THE TRANSFORMER AND POWER TRANSMISSION 945

the output voltage is less than the input voltage, and we speak of a step-down
transformer.
When the switch in the secondary circuit is closed, a current l2 is induced
inthe secondary. If the load in the secondary circuit is a pure resistance, R L ,

the induced current will be in phase with the induced voltage. The power
supplied to the secondary circuit must be provided by the ac generator that is
connected to the primary circuit, as in Figure 33.18. An ideal transformer with
a resistive load is one in which the energy losses in the transformer windings
and core can be neglected. In an ideal transformer, the power supplied by the
generator, Il V 1 , is equal to the power in the secondary circuit, I2 V2 . That is,

hV = hVt
l (33.49)
Figure 33.18 Conventional cir-
cuit diagram for a transformer.

Clearly, the value of the load resistance R determines the value of the second-
ary current, since I2 = VJR. Furthermore, the current in the primary is Zj =
V,/R eq where R eq is the equivalent resistance of the load resistance R when
,

viewed from the primary side, given by

(33.50)

From this analysis, we see that a transformer may be used to match resistances
between the primary circuit and the load. In this manner, one can achieve
maximum power transfer between a given power source and the load resist-
ance.
In real transformers, the power in the secondary is typically between 90%
and 99% of the primary power. The energy losses are due mainly to hysteresis
losses in the transformer core, and thermal energy losses from currents in-
duced in the core and the coil windings themselves.
We can now understand why transformers are useful for transmitting
power over long distances. By stepping up the generator
voltage, the current
in the transmission line reduced, thereby reducing PR losses. In practice,
is

the voltage is stepped up to around 230 000 V at the generating station, then
stepped down to around 20 000 V at a distributing station, and finally stepped
down to 1 1 - 220 V at the customer's utility poles. The power is supplied by a
three-wire cable. In the United States, two of these wires are "hot," with
voltages of 1 10 V with respect to a common ground wire. Most home appli-
ances operating on 110 V are connected in parallel between one of the hot
wires and ground. Larger appliances, such as electric stoves and clothes
dryers, require 220 V. This is obtained across the two hot wires, which are
180° out of phase so that the voltage difference between them is 220 V.
There is a practical upper limit to the voltages one can use in transmission
lines. Excessive voltages could ionize the air surrounding the transmission
lines, which could result in a conducting path to ground or to other objects in
the vicinity. This, of course, would present a serious hazard to any living
creatures. For this reason, a long string of insulators is used to keep high-volt-
age wires away from their supporting metal towers. Other insulators are used
to maintain separation between wires.
946 CHAPTER 33 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

EXAMPLE 33.7 A Step-up Transformer (b) What percentage of the original power would be
A generator produces 10 A (rms) of current at 400 V. lost in the transmission line if the voltage were not
The voltage is stepped up to 4500 V by an ideal trans- stepped up?
former and transmitted a long distance through a power
30 £1 (a) Determine the percent-
line of total resistance Solution If the voltage were not stepped up, the current
age of power lost when the voltage is stepped up. in the transmission line would be 1 A and the power lost
in the line would be PR = (10 A) 2 (30 Q.) = 3000 W.
Solution From Equation 33.49, we find that the current Hence, the percentage of power lost would be
in the transmission line is
3000
V1 _
_(10A)(400 V)
% power lost :
X 100 75%
_ 7
'i1 v 4000
/,= i
0.89 A
V, 4500 V
This example illustrates the advantage of high-voltage
Hence, the power lost in the transmission line is transmission lines.

P\ost = h2R = (0.89 A) 2 (30 LI) = 24 W Exercise 5 If the transmission line is cooled so that the
Since the output power of the generator is P = IV — resistance is reduced to 5 fi, how much power will be
( 1 A)(400 V) = 4000 W, we find that the percentage of lost in the line if it carries a current of 0.89 A?
power lost is Answer 4 W.

% power lost = ( —^x) X 100= 0.6%

SUMMARY
If an ac circuit consists of a generator and a resistor, the current in the circuit
is in phase with the voltage. That is, the current and voltage reach their peak
values at the same time.
in an ac circuit in which the voltages
The rms current and rms voltage
and current vary sinusoidally are given by the relations

= 0.707Z„ (33.6)
4i

V„„S = -^ = 0.707V„ (33.7)

y/2

where Im and Vm are the peak values of the current and voltage, respec-
tively.
If an ac circuit consists of a generator and an inductor, the current lags
behind the voltage by 90°. That is, the voltage reaches its peak value one
quarter of a period before the current reaches its peak value.
If an ac circuit consists of a generator and a capacitor, the current leads
the voltage by 90 ° That is, the current reaches its peak value one quarter of
.

a period before the voltage reaches its peak value.

In ac circuits that contain inductors and capacitors, it is useful to define
the inductive reactance XL and capacitive reactance X c as

Inductive reactance XL = coL (33.12)

1
Capacitive reactance Xr = (33.19)
coC
 SUMMARY 947

where to is the angular frequency of the ac generator. The SI unit of reac-

tance the ohm.
is

The rms current in a series RLC circuit is

VL
J m .= (33.38)
VR 2 + (X L -XC )
2

where Vms is the rms value of the applied voltage.

The quantity in the denominator of Equation 33.38 is defined as the
impedance Z of the circuit, which also has the unit of ohm:
Z = VR 2 + (X, Xc 2 ) (33.29) Impedance

In an RLC series ac circuit, the applied voltage and current are out of
phase. The phase angle </> between the current and voltage is given by
x L -x c
tan </> (33.31) Phase angle
R
The sign ofcan be positive or negative, depending on whether XL
<f) is

Xc The phase angle is zero when XL = Xc

greater or less than . .

The average power delivered by the generator in an RLC ac circuit is

given by

Pav = JnnsVrms COS </> (33.35) Average power

An equivalent expression for the average power is

P»v = IL R S (33.36) Average power

The average power delivered by the generator is dissipated as heat in the

resistor. There is no power loss in an ideal inductor or capacitor.
A series RLC circuit is in resonance when the inductive reactance
equals the capacitive reactance. When this condition is met, the current
given by Equation 33.38 reaches its peak value. Setting XL = Xc , one finds
that the resonance frequency co of the circuit has the value

a) = 1/VLC (33.39) Resonance frequency

The current in a series RLC circuit reaches peak value when the fre-
its

quency of the generator equals co , that is, when the "driving" frequency
matches the resonance frequency.
A transformer is a device designed to raise or lower an ac voltage and
current without causing an appreciable change in the product IV. In its
simplest form, it consists of a primary coil of N l turns and a secondary coil of
N2 turns, both wound on a common soft iron core. When a voltage Vi is
applied across the primary, the voltage V2 across the secondary is given by

*-£* (33.48)

In an ideal transformer, the power delivered by the generator must equal

the power dissipated in the load. If a load resistor R is connected across the
secondary coil, this means that

IM = !& = -*- (33.49)

948 CHAPTER 33 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by the statement "the voltage across an 20. What is the time average of the "square-wave" poten-
inductor leads the current by 90°"? tial shown in Figure 33.19? What is its rms voltage?

2. Explain why the reactance of a capacitor decreases

with increasing frequency, whereas the reactance of
an inductor increases with increasing frequency.
3. Why does a capacitor act as a short circuit at high
frequencies? Why does it act as an open circuit at low Figure 33.19
frequencies? (Question 20).
4. Explain how the acronym "ELI the ICE man" can be
used to recall whether current leads voltage or volt-
21. Do ac ammeters and voltmeters read peak, rms, or
average values?
age leads current in RLC circuits.
22. Is the voltage applied to a circuit always in phase with
5. Why is the sum of the peak voltages across each of the
the current through a resistor in the circuit?
elements in a series RLC circuit usually greater than
the peak applied voltage? Doesn't this violate Kirch-
23. Would an inductor and a capacitor used together in an
ac circuit dissipate any power?
hoff 's voltage law?
6. Does the phase angle depend on frequency? What is
24. Show that the peak current in an RLC circuit occurs

the phase angle when the inductive reactance equals

when the circuit is in resonance.

the capacitive reactance?

25. Explain how the quality factor is related to the re-

RLC circuit, what the possible range of

sponse characteristics of a receiver. Which variable
7. In a series is

values for the phase angle?

most strongly determines the quality factor?
8. If the frequency is doubled in a series RLC circuit,
26. List some applications for a filter circuit.
what happens to the resistance, the inductive reac- 27. The approximate efficiency of an incandescent lamp
for converting electrical energy into heat is (a) 30%,
tance, and the capacitive reactance?
(b) 60%, (c) 100%, or (d) 10%.
9. Energy is delivered to a series RLC circuit by a gener-
ator. This energy is dissipated as heat in the resistor.
28. A night-watchman is fired by his boss for being waste-
What is the source of this energy? fuland keeping all the lights on in the building. The
10. Explain why the average power delivered to an RLC night-watchman defends himself by claiming that the
building is electrically heated, so his boss's claim is
circuitby the generator depends on the phase be-
tween the current and applied voltage. unfounded. Who should win the argument if this were
11. A particular experiment requires a beam of light of to end up in a court of law?

very stable intensity. Why would an ac voltage be 29. Why are the primary and secondary coils of a trans-
former wrapped on an iron core that passes through
unsuitable for powering the light source?
What the impedance of an RLC circuit at the reso-
both coils?
12. is
30. With reference to Figure 33.20, explain why the ca-
nance frequency?
pacitor prevents a dc voltage from passing between
13. Consider a series RLC circuit in which R is an incan-
descent lamp, Csome fixed capacitor, and L is a
is
A and B, yet allows an ac signal to pass from A to B.
(The circuits are said to be capacitively coupled.)
variable inductance. The source is 110 V ac. Explain
why the lamp glows brightly for some values of L and
does not glow at all for other values.
14. What is the advantage of transmitting power at high
voltages?
1 5. What determines the peak voltage that can be used on
a transmission line?
16. Why do power lines carry electrical energy at several
thousand volts potential, but it is always stepped
down to 240 V or 120 V as it enters your home?
17. Will a transformer operate if a battery is used for the
input voltage across the primary? Explain.
1 8. How can the average value of a current be zero and

yet the square root of the average squared current not

be zero?
1 9. What is the time average of a sinusoidal potential with

amplitude Vm ? What is its rms voltage?

 PROBLEMS 949

PROBLEMS
Assume all AC voltages and currents are sinusoidal, unless Section 33.3 Inductors in an AC Circuit
stated otherwise.
8. Show that the inductive reactance XL has the SI unit of
ohm.
Section 33.2 Resistors in an AC Circuit
9. In a purely inductive ac circuit, as in Figure 33.4,
1 Show that the rms value for the sawtooth voltage Vm = 100 V. (a) If the peak current is 7.5 A at a fre-
shown in Figure 33.22 is given by Vm />/3. quency of 50 Hz, calculate the inductance L. (b) At
2. (a) What
is the resistance of a lightbulb that uses an what angular frequency to will the maximum current
average power of 75 W
when connected to a 60-Hz be reduced to 2.5 A?
power source with a peak voltage of 170 V? (b) What 10. When is connected to a sinusoi-
a particular inductor
is the resistance of a 100-W bulb? dal voltage with a 10-V amplitude, a peak current of
1

3 A appears in the inductor, (a) What will be the peak

current if the frequency of the applied voltage is dou-
bled? (b) What is the inductive reactance at these two
frequencies?

Figure 33.22
(Problem 1). :t^t^ 1 1. An
that
inductoris connected to a 20-Hz power supply

produces a 50-V rms voltage. What inductance is

needed to keep the instantaneous current in the cir-
cuit below 80 mA?
3. An power supply produces a peak voltage Vm =
ac
1 2. An inductor has a 54-£2 reactance at 60 Hz. What will
100 V. This power supply is connected to a 24-fi re-
be the peak current if this inductor is connected to a
sistor, and the current and resistor voltage are mea-
50-Hz source that produces a 100-V rms voltage?
sured with an ideal ac ammeter and voltmeter, as
13. For the circuit shown in Figure 33.4, Vm = 80 V,
shown in Figure 33.23. What does each meter read?
a> = 657T rad/s, and L = 70 mH. Calculate the current
in the inductor at ( = 0.0155 s.
14. (a) If L = 310 mH and Vm = 130 V in the circuit of

Figure 33.4, at what frequency will the inductive

reactance equal 40 CI? (b) Calculate the peak value of
the current in the circuit at this frequency.
15. What is the inductance of a coil that has an induc-
tive reactance of 63 il at an angular frequency of
820 rad/s?

Figure 33.23 Section 33.4 Capacitors in an AC Circuit

(Problem 3).
16. Show that the SI unit of capacitive reactance is the
In the simple ac circuit Figure 33.1, let R =
shown in ohm.
60 CI, Vm — 100 V, and the frequency of the genera- 17. (a) For what linear frequencies does a 22-fiF capacitor

tor/^ 50 Hz. Assume that the voltage across the re- have a reactance below 175 Q? (b) Over this same
sistor Vn = when t = 0. Calculate (a) the peak frequency range, what would be the reactance of a
current in the resistor and (b) the angular frequency 44-//F capacitor?
of the generator. 18. Calculate the capacitive reactance of a 10-fiF capaci-
Use the values given in Problem 4 for the circuit of tor when connected to an ac generator having an an-
Figure 33.1 to calculate the current through the resis- gular frequency of 957T rad/s.
tor at (a) t = Jg s and (b) t = j^ s. 19. A 98-pF capacitor is connected to a 60-Hz power sup-
In the simple ac circuit Figure 33.1, R =
shown in ply that produces a20-V rms voltage. What is the
70 £1 (a) If VR = 0.25 m at t = 0.01 s, what is the maximum charge that appears on either of the capaci-
angular frequency of the generator? (b) What is the tor plates?
next value of t for which VB will be 0.25 Vm ? 20. A = Vm cos cot is applied to a
sinusoidal voltage v(t)
The current in the circuit shown in Figure 33. 1 equals capacitor as shownFigure 33.24. (a) Write an ex-
in
60% of the peak current at t = 0.007 s. What is the pression for the instantaneous charge on the capacitor
smallest frequency of the generator that gives this in terms of Vm C, t, and co. (b) What is the instanta-
,

current? neous current in the circuit?

950 CHAPTER 33 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

30. A 400-£2 resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor are in

series with a generator. When the frequency is ad-
justed to 600/71 Hz, the inductive reactance is 700 £2.
What is the minimum value of capacitance that will
result in a circuit impedance of 910 £2?
31. An ac source with Vm = 150 V and/= 50 Hz is con-
nected between points a and d in Figure 33.25. Cal-
-q\\ +q culate the peak voltages between points (a) a and b,
(b) b and c, (c) c and d, (d) b and d.
Figure 33.24 (Problem 20).

21. What peak current will be delivered by an ac genera- ^-AMr-^WIP—•— 1|

•

Vm = 48 V and /= 90 Hz when connected 40(1 18.5 in H 65 fiF

tor with
across a 3.7 -fiF capacitor?
Figure 33.25 (Problem 31).
22. A variable-frequency ac generator with Vm = 18 V is
-8
connected across a 9.4 X 10 -F capacitor. At what
frequency should the generator be operated to pro- 32. Draw diagram showing Z, X L X c
to scale a phasor , ,

vide a peak current of 5 A? and <f>

an ac series circuit for which R = 300 £2,
f° r
23. The generator in a purely capacitive ac circuit (Fig. C= 1 1 fiF, L = 0.2 H, and/= 500/tt Hz.

33.6) has an angular frequency of 1007T rad/s and 33. An inductor (L = 400 mH), a capacitor (C =
Vm = 220 V. If C = 20 fiF, what is the current in the 4.43 fiF), and a resistor (R = 500 £2) are connected in
circuit at t = 0.004 s? series. A 50-Hz ac generator produces a peak current
of 250 mA in the circuit, (a) Calculate the required
Section 33.5 The RLC Series Circuit peak voltage Vm (b) Determine the angle by which
.

the current in the circuit leads or lags behind the ap-

24. At what frequency will the inductive reactance of a
plied voltage.
57-fiH inductance equal the capacitive reactance of a
34. A series RLC circuit with R = 1500 £2 and C = 15 nF
57-fiF capacitor?
isconnected to an ac generator whose frequency can
25. A series ac circuit contains the following components:
be varied. When the frequency is adjusted to
R = 150 Q, L = 250 raH, C = 2 fiF and a generator
50.5 kHz, the rms current in the circuit reaches a
with Vm = 210 V operating at 50 Hz. Calculate the
maximum at 0.14 A. Determine (a) the inductance
(a) inductive reactance, (b) capacitive reactance,
and (b) the rms value of the generator voltage.
(c) impedance, (d) peak current, and (e) phase angle.
26. A sinusoidal voltage v(t) = (40 V) sin(100t) is applied
to a series RLC circuit with L = 160 mH, C = 99 fiF,
Section 33.6 Power in an AC Circuit
and R = 68 fi. (a) What is the impedance of the cir-
cuit? (b) What is the current amplitude? (c) Deter- 35. Calculate the average power delivered to the series
mine the numerical values for /m u>, and </> in the , RLC circuit described in Problem 25.
equation i(t) = Im sin(wt — <f>). 36. Consider the circuit described in Problem 28.
27. An RLC circuit consists of a 150-£2 resistor, a 21-fiF (a) What is the power factor of the circuit? (b) What is
capacitor, and a 460-mH inductor, connected in the rms current in the circuit? (c) What average power

series with a 120-V, 60-Hz power supply, (a) What is is delivered by the source?

the phase angle between the current and the applied 37. An ac voltage of the form (in SI units)
voltage? (b) Does the current or voltage reach its peak
o= 100 sin(1000f)
earlier?
28. Aresistor (R = 900 £2), a capacitor (C = 0.25 fiF), and is applied to a series RLC circuit. If R = 400 £2, C=
an inductor (L = 2.5 H) are connected in series across 5.0 fiF, and L = 0.50 H, find the average power dissi-
a 240-Hz ac source for which Vm = 140 V. Calculate pated in the circuit.
the (a) impedance of the circuit, (b) peak current de- 38. An ac voltage with an amplitude of 100 V is applied to
livered by the source, and (c) phase angle between the a series combination ofa200-/zF capacitor, a 100-mH
current and voltage, (d) Is the current leading or lag- inductor, and a 20-£2 resistor. Calculate the power
ging behind the voltage? and the power factor for a frequency of
dissipation
29. A coil with an inductance of 18. 1 mH
and a resistance (a) 60 Hz and (b) 50 Hz.

of 7 £2 is connected to a variable-frequency ac genera- 39. The rms terminal voltage of an ac generator is 200 V.
tor. At what frequency will the voltage across the coil The operating frequency is 100 Hz. Write the equa-
lead the current by 45°? tion giving the output voltage as a function of time.
 PROBLEMS 951

40. The average power in a circuit for which the rms 52. The RC low-pass filter shown in Figure 33.16 has a
current is 5 A is 450 W. Calculate the resistance of resistance R = 90 Q and a capacitance C =
8000 pF.
the circuit. Calculate the gain (Vou ,/Vin ) for an input frequency
41. In a certain series RLC circuit, Inns = 9 A, V,^ = (a)/= 600 Hz, and (b)/= 600 kHz.
180 V, and the current leads the voltage by 37°. 53. Assign the values of R and C given in Problem 50
(a) What is the total resistance of the circuit? (b) Cal- to the circuit shown in Figure 33.16 and calculate
culate the reactance of the circuit (X L — Xc ). VoJVir, for (a) co = 300 s~ and (b) co = 7 X 10 s S"1
l
.

42. A series RLC and an

circuit has a resistance of 45 il 54. (a) For the circuit shown in Figure 33.26, show that
impedance of 75 CI. What average power will be deliv- the maximum possible value of the ratio V^/Vj,, is

ered to this circuit when Vrms = 210 V? unity, (b) At what frequency (expressed in terms of R,
L, and C) does this occur?

Section 33.7 Resonance in a Series RLC Circuit

43. Calculate the resonance frequency of a series RLC
circuit for which C= 8.4 /iF and L = 120 mH.
44. (a) Compute the quality factor for each of the circuits

described in Problems 26 and 27. (b) Which of these

two circuits has the sharper resonance?
45. An RLC circuit is used in a radio to tune into an FM
station broadcasting at 99.7 MHz. The resistance in
the circuit is 12 Q and the inductance is 1.40 //H. Figure 33.26 (Problems 54 and 55).
What capacitance should be used?
46. The tuning circuit of an AM radio is a parallel LC 55. The circuit shown Figure 33.26 can be used as a
in
combination that has l-Q resistance. The inductance filter to lie in a certain frequency
pass signals that
is 0.2 mH and the capacitor is variable, so that the
band, (a) Show that the gain (Vout /Vjn ) for an input
circuit can resonate at frequencies between 550 kHz voltage of frequency co is given by
and 1650 kHz. Find the range of values for C.
47. A coil of resistance 35 Q and inductance 20.5 H is in 1

series with a capacitor and a 200- V (rms), 100-Hz

source. The current in the circuit is 4 A (rms). (a) Cal-
culate the capacitance in the circuit, (b) What is V^^ V 1+ L WRc J
across the coil?
(b) LetR= 100 ft, C= 0.050 fiF, and L = 0.127 H.
48. A series RLC circuit has the following values: L=
20 mH, C = 100 nF, R = 20 £1, and V = 100 V, with Compute the gain of this circuit for input frequencies
= V sin cot. Find (a) the resonant frequency, (b) the
v /] = 1.5 kHz,/2 = 2.0 kHz, and/3 = 2.5 kHz.

amplitude of the current at the resonant frequency, 56. Show that two successive high-pass filters with the
(c) the Q of the circuit, and (d) the amplitude of the
same values of R and C give a combined gain
voltage across the inductor at resonance.
1
49. Consider a series combination of a 10-mH inductor, a
100-/iF capacitor, and a 10-fi resistor. A 50-V (rms) 1 + (1/coRC) 2
sinusoidal voltage is applied to the combination. Cal-
culate the rms current for (a) the resonant frequency, 57. Consider a low-pass filter followed by a high-pass

(b) half the resonant frequency, and (c) double the filter, as shown inFigure 33.27. If R = 1000 £2 and
resonant frequency. C = 0.050 //F, determine Vou ,/ Vin for a 2.0-kHz input
frequency.

•Section 33.8 Filter Circuits

50. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 33.15, with R=

800 Q and C= 0.09 fxF. Calculate the ratio V JV iB
for (a) co = 300 X 10 5 sr1
s" 1 and (b) co = 7 .

51. The RC high-pass shown

Figure 33.15 has a
filter in
resistance R = 0.50 Q. (a) What capacitance will give
an output signal with one-half the amplitude of a 300-
Hz input signal? (b) What is the gain (Vout /Vin ) for a
600-Hz signal? Figure 33.27 (Problem 57).
952 CHAPTER 33 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

"Section 33.9 The Transformer and Power 68. An RL series combination consisting of a 1.5-fi resis-
Transmission tor and 2.5-mH inductor is connected to a 12.5-V
a
(rms), 400-Hz generator. Determine (a) the imped-
58. The primary winding of an electric train transformer
ance of the circuit, (b) the rms current, (c) the rms
has 400 turns, and the secondary has 50. If the input
voltage across the resistor, and (d) the rms voltage
voltage is 120 V (rms) what is the output voltage?
across the inductor.
59. A transformer has N = 350
1
turns and N2 = 2000
69. As a way of determining the inductance of acoil used
turns. If the input voltage is v(t) =
(170 V) cos cot,
in a research project, a student connects the coil first
what rms voltage is developed across the secondary
to a 12-V battery and measures a current of 0.63 A.
coil?
The student then connects the coil to a 24-V (rms),
60. Consider an ideal transformer with Nj primary and N 2
60-Hz generator and measures an rms current of
secondary windings. Show that a step-up transformer
0.57 A. What value does the student calculate for the
(one with N 2 > Nj) actually reduces the current in the
inductance?
output by a factor of N 1 /N2 .

70. A 2.5-V (rms), 100-Hz generator is connected in

61. A particular transformer is 95% efficient and has
series with a 100-nF capacitor and a 2500-Q resistor.
twice as many secondary windings as primary wind-
Determine (a) the impedance of the circuit and
ings. If the primary windings carry a 5 A current at an
(b) the rms current in the circuit.
rms voltage of 120 V, what are the secondary current
71. A transmission line with a resistance per unit length of
and rms voltage?
4.5 X 10~ 4 Q/m is to be used to transmit 5000 kW of
62. A step-up transformer is designed to have an output
power over a distance of 400 miles (6.44 X 10 5 m).
voltage of 2200 V (rms) when the primary is con-
The terminal voltage of the generator is 4500 V.
nected across a 1 10- V (rms) source, (a) If there are 80
(a) What is the line loss if a transformer is used to step
turns on the primary winding, how many turns are
up the voltage to 500 kV? (b) What fraction of the
required on the secondary? (b) If a load resistor across
input power is lost to the line under these circum-
the secondary draws a current of 1.5 A, what is the
stances? (c) What difficulties would be encountered
current in the primary, assuming ideal conditions?
on attempting to transmit the 5000 kW of power at
63. If the transformer in Problem 62 has an efficiency of
the generator voltage of 4500 V?
95%, what is the current in the primary when the
secondary current is 1.2 A?
72. A transformer operating from 120 V (rms) supplies a
12-V lighting system for a garden. Eight lights, each
64. The primary current of an ideal transformer is 8.5 A
rated 40 W, are installed in parallel, (a) Find the
when the primary voltage is 77 V. Calculate the volt-
equivalent resistance of the total lighting system.
age across the secondary when a current of 1.4 A is
(b) What current is in the secondary circuit? (c) What
delivered to a load resistor.
single resistance, connected across the 120 V supply,
would consume the same power as when the trans-
former used? Show that this equals the answer to
is

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS part (a) times the square of the turns ratio.
73. LC filters are used as both high- and low-pass filters as
65. A series RLC circuit consists of an 8-Q resistor, a 5-/iF
were the RC filters in Section 33.8. However, all real
capacitor, and a 50-mH inductor. A variable fre-
inductors have resistance, as indicated in Figure
quency source of 400 V (rms) is applied across the
33.28, which must be taken into account, (a) Deter-
combination. Determine the power delivered to the
mine which circuit in Figure 33.28 is the high-pass
circuit when the frequency is equal to one half of the
filter and which is the low-pass filter, (b) Derive the
resonance frequency.
66. A series circuit has R= 10 Q, L= 2 mH, and
RLC
C= 4Determine (a) the impedance at a fre-
/^F.

quency of 60 Hz, (b) the resonant frequency in Hz,

(c) the impedance at resonance, and (d) the imped-

ance at a frequency equal to one-half the resonant

frequency.
67. In a series ac circuit, R— 21CI, L = 25 mH, C =
2000
17 piF, Vm = 150 V, and co = s" 1 . (a) Calculate
n
the peak current in the circuit, (b) Determine the
peak voltage across each of the three elements. (a) o-
(c) What is the power factor for the circuit? (d) Show
XL X c, , R, and <t>
in a phasor diagram for the circuit. Figure 33.28a (Problem 73).
 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS 953

79. Impedance matching: A transformer may be used to

L RL provide maximum power transfer between two ac cir-
cuits that have different impedances, (a) Show that
the ratio of turns N l
/N 2 needed to meet this condition
is given by

(b) Suppose you want to use a transformer as an imped-

ance-matching device between an audio amplifier
that has an output impedance of 8000 Q and a speaker
Figure 33.28b (Problem 73). that has an input impedance of 8 Q. What should be
the ratio of primary to secondary turns on the trans-
output/input formulas for each circuit following the former?
procedure used for the RC filters in Section 33.8. 80. An ac source has an internal resistance of 3200 Q. In
74. A resistor of 80 Q
and a 200-mH inductor are con- order for the maximum power to be transferred to an
nected 100-V (rms), 60-Hz source,
in parallel across a 8-fl resistive load R 2 a transformer is used between
,

(a) What is the rms current in the resistor? (b) By what the source and the load. Assuming an ideal trans-
angle does the total current lead or lag behind the former, (a) find the appropriate turns ratio of the
voltage? transformer. If the output voltage of the source is
75. An inductor is with an 80-£2 resistor and the
in series 80 V (rms), determine (b) the rms voltage across the
combination is placed across a 110-V (rms), 60-Hz load resistor and (c) the rms current in the load resis-
power source. If the resistor dissipates 50 W of tor, (d) Calculate the power dissipated in the load.
power, find the inductance of the inductor. (e) Verify that the ratio of currents is inversely pro-
76. The average power delivered to a series RLC circuit at portional to the turns ratio.
frequency co (Section 33.7) is given by Equation 81. Figure 33.29a shows a parallel RLC circuit, and the
33.41 (a) Show that the peak current can be written
. corresponding phasor diagram is given in Figure
33.29b. The instantaneous voltage (and rms voltage)
Jm = coVm [L 2 (co 2 - co 2 ) 2 + (coR) 2 ]- 1 / 2
across each of the three circuit elements is the same,
and each is in phase with the current through the
where co is the operating frequency of the circuit and
co is the resonance frequency, (b) Show that the
phase angle can be expressed as

= 3
</> tan
[it ^)]
77. Consider a series RLC circuit with the following cir-
cuit parameters: R = 200 Q, L = 663 mH, and C =
26.5 /iF. The applied voltage has an amplitude of 50 V
and a frequency of 60 Hz. Find the following ampli- (a)

tudes: (a) The current i, including its phase constant cf)

relative to the applied voltage v, (b) the voltage VR
across the resistor and its phase relative to the
current; (c) the voltage Vc across the capacitor and
itsphase relative to the current; and (d) the voltage VL
across the inductor and its phase relative to the
current.
78. A voltage v = 100 sin cot (in SI units) is applied across
a series combination of a2-H inductor, a 1 0-//F capaci-
tor, and a 10-Q. resistor, (a) Determine the angular

frequency co at which the power dissipated in the

resistor is a maximum, (b) Calculate the power dissi-
pated at that frequency, (c) Determine the two angu-
lar frequencies CO] and co 2 at which the power dissi- (b)
pated is one-half the maximum value. [The Q of the
circuit is approximately co /(co 2 — co t ).\ Figure 33.29 (Problem 81).
954 CHAPTER 33 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

resistor. The currents in C and L lead (or lag behind)

the current in the resistor, as shown in Figure 33.29b.
(a) Show that the rms current delivered by the source

is given by

Figure 33.30 (Problem 83).

= v™ s
n + Lc __Lf|
2
2-11/2

Lfi V (olJ J CALCULATOR/COMPUTER PROBLEMS

84. A series RLC circuit is operating at 2000 Hz. At this
(b) Show that the phase angle </> between V^,. and lu frequency, XL = Xc = 1884 £1. The resistance of the
is given by circuit is Prepare a table showing the values
40 Q. (a)

of XL , X c and Z for/=
, 300, 600, 800, 1000, 1500,
2000, 3000, 4000, 6000, and 10 000 Hz. (b) Plot on
the same set of axes X L X c and Z as a function of In/.
tan 4> =4---)
\x xj
, ,

85. Suppose the high-pass filter shown in Figure 33.15

c
has R = 1000 Q and C = 0.050 fiF. (a) At what fre-
quency does Vout /Vin = |? (b) Plot log 10 (Vout /Vin )
82. An 80-Q resistor, a 200-mH inductor, and a 0.15-fiF versus log 10 (/) over the frequency range from 1 Hz to
capacitor are connected in parallel across a 120-V 1 MHz. (This log -log plot of gain versus frequency is

(rms) source operating at an angular frequency of known as a Bode plot.)

374 rad/s. (a) Whatthe resonant frequency of the

is 86. Suppose the low-pass filter shown in Figure 33. 1 6 has
circuit? (b) Calculate the rms current in the resistor, R = 1000 Q. and C = 0.050 //F. (a) At what frequency
inductor, and capacitor, (c) What is the rms current does Vout /Vin = |? (b) Plot log 10 (Vollt /Vin ) versus
delivered by the source? (d) Is the current leading or log 10 (/) over the frequency range from 1 Hz to
lagging behind the voltage? By what angle? 1MHz.
83. Consider the phase-shifter circuit shown in Figure 87. A series RLC circuit in which R= lfl,L=l mH, and
33.30. The input voltage is described by the expres- C = 1 nF is connected to an ac generator delivering
sion v = 10 sin 200r (in SI units). If L = 500 mH, find 1 V (rms) Use a small computer to make a careful plot
.

(a)the value of R such that the output voltage v lags of the power delivered to the circuit as a function of
the input voltage by 30° and (b) the amplitude of the frequency and verify that the half-width of the
the output voltage. resonance peak is R/2nL.
 34
Electromagnetic Waves

An old-style rancher in St.

Augustine Plains, New Mexico,
rides past one of the 27 radio
telescopes that comprise the
Very Large Array (VLA).
Arranged in a Y-shaped
configuration on a system of
railroad tracks, the radio
telescopes of the VLA capture
and focus electromagnetic
waves from space. (© Danny
Lehman)

The waves we have described in Chapters 16, 17, and 18 are me-
chanical waves. Such waves correspond to the disturbance of a
medium. By definition, mechanical disturbances such as sound
waves, water waves, and waves on a string require the presence of a
medium. This chapter is concerned with the properties of electromagnetic
waves that (unlike mechanical waves) can propagate through empty space.
In Section 31.7 we gave a brief description of Maxwell's equations, which
form the theoretical basis of all electromagnetic phenomena. The conse-
quences of Maxwell's equations are far reaching and very dramatic for the
history of physics. One of Maxwell's equations, the Ampere-Maxwell law,
predicts that a time-varying electric field produces a magnetic field just as a
time-varying magnetic field produces an electric field (Faraday's law). From
this generalization, Maxwell introduced the concept of displacement current,
a new source of a magnetic field. Thus, Maxwell's theory provided the final
important link between electric and magnetic fields.
Astonishingly, Maxwell's formalism also predicts the existence of electro-
magnetic waves that propagate through space with the speed of light. This
prediction was confirmed experimentally by Hertz, who first generated and

955
956 CHAPTER 34 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

James Clerk Maxwell is generally regarded as the greatest theoretical physicist of the
19th century. Born in Edinburgh to a well-known Scottish family, he entered the
University of Edinburgh at age 15, around the time that he discovered an original
method for drawing a perfect oval. Maxwell was appointed to his first professorship in
1856 at Aberdeen. This was the beginning of a career during which Maxwell would
develop the electromagnetic theory of light, the kinetic theory of gases, and explana-
tions of the nature of Saturn's rings and of color vision.
Maxwell's development of the electromagnetic theory of light took many years
and began with the paper "On Faraday's Lines of Force," in which Maxwell ex-
panded upon Faraday's theory that electric and magnetic effects result from fields of
lines of force surrounding conductors and magnets. His next publication, "On Physi-
cal Lines of Force," included a series of papers on the nature of electromagnetism. By
considering how the motion of the vortices and cells could produce magnetic and
electric effects, Maxwell was successful in explaining all the known effects of electro-
magnetism. He effectively showed that the lines of force behaved in a similar way.
Maxwell's other important contributions to theoretical physics were made in the
area of the kinetic theory of gases. Here, he furthered the work of Budolf Clausius,
who in 1858 had shown that a gas must consist of molecules in constant motion
James Clerk Maxwell colliding with one another and the walls of the container. This resulted in Maxwell's
(1831-1879) distribution of molecular velocities in addition to important applications of the theory
to viscosity, conduction of heat, and diffusion of gases.
Maxwell's successful interpretation of Faraday's concept of the electromagnetic
field resulted in the field equation bearing Maxwell's name. Formidable mathemati-
cal ability combined with great insight enabled Maxwell to lead the way in the study
of the two most important areas of physics at that time. Maxwell died of cancer before
he was 50.

(Photo courtesy of A1P Niels Rohr Library)

detected electromagnetic waves. This discovery has led to many practical

communication systems, including radio, television, and radar. On a concep-
tual level, Maxwell unified the subjects of light and electromagnetism by
developing the idea that light is a form of electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic waves are generated by accelerating electric charges.
The radiated waves consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields, which
are at right angles to each other and also at right angles to the direction of wave
propagation. Thus, electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature. Maxwell's
theory shows that the electric and magnetic field amplitudes, £ and B, in an
electromagnetic wave are related by E = cB. At large distances from the
source of the waves, the amplitudes of the oscillating fields diminish with
distance, in proportion to 1/r. The radiated waves can be detected at great
distances from the oscillating charges. Furthermore, electromagnetic waves
carry energy and momentum and hence exert pressure on a surface.
Electromagnetic waves cover a wide range of frequencies. For example,
radio waves (frequencies of about 10 7 Hz) are electromagnetic waves pro-
duced by oscillating currents in a radio tower's transmitting antenna. Light
waves are a high-frequency form of electromagnetic radiation (about 10 14 Hz)
produced by oscillating electrons within atomic systems.
 34.1 MAXWELLS EQUATIONS AND HERTZ'S DISCOVERIES 957

34.1 MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS AND

HERTZ'S DISCOVERIES
The fundamental laws governing the behavior of electric and magnetic fields
are Maxwell's equations, which were discussed in Section 31 .7. 1 In this unified
theory of electromagnetism, Maxwell showed that electromagnetic waves are
a natural consequence of these fundamental laws. Recall that Maxwell's equa-
tions in free space are given by

E-dA = (34.1)
958 CHAPTER 34 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Heinrich Hertz was born in 1857 in Hamburg, Germany. He studied physics under
Helmholtz and Kirchhoffat the University of Berlin. In 1885, Hertz accepted the
position of Professor of Physics at Karlsruhe; it was here that he discovered radio
waves in 1888, his most important accomplishment.
In 1889 Hertz succeeded Rudolf Clausius as Professor of Physics at the Univer-
sity of Bonn, where his experiments involving the cathode ray's penetration through
certain metal films led him to the conclusion that cathode rays were waves rather than
particles.
Discovering radio waves, demonstrating their generation, and determining their
velocity areamong Hertz's many achievements. After finding that the velocity of a
radio wave was the same as that of light, Hertz showed that radio waves, like light
waves, could be reflected, refracted, and diffracted.
Hertz died of blood poisoning at the age of 36. During his short life, he made
many contributions to science. The hertz, equal to one complete vibration or cycle
per second, is named after him.

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz

(1857-1894)

In a series of experiments, Hertz also showed that the radiation generated

bv spark-gap device exhibited the wave properties of interference, diffrac-
his
tion, reflection, refraction, and polarization, all of which are properties exhib-
ited bv light. Thus, it became evident that the radio-frequency waves had
properties similar to light waves and differed only in frequency and wave-
length.
Perhaps the most convincing experiment performed by Hertz was the
measurement of the velocity of the radio-frequency waves. Radio-frequency
waves of known frequency were reflected from a metal sheet and created an
interference pattern whose nodal points (where E was zero) could be de-
tected. The measured distance between the nodal points allowed determina-
tion of the wavelength A. Using the relation = A/ Hertz found that v was close
t;

to 3 X 10 8 m/s, the known speed of visible light.

Large oscillator as well as circular

and square resonators used by
Heinrich Hertz, 1886-88. (Photo
Deutsches Museum Munich)
 34.2 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 959

34.2 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

The properties of electromagnetic waves can be deduced from Maxwell's
equations. One approach that can be used to derive such properties would be
to solve the second-order differential equation that can be obtained from
Maxwell's third and fourth equations. A rigorous mathematical treatment of
this sort is beyond the scope of this text. To circumvent this problem, we shall
assume that the electric and magnetic vectors have a specific space-time be-
havior that is consistent with Maxwell's equations.
First, we shall assume that the electromagnetic wave is a plane wave, that
is, one that travels in one direction. The plane wave we are describing has the

following properties. The wave travels in the x direction (the direction of

propagation), the electric field E is in the y direction, and the magnetic field B
is in the z direction, as in Figure 34.2. Waves in which the electric and

magnetic fields are restricted to being parallel to certain lines in the yz plane
are said to be linearly polarized waves. 2 Furthermore, we assume that E and B
at any point P depend upon x and t and not upon the y or z coordinates of the
point P.
We can relate E and B to each other by using Maxwell's third and fourth
equations (Eqs. 34.3 and 34.4). In empty space, where O = and / = 0, these
equations become
d<&„
E-ds = (34.5)
dt Figure 34.2 A plane polarized
electromagnetic wave traveling in
d^> e the positive i direction. The elec-
B-ds =e n (34.6) tric field isalong the y direction,
dt and the magnetic field is along the z
direction. These fields depend only
Using these expressions and the plane wave assumption, one obtains the fol- on i and t.

lowing differential equations relating E and B. For simplicity of notation, we

have dropped the subscripts on the components E and Bz :

dE SB
' (34.7)
dx dt

dB dE
^0 dt
(34.8)

Note that the derivatives here are partial derivatives. For example, when
dE/dx is evaluated, we assume that t is constant. Likewise, when evaluating
dB/dt, x is held constant. We from Maxwell's
shall derive these expressions
equations later in this section. Taking the derivative of Equation 34.7 and
combining this with Equation 34.8 we get

d2 E -H e dE \
(34.9)
dx 2 dx\dt) dt\dx) dt\ dt j

d2 E _ d2 E Wave equations for electro-

/i ° e (34.10) magnetic waves in free space
dx 2 ° dt 2

2 Waves
with other particular patterns of vibrations of E and B include circularly polarized waves.
The most general polarization pattern is elliptical.
960 CHAPTER 34 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Figure 34.3 Representation of a sinusoidal, plane polarized electromagnetic wave moving in the
positive x direction with a speed c. The drawing represents a snapshot, that is, the wave at some
instant. Note the sinusoidal variations of E and B with x.

In the same manner, taking a derivative of Equation 34.8 and combining this

with Equation 34.10, we get

d2 B d2 B
= /^0 (34.11)
dx 2 dt 2

3
Equations 34. 10 and 34. 1 1 both have the form of the general wave equation,
with a speed c given by

1
(34.12)
Wcfio

Taking// = 47rX 10~ 7 Wb/A-mande - 8.85418 X 10" ;

C 2 /N-m 2 inEqua-
tion 34.12, we find that
The speed of electromagnetic = 2.99792 X 10 8 m/s (34.13)
c
waves
Since this speed is precisely the same as the speed of light in empty
space, 4 one is led to believe (correctly) that light is an electromagnetic wave.
The simplest plane wave solution is a sinusoidal wave, for which the field
amplitudes E and B vary with x and t according to the expressions

E = Em cos(kx - cot) (34.14)

Sinusoidal electric and
magnetic fields B = Bm cos(kx - cot) (34.15)

where E m and Bm are the maximum values of the fields. The constant k = 2%\X,
where A is the wavelength, and the angular frequency co = 2nf, where /
is the number of cycles per second. The ratio a>/k equals the speed c, since

co 2nf = kf=c
litjk

Figure 34.3 is a pictorial representation at one instant of a sinusoidal, linearly

polarized plane wave moving in the positive x direction.

3The general wave equation is of the form (d 2f/dx 2 ) = (l/v 2 )(d 2f/dt 2 ), where v is the speed of the
wave and/is the wave amplitude. The wave equation was first introduced in Chapter 16, and it
would be useful for the reader to review this material.
4Because of the redefinition of the meter in 1 983, the speed of light is now a defined quantity with
an exact value of c = 2.99792458 X 10 8 m/s.
 34.2 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 961

Taking partial derivatives of Equations 34.14 and 34.15, we find that

— = — kEm sm(kx —
dx
cot)

dB _ „
= — coB„,
m
.

sinl/cx — OJt)
.

dt

Since these must be equal, according to Equation 34.7, we find that at any
instant

kE m = ojB m

Em co

The minus sign is ignored here since we are interested only in comparing the
amplitudes. Using these results together with Equations 34.14 and 34.15, we
see that

£-§-. (34.16)

That is, at every instant the ratio of the electric field to the magnetic field of an
electromagnetic wave equals the speed of light.
Finally, one should note that electromagnetic waves obey the superposi-
tion principle, since the differential equations involving E and B are linear
equations. For example, two waves traveling in opposite directions with the
same frequency could be added by simply adding the wave fields algebrai-
cally. Furth erm ore, we now have a theoretical value for c, given by the rela-
tion c = l/^T .

Let us summarize the properties of electromagnetic waves as we have

described them:

1. The solutions of Maxwell's third and fourth equations are wavelike, Properties of electromagnetic
where both E and B satisfy the same wave equation. waves
2. Electromagn etic w aves travel through empty space with the speed of
light, c=1/ve^,.
3. The electricand magnetic field components of plane electromagnetic
waves are perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation. The latter property can be summarized
by saying that electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.
4. The relative magnitudes of E and B in emptv space are related by
E/B = c.
5. Electromagnetic waves obey the principle of superposition.

EXAMPLE 34.1 An Electromagnetic Wave along the y axis, (a) Determine the wavelength and pe-
A plane electromagnetic sinusoidal wave of frequency riod of the wave.
40 MHz travels in free space in the i direction, as in Since c = kfandf— 40 MHz = 4 X 10 7 s -1 , we get
Figure 34.4. At some point and at some instant, the elec-
tric field E has its maximum value of 750 N/C and is ; = £ = 3X10 m/s 75 ° m
*
f 4X10's-'
962 CHAPTER 34 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

From Equation 34.16 we see that

£= 750j N/C
Bm = ^=
c 3
750 N/C
X 10 8 m/s
= 2.50X10-6 T

Since E and B must be perpendicular to each other

and both must be perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation (x in this case), we conclude that B is in the
z direction.

(c) Write expressions for the space-time variation of

the electric and magnetic field components for this plane

Figure 34.4 (Example 34.1) At some instant, a plane electro- wave.

magnetic wave moving in the x direction has a maximum electric We can apply Equations 34.14 and 34.15 directly:
field of 750 N/C in the positive y direction. The corresponding
magnetic field at that point has a magnitude E/c and is in the z E = Em cos(kx - cot) = (750 N/C) cos(Jb - cot)

direction.
B = B m cos(kx - cot)

The period of the wave T equals the inverse of the fre-

= X 10"6 ) cos(kx -
(2.50 cot)
quency, and so
where
= 2.5 X 10- 8
= 2nf= X = Bn X
/ 4 X 10 7 s" 1 co 2tt(4 10 7 s" 1 ) 10 7 rad/s

2n
magnetic
(b) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the
field B when E = 750j N/C.
k=^ 7.5 m
0.838 m"

We shall now give derivations for Equations 34.7 and 34.8. To derive
Equation 34.7, we start with Faraday's law, that is, Equation 34.5:

E-ds =
dt

Again, let us assume that the electromagnetic plane wave travels in the
x direction with the electric field E in the positive y direction and the magnetic
field B in the positive z direction.
Consider a thin rectangle lying in the xy plane. The dimensions of the
rectangle are width dx and height {, as in Figure 34.5. To apply Equation 34.5,
we must first evaluate the line integral of E-ds around this rectangle. The
contributions from the top and bottom of this rectangle are zero since E is
perpendicular to ds for these paths. We can express the electric field on the
E + dE
right side of the rectangle as

E(x + dx, t) - E(x, t) + dx = E(x, t) + —

dE
ox
dx

while the field on the left side is simply E(x, t). Therefore, the line integral
Figure 34.5 As plane wave
a
over this rectangle becomes approximately 5
passes through a rectangular path
of width dx lying in the xy plane,
E-ds = E(x + dx, t)-e- E(x, t)-£~ (dE/dx) dx-e (34.1 7)
the electric field in the y direction
varies from E to E + dE. This spa-
tial variation in E gives rise to a
time-varying magnetic field along 5 Since dE/dx means the change in E with i at a given instant f, dE/dx is equivalent to the partial
the z direction, according to Equa- derivative dE/dx. Likewise, dB/dt means the change in B with time at a particular position I, and so
tion 34.19. we can replace dB/dt by dB/dt.
 34.3 ENERGY CARRIED BY ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 963

Since the magnetic field is in the z direction, the magnetic flux through the
rectangle of area i dx is approximately

<D m = Be dx
(This assumes that dx is small compared with the wavelength of the wave.)
Taking the time derivative of the flux gives

d<&„ . ,
—
dB~\
= e , dB
dt
£ dx
(XT 1 I r 1 „-„ u.nnt
t dx
OX
(34.18)

Substituting Equations 34.17 and 34.18 into Equation 34.5 gives

dB
dx-e = -e dx-
(f) dt

dE dB
(34.19)
dx at

Thus, we see that Equation 34.19 is equivalent to Equation 34.7.

In a similar manner, we can verify Equation 34.8 by starting with Max-

well's fourth equation in empty space (Eq. 34.6):

B-ds =Ho*o
dt

In this case, we evaluate the line integral ofB-ds around a rectangle lying in
the yz plane and having width dx and length (, as in Figure 34.6, where the
magnetic field is in the z direction. Using the sense of the integration shown,
and noting that the magnetic field changes from B(x, t) to B(x + dx, t) over the
width dx, we get

Bds = B(x, t)-t-B(x + dx,t)-£ = - (dB/dx) dx t (34.20)

The electric flux through the rectangle is

Oe = Et dx Figure 34.6 As a plane wave

passes through a rectangular curve
which when differentiated with respect to time gives
of width dx lying in the xz plane,
the magnetic field along 2 varies
—— = e dx — (34.21) from B to B + dB. This spatial vari-
dt dt ation in B gives rise to a time-vary-
ing electric field along the y direc-
Substituting Equations 34.20 and 34.21 into Equation 34.6 gives tion, according to Equation 34.22.

- (dB/dx)dx t =n e £ dx(dE/dt)

dB dE
(34.22)
dx ^0 dt

which is equivalent to Equation 34.8.

34.3 ENERGY CARRIED BY ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Electromagnetic waves carry energy, and as they propagate through space
they can transfer energy to objects placed in their path. The rate of flow of
energy in an electromagnetic wave is described by a vector S, called the
Poynting vector, defined by the expression
964 CHAPTER 34 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Poynting vector S = — EXB (34.23)

Ho

The magnitude of the Poynting vector represents the rate at which energy
flows through a unit surface area perpendicular to the flow.

The direction of S along the direction of wave propagation (Fig. 34.7). The
is
2 =
SI units of the Poynting vector are J/s •
m
W/m 2 (These are the units S must
.

have since it represents the power per unit area, where the unit area is ori-
ented at right angles to the direction of wave propagation.)
As an example, let us evaluate the magnitude of S for a plane electromag-
netic wave where IE X B\ = EB. In this case

Poynting vector
S = EB (34.24)
for a plane wave Ho

Since B= E/c, we can also express this as

(34.25)
Ho? Ho

These equations for S apply at any instant of time.

What is of more interest for a sinusoidal plane electromagnetic wave is the
time average of S taken over one or more cycles, called the wave intensity, I.
When this average is taken, one obtains an expression involving the time
average of cos 2 (fcx — o)t), which equals £. Hence, the average value of S (or the
intensity of the wave) is

E B EJ _
I=S = m m _
c
Wave intensity a B„ (34.26)
2fl,t 2n c 2/i

where it is important to note that Em and Bm represent maximum values of the

fields. The constant /x c, called the impedance of free space, has the SI units of
ohms and has the value

Impedance of free space Hoc = \— = 120?r Q= 377 Q

Recall that the energy per unit volume u e the instantaneous energy den-
,

sity associated with an electric field (Section 26.4), is given by

-e F2 (26.14)

i.*
and that the instantaneous energy density u m associated with a magnetic field

(Section 32.3) is given by

Bz
(32.15)

Figure 34.7 The Poynting vector Because £ and B vary with time for an electromagnetic wave, we see that the
^ttSSrJS
moving inthe i direction is along
the direction of propagation.
energy densities also vary with time. Using the relationships B = E/c and
c = l/ve /i Equation 32.15 becomes
,
 34.3 ENERGY CARRIED BY ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 965

2
(E/c) _ e n
£ 2 = Aen£ 2
2/io 2^o
Comparing this result with Equation 32.15, we see that

«m = « e = i€ £ 2 = (34.27)
2|i

That is, for an electromagnetic wave the instantaneous energy density associated

with the magnetic field equals the instantaneous energy density associated with
the electric field. Hence, in a given volume the energy is equally shared by the
two fields.
The total instantaneous energy density u is equal to the sum of the energy
densities associated with the electric and magnetic fields:

m = ue + um = e E 2 = (34.28) Total energy density

Mo
When this is averaged over one or more cycles of an electromagnetic wave, we
again get a factor of |. Hence, the total average energy per unit volume of an
electromagnetic wave is given by

Average energy density of an

eo(E\v = ie Em 2 =
^ o
(34.29) electromagnetic wave

Comparing this result with Equation 34.26 for the average value of S, we see
that

/ = S„„ = CM, (34.30)

In other words, the intensity of an electromagnetic wave equals the average

energy density multiplied by the speed of light.

EXAMPLE 34.2 Fields Due to a Point Source

A point source of electromagnetic radiation has an aver- -4Wfav 2m- 2
age power output of 800 W. Calculate the maximum
values of the electric and magnetic fields at a point (47t X 10~ 7 N/A 2 )(3.00 X 10 8 m/s)(800 W)
3.50 m from the source.
=1 2^(3.50 m) 2

Solution Recall from Chapter 17 that the wave inten- = 62.6 V/m
sity, /, at a distance r from a point source is given by
We can easily calculate the maximum value of the
1 = magnetic field using the result above and the relation
Ant3 -

B m = Ejc(Eq. 34.16):
where Pav is the average power output of the source and
62.6 V/m
4;rr2 is the area of a sphere of radius r centered on the IL-^-
c 3.00 X 10 m/s
= 8
2.09X10- 7 T
source. Since the intensity of an electromagnetic wave is

also given by Equation 34.26, we have

F 2 Exercise Calculate the value of the energy density at
t_ rPav _ ^m 1

Anr2
the point 3.50 m from the point source.
2n c
Answer 1.73 X 10" 8 J/m 3
Solving for the maximum electric field, Em ,
gives
966 CHAPTER 34 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

34.4 MOMENTUM AND RADIATION PRESSURE

Electromagnetic waves transport linear momentum as well as energy. Hence, it
follows that pressure (radiation pressure) is exerted on a surface when an
electromagnetic wave impinges on it. In what follows, we shall assume that the
electromagnetic wave transports a total energy U to a surface in a time t. If the
surface absorbs all the incident energy U in this time, Maxwell showed that the
total momentum p delivered to this surface has a magnitude given by

Momentum delivered to an
p = V (complete absorption) (34.31)
absorbing surface

Furthermore, if the Poynting vector of the wave is S, the radiation pressure P

(force per unit area) exerted on the perfect absorbing surface is given by

Radiation pressure exerted on

r
=* (34.32)
a perfect absorbing surface

We can apply these results to a perfect black body, where all of the incident
energy absorbed (none is reflected).
is

On the other hand, if the surface is a perfect reflector (for example, a

mirror with a 100% reflecting surface), then the momentum delivered in a
time t for normal incidence is twice that given by Equation 34.3 1 or 2 U/c. That ,

is, a momentum equal to U/c is delivered by the incident wave and U/c is

delivered by the reflected wave, in analogy with a ball colliding elastically

with a wall. Therefore,

217
(complete reflection) (34.33)

The momentum delivered to an arbitrary surface has a value between U/c and
2U/c, depending on the properties of the surface. Finally, the radiation pres-
sure exerted on a perfect reflecting surface for normal incidence of the wave is
given by 6

,_M (34.34)

-6
Although radiation pressures are very small (about 5 X 10 N/m for
2

direct sunlight), they have been measured using torsion balances such as the
one shown in Figure 34.8. Light is allowed to strike either a mirror or a black
disk, both of which are suspended from a fine fiber. Light striking the black
disk is completely absorbed, and so all of its momentum is transferred to the
disk. Light striking the mirror (normal incidence) is totally reflected, hence
the momentum transfer is twice as great as that transferred to the disk. The
radiation pressure determined by measuring the angle through which the
is

horizontal portion rotates. The apparatus must be placed in a high vacuum to

eliminate the effects of air currents.

Figure 34.8 An apparatus for

measuring the pressure oflight. In 6 For oblique incidence, the momentum transferred is 21/ cos 8/c and the pressure is given by
practice, the system is contained in P = 2S cos 0/c, where 6 is the angle between the normal to the surface and the direction of
a high vacuum. propagation.
 34.4 MOMENTUM AND RADIATION PRESSURE 967

EXAMPLE 34.3 Solar Energy EXAMPLE 34.4 Poynting Vector for a Wire
The sun delivers about 1000 W/m 2 of electromagnetic Along, straight wire of resistance R, radius a, and length
flux to the earth's surface, (a) Calculate the total power £ carries a constant current / as in Figure 34.9. Calculate
that is incident on a roof of dimensions 8 mX 20 m. the Poynting vector for this wire.

Solution The Poynting vector has a magnitude of S = Solution First, let us find the electric field E along the
1000 W/m 2 ,which represents the power per unit area, wire. If V is the potential difference across the ends of
or the light intensity. Assuming the radiation is incident the wire, then V= IR and
normal to the roof (sun directly overhead), we get
E=V/t = IR/£
Power = SA = (1000 W/m 2 )(8 X 20 m2 ) Recall that the magnetic field at the surface of the wire
= 1.60X 10 5 W (Example 30.4) is given by

B =H I/2na
If this power could all be converted into electrical en-
ergy, it would provide more than enough power for the The vectors E and B are mutually perpendicular, as
average home. However, solar energy is not easily har- shown in Figure 34.9, and therefore |EXB| = EB.

nessed, and the prospects for large-scale conversion are Hence, the Poynting vector S is directed radially inward
not as "bright" as they may appear from this simple cal- and has a magnitude
culation. For example, the conversion efficiency from EB _ 1 IR ptpl _ PR _ I
2
R
solar to electrical energy is far less than 100% (typically,
fi n £ Ina Inat A
10% Roof systems for converting
for photovoltaic cells).
solar energy to thermal energy have been built with effi- where A = Inat is the surface area of the wire, and the
ciencies of around 50%; however, there are other practi- total area through which S passes. From this result, we
cal problems with solar energy that must be considered, see that
such as overcast days, geographic location, and energy = PR
SA
storage.
where SA has units of power (
J/s = W). That is, the rate at
(b) Determine the radiation pressure and radiation
which electromagnetic energy flows into the wire, SA,
force on the roof assuming the roof covering is a perfect
equals the rate of energy (or power) dissipated as joule
absorber.
heat, PR.

Solution Using Equation 34.32 with S= 1000 W/m 2 ,

Exercise 3 A heater wire of radius 0.3 mm and resist-
we find that the radiation pressure is
ance 5 Q carries a current of 2 A. Determine the magni-
tude and direction of the Poynting vector for this wire.
^l-«**S"-
X
3. 33 x,0-«N/ m . Answer 1.06 X 10 4 W/m 2 directed radially inward.
cm/s 3 10 8

Because pressure equals force per unit area, this corre-

sponds to a radiation force of

F=PA = (3.33 X 10-6 N/m 2 )(160 m2 )

= 5.33 X 10~ 4 N

Of course, this "load" is far less than the other loads one
must contend with on roofs, such as the roof's own
weight or a layer of snow.

Exercise 2 How much solar energy (in joules) is inci-

Figure 34.9 (Example 34.4) A wire of length I, resistance R,
dent on the roof in 1 h? and radius a carrying a current /. The Poynting vector S is di-
Answer 5.76 X 10 8 J. rected radially inward.
 /

968 CHAPTER 34 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

D
34.5 RADIATION FROM AN INFINITE
CURRENT SHEET
In this section, we shall describe the fields radiated by a conductor carrying a
Aift" time-varying current. The plane geometry we shall treat reduces the mathe-
matical complexities one would encounter in a lower-symmetry situation,
such as an oscillating electric dipole.
Consider an infinite conducting sheet lying in the yz plane and carrying a
surface current per unit length Js in the y direction, as in Figure 34.10. Let us
assume that /s varies sinusoidally with time as

Figure 34.10 An infinite current /s=/ocosft>r

sheet lying in the yz plane. The
current density is sinusoidal and A similar problem for the case of a steady current was treated in Example 30.6,
given by Js = J cos cot The mag-
. where we found that the magnetic field outside the sheet is everywhere paral-
netic field everywhere parallel to
is
lel to the sheet and lies along the z axis. The magnetic field was found to have a
the sheet and lies along z.
magnitude

Radiated magnetic
field
*, = "*,§
In the present situation, where s varies with time, this equation for B2 is valid
only for distances close to the sheet. That is,

Bz = -^J coscot (for small values of x)

To obtain the expression for Bz for arbitrary values of x, we can investigate the
following solution: 7

Bz = -^cos(kx-cot) (34.35)

There are two things to note about this solution, which is unique to the geome-
try under consideration. First, it agrees with our original solution for small
values of x. Second, it satisfies the wave equation as it is expressed in Equation
34.11. Hence, we conclude that the magnetic field lies along the z axis and is

characterized by a transverse traveling wave having an angular frequency CO,

wave number k = 2n/A, and wave speed c.

We
can obtain the radiated electric field that accompanies this varying
magnetic field by using Equation 34.16:

Radiated electric field Ey = cB z = -Uste cos (fc x - cot) (34.36)

That is, the electric field is in the y direction, perpendicular to B, and has the
same space and time dependences.
These expressions for B z and Ey show that the radiation field of an infinite
current sheet carrying a sinusoidal current is a plane electromagnetic wave
propagating with a speed c along the x axis, as shown in Figure 34.11.
We
can calculate the Poynting vector for this wave by using Equation
34.24 together with Equations 34.35 and 34.36:

7
Note that the solution could also be written in the form eos(wf — kz), which is equivalent to
cos(fcr — cot). That is, cos 6 is an even function, which means that cos(— 6) = cos 8.
 34.5 RADIATION FROM AN INFINITE CURRENT SHEET 969

Figure 34. 1 1 Representation of the plane electromagnetic wave radiated by the infinite current
sheet lying in the yz plane. Note that B is in the z direction, E is in the y direction, and the direction
of wave motion is along x. Both vectors have a cos(fct — wt) behavior.

S —
= EB =
Ho
fl

4
2
J" C
cos 2 (kx — cot) (34.37)

The intensity of the wave, which equals the average value of S, is

Q _ MoJo 2c (34.38)

The intensity given by Equation 34.38 represents the average intensity of the
outgoing wave on each side of the sheet. The total rate of energy emitted per
unit area of the conductor is 2S av = }i J 2 c/4.

EXAMPLE 34.5 An Infinite Sheet Carrying a (b) What is the average power incident on a second
Sinusoidal Current plane surface that is parallel to the sheet and has an area
An infinite current sheet lying in the yz plane carries a of 3 m 2 ? (The length and width of the plate are both
sinusoidal current density that has a maximum value of much larger than the wavelength of the light.)
5 A/m. Find the maximum values of the radiated mag-
(a)

netic field and electric field. Solution The power per unit area (the average value of
the Poynting vector) radiated in each direction by the
Solution From Equations 34.35 and 34.36, we see that current sheet is given by Equation 34.38. Multiplying

the maximum values of B z and E„ are given by thisby the area of the plane in question gives the incident
power:
R _i"o/o
2

Using the values n = 4n X 10 7

Wb/A m,/ =
•
5 A/m,
and c = 3 X 10 8 m/s, we get _ (4tt X lfr 7 Wb/A •
m)(5 A/m) 2 (3 X 10 8 m/s)
(3 m*)
(4tt X lfr 7 Wb/A •
m)(5 A/m)
10-6
Bm = 3.14 X T
= 3.54X10 3 W
(4tt X 10- 7 Wb/A •
m)(5 A/m) (3 X 10 8 m/s)
Em =
The result is independent of the distance from the current
sheet since we are dealing with a plane wave.
= 942 V/m
970 CHAPTER 34 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

"34.6 THE PRODUCTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC

WAVES BY AN ANTENNA
Electromagnetic waves arise as a consequence of two effects: (1) a changing
magnetic field produces an electric field and (2) a changing electric field
produces a magnetic field. Therefore, it is clear that neither stationary charges
nor steady currents can produce electromagnetic waves. Whenever the cur-
rent through a wire changes with time, the wire emits electromagnetic ra-
diation.

The fundamental mechanism responsible for this radiation is the accelera-

Accelerating charges produce
tion of a charged particle. Whenever a charged particle undergoes an
EM radiation
acceleration, it must radiate energy.

An alternating voltage applied to the wires of an antenna forces an electric

charge in the antenna to oscillate. This is a common technique for accelerating
charged particles and is the source of the radio waves emitted by the antenna
of a radio station.
Figure 34.12 illustrates the production of an electromagnetic wave by
oscillating electric charges in an antenna. Two metal rods are connected to an
ac generator, which causes charges to oscillate between the two rods. The
output voltage of the generator is sinusoidal. At t = 0, the upper rod is given a
maximum positive charge and the bottom rod an equal negative charge, as in
Figure 34. 1 2a. The electric field near the antenna at this instant is also shown
in Figure 34.12a. As the charges oscillate, the rods become less charged, the
field near the rods decreases in strength, and the downward-directed maxi-
mum electric field produced at t = moves away from the rod. When the
charges are neutralized, as in Figure 34.12b, the electric field has dropped to
zero. This occurs at a time equal to one quarter of the period of oscillation.

(a) ( = (b) t=\

(d) t=1

Figure 34.12 The electric field set up by oscillating charges in an antenna. The field moves away
from the antenna with the speed of light.
 34.6 THE PRODUCTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES BY AN ANTENNA 971

\ )
972 CHAPTER 34 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Figure 34.15 Electric field lines surrounding an oscillating dipole at a given instant. The radia-
tion fields propagate outward from the dipole with a speed c.

charges are continuously oscillating between the two rods, the antenna can be
approximated by an oscillating electric dipole. The magnetic field lines form
concentric circles about the antenna and are perpendicular to the electric field
lines at all points. The magnetic field is zero at all points along the axis of the
antenna. Furthermore, E and B are 90 ° out of phase in time, that is, E at some
point reaches its maximum value when B is zero and vice versa. This is because
when the charges at the ends of the rods are at a maximum, the current is zero.
At the two points shown in Figure 34.14, Poynting's vector S is radially
outward. This indicates that energy is flowing away from the antenna at this
instant. At later times, the fields and Poynting's vector change direction as the
current alternates. Since E and B are 90 ° out of phase at points near the dipole,
the net energy flow is zero. From this, we might conclude (incorrectly) that no
energy is radiated by the dipole.
Since the dipole fields fall off as 1/r 3 (as in the case of a static dipole), they
are not important at large distances from the antenna. However, at these large
distances, another effect produces the radiation field. The source of this radia-
tion is the continuous induction of an electric field by a time-varying magnetic
field and the induction of a magnetic field by a time-varying electric field.
These are predicted by two of Maxwell's equations (Eqs. 34.3 and 34.4). The
electric and magnetic fields produced in this manner are in phase with each
other and vary as 1/r. The result is an outward flow of energy at all times.
The electric field lines produced by an oscillating dipole at some instant
are shown in Figure 34.15. Note that the intensity (and the power radiated)
are a maximum in a plane that is perpendicular to the antenna and passing
through midpoint. Furthermore, the power radiated is zero along the
its

antenna's A mathematical solution to Maxwell's equations for the oscilla-

axis.
2 2
ting dipole shows that the intensity of the radiation field varies as sin 8/r ,

where 8 is measured from the axis of the antenna. The angular dependence of
the radiation intensity (power per unit area) is sketched in Figure 34.16.
Electromagnetic waves can also induce currents in a receiving antenna.
Figure 34.16 Angular depen- The response of a dipole receiving antenna at a given position will be a maxi-
dence of the intensity of radiation
produced by an oscillating electric
mum when its axis is parallel to the electric field at that point and zero when its
dipole. axis is perpendicular to the electric field.
 34.7 THE SPECTRUM OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 973

34.7 THE SPECTRUM OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

We have seen that all electromagnetic waves travel in a vacuum with the speed
of light, c. These waves transport energy and momentum from some source to
a receiver. In 1887, Hertz successfully generated and detected the radio-fre-
quency electromagnetic waves predicted by Maxwell. 9 Maxwell himself had
recognized as EM waves both visible light and the near infrared radiation
discovered in 1800 by William Herschel. It is now known that other forms of
electromagnetic waves exist which are distinguished by their frequency and
wavelength.
Since all electromagnetic waves travel through vacuum with a speed c,
their frequency /and wavelength X are related by the important expression

c=/A (34.39)

The various types of electromagnetic waves are listed in Figure 34.17. Note
Satellite television antennas are
the wide range of frequencies and wavelengths. For instance, a radio wave of
common for receiving television
frequency 5 MHz (a typical value) has a wavelength given by stationsfrom satellites in orbit
around the earth and are most
9Following Hertz's discoveries, Marconi succeeded in developing a practical, long-range radio widely used in rural locations.
communication system. However, Hertz must be recognized as the true inventor of radio commu- (© Hank Delespinasse/The
nication. IMAGE Bank)
Frequency, Hz Wavelength

1 angstrom, A
— 1 nm

1 micron, \1

1 centimeter, cm

1 meter, m

1 kilometer, km

Figure 34. 17 The electromagnetic spectrum. Note the overlap between one type of wave and
the next.
974 CHAPTER 34 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

= 3X10
8
c m/s
A = =6 ° m
7 5X10°s-'
The following abbreviations are often used to designate short wavelengths and
distances:

1 micrometer (/urn) = 10~6 m

1 nanometer (nm) = 10~ 9 m
1 angstrom (A) = 10~ 10 m

For example, the wavelengths of visible light range from 0.4 to 0.7 //m, or 400
to 700 nm, or 4000 to 7000 A.
Let us give a brief description of these various waves in order of decreas-
ing wavelength. There is no sharp dividing point between one kind of wave

and the next. It should be noted that all forms of radiation are produced by
accelerating charges.
Radio waves Radio waves, which were discussed in the previous section, are the result
of charges accelerating through conducting wires. They are generated by such
electronic devices as LC oscillators and are used in radio and television com-
munication systems.
Microwaves Microwaves (short-wavelength radio waves) have wavelengths ranging
between about 1 mm
and 30 cm and are also generated by electronic devices.
Because of their short wavelength, they are well suited for the radar systems
used in aircraft navigation and for studying the atomic and molecular proper-
ties of matter. Microwave ovens represent an interesting domestic application
of these waves. It has been suggested that solar energy could be harnessed by
beaming microwaves down to earth from a solar collector in space. 10
Infrared waves Infrared waves (sometimes called heat waves) have wavelengths ranging
-7
from about 1 mm
to the longest wavelength of visible light, 7 X 10 m. These
waves, produced by hot bodies and molecules, are readily absorbed by most
materials. The infrared energy absorbed by a substance appears as heat since
the energy agitates the atoms of the body, increasing their vibrational or
translational motion, which results in a temperature rise. Infrared radiation
has many practical and scientific applications, including physical therapy,
infrared photography, and vibrational spectroscopy.
Visible waves Visible light, the most familiar form of electromagnetic waves, may be