Solar Radiations

Engr. Dr. Adnan Daud Khan

Associate Professor

1
 Introduction
• Earth receives energy from Sun.
• All substances, solids, liquids or gases above absolute zero
temperature emit energy in the form of EM waves.
• Sun is a sphere of hot gaseous matter with a diameter of
1.39x109 meter.
• Due to its temperature, Sun emits energy in the form of EM
waves, which is called the radiation energy.
• The energy from the Sun is transferred to earth in the form
of photons (small packet of energy) moving at a speed of
3x108 m/s.
• The photon energy can be converted into heat energy,
chemical energy, electrical energy etc in different ways.

2
 Introduction
• For instance, when photons are absorbed by a
metal, their energy is converted into heat
energy.
• When photon fall on plants, their energy in
combination with O2 is converted into
chemical energy of plants (photosynthesis
process).
• When photon falls on solar cells, their energy
is converted into electrical energy.

3
 Introduction
• The heat energy received on earth through photons is
responsible for earth’s temperature.
• The heat also causes evaporation of water, which results in
rains.
• The uneven heating of the earth’s surface causes wind flow.
• The amount of solar radiation reaching different parts of
the world is not the same.
• It varies from location to location and season to season.
• Therefore, designing and estimating the potential output
from a solar energy system, the knowledge of amount of
solar radiation available in a given location is required.

4
 Solar Spectrum
• The sun emits energy in a wide range of wavelengths,
between 0.15 and 120 µm.
• The radiation of practical importance as far as solar energy
applications are concerned is between 0.15 and 4.0 µm,
which consists of about 99% of solar radiation, i.e., 99% of
the solar energy is received in the wavelength between
0.15 and 4.0 µm.
• The radiation in this range consists of ultraviolet, visible and
infrared radiations.
• About 48% of energy received on earth is in the form of
visible radiation and about 43% energy received is in the
form of infrared radiation, while about 7.5% is received in
the form of ultraviolet radiation.

5
Solar Spectrum

6
Extraterrestrial Radiation
• The amount of solar radiation received by earth
depends on its distance from the sun.
• The earth is about 1.5x1011 meter away from the sun.
• Extraterrestrial Radiation: solar radiations outside of the earth
atmosphere is called extraterrestrial solar radiation. (i.e., the amount
of solar radiation falling on earth outside its atmosphere).
• The extraterrestrial solar radiation received by the
earth is constant throughout the year as the
medium, the vacuum, between the earth and the
sun does not change with time and the distance
between the two remains nearly constant.

7
 Extraterrestrial Radiation
• The extraterrestrial solar radiation is often given in terms of solar
constant.
• Solar constant: average radiation intensity received per unit area
perpendicular to earth surface at mean sun-earth distance. (i.e., the rate at
which energy reaches the earth's surface from the sun, usually taken to be 1,388 watts per
square metre)
• Solar constant is taken as 1367 W/m2.
• This value of solar constant is obtained from actual measurements.

8
 Radiation on the Earth Surface

• Solar radiation passes through the earth’s

atmosphere before reaching the surface.
• The thickness of the earth’s atmosphere is
referred to as Air Mass (AM).
• During this journey in the atmosphere, the
radiation is subjected to absorption and
scattering, which reduces the amount of solar
radiations reaching the surface.
• Scattering and absorption occurs due to presence
of ozone layer, water vapour, CO2, O2, dust
particles, etc in the atmosphere.
9
 Radiation on the Earth Surface
• The amount of attenuation of solar radiation depends on the
distance that the solar radiation travels through earth’s air mass.
• When radiations are measured outside the earth’s atmosphere
(extraterrestrial), then it is called AM0 radiation i.e., air mass
travelled is zero.
• When the radiation is measured at the earth’s surface, when the
sun is exactly at overhead position, then it is called AM1 radiation
i.e., rays are reaching the earth’s surface after travelling distance
equivalent to one air mass.
• But when the sun is at some angle to the overhead position, rays
need to travel more distance in earth’s atmosphere to reach
surface.
• If the distance travelled by radiation is 1.5 times the AM1, then it is
called AM1.5.
10
Radiation on the Earth Surface

1
AM 
cos  

11
At the sea level and on
the clear day, when the
surface facing the Sun,
you will get 1000 W/m2.

also called 1-SUN

12
• Note: for colder temperatures, you may get
more than 1-Sun i.e., > 1000W/m2 for example
1200W/m2.
• And for hotter temperatures, you may get less
than 1-Sun for example 800W/m2.
• If temperature is less than 25o, the power will
goes up.

• How the solar radiations coming towards earth

are affected by temperature?
• What will happen incase of colder temperature
and hotter temperature?
13
 Global, Direct & Diffuse solar radiation

• The sun rays outside the earth’s atmosphere travel

parallel to each other.
• When the solar radiation passes through the earth’s
atmosphere, it undergoes several interactions
(absorption & scattering) with the gaseous molecules
and other particles in the atmosphere.
• In the absorption interaction, the energy of the solar
radiation is given to the gaseous molecules and other
particles in the atmosphere. Thus, it is a loss of solar
radiation.
• Typically about 20% of the radiation get absorbed in
the atmosphere while passing through it.

14
 Global, Direct & Diffuse solar radiation
• Due to scattering interaction, the direction
of sun rays changes, see the figure.
• This results in redistribution of scattered
radiation randomly in all directions.
• The scattered radiation is called diffuse
radiation.
• Those radiations which does not go
through either absorption interaction or
scattering interaction, reaches the earth
surface directly and is known as direct
radiation.
• Thus, the total radiation reaching the
earth surface should be the sum of diffuse
radiation and direct radiation. This sum is
known as global radiation.
• On a normal sunny day, the diffuse
radiation is about 15 to 20% of that of
direct solar radiation.
• During cloudy days, the percentage of
diffuse radiation increases with respect to
direct radiation.
15
 Solar radiation at a given location

• In order to design devices that use solar radiation, it is

important to know the amount of solar radiation
available at a given location and at a given time.
• Knowledge of solar radiations require information
about many parameters, which includes latitude of the
location, longitude of the location, time of the day, day
of the year.
• These data are fundamental to the calculation of sun’s
position, and to calculate available solar radiation.
• Now, we will have a preliminary look at the solar
radiation patterns.

16
 Solar radiation at a given location:
Daily Radiation Pattern
• The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
• Early in the morning, the zenith angle (The zenith angle is
the angle between the sun and the vertical. The zenith angle is similar to
the elevation angle but it is measured from the vertical rather than from
the horizontal, thus making the zenith angle = 90° - elevation.) of the
sun is high.

17
 Daily Radiation Pattern
• The zenith angle of the sun decreases as the time
approaches noon.
• At noon, zenith angle is smallest and the amount
of solar radiation (global and diffuse) received by
a location is the highest at that given day.
• At noon, sun rays travel smallest distance in the
atmosphere, due to which there is less
absorption and scattering.
• The zenith angle increases in the evening and
solar radiation declines.
18
 Daily Radiation Pattern
• A typical daily pattern of global and diffuse solar
radiation at a location is given in the figure.

19
 Annual variation in solar radiation
The rotation of the Earth
• The Earth consists of two hemispheres (northern hemisphere
and southern hemisphere).
• The Earth rotates around itself and rotates around the Sun.

20
 The Earth’s rotation around itself
• The Earth rotates around its inclined axis (itself) once every 24
hours (one day) , and the side (hemisphere) of the Earth that
faces the Sun during this rotation becomes bright or day,
While its other side becomes dark or night.
• The rotation of the Earth around its axis causes the sequence
of the day and the night.
North Pole

South Pole 21
 The Earth’s rotation around itself
• The imaginary line passes through the north and south poles
of the Earth is called the axis of rotation.
• This spinning movement of the Earth is called rotation.
• The earth completes one rotation on its axis in about 24 hours
(i.e. one day and one night).

22
 The Earth’s rotation around itself
• Due to its spherical shape, half of its spherical area gets light from
the sun and the other half remains in the dark.
• For about 12 hours one half area of the earth is lighted while the
other half remains dark during the same period.
• We say there is day in half of the sphere for about 12 hours and in
the same period there is night in the other half.
• The next twelve hours, the position would be reversed, i.e. there
will be night in the first half and day time in the second.
• Days are warmer while nights are cooler.
• As the earth rotates from west to east, the sun seems to rise in the
east and set in the west.
• At noon when the sun comes over our head, it gets too hot while in
morning and evening we do not feel so hot.
• Thus, daily rotation of the earth affects the weather.

23
 The Earth’s rotation around itself
• As you all know, the earth revolves around the sun along its orbit.
• Also, it rotates about its own axis.
• Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted away from the perpendicular to the plane of its orbit around
the sun.
• At present, the tilt away from the perpendicular is about 23.5°.
• So, as the earth rotates around the Sun every year, during that travel around the Sun, the
earth will keep the tilt in the same direction constantly. So, in moving around the Sun, it stays
in a plane (a circular path), which is called the ecliptic plane.
• All other planets and moon travel around the Sun as well but they their plane of travel is
slightly different than the earth.

ecliptic plane

24
The Ecliptic Plane

25
 The Earth’s rotation around the Sun
• The Earth revolves around the Sun once every 365 and this motion is
elliptical as we saw in the previous slide.
• The rotation of the Earth around the Sun causes the sequence of the four
seasons (the summer – the spring – the autumn – the winter).

26
The Earth’s rotation around the Sun
• Figure shows the full Earth orbit (or
rotation) traced on the plane of the
ecliptic.
• On December 22, the north polar end
of the Earth’s axis inclines at the
maximum angle away from the Sun,
23.5°. This event is called
the December solstice , or winter
solstice in the northern hemisphere.
• At this time, the southern
hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun
and enjoys strong solar heating.
• Six months later, on June21, the
Earth has traveled to the opposite
side of its orbit. This is known as
the June solstice , or summer solstice
in the northern hemisphere.
• The north polar end of the axis is
tilted at 23.5° towards the Sun, while
the South Pole and southern Seasons on the earth are the result of inclination of
hemisphere are tilted away. earth axis by 23.5° to the plane in which it rotates.

27
The Earth’s rotation around the Sun

28
 The Earth’s rotation around the Sun
• In between December and June, the
earth passes through a phase in which
the equatorial regions become
perpendicular to the sunrays at noon.
• This happens on 21st Sept and 21st
March of each year.
• These days are known as solar
equinox.
• On the day of solar equinox, since the
sun becomes exactly overhead, the
sunrays need to travel less distance
through the earth’s atmosphere, there
is less absorption and scattering and
hence the equator receives maximum
solar radiation during this period.
• Moreover, on the day of an equinox,
daytime and nighttime are of
approximately equal duration all over
the planet.

29
 Annual variation in Solar radiation

• Now, we will look at the motion

of the earth and its relationship
with the sun.
• The earth revolves around the
Sun and also rotates around its
own axis.
• The earth’s own axis of rotation is
inclined (by an angle of 23.5°)
with respect to perpendicular to
the plane of its rotation around
the Sun.
• This inclination of the earth axis
and its rotation around the Sun is
fundamental to the change in
seasons during the year.

30
 More details
are here

Normal
Arctic Circle, making an
Axis of rotation
angle of 66.5o N with the
Equator, where normal
the days and
nights are equal
Tropic of cancer, making
Orbital plane an angle of 23.5o N with
or the the normal
horizontal or
horizon

31
Latitude and Longitude
• Latitude lines run from east to west
and are parallel to each other. If you
go north, latitude values increase.
• Latitude measures how far north or
south is from the equator. West East
• The distance between each latitude is
approximately 69miles.
• Finally, latitude values (Y-values)
range between -90 and +90 degrees.

Equator is a line
passing through the
center of the earth
and is considered as a
reference point for
latitudes.

32
 Latitude and Longitude
• Longitude lines run from north
pole to the south pole. They
converge at the poles.
• It measures how far east or west
from the Prime Meridian.
• Its X-coordinates are from 0o to
180o East.
Meridian is a line passing through Greenwich
England and is considered as the reference
point for longitudes.

All lines are

converged at north
and south poles

33
Equator is a line passing Meridian is a line passing through
through the center of the Greenwich England and is
earth and is considered as a considered as the reference point
reference point for latitudes. for longitudes.

34
 Annual variation in Solar radiation
Location latitude
• It can be seen from the figure that on 21st June (point A is placed on the same line i.e., Tropic of Cancer
(known as summer solstice), the location, point because the earth is rotated on its own axis)
‘A’, at tropic of Cancer (latitude 23.5° North) will
become directly overhead to the sun at noon.
• Therefore, locations at tropic of Cancer will get
maximum radiation on 21st June, which should
be summer season for those locations.
• Similarly, on 21st December, tropic of Capricorn
(latitude of 23.5° South) will become directly
overhead to the Sun at noon.
• Therefore, December should be the summer
season for the locations lying at the altitude of
the Tropic of Capricorn.
• The location, point ‘A’ in December will be
making an angle of 23.5°+23.5°=47° with the
line joining the sun and the earth.
• Due to this angle, the amount of radiation
reaching the point ‘A’ will be less than the case Inclination of
when point ‘A’ was on June 21st.
earth’s axis
• Thus, during December, the locations at the
tropic of Cancer will have winter season.
35
 Optimal tilt for solar equipment

• Consider a point ‘A’

(latitude 23.5°) on the
Tropic of Cancer.
• For example, the solar
conversion equipment is
installed at point ‘A’.
• It can be seen from figure
that this location ‘A’ will
A
get maximum Sunlight
during the summer i.e.,
June when the Sun is
overhead position at
noon. Tropic of Cancer

36
Optimal tilt for solar equipment

• The same point ‘A’ will get

very small radiation
during the month of
December or in winter as
the horizontal surface at
point ‘A’ in December will
receive the radiation at
an angle equal to location
latitude + inclination of
earth’s axis (=23.5°+23.5°
= 47°)

37
 Optimal tilt for solar equipment
• Many times, it may be required that a solar system (PV system or thermal)
should collect nearly same amount of radiation throughout the year.
• Or, a system should collect nearly same amount of radiation in winter than
summer as in the case with solar water heater.
• In order to achieve this, it is best to incline the solar system at an angle
equal to the latitude angle.
• Due to this adjustment, the value of maximum angle between sunrays at
noon and a solar system will be equal to angle of earth’s axis inclination
angle only.
• Therefore, now the solar system inclined at latitude angle will get more
radiation.
• Nowadays, there are systems, which track the sun i.e., the systems adjust
themselves in a position perpendicular to the sunrays.
• If the sun tracking is being done, there is no need to install a system at an
angle equal to the latitude angle of the location.

38
 How to figure out the correct angle
for your solar panel?
• Depending on which part of the world you
are, the solar panel angle of your solar system
is different.
• Depending on the time of the day and the
season, the sun moves across the sky and will
be low or high.
• And therefore, there is no ideal angle is fixed.

39
 The variable Solar Sky-path
The Sun path through the sky is
higher in the summer.

Why is it hotter in the summer?

Because in the summer, Sun is

higher in the sky, which results in
two things.
1- it makes the days longer in the summer
2- It makes the summer Sun more intense. 40
• The summer Sun is more intense because 90o angles
give more light & heat per unit area.
• Lets see an example:

In a darker room, shine the flash light on a

flat surface at 90o.

Then use a oblique angle instead of direct angle

(90o). Here the size of the light area on the surface
increases but the intensity or brightness is reduced.

The more direct 90o angle provides the most

intense light. The same thing happens with the
Sun, the higher the Sun in the Sky, the more
direct and intense the sunlight would be.

41
 Why is the Sun higher in the summer?
• For this, we need to remember two things:
– i) the earth is tilted on its axis and
– ii) the earth is orbiting or rotating the Sun i.e., the
earth travel around the Sun in a huge circular
path.
• During summer in the northern hemisphere, the
north pole is tilted towards the Sun. This makes
the Sun’s path higher in the Sky and causes the
northern half of the earth to receive more light
and heat than it does during the winter.
• On June 21st, the northern hemisphere is tilted
the most towards the Sun, this is called the
summer solstice. And the Sun’s path is higher in
the sky than it is on any other day of the year
because the Sun is in the sky for more hours.
The summer solstice is also the longest day of
the year. These extra hours of sunlight give more
time to heat the earth. This is the main reason
that the summer is the hottest season.
• The Sun’s path is lowest on the shortest day of
the year, which is called the winter solstice
(December 21).
• Throughout the year, the Sun’s path will move
up and down between these two extremes.

42
• Now, we will begin to chart where the
Sun will be at any time of day during
the year at this location.
• At 9AM in the morning on December
21, the Sun has risen in the east and is
low in the southern sky.
• On June 21, it is higher in the sky at
the same time of day.
• Now, we can draw a line between the
two 9AM positions.
• This line shows where the Sun will be
at 9AM during the rest of the year.
• As the Sun’s path moves up and down
through the seasons, the position of
the Sun at 9AM will always be
somewhere on this line.
• Likewise, we can draw for the Sun’s
position at 3PM. Throughout the year,
the position of the Sun at 3PM will
always be somewhere on this line.
43
• We know have a rectangle, which shows where the Sun will be between
9AM and 3PM throughout the year.
• The area inside the rectangle is called the “Solar Window” for this
location.
• In solar window, we will get maximum solar energy. And we don’t want
the solar window to be shaded by trees or other obstacles between 9AM
and 3PM during most of the year.
• Before installing a solar electric system, installers must analyze the
building sites solar window and see if there are any shading obstacles.

44
Sun Path Chart
• To chart the boundaries of solar window for a
real location on the earth surface, we need to
know how to measure the Sun’s position in
the Sky.
• To do this, we need to know the solar Azimuth
and altitude angles

45
Zenith and Elevation or Altitude angles

46
Azimuth angle
• Azimuths always start at
N-pole and turn
clockwise. And this
angle is always between
0 to 360o.
• Examples:
1- Find Azimuth AB.

2- Find Azimuth AB.

47
Solar Azimuth angle
• Here, we are finding Azimuth Sun.
• Since, Sun is in the Sky, so we will trace its position of the earth as
indicated by the dotted lines in Figure 1.
• The azimuth angle vary throughout the day.

Figure 1
Figure 2
48
Sun Path Chart
• A sun path or sun position diagram is a graphical
representation of the sun’s altitude and azimuth angles
over a given day of the year, for a specified latitude.

49
Solar panels should be angled to face as close to the sun as possible, in order to collect
energy more efficiently.

50
 How to figure out the correct angle
for your solar panel?
• You can follow the below methods to find out the
best angle for your solar panels to generate
maximum electricity:
• Method 1: Quick and Easy
– Take your latitude and add 15 degrees for the winter,
or subtract 15 degrees for the summer.
– Suppose, if your latitude is 40 degrees, the angle you
need to tilt your solar panels in the winter is: 40 + 15 =
55 degree.
– During the summer, this would be: 40 - 15 = 25
degrees.

51
 How to figure out the correct angle
for your solar panel?
• Method 2 (A): For Winter
– When there is less sun, take your latitude and multiply it by 0.9,
and then add 29 degrees.
– E.g., if your latitude is 40 degrees, the angle you would want to
tilt your panels in the winter is: (40 x 0.9) + 29 = 65 degrees.
• Method 2(B): For Summer
– Multiply your latitude by 0.9, and subtract 23.5 degrees.
– E.g., if your latitude is 40 degrees, your panels need to be tilted
at: (40 x 0.9) - 23.5 = 12.5 degrees.
• Method 2(C): For spring & fall
– Take your latitude and subtract 2.5 degrees.
– E.g., if your latitude is 40 degrees, the best tilt for your panels in
the spring & fall is: 40 - 2.5 = 37.5 degrees.

52
Optimal PV Module Orientation
• Maximum annual solar energy is received on a fixed surface that faces due
south, and is tilted from the horizontal at an angle slightly less than local
latitude
– Winter performance is enhanced by tilting collectors greater than latitude.
– Summer performance is enhanced by tilting collectors lower than latitude.
– A tilt angle at less than 10° is typically not recommended to allow for self
cleaning (soiling losses).

53
 Radiation on the Earth Surface
• The solar radiation intensity (irradiation) as a function of wavelength is given in the
graph.
• The irradiation is represented in terms of watt per unit area per unit wavelength
(W m-2 nm-1) and is denoted by Ps.
• The extraterrestrial solar radiation (smooth line) and the radiation reaching the
earth’s are shown in the figure.

Note: Each wavelength of

the solar EM radiation has
Spectral irradiance Wm-2 nm-1

UV Visible Infrared
a distinct power level.
The accumulated effect of
Extraterrestrial radiation
(smooth curve)
all the wavelengths
AM0 together is called
Ps

AM1.5
Insolation.
L   Ps d 

54
The area under the yellow
portion indicates isolation of
UV region of wavelengths.

The area under the gray

portion of the spectrum
indicates isolation of visible
region of wavelengths.

Likewise the accumulated

effect of all the wavelengths
under the pink portion of the
spectrum indicates isolation
of infrared region of
wavelengths.
When the accumulated effect of all the three is put together, this is known as
isolation and is given as L   Ps d 

The unit of insolation is kWm-2.

The insolation is also know as Radiant or total Power Density, which is the total
power density emitted from a light source by integrating the spectral irradiance
over all wavelengths or energies. 55
 Now, let us see the insolation profile with respect to time.

Peak is at noon

H (kWh/m2)

Sunrise Noon Sunset

If we take the area within the insolation profile, it will give us the energy “H” because it
is kWm-2 into time in hours.
This is the energy per m2 per day.

Now, the shaded area can be represented equivalently in terms of the standard
insolation.
56
 So, if we consider the standard insolation line

H (kWh/m2)

The standard insolation 1kW/m2

line is a 1kW/m2 line or
1000W/m2 line. (1kW/m2) x (h)= hkW/m2

h hours

Using the standard insolation line as the upper limit, we can draw a rectangle such that
the area within the rectangle is matching area H of actual measurement or estimation.

If the width of the rectangle is let us say h hours, then what is the area of the rectangle?

Since, the height of the rectangle is 1kW/m2 and the length is h, so area is =
(1kW/m2) x (h).
So, this will give us hkW/m2 per day.
So, this is the energy that is contained within the rectangle. 57
 If we make the rectangle energy equivalent to the actual estimated energy H per day,
then we would be able to derive the peak power requirement of the PV panel i.e., if
Rectangle energy
if (1kW/m2) x (h) = H (kWh/m2)/day

actual estimated energy H per day

then h = H (kWh/m2)/day

Let WhLoad be the daily required energy in kW

hours in a day.
And WhLoad /h is the peak power required for the
PV panel.
Small h can be obtained by estimating H. This will
directly give us how many hours in a day with
standard insolation.

Now the obtained h will be used to find WhLoad i.e., put h in WhLoad /h,
we will get Wh, which is the peak wattage or power required.

This will form the basis for you to select a PV panel with this peak power requirement i.e., you can
choose which size of the panel is required.

58
• However, finding H is very difficult because H
has many uncertainties i.e., daily, seasonal, the
water vapor content in the atmosphere, the
clouds, the weather conditions, all these are
going to affect H, which is the incident energy
falling at a particular locality or latitude.
• So, if we are able to get H with reasonable
accuracy then we would be able to size the
panel appropriately.
• So our whole focus is to see that we get H
(energy per m2 per day) as accurately as
possible.
59
Estimation of Incident Energy H - kWh/m2/day
• The incident solar energy H is dependent on
many factors and parameters.
• Note:
– This H, which is the incident solar energy in
kWh/m2/day can also be called as solar irradiance.
– Previously, we have used the term spectral irradiance.
This spectral irradiance is different from solar
irradiance i.e., their units are different.Power
– Spectral irradiance has the units of kW/m2/nm, while
Energy
the solar energy or solar irradiance has the unit
kWh/m2/day.

60
Estimation of Incident Energy H - kWh/m2/day
• Factors affecting H:
– Geographic location: It is represented by two parameters, i) latitude ø,
and ii) longitude λ.
– Collector orientation: We mean here the solar PV panels, which are
always flat. So the collector angle really matters. This angle is denoted
by β, which is known as collector tilt angle.
– Time of day: We already discussed how the insolation is affected by
the time of the day. Here, we use the symbol ω, which denotes the
hour angle. Hour angle indicates the time of day, which also
represents diurnal (daily) changes or effects.
– Time of year: We represent it by the symbol δ and it is called
declination. This actually represent the seasonal variations on the
incident solar energy.

61
Estimation of Incident Energy H - kWh/m2/day

• All the parameters listed on previous slide can be estimated

easily.
• However, there is another parameter called the
atmospheric condition, which also strongly affect the H.
• But this parameter is the most difficult to estimate.
• The atmospheric conditions include cloud conditions, water
vapor content in the atmosphere, gases present in the
atmosphere etc all these variable affect the incident solar
energy.
• The atmospheric condition is represented by the variable
kT, which is called the clearness index. And this is the most
difficult to estimate due to the uncertainties in the
atmospheric conditions.

62
63
Peak sun hours (PSH) is the average daily amount of solar energy received on a surface.
The number of hours that the solar irradiance would be at a peak level of 1 kW/m2

64
Examples – I
• If the Sun is up for 12h/day and the average solar
power is 500W/m2 over 12h/day. What is the total
amount of peak Sun hours?
• Solution
• 500W/m2 x 12h/day = 6000Wh/m2.
• Now, we will divide 6000Wh/m2 by the solar
constant i.e., 1000W/m2 to get the peak sun hours
2
i.e., 6000Wh m
2
 6 peak Sun hours
1000W m

65
Examples – II
• The solar power incident on a surface
averages 400W/m2 for 12 hours. How much
solar energy is accumulated?
• Solution
• 400W/m2 x 12 h = 4800Wh/m2 = 4.8kWh/m2.
• Since, the solar energy is also equal to peak
sun hours (PSH) so
• 4.8kWh/m2 = 4.8 PSH.
66
Examples – III
• The amount of solar energy collected on a
surface over 8 hours is 4kWh/m2. What is the
average solar power over this period?
• Solution

2
4 kWh m
 0.5 kW m2  500W m 2
8h

67
Examples – IV
• A PV system produces 6 kW AC output at peak
sun and average operating temperatures. How
much energy is produced from this system per
day if the solar energy received on the array
averages 4.5 peak sun hours?
• Solution
6 kW x 4.5 hours/day = 27 kWh/day.

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 Solar Radiation Measurements – I
• Pyranometer: a solar irradiance
sensor:
– Pyranometers measure global
irradiance: the amount of solar
energy per unit area per unit
time incident on a surface of
specific orientation.
– The global irradiance includes
direct sunlight and diffuse
sunlight, as illustrated in the
Figure.
– Measurements over time are
integrated or averaged to
calculate total solar energy
received.

Pyranometer 69
Solar Radiation Measurements – II
• A pyrheliometer measures the direct normal
component of total global solar radiation
– Instrument must always track the sun

70