Planning and

I~.&'ementi ng
4~l: 11:!®1#1~1 ...
Page Intentionally Left Blank
Planning and
lm lementing
SSESSME ..
RICHARD FREEMAN
•
ROGER LEWIS

I~ ~~o~~~~n~~~up
LONDON AND NEW YORK
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 Contents

Acknowledgements

Introduction 1

PART ONE: Principles of assessment

1. The purposes of assessment 7

Introduction 7; Some definitions 8; Reasons for
assessing: purposes 10; Assessment and the stakeholders
12; Conclusion 13; Key points 14

2. Norm- and criterion-referenced, and ipsative, or 15

self-referenced, assessment
Introduction 15; Norm-referenced assessment 16;
Criterion-referenced assessment 18; lpsative assessment
21; Conclusion 21; Key action points 22

3. Reliability and validity 23

Introduction 23; Reliability 24; Validity 26; Other
criteria 29; Conclusion 30; Key action points 30

4. Assessment modes and sources 31

Introduction 31; Modes of assessment 31; The sources
of assessment 35; Key action points 37

5. Assessment criteria 38
Introduction 38; Differing degrees to which criteria might
be made explicit 39; How to set criteria 40; Going

iii
Planning and Implementing Assessment

beyond clear criteria 42; Producing a student feedback

sheet 42; Key action points 45

6. Feedback 48
Introduction 48; What is good feedback 48; Briefing
students on feedback 52; Key action points 53

7. The proactive learner 54

Introduction 54; Benefits of increasing learners'
proactivity 55; Areas of assessment in which students can
be proactive 56; Degrees of participation 58; Supporting
students 59; Barriers to choice or proactivity 60; Key
action points 60

8. Describing the learning 61

Introduction 61; A topic list 63; Learning outcomes 63;
A question list 64; Performance criteria 64; When the
four methods are used 64; Learning definitions compared
65; Writing outcomes and performance criteria 66;
Deciding the balance of the content 69; Summary 72;
Key action points 72; Appendix: Bloom's taxonomy of
educational objectives - cognitive domain 72

PART TWO: The methods toolbox

9. Methods and their characteristics 77

Introduction 77; Written objective questions 78;
Written short-answer questions 81; Written long-answer
questions 83; Artefact methods 89; Performance
methods 90; Quasi assessment methods 91; Key action
points 97

10. Choosing methods 98

Introduction 98; An algorithm for choosing a method
98; Validity and learning outcomes 102; Summary 113;
Key action points 114

iv
 Contents

PART THREE: Sources of assessment

11. Self-assessment 119

Introduction 119; Self-marking 120; The benefits of
self-assessment 121; Implementation 122; Conclusion
124; Key action points 124

12. Peer assessment 125

Introduction 125; The benefits of peer assessment 126;
How to implement peer assessment 127; Peer assessment
of processes 129; Conclusion 129; Key action points 131

13. Using computers in assessment 132

Introduction 132; How computers can be used 132;
Guides to developing computer assessment 140; Key
action points 141

PART FOUR: Using assessment methods

14. Objective tests 145

Introduction 145; When to use objective tests and why
145; Limitations of objective tests 147; Examples of
testing at the four levels 148; The structure of
multiple-choice questions 150; Designing multiple-choice
questions 153; True/false questions 158; Matching
questions 161; Key action points 162

15. Short-answer questions 164

Introduction 164; When to use short-answer questions and
why 165; The structure of short-answer questions 166;
Choosing the type of question 171; Writing short-answer
questions 173; Summary 174; Key action points 175

16. Exams and tests 176

Introduction 176; Types of exam 177; Why use exams?
178; Constructing an exam 179; Marking schemes 180;
The meaning of marks 184; Tests 186; Preparing for
exams and tests 188; Key action points 190

V
Planning and Implementing Assessment

17. Extended written work 191

Introduction 191; The essay 192; Other forms of
extended writing 194; Giving feedback on written
assignments 195; Helping students prepare for written
assignments 196; Key action points 197

18. Assessment of oral work and class participation 198

Introduction 198; Presentations 198; The viva 204; The
crit 206; The consultation 208; Participation in
classwork 208; Preparing students for oral assessment
211; Key action points 212

19. Performance tests 213

Introduction 213; Types of performance test 214;
Scientific and laboratory work 216; Work-based learning
221; Posters and exhibitions 224; Key action points 226

20. Projects 228

Introduction 228; How to implement projects 229;
Assessment issues 230; Key action points 235

21. Assessing problem solving 236

Introduction 236; The nature of problems 236;
Principles of problem solving 238; Methods for assessing
problem solving 243; Key action points 246

PART FIVE: Recording and reporting

22. Recording, collecting and presenting evidence 249

Introduction 249; Diaries 250; Logs 253; Journals
254; Video recordings 255; Portfolios 255; Reports on
the learner's own work 256; Projects 256; Comparison of
methods 257; Key action points 258

23. Reporting achievement 260

Introduction 260; Reporting achievement against criteria
261; Summary 263; Profiles 264; Reporting on
portfolios 266; Reporting to outside audiences 268;
Conclusion 269; Key action points 270

VI
 Contents

24. Portfolios 271

Introduction 271; What might be included in a portfolio?
271; Purposes of a portfolio 272; Portfolios in the
assessment of national vocational qualifications 273; The
traditional portfolio 276; Portfolios to demonstrate learning
276; Benefits of the portfolio 277; Key action points 278

PART SIX: Assessment issues

25. Helping learners prepare for assessment 281

Introduction 281; Preparing for assessment at the level of
the course 282; Preparing for an individual assignment
286; Completing assessments: planning a timetable 287;
Key action points 288

26. Marking group work 289

Introduction 289; Marking the work of individuals in a
group 290; Conclusion 293; Key action points 294

27. Workload 295

Introduction 295; Workload at the various stages of
assessment 296; Key action points 301

28. Cheating, fairness and bias 303

Introduction 303; Cheating 303; Fairness and bias 307;
Key action points 308

29. Making changes 309

Introduction 309; Trends in assessment 309; Changing
assessment practices 311; Deciding on changes 311;
Implementing changes 312; Key action points 313

Gwssary 314

References and further reading 318

Index 322

VII
Page Intentionally Left Blank
 Acknowledgements

For material in Chapter 2: Extracts from Star Grade 3 from The Rookie Trainer's
Guide. Permission granted by The Royal Life Saving Society UK (1997).
For Figure 5.2 in Chapter 5: Essay assessment profile from Brown, S, Rust,
C, and Gibbs, G ( 1994) Strategies for DiversifYing Assessment in Higher Educa-
tion, Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development, p16. Permission
granted by the Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development, Oxford
Brookes University.
For Figure 5.3 in Chapter 5: Essay assessment sheet from Brown, S, Rust,
C, and Gibbs, G ( 1994), Strategies for DiversifYing Assessment in Higher Educa-
tion, Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development pp41-2. Permission
granted by the Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development, Oxford
Brookes University.
For Chapter 6: Formative tutorial comment from Lewis, R (1981) How to
Tutor in an Open Learning Scheme (self-study version), National Council for
Educational Technology, London pp46-7. Permission granted by the British
Educational Communications and Technology Agency (formerly the National
Council for Educational Technology).
For Figure 7.2 in Chapter 7: Student involvement matrix from Mitchell, L,
and Sturton, J (1993) The Candidate's Role Profect, Research and Development
Series Report No. 12, Employment Department's Methods Strategy Unit,
Sheffield, p14. Crown copyright is reproduced with the permission of the
Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
For Figure 12.1 in Chapter 12: How our group worked from Brown, G,
with Bull, J, and Pendlebury, M (1997) Assessing Student Learning in Higher
Education, Routledge, London, p177. Permission granted by Routledge.
For the mail order decision making example (page 170). Permission granted
by the National Extension College.
For Tables 16.2 and 16.3 in Chapter 16: Exam specification table: step 2,
question format. Permission granted by the Institute oflnnkeepers.
For Figure 18.1 in Chapter 18: Presentation skills assessment form - an

IX
Planning and Implementing Assessment

extract from the Effective Learning Programme (1997), University of Lincoln-

shire and Humberside. Permission granted by the University of Lincolnshire
and Humberside.
For Figures 20.1 and Figure 20.2 in Chapter 20: Extracts from the Reference
Guide to the Planning and Production ofan Independent Study ( 1997), University
of Lincolnshire and Humberside. Permission granted by the University of
Lincolnshire and Humberside.
For Figure 25.1 in Chapter 25: Extracts from the Effective Learning Pro-
gramme (1997), University of Lincolnshire and Humberside. Permission
granted by the University of Lincolnshire and Humberside.
For Figure 25.2 in Chapter 25: Extract from undergraduate degree regula-
tions (no date) from Course Guide (Final Level) Bachelor (Hons) of Business
Administration (BBA), University of Lincolnshire and Humberside. Permission
granted by the University of Lincolnshire and Humberside.
For Figure 25.3 in Chapter 25: Information on an individual assignment
from the Student Guide to Employability and Career Development (1997), Uni-
versity of Lincolnshire and Humberside. Permission granted by the University
of Lincolnshire and Humberside.
For the example of class discussion of an assignment with 120 students in
Chapter 2 7: Extract from Gibbs, G ( 1992) Developing Teaching: Teaching More
Students: 4 Assessing More Students, Polytechnics and Colleges Funding Council,
London, p17. Permission granted by the Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning
Development, Oxford Brookes University.

X
 Introduction

WHY HAS THIS BOOK BEEN WRITTEN?

Few topics are as important to teachers as assessment. (This is matched only

by the importance of assessment to students.) Several good books on assessment
exist (some of which are mentioned below), but we feel that there is a defmite
need for a book that is both authoritative (the information is based on research
findings) and full of practical ideas. We cover both the principles of good
assessment and the kinds of practice to which they should lead. We have tried
to go beyond the fashions and fads of current assessment practice to the
underlying realities.

WHO IS IT FOR?

This book is relevant across the various sectors of education and training -
schools, colleges, universities, private and public training organizations. We
hope that readers - wherever they work - will be able to use the ideas in the
book as the underlying principles of good assessment practice apply whatever
the age of the student or the subject they are studying.
The book is aimed at the professional teacher, nuor or trainer, particularly
those who have a responsibility for one or more of the following:

• designing assessment
• operating assessment
• evaluating assessment.

The book will also be of use to those working in related roles, such as those
within examination boards, and to educational managers and administrators.
Throughout we use the terms 'teacher', 'tutor', 'assessor', 'trainer' inter-
Planning and Implementing Assessment

changeably; similarly, the terms 'student' and 'learner' are synonymous. If we

intend a specific use, we make that clear at the relevant point.

HOW IS THE BOOK STRUCTURED?

The book is divided into six main parts.

Part One covers the underlying principles of assessment, such as its purposes,
assessment criteria and the nature of good feedback. Included is a chapter on
the proactive learner- stimulating students to make responsible decisions about
assessment is a key principle for us.
Part Two explores the various methods of assessment open to teachers. At
this point, the terminology we use is introduced. We follow Brown, et al. ( 1997)
in distinguishing the three terms 'method', 'instrument' and 'source' of assess-
ment, as follows:

• method - the means of assessing learning, for example essays, reports,

practicals, performances, projects
• instrument - the framework used to implement the method, for example
criteria, feedback sheets, marking schemes
• source - the person responsible for carrying out the assessment, for example
the tutor.

These distinctions are useful as, in practice, there is much imprecision in the
way assessment language is used. 'Peer assessment', for example, is not- as is
often claimed- a 'method' of assessment, but, rather, a source that can be used
with any method or instrument. Sound and helpful assessment requires the
choice of appropriate combinations of source, instrument and method.
The main assessment methods are outlined, together with advice on when
and how to use them. This prepares the way for Part Four, which explores each
method in more detail, with examples.
Part Three covers three main sources of assessment: the students themselves
(self-assessment), their peers and computers. The source is usually a person,
though the computer is discussed as another source. Even here, however, the
ultimate source is the human originator of whatever assessment the computer
is carrying out.
Other sources are also possible, such as mentors, family and friends, and
employers, and these are discussed at appropriate points (for example, the
in-company mentor is relevant to work-based assessment, which is covered in
Chapter 19).
Part Five discusses recording assessments and reporting results and Part Six
explores a number of issues that frequently exercise the minds of teachers. These
include how to prepare learners for assessment, ensuring fairness, preventing

2
 Introduction

cheating, managing the workload, and how to make changes to assessment

arrangements.
Each chapter ends with a list of key action points. These summarize the
implications of the discussion for action, suggesting steps you might like to
take.
We hope you fmd the book helpful and should be glad of any comments and
suggestions. Please write to us care of the publisher.

3
Page Intentionally Left Blank
References

Contents

Index 309 314 318 322 VII Page Intentionally Left

Blank
 References and further reading

The following list may look a little daunting, but please do look up those books that arc
referred to often during the course of the book as you will find these very informative.
Examples of sources you might find particularly helpful and consider buying or
borrowing arc the titles by Graham Gibbs and the book for those of you in higher
education by Brown, et al. ( 1997). Dcrck Rowntrcc ( 1987) is another thought-provok-
ing treatment of perennial assessment issues and dilemmas. Lloyd- Jones, et al. ( 1992)
is one of the few good treatments of assessments in schools (unfortunately it seems to
be out of print currently). We have drawn particularly on these books and we acknow-
ledge their contribution to our discussion.

Andrcscn, L, N ightingalc, P, Boud, D, and M agin, D (cds) ( 1993) Strategiesfor Assessing

Students. Birmingham: SEDA Paper 78.
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Boud, D (1989) 'The role of sclf-a<>sessmcnt in student grading', Assessment and
E1•aluation in Higher Edt~cation, 14 ( 1) pp20-30.
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Education. Oxford: Oxford Centre for Staff Development.
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