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Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Year/ Sem: IV/VII
Sub Code/Name: EC 2402/ Optical Communication and Networking

UNIT – I
Part A -Two Mark Questions:
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the ray optics theory? [Nov-Dec 2008]
Ans: The large scale optical effects such as reflection and refraction can be analyzed by simple
geometrical process of ray tracing. The rays show the direction of energy flow in the light beam. The
wave fronts are separated by one Wavelength.

2. A typical relative refractive index difference for an optical fiber designed for long distance
transmission is 1%. Estimate the numerical aperture for the fiber when the core index is 1.47.
[Nov-Dec 2008]
n1=1.47,n2=1.46

NA=(n12-n22)1/2
NA=0.1711.

3. Define acceptance angle and critical angle of the fiber. [ April/May 2009]
Acceptance Angle: The maximum angle with which a ray of light can enter through the
entrance end of the fiber and still be totally internally reflected is called acceptance angle of the
fiber.
Critical Angle: If the angle of incidence increase a point will eventually be reached where the
light ray in air is parallel to the giro surface. This is known as critical angle.

4. What is fiber birefringence and fiber beat length? .[ April/May 2009]

Ans: Fiber Birefringence: Imperfections in the fiber are cOmmor such as
asymmetrical lateral stress, non-circular imperfect variations of refractive index profile. These
:imperfections break the circulat symmetcry of ideal fiber and mode propagate with different
phase velocity and the different between their Refractive index is called fiber
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birefringence

5. What is Tunnel effect? [Nov-Dec 2009]

The leaky modes are continuously radiating their power out of the core as they propagate
along the fiber.This power radiation out of the waveguide in quantum mechanical phenomenon is
referred as tunnel effect.

6. What is skew ray? [Nov-Dec 2009]

Skew rays are not transmitted through the fiber axis.The skew rays follow a helical path in
the optical fiber.It is very difficult to track the skew rays as they do not lie in a single plane.

7. A multimode step index fiber with a core diameter of 80µm and a relative index
difference of 1.5% is operating at a wavelength of 0.85µm. If the core index difference is
1.48.Determine

[April/May
2010 ]
a.Normalized frequency of fiber
b.the number of guided modes.

a. Normalized frequency V = (2π/λ an1(2Δ)1/2)

=75.8

b.Ms=V2/2
=2873
8. Define acceptance angle and numerical aperture of a fiber.[ April/May 2010]
Acceptance angle
It the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter the fiber inorder to be
Propagated. It is greater than the critical angle.

Numerical aperture
It is the relationship between the acceptance angle and the refractive indices of the
three media involved namely core,cladding and air. The numerical aperture is a
dimensionless quantity which is less than unity,which values ranging from 0.14 to
1.50
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9. What is the energy of the single photon of the light whose ƛ=1550nm,in ev? [Nov-Dec
2011]
The peak emission wavelength ƛ in micrometers can be expressed as a function of the
band-gap energy Eg in electron volts
ƛ(µm)=1.240/Eg(ev)
Eg(ev)=1.240/(1550*10-3)
= 0.8 ev
10. Assume that there is a glass rod of R.I 1.5,surrounded by air.find the critical incident
angle? [Nov-Dec 2011]
n1 = 1.5 and n2 = 1.0(air)
ɸc= sin-1 (n2/n1)
= sin-1 1.5/1.0
ɸc= 0.66o

11. A typical refractive index difference for an optical fiber designed for long distance
transmission is 1%.Determine the NA when the core index is 1.46.Calaculate the critical
angle at the core-cladding interface with in the fiber. [May - June 2012].
(i) NA = n1(2*Δ)1/2
= 1.46*(2*0.01)1/2
(ii)Critical angle:

NA=(n12-n22)1/2
= 1.4448

ɸc=sin-1(n2/n1)

= sin-1(1.4448/1.46)

= 81.9o

12. A Step –index fiber has a normalized frequency V=26.6 at a 1300nm wavelength.If the
core radius is 25µm,Find out numerical aperture? [May - June 2012].
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Normalized frequency V = (2π/λ an1(2Δ)1/2)

= 2π/λ a NA
NA = Vλ/2πa

=0.22
13. Calculate the cutoff wavelength of a single mode fiber with core radius of a 4µm and
del=0.003.[Nov-Dec 2012]
Cut off wavelength=(2πan1(2 )1/2)/Vc)

For SM, normalised frequency V c =2.405 and consider n1=1

=(2*3.14*4*1(2*0.003)1/2)/2.405
=1.9468/2.405
=0.809µm
14. For a fiber with core refractive index of 1.54 and fractional refractive index difference of
0.01,calculate its NA. [Nov-Dec 2012]

NA=n1(2*Δ)1/2
=1.54*(2*0.01) ½
=0.217
15. For n1=1.55 and n2=1.52, calculate the critical angle and numerical aperture.[May-
June2013]

Solution:
(a)the critical angle ɸc at the core cladding interface
ɸc=sin-1(n1/n2)
= 78.5o
(b)the NA is
NA=(n12-n22)1/2
NA=0.30
16. What is linearly polarized mode? [May-June2013]
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in a step – index fiber the difference in the core and cladding indices of refraction is very
small (Δ<<1) this the basis of the weakly guiding fiber approximation. Usually Δ is less then
0.33 (3%) for optical communication.
With this weakly guiding assumption, only four field components (HE, EH, TE and TM) need to
be considered and their expressions become significantly similar. The field components are
called linearly polarized (LP) components

Part B – Four/Eight/ Sixteen Mark Questions:

1. (a) (i) Explain with a neat block diagram the fundamentals of optical fiber
communication. (8) [Nov-Dec 2008]

An optical fiber transmission link comprises the elements as shown

The key assumptions are transmitter consisting of a light source and its associated drive
circuitry. Additional components include optical amplifiers, connectors, splices, couplers and
regenerators.
Analogous to copper cables, optical fibre cables can be installed either aerially, in ducts,
undersea or buried directly in the ground. For undersea installations. The slicing and repeater-installation
functions are carried out on board a specially designed cable-laying ship.
Early technology mode exclusive use of the 800 to 900 tun wavelength band, since, in this
region, the fibers made at that time exhibited a local minimum in the attenuation curve, and optical
sources and photodetectors operating at these wavelengths were available. This region is referred to
as the first window. By reducing the concentration of hydroxyl ions and metallic impurities
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in the fibre material, they were able to fabricate optical fibers with very loss in the 11004o-
1600nm region. Two windows are defined here: the second window, centred around 1310nm,
and the third window, centered around I 550w-n.
Once the cbale is installed, a light source that is dimensionally compatible with the fibre
core is used to launch optical power into the fiber. Semiconductor LED's and La diodes
are suitable for this purpose, since their light output can he modulat..xl rapidly by simply varying
the bias current at the desired transmission rate. thereby producing an optical signal. The electric
input signals to the transmitte circuitry for the optical source can be of either analog or digital
form. For high rate systems, direct modulation of the source can lead to unacceptable signal
distortion. In this case, an external modulator is used to vary the amp 'tilde of a continuous light
output from a Laser diode source.
After an optical signal is launched into a fiber, it will become progressively attenuated and
distorted with increasing distance because of scattering, absorption, dispersion mechanism in
the glass material.

1. (a) (ii) Discuss the mode theory of circular waveguides. (8) [Nov-Dec 2008]
Ans: In this, it is necessary to solve the Maxwell's equation subject to the cylindrical boundary
conditions at the interface between the core and the cladding of the fiber.
When solving Maxwell's equation for hollow metallic waveguides, only transverse
electric (TE) modes and transverse magnetic (TM) modes are found. This gh..:s rise to
hybrid modes, which makes optical waveguide analysis more complex than metallic waveguide
analysis.
• Although the theory of light propagation in optical fibers is
well understood, a complete description of the guided and radiation modes is rather
complex since it involves six component hybrid electromagnetic fields that have very
involved mathematical expressions. A simplification these expressions can be carried out in
practice, since ftt:derms are
eusually constructed so
that ni - m
n2 < < I. The field components are
called Linearly Polarized modes are given as LP where j and integers designating
mode solutions.

1. (b) i) Discuss berfily about linearly polarized modes. [Nov-Dec 2008]

Arts: In practice, since fibers are usually constructed so that n,- n2 « I. The field
components are called Linearly Polarized modes (LP) and are labelled as LPPI where j and
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in are integers designating mode lOis scheme for the lowest-order-modes, integers of each
stderivedIn from an HE,s, mode and each LP mode comes from TE E). and TMO„, and HEurn
modes. Thus, the fundamental LP si mode corresponds to VIE„ mode.
An important parameter connected with the cut-off condition is the V number defined by

(b) ( ii) Dr aw t he
st ruct ur e s o f single and
mU lt imo de st ep ind e x f iber s
a nd gr ad ed inde x f ibe r w it h
t he ir t yp ic a l dimensions. (6)

1. (b)(iii) Mention the advantages of opt ical fiber communication systems. (4) [Nov-Dec
2008]
Ans: 1) Attenuation makes wide range of distance possible
2) Smaller size and lighter weight
3) Electromagnetic isolation
No physical electrical connection is required
5) More reliable
6) No cross-talk
Greater bandwidth
Very good dielectrics
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9) Data rate is much higher

10)The cost per channel is lower Systems

2. a i ) D e r i v e a n e x p r e s s i o n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e m o d e s propagating in
step index fiber.. (11) [ April/May 2009]

Ans: A standard mathematical procedure for solving equation is to use the separation-of
variable's method, which assume's the solution of the form
Ez = A f .,(t) Fa) F 3 (z) F4(1)
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2.a) ii)Calculate the numerical aperture, cut-off parameter and number of modes supported
by a fiber having core = 1.54, Cladding = 1.5, core radius 25 and operating wavelength
1300nm.(5).

[ April/May 2009].

NA=(n12-n22)1/2
=0.348
Cut-off parameter V = (2πa)/(λ) NA

= 42.0276
Number of modes M=2.092*1017

2.b.What are the various features of graded index fiber?Explain the refractive index
profile and ray transmission in a multimode graded index fiber. [ April/May 2009].

Ray theory transmission

Total internal reflection

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Acceptance Angle
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Numerical Aperture
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3..Explain mode propagation in circular waveguides.Obtain its wave equation and modal
equations for step index fibers.[April/May 2010]
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4.(a)(i) what is numerical aperture of an optical fiber? Deduce an expression for the same. [Nov-
Dec 2011]

 Numerical aperture is used to describe the light-gathering or light collecting

ability of an optical fiber.
 Referred as figure of merit,used to measure the magnitude of an acceptance
angle.
 The numerical aperture for light entering the glass fiber from an air medium is
described as
NA=sin Ɵa
Where, Ɵa=acceptance angle(degrees)
And also
NA=(n12-n22)1/2
Acceptance angle interms of NA is

Ɵa=sin-1(NA)
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NA=sinƟa=(n12-n22)1/2
= ((n1+n2)(n1-n2))1/2
NA=n1(2Δ)1/2
Where Δ is called index difference
ii) calculate NA of silica fiber with its core R.I (n1) of 1.48 and cladding R.I of 1.46.what should
be the new value of n1 in order to change the NA to 0.23

solution: a) NA=(n12-n22)1/2
= (1.482-1.462)1/2

NA=0.24
b) (NA)2=n12-n22
n12=n22+(NA)2
n1=1.48
4.(b) i) explain the phenomenon of total internal refelction using snell‘s law with figures and
calculations. [Nov-Dec 2011]
When the light ray strikes the interface at an angle(incident angle) greater than the critical
angle, the light ray does not pass through the interface into the glass, a mirror effect is existed at
the interface.

When this occurs,the angle of reflection ɸ2 is equal to tha angle of incidence ɸ1 as if a

real mirror were used.this action is known as total internal reflection.
Total internal reflection occurs only in materials in which the velocity of light is slower
than in air.
The ray has an angle of incidence at the interface which is greater than the critical angle
(ɸ1>ɸc) and is totally reflected back into the air at the same time angle to the normal.this action is
known as total internal reflection.
Two necessary conditions for TIR to occur are:

 The R.I of first medium (n1)>R.I of second medium (n2)

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 ɸ1>ɸc

(ii)distinguish step index from graded index fibers

s.no parameter SI fiber GI fiber

1 Data rate Slow Higher

2 Coupling efficiency Higher Lower

3 Ray path By total internal reflection Light ray travels in oscillatory

fashion

4 NA Remains same Changes continuously with

distance from fiber axis

5 Pulse spreading Pulse spreading by fiber Pulse spreading is less

length is more

6 Typical light source LED LED,laser

7 Attenuation of light Less typically 0.34 dB/km at More 0.6 to 1 dB/km at 1.3µm
1.3µm

8 Bandwidth 10-20 MHz/km 1 GHz/km

efficiency

9 Material used Normally plastic or glass is Only glass is preferred

preferred

10 Index variation Δ=(n1-n2)/n1 Δ=(n12-n22)/2n12

11 Applications Subscriber local network Local and wide area network

communication

5..a)(i) Draw and explain the acceptance angle and numerical aperture of an optical fiber and
drive expressions for both. [May - June 2012]
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(ii)A fiber has a core radius of 25µm,core refractive index of 1.48 and relative refractive index
difference is 0.01.if the operating wavwelength is 0.84µm,find the value of normalised frequency
and the number of guided modes.Determine the number of guided modes if Δ is reduced to 0.03.
[May - June 2012]
Solution:
(a) The normalised frequency V=(2πan1(2Δ )1/2)/λ
=(2π*25*10-6*1.48*(2*0.01)1/2)/0.84*10-6
=(6.28*37*10-6*0.1414)/0.84*10-6

=32.85/0.84
=39.
The total number of guided mode Ms=V2/2
=1521/2
=760.5
Hence this fiber has a V number of approximately 39,giving nearly 761 guided modes.
(b) The normalised frequency V=(2πan1(2Δ )1/2)/λ
=(2π*25*10-6*1.48*(2*0.003)1/2)/0.84*10-6
=(6.28*37*10-6*0.0774)/0.84*10-6
=17.98/0.84
=21.4
=22
The total number of guided mode Ms=V2/2

=484/2=242
Hence this fiber has a V number of approximately 22,giving nearly 242 guided modes.
5.b.(i) Draw and explain the refractive index profile and ray transmission in ingle mode and
multimode step index fibers and graded index fibers.write the expresions for the numerical
aperture and number of guided modes for a graded indexfiber. [May - June 2012]

(ii) A step index fiber a core diameter 7µm,and core refractive index of 1.49 Estimate the
shortest wavelength of light which allows single mode operation when the relative index
difference for the fiber is 1%.[May - June 2012]
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Solution:

Cut off wavelength λ=(2πan1(2 )1/2)/Vc)

For single mode,Normalized frequency V c=2.40
={2*3.14*1.49*3.5*{2*0.0.}1/2}/2.405
1/2
={6.28*5.21*{0.02} }/2.405
={32.71*0.1414}/2.405
=4.625/2.405
λ =1.923µm

6.a. Describe the ray theory the optical fiber communication by total internal reflection.State the
application of snells law in it. [Nov-Dec 2012] (or)
Ray theory transmission

Total internal reflection

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6.b.(i)ASI fiber with silica-core refractive index of 1.458,V=75 and NA=0.3 is to be oprate at
820nm.What should be its core size and cladding refractive index Calculate the total number of
modes entering this fiber. [Nov-Dec 2012]
Given: n1=1.458, V=75, NA=0.3 &λ=820 nm

(a)Core Size:
The normalized frequency for the fiber is V=(2π/ λ)a(NA)
Radius of core a=V λ /2π(NA)
=75*820*10-9/2*3.14*0.3
=61.5*10-6/1.884
=32.64µm
Hence the maximum core diameter for step-index is now approximately 65µm
(b)Cladding refractive index (n2)
NA=n11-n22
N2=n12-(NA)2
=(1.458)2-(0.3)2
=2.126-0.09

=2.036=1.427
(c)The total number of guided mode:
Ms=v2/2
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=5625/2=2812.5

Hence this fiber has a V number of approximately 75,giving nearly 2813 guided modes.

6.(b)(ii) Drive the expression for the linearly polarised modes in optical fibers and obtain the
equation for V number. [Nov-Dec 2012]
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7. a calculate the NA of fiber having n1=1.46 and n2=1.49 and another fiber having n1=1.458
and n2=1.405 which fiber has greater acceptance angle? [May-June2013]
(a) NA=(n12-n22)1/2
=0.58
Acceptance angle
Ɵa=sin-1(NA)
= 35.4
(b) NA for another fiber
NA=(n12-n22)1/2
=0.51
And acceptance angleƟa=sin-1(NA)
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=30.7

7.b)i)explain the ray theory of a fiber with a special mention about TIR,acceptance angle and
NA. [May-June2013]
Total internal reflection
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Acceptance Angle
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Numerical Aperture
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7.b.ii)Describe single mode fibers and their mode field diameter

Single Mode Fibers The core size of single mode fibers is small. The core size
(diameter) is typically around 8 to 10 micrometers (&mu;m). A fiber core of this size allows only
the fundamental or lowest order mode to propagate around a 1300 nanometer (nm) wavelength.
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Single mode fibers propagate only one mode, because the core size approaches the operational
wavelength (&lambda;). The value of the normalized frequency parameter (V) relates core size
with mode propagation. In single mode fibers, V is less than or equal to 2.405. When V &le;
2.405, single mode fibers propagate the fundamental mode down the fiber core, while high-order
modes are lost in the cladding. For low V values (&le;1.0), most of the power is propagated in
the cladding material. Power transmitted by the cladding is easily lost at fiber bends. The value
of V should remain near the 2.405 level. Single mode fibers have a lower signal loss and a higher
information capacity (bandwidth) than multimode fibers. Single mode fibers are capable of
transferring higher amounts of data due to low fiber dispersion. Basically, dispersion is the
spreading of light as light propagates along a fiber. Dispersion mechanisms in single mode fibers
are discussed in more detail later in this chapter. Signal loss depends on the operational
wavelength (&lambda;). In single mode fibers, the wavelength can increase or decrease the
losses caused by fiber bending. Single mode fibers operating at wavelengths larger than the
cutoff wavelength lose more power at fiber bends. They lose power because light radiates into
the cladding, which is lost at fiber bends. In general, single mode fibers are considered to be low-
loss fibers, which increase system bandwidth and length.
Mode Field Diameter (MFD)
The typical core diameter of communication single mode fibers is from 8~10um for
operating wavelength 1.31um to 1.5um. Fiber with a core diameter less than about ten times the
wavelength of the propagating light cannot be modeled using geometric optics as we did in the
explanation of step-index multimode fiber. Instead, it must be analyzed as an electromagnetic
structure, by solution of Maxwell's equations as reduced to the electromagnetic wave equation.
So even though the fiber cladding confines the light within the fiber core, some light does
penetrate into the cladding, despite the fact that it nominally undergoes total internal reflection.
This occurs both in single mode and multimode fibers, but this phenomenon is more significant
in single mode fibers.
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UNIT – II

Part A -Two Mark Questions:

1. Define group Delay ? [Nov-Dec 2008]
Ans : As the signal propagated along Inc fiber each spectral component can be assumed to travel
i
ndependently and to undergo a time delay or goup delay per unit length in the direction of propagation
given by

2. A multi mode graded index fiber exhibits total pulse broadening of 0.1 ps over a
distance of 15 km. Estimate the maximum possible bandwidth on the link assuming
RZ Coding without intersymbol interference. [Nov-Dec 2008]

3. A 100 km fiber is used in a communicat ion syst em. The fiber has 3.0
dB/km loss. What will be the output power, when the input power fed at the
input fiber is 500 i.tW? [ April/May 2009]
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4. What is the need for mode coupling in optical fiber? [ April/May 2009]

Ans: The mode coupling will increase the distortion less rapidly after a certain inital length of fibre
due to this mode coupling and differential mode losses.

5. What are microbends?How they are formed? [Nov-Dec 2009]

Microbends are repetitive small scale fluctuations in the radius of

curvature of the fiber axis. They are formed either by non uniformities in
the manufacture of the fiber or by non uniform lateral pressures created
during cabling of fibers.
6. What is intramodal dispersion?How the effect can be minimized? [April-May
2010]

Intramodal dispersion is due to group velocity being a function of wavelength. The

increasing spectral width of optical source will increase the intramodal dispersion.

7. Define the attenuation coefficient of the fiber. [Nov-Dec 2011]

The standard formula for expressing the total power loss in an optical fiber cable is

α(dB)=10log10(pi/po)
Where,
α(dB) – toal reduction in power level(attenuation) in decibels
po – cable output power(watts) and
pi – cable input power (watts)
8. Calculate the cut off wavelength of an optical signal through a fiber with its core
refractive index of 1.50 and that of cladding = 1.46. the core radius of 25µm.the
normalized frequency is 2.405. [Nov-Dec 2011]
Cut off wavelength ƛc= 2πan1(2Δ)1/2/vc

Δ=(n1-n2)/n1
= (1.50-1.46)/1.50
= 0.0267
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For single mode,normalized frequency vc=2.405

= (2*3.14*1.50*25*(2*0.0267)1/2)/2.405
= 62.5959/2.405
ƛc= 26 µm

9. What factors cause Rayleigh scattering in optical fibers?[May - June 2012]

Rayleigh scattering is the dominant intrinsic loss mechanism in the ultra violet region.Its tail
extends up to infrared region.
Rayleigh scattering is a fundamental loss mechanism arising from local microscopic
fluctuations in density.Density fluctuations lead to random fluctuations of the refractive index on
a scale smaller than the optical wavelength (lemda) .Light scattering in such a medium is known
as Rayleigh scattering.
10. Consider a 20 km long optical fiber that has an attenuation of 0.8 dB/km at 1300
nm.Find the optical power pout if 200µw of optical power is launched into the
fiber? [May - June 2012]
The input power in dBm units:
Pin=10 log[Pin(w)/1mW]=10 log[200*10-6/1*10-3]
= -7 dBm

The output power level in dBm at z=30km is

Pout(dBm)= 10 log[Pout(w)/1mW]
= 10 log[Pin(w)/1mW]-αz
=-7.0dBm-(0.8 dB/km)(30 km)
= -7.0dBm-24 dBm
Pout(dBm)=-31.0dBm
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11. What is reason for chromatic dispersion? [Nov-Dec 2012]

 This dispersion arises due to the variation of refractive index of the core material as a
function of wavelength or frequency of light.
 This causes a wavelength dependence of the group velocity of any given mode,i.e.pulse
spreading occurs even when different wavelengths follow the sama path.
12. What are the most important non-linear effects of optical fiber communication?
[Nov-Dec 2012]
This non-linear scattering causes the optical power from one mode to be transferred in
either the forward or backward direction to the same.or other modes,at a different frequency.
13. what is Rayleigh scattering? [May-June2013]
Rayleigh scattering is a fundamental loss mechanism arising from local microscope
fluctuations in density. Density fluctuations lead to random fluctuations of the refractive index
on a scale smaller then the optical wavelength λ. Light scattering in such a medium is known as
Rayleigh scattering.

14. what is mean by mechanical splice? [May-June2013]

This mechanical splice fiber alignment may be achieved by various methods including
the use of tubes around the fiber end (tube splices) or V-grooves into which the butted fibers are
placed (groove splices) .
All these techniques seek to optimize the splice performance (i.e reduce the insertion loss
at the joint) through both fiber end prepration and alignment of the two joint fibers.

Part B – Four/Eight/ Sixteen Mark Questions:

1. (a) (i) Explain t he scat t er ing and bending tosses t hat occur in an
opt ical fiber wit h relevant diagrams and .expressio ns. (8) [Nov-Dec
2008]

Ans: Rayleigh S cat t ering Loss:T he glass, which is used in t he fabr icat ion o f
fibres, has man y microscopic inho mogeneit ies and mat er ial Rayleigh
influct uat io ns o f t he silica mat er ial cont ent s. As a result , a port io n
gt liiir socuat t let r liiig t he glassfibr e get s scat t ered. This pheno menon
is called
PIt produces — att enuat io n dependence. The scat t eri ng lo ss due t o dens it y
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fluct uat ion only can be expressed as:

Bending Losses: Microbending and macr obending are t wo t ypes o f bending

lo sses:

Microb ending Losses:

Microbends have s mall rando m
deviat io ns about a no mina l
st raight line posit io n. These are
obser ved in cabled fibre. T his cross -coupling leads t o t he lo ss t hrough
cladding. On so me occasio ns t hese bend ings may be quit e sharp and also
will he int roducing cert ain lo ss of light energy. in t he mibre.
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Where u is defined and a is the fiber radius. For mode fibers
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the waveguide dispersion is generally very small c mpared
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1 a) ii ) D iscu s s po la r iz at io n mo de d is p er s io n a nd it s l i m it at io ns.

Ans: Birefringence can result from intrinsic factors such as geometric irregularities of the fibre core or
internal stress on it. In addition, external , twisting or pinching of the fiber can also lead Where u is
defined and a is the fiber radius. For multimode fibers the waveguide dispersion is generally very
small compared w ith material dispersion and can therefore be neglected

br
1. (b) Write a brief note on pulse oadening in g raded index fibers. (15) [Nov-Dec
2008]
Ans: The analysis of pulse broadening in graded index waveguides is more involved owing to the
radial variation in core refractive index. The feature of this grading of the refractive index profile
is that it offers multimode propagation in a relatively large core together with the
possibility of a very low intermodal delay distortion. This combination allows the transmission of
high data rates over long distances while still maintaining a resonable degree of light launching
and coupling case. Since the index of refraction is lower at the outer edges of the core, light rays
will travel foster to this region than in the centre of the core where the refractive index is higher.
This can be seen from the fundamental relationship V = c/n, where V is the speed of light in
a medium of refractive index n. Thus, the ray congruence categorizing the higher- order mode
will tend to travel further than the fundamental ray congruence, but at a faster rate.

2. What are the losses on signal attenuation mechanisms in a fiber?Explain in

detail.[April-May 2009].[April-May 2010]
Attenuation
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Material Absorption losses

Intrinsic absorption
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Extrinsic Absorption

Linear scattering losses

Mie Scattering
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Non-linear scattering losses

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Stimulated brillouin scattering

Stimulated Raman scattering

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3. Explain the effects of signal distortion in optical waveguide. .[April-May 2009].

.[April-May 2012].

Intramodal or chromatic dispersion

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Intermodal dispersion

4. Describe the linear and non linear scattering losses in optical fiber.[Nov-Dec
2009]

Linear scattering losses

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Mie Scattering

Non-linear scattering losses

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Stimulated brillouin scattering

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Stimulated Raman scattering

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5. (a) (i) What do you mean by pulse broadening? Explain its effect on information carrying
capacity of the fiber. [Nov-Dec 2011]
A light pulse will broaden as it travels along the fiber.this pulse broadening will cause
overlap with neighbouring pulses.

At certain distance the pulses are not individually distinguished at the receiver and errors
will occur.The information capacity of an optical waveguide is usually specified by the
bandwidth-distance product(BDP) or bandwidth-length product(BLP) in MHz-km.

As the length of optical fiber increases , the bandwidth decrease in proportion.

For S.I BDP is 20MHz.km and for G.I it is 2.5GHz.km

The information carrying capacity can be determined by the short light pulses
propagating along the fiber.

(ii)An LED operating at 850 nm has a spectral width of 45nm.what is the pulse spreading in
ns/km due to material dispersion? What is the pulse spreading when a laser diode having a 2 nm
spectral width is used? The material dispersion is 90 ps/nm km.
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Solution:

(i)rms pulse broadening per kilometer due to material dispersion

σ m=σl LM
σm(1km)= 45*1*90*10-12
= 4.05 nskm-1
(ii)rms pulse broadening per kilometer due to material dispersion
σm=σƛLM
σm(1km)= 2*1*90*10-12

= 1.8 nskm-1
5. (b)(i)what is meant by fiber splicing? Explain fusion splicing of optical fibers. [Nov-Dec
2011]
A fiber splice is a permanent or semi-permanent joint between two fibers and the process
of joinig two fiber is calledmas splicing
It is used to create a long optical links or in situations where frequent connection and
disconnections are not needed.splicces offer lower attenuation and lower back reflections
than connectors and are less expensive.
The factors to be considered in splicing are
 geometrical difference between two fibers
 fiber misalignment at the joint and
 mechanical strength of the splice.
Fusion splicing:
Fusion splicing involves butting two cleaned fiber end faces and heating them
until they melt together or fuse.
 There are four steps
o Initial setting
o Arrangement of smooth surface by pre fusion
o Pressed together
o Accomplishment of splice
Fiber ends are firstprealigned and butted together under a microscope with
micromanipulators
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The fusion splicing of single fiber involves the heating of the two prepared fiber
ends to their fusing point with the application of sufficient axial pressure between the two
optical fibers
The butt joint is then heated with an electric arc or a laser pulse so that the ends
are momentarily melted and bonded together.this technique can produce very low splice
losses.

(ii)explain expanded beam fiber connectors with a neat schematic.

The expanded beam connector consisting of two lens for collimating and
refocusing the light from one fiber into the other
The use of this interposed optic makes the achievement of leteral alignment much
less critical than with a butt jointed fiber connector.
The collimating lens converts the light from the fiber into a parallel beam light and
focusing lens converts the parallel beam of light into a focused beam of light on to the core of the
receiving fiber.
The fiber to lens distance equal to the focal length of the lens.
Expanded beam connectorsare useful for multimode fiber connection and edge connection for
printed circuit boarde where lateral and longtitudinal

6. (b)(i) Explain mechanical splices with neat diagrams. [May - June 2012]
(ii)Write a brief note on fiber alignment and joint loss[Nov-Dec 2012]

Fiber alignment and joint loss

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7. (a)(i) Describe the linear and non-linear scattering losses in optical fibers. [Nov-Dec 2012]
(ii).An LED operating at 850nm as a spectral width of 45nm.What is the pulse spreading
in ns/Km due to material dispersion?What is the pulse spreading when a laser diode having a
2nm spectral width is used? The material dispersion is 90 ps/nmKm.
Solution:
(i)Rms pulse broadening per kilometre due to material dispersion
Σm=σλLM

Σm(1 km)=45*1*90*10-12
=4.05 nskm-1
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(ii)Rms pulse broadening per kilometre due to material dispersion

Σm=σλ LM
Σm(1 km)=2*1*90*10-12
=1.8 nskm-1

8.a)i)Derive an expression for material dispersion and waveguide dispersion and explain
them[May-June2013]
Material Dispersion: Material dispersion occurs because the index of refraction varies as
a function of the optical wavelength. Or alternately, we can say that β varies with n(λ). Material
dispersion is an intramodal effect and of particular importance for single-mode and LED
systems. Let the variation in the index of refraction be n(λ)
ii) various types of fiber connectors and couplers
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8.(b)i)draw and explain the various fiber alignment and joint losses[May-June2013]

ii)write notes on fiber splicing technique

Fiber splices
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UNIT – III

Part A -Two Mark Questions:

1. Distinguish direct and indirect bandgrap materials. [Nov-Dec 2008]
Ans: In direct bandgap materials, the electron and hole have the same momentum value. In indirect
bandgap material, the conduction band minimum and the valence band maximum energy level occur
at different values of momentum.

2. An LED has radiative and non-radiative recombination times of 30 and 100 ns respectively.
Determine the internal quantum efficiency. [Nov-Dec 2008]

3. Define responsivity of a photo detector: [Nov-Dec 2008]

Ans : It is defined as the ratio of output photo current to the incident optical power

4. . Compare the performance of APD and PIN diode. [Nov-Dec 2008]

When an incident photon has

1) The carrier multiplication yields an energy greater than or
newly created carriers which equal to the band gap
Ans: are alsoA accelerate
PD d
by hi gh P I N Di o d e
energy, it give up its energy
el ectri c ugh t hus gai ning and excite an electron to
enough energy to cause impact conduction band. This
ionization which is known as process generates the
avalanche effect. photocarriers.
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Beat Fed

Arkee
Parl

Winn Fir
R2ortil

Analogous to the pio photodiode the

performance of an API) is characterized by its responsivity. Riot),.

5. What is the need for mode coupling in optical fiber?[April-May2009]

Ans: The mode coupling will increase the distortion less rapidly after a certain inital length of fibre due to
this mode coupling and differential mode losses.

6. When a LED has 2 V applied to its terminals, It draws 100 mA and produces 2 mW of
optical power. Determine the LED conversion efficiency from eletrical to optical power?
[April-May2009]
Ans: Given: Input to LED = 2Y, I= 100 rnA, Output Power = 2 mW LED Conversion efficiency

7. . What is the principle of ciperation of LASER? [April-May2009]

Ans: The principle of operation of LASER is population inversion the most photons incident on the
system.
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8. Define quantum effiieney and responsitivity of photodetector. [April-May2009]

ANS: • The internal quantum efficiency is the fraction of the electron- hole pairs that recombine radiatively. If
the radiative recombination rate is R and the non-radiative recombination ratios R,, then the internal quantum
efficiency is the ratio of the radiative recombination rate to the recombination rate.
 The performance of a avalanche_photodiode is characterized by its responsivity,
R apd = nqm/ hv = RdM.
9. . A silicon photodiode has a quantum efficiency of 65% at a wavelength. of 900 nm. If 0.5 uN
optical power produces a multiplied photocurrent of 10 iA. Determine its primary photon
current and multiplication factor. [April-May2009]

Given: q = 65%, X = 900 nm,1„,=10M, p=0.5 FtN, 1,,=2 M =?

10. What are the characteristics that a semiconductor laser diode should possess? [Nov-Dec
2011]
For optical power systems, a semiconductor laser diodes are used as an optical
source.because its output radiation is highly monochromatic and the light beam is very
directional.
11. Photons of energy 1.53*10 -49 J are incident on a photodiode which has a responsivity of
0.75 A/W. if the optical power leval is 10µm,then find out the photo current generated?
[Nov-Dec 2011]
Solution:
Ro=0.75 A/W

Po=10µw
Ip=RO PO
= (0.75 A/W)(10µW)
IP=7.5µA
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12. Define a ‗quantum efficiency‘ of a photo detector and write its expression. [Nov-Dec 2011]

The quantum efficiency is defined as ―the number of electron hole carrier pairs generated
per incident photon of energy hv‖ and is given by
Ƞ= number of electron hole pairs generated/number of incident photons
= (IP/q)/(PO/hv)
Where,

IP =photocurrent
q = charge of an electron
PO= opicalpowert incident on the photo detector
hv = energy of the iincident photon
13. What are the advantages of LED? [May - June 2012]
1. Simpler fabrication
2. COST:The simpler construction of the LED leads to much reduced cost.
3. Reliability
4. Generally less temperature dependence.
5. SIMPLER DRIVE CIRCUITRY:This is due to the generally lower device currents and
reduced temperature dependance which makes temperature
compensation circuits unnecessary.
6. LINEARITY:Ideally the LED has a linear light output against current characteristic.

14. Photons of energy 1.53*10 -19J are incident on a photodiode which has a responsivity of
0.65A/W.If the optical power level is 10µw,then find out the photo current generated? [May
- June 2012]

Solution:
Given:
R0=0.65A/W
P0=10µw
Ip=R0P0 [R=Ip/P0]
=(0.65A/W)(10µw)
Ip =6.5µA
15. Compare and contrast between surface and edge emitting LEDs. [Nov-Dec 2012]
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In surface emitting LEDs,the plane of active light-emitting region is perpendicular to the
fiber axis.
 Edge emitting LEDs emit a more directional light pattern than the surface emitting
LEDs.
 In order to reduce the losses caused by absorption in the active layer and to make the
beam more directional,the light is collected from the edge of the LED.Such a device is
known as edge emitting LED.
 Edge emitters have a substantially better modulation bandwidth of the order of hundres of
mege hertz than comparable surface-emitting structures with the same drive level.
 The coupling losses with surface emitters are greater,and they have narrow bandwidths.
 Edge emitter couple 7.5 times more power into low NA fiber than a comparable surface
emitter.
16. What is the significations of intrinsic layer in PIN diodes? [Nov-Dec 2012]
The PIN photo detector structure consists of p and n regions separator by a very lightly n-
dopped intrinsic (i)region.When the photo diode is reverse based,the intrinsic region od diode is
fully depleted of carriers.
The depletion region must be sufficiently thick to allow a large fraction of incident
light(photon) to be absorbed in order to achieve maximum carrier-pair generation.
17. Calculate the band gapenergy for an led to emit 850 nm. [May-June2013]
We know that,
λ (µm) = 1.240/Eg(ev)
Eg(ev) =1.240/0.850=1.459

18. Define detector response time. [May-June2013]

The response time of a photo diode aredepends on
 Transit time of photo carriers within the depletion region
 Diffusion time of photo carriers outside the depletion region
 RC time constant of the photodiode and its associated circuit

Part B – Four/Eight/ Sixteen Mark Questions:

1. (a) (i) Draw and explain the different structures used to achieve carrier
andopticalconfinement in laser diodes. (8) [Nov-Dec 2008]
Ans: For optical fiber communication systems requiring bandwidths greater than approximately
200MHz, the semiconductor injection laser diode is preferred over the LED. Laser diodes
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typically have response time less than Ins, have optical bandwidths of 2nm or less, and,in
general, are capable of coupling several ten of milliwatts of useful luminescent power into
optical fibers with small core and small mode-field diameters. Virtually all laser diodes in use are
multilayered heterojunction diodes.
The doluble heterojunction LED configuration evolved from the successful demonstration
of both carrier and optical confinement in heterojunction injection laser diodes. The more rapid
evolvement and utilization of LEDs as compared with laser diodes lies in the inherently simpler
construction, the smaller temperature dependence of the emitted optical power, and the absence of
catastrophic degradation in LEDs.
In other laser diode type, commonly referred to as the distributed- feedback laser the cleaved
facit are not required for optical feedback.

The stimulated emission rate into a given mode is proportional to the

intensity of the radiation in that mode. The radiation intensity at a
photon energy hy varies exponentially with the distance z that it
traverses along the lasing cavity according to the relationship.
where a- is the effective absorption coefficient of the material in the
optical path and r is the optical-confinement factor - that is, the
fraction of optical power in the active layer.

1. (a) (ii) Discuss the effects of temperature on the performance of a laser diode.
(4) [Nov-Dec 2008]

Ans: An important factor to consider in the application of laser diodes is the temperature
dependence of the threshold current. This parameter increases with temperature in all
types of semiconductor lasers because of various complex temperature-dependent factors.
However, the Where To is a measure of the relative temperature insensitivity and I is a
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constant. Fora conventional stripe-geometry GaAlAs Laser diode. To is typically 120 -

165°C in the vicinity of room temperature. An example of a laser diode with T„ = 135°C
and lz -= 52A. The smaller dependences oflth on temperature have been demonstrated for
GaAlAs quantum-well heterostructure lasers.
For these lasers, To can be as high as 437°C. Consequently, if a constant optical output
power level is to be maintained as the temperature of the laser changes or as the laser
ages, it is necessary to adjust the dc bias current level.

1 (b) (i) Derive expressio ns for t he power coupled frort i a sur fa ( surface
emitt ing LED int o st ep index and graded index fibers. (10) [Nov-Dec 2008]

Ans: "Ihe coupled power can be found using the

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relationship. Where the are and solid acceptance angle of the fiber define the limits of the
integrals. The total coupled power is then determined by summing up the contributions from each
individual emitting-point source of incremental area dOz r dr; that is, integrating over the
emitting area.

1. (b) (ii) Explain the mechanical misalignments that can occur between two
joined fibers with necessary diagrams. (6) [Nov-Dec 2008]

Mechanical alignment is a major poblem when joining two fibers, owing to their microscopic
size. A standard multimode graded-index fiber core is 50-100 p in in diameter. Radiation losses
result from mechanical misalignments because the radiation ocne of the emitting fiber does not
match the acceptance once of the receiving fiber. The magnitude of the radiation loss depends on
the degree of misalignments:
Longitudinal separation occurs when the fibers hav& the same axis but have a gap S
between their end faces. Angular misalignments results when the two axes form ana ngle so that
the fiber end faces are no longer parallel. Axial displacement results when the axes of the two
fibers are separated by a distance d.
The most common misalignment occuring in practice; which also causes the .greatest power
loss, is axial displacement.

2. (a) Discuss with necessary expressions the different types of noise that affect the
performance of a photodetector. (10) [Nov-Dec 2008]

A ns: In fiber optic communication systems, the photodiode is generally required to detect very
weak optical signals. The power Signal-to-noise ratio S/N at the output of an optical receiver is
defined by
S/N = Signal Power from Photocurrent/ Photo detector Noise Power + Amplifier Noise Power
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To achieve a high ratio the following conditions to be met:

I. The photo detector must have a high quantum efficiency to generate a large signal power.
2. The photodetector and amplifier noises should be kept as low as possible. The sensitivity of a
photodetector in an optical
fiber conununication system is describable in terms of the minimum detectable optirtal power.
This is the optical power
necessary to produce a photocurrent.

3.Explain the basic LED configurations used as optical source.Derive the expression for
quantum efficiency and optical power generated in LED‘s.[April-May 2009] [April-May
2010] [May-June2013]
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LED structures

Surface emitter
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Edge emitter
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4.With a neat sketch explain the operation of PIN photodiode and Avalanche diode.[April-May
2009] [May-June2013]

PIN photodiode
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Avalanche photodiode
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5. (a) (i)compare LED with a laser diode. [Nov-Dec 2011]

s.no Parameter LED LASER

1 Output beam Coherent In-coherent

2 Couping efficiency High Very low

3 Priniciple of Stimulated emission Spontaneous emission

operation
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4 Output power High Low

5 Data rate High Low

6 Cost Expensive Less

7 Life time 104hours 105 hours

8 Circuit complexity Complex Simple

9 Temperature More Less

dependant

10 Apllications Low data rate high

(ii)with the help of a neat diagram explain the construction and working of a surface emitting
LED. [Nov-Dec 2011][May-June 2012]
surface-emitting LED is also known as the Burrus LED in honor of C. A. Burrus, its
developer. In SLEDs, the size of the primary active region is limited to a small circular area of
20 &mu;m to 50 &mu;m in diameter. The active region is the portion of the LED where photons
are emitted. The primary active region is below the surface of the semiconductor substrate
perpendicular to the axis of the fiber. A well is etched into the substrate to allow direct coupling
of the emitted light to the optical fiber. The etched well allows the optical fiber to come into
close contact with the emitting surface. In addition, the epoxy resin that binds the optical fiber to
the SLED reduces the refractive index mismatch, increasing coupling efficiency.
Example of the SLED structure.
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5.(b)(i)explain the structure and working of a silicon APD. [Nov-Dec 2011] [Nov-Dec 2012]

APD internally multiplies the primary signal photo current before it enters the
input circuitry of the following amplifier.it has interenal gain and responsivity is better than
PIN.the photo current is multiplied to increase the receiver sensitivity.
Impact ionization:
The photo generatd carriers transverse a region where a very high electric field is
present.a photo generated electron or hole can gain enough energy in this high electric field and
excite new electron hole pairs.this process is called impact ionization and this phenomenon
leads to avalanche break dowm in ordinary RB diodes.
Avalanche effect:
Due to ionization effect new carriers are generated.the newly created carriers also
accelerated by the high electric field.this effect is called avalanche effect.
Reach through avalanche photo diode(RAPD)
A commonly used structure for achieving carrier multiplication with very little excess
noise is the reach through construction
Operation:
1. When a low bias voltage is applied,most of the potential drop is across
Pn+junction.the depletion layer increase with increasing reverse bias voltage.
2. At particular voltage avalanche break down occurs ,the depletion layer just reach
through to nearly intrinsic region
3. Rapd is operated at fully depleted mode.when light enters the device it is absorbed
in π region.hence it is called collection region
4. this absorbed photon gives up energy and electron hole pair are created and
accelerated by high electric field.
5. The carrier multiplication takes place
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Ionization rate
The average number of electron hole pairs created by a carrier per unit distance travelled
K=β/α
Avalanche multiplication(M)
Carrier multiplication takes place by impact ionization or avalanche effect.
M=Im/Ip
Responsivity(R)
RAPD=(ƞq/hv)M
Benefits:
o Excellent linearity
o Less sensitive
Demerits:
o If power received at the receiver is more than 1 microwatts,then APD is not used
o Gain decreases as temperature rises
o Increased cost
o High noise contribution
(ii)define S/N ratio of a photodetector.what conditions should be met to achieve a high SNR?
The performance of the receiver is evaluated by power signal to noise ratio at the output
of an optical receiver
(S/N)=(signal power from photo current)/(photodector noise power+amplifier noise
power)
To get high signal to noise ratio
(i)the photo detector must have a high quantum efficiency to generate a large signal
power and

(ii)photo detector and amplifier noise should be very low.

To get high sensitivity of a photo detector(sensitivity is inversely proportional to the
minimum detectable optical power) S/N ratio should be more.
6.A silicon p-i-n photodiode incorporated into an optical receiver has a quantum efficiency of
60% when operating at a wavelength of 0.9µm.The dark current in the device is 3nA and the
load resistance is 4kΩ.The incident optical power is 200nW and the post detection bandwidth of
the receiver is 5MHz Calculate the root mean square (rms) shotnoise and thermal noise currents
generated.[May-June 2012]

Solution:
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(i) Primary photocurrent (Ip):

Ip=RPo
=(ὴq/hv)*po
=(ὴqlamda/hc)*po
=((0.60)(1.6*10-19c)(0.9*10-6 m)/6.625*10-34 j.s)(3*108m/s))*200*10-9w
=172.8*10-34/19.875*10-26
=8.7*10-6 A
Ip =8.7µA

(ii)Mean – square quantum (or) shot noise current for a pin photodiode is
(I2Q)=2qIpB
=2(1.6*10-19c)(8.7*10-6A)(5*106Hz)=139.2*10-19A2
(I2Q)=13.92*10-18A2
(or)
(I2Q)2=3.73nA

(iii) Mean-square thermal noise current

(I2T)=(4KBT/RL)*B
=(4(1.38*10-23J/K)(293K)/4000)*5*106Hz
=8086.8*10-17/4000
=2*10-17
(iT2)=0.2*10-18A2

(or)
(i2T)2=0.447nA
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UNIT – IV
Part A -Two Mark Questions:
1. Define threshold level. [Nov-Dec 2011]

A decision circuit compares the signal in each time slot with a certain reference voltage
known as the threshold level.
(i) Received signal > threshold=1
(ii) Received signal<threshold=0
2. Define quantum limit. [May - June 2012]
To find the minimum received optical power required for a specific bit error rate performance
in a digital system. This minimum received power level is known as the quantum limit.

3. What are the methods used to measure fiber refractive index profile? [May - June 2012]
1. Interferometric method
2. Near field scanning method and
3. Refracted near field method

4. What is dark current? [Nov-Dec 2012]

It is the current that continues to flow through the base circuit of the device when no light
is incident on the photo diode.This is a combination of bulk and surface current.

The bulk dark current arises from electrons and/or holes which are thermally generated
in the PN junction of the photodiode.
5. List out the various error sources. [Nov-Dec 2012] [May-June2013]
o Quantum noise
o Bulk dark current
o Surface leakage current
o Thermal noise
o Amplifier noise
6. what is known as quantum limit? [May-June2013]
To find the minimum received optical power required for a specified bit error rate
performance in a digital system.this minimum received power level is known as the quantum
limit.
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Part B – Four/Eight/ Sixteen Mark Questions:

1. a)i) explain the fiber optic receiver operation using a simple model and its equivalent
circuit[Nov-Dec 2011] [Nov-Dec 2012]

Receiver structures

Low impedance front end

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1)b)explain the measurement technique used in the case of

(i)numerical aperture[Nov-Dec 2011] [Nov-Dec 2012] [May - June 2012]

Fiber numerical aperture measurement

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(ii)refractive index profile[May –June 2013]

INTERFEROMETRIC METHODS:
Interference microscopes (mach-zehnder) are widely used to determine the refractive
index profiles of optical fibers.
A thin slice fiber (slab) with both ends accurately polished to obtain optically flat
surfaces.
The slab with often immersed in an index matching fluid and an assembly is examined
with an inter face microscope.
Using either a transmitted light interferometer or a reflected light form interferometer.
In both cases light form the microscope travels normal to the prepared fiber faces
(parallel to the fiber axis)
When the phase of the incident light is compared with the phase of the emerging light, a
field of parallel interference fringes is observed.
The fringe displacements for the points within the fiber core are then measured using a
as reference the parallel fringes out side the fiber core. (In the fiber cladding).
The refractive index difference between a point in the fiber core ( e.g. the core axis ) and
the cladding can be optained from the fringeshift q, which corresponds to a number of fringe
displacement.
The different in refractive index δn is given by
Δn= (qλ/x)
Where,
X is the thickness of the fiber slab and
λ is the incident optical wavelength.

(iii)fiber cut off wavelength

(iv)fiber diameter
Fiber diameter measurement
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UNIT –V
Part A -Two Mark Questions:
1. Define modal noise and mode partition noise. [May-June 2009] [May-June 2010]
Ans: Modal Noise: It arises when the light from a coherent laser is oupled into a multimodc fiber
operating at 400 MbPs and higher. It ainly occurs due to mechanical vibrations and fluctuations in
the equency of optical source. The Partition Noise: The mode partition noise is associate d
with intensity fluctuation's in the longitudinal modes of a laser diode. It becomes more
pronounced for the higher bit rates.

2. . What are the advantages, of using soliton signals through fiber? [May-June 2009]
Anis: Group velocity dispersion causes most pulses to broader in time as they propogate
through an optical fiber. However a particular puls shape-known as a soliton makes
advantages of non-linear effect's in silica, particular self-phase modulation.

3. What are the three common topologies used for the fiber optical network? Give the
schematic of any one network? [Nov-Dec 2011]
Three common topologies used for the fiber optic networks.these are
(i) Linear bus topology
(ii) Ring topology
(iii) Star topology
Bus topology
A bus topology provides multipoint communication.in this case, long cable called
bus forms the backbone to all nodes.
4. Define optical CDMA[Nov-Dec 2011]
Optical code-divison multiple access (CDMA) scheme can provide multiple access to a
network,without using wavelength-sensitive components as in WDM,and without employing
very high-speed electronic data processing devices as are needed in TDM networks.
5. Write the functions of path overhead. [May - June 2012]
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The nine path-overhead(POH) bytes are always in a column ans can be located anywhere in the
SPE in SONET/SDH.
The POH supports performance monitoring by the end equipment,syatus,signallabelling,a
tracing function,and a user channel.

6. What are the drawbacks of broadcast and select networks for wide area network
applications? [May - June 2012]
1. There is an electro optical conversion takes place between transmitter and reeiver.
2. There is no direct connection between nodes.

7. What is WDM? [Nov-Dec 2012]

Wavelength division multiplexing(WDM) involves the transmission of a number of
different peak wavelength optical in parallel on a signal optical fiber.
8. Enumerate the various SONET/SDH layers? [Nov-Dec 2012]
SONET/SDH has four optical interface layers. They are
o Path layer
o Line layer
o Section layer
o Photonic layer
9. What is a broadcast and selected network?[May-June 2013]
In broadcast and selected networks,a node sends its transmission to the star on the
available wavelength, using a laser which produces an optical information stream.the
information streams from multiple sources are equally combined by the star and the signal
power of each stream is equally split and forwarded to all of the nodes on their receive nodes
Ex:ethernets,tokenrings,FDDI networks
10. what is solitons? [May-June 2013]
Solitons are the p[ulses that travel along the fiber without change in shape or
amplitude or velocity.The term soliton refers to special kinds of waves that can propagate
undistorted over long distances and remain unaffected after collision with each other.

Part B – Four/Eight/ Sixteen Mark Questions:

1. (a) Explain the salient features of solitons using relevant expressions and diagrams. (16)
[Nov-Dec 2008] [April-May 2010]
Ans: The term soliton" refers to special kinds of waves that can propagate undistorted over long
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distances and remain unaffected after collisions with each other.

The family of pulses that do not change in shape are called fundamental solitons, and those
that undergo periodic shape changes are called higher-order solutions. In either case, attenuation in
the fiber will eventually decrease the soliton energy.
Soliton Pulses:
No optical pulse is monochromatic, since it excites a spectrum of frequencies. If an optical
source emits power in a wavelength band Ax its spectral speed is A V.
When such a pulse traverses a medium with a positive GVD parameter 132 for the
constituent frequencies, the leading part of the pulse is shifted toward a longer wavelength, so the
speed in that portio increases. Conversely, in the trailing half, tne frequency rises so the speed
decreases. This causes the trailing edge to be further delayed. These effects will severely limit
high-speed long-distance transmission lithe system is operated in this condition.
To. derive the evolution of the pulse shape required for soliton transmission, one needs to consider the
NLS equation.

For the 3 right-hand terms

1) The first term represents GVD effects of the fiber.
2) The second non-linear term denotes the fact that the refractive index of the fiber depends on
the light intensity.
3) The third term represents the effects of energy loss or gain.
The solution for the fundamental solition is given by
u(z, t) = sech (t) exp 1jz12).
W
here sech(t) is the hyperbolic secant function. This is a bell-shaped pulse.
The time scale is given in units normalized to the 1/e width of the pulse.
d = Iti(012 dz = sech2(t) dz.
For the non-linear process,

For the dispersion effect. Since such a phase shift changes neither the temporal nor the spectral
shape of a pulse, the soliton remains completely non-dispersive in both the temporal and frequency
domains.
Soliton Parameters: The FWHM of a pulse is defined as the full width of the pulse at its half-maximum
power level.
Thus the FWI-IM Ts of the fundamental soliton pulse in normalized time is found from the
relationship sec112( t )= 1/2 with T =T1(2T0), where To is the basic normalized time unit. This
yields
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Soliton width and spacing:

The return-to-zero (RZ) format is used. This condition thus constraints the achievable bit rate.
Since there is a limit on how narrow. a soliton pulse can be generated

1) (b) (i) Discuss the concept of WDM with a neat diagram. (6) [Nov-Dec 2008] [April-May
2010]

Ans:

In standard point-to-point links a single fiber line hasone optical soutte at its transmitting end and
one photodetector at the receiving end.
To find the optical bandwidth corresponding to a particular spectral width in these regions, we
use the relationship C=2,..y, which relates the wavelength x to the carrier frequency y, where C is
the speed of light.
Where the derivation in frequency A y corresponds the wavelength deviation A x around x.
Since the spectral width of a high-quality source occupies only a narrow optical bandwidth,
the two low-loss windows provide many additional operating regions. The integrities of the
independent messages fro meach source are maintained for subsequent conversion to electric
signals at the receiving end.
Since WDM is essentially frequency-division multiplexing at optical carrier frequencies. The
literature often uses the term dense WIDIv1, in contrast to conventional or regular WDM. A key
feature of WDM is that the discrete wavelengths from an orthogonal set of carriers that can be separated
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routed, and switched without interfering with each other. The performance of active devices can be control
led electronically, thereby providing a large degree of networ flexibility. Active WDM components include
tunable optical filters, tunable sources, and optical amplifiers.

A multiplexer is needed to combine these optical outputs into a serial spectrum of closely
spaced wavelength signals and couple them onto a single fiber. At the receiving end, a demo Itiplexer is
required to separate the optical signals into appropriate detection channels for signal processing.
Since the optical signals that are combined generally do not emit any signififant amount of
optical power outside of the designated channels spectral width, interchannel crosstalk factors are
relatively unimportant
at the transmitting end.

1. (b) (ii) Give a brief account of the different types of losses to be considered in the design of
an optical link. (6) [Nov-Dec 2008]

Arts: An optical power loss model is analysed. The capital poWer received m the photodetector
depends on the amount of light coupled into the fiber and the losses oecuring, in the fiber at the
connectors and
splices. Each of these loss elements is expressed in dB as

Loss = 10 log Pin/Pout

The link loss budget simply considers the Pr that is allowed between the light source and the
photodetector, and allocates this loss to cable attenuation, connector loss, splice loss and system
margin. Thus if Ps is the optical power emerging from the end of a fiber flylead attached to the
light source,
P
r = Ps - PR
= 2tc + a ft + system margin.
The splice loss is incorporated into the cable loss for simplicity.

1. (b) (iii) Draw and explain the basic format of an STS-N SONET frame. (4) [Nov-Dec 2008]
[April-May 2009]
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Aim: With the advent of fibre optic transmission lines, the next step in the evolution of the
digital time-division-multiplexing scheme was a standard signal format called synchronous
optical network (SONET).
Commonly used SONET and SDH transmission rates:
SONET Electrical Level Line Rate (M Ws) SIM Equivalent
OC - I STS -- 3I 51.84
STS STM - 1
OC - 3 STS - 3 155.52
OC - 12 STS- 12 622.08 STM - 4
OC - 24 STS - 24 1244.16 STM - 8
OC - 48 STS - 48 2488.32 STM - 16
OC -96 STS -96 4976.64 STM -32
OC - 192 STS - 192 9953.28 STM -64

2. Explain the operation of WDM Components ?[April-May 2009]

Operational Principle of WDM

What is WDM: The technology of combining a number of wavelengths onto the same fiber is
known as wavelength-division-multiplexing or WDM

DWDM: dense wavelength-division-multiplexing (channel spacing indense)

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฀ ITU (International Telecommunication Union) specify channel spacing in

terms of frequency

- C band (conventional band) : 1524 – 1560 nm

- L band (longer wavelength band) : 1570 – 1610 nm

- frequency reference 193.10 THz (1552.524 nm)

- Channel spacing: 200 GHz, 100 GHz, 50 GHz, 25 GHz

3.Explain the architecture of SONET and discuss nonlinear effects on network performance.
[Nov-Dec 2011][April-May 2013]

The basic foundation of SONET consists of groups of DS-0 signals (64Kbits/sec) that are
multiplexed to create a 51.84Mbit/sec signal, which is also known as STS-1 (Synchronous
Transport Signal). STS-1 is an electrical signal rate that corresponds to the Optical Carrier line
rate of OC-1, SONET's building block. Subsequent SONET rates are created by interleaving (at
the byte level) STS-1 signals to create a concatenated, or linked, signal. For example, three STS-
1 frames can form an STS-3 frame (155Mbits/sec). Rates above STS-3 can be created by either
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directly multiplexing STS-1 signals or by byte-interleaving STS-3 signals. The following table
lists the hierarchy of the most common SONET/SDH data rates:

Optical Electrical Line Rate Payload Rate Overhead Rate SDH

Level Level (Mbps) (Mbps) (Mbps) Equivalent

OC-1 STS-1 51.840 50.112 1.728 -

OC-3 STS-3 155.520 150.336 5.184 STM-1

OC-12 STS-12 622.080 601.344 20.736 STM-4

OC-48 STS-48 2488.320 2405.376 82.944 STM-16

OC-192 STS-192 9953.280 9621.504 331.776 STM-64

OC-768 STS-768 39813.120 38486.016 1327.104 STM-256

The "line rate" refers to the raw bit rate carried over the optical fiber. A portion of the bits
transferred over the line are designated as "overhead". The overhead carries information that
provides OAM&P (Operations, Administration, Maintenance, and Provisioning) capabilities
such as framing, multiplexing, status, trace, and performance monitoring. The "line rate" minus
the "overhead rate" yields the "payload rate" which is the bandwidth available for transferring
user data such as packets or ATM cells.

The SONET/SDH level designations sometimes include a "c" suffix (such as "OC-48c"). The "c"
suffix indicates a "concatenated" or "clear" channel. This implies that the entire payload rate is
available as a single channel of communications (i.e. the entire payload rate may be used by a
single flow of cells or packets). The opposite of concatenated or clear channel is "channelized".
In a channelized link the payload rate is subdivided into multiple fixed rate channels. For
example, the payload of an OC-48 link may be subdivided into four OC-12 channels. In this case
the data rate of a single cell or packet flow is limited by the bandwidth of an individual channel.

Protocol Layers
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The SONET/SDH standard includes a definition of a transmission protocol stack which solves
the operation and maintenance problems often found when dealing with networks that have
component streams lacking a common clock.

The photonic layer is the electrical and optical interface for transporting information over fiber
optic cabling. It converts STS electrical signals into optical light pulses (and vice versa, at the
receiving end). The section layer transports STS frames over optical cabling. This layer is
commonly compared with the Data-Link layer of the OSI model, which also handles framing and
physical transfer.

The line layer takes care of a number of functions, including synchronization and multiplexing
for the path layer above it. It also provides automatic protection switching, which uses
provisioned spare capacity in the event of a failure on the primary circuit.

The highest level, the path layer, takes services such as DS-3, T1, or ISDN and maps them into
the SONET/SDH format. This layer, which can be accessed only by equipment like an add/drop
multiplexer (a device that breaks down a SONET/SDH line into its component parts), takes care
of all end-to-end communications, maintenance, and control.

Topology

SONET/SDH supports several topologies, including point to point, a hub and spoke star
configuration, and the ring topology. The ring topology, which is by far the most popular, has
been used for years by such network technologies as FDDI and Token Ring and has proven quite
robust and fault-tolerant. A SONET/SDH ring can contain two pairs of transmit and receive
fibers. One pair can be designated as active with the other one functioning as a secondary in case
of failure. SONET/SDH rings have a "self-healing" feature that makes them even more appealing
for long distance connections from one end of the country to another.

One of SONET/SDH's most interesting characteristics is its support for a ring topology.
Normally, one piece of fiber -- the working ring -- handles all data traffic, but a second piece of
fiber -- the protection ring remains on standby. Should the working ring fail, SONET/SDH
includes the capability to automatically detect the failure and transfer control to the protection
ring in a very short period of time, often in a fraction of a second. For this reason, SONET/SDH
can be described as a self-healing network technology.

Rings normally will help SONET/SDH service to reach the "five nines" availability level.
However, the usefulness of rings also depends on their physical location. If the rings are located
next to each other, then if a back-hoe from a construction company takes out one of your fibers,
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it is quite likely that the second one will go as well. Thus, your rings should be physically
separated from each other as much as possible in order to achieve high uptime.

4. Explain the principle of solitons and discuss the soliton parameters with necessary
expressions and diagrams. [May - June 2012]

Solitons

A single, consensus definition of a soliton is difficult to find. Drazin & Johnson (1989, p. 15)
ascribe three properties to solitons:

1. They are of permanent form;

2. They are localised within a region;
3. They can interact with other solitons, and emerge from the collision unchanged, except
for a phase shift.
More formal definitions exist, but they require substantial mathematics. Moreover, some
scientists use the term soliton for phenomena that do not quite have these three properties (for
instance, the 'light bullets' of nonlinear optics are often called solitons despite losing energy
during interaction).

Dispersion and non-linearity can interact to produce permanent and localized wave forms.
Consider a pulse of light traveling in glass. This pulse can be thought of as consisting of light of
several different frequencies. Since glass shows dispersion, these different frequencies will travel
at different speeds and the shape of the pulse will therefore change over time. However, there is
also the non-linear Kerr effect: the refractive index of a material at a given frequency depends on
the light's amplitude or strength. If the pulse has just the right shape, the Kerr effect will exactly
cancel the dispersion effect, and the pulse's shape won't change over time: a soliton. See soliton
(optics) for a more detailed description.

Many exactly solvable models have soliton solutions, including the Korteweg–de Vries equation,
the nonlinear Schrödinger equation, the coupled nonlinear Schrödinger equation, and the sine-
Gordon equation. The soliton solutions are typically obtained by means of theinverse scattering
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transform and owe their stability to the integrability of the field equations. The mathematical
theory of these equations is a broad and very active field of mathematical research.

Some types of tidal bore, a wave phenomenon of a few rivers including the River Severn, are
'undular': a wavefront followed by a train of solitons. Other solitons occur as the
undersea internal waves, initiated by seabed topography, that propagate on the
oceanic pycnocline. Atmospheric solitons also exist, such as the Morning Glory Cloud of
the Gulf of Carpentaria, where pressure solitons travelling in atemperature inversion layer
produce vast linear roll clouds. The recent and not widely accepted soliton
model in neuroscience proposes to explain the signal conduction within neurons as pressure
solitons.

A topological soliton, also called a topological defect, is any solution of a set of partial
differential equations that is stable against decay to the "trivial solution." Soliton stability is due
to topological constraints, rather than integrability of the field equations. The constraints arise
almost always because the differential equations must obey a set of boundary conditions, and the
boundary has a non-trivialhomotopy group, preserved by the differential equations. Thus, the
differential equation solutions can be classified into homotopy classes. There is no continuous
transformation that will map a solution in one homotopy class to another. The solutions are truly
distinct, and maintain their integrity, even in the face of extremely powerful forces. Examples of
topological solitons include the screw dislocationin a crystalline lattice, the Dirac string and
the magnetic monopole in electromagnetism, the Skyrmion and the Wess–Zumino–Witten
model in quantum field theory, and cosmic strings and domain walls in cosmology.

Prepared By: HOD /ECE

[D.Santhosh Kumari]
AP/ECE
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