FOREWORD

There has been tremendous progress in the road design methodology and
process within JKR which are underlined in the numerous revised Technical
Design Guides produced by JKR and REAM that updates the road design
requirements in line with the current international standards and practices
worldwide.

This Arahan Teknik (Jalan) ATJ 11/87 (Pindaan 2016), A Guide To The Design Of
At-Grade Intersections, is the revision of the existing Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 11/87
which also takes input from, AASHTO - A Policy of Geometric Design of Highways
and Streets, 2001 & 2011 in preparing the guideline.

The preparation of this guideline was carried out through many discussions held
by the committee members. Feedbacks and comments received were carefully
considered and incorporated into this guideline wherever appropriate. This
guideline had also been presented and approved in the Mesyuarat Jawatankuasa
Spesifikasi Piawai Bagi Kerja-Kerja Jalan Bil XX/YYYY.

This guideline will be reviewed and updated from time to time to cater for and
incorporate the latest development in road geometric design. Any comments and
feedback regarding this guideline should be forwarded to Unit Standard, Bahagian
Pembangunan lnovasi & Standard, Cawangan Jalan, JKR.

Published by: -

Cawangan Jalan
lbu Pejabat JKR Malaysia
Tingkat 21, Menara PJD
No. 50, Jalan Tun Razak
50400 Kuala Lumpur
Email: [email protected]
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This Performance Guideline was prepared by a working committee comprised of the

following members: -

Ir. Mohd Azahar bin Don {Chairman) JKR

En. Ahmad Fahrni bin Abdul Ghaffar JKR
Ir. Aminah bt Sulaiman JKR

En. Shahru! Nizam bin Siajam JKR

En. Wan Zuhaimie bin Wan Salleh JKR

En. Sufiyan bin Zakaria JKR

Ir. Rohaida bt Rashid JKR

Datin. Ir. Nor Asiah bt Othman JKR

Ir. Shahfizan bin Md Nor JKR
Ir. Mohammad Ashari bin Muda JKR

En. Syaharidanisman bin Mohd Johanis JKR

Cik Elya Shuhaira bt Shafie JKR

En. Hafizan bin Mohd Salleh JKR

Pn. Rosmawati Binti Abdul Razak JKR

Ir. Anuar bin Mohd Aris ACEM

Dr. Othman bin Che Puan UTM

Cik Sharifah Allyana bt Syed Mohamed Rahim MIROS

En. Abdul Munir bin Muhammad Murit LLM

Pn. Norhayati bt Abu Bakar JPBD

Ir. Erni Mawar bt Burhanuddin Expressway Concessionaire

Ir. Mohammad Shafii B Hj Mustafa Consultant

Special thanks and appreciation to the following proof reader: -

Last but not least, our utmost appreciation also goes to the Y.Bhg Ir. Dr. Mohamad Nor Bin
Omar, Director of Cawangan Kejuruteraan Jalan & Geoteknik, Jabatan Kerja Raya Malaysia
for his undivided support and cooperation given to the above committee members for their
contribution towards the successful completion of this guideline.

11
 CONTENTS PAGE
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1 . 1 Definition And General Description 1

1.2 Types of At Grade Intersections 1

1.3 Factors Influencing Design 1

1.4 Location of Intersection 2

1 5 Spacing of Intersections 4

1.6 Capacity 4

1.7 Types of Conflicting Manoeuvers 4

1.8 Points of Conflict 5

1.9 Safety 5

1.1 O Area of Conflict 5

1.11 Major Movements 6

1. 12 Control of Speed 6

1.13 Traffic Control and Geometric Design 6

CHAPTER 2: DESIGN CONTROLS

2.1 Priority Control 9
2.2 Traffic 9
2.3 Design Speed 10
2.4 Design Vehicles 10
2.5 Selection of Intersection Type 10
2.1 Priority Control 9
2.6 General Control Of Intersection 15
CHAPTER 3: GEOMETRIC STANDARDS
3.1 General 17

3.2 Horizontal Alignment 17

3.3 Vertical Alignment 17

3.4 Sight Distance 19

3.5 Right Turn Lanes 27

3.6 Left Turn Lanes 33

3.7 Pavement Tapers 39

 CONTENTS PAGE

3.8 Auxiliary Lanes 42

3.9 lslandsandOpenings 44

3.10 Widening of Major Road 54

3.11 Minor Road Treatment 57
3.12 Shoulders 61
3.13 Crossfall and Surface Drainage 61
3.14 Weaving 61
CHAPTER 4:. CAPACITY OF INTERSECTIONS
4.1 General 63
4.2 Level of Service 63
4. 3 FactorAffecting Capacity And Level Of Service 64
4.4 Capacity of Unsignalised Intersection 74
4.5 CapacilyofRoundabouts 77
CHAPTER 5: OTHER RELATED ELEMENTS

5.1 Pedestrian Facilities 81

5.2 Lighting 81
5. 3 Public Utilities 81
5.4 Vehicle Parking Restriction 83
5.5 Traffic Signs and Lane Markings 83
5.6 Drainage 84
5. 7 Landscaping 84

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A- GENERAL WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC CONTROLLED SIGNALS A1-A6

APPENDIX 8-WORKSHEETS FOR CAPACITY CALCULATIONS
OF UNSIGNALISED INTERSECTIONS B1-B5
APPENDIX C - USEFUL REFERENCE FIGURES C1-C12
APPENDIX D- EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS FOR CAPACITY OF UNSIGNALISED
INTERSECTIONS D1
APPEND IX E-LIST OF REFERENCES E1
 UST OF FIGURES

1. Figure 1.1 :Unchannelised And Unflared Intersection Layout

2. Figure 1.2: Auxiliary Lane
3. Figure 1.3: Intersection Layout [ Have To Show Source Of Ref
4. Figure 1.4: Conflict Area In Channelized Intersection
5. Figure 1.5: Merging Of Traffic Streams
6. Figure 1.6: Bending Path Of Incoming Minor Street
7. Figure 1.7: Reduction Of Speed By Funneling
8. Figure 1.8: Refuge Area For Protecting Crossing Or Turning Traffic
9. Figure 1.9: Properly Placed Islands To Discourage Prohibited Movements
10. Figure 1.10 Location Of Signal Posts On Medians At Intersection
11. Figure 1.11(A): Three-Legged Intersection.
12. Figure 1.11 (B): Four-Legged Intersection.
13. F i g u re 1.12: Red u ct ion of traffic con f I i ct by ch a n n
elisation
14. Figure 3.1- Realignment Variations At Intersections.
15. Figure 3.2: Intersection Sight Angle.
16. Figure 3-3: Sight Distance At Intersections.
17. Figure 3-4: Sight Distance At Intersection Data On Acceleration From
Stop
18. Figure 3-5 : Sight Distance At Intersections Effect Of Skew
19.Figure 3-6
20.Figure 3-7:. Right Turn Lanes
21. Figure 3-8: Right Turn Clearance
22. Figure 3.9: Seagull Island
23. Figure 3-10 : Island Areas
24. Figure 3-11: Turning Radii
25. Figure 3-12 : Design Of Separate Left-Turn Lanes
26.Figure 3-13: Types Of Taper
27. Figure 3-14 :Length Of Deceleration Lanes
28. Figure 3-15 :Correction For Grade
29. Figure 3-16 :Treatment In Approach To Left-Turns
30. Figure 3-17 :Length Of Acceleration Lanes
31. Figure 3-18 :Correction For Grade
32.Figure 3-19 :Treatment For Acceleration Lane Taper
33. Figure 3-20 : Directional Island
34. Figure 3-21: Offset To Median Island
35. Figure 3-22: End Treatment For Narrow Median
36. Figure 3-23: Median Terminal Treatments
37. Figure 3-24: Painted Island
38. Figure 3-25: Median Opening
39. Figure 3-26 :Outer Separator Openings
40. Figure 3-27: Widening By S-Curves
41.Figure 3-28a : Standard Design Of Guide Island
42. Figure 3-28b: Standard Design Of Guide Island
43. Figure 4.1: Operational Analysis Procedures
44. Figure 4.2 : Traffic Streams At A Two Way Stop Control (Twsc)
I nte rsection
45. Figure 4.3: Definitions And Computation Of Conflicting Flows
46. Figure 4.4: Vehicles Movement At At-Junction (Twsc)
47. Figure 4.5: Example Of Impedance Effect
48. Figure 4.6:Potential Capacity For Single Lane
49. Figure 4.7:Potential Capacity For Multilanes
50. Figure 4.8:95th Percentile queue length
51.Figure 4.9: Controlled Delay And Flowrate.
52. Figure 4.10 (A). Typical Mini-Roundabout
53. Figure 4.10 (B): Typical Single-Lane Roundabout
54. Figure 4.10 (C): Typical Multi-Lane Roundabout
55. Figure 4.11: Two Intersection Treatments For Roadways That Cross At A
90° Angle
56. Figure 4.12: Analysis On One Roundabout Leg (To Change The Traffic
Flow)
57. Figure 4.13 (A):. Example Of One-Lane Entry Conflicted By One
Circulating Lane
58. Figure 4.13 (B): Example Of Two-Lane Entry Conflicted By One
Circulating Lane
59. Figure 4.13 (C): Example Of One-Lane Entry Conflicted By Two
Circulating Lanes
60. Figure 4.13 (D): Example Of Two-Lane Entry Conflicted By Two
Circulating
61.Figure 4.13 (E): Capacity Of Single-Lane And Multilane Entries
62. Figure 4.14): Left -Turn Bypass Lanes
63. Figure 4.15): Roundabout Analysis Methodology
64.Figure 4.16. Effect Of Turning Vehicles On Roundabout Operation
65. Figure 5.1
66. Figure 5.2
67. Figure 5.3
LIST OF TABLES

1. Table1 .1: Desirable Minimum Spacings Of Intersections For The Various

Categories Of Major Roads
2. Tab le 2-1: Level Of Service Definitions For Signalized Intersections.
3. TABLE 2. 2: Design Vehicles For Intersection Design.
4. Table 2.3 (A): Selection Of Intersection Type.
5. Table 2.3 (B): Selection Of Intersection Type.
6. Table 3.1: Desirable Separation of Staggered T- Junctions.
7. Table 3-2: Sight Distance For Intersection Approach
8. Table 3-3: Effect Of Grade On Stopping Sight Distance Wet Conditions
9. Table 3-4: Correction Factor For The Effect Of Grade On Acceleration Time Ta
10. Table 3.5 :Guide For Right Turn Lanes On Two Lane Single Carriageway
11. Table 3-6: Minimum Design Speeds For Left-Turn Channel
12. Table 3.7: Length Of Circular Arcs For Different Compound Curve Radii
13. Table 3-8: Lane Widths For Left- Turn Lane
14.Table 3-9 :Minor Road Treatment
15. Table 4-1: Level Of Service
16. Table 4-2: Vehicle Classifications In Malaysia
17. Table 4-3 :Base Critical Gap And Follow-Up Time For Twsc Intersections
18. Table 4.-4: Adjustment Factor For Motorcycle.
19. Table 4-5 :Adjustment Factor For Capacity
20. Table 4-6:Critical Gap And Follow Up Time For Right Turn From Major
Movement (Signle Lane Approach)
21. Table 4-7: Critical Gap And Follow Up Time For Right Turn From Major
Movement (Multilane Lane Approach)
22. Table 4-8 : Critical Gap And Follow Up Time For Left Turn From Minor
Movement (Single Lane Approach)
23. Table 4-9: Critical Gap And Follow Up Time For Left Turn From Minor
Movement (Multilane Approach)
24. Table 4-10:Critical Gap And Follow Up Time For Right Turn From Minor
Movement (Single Lane Approach)
25. Table 4-11: Critical Gap And Follow Up Time For Right Turn From Minor
Movement (Multi Lane Approach)
26. Table 4-12:Potential Capacity For Right Turn From Major For Single Lane
(Movement X = 4)
27. Table 4-13:Potential Capacity For Right Turn From Major For Multilane
(Movement X = 4).
28. Table 4-14.Potential Capacity For Left Turn From Minor For Single Lane
(Movement X = 9)
29. Table 4-15.Potential Capacity For Left Turn From Minor For Multilane
(Movement X = 9)
30. Table 4-16.Potential Capacity For Right Turn From Minor For Single Lane
(Movement X = 7)
31.Table 4-17:Potential Capacity For Right Turn From Minor For Multilane
(Movement X = 7)
32. Table 4-18-Level Of Service For Unsignalised Intersection.
33. Table 4.19: Los Criteria
34. Table 4.20: Planning Guide For The Use Of Roundabouts At Intersections Of
Various Road Types
1.0 INTRODUCTION
11 Definition.And General.Description
An intersection is defined as the general area where two or more roadways
join or cross. It is an integral and important part of the highway system since
much of the efficiency, safety, speed, cost of operation and maintenance, as
well as capacity depend upon its design.

1.1.2 Design.Objectives
The incidence of possible conflicts at intersections are very high, therefore,
they are considered to be areas of high accident potential. The designer must
strive to minimize these conflict points in his design, while providing
adequately for the through, crossing and turning movements.
In the design of intersections careful consideration should be given to the
appearance of the intersection as the driver will see it. Upon approaching an
intersection a reverse curve may appear compressed and confusing to the
driver. To avoid abrupt changes in alignment, sufficient transitions or
compound curves should be provided to allow the driver to comfortably
negotiate them, and to ensure a pleasing appearance.
An understanding of driving habits and application of human factors is
indispensable in the development of appropriate geometric design and the
subsequent operational quality of the intersection. Operational safety and
efficiency of an intersection depends highly on the design suitability. The
driver's performance is improved when they use a highway facility designed
to be within their capabilities and limitations.
When a design is incompatible with the attributes of drivers, the chances for
driver error increases. Inefficient operation and accidents are often a result.

a. T- intersections
o It is a three way road intersection.
o At a T- intersection, one of the way is generally a minor road connecting
to a major road that does not cross.
b. Y- intersections
Y- intersections generally has three (3) way road of equal size, It consists of a
minor road connecting to a major road which is not at right angle.

c. Staggered intersections
Where several roads meet a main road at a slight distance from each other thus
not all coming together at the same point.

d. Four-legged intersections
o This intersection is the most common and basic configuration for roads that
cross each other.

e. Roundabout
o A circular intersection in which road traffic must travel in one direction around
a central island.
.Ll.
The following are the three basic types of intersection layouts at grade:

1. Unchannelised And Unflared

2. Unchannelised And Flared
3. Channelised (Including Roundabouts).

Flared intersection is a general term for the provision of additional lanes

and/or tapers while channelized intersection is the provision of traffic islands.
Flared and channelised intersections may be applied to T-intersection or
cross intersection although cross intersections are not favoured in high-speed
situations.

1.2.1. Unchannelised and unflared intersections

They are normally adequate where minor roads meet. In urban areas, many
local street intersections remain unchannelised for economic reasons. In such
cases, traffic can be controlled by signals or regulatory signs, such as STOP
or GIVE WAY signs, on the minor roads.
However, regulatory signs are not a substitute for channelisation. (see figure
1.1

1
:ac:: r

Pu - ;

I=======::s:::::.
:::JE .j l...
-~
.. . . ►
...... ~
I

Figure 1._1: Unchannelised and Unflared Intersection Layout

 (Note: All intersections should be designed based on Chapter 3)
Source: - Austroads 2010, Guide to road design: part 4A Unsignalised and Signalised
Intersections, figure 4. 2

1.2.2. Unchannelised and flared intersections

Simple unchannelised intersections may be flared to provide additional through lanes
or auxiliary lanes, (Figure 1.2), such as speed-change lanes or passing lanes.
Speed-change lanes allow left-turning or right-turning vehicles to reduce speed when
leaving the through road without adversely affecting the speed of through traffic and
permit through vehicles to pass another vehicle waiting to complete a turn at an
intersection.

UR)
on the Major Road (Two-Lare. Two-way Road]
This turn lypa no( as sale as a channelised treatment

This turn type n undesirable at ursignalised «nterections

b@cause it II not as safe as a single lane approach.
CHL treatment preferred

No:es
qws indicate movements relevant to Pe turn type. They do not represent actual payerent markings
used y re k ee n s9an d D earm e n t Ma n R ads Qr lh e N e w Ze a la nd T 'll n S<XJ rt A ~ v

Source Based on 0DR .2006%

Flgure 4.S: Rural auxllfary lane (AU) tum treatment

Figure 1.2.: Auxiliary Lane Layout [ have to show source of ref.]
(Note: all intersection should be designed based on Chapter 3)
Source: -Austroads 2010, Guide to road design: part 4A Unsignalised and Signalised
Intersections, figure 4. 5
 1.2.3. Channelised intersections
A channelised intersection is one where the paths of travel for various
movements are separated and delineated. Raised traffic islands, raised
pavement markers, painted markings and safety bars can be used for
channelisation.
The simplest channelisation on a major road involves a painted or raised island in
the centre of a two-lane two-way road designed to shelter a stationary vehicle
waiting to turn right and to guide through vehicles past the turning vehicle.
Channelisation applies to left-turning, right-turning, and crossing vehicles and
consequently a particular intersection layout will have a combination of lanes
and islands designed to cater for specific traffic movements within the
intersection.
Channelisation utilises islands to 'funnel', direct and separate vehicles into the
required paths through an intersection, and to shelter vehicles that are waiting
or moving within an intersection. This gives rise to specific forms of channelised
intersection such as staggered T-intersections, seagull treatments, wide
median treatments and roundabouts that are provided to achieve
particular design objectives.(see Figure 1.3)

Chant Ht Figtw Tuen

on tte Major

ta nnetiat Lon Turn M L)

r the Major

Cr»rvtr tot tarn 4ct

o» tr» Miro« Foe«t

n tarn treatrrerts

Figure 1.3 : Intersection Layout [ have to show source of ref. for all figs. &
tables] (Note: All intersections should be designed based on Chapter
3)
Source: -Austroads 2010, Guide to road design: part 4A Unsignalised and Signalised
Intersections, figure 4. 7

Speed change lanes allow left or right-turning vehicles to reduce or

increase speed when leaving or entering the through road without
adversely affecting the speed of the through traffic.
Right turn lanes permit through vehicles to pass on the left side of
 another vehicle waiting to complete a right turn at an intersection.

1.2.3.1 Channelization for Intersection Treatments

It is not practicable or desirable to standardise the design of

channelised layouts. The layout for a particular site depends on the
traffic pattern; traffic volume; the area which is economical ly available
for improvement; topography; pedestrian movement; parking
arrangement; the planned ultimate development of the neighbourhood
and the layout of the existing roads.
Channelization is the separation or regulation of conflicting traffic
movements into definite paths of travel by traffic islands or pavement
marking to facilitate the safe and orderly movements of both vehicles
and pedestrians. It is not practicable or desirable to standardise the
design of channelised layouts.
The layout for a particular site depends on the following:

a) traffic pattern;
b) traffic volume;
c) the area which is economically available for improvement;
d) topography;
e) pedestrian movement;
f) parking arrangement;
g) the planned ultimate development of the neighbourhood and
h) the layout of the existing roads.

As well as separating conflicting movements, channelisation is also used to:-

A. reduce the area of conflict: the impact area is decreased when

channelization is provided and hence the probability of conflicts is
also reduced. Figure 1.4 shows the reduced conflict area in the same
intersection after providing medians.

Figure 1.4: Conflict Area In Channelized Intersection

8. Merge traffic stream at small angles, ie. merging at small angles

permits the flow of traffic stream with minimum speed differentials Hence,
the gap acceptance time is also small in such cases. The merging of
roadways should be done as shown in Figure 1. 5
 Figure 1.5: Merging Of Traffic Streams
Reduction of the speed of incoming traffic:

C. by bending its path, i.e. the speed of vehicles entering into the
intersection can be reduced by bending the path to the intersection
approach. However as far as possible the path of the major traffic stream
should not be bent. The above technique is shown in Figure 1.6

D. by funneling, i.e. the funneling technique can also be used for reducing the
speeds of the incoming vehicles. Due to the decrease in the width of the
lane at the approach, the drivers tend to reduce the speed of their vehicles
near the intersection. Figure 1. 7 shows the funneling technique used for
reduction of speed

Figure 1.6. Bending path of incoming Minor Street

 Figure 1. 7: Reduction Of Speed By Funneling

E. Protection for turning vehicles crossing/conflicting traffic streams,

i.e. the provision of a refuge between the two opposing stream
allows the driver of a crossing vehicle to select a safe gap in one
stream at a time and also provides a safer crossing maneuver.
Figure 1.8 further clarifies the above statement.

Figure 1.8: Refuge Area For Protecting Crossing Or Turning Traffic

F. Discourage prohibited turns by island placement and shape,i.e. undesirable

and prohibited turns can be discouraged by the proper selection of shape
and location of the islands. Figure 1.9 shows how prohibited turns can be
discouraged by proper shaping and placement of islands
 ONE WAY

Figure 1.9: Properly Placed Islands To Discourage Prohibited

Movements

G. Providing locations of traffic control devices: channelization may provide

locations for the installation of essential traffic control devices such as stop
and directional sign, signals and etc. Figure 1.10 shows how channelizing
devices can also be used for locating traffic control devices

-
~-- -~
--
-
0

(
r
'

Figure 1.10 Location Of Signal Posts On Medians At Intersection

H. Channelization may provide location for protection of pedestrian by means its

should be non-traversable and wide median provide a refuge for pedestrian
crossing the roads.
1.2.3.2 Excessive Channelisation

Care should be taken to install only the minimum number of island as

excessive channelisation can :
a) Result in unwarranted obstructions on the road
pavement,
b) unnecessarily restricting parking and private
access adjacent to the intersection,
c) cause problems of pavement maintenance and
drainage and,
d) create confusion,

1.3 Eactors lfluencin Design

In analysing an intersection design, the following basic elements must be
considered:

1,3.1 Traffic Factors

a) Present and projected turning movements and turning volumes,

including truck volumes,
b) Capacity and service volumes, DHV'S, AM & PM peak hours,
c) Physical and operating characteristics of vehicles, vehicle operating
speeds approaching the intersection, posted speeds and design
speeds,
d) Accident statistics,
e) Warrants for traffic signals,
f) Pedestrian movements,
g) Parking controls,
h) Public transit operations,
i) Regulatory, directional and destination signing.
j)
1_3_2Physical Factors

a) Functional classification of the roadways involved,

b) Basic lane requirements; present and future,
c) Land use development adjacent to the intersection area,
d) Site topography,
e) Grades and sight distances,
f) Angle of intersection,
g) Environmental considerations,
h) Aesthetics.

1.3.3 Economic Factors

a) Construction costs,
b) Maintenance costs,
c) Compensating costs to business adversely
Affected by the design,
d) Cost/benefit comparison of the above.
1.3.4 Human Factors

a) Driving habits,
b) Natural paths of movement,
c) Physical comfort of the driver,
d) Driver's expectations,
e) Ability of drivers to make decisions and react,
f) Effect of surprise (sudden appearance of
g) Channelized islands, and other obstructions).

Proper evaluation of these factors will enable the designer to evolve an

intersection design which will assure an orderly movement of traffic,
increases the capacity of the intersection, improves safety by minimizing the
conflict points and provides maximum convenience to the travelling public.

1.4 Location of intersection

The efficiency of major roads, in terms of capacity, speed and safety depends
greatly upon the number, type and spacing of intersections and median
openings.
Intersections should not be located at sharp horizontal curves, steep grades
or at the top of crest vertical curves or at the bottom of sag vertical curves.
The reference should be made on table 1.1: desirable minimum spacings of
intersections for the various categories of the major roads
Future co-ordination of traffic signals should also be carefully considered in
determining intersection spacing.
Location of intersections must be identified during the route location process
so that suitable locations are identified.
The intersections shall be positioned:
on straight arterial road alignment
in sags or uniform grades< 2%
away from bridges/structures to maximize sight distance and
minimize cost
 1.s soacjna ot lntersect;ons
The spacing of intersections depends on factors such as weaving distance
and, storage length required for queueing traffic at signalised intersections
and the lengths of right turning lanes.
Table1 .1 gives the desirable minimum spacings of intersections for the
various categories of the major roads.
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Table1 .1: Desirable Minimum Spacings Of Intersections For The Various

Categories Of Major Roads

1.scaoacity
The design must provide adequate traffic handling capacity throughout the
expected life of the intersection. This may involve the design of separate
construction stages before the ultimate development of the intersection is
reached.

1. 7Types of Conflicting Manoeuvres

There are four basic types of intersection manoeuvres; diverging, merging ,

crossing and weaving.
The number of potential conflict points at an intersection depends on the:-
(a) Number of approaches to the intersection
(b) Number of lanes on each approach
(c) Type of signal control
(d) Extent of channelization and
 (e) Movements permitted

(f) The complexity of an intersection increases as the number of

approach roads to the intersection increases. Figure 1.11 (a) & Figure
1.11(b), below, shows the number and type of conflicts that occur at
intersections with three and four roads, respectively.

Figure 1.11 (a) & Figure 1.11 (b), Potential conflicts at intersections with
three and four roads

(a) Three-Legged Intersection.

3 CROSSING CONFLICTS
] 3DIVERGING CONFLICTS
3 MERGING CONFLICTS

Figure 1.11 (a) - Three-Legged Intersection

(b) Four-Legged Intersection.

16 CROSSING CONFLICTS
<I 8 DIVERGING CONFLICTS
8 MERGING CONFLICTS

Figure 1.11 (b) - Four-Legged Intersection

1.8Points of.Conflict

The number of conflict points can be reduced by prohibiting

certain traffic movements and by eliminating some roads from the
intersection.
A conflict point is the point at which a road user crossing, merging with, or
diverging from a road or driveway conflicts with another road user are using
the same road or driveway. It is any point where the paths of two through or
turning vehicles diverge, merge, or cross
 Figure 1.12- Reduction Of Traffic Conflict By
Channelisation
After. 6 Traffic Con/cts
Betore: Traffic Conticts Lett·tumng ven«cles separated from through tattic

Conflict points can be reduced by channelization as shown in Figure 1.12.

1.9Safety
Safety is a prime consideration in any intersection design.
Safe intersection design is based on the following principles:-
a) Reduction of the number of points of conflict.
b) Minimising the area of conflict.
c) Separation of points of conflict
d) Giving preference to major movements.
e) Control of speed.
f) Provision of refuge areas, traffic control devices and adequate capacity.
g) Definition of paths to be followed.

1.1 OArea ot conflict

Where roads cross at an acute angle or the opposing legged of an
intersection are off set, excessive intersection area results.

In general, large areas of uncontrolled pavement invite dangerous vehicle

manoeuvres and should be eliminated.

Channelisation and realignment can both reduce conflict area.

1.11Major Movements
Preference should be given to the major traffic movements to allow them a
direct free flowing alignment. Drivers who have travelled for long,
uninterrupted distances at high speed will be slow to react to a sudden
change in alignment or to the entry of a high speed vehicle from a minor road.
Minor movements should be subordinated to major or high speed movements.
Adequate warning on minor approaches should be provided.
1.12control of Speed
The operating speed of traffic through an intersection depends on the:-
(a) alignment,
(bl environment,
(c) traffic volume and composition,
(d) extent and type of traffic control devices; and to a lesser extent:-
( e) the number of points of conflict,
(fl the number of possible manoeuvres,
( g) the relative speed of the manoeuvres,

1.131raffic Control and Geometric Design

In intersection design, the possible use of control devices and other road
furniture should be considered. Most of the criteria for geometric design are
common to both signalised and unsignalised intersections. The design of an
intersection to be controlled by signals can differ significantly from one
requiring only channelisation and signs. For example double right turn lanes
which aim at shortening storage length are effective only at signalised
intersections as at unsignalised intersections, the number of vehicles which
can depart from the queue is dependent on the frequency of acceptable gaps
in the major stream disregarding the number of storage lanes. Left turn lanes
at a signalised intersection requires additional consideration, as queueing
vehicles on the most left lane waiting for the green signal would blade the
entrance to the left turning channel. This is much less significant in
unsignalised intersections.
2.0 DESIGN CONTROLS

21 Priority Control
All intersections shall be designed under the assumption that one of the
intersecting roads has priority except where the intersection is signalized.

The priority road will normally be that which is of the higher design standard.
If the two roads are of the same standard, then the priority road shall
normally be that for which the highest traffic volume is predicted. If both
roads predicted high traffic volume the intersections shall be upgraded to
Grade Separated Interchange.

In T-junctions and staggered junctions (which may be In considered as two

T-junctions) the priority road shall be the through road. In a roundabout,
priority shall be given to the circular vehicles movement while vehicles
entering the roundabout have to give way to vehicles circulating it

If the main traffic flow in a T-junction is on the stem of the T, then a change
of layout should be considered. For staggered junction, a traffic I junction
study will have to be carried out to ascertain any modification to the
junctions, if necessary, and separation distance between them to comply to
that stipulated in Table 3.1.

The two roads of the intersection are normally referred to as the major road
(priority road) and the minor road.

Traffic
The capacities of minor intersections are in general sufficient to meet the
expected traffic volumes and detailed traffic forecasts and capacity
calculations are therefore normally not required. Intersect ions where the
major road carries a large volume of through traffic or where the two roads
carry nearly the same volume of traffic may on the other hand have
insufficient capacity for crossing or turning traffic flows, for which particular
types of capacity increasing measure may have to be taken. Detailed traffic
forecasts for such intersections shall be carried out in order to provide the
necessary data for capacity calculations.

A detailed traffic forecast shall provide hourly traffic flows in all directions in
the design year. The design year shall be 1 O years after construction for an
isolated intersection or similar to the design year of the through roadway if
the intersection is part of an overall road improvement project. A staged
construction for a 5 year traffic requirement is acceptable for isolated
intersections in urban areas.

The traffic forecast for any intersection design shall be at least the Level of
Service 'C' maintained throughout the forecasted years. If such level of
service cannot be sustained throughout the design life of the projected
forecast then the designer has to propose mitigation measures such as the
provision of grade separated interchange.
 Intersection levels of service are defined to represent reasonable ranges in
control delay and intersection conditions as shown in Table 2-1

For urban areas, the peak hour factor (PHF) should also be detennined. In
the absence of any data, a value of 0.85 for the PHF can be used.

If+ft-l

A Very short delay and most vehicles do not stop as

result of favorable progressions, arrival of most
vehicles during green phase, and short cycle
length

B Short delay and many vehicles do not stop or stop

for short time as a result of short cycle lengths
and good progression

C Moderate delay, many vehicles have to stop, and

occasional individual cycle failures as a result of
some combination of long cycle lengths, high
volume to capacity ratios, and unfavorable
progression

D Longer delays; many vehicles have to stop; and a

noticeable number of individual cycle failures as a
result of some combination of long cycle lengths,
high volume to capacity ratios, and unfavorable
progression

E Long delays and frequent individual cycle failures

result from one or both of the following: long cycle
lengths or high volume to capacity ratios, which,
in turn, result in poor progression

F Delays considered unacceptable to most drivers

occur when the vehicle arrival rate is greater than
the capacity of the intersection for extended
periods of time
Table 2-1 Level of Service Definitions for Signalized Intersections
Source: AASHTO - A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Street (2011),
Table 9-1
2,3 Design Speed
The design speed on the major road through the intersection should be
similar to that on the open section. However, all at-grade intersection are
not considered safe at design speeds exceeding 90km/hr. Hence, for
design speeds exceeding 90km/hr, preference should be made to upgrade
the at-grade intersection to an interchange or alternatively, speed limits at
the intersection should be introduced.

Vehicles on the minor road can be assumed to approach the intersection at

the design speed of the road and drivers should be able to perceive
the intersection from a distance not less than the stopping sight
distance as given in Table 3-1.

24 Design ebicdes
The design of the various intersection layouts should be made for the
design vehicles P, SU or WE-15 as discussed in Section 3 of Arahan
Teknik(Jalan) 8/86 - "A Guide To Design Of Roads". Table 2.2 shows a
general scheme to select the design vehicle according to the category of
road.
AREA CATEGORY OF ROAD DESIGN VEHICLE

EXPRESSWAY

HIGHWAY WB-15

RURAL PRIMARY

SECONDARY SU

MINOR SU/P

EXPRESSWAY
WB-15
ARTERIAL
URBAN
COLLECTOR SU

LOCAL STREET SU/P

1. For intersections formed by roads of different design vehicles, the higher design
should primarily be chosen. However, if the frequency of turns made is small, the
lower design vehicle may be used.
2. Design vehicle P is normally applicable only to intersections of two local streets or
minor roads carrying low volumes.

Tab I e 2.2: Design Vehicles For Intersection Design

2.4.1 P design

This design is used at intersections where in conjunction with parkways,

minimum turns are appropriate such as at local street intersections,
intersection of two minor roads carrying low volumes or on major roads
where turns are made only occasionally.

2.4.2 SU design

This design is the recommended minimum for collector road in Urban and
for secondary or minor road in Rural. For major Highways with important
turning movements which involve a larger percentage of trucks or buses,
the designer shall consider designing the roads with larger radii and speed
change lanes.

2.4.3 y 15 design

This design should be used where truck combinations will make turning
movements repeatedly. Where designs for such vehicle are warranted, the
simpler symmetrical arrangements of three-centred compound curves, refer
to ATJ 8/86- A Guide On Geometric Design Of Roads, figure 3. 3 (WB-15
Design Curve) are preferred if smaller vehicles make up a sizable
percentage of the turning volume. Because designs of WB, particularly
when used in two or more quadrants of an intersection, produce large
paved areas, it may be desirable to provide larger radii and use a corner
triangular island

2.5Selection of Intersection Type

The controlled priority of an at-grade intersection will normally provide

adequate capacity for the traffic flags expected in most intersect ion. Where
the predicted traffic flags exceed the capacity, other types of intersection have
to be introduced. These are:-
a) Roundabouts
b) Signal Controlled Intersections
c) Grade separated Intersections or Interchanges

The fundamental factor which decides the type of intersection is traffic volume.
TABLE 2.3 (a) shows the general scheme to select the intersection type
according to the traffic volume. Other factors such as class of road, lane
configuration should also be taken into account, especially when the traffic
volume falls near the boundary of the applicable range of an intersection type.

Factors other than traffic volume, such as heavy pedestrian volume, frequent
accident occurence may demand signalisation. Coordinated traffic control
along an arterial may also govern the selection of the intersection type in
accordance with the type of neighbouring intersect ions.

TABLE 2.3 (b) shows the general scheme to select the intersection type
according to the category of roads crossing.
2.5.1 Roundabouts

Roundabouts may be applicable for total traffic volume (sum of all directions) of
up to 6000 vehicles/hour and may if the layout can be freely chosen, be
designed to cater for any distribution of turning traffic.

However, roundabout design requires a larger land space in order to cater for
the approaches of every intersection. But it can have more than four legged
intersection since the approaches are free flow unsignalized. The roundabout
can be signalized once it exceed the capacity per leg (6,000veh/h), if it is so
required. A roundabout design can also accommodate for future expansion if
any of its approaches reaches its saturation capacity level, that is by converting
it into an interchange such as flyover or ramp to relief the traffic congestion for
the particular approach inside the roundabout.
2.5.2 Signal Controlled Intersections

Signal controlled intersections are applicable to very high traffic volume of 8,000
veh/hour or more provided shall be provided

=
.,,.......

.,.,
c::,,
......

-
ere

.,,.
ta

TABLE 2.3 (a): SELECTION OF INTERSECTION TYPE

According To Category Of Roads Crossing

RURAL AREA

EXPRESSWAY HIGHWAY PRIMARY SECONDARY LOCAL

I.C I.C I.C - - EXPRESSWAY
I.C 1.C/S.I S.1/SC s.c HIGHWAY
S.I S.1/SC s.c PRIMARY
s.c s.c SECONDARY
s.c LOCAL

URBAN AREA

LOCAL
EXPRESSWAY ARTERIAL COLLECTOR STREET
r.c I.C - - EXPRESSWAY
I.C/S.I s.I S.1/SC ARTERIAL
S.I s.c COLLECTOR
LOCAL
s.c STREET

LAGEND
I.C: Interchange
S.I : Signalized Intersection
S.C : Stop Control

TABLE 2.3 (b): SELECTION OF INTERSECTION TYPE

 that the necessary number of approach lanes are present and that there is
no interference from, other nearby Intersections.

Appendix A gives the general warrants that are to be met before traffic
control signals are installed.

Traffic signals require reliable electricity supply for their operation, hence
limiting their use only to developed areas. The most economic solution may
often be the selecttion of a priority controlled intersection initially, which is
prepared for traffic control and to add in the traffic signals at a later stage.
Signalised intersections can handle heavy traffic with adequate number of
approach lanes. This, however, requires longer clearance time for vehicles to
cross the wide road, leading to less effectiveness in the handling of traffic.

2.5.3 Grade Separated Intersections (Interchanges)

Grade separated intersections serve very high traffic volumes with very
little interference to the through traffic. They must be provided for all full
access controlled roads and should be considered for road with design
speeds exceeding 90 km/hr. Grade separation is also recommended if each of
the road crossing has four through lanes or more. The design of
interchanges is covered in Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 12/87 - A Guide to the
Design of Interchange

26. General Control of Intersection

Minor roads at close proximity creates successive intersections on the major
road. They should be treated as follows.-

a) Local service roads should not be linked

directly to the major road, but should be connected to collector roads
or combined together into one and then linked to the major road at a
proper location.

b) Local streets should not be linked to the major road near major
intersections. If this is unavoidable, only left-turning movements should
be allowed. Right-turns from the major road and from the crossroad
should be physically prevented with continuous kerbed median and
remodeling the entrance to the minor road.

c) When a new major road is being planned over an existing road

network, coordination and adjustment on the layout and spacing of
intersections which would be created along the road must be
done. Relocation of existing roads and systematic traffic control may
be required.
 CHAPTER 3
3,0GEOMETRIC STANDARDS
1 general
3

The following geometric standards relate to the elements of at-grade intersection

design which are required to provide for an acceptable level of traffic operations.

At-grade intersections generally handle a variety of potential conflicts among

vehicles, motorcycles/bicycles and pedestrians. These recurring conflicts within a
relatively small area, unique to each intersection, play a major role in selection of
design standards. Arriving, departing, merging, turning and crossing paths of
moving traffic have to be accommodated within the intersection.

A four-way intersection has considerably more traffic conflict points than two three-
way junctions and allows higher operating speeds on the minor road. Signalized
four-way intersections especially in rural areas should generally be avoided or
eliminated.

Two staggered intersectios can take the place of one four-way intersection.
However, where large volumes or crossing traffic occur, a four-way signalized
intersection may be better than a pair of staggered T-junctions.

STOP or GIVE WAY signs should be provided on the minor road of un-signalized
Intersection.

32 Horizontal.Alignment

The alignment and grade of the intersecting roads should permit users to discern
and perform readily the manoeuvre necessary to pass through with minimum
interference. Toward these ends, the alignment shall generally be as straight and
the gradients as flat as practical. Site conditions generally dictate alignment and
grade limitations on intersecting roads. However, it is sometimes possible to
modify the alignment and grades thereby improve traffic operations.

A right angle intersection provides the most favorable conditions for intersecting
and turning traffic movements. Specifically, it provides the shortest crossing
distance and allow drivers to judge the relative position and speed of approach
vehicles more easily. Minor deviations from right angles are generally acceptable
provided the detrimental impact on visibility and turning movements for large
trucks can be mitigated. The intersection angle should be designed as close to 90
degrees as practical but should not be less than 70 degrees. When a truck turns
on an obtuse angle, the driver has blind areas on the left of the vehicle and
increase the exposure time in crossing the main traffic flow.

When existing intersection angles are less than 70 degrees, the following retrofit
improvement strategies are recommended:

• realign subordinate intersection legs;

• provide localized lane widening for tight turning radius or limited visibility;
 • restrict or prohibit problematic turning movement;
• Installation of traffic control devices, particularly where the volume of traffic
is high.

The practice of realigning roads intersecting at acute angles in the manner shown
in Figure 3.1 (A and B) has proved to be beneficial. The greatest benefit is
obtained when the curves used to realign the roads allow operating speeds
nearly equal to the major highway approach speeds.

Another method of realigning an intersection road is to make a staggered

intersection as in Figure 3.1 (C & D). Crossing vehicles must turn into major road
and then re-enter the minor road. Figure 3.1 (D) provides poor access continuity
as the crossing vehicle must re-enter the minor road by making a right turn on the
major road. The realignment in Figure 3.1 (C) gives better access continuity as
right turning is avoided on the major road and thus interfering little with through
traffic.

Where the major road is curving and the minor road constitutes an extension of
one tangent, realigning the subordinate road as shown in Figure 3.1 (E) is
advantageous to guide traffic to major road and improve visibility at the point of
intersection.

The minimum desirable distances between staggered T-junctions are given in

Table 3.1.

-A- • -B-

-D- - - -\.
-C-

-E-

Figure 3 .1- Realignment variations at intersections

3. 3 Ve rt i ca LAlignm e nt

It is desirable to avoid substantial grade changes at intersections. At all

intersections the gradients of the intersecting roads should be as flat as
practicable. Most drivers are unable to judge the increase or decrease in
stopping or acceleration distance that is necessary on steep grades. Their
normal reactions may be in error at a critical time. Grades in excess of 3%
should be avoided on intersecting roads. Where conditions make such design
unduly expensive, grades should not exceed 6% with a corresponding
adjustment in stopping sight distances. These should be treated as special
cases.
 A general principle is that the horizontal and vertical alignment of the major road
as well as its superelevation or crossfall is unchanged through the
intersection and that the carriageway of the minor road and of the additional
lanes are designed to match those of the major road.

The vertical profile of the minor road shall not have a gradient steeper than 2.5%
over a section of 25m from the nearer edge of the major road. The grade shall
also in general be connected tangentially (with or without a vertical curve) to the
cross-section of the major road. If adverse topographic conditions make this
unfeasible then the grade may be connected to the edge of the carriageway of
the major road at an angle, provided that the difference in grade does not
exceed 5%.

> -- 4

LE -REHI

Design Speed of Major Separation (s) for Left/ Separation (s) for Left/
Road (km/h) Right Stagger (rn) Right Stagger (m)

bo 60 60
30 60 60
H40 80 80
50 100 120
60 120 160
80 160 240
90 180 290
100 200 340

TABLE 3.1: DESIRABLE SEPARATION OF STAGGERED T-JUNCTIONS

3.4 Sight Distance

3.4.1 General

The operator of a vehicle approaching an intersection at grade should have an

unobstructed view of the whole intersection and a length of the intersecting road
sufficient to permit control of the vehicles to avoid collisions. When traffic at the
intersection is controlled by signals or signs, the unobstructed view may be confined
to the area of control. It is advantageous on capacity grounds to increase where
practicable the sight distances along the major road by up to 50% as this will allow
several vehicles to emerge when large gaps in traffic stream on the main road
occur.

As for the sight distance of the driver of a vehicle passing through at intersection,
two aspects must be considered. There must be a sufficient unobstructed view to
recognize potential conflicting traffic, the traffic signs or traffic signals at the
intersection. And there must also be a sufficient sight distance to make a safe
departure after the vehicle has stopped at the stop line. All intersections shall be
either signed control as priority intersections or signalized control. •

3.4.2 Approaches Sight Triangle

The sight distance considered safe for approaching driver under various
assumptions of physical conditions and driver behavior is directly related to vehicle
speeds and to the resultant distances travelled during perception, reaction time and
braking. The assumption of a driver's skill, i.e., perception and reaction time set the
standards for sight distance and length of transitions.

The amount of time necessary to start deceleration is the driver's perception and
reaction time which for intersection design can be taken as 2.5 seconds. In addition,
the driver should begin actual braking some distance from the intersection to
accomplish deceleration and avoid collision.

Sight distance should be measured from an eye level of 1050 mm (for passenger
car) to the top of an object of height 1050 mm above the pavement. The use of an
object height equal to the driver eye height makes intersection sight distances
reciprocal (i.e., if one driver can see another vehicle, then the driver of that vehicle
can also see the first vehicle).

There must be an unobstructed sight distance along both approaches of both roads
at an intersection and across their included corners for a distance sufficient to allow
the operator of vehicles, approaching simultaneously, to see each other in time to
prevent collisions at the intersection. The sight triangle is shown on Figure 3.2

Any object within the sight triangle high enough above the elevation of the adjacent
roadways to constitute a sight obstruction should be removed or lowered. Such
objects include cut slopes, trees, bushes and other erected objects. This also
requires the elimination of parking within the sight triangle. Dangerous conditions
may arise if, despite the provision of sufficient sight triangle, vehicles are allowed to
park within the sight triangle thereby obstructing visibility.

When sight triangle is less than the desired, modifications in approach speeds by
appropriate traffic control devices is required.
 l< I
9 STfflli IISfAICE ..
1 I
I
0N 0PRATING SPEED f
- RD A-
I
I
, I

lt::ti- "
l
'
I ~--
?---. '
o w lI

! 8
I
STIPPIMG IISWICE BASED }
• fflADIG sm]J llf
IDll C-8---

FIGURE 3-2: INTERSECTION SIGHT TRIANGLE

Figure 3.2 : Intersection Sight Angle

3 .4. 3 Sight Distance ForApproach

a) Approach Sight Distance at No-Stop or Un-signalized Intersection

At no-stop or un-signalized intersections the operator of a vehicle on either
road must be able to see the intersection in sufficient time to stop his vehicle
if necessary before reaching the intersection. The safe stopping distances
for intersection design are the same as those used for the design of any
other section of the highway. These are as shown in Arahan Teknik (Jalan)
8/86 "A Guide To Geometric Design Of Roads"

Where an obstruction which cannot be removed, except at prohibitive cost

fixes the vertices of the sight triangle at points that are less than the safe
stopping distances from the intersection, signs showing the safe speed should
be so located that the driver can slow down to a speed appropriate to the
available sight distance.

Referring to Figure 3-3, for a typical case, speed Vb is known and a and bare
the known distances to the sight obstruction from the respective paths of
vehicles A and B. The critical speed V1 of Vehicle B can then be evaluated in
terms of these known factors. Distance da is the minimum stopping distance
for Vehicle A. When vehicle A is at a distance da from the intersection and the
drivers of Vehicles A and B first sight each other, Vehicle B is at a distance db
from the intersection.
 By similar triangle
d = aXd
da-- b

and the critical speed V is that for which the stopping distance is de.

The signs on road B showing the safe speed to approach the intersection
should be so located that a driver can reduce his speed to Vb by the time he
reaches the point that is distance db from the intersection. Similar calculations
may be used to determine how far back an obstruction need to be moved to
provide sufficient sight distance for safe driving at desired vehicle speed on
the respective roads.

For this case if the major road is one way a single sight triangle in the
direction of approaching traffic will suffice. Similarly, if the major road has
dual carriageways with no gap in the central reserve then a single sight
triangle to the right will be need. If the minor road serves as a one-way exit
from the major road, no sight triangle will be required provided forward
visibility for turning vehicles is adequate.
 el
I
0BSTRUCTIO
/=>
db

/
/
0
I
A
CD
/
I
Vo
--b b
do

NO STOP OR SIGNAL CONTROL AT INTERSECTION

A
/9\
c:n-:-:----=-----
v_- -- --- ---

S= D+W+L

STOP CONTROL ON MINOR ROAD

FIGURE 3-3: SIGHT DIATANCE AT INTERSECTIONS

(MINIMUM SIGHT TRIANGLE)
 b) Approach Sight Distance at Signalized Intersection

The sight distance is the sum of a distance travelled during the total reaction
time which is the interval between the instant that the driver recognizes the
traffic signals of the intersection ahead and the instant that the driver actually
applies the brakes, and a distance to stop the vehicle at the stop line with
applying brake. The total reaction time can further be divided into the time
required to make decision whether the brake should be applied or not, and the
time for reaction after getting the decision. Sufficient data is not available on
the total reaction time. 10 seconds is adopted here. For urban areas,
however, shorter total reaction time is used. This is because, with a lot of
intersections in urban areas, drivers are always operating their vehicles with an
anticipation of possible encounters of intersections. 6 seconds for urban
areas is adopted here. A deceleration of 0.2g is taken as the allowable
maximum without excessive discomfort. This is much lower than those used to
obtain the stopping sight distance. This is because stops at intersections are
quite routine, while stops to avoid possible collision on open road are much
less frequent and more acute deceleration may be acceptable. From the
discussion above, the sight distance for a signalized intersection is given as
follows:

Where, t = 10 sec. (rural), t = 6 sec (urban)

alpha = 0.2 xg= 0.2x9.8= 1.96 m/sec2

Sight distance should be measured from an eye level of 1050 mm (for passenger
car) to the object height of 0.6m (tail light of passenger car)
 c) Approach Sight Distance At Stop- Controlled Intersection
In this case, time for decision making as in signalized intersection is not necessary
because every driver must stop. The reaction time of 2 seconds is taken.
Accordingly, t = 2 seconds, alpha = 1.96m/sec2 are substituted into the above
formula.

From the discussion above, the criteria shown in Table 3-2 is obtained.

Sight distance should be measured from an eye level of 1050 mm (for passenger
car) to the pavement surface (object height at stop line of 0.0m)
On the major road, drivers can operate their vehicles without worrying about
intersections. Stopping sight distance (SSD) and k values as per ATJ 8/86 defined
for open road is sufficient.

DESIGN SPEED
SIGNAL CONTROL
OF MAJOR STOP CONTROL ON
ROAD MINOR ROAD
(Km/h) RURAL (m) URBAN (m)

100 480 370 260

80 350 260 170

60 240 170 105

'
50 190 130 80

40 140 100 55

30 100 70 35

20 60 40 20

on the major roads of stop controlled intersections, the stopping sight distances
given in Arahan Teknik (JALAN) 8/86 (Rev 2015)"A Guide To Geometric Design
of Roads" must be satisfied.

TABLE 3-2: SIGHT DISTANCE FOR INTERSECTION APPROACH

3.4.4 Departure Sight Triangle

At an intersection where traffic is controlled by STOP signs on the minor road

it is necessary for the driver of a stopped vehicle to see enough of the major
road to be able to cross before a vehicle on the major road reaches the
intersection. (See Figure 3-3). The required sight distance along the major
highway can be expressed as.-
d = 0.28V (J+ ta)

where d = minimum sight distance along the major road from the
intersection, metres.
V = design speed of major road, km/hr.
J = sum of perception time and the time required to shift to first
gear or actuate an automatic shift, seconds.
ta = time required to accelerate and traverse the distance S to
clear the major road, seconds.
The term J represents the time necessary for the vehicle operator to look in
both directions and to shift gears, if necessary, preparatory to starting. A value
of 2 seconds is assumed. In urban or suburban areas where drivers generally
use many intersections with STOP sign control a lower value of 1.5 or even 1
second may apply. The time t required to cover a given distance during
acceleration depends upon the vehicle acceleration. The acceleration of
buses and trucks is substantially lower than that of passenger vehicles. On
flat grades, the acceleration time for SU (single unit) and semi-trailer is about
135 % and 160% respectively of that for passenger vehicles. The value oft
can be read directly from FIGURE 3-4 for nearby level conditions for a given
distance S in m. Referring to Figure 3-3 the distance S which the crossing
vehicle must travel to cross the major road is given by S=D+W+L
Where D = distance from near edge of pavement to front of stop vehicle
W= width of pavement along path of crossing vehicle
L = overall length of vehicle
 lEV'El. a>NDITMH.

+ 2 --
30 36 48
s= DIANE 1RAVELED OUR)NG ACCELERATr- I ml

FIGURE 3-4: SIGHT DISTANCE AT INTERSECTION DATA ON ACCELERATION

FROM STOP

For general design purposes a value of D = 3m is assumed. The value of L,

the overall length of design vehicles can be assumed to be 5m, 10m and 15m
for passenger cars, single unit trucks and semi-trailers respectively.
In testing whether the sight distance along a major road is adequate at an
intersection the distance should be measured from an eye level of 1.05m to the
top of an object of height 1.33m placed on the pavement.

In the case of divided roads, widths of median equal to or greater than the
length of vehicle enable the crossing to be made in two steps. For divided
highways with medians less than L the median width should be included as
part ofW.

Along a major road, the longer distance of the two: the sight distance
described here and the stopping sight distance must be satisfied. The former
will exceed the latter at higher ranges of the design speeds.

Where the sight distance along a major road is less than that for departure at
an intersection it is unsafe for vehicles on the major highway to proceed at the
assumed design speed of the highway and signs indicating the safe approach
speed should be provided.

The safe speed may be computed for a known sight distance and the width of
pavement on the path of the crossing vehicle. On turning roadways and
ramps, at least the minimum stopping sight distance should be provided
 continuously along such roadways. Where the major road has dual
carriageways with a central median width enough to shelter turning vehicles
(4.5m or more) the normal sight triangle to the left of the side road will not be
needed but the central median should be clear of obstructions to driver
visibility for at least d m.

3.4.5 Effect of Skew

When two roads intersect at an angle considerable less than a right angle and
realignment to increase the angle of intersection is not justified, some of the
factors for corner sight distance determination may need adjustment. The
difficulty in looking for approaching traffic makes it undesirable to treat the
intersection based on the assumptions of no control intersections even where
traffic on both roads is light. Treatment by controlled intersection or safe
departure whichever is the larger should be used at skew intersections. In
case of departure the distance S is larger for oblique than for right angle
intersections. The width of pavement on the path of the crossing vehicle, W,
(See figure 3-5) is the pavement width divided by the sine of the intersection
angle.

The distance along the road can be computed by the formula

d = 0.28V(2 + ta) reading ta directly from Figure 3.4

5:.,- =--

FIGURE 3-5 : SIGHT DISTANCE AT INTERSECTIONS EFFECT OF SKEW

3.4.6 Effect of Grades

The differences in stopping distances on various grades at intersections are

as given in Table 3-3. Grades on an intersection leg should be limited to 3
percent. In case of departure derivation of the time required to cross on the
major road highway is affected by the grade of crossing on the minor road.
Normally the grade across an intersection is so small that it need not be
 considered but when curvature on the major road required the use of
superelevation, the grade across it may be significant. The effect of grade on
acceleration can be expressed as a multiplic and to be used with the time ta as
determined for level conditions for a given distance as shown in Table 3.4.

The value of ta from Figure 3.4 adjusted by the appropriate factors can be
used in the formula d = 0.28V (2 +t).

CORRECTION IN STOPPING DISTANCE - METRE

DESIGN . .
SPEED.
DECREASE FOR UPGRADES INCREASE FOR DOWNGRADES
(Km/hr)
3% 6% 9% 3% 6% 9%
30 - . 3 3
40 3 3 3 6
50 - 3 6 3 6 9
60 3 6 9 3 9 15
80 6 9 - 6 15 -
100 9 15 - 9 24 -

TABLE 3-3: EFFECT OF GRADE ON STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE WET

CONDITIONS

MINOR ROAD GRADE (%)

DESIGN VEHICLE
-4 -2 0 +2 +4

PASSENGER CARS ( P) 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.3

SINGLE UM TRUCKS ( SU) 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.3

SEMI TRAILERS ( WB - 50) 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.7

TABLE 34: CORRECTION FACTOR FOR THE EFFECT OF GRADE ON

ACCELERATION TIME ta
3.5 Right Tum Lanes

3.5.1 General
The purpose of right-turn lane is to expedite the movement of through
traffic, regulate the movement of turning traffic, increase in the
capacity of the intersection and improve safety characteristics. Right
turn lanes should be considered in the following cases:

(a) When the major road flow exceeds 600 vehicles/hr for both way

(bl At all intersections on divided urban roads with a sufficiently

wide median.

(c) At all intersections on undivided urban roads where right

turning traffic is likely to cause unacceptable congestion
and/or hazard.

(d) Exclusive right turn lanes at signalized intersections should be

installed as follows

i. Where exclusive right turn signal phasing is provided;

11. Where right turn volumes exceed 100 veh/h (right turn
lanes may be provided for lower volumes as well base
on highway agency's assessment of the need, the state
of local practice, or both); and
iii. Double right turn lanes should be considered where
right turn volumes exceed 300 veh/h.

Table 3.5 and Figure 3.6 is a guide to traffic volumes where right turn facilities should be
considered on two- lane highways. The left and right turn volume from minor road can
be equal to, but not greater than, the right turn volumes from the major road shown in the
table.
 Advancing Volume (veh/h)
5% Right Turn 10% Right Turn 20% Right Turn 30% Right Turn
Opposing Volume
(veh/h)

60-km/h Operating Speed

800 330 240 180 160
600 410 305 225 200
400 510 380 275 245
200 640 470 350 305
100 720 515 390 340
80-km/h Operating Speed
800 280 210 165 135
600 350 260 195 170
400 430 320 240 210
200 550 400 300 270
100 615 445 335 295
100-km/h Operating Speed
800 230 170 125 115
600 290 210 160 140
400 365 270 200 175
200 450 330 250 215
100 505 370 275 240

Table 3 5 :Guide For Right Turn Lanes On Two Lane Single Carriageway,
Source: adapted AASHTO -- A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Street (2011),
Table 9-23

IGURE 3-6:
3.5.2 Des
jgn Considerations

The roadway widths of turning roadways at intersections are governed

by the volumes of turning traffic and the types of vehicles to be
accommodated. The turning radii and the widths are function of design
speed and type of vehicles.

As a minimum, the turning path of a SU vehicle should be used for the

design of right turns. In specific areas where larger vehicle type is
common, the turning path for the larger vehicle type shall be adopted. It
is necessary for the designer to analyse the likely paths and
encroachments that result when a turn is made by vehicles larger than
those for which design is made.

The vehicle executing the right-turn manoeuvre must not encroach on

the shoulder with its front wheels opposite side of the road centre lines
with its rear wheels. Figure 3-7 illustrates the essential design features
of right-turn lanes

3.5.3 LengthOf RightTum Lanes

The length of right turning lane consists of deceleration length and

storage length Total length should be the sum of these two
components. Provision of deceleration clear of through-traffic is a
desirable objective.

Where storage is required, the length should be increased according to

the expected queue length. The storage length should be sufficiently
long so that the through lane traffic is not blocked by vehicles standing
in the through lanes while waiting for a signal change or gap in the
opposing traffic flow. Storage length can be estimated as follows:-

(a) Signalised intersection

Storage length is calculated as L= 1 . 5 X N X S

Where N: Average number of right turning vehicles in a cycle

of signal phase (vehicle.).
S : Average headway in distance (m)
S = 6m for a passenger car
S=12m for other large commercial vehicles
If the commercial vehicle ratio is not known,
S=7m may be used.

At signalized intersections, the required storage length

depends on the signal cycle length, the signal phasing
 arrangement and the rate of arrivals and departures of
right turning vehicles. The storage length is usually based
on 1.5 to 2 times the average number of vehicles that
would store per cycle.

(bl Unsignalised intersection

Effect of traffic fluctuation to the storage length is more significant in

unsignalised intersections. The following formula can be applied:

L 2xMxS

where, M : Average number of right turning vehicles in a minute.

At both signalised and unsignalised intersections, a

storage length of at least 20m should be provided
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 A right-turn lane shorter than required would cause the turning vehicles
to follow up on the parallel lane and to obstruct through traffic. In urban
areas, however, various constraints sometimes impose the reduction in
the length of right-turn lanes. In this case, shortage in the length should
be adjusted in the taper length with the storage length maintained as
long as possible

Where the right turn lane is obscured by a crest, it will be necessary to

extend the length of the lane in order to give the driver adequate time
to perceive the lane in time to start his deceleration.

If two or more lanes are provided to cope with heavy right turning
traffic, storage length can correspondingly be reduced from that
required for single lane operation.

3.5.4 Width of Right Turn Lanes

Right turn lanes' width shall desirably be equal to that of through lane
and shall not be less than 3.0m wide.

3.5.5 Opposed Right-Turns

When two opposing right turns are expected to run simultaneously, the
turning radii and the tangent points should be such that there is a clear
width (of at least 3.0m) between the outer wheel paths of opposing
vehicles.
 R

II l{(ml W(m)

70 90 4

Kl) 40 6 1:

•10 .., ... Io

MI 1 4
"
llU (\1.5 )!

• \t1111m~m "'' 11 1,n-..

')l uu.

I Figure 3.8 [- RtGnur T L

3.5.6 Seagull Island

A seagull island is a triangular island used to separate right turning

traffic from through traffic in the same carriageway as shown in
Figure 3-9.

Adequate storage length is required in approach to the island and a

merging taper appropriate to the speed of the through carriageway
must be provided on the departure side.

It is essential that STOP lines, median noses and "seagull" islands be

located to suit vehicle turning paths. Figure 3-7 illustrates the essential
design features of right-turn lanes.

3.5.7 Central Island and Median Design

The minimum central island widths shall follow that as listed in
Figure 3-7 (C).

Central islands may be made in one of the following ways:-

a) painted as cross hatched areas on the pavement

(ghost islands).

b) raised island surrounded by kerbs.

Ghost island should be used where the island is of the width
of or less than the turn lane. It should also be used in rural
intersections where there is no street lighting.
Kerbed islands shall be used where the islands are wide.
Medians should also be kerbed on both sides from the start of
the taper of the right turning lane.
The design considerations for kerbs should follow that laid
down in the Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 8/86 - A Guide To
Geometric Design Of Roads.

Seagull Hard

Figure 3.9: Seagull

Island
3.g-oft Iurn angs
3.6.1 General
The type of left turn Jane and its treatment depends on.-

a) type and volume of traffic making the turn.

b) Restrictions caused by the surrounding development.

c) speed at which the left-turn is to operate.

These factors determine the radius of the kerb and the width of the
left-turn lane. There are two types of treatment for left-turns, Simple
Left-Turns and Separate Left-Turn Lanes.

3.6.2 Simple Left-Turns

These are usually provided where traffic volumes are low and where
land acquisition costs prevent more extensive treatment or the angle
of turn prohibits the installation of an island.

At urban intersections the radius of the kerb for the left-turn should be
a minimum of 6m. This allows most commercial vehicles to negotiate
the turn at low speeds without encroaching either on the footway with
the rear wheels or on the opposite side of the road's centre line with
the front wheels.
While radii larger than 10m increase the speed of turning movements
they reduce the safety of pedestrian crossings and create problems in
locating signal pedestals and STOP lines. For simple left turns in
urban areas, such radii should only be used after careful consideration
of the above. At rural intersections where provision for pedestrian is
not a consideration, larger radius curves may be used. Radii larger
than 15m should not be used without left-turn island as they create
large areas of uncontrolled pavement.

3.6.3 Separate Left-Turn Lanes

Where the volume of left-turning traffic is high or the skew favours such
a layout, a corner island can be introduced to create a separate left-
turn lane.

-35-
(a) Design Speed of Left-Turn Lane

Design speed of left-turn lane higher than that shown in Table 3-6
should be chosen, considering the turning volume, availability of land
and the design speed of the approach road.

DESIGN SPEED MINIMUM DESIGN

OF APPROACH ROAD SPEED OF LEFT-
(km/h) TURN LANES
(km/h)

100 50
80 40
60 30
50 30
40 20
30 20
20 20

Table 3-6 Minimum Design Speeds for Left-Turn Channel

Principally, the minimum design speed less of than 20 km/h is not

desirable.

While it is desirable and often practical to design for turning vehicles operating
at higher speed, it is often appropriate for safety and economy to use lower
turning speeds at the intersections. Vehicles turning at intersections designed
for minimum-radius turns have to operate at low speeds, perhaps less than 15
km/hr

) Radius for Separate Left-Turn Lanes

The minimum radii used for design should preferably be measured from the
inner edge of the traveled way rather than the middle of the vehicle path or
the centerline of the traveled way.

Where environmental and other constraints do not directly determine it,

the radius (R1 of a separate left-turn lane depends on :

i. the speed, V, at which vehicles operate,

ii. the superelevation,

iii. the acceptable /1 coefficient of friction, f between vehicle tyres and the
pavement.

Figure 3-12 gives the relationship between these factors.

The values of R,in the table are calculated from the formula

-36-
 127(e+ f)
The use of simple curve should always be in priority unless there are
constraints on the location of the high cost involved land acquisition,
relocation of utilities, social issue ... etc.

The superelevation of curves on separate turning lanes at intersections

usually has a low value mainly because of the difficulty of developing
the superelevation on relatively short length of a separate turning lane.
A desirable maximum value in rural areas is 0.08. In urban areas
this should not exceed 0.04 to 0.06.

The values of f given in Figure 3-11 are greater than those used for
open highway design as drivers turning on curves of small radii at
intersections accept a lower level of comfort.

For R, within the range of 12-30m the turn should be designed to

provide for tracking of the design vehicle. A compound curve with
successive radii 1.5R, R, and 3 R, satisfies this requirement. For
radii R, between 30-45m the vehicle tracking can be accommodated by
using a compound curve with successive radii 2 R,, R, and 2 R,.

Figure 3-12 illustrates the combination of radii and widths required for
the tracking of the design vehicle. For R, more than 45m the off-tracking
is negligible and a single radius R, is acceptable. Method of attainment
of superelevation runoff for open road should basically be followed in
the design of intersection.

(c) Compound curves

Compound curve is a curve made up of two or more circular arcs of

successively shorter or longer radii, joined tangentially without reversal of
curvature, and used on some railroad tracks and highways as an easement
curve to provide a less abrupt transition from tangent to full curve or vice
versa.

When the design speed of the turning roadway is 70 km/h or less, compound
curvature can be used to form the entire alignment of the turning roadway.
When the design speed exceeds 70 km/h, the exclusive use of compound
curves is often impractical, as it tends to need a large amount of right-of-way.
Thus, high-speed turning roadways follow the interchange ramp design
guidelines in Section 10.9.6 and include a mix of tangents and curves. By this
approach, the design can be more sensitive to right-of-way impacts as well as
to driver comfort and safety.
 An important consideration is to avoid compound curve designs that mislead
the motorist's expectation of how sharp the curve radius is. For compound
curves on turning roadways, it is preferable that the ratio of the flatter radius to
the sharper radius not exceed 2: 1.This ratio results in a reduction of
approximately 10km/h in average running speeds for the two curves.
Curves that are compounded should not be too short or their effect in enabling
a change in speed from the tangent or flat curve to the sharp curve is lost. In a
series of curves of decreasing radii, each curve should be long enough to
enable the driver to decelerate at a reasonable rate. At intersections, a
maximum deceleration rate of 5 km/h/s may be used (although 3 km/h/s is
desirable). The desirable rate represents very light braking, because
deceleration in gear alone generally results in overall rates between 1.5and
2.5 km/h/s Minimum compound curve lengths based on these criteria are
presented in Table 3.7
The compound curve lengths in Table 3.7 are developed on the premise that
travel is in the direction of sharper curvature. For the acceleration condition,
the 2:1 ratio is not as critical and may be exceeded

Minimum Length of Circular Arc (m)

Radius (m)
Acceptable Desirable
30 12 20
50 15 20
60 20 30
75 25 35
100 30 45
125 35 55
150 or more 45 60

Table 3.7 : Lengths of Circular Arcs for Different Compound Curve Radii
Source: AASHTO -- A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Street (2011), Table 3-14

Compound curves are also unnecessary where there is a painted island or an

island is either not required or cannot be provided. In these cases the front
wheels of the occasional semi-trailer can be steered wide enough to prevent
the back wheels running over the kerb or running onto the shoulder.

When a corner island is to be introduced to create a separate left-tum lane

and a three-centred curve is justified, the combination of radius and angle of
turn should provide minimum island area as follows:

i. In urban areas, 8m2

For adequate definition of the island, shelter for pedestrians as well the
posssible installation of traffic signals.

ii. In rural areas,50m2

For adequate definition of the island. Figure 3-10 indicates the combination
of radius and angle of turn which provides these minimum island areas.
d) Width of Left-Turn Lanes
The width of a left-turn lane depends on:

i. Radius
ii. Volume and type of turning traffic
iii. Whether kerb side parking is permitted or prohibited.
iv. The length of the lane
v. Whether both edges are kerbed.

There are three design conditions:

1. Single lane flow (width W,). This is the normal application and is used in
rural or semi-urban locations where there is a shoulder on the inner edge of
pavement. It may also be applied in urban areas where the inner edge of the lane
is kerbed but the comer is small.

2. Single lane flow with provision for passing a stalled vehicle (Width W2). This
width is desirable for urban locations where parking is prohibited and the comer
island has an inner edge longer than approximately 20m.

3. Two lane flow (Width W3). This width is to be adopted where trafficvolumes
require two lanes and parking is prohibited.Width W is carried for the whole
length of the left tum lane.

Design conditions which define the lane width of left-tum lane should be
found in Table 3-8 according to the class of road.

The table in Figure 3-12 gives the required widths for various radii and
design conditions.
 IUS(i)11I

IGURE 3-10 ISLAND AREAS

01
lkrr/hl ll I O
I 19 I 90£
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s
i' i
II:

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l
43 10 9 I g
- I
18 21 '
I n ,I 10 19

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55 I 5» $

59 ! 0 19 i 4 n &S 15 II n
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61 .
l

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13$ I 11) 112
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0 I 0 16 I )15 I 280 l 152 l 119 ro

FIGURE 3-11: TURNING RADII:

3.7 Pavement Tapers

3.7.1 General

Pavement tapers are used at the following places:-

a) The ends of acceleration and deceleration lanes provided
for left and right tum manoeuvres.

b) The ends of widened carriageway or dual carriageways to assist the

merging and diverging of through traffic manoeuvres.

3.72 Design Principles

The following are the general design principles on pavement tapers:

a) Pavement tapers for diverging movements should

provide for a rate of lateral movement of 0.9m per second.
b) For merging movements they should provide for a rate of lateral
movement of 0.6m per second. However where traffic volumes are high
greater lengths may be provided.
 AREA CATEGORY OF ROAD LANE WIDTH

HIGHWAY W3NV2

PRIMARY W2
RURAL
SECONDARY WI

MINOR V/1

ARTERIAL W3NV2

URBAN COLLECTOR W2NV1

LOCAL STREET W1

THE WIDTHS SHOWN ARE DETEMINED FOR THE DESIGN VEHICLE SU

INCLUDING SOME CONSIDERATION. A SEPARATE STUDY IS REQUIRED IF P
VEHICLE IS EMPLOYED FOR DESIGN
IF TWO ALTENATIVES ARE GIVEN, ONE SHOULD BE SELECTED ACCORDING TO
TURNING VOLUME OF TRAFFIC

TABLE : 3-8: LANE WIDTHS FOR LEFT- TURN LANE

 9.0
O.J LO

.2 to l.ll

.F'.
TYPEC TYPE A
MINIMUM f'REMMEN DESJIMBLE IBEATh1EW

P.-

® 0.6 Barrier Ker

0.3 Semi-Mountoble
0.0 Mountable

Maximum rote of loteral

moveme.nt 0.6 m/a ••

0.,

TYPEB
ALIERNAIE IREAIIENI {RI> 45m}
AL DIMENSIONS ARE IN EIRES

R, w, w, w, s
12 6.5 7.5 10.3 1.5 Were R, = 12m to 30m.
, = 1.5 R,
14 6,2 7.2 10.1 i.4-
R, = 3R,
16 6.0 7.1 9.9 1.3
18 5.9 6.9 9.7 \.J 'llht!rn R 1 = 30m \o 45m.
6.8 9.6 1.2
,= 2R,
20 5.7 3 = 2 R,
22 5.6 6.7 !t.5 l.2
24 5.5 6.6 9.4 1.1 Where I? , > 45m Singe Rad. m:cepfoble
26 5.4 6.5 !U I.I
28 5.4 6.5 9.2 1.1 WE WIQTHS
«0 5.3 6.4 9.1 1.0 # Single·lane flow.
45 5.0 6.1 8.6 0.9 , = Single lane fow wilh provision for
60 4.8 5-.9 8.6 0.9 passing a stalled vehicle.
90 4.6 5.8 8.4 0.8 'H, Two-lane frw.
120 4.5 5.7 8.3 0.7
,so 4.5 5.6 8.2 0.7

Trorfic condition Sufficie11t SU •1e11ici~ to govem design but some consideration ior semitrailer '4ehicles.

: DESIGN OF SEPARATE LEFT-TURN LANES

igure 3 .12
 c) Care must be exercised in designing diverging
tapers to ensure that through traffic is not led into an auxilliary lane in
error.

d) Care must be exercised with the location design

of all merging tapers to ensure that there is sufficient sight distance for the
approaching driver to realise the existence and geometry of the merge.
e) Sufficient lengths of straight, horizontal and
vertical alignment to allow four (4) seconds of travel at the prevailing
speed should precede diversing tapers.

f) Diverging and merging tapers should be designed to encourage low

relative speed manoeuvres.

37.3 Taper Length

The minimum lengths of pavement taper for diverging and merging movements
can be computed by the formula

Td = y x Yd

3.6 0.9
Tm = V_x Ym

3.6 0.6

Where Td = Min. length of pavement taper for diverging

movement s (m)

Tm = Min. length of pavement taper for merging

movements (m)

Yd = Lateral deflection of diverging traffic

(m)

Yin = Lateral deflection of merging traffic

(m)

Various types of tapers which may be used are shown in Figure

3.13.

3.8 Auxiliary Lanes

38.1 Deceleration Lanes

Left-turn deceleration movements should be separated from the

through traffic stream. This may be done by providing in the
left-tum approach a length of parallel by a diverge taper
( Td). The combined length should be equal to the distance
required to decelerate
 ·RClNG

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 from the approach speed of the through road to the design speed
of the left-turn. Lengths of deceleration lanes are as shown in
Figure 3- 14.

The ratio from Figure 3-15 multiplied by the length from Figure 3-
14 gives the length of deceleration lane on grade.

In urban areas, it is desirable that traffic using the left-turn

should flow continuously. If calculation indicates that a queue
would form at the STOP line, a length of parallel lane long enough
for the left-turn vehicles to by-pass the end of the queue should be
provided. Figure 3-16 illustrates these principles.

3.8.2 Acceleration Lanes

In urban areas where the through and left-turn movements are

expected to flow concurrently, there should be an area which
enables the two streams of traffic to merge at a small angle. When
the volume of merging traffic is low, or where traffic signals are
installed, this may be provided by a merging taper of length Tm at
the exit of the left - turn.

The length of an acceleration lane is governed by the acceleration

requirements from a stop or turning speed to the speed of the
through road being entered. The acceleration should occur wholly
within the lane. An acceleration lane has two basic design
requirements;

i. Acceleration length

ii. Merge length

The values for the minimum length of an acceleration lane are

based on the greater of;

The length required to accelerate from the turning speed

to the design speed of road bein entered

The distance travelled in four seconds by the driver

using an acceleration lane plus the required merge
length

Where the volume of merging traffic is high and signals are not
provided, a driver reaching the exit to the left-turn lane may not
find any gap immediately available in the through traffic stream to
permit merging. He should therefore be able to continue on a route
parallel to the through traffic until a merging opportunity occurs or
until he adjusts his speed to create an opportunity to merge. In
such cases, a