Philippine Literature During the Spanish Period

Spanish colonization of the Philippines started in 1565 during the time of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, the
first Spanish governor-general in the Philippines. Literature started to flourish during his time. The spurt
continued unabated until the Cavite Revolt in 1872.
SPANISH INFLUENCES ON THE PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
1. Alibata
2. Christian Doctrine
3. Spanish language became the literary language this time
4. European legends and traditions
5. Ancient literature was collected and translated to Tagalog
6. Grammar books were printed in Filipino 7. Religious tone

THE FIRST BOOKS

1. Ang Doctrina Cristiana (The Christian Doctrine)
2. Nuestra Senora del Rosario
3. Libro de los Cuatro Postprimeras de Hombre
4. Ang Barlaan at Josephat
5. The Pasion [Link] at Felisa
6. Ang mga Dalit kay Maria (Psalms for Mary)

LITERARY COMPOSITIONS
• Arte y Reglas de la Lengua Tagala (Art and Rules of the Tagalog language)
• Compendio de la Lengua Tagala (Understanding the Tagalog language)
• Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala (Tagalog vocabulary)
• Vocabulario de la Lengua Pampanga (Pampango vocabulary)
• Vocabulario de la Lengua Bisaya (Bisayan vocabulary)
• Arte de la Lengua Ilokana (The Art of the Ilocano language)
• Arte de la Lengua Bicolana (The Art of the Bicol Language)

FOLK SONGS
Example: • Leron-Leron Sinta (Tagalog) • Pamulinawen (Iloko) • Dandansoy (Bisaya) • Sarong Banggi (Bicol) • Atin
Cu Pung Singsing (Kapampangan)

RECREATIONAL PLAYS
There were many recreational plays performed by Filipinos during the Spanish times. Almost all of them
were in poetic form.
1. CENAKULO Dramatic performance of the passion and death of Christ
2. ZARZUELA The father of drama, a musical comedy or melodrama three acts which death with men’s
passion and emotions like love, hate, revenge, cruelty , avarice or some political problem.
3. LAGAYLAY A special occasion for the pilareños of sorsogon during maytime to get together
4. Dramatic performance for the purpose of manifesting devotion for the holy cross. TIBAG
5. PANULUYAN Philippine Christmas dramatic ritual narrating the whole family’s search for a place to stay
in Bethlehem for Jesus Christ‘s birth through songs.
6. SALUBONG Dramatizes the reunion of the risen Christ and his mother.
7. CARILLO A form of dramatic entertainment perform on a moonless night during a town fiesta or on
darknights after a harvest.
8. SAINETE A short musical comedy popular during the 18th century. They were exaggerated comedy
shown between acts plays and were mostly performed by characters from the lower class.
9. THE MORO-MORO Like the Cenaculo, the Moro-Moro is presented also on a special stage. This is
performed during town fiestas to entertain the people and to remind them of their Christian religion.
Example: “Prinsipe Rodante”
10. KARAGATAN This is a poetic vehicle of a socio- religious nature celebrated during the death of a person.
11. DUPLO The Duplo replaced the Karagatan. This is a poetic joust in speaking and reasoning.
12. THE BALAGTASAN This is a poetic joust or a contest of skills in debate on a particular topic or issue.
13. THE DUNG-AW This is a chant in free verse by a bereaved person or his representative beside the corpse
of the dead.
14. AWIT • is in dodecasyllabic verse. • are fabricated stories from writers’ imagination although the setting
and characters are European. • refers to chanting. Example: Florante at Laura by Francisco Balagtas
15. CORRIDO • is in octosyllabic verse. • were usually on legends or stories from European countries like
France, Spain, Italy and Greece. • refers to narration. Example: Ibong Adarna by Jose de la Cruz

PHILIPPINE LITERATURE DURING AMERICAN PERIOD

1. The Filipino Revolutionists won against the Spaniards who colonized for 377 years.
2. June 12, 1898 raised the Philippine flag as a symbol of our independence. Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo was selected the first
president of the Philippine Republic but this was short lived.
3. The Filipino-American war resulted in the defeat of Gen. Miguel Malvar in 1903. The peace movements started as early as
1900. Many Filipinos started writing again and the nationalism of the people remain undaunted. Filipino writers went into
all forms of literature like news reporting, poetry, stories, plays, essays and novels. Their writings clearly depicted their love
of country and their longings for independence.
4. Spanish, Tagalog , the Vernaculars (dialects) and finally, English became the mediums used in literature during these times.
The writers in Spanish were wont to write on nationalism like honoring Rizal and other heroes. The writers in Tagalog
continued in their lamentations on the conditions of the country and their attempts to arouse love for one’s native tongue.
The writers in English imitated the themes and methods of the Americans.
The UP college Folio was later replaced by the Philippine Collegian. Dead Stars by Paz Marquez Benitez stand out as a model
of perfection in character delineation, local color, plot and message.
• 1933 Footnote to youth by Jose Garcia Villa
• EL NUEVO DIA (THE NEW DAY) - EL GRITO DEL PUEBLO (THE CALL OF THE NATION) - EL RENACIEMENTO
• KAHAPON, NGAYON AT BUKAS (Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow) Written by Aurelio Tolentino
• TANIKALANG GINTO of Juan Abad
• MALAYA by Thomas Remigio
• WALANG SUGAT by Severino Reyes
5. Education became a very important issue for the united states colonial government, since it allowed it to spread their
cultural values, particularly the English language, to the Filipino people. By 1901, public education was institutionalized in
the Philippines, with English serving the medium of instruction.
6. Literature in Spanish:
• Cecilio Apostol - wrote "A RIZAL" and is considered the best poem in praise of the hero of Bagumbayan.
• Fernando Ma. Guerero - he collected the best of his poem in a book called Crisalidas, and one of the poems written in this
book was "INVOCACION A RIZAL"
• Jesus Balmori - well-known for his pen name of Batikuling. He and Manuel Bernabe participated in a debate on the topic -
"REMEMBRANCE and FORGETFULNESS". He was elected Poet Laureate in Spanish besting Manuel Bernabe.
• Manuel Bernabe - is a lyric poet. He was more attractive to the public in a debate with Balmori because of the melodious
words he used. He defended OLVIDO
• Claro M. Recto - he collected his poems in a book entitled BAJO LOS COCOTEROS. One of his writings dedicated to Rizal is
"ANTE EL MARTIR".
• Adelina Guerrea was first woman poet in the Philippines who was good in Spanish. She obtained the Nobel Prize in her EL
NIDO.
• Isidro Marpori became famous for his four books entitled Aroma de Ensueno.
• Macario Adriatico wrote of Legend of Mindoro entitled La Punta de Salto
• Epifanio de los Santos
• Lope K. Santos - "Father of the National language Grammar", he was also called "apo" of the tagalog writers. "BANAAG AT
SIKAT" was his master piece.
• Jose Corazon de Jesus - known as huseng batute, he was also called the poet of love in his time. "ANG ISANG PUNONG
KAHOY", an elegy, is believed to be his masterpiece.
• Armando V. Hernandez - was dubbed "Poet of the Laborers", his masterpiece is "ANG PANDAY"
• Valeriano Hernandez Pena - known as Tandang Anong, he considers "NENA AT NENENG" his masterpiece.
• Inigo Ed Regalado - a popular story teller, novelist and newspaper man. He reach the peak of his success by the "sumpong"
of his pen.
• Poets of the Heart (Makata ng Puso) included Lope K. Santos, Iñigo Ed. Regalado, Carlos Gatmaitan, Pedro Deogracias del
Rosario, Ildefonso Santos, Amado V. Hernandez, Nemecio Carabana, and Mar Antonio.
• Poets of Life (Makata ng Buhay) led by Lope K Santos, Jose Corazon de Jesus, Florentino Collantes, Patricio Mariano, Carlos
Garmaitan, and Amado V. Hernandez.
• Poets of the Stage (Makata ng Tanghalan). § Led by Aurelio Tolentino, Patricio Mariano, Severino Reyes, and Tomas
Remigio.

In a way, we can say that we can trace the beginnings of Philippine literature in English with the coming of the
Americans. For this purpose, we can divide this period into three time frames, namely:
The Period of Re-Orientation (1898-1910) English as a literary vehicle came with the American occupation in August 13,
1898 and as they say, a choice bestowed on us by history. By 1900, English came to be used as a medium of instruction in
the public schools. From the American forces were recruited the first teachers of English. By 1908, the primary and
intermediate grades were using English. It was also about this time when UP, the forerunner in the use of English in higher
education, was founded.
The period of imitation (1910-1924) By 1919, the UP College Folio published the literary compositions of the first Filipino
writers in English. They were the pioneers in short story writing. They were then groping their way into imitating American
and British models which resulted in a stilted, artificial and unnatural style, lacking vitality and spontaneity.
Period of self-discovery and growth (1925-1941) By this time, Filipino writers had acquired the mastery of English writing.
They now confidently and competently wrote on a lot of subjects although the old-time favorites of love and youth
persisted. They went into all forms of writing like the novel and the drama.
Poetry. Noteworthy names in this field ,they wrote in free verse, in odes and sonnets and in other types. Poetry was original,
spontaneous, competently written and later, incorporated social consciousness.
Short Story (1925-1941) Poetry and short story flourished during these times.
Publications. The Philippine Free Press provided the first incentives to Filipino writers in English by offering prizes to
worthwhile contribution. Other publication followed suit.
The Drama.(1925-1941) Drama during this period did not reach the heights attained by the novel or the short story.

[Link]/american-regime-1898- [Link]
[Link]/event/Philippine-Revolution
[Link] § [Link]
The Japanese Period of Philippine Literature (1941-1945) (Diane Kristine Padua)
 Historical Background Between 1941-1945, Philippine Literature was interrupted in its development when the
Philippines was again conquered by another foreign country, Japan. Philippine literature in English came to a halt.
Except for the TRIBUNE and the PHILIPPINE REVIEW, almost all newspapers in English were stopped by the Japanese.
This had an advantageous effect on Filipino Literature, which experienced renewed attention because writers in
English turned to writing in Filipino. Juan Laya, who use to write in English turned to Filipino because of the strict
prohibitions of the Japanese regarding any writing in English. The weekly LIWAYWAY was placed under strict
surveillance until it was managed by Japanese named ISHIWARA In other words, Filipino literature was given a break
during this period. Many wrote plays, poems, short stories, etc. Topics and themes were often about life in the
provinces. Filipino Literature v POETRY v FILIPINO DRAMA v FILIPINO SHORT STORIES v PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
IN ENGLISH. FILIPINO POETRY DURING THIS PERIOD The common theme of most poems during the Japanese
occupation was nationalism, country, love, and life in the barrios, faith, religion and the arts. Three types of poems
emerged during this period. They were:
1. Haiku – a poem of free verse that the Japanese like. It was made up of 17 syllables divided into three lines. The first
line had 5 syllables, the second, 7 syllables, and the third, five. The Haiku is allegorical in meaning, is short and covers
a wide scope in meaning.
The first noted Filipino poet to write haiku was Gonzalo K. Flores, also known as Severino Gerundio, an avant-garde
poet during the Japanese period. Here are some of his haiku, along with translations, published in Liwayway, June
5, 1943.
Tutubi Anyaya
hila mo’y tabak... ulilang damo.
ang bulaklak, nanginig! sa tahimik na ilog
sa paglapit mo. halika, sinta
2. Tanaga – like the Haiku, is short but it had measure and rhyme. Each line had 17 syllables and it’s also allegorical in
meaning. Tanaga is a poem composed of four lines with each line having seven syllables, written in aaaa or aabb,
abba, or abab rhyming pattern. Tanaga have no titles. Below is an example of a tanaga.
bango ay todo bigay
rosas siyang donselya
tinik na kapamilya
hindi man lang mapugay
3. Karaniwang Anyo - Usual Form or Common Form of Poetry. Each line had 8 to 12 syllables with rhyme.
Pagibig
Umiibig ako, at ang iniibig
ay hindi ang dilag na kaakit-akit
pagka’t kung talagang ganda lang ang nais,
hindi ba’t nariyan ang nunungong langit?
Lumiliyag ako, at ang nililiyag
ay hindi ang yamang pagkarilag-rilag
pagka’t kundi totoong perlas lang ang hangad
di ba’t masisisid ang pusod ng dagat?
Umiibig ako’t sumisintang tunay,
di sa ganda’t hindi sa ginto ni yaman…
Ako’y umiibig, sapagkat may buhay
na di nagtitikim ng kaligayahan…
Ang kaligayahan ay wala sa langit
wala rin sa dagat ng hiwang tubig…
ang kaligayaha’y nasa iyong dibdib
na inaawitan ng aking pag-ibig…
FILIPINO DRAMA DURING THE JAPANESE PERIOD The drama experienced a lull during the Japanese period
because movie houses showing American films were closed. The big movie houses were just made to show stage
shows. Many of the plays were reproductions of English plays to Tagalog. The translators were Francisco Soc Rodrigo,
Alberto Concio, and Narciso Pimentel. They also founded the organization of Filipino players named Dramatic
Philippines. A few of playwriters were:
1. Jose Ma. Hernandez – wrote PANDAY PIRA
2. Francisco Soc Rodrigo – wrote sa PULA, SA PUTI
3. Clodualdo del Mundo – wrote BULAGA (an expression in the game Hide and Seek).
4. Julian Cruz Balmaceda – wrote SINO BA KAYO?, DAHIL SA ANAK, and HIGANTE NG PATAY.
THE FILIPINO SHORT STORY DURING THE JAPANESE PERIOD The field of the short story widened during the
Japanese Occupation. Many wrote short stories.
Among them were: Brigido Batungbakal, Macario Pineda, Serafin Guinigindo, Liwayway Arceo, Narciso Ramos.,
NVM Gonzales, Alicia Lopez Lim, Ligaya Perez, and Gloria Guzman. The best writings in 1945 were selected by a
group of judges composed of Francisco Icasiano, Jose Esperanza Cruz, Antonio Rosales, Clodualdo del Mundo and
Teodoro Santos. As a result of this selection, the following got the first three prizes:
First Prize: Narciso Reyes with his LUPANG TINUBUAN; Second Prize: Liwayway Arceo’s UHAW ANG TIGANG NA
LUPA; Third Prize: NVM Gonzales’ LUNSOD NAYON AT DAGAT- DAGATAN
PHILIPPINE LITERATURE IN ENGLISH (1941-1945) Because of the strict prohibitions imposed by the Japanese in
the writing and publishing of works in English, Philippine literature in English experienced a dark period. The few
who dared to write did so for their bread and butter or for propaganda. Writings that came out during this period
were journalistic in nature. Writers felt suppressed but slowly, the spirit of nationalism started to seep into their
consciousness. While some continued to write, the majority waited for a better climate to publish their works.
Noteworthy writer of the period was Carlos P. Romulo who won the Pulitzer Prize for his bestsellers I SAW THE FALL
OF THE PHILIPPINES, I SEE THE PHILIPPINES RISE and his MOTHER AMERICA AND MY BROTHER AMERICANS.
Journalists include Salvador P. Lopez, Leon Ma. Geurrero, Raul Manglapuz and Carlos Bulosan. Nick Joaquin
produced THE WOMAN WHO LOOKED LIKE LAZARUS. Fred Ruiz Castro wrote a few poems. F.B. Icasino wrote essays
in The Philippine Review. Carlos Bulosan’s works included • THE LAUGHTER OF MY FATHER (1944) • THE VOICE OF
BATAAN (1943) • SIX FILIPINO POETS (1942) among others Alfredo Litiatco published With Harp and Sling and in
1943, Jose P. Laurel published Forces that Make a Nation Great. The Commonwealth Literary Awards gave prizes to
meritorious writers.

Literature Under The Republic (1946-1985)

 The Japanese occupation leaves the Philippine economy in ruins and it seemed that massive
foreign aid could rebuild it. With the life of the Filipinos hanging in the balance because of hunger,
insecurity and terror. Many Filipinos resorted to collaborating with the Japanese for reasons such as politics,
survival and opportunity. After the Pacific War ended, collaborators were given amnesty by President
Manual Roxas. The amnesty put the Filipino ruling elite’s credibility at stake because ambiguities and
irregularities that were not resolved.
The US colonialist linked the issue of collaboration not as a political will but as a means of survival
(expediency). If a rigid trial was done to the detractors, many of the Filipino ruling elite would lose their
credibility and this was not favorable to the US colonizers because at that time the elites were the
intermediary between the American colonizers and the Filipinos. The elites had a lot of influence to the
masses, and the US wanted to tap their services and use them as leverage.
To secure the new republics alliance with the US after its independence was granted a series of
treaties and agreements were signed, and these strengthened the ties between the two countries.
• The Bell Trade Act, imposed free trade which enforced imports from US for 28 years and parity
rights allowing US citizens to have equal rights to access to the countries natural resources.
• The Philippine Rehabilitation Act together with the Bell Trade act which allowed the US to use
the Philippines for their military with the US serving as crutches to the Philippines.
• The Educational Exchange Program otherwise known as the Fulbright Program was the key to
the Philippines assimilation of US culture – the program actually aimed a 2- way exchange of
culture, but this did not actually happen. This was the time when Filipino artist, writers, and
musicians were given a chance to go to the US to learn about the country, they also were given
lecturing privilege. The impact of this program can be seen in terms or the artwork and literature
that showed in their works that they are able to keep up with the literary and artistic trends of the
US during that time. They were introduced to what was called the New Criticism. A method which
emphasized close analysis of text and structure rather than analysis of social or biographical
contexts. This paved the way for a new form of writing—a type of FORMALIST WRITING that is
text-based that it invites coherent conclusions and that the analyses focus primarily on the
literature itself instead of on sometimes extraneous historical and social matters.
NOTABLE WORKS:

§ LAZARO FRANCISCO
o Maganda Pa Ang Daigdig(Novel)
Nobela ni Lazaro Francisco, ang Maganda pa ang Daigdig (1955) ay naglalahad sa buhay ni
Lino Rivera. Si Lino ay anak ng magsasaka at dumanas ng pagdurusa sa sistemang piyudal.
Nagbalik siya sa Pinyahan makaraan ang digmaan, at hinanap ang kaniyang anak na si
Ernesto. Makikilala niya si Kumander Hantik na hihimukin siyang sumama sa kilusan upang
wakasin ang bulok na sistemang agraryo. Tatanggi si Lino. Darating sa buhay niya si Pari
Amando na nag-aari ng malalawak na lupain at magpapanukala ng pagbabago. Tahimik na
sana ang pamumuhay ni Lino, lalo na't napaibig siya kay Bb. Sanchez. Darating ang sandali
na masasangkot siya sa gulong, at pagbibintangang pumatay sa isang lalaki. Mabibilanggo
siya, ngunit makatatakas, kasama ang iba pang bilanggo, at magbabalik sa kaniyang
lalawigan. Ang pangkat ni Lino ang magsisilbing tagapagtanggol ng naaaping magsasaka.
Sasapi rin siya sa pangkat ni Don Tito, na isang makapangyarihang panginoong maylupa.
Magwawakas ang nobela sa bakbakan ng mga rebelde at tropa ng pamahalaan…..
Lazaro Francisco Was Filipino writer known for his novels such as Ama and Daluyong. He was
awarded the National Artist for Filipino Literature in 2009. Francisco also received the Republic
Cultural Heritage Award for Literature in 1970.

Bartolina (Poem) ¬Walking Home (Poem) ¬In Sipolog (Novel) ¬Ako ang Daigdig (Poem) ¬Summer Solstice
(Short Story)
§ AMADO VERA HERNANDEZ September 13, 1903– March 24, 1970, was a Filipino writer and labor
leader who was known for his criticism of social injustices in the Philippines and was later
imprisoned for his involvement in the communist movement. He was the central figure in a
landmark legal case that took 13 years to settle. He was born in Hagonoy, Bulacan but grew up
Tondo, Manila, where he studied at the Manila High School.

§ EMMANUEL TORRES was born on April 29,1932 in MaTorres obtained his BA Education at the Ateneo
de Manila University, and in 1957, on a Fulbright-Smith-Mundt fellowship, he obtained his M.A. in
English at the State University of Iowa where he enjoyed an International Scholarship in Creative
Writing and attended Paul Engle’s Writers’ Workshop. He joined the Ateneo faculty in 1958, and since
1960 was curator of the Ateneo University Art Gallery. At the Ateneo, he held the Henry Lee Erwin
Chair in Creative Writing and the FEBTC/Jose B. Fernandez Chair for art research. In addition to the
extensive local and international recognition he received for his work in the arts and letters, Torres
 was art Emmanuel Torres is a poet, art critic , professor of English and Comparative Literature at the
Ateneo de Manila
Walking Home (Poem) By: Emmanuel S. Torres
At midnight I and a stranger drowse toward separate homes. The crunch of small stones underfoot reminds us
how far we are from each other, although our shadows would include each other more than once, streaming
forward from the streetlight behind us brightening the loneliness of the steps toward sleep. At the fork of the
road, we part Ways deepening into the night. How we are closer now, bothered by night’s darkness and beasts
of solitude on all fours. Each bush is thick with shadow brows. Of thieves and the unloved winds blows my hair
to let me in on its curious passion for prodigals as from three stones harden away and from stones my heels, I
think of what I have done or not done of what I am supposed to repent to the night that has small power to
absolve. Frogs croak upon my wayfaring persisting upon my will to walk. Not past the life whose sakes could
be mine to share piecemeal out to others. Stars are in their places naturally, and have nothing to give, only
beauty, although I have wrong lives and my own least name walking more than miles away from those I would
love and strangers to whom I would have given false directions. Yet I take courage from one lightbulb left
burning at the backdoor of a house no batwing black of foul, cancelling all thought of stars their strange
violence and stranger absences. It will not blur in my storm: one light godfathering tracks back to worn
threshholds not furthering the cause of darkness in, but my makeshift life. Another only try to brighten the four
corners of what I have and set straight my room’s several wayward lines.

§ NVM GONZALES was a native of Romblon born in 1915. On 14 April 1987, the University of the
Philippines conferred on N.V.M. González the degree of Doctor of Humane Letters, honoris causa,
"For his creative genius in shaping the Philippine short story and novel, and making a new clearing
within the English idiom and tradition on which he established an authentic vocabulary, ...For his
insightful criticism by which he advanced the literary tradition of the Filipino and enriched the
vocation for all writers of the present generation...For his visions and auguries by which he gave the
Filipino sense and sensibility a profound and unmistakable script read and reread throughout the
international community of letters...“ N.V.M. González was proclaimed National Artist of the
Philippines in 1997. He died on 28 November 1999 in Quezon City.
§ ALEJANDRO G. ABADILLA (March 10, 1906– August 26, 1969), commonly known as AGA, was a Filipino
poet, essayist and fiction writer. Critic Pedro Ricarte referred to Abadilla as the father of modern
Philippine poetry, and was known for challenging established forms and literature's "excessive
romanticism and emphasis on rime and meter". Abadilla helped found the Kapisanang Panitikan in
1935.
§ NICK JOAQUIN son of Aguinaldo’s colonel, NICOMEDEZ JOAQUIN in 1896 and a Spanish and English
teacher, SALOME MARQUEZ. After being read poems and stories by his mother, the boy Joaquín
read widely in his father's library and at the National Library of the Philippines. By then, his father
had become a successful lawyer after the revolution. From reading, Joaquín became interested in
writing. Was a Filipino writer, historian and journalist, best known for his short stories and novels in
the English language. He also wrote using the pen name Quijano de Manila. Joaquin was conferred
the rank and title of National Artist of the Philippines for Literature. He is considered[by whom?] one
of the most important Filipino writers in English, and the third most important overall, after José
Rizal and Claro M. Recto.

A MERGER OF TRADITIONS.
The taga-bukid and taga-bayan were the two cultures that made up the political entities. The educated
and the wealthy and the ones who lacked the education and therefore did not qualify to exercise power. The
taga bayan were more inclined to the culture of the Free World, while the taga-bukid was the nationalistic
and anti American.
A transition from the Euro- Hispanic (socially conscious, deals with reality) period to the Anglo- American
(thrived more on aesthetic qualities and was full of sentimentality and escapism) period of literature in the
Philippines was brought about by Villa, the contradictions between the two styles resulted in the emphasis
of a crisis for the Anglo American Tradition. It was later resolved in the 1970s. These two traditions had been
implanted with indigenous traditions and through the efforts of the Filipino writers can be clearly called the
Filipino literary tradition.
Existentialism and the Search for Identity. When President Ramon Magsaysay died of a plan crash in
Cebu, this provoked an intellectual crisis. Claro M. Recto criticized President Ramon Magsaysay for being
submissive to the US, with the death of Ramon Magsaysay; the country was under confusion and the
people beginning to ask Recto for some answers that would shed some light regarding the country’s
political philosophy. However Recto was not able to finish what he started because he dies in Rome of a
heart attack. With Recto’s death, the cultural scene in the Philippines became an extension of the US; many
major publications in New York were brought to the Manila. Literary works included were poetry, fiction
and drama, the latest literary fads in the west spread like wildfire. Some of the creative writers whose
works were read by Filipinos were Jean-Paul Sartre-key figure in existentialism, famous for his unbelief in
God he professes: “Man is condemned to be free; because once thrown into the world, he is responsible
for everything he does. It is up to you to give it a meaning.” And Albert Camus-a French philosopher and
writer who won the Nobel prize in literature in 1957.