Systems on a Drilling Rig

In particular, all modern hydrocarbon rotary rigs contain five main systems.

 The Power System

 The Hoisting System
 The Rotary System
 The Circulation System
 The Well Control System (Blowout Prevention System)

The Power System

 The power system on a drilling rig provides the power for the other main systems on
the rig and other ancillary systems, such as electrical systems, pumps, etc. The system
typically consists of a prime mover (the component of the power system that
generates the raw power) and a means to transmit the raw power to the end-use
components on the rig.
 The Power System Is Comprised Of:
 The Fuel Storage
 The Engines And Generators
 Historically, coal was used to generate the power for drilling rigs; however, modern
drilling rigs use other sources of fuel. Typically, modern rigs are now run using an
 internal combustion engine with diesel or lease fuel. Diesel oil is a petroleum-based
fuel that is a product of the distillation process. If the rig is running in a developed
field, then the field may have a small on-site refinery that is used to distill the diesel
fuel. If the rig is drilling an exploration, appraisal, or delineation well, then the fuel will
need to be delivered from an external source and stored on-site.
 Lease fuel is typically produced natural gas. As we have learned, natural gas is always
produced along with crude oil. Again, if the rig is drilling wells in a developed field,
then the field may use the natural gas or natural gas liquids (ngl) to fuel the prime
mover. This natural gas may be processed to remove ngls if a gas plant is available on
site; may need to burn these hydrocarbon liquids (possible sales product) if a gas plant
is unavailable; or may burn the processed ngls (butane).
 The transmission of the power can be:
 Mechanical
 Direct current (dc) electrical generator
 Alternating current (ac) electrical generator with silicon-controlled rectifier (scr) to
direct current (dc)
 In the mechanical transmission, power is generated with the prime mover and is
transmitted to the end-use components by the application of chains and sprockets
(similar to a bicycle), drive belts, drive shafts, etc. In a direct current (dc) electrical
system, an internal combustion engine operates an electrical generator (in this case a
dc generator) and the electrical energy is transmitted to the motors, electrical
actuators, etc. Finally, in an alternating current (ac) electrical system, an internal
combustion engine operates an electrical generator (in this case an ac generator)
which is converted to dc with a silicon-controlled rectifier (scr). Ac-scr power systems
are the most widely used power systems on modern drilling rigs.
 \
Power Sub-Systems in a Modern Rotary Rig

 The Hoisting System

 The hoisting system on a drilling rig does the heavy lifting on the rig. It is used to
raise, lower, and suspend the drill string and lift casing and tubing for installation
into the well.
 In the detailed rig schematic the hoisting system is comprised of:
 The Crown Block
 The Mast/Derrick
 The Monkey Board
 The Traveling Block
 The Hook
 The Swivel
 The Drawworks
 The Weight Indicator
 The Drilling Line
 Hoisting Sub-Systems in a Modern Rotary Rig
 A schematic of the hoisting system is shown in Figure for a kelly drive rig. In this
figure, the derrick (or mast) provides the structural support for the hoist system. It
must be capable of supporting the entire load on the system including the weight of
the drill string (accounting for buoyancy effects) and any frictional forces.
 The crown block and the traveling block form a Block and Tackle System on the rig.
The drill line can be strung as pairs of 2 through 12 lines (six pairs). The greater the
number of lines (and pulleys) in the block and tackle system, the greater its lifting
power but at the expense of slower upward and downward movement of the system.
 The drawworks of the hoisting system is a winch that reels the drilling line in or out
causing the traveling block to move up or down. The drawworks is the component of
the hoisting system that consumes energy from the power system. The drum on the
drawworks is grooved to accommodate a specific size drilling line. Figure shows a
photo of an actual drawworks used on a drilling rig .
 Not shown on the schematic or the photo is the braking system on the drawworks.
Modern rigs use both a mechanical brake and an electromagnetic brake. The braking
system is an integral part of the drilling process because it is used to control
the Weight-on-Bit (WOB) during drilling. The two most important drilling parameters
within the Driller‘s control to maximize the Rate of Penetration (ROP) are the weight-
on-bit and the rotational speed of the rotary system in Revolutions per Minute (RPM).
 The weight-on-bit is achieved with the weight of the drill pipe and Drill Collars,
however the optimum weight-on-bit is often less than the total weight of the drill
 string. The brake is used to take up some of the weight of the drill string, so that the
weight-on-bit is only a fraction of the total weight.

Schematic of a Hoisting System on a Modern Rotary Rig

 The swivel is the link that connects the hoisting system to the rotary system and to the
circulation system. The function of the swivel is to:

 Hold the weight of the drill string on the hoisting system (the hoisting system does not
rotate);
 Allow rotation of the drill string below it (the drill string, Bottom-Hole Assembly (BHA),
and drill bit all rotate);
 Allow passage of the drilling fluid from the circulation system (non-rotating) to the drill
string, Bottom-Hole Assembly (BHA), and drill bit of the rotary system.
 The Circulation System
 The circulation system on the rig is the system that allows for circulation of the Drilling
Fluid or Mud down through the hollow drill string and up through the annular space
between the drill string and wellbore. It is a continuous system of pumps, distribution
lines, storage tanks, storage pits, and cleansing units that allows the drilling fluid to
fulfill its primary objectives .The mud pumps of the circulation system and the
drawworks of the hoisting systems are the two largest draws on the power from the
power system
 In the detailed rig schematic Figure the circulation system is comprised of:
 The Swivel
 The Rotary Hose
 The Mud Return Line
 The Shale Shaker
 The Choke Manifold
 The Mud Gas Separator
 The Degasser
 The Reserve Pit
 The Mud Pits
 The Desander
 The Desilter
 The Mud Pumps
 The Mud Discharge Line
 The Bulk Mud Components Storage
 The Water Tank
 Circulation System in a Modern Rotary Rig
 Drilling fluid is mixed in the mud pits and pumped by the mud pumps through the
swivel, through the blow out preventer (not part of the circulation system) down the
hollow drill pipe, through holes (Jet Nozzles) in the bit, up the annular space between
drill pipe and wellbore (where it lifts the rock cuttings), to the surface, through
the Solids Control Equipment (Shale Shaker, Desander, and Desilter), and back to the
mud pits. A schematic of the circulation system is shown in Figure
 In this figure, fresh water-based drilling fluid (mud) is mixed with water from
the Water Tank (not shown in Figure ) and components from the Bulk Mud
Components Storage (not shown in Figure) in the Mud Pit. The Mud Pumps then
pump the mud through the swivel, kelly, kelly bushing, and rotary table down to the
drill string.
 The mud pumps on a typical drilling rig are either single-action or double-
action Reciprocating (Positive Displacement) Pumps which may contain two pistons-
cylinders (duplex pump) or three pistons-cylinders (triplex pump). Figure shows
schematics of a single piston-cylinder in (A) a single-action and (B) a double-action
reciprocating pump.
 In these pumps, the positive pressure and negative pressure (suction) in the cylinder
cause the valves to open and close (note: the valves in the schematic are simple
representations of the actual valves). Due to the high viscosity of the drilling fluid, the
inlet side of the pump may require a Charge Pump to keep fluids moving into the
cylinders at high pressures and to prevent Cavitation in the pump.
Schematic of the Circulation System on a Modern Rotary Rig

Schematic of a Piston-Cylinder in a (A) Single-Action and

(B) Double-Action Reciprocating Mud Pump
 From the mud pumps, the drilling fluid goes to the swivel, through the blow out
preventer, and down the hollow drill string and bottom-hole assembly. The drilling
fluid then goes through jet nozzles in the drill bit; at which point, it begins its return to
the surface. The drilling fluid travels up the annular space between the drill pipe and
the wellbore, picking up and carrying the drill cuttings up the hole.
 Once the drilling fluid reaches the surface, it goes through the mud return line to the
gas-mud separator and the solids control equipment. The shale shaker is where the
large cuttings from the returning drilling fluid are removed. The shale shaker is a set of
vibrating mesh screens that allow the mud to pass through while filtering out cuttings
of different size at screen screen mesh sizes. A Mudlogger or a Well-Site
Geologist may be stationed at the shale shaker to analyze the cuttings to determine
the lithology of the rock and the depth within the Stratigraphic Column at which the
well is currently being drilled.
 The drilling fluid then passes through the Desander and Desilter. These are
hydrocyclones which use centrifugal forces to separate the smaller solids from the
drilling fluid. The desander typically removes solids with a diameter in the range of 45
– 74 μm, while the desilter removes solids with a diameter in the range of 15 – 44 μm.
 The drilling fluid is then sent through a degasser to remove any gas bubbles that have
been picked up during the circulation. These gasses may include natural gas from the
subsurface or air acquired during the solids control. Typically, the degasser is a piece of
equipment that subjects the drilling fluid to slight vacuum to cause the gas to expand
for extraction. The drilling fluid is then returned to the mud pit to start the circulation
process over again.
 We have discussed the mechanics of how the drilling fluid is circulated during the
drilling process, but we have not discussed the role of the drilling fluid. The term
“mud” is often used in oil and gas well drilling because historically the most common
water-based drilling fluids were mixtures of water and finely ground, bentonite clays
which, in fact, are muds.
 There are many objectives for using a drilling fluid. These include:

 Lift drill cuttings from the bottom of the wellbore to the surface;
 Suspend cuttings to prevent them from falling downhole if circulation is temporarily
ceased;
 Release the cuttings when they are brought to the surface;
 Stabilize the borehole during drilling operations (exert hydrostatic or hydrodynamic
pressure on the borehole to prevent rock caving into the wellbore);
 Control formation pore pressures to assure desired well control (apply hydrostatic and
hydrodynamic pressures in excess of the formation pore pressures to prevent fluids
from entering the wellbore);
 Deposit an impermeable filter cake onto the wellbore walls to further prevent fluids
from permeable formations from entering the wellbore;
 Minimize reservoir damage (assure low skin values) when drilling through the reservoir
section of the well;
 Cool the drill bit during drilling operations;
 Lubricate the drill bit during drilling operations;
 Allow for pressure signals from Logging While Drilling (LWD) or Measurement While
Drilling (MWD) tools to be transmitted to the surface (LWD and MWD data are
transmitted to the surface using pressure pulses in the drilling fluid);
 Allow for pressure signals to be sent to the bottom of the well to pressure actuate
certain downhole equipment;
 Minimize environmental impact on subsurface natural aquifers.
 As I stated earlier, historically drilling fluids were mixtures of bentonite clay, water,
and certain additives to manipulate the properties of the mud (density, viscosity, fluid
loss properties, gelling qualities, etc.). Today, there are several different options
available for drilling fluids. These include:

 Water-based muds (WBM)

 Oil-based muds (OBM)
 Foams
 Air
 Of the listed drilling fluids, the water-based muds and the oil-based muds are the most
common; foam drilling and air drilling can only be used under specialized conditions.
Of the two liquid based mud systems (water-based muds and oil-based muds), water-
based muds are the most common mud system. They are more environmentally
friendly and are used almost exclusively to drill the shallow portions of the well where
fresh water aquifers exist to minimize any contamination to those aquifers. As this
implies, drilling fluids can be – and often are – switched during the course of drilling
operations in single well.
 In addition, water-based muds are cheaper than oil-based muds, so they are used to
reduce drilling costs and commonly represent the “default” selection for a drilling
 fluid. In other words, water-based muds are often used unless there is a specific
reason to switch to an oil-based mud.
 Oil-based muds are formulated with diesel oil, mineral oil, or synthetic oils as a
continuous phase and water as a dispersed phase in an emulsion. In addition, additives
such as emulsifiers and gelling agents are also used. They were specifically developed
to address certain drilling problems encountered with water-based muds. The reasons
for using an oil-based mud include:

 Drilling through shales that are susceptible to swelling (in particular, highly smectite-
rich shales). Shales contain a large amount of clay material and when these clays come
in contact with the water in a water-based mud system, the clays may swell causing
the shales to collapse into the hole. Smectite-rich shale formations are often referred
to as “Gumbo” or “Gumbo Clays” in the drilling industry;
 Reducing torque and drag problems in deviated wells. Since oil, a lubricant, is the
continuous phase in the mud system, the torque and drag between the drill pipe and
the wellbore is reduced with oil-based muds;
 Achieving greater thermal stability at greater depths. Oil-based muds have been found
to retain their stability (retain their desired properties) at greater down hole
temperatures;
 Achieving greater resistance to chemical contamination. Many substances found
down-hole (salt, CO2, H2S, etc.) Are soluble in water. The introduction of these
substances into the water-based mud system may have a deleterious impact on
different mud properties (density, viscosity, fluid loss properties, gelling properties,
etc.). These substances are not soluble in oil and, therefore, have will not impact oil-
based mud properties.
 The first three bullet points in this list are becoming more common problems in the oil
and gas industry. The shale boom in the U.S. has made long horizontal sections in shale
reservoirs targets for drilling. In addition, deviated wells and deeper wells are also
becoming more common. For these reasons, the use of oil-based muds is also
becoming more common.
 There are also several disadvantages with oil-based muds. These include:

 High initial costs. Often in an active drilling campaign, if certain depth intervals require
an oil-based mud, the mud is stored and reused in different wells;
 Slow rates of penetration. Historically, the rate of penetration has been statistically
slower for oil-based muds than it is for water-based muds. The rate of penetration is
 the speed at which the drilling process progresses (depth versus time) and is a function
of many factors other than mud type, including: weight on bit, RPM, lithologies being
drilled through, bit type, bit wear, etc.;
 Environmental concerns:
o Oil contamination of subsurface fresh water aquifers,
o Cleaning and disposal of oil contaminated rock cuttings;
 Kick detection. If gas enters the wellbore (a Kick), it may go into solution in the oil in
deeper, higher pressure sections of the well and come out of solution closer to the
surface;
 Formation evaluation. Some readings from well logs or core analysis may be sensitive
to oil entering the formation of interest (for example, if oil from the oil-based mud
enters the reservoir in the near-well vicinity, then tools used to detect oil saturation
may read artificially high).
 Other drilling fluids currently in use that were listed earlier are foams and air. In the
context of drilling fluids, foams have the consistency of shaving cream. Both foam and
air drilling are used in hard rock regions, such as in the Rocky Mountains, where drill
bits render the drill cuttings to dust. Thus, the foam or air only needs to lift this dust to
the surface. Air drilling is always an environmentally friendly option if it is applicable
because environmental contamination by air is never an issue.

 The Rotary System

 The rotary system on a drilling rig is the system that causes the drill bit rotate at the
bottom of wellbore. We have discussed some components of the rotary system when
we discussed rotary table and top-drive rigs, but we have not yet discussed the entire
system.
 In the detailed rig schematic (Figure ), the rotary system is comprised of:
 The Swivel
 The Kelly – the functionality on a top-drive rig is handled by the top-drive
 The Kelly Bushing – the functionality on a top-drive rig is handled by the top-drive
 The Master Bushing – the functionality on a top-drive rig is handled by the top-drive
 The Rotary Table (not shown in) – the functionality on a top-drive rig is handled by
the top-drive
 The Mousehole – used to connect single joints on a top-drive or rotary table rig
 The Rat Hole
 The Rotary Hose
 The Drill String (not shown in Figure)
 The Bottom-Hole Assembly (not shown in Figure)
 The Drill Bit (not shown in Figure )
 A schematic of the rotary system is shown in Figure. As we can see in Figure, the
rotary system shares many components with the circulation system. This is because
in the rotary system, these components rotate in support of causing the bit to rotate,
while in the circulation system, these components act as conduits for the drilling
fluid.

Rotary System in a Modern Rotary Rig

 The Bottom-Hole Assembly is comprised of any bottom hole equipment required to
drill the current section of the well. A bottom-hole assembly may be as simple as
a Drilling Collar. Drill collars are sections of heavy, thick walled pipe used to add
weight-on-bit to the drill string. More complicated bottom-hole assemblies may
include Jars, downhole directional steering and positioning equipment, logging-while-
drilling, and measure-while-drilling equipment.

 Schematic of the Rotary System on a Modern, Conventional Rotary Table Rig
 Jars are mechanical devices that deliver a transfer of kinetic energy to another piece
of downhole equipment as the result of an impact. They are typically used to loosen a
piece of downhole equipment with an impact (jarring action). You can think of a jar as
comparable to a hammer used to loosen two boards that are nailed together by
hitting one of the boards in the direction opposite of the head of the nail.
 At the end of the drill string and bottom-hole assembly is the drill bit. There are many
types of drill bits, but we will focus on two types of drilling bits, the Tri-Cone (or Roller
Cone) Bit and Fixed-Cutter Bit. In addition, we will be discussing two variants of the
tri-cone bit: the milled-tooth bit and the insert bit. All of these bits can be classified as
in the following bullet list:
 Tri-cone bits
 Milled-tooth bits
 Insert bits
 Fixed-cutter bits


 Milled-Tooth Tri-Cone (or Roller) Drilling Bit

Insert Tri-Cone (or Roller) Drilling Bit

Polycrystalline Diamond Compact (PDC), Fixed Cutter Drilling Bit

 Tri-cone bits are the most common drilling bits and, historically, have been the
workhorse of the drilling industry. As the name implies, tri-cone bits contain three
cones, each of which contain cutting teeth.
 The two-cone bit (an early version of the tri-cone bit) was invented by Howard
Hughes Jr.’s father (Howard Sr.). The tri-cone bit and the formation of the Hughes
Tool Co. (now part of Baker-Hughes, a subsidiary of the General Electric Corporation)
was the source of the Hughes family wealth. In case you do not know who Howard
Hughes Jr. Was, he was an award winning pilot in the 1920s and 1930s (holder of
several aerial speed records and subject of the movie “The Aviator”), a filmmaker
(had controlling interest of RKO Studios and actively produced several notable silent
and early “talkie” films), airplane designer (owner of Hughes Aircraft – contractor for
the world’s largest wooden airplane, “The Spruce Goose,” with Howard as its only
pilot in 1947), and a billionaire by the 1970s and 1980s (back when a billion dollars
had some value).
 In a milled-tooth bit, the teeth of the bit are machine-milled along with the rest of the
cone. The cones of the tri-cone bit, including the teeth, are formed from a single,
solid piece of steel. An example of a milled-tooth bit is shown in Figure.
 In this figure, we can see that the teeth of the bit are intrinsic parts of the cones; they
are milled from the same piece of steel. These bits, as do all tri-cone bits, drill through
the rock by exerting the full weight-on-bit on only a few contact points (the
sharpened teeth) between the bit and the rock. This exerts extremely high levels of
stress at the contact points causing the rock to fail catastrophically (almost
explosively). We will see this in a youtube video later in the lesson.
 One design feature of the tri-cone bit is the interaction of the teeth on the different
cones helping to remove any small cuttings or sticky shales/clays (Gumbo Shales) that
may get lodged between the teeth and reduce the efficiency of the bit. This
phenomenon of cuttings and clays getting lodged between bit teeth is referred to
as Bit Balling and results in slower Rates-of-Penetration (ROP) of the drilling process.
The self-cleaning action of the teeth in a tri-cone bit is designed to reduce the bit
balling.
 Milled-tooth tri-cone bits are mainly used for drilling through soft rock formations.
This is because, no matter how strong the steel used in the construction of the cone,
hard rock can cause excessive wear and degradation of the teeth.
 Insert drill bits, on the other hand, are bits in which the teeth are made from
materials stronger than the steel used in the cone and are inserted into cone.
Example of insert tri-cone bits are shown in Figure
 While the insert bit shown in Figure may superficially look like the milled-tooth bit;
careful inspection reveals that the teeth in the insert bit are not milled but are
inserted into the cone. Typically, the teeth in an insert bit are made from tungsten-
carbide steel (Tungsten Carbide Insert bit or TCI bit) which is a much stronger alloy of
steel than the alloys used for the cones. Other design features included on insert bits
include the length and the shape of the teeth (short, round-shaped teeth for hard
rock formations or long, chisel-shaped teeth soft formations). These designs allow for
a range of lithologies for these bits to be used: in hard rock formations that would be
inappropriate for milled-tooth bits or in soft rock formations for extended bit-life.
 While the insert bit helps to alleviate the issues with tooth-wear, there is an
additional source of wear that can shorten the life of a drilling bit. Due to the moving
parts associated with a tri-cone (or roller) bit, the bit requires a bearing where the
moving parts meet and move past one another. Thus, the wear on the bearings may
also shorten the life of the bit.
 Fixed cutter bits are bits that do not contain any moving parts. These bits are
designed to drill by shearing and scraping the rock formations as opposed to the
gouging action used by a tri-cone bit. These bits typically use industrially made
diamonds for the teeth and are also known as Polycrystalline Diamond
Compact (PDC) bits. Figure shows an example of a PDC bit.
 The PDC bits are used to drill through very hard rock formations or for extended bit-
life drilling. These bits have a large initial cost but because of the hard teeth and lack
of any moving parts have a longer bit-life. One recent innovation for PDC bits in
geologic basins with many shallow (short-footage) drill sites is the ability to rent the
drill bit from the drilling company rather than to purchase it from a tool company.
This innovation allows for an operating company to rent the bit and to use it for the
footage that they require before relinquishing it to another operating company.
.

 The Well Control System (Blowout Prevention

System)
The Well Control System or the Blowout Prevention System on a drilling rig is the
system that prevents the uncontrolled, catastrophic release of high-pressure fluids (oil,
gas, or salt water) from subsurface formations. These uncontrolled releases of
formation fluids are referred to as Blowouts. Due to the explosive nature of oil and gas,
any spark on the surface can result in the ignition of the fluids and an explosion on the
rig. An explosive blowout and the failure of the Well Control System were the causes of
the Mocondo Well disaster that killed eleven of the rig crew on the Deep Water
Horizon Rig on April 20, 2010 and resulted in 35,000 to 60,000 bbl/day of crude oil to
spill into the Gulf of Mexico
 Well Control System in a Modern Rotary Rig
 , The well control system is comprised of:
 The accumulator
 The blowout preventer (not shown in figure )
 The blowout preventers are the principal piece of equipment in the well control
system and are operated hydraulically; pressurized fluids are used to operate pistons
and cylinders to open or close the valves on the bop. The accumulators ( in figure) are
used to store pressurized, non-explosive gas and pressurized hydraulic fluid to run the
hydraulics systems on the rig. The accumulators store enough compressed energy to
operate the blowout preventers even if the power system of the rig is not operating.
 The blowout preventer is a large system of valves each of which is capable of isolating
the subsurface of the well from the rig to provide control over the well. These valves
are typically stacked as shown in the figure and sit below the rig floor on land wells or
some offshore wells; or they may sit on the seabed on other offshore wells.

Blowout Preventer
 Shows three type of valves (there are others) – an annular preventer, blind rams, and
shear rams. The annular preventer is the ring-shaped piece of equipment on the top of
the bop in figure. As the name implies, the annular preventer is used to prevent flow
through the annular space between the drill string or casing and the annular
preventer. The annular preventer can also be used for non-cylindrical pipe, such as the
kelly, or open hole. The annular preventer consists of a doughnut shaped bladder that
when in the open position allows the drill pipe to rotate but in the closed position seals
the annulus. Figure provides a schematic of the annular preventer.

Schematic Diagram of a Blowout Preventer

 Schematic Diagram of an Annular Preventer

Schematic Diagrams of Ram-Type Preventers

 The blue area represents the doughnut-shaped bladder. As mentioned earlier, in the
open position, (a), the drill pipe can be rotated or can be run up or down; while in the
closed position, (b), the bladder pushes out, closing off the drill pipe, kelly, or open
hole. The bladder based sealing element is not as effective as the ram type sealing
elements; however, almost all blowout preventer stacks include at least one annular
preventer.
 Schematics of the ram-type preventers: the blind rams, the shear rams, and the pipe
rams (pipe rams are not shown in fig) are shown in figure.
 This figure shows that:

 Blind rams isolate both the pipe and the annular space by crushing the pipe and it
pinching-off when closed;
 Shear rams isolate both the pipe and the annular space by shearing-off the pipe when
closed;
 Blind shear rams isolate both the pipe and the annular space by shearing-off and
crushing the pipe when closed;
 Pipe rams isolate the annular space by wrapping around the pipe when closed.
 A blowout begins as a kick (entry of subsurface formation fluids into the wellbore).
What distinguishes a kick from a blowout is that a kick can be controlled while a
blowout is uncontrollable. We have already discussed two of the defenses against
kicks when we discussed drilling fluids when we listed the objectives of the drilling
fluid:
 Control formation pore pressures to assure desired well control (apply hydrostatic and
hydrodynamic pressures in excess of the formation pore pressures to prevent fluids
from entering the wellbore);
 Deposit an impermeable filter cake onto the wellbore walls to further prevent fluids
from permeable formations from entering the wellbore.
 In the first objective re-quoted above, if we can keep the pressure exerted by the
drilling mud greater than the pore pressure, then we know that fluids will flow in the
direction of the mud to the formation. This cannot always be achieved. For example, if
we drill through a natural fracture or if our mud density is too great and we
inadvertently fracture one formation, then we may lose large quantities of the drilling
fluid into the fracture (lost circulation). In this situation, instead of having the full
weight of the mud column exerting pressure on a second (porous and permeable)
formation, we may only have a fraction of the oil column height exerting a lower
pressure on that second formation.
 In the second objective re-quoted above, if we deposit an impermeable drill
cake (filter cake) across an otherwise porous and permeable formation, then for a
slightly underbalanced pressure (drilling fluid pressure lower than the formation
pressure) we have created a seal between the wellbore and the formation. Again, this
 is not a failsafe system because at greater underbalanced pressures, the higher
formation pressures may be able to displace the drill cake.
 The two previously discussed methods are used to help prevent a kick from occurring,
but as mentioned they are not always successful, and kicks may still occur. The causes
of a kick include:

 Insufficient mud weight (density): the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the mud
column is not greater than the formation pore pressure;
 Improper mud replacement during tripping: while tripping out of the hole mud
volumes must be pumped into the wellbore at high enough rates to replace drill pipe
being removed from the wellbore;
 Swabbing: removing drill pipe from the wellbore can create a negative pressure
(suction) if the drill pipe is removed too quickly;
 Cut mud: if gas is entering the wellbore, then it may effectively reduce the wellbore
pressure gradient;
 Lost circulation: as discussed earlier if large volumes of drilling fluid enter the
subsurface in (1) high permeability formations, natural fractures, or drilling-induced
fractures, then the effect is a shortened height and weight of the mud column.
 The following are indicators/warning signs of a kick:

 Increase in the rate of flow of the drilling fluid returns at constant pump rates
(primary indicator of a kick): the increased rate is caused by formation fluids entering
the wellbore and is a strong indication of a kick. In addition, if it is a gas kick, due to the
compressible nature of gas, as the gas bubble travels up-hole and hydrostatic
pressures decrease, the volume of the bubble will increase due to expansion.
 Volume of mud in the mud pit increases when no additional drilling fluids are added
to the mud system (primary indicator of a kick): for the same reasons as mentioned
above, if the volume of mud in the mud pits increases when no additional fluids have
intentionally added, then the increased volume is caused by formation fluids entering
the wellbore and is a strong indication of a kick.
 Drilling fluids returns continue to flow when the mud pumps are turned off (primary
indicator of a kick): drilling fluid returns when the mud pumps are shut-off indicate
that formation fluids are entering the wellbore and displacing the mud.
 Improper wellbore fill-up/volume-balance on trips (primary indicator of a kick): if the
drill pipe is removed from the wellbore, then the change in volume in the mud pits
should equal the volume of the drill pipe removed from the hole. An improper volume
balance is a strong indicator of a kick.
 Pump pressure decrease and pump stroke increase (secondary indicator of a kick): if
low density fluids are displacing heavier drilling fluid in the annulus, then this will
cause the pump pressure to decrease (the annular side of the u-tube is lighter than the
drill pipe side of the u-tube which contains the mud pump pressure gauge). The
imbalance in the u-tube, just described, will cause the heavier drilling fluid in the drill
pipe to fall due to gravity, causing the mud pump to increase the number of strokes to
keep up with the pressure imbalance.
 Change in the apparent weight-on-bit (secondary indicator of a kick): if the weight-
on-bit indicator in the rig’s dog house shows a change in the weight-on-bit that is not
explainable by the current drilling operations, then this may be an indication of a kick.
The apparent weight-on-bit is affected by the buoyance caused by the wellbore fluid,
which in turn, is affected by the density of the wellbore fluid. If a lighter formation
fluid begins to replace the heavier, more dense drilling fluid, then an apparent increase
in the weight-on-bit will occur.
 Occurrence of a drill break or bit drop (secondary indicator of a kick): a drill
break (sudden change in the rate-of-penetration) or bit drop (sudden increase in the
drill bit depth) typically occur at a change in the lithology of the formation being
drilled. In particular, a large bit drop may be an indication of drilling through a natural
facture system. Both drill breaks and bit drops are normally recorded in the drilling
records. When working on naturally fracture reservoirs, these drilling records may be
useful for mapping natural fractures. I personally worked in a field where we had a 12
meter (~ 36 ft) bit drop in one well in the reservoir – think about it, you are drilling
away at a certain rate-of-penetration and, all of a sudden, the bit drops 36 feet for no
apparent reason. This was caused by drilling through a solution enhanced fracture
which over geologic time formed a cavern in the reservoir (this occurred several years
prior to my arrival, but it was in the drilling records).
 Reduction in the mud weight (secondary indicator of a kick): the mud man may
observe a reduction or cut in the mud density at the rig-site mud laboratory. This again
may be an indication of a kick.
 When a kick occurs, the operating company and drilling company always have well-
specific plans in-place for all wells to ensure that any controllable kick does not turn
into an uncontrollable blowout.
 I cannot go into the details of a well-specific procedures, but they will includee some of
the following features if a kick occurs during drilling operations:

 Stop drill pipe rotation.

 Pick the drill bit off-bottom and space out (spacing out refers to pulling the drill pipe
out the hole so that the top connection – the thickest part of the drill string containing
the threads and joints – is several feet above the rig floor. Spacing out ensures that the
smaller diameter section of the drill string is inside the bop, so that pipe rams can close
and seat properly or blind rams or shear rams are opposite the smallest diameter
section of steel. See figure )
 Stop the mud pumps and check for continued mud returns (flow of mud from the
well).
 If mud returns continue:
 Shut-in the well with the annular preventer or pipe rams:
 Hard shut-in (choke in figure is closed)
 Soft shut-in (choke in figure is opened)
 If a hard shut-in was used, open the choke
 Weight up (add the mud weighting additives) to the desired density – this is the kill
fluid used to kill the well
 Circulate the kill fluid through the kill line, down the wellbore, and out of the choke
(see figure ) using an industry standard method:
 The driller’s method
 The weight and wait method