UNIT 13 INDEFINITE INTEGRALS*

Indefinite Integrals

Structure
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Integral as Anti-Derivative
13.3 Some Rules of Integration
13.4 Techniques of Integration
13.4.1 Integration by Substitution
13.4.2 Integration by Parts
13.4.3 Integration by Partial Fractions
13.5 Some Economic Applications of Integration
13.6 Let Us Sum Up
13.7 Answers/Hints to Check Your Progress Exercises

13.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• explain the concept of the integral;
• define the indefinite integral as the reverse of differentiation;
• describe some properties of Indefinite Integrals;
• discuss certain techniques of Integration: by substitution, by parts, and by
partial fractions; and
• discuss certain applications of integration

13.1 INTRODUCTION
You have studied differential calculus in Units 7 to10, and also you have used
that for optimisation in Block 4. You have seen that differentiation of a
function F(x) gives another function f (x). In other words, F′(x) = f (x). Is this
operation reversible? Or, given f (x), can we get back the original function
F(x)? In general, we can. The reverse operation to the derivation is called anti-
derivation or integration. Historically, the concept of integration was
developed before that of differentiation. Much later, it was pointed out that
differentiation and integration are reverse of one another. In this unit we are
introducing the concept of Anti-derivative. The present unit aims at
introducing some elementary ideas about simple integration.
The next section explains the concept of the integration as the reverse of
differentiation. Here it is important to note that that the process is called
integration while the concept itself is called the integral. This section also
states the result of the integration of certain important functions. The following
section deals with certain important techniques of integration, when the direct
method of obtaining integration does not succeed. Three such important

* Contributed by Shri Saugato Sen, SOSS, IGNOU 229

Integration techniques that are discussed are integration by substitution, integration by
parts and integration by partial fractions. Finally, the unit provides a
discussion of some economic applications of indefinite integrals.

13.2 INTEGRAL AS ANTI-DERIVATIVE

You can recall from unit 9 that if a function F(x) is differentiated, you get f (x),
symbolically, F′(x) = f (x). In this unit we shall consider the reverse process —
given a function f (x), find some function F(x) such that its derivative is equal
to f (x), that is:
F′(x) = f (x)
Definition 1 :A function F(x)is called an anti-derivative of the function f (x) on
the interval [a, b], if at all points of the interval F′(x) = f (x).
Example : Find anti-derivative of the function f (x) = x2
x3
Solution: From definition 1 it follows that the function F( x) = is an
3
anti-derivative of the function f (x), since F′(x) = f (x).

x3
d( )
3 = x2
dx

It is easy to see that if for the given function f (x) there exists an anti-derivative,
then this anti-derivative is not the only one. In the above example, we could
also take the following functions as anti-derivatives of f (x) = x2:

x3
=
x3 x3
F( x) = + 1, F( x) = + 9 or, generally, + C (where C is an
3 3 3
arbitrary constant).
x3
d( + C)
3 = x2
dx x3
Since , a function of the form + C exhaust all anti-derivatives of the
3
function x2.
In general, if for a given function f (x), one anti-derivative F(x) is found, then
any other anti derivative of f (x) will have the form F(x) + C, where C is
a constant.
As seen above, integration is the inverse of differentiation. It is the process of
summation. There are two fundamental concepts of this process.
a) Indefinite integration
b) Definite integration
The latter we will discuss in the next unit. In this unit we limit ourselves to
indefinite integral.
Definition 2 : Indefinite Integral— If the function F(x) is an anti-derivative
of f (x), that is, if F′(x) = f (x), then the expression F(x)+C is
230
 the indefinite integral of the function f (x) and is denoted Indefinite Integrals

by the integral symbol ∫ .Thus, by definition

∫ f ( x) dx = F ( x) + C

Note:
d dy
i) ∫ is the integral sign, just as or is for differentiation. It is a
dx dx
distorted form of 'S' meaning "sum". This is because originally
integration was defined as the sum of a certain infinite series.
ii) The function f (x) is called integrand, meaning the function which is
to be integrated. xis called the integration variable, and C is the
constant of integration.
iii) dx does not mean product of d and x but is a symbol to remind
us that integration is being done with respect to x .

iv) f ( x ) dx means integral of the function f ( x ) i.e. integral of the

integrand.
v) The process of finding integral of a function is called integration.
vi) From the definition of integration as anti derivative, it is clear that
d
f ( x ) dx = f ( x )
dx
That is, the derivative/ differential coefficient of integration of a
function is the function itself. Incidentally, this is the first rule of
dy 2
integration. Since = 2x
dx
( )
x = 2 x , therefore
2
2 x dx = 2 x dx or 2 x dx = 2×x2dx= x2 + C

vii) An indefinite integral is a family of functions of type y = F(x) + C.

From geometrical point of view, an indefinite integral is a collection
of curves, each of which is obtained by translating one of the curves
parallel to itself, upwards or downwards (along y-axis).
A question may arise: Do anti-derivatives and indefinite integrals exist for
every function f (x) ? Answer is No. However, if the function is continuous
over an interval [a, b], then this function has an anti-derivative (and therefore
indefinite integrals).
If the derivative of an elementary function is always an elementary function,
then anti derivative of the elementary function may not prove to be able to be
represented by a finite number of elementary functions.
To sum up:
i) The derivative of an indefinite integral is equal to the integrand, that is, if

(∫ f (x) dx)′ = (F(x) + C)′ = f (x)

F′(x) = f (x) then
231
Integration In simple words, derivative of an anti-derivative is equal to the
integrand.
ii) The differential of an indefinite integral is equal to the expression under the
integrand sign:
Note that it is a direct result of expression contained in (i) above.

d (∫ f ( x) dx ) = f ( x)
iii) The indefinite integral of the differential of some function is equal to
this function plus an arbitrary constant:
One can prove the above assertion by differentiating the above
expression on both the sides.

∫ d F ( x) dx = F( x) + C

13.3 SOME RULES OF INTEGRATION

Here we mention some basic rules of integration without proof. You are
expected to understand these and apply wherever necessary.
Rule 1: The differential coefficient of the integral of a function is equal to the
d
function itself. Symbolically, f ( x) dx = f ( x) .
dx
Rule 2: Integral of a product of a constant ‘k’ and a function is equal to the
product of the constant and the integral of the function.
Symbolically, = ×
Rule 3: The integral of the sum or difference of two functions is equal to the
sum or difference of their integrals. Symbolically,

f ( x) g ( x) ψ ( x) ... dx f ( x) dx g ( x ) dx ψ ( x) dx ...

We now present some standard integrals in this section. These integrals wil
prove to be very useful in process of integration. These integrals are used
frequently in the integration process, and therefore must be learnt by heart.

1) Since = , therefore = +c

d 1 1
2) Since
dx
[ log x ] = , therefore
x x
dx = log x + c

d n
3) Since e = e x , therefore e n dx = e n + c
dx

d eax e ax
4) Since = e x , therefore ax ax
e dx = a ⋅ e ++c cor e ax dx = +c
dx a d
(ax)
dx

5) Since
d ( ax + b)n+1 n
= ( ax + b) , therefore
dx a ( n + 1)
232
 n +1 n +1 Indefinite Integrals
( ax + b)
n ( ax + b)
( ax + b) dx = +c = + c, n ≠ −1
a ⋅ ( n + 1) d
( n + 1) × ( ax + b)
dx

a = a x log ! ! = "#$ + &, ! > 0

d x
6) Since e a , therefore
dx

d log ( ax b) 1
7) Since = , therefore
dx a ax + b

1 log ( ax + b) log ( ax + b)
dx = or =
( ax + b) a d
( ax + b)
dx
d
8) Since ( x) = 1 , therefore 1 dx = x + c
dx

[Note: In the above rules, we are assuming ‘log’ to the base ‘e’, which is also
known as the Natural log, denoted by ‘ln’]
Let us take some examples based on above results.

x* 6
+c== + ++&c
x5+1
1) x5 dx =
5 +1 6

3x e3 x
e3 x
2) e dx = +c= +c
d 3
( )
3 x
dx

(3 x + 5) e(3 x + 5)
e(3 x + 5)
3) e dx = +c= +c
d 3
(3x + 5)
dx

1 −5 x −5+1 x −4 , 1
= = + = + c = c .=+ c 4 +
-
4) 5
dx x dx c
x −5 + 1 −4 4x

5) 7 dx = 7 1 dx = 7 x + c

1 9
6) Evaluate 3x 4 + 5 x −3 − 3x 2 + + dx
x x
/
I = 3 x 4 dx + 5 x −3dx − 3 x 2 dx + x 0 dx ++99 dx

1
− +1
x 4+1 x −3+1 x 2 +1 x 2
= 3× +5× −3× + + 9 log x + c
4 +1 −3 + 1 2 +1 − 1 +1
2

233
Integration +
1
3 5 3 x 2
= x 5 − x −2 − x 3 + + 9 log x + c
5 2 3 1
2

+2 x0 +
+ 9 log x ++c&
3 5 5
= x − 2 − x3 −
5 2x

7) Evaluate I = ( 2 − 7 x)(5 − 3 x)(7 − 2 x) dx

I= ( 2 − 7 x) (6 x 2 − 31x + 35) dx = (12 x 2
− 62 x + 70 − 42 x3 +− 217 x 2 + 245 x dx
217 − 245

= 12 x 2 dx − 62 x dx + 70dx − 42 x 3 dx +217
− 217 x 2 dx +−245
245 x dx

8 - 8
= 712 × : − 762 × : + 70 − 742 × : + 7217 × : − 7245 × :+&
3 2 4 3 2
21 -
217 8
245
=4 8
− 31 + 70 − + − +&
2 3 2
. < = 8>? 0
=− + 8
− + 70 + &

8) Find the integration of

3
21
x + 2
x
3 1 1 1 1
I= Ix 2 =+ 1 x 2 +dx=
= I2x=6 +=1xx+6++x 4 6⋅ +1 =
3+x 4x⋅x 2+2⋅ +1 3+xdx
2
⋅x 4⋅ dx+ x ⋅ dx
x2 x x6 x x2 x x4 x

1 3
= x6 + 6
+ 3 x 2 + 2 dx = x 6 dx + x −6 dx + 3 x 2 dx + 3 x −2 dx + c
x x

x 7 x −5 3x3
= − + − 3 x −1 + c
7 5 3

x7 1 3
= − 5 + x3 − + c
7 5x x

9) Evaluate "#$
+ "#$

I= (x a
)
+ a x dx = x a dx + a x dx

[Note: "#$@
= , and here we are assuming that ‘log’ has the base ‘e’]

From standard results on integration, we have ! = "#$ + &, ! > 0,

+
+ c&
x a +1 ax
hence we get I = +
a + 1 "#$log

234
 Indefinite Integrals
10) Evaluate
( 7 x − 2) 3 x + 2 dx
7
Express 7 x − 2 in terms of 3 x + 2 by multiplying (3 x + 2) by and
3
−20
then balancing by adding .
3
1
7 20
I= ( 3 x + 2) ⋅ − (3x + 2) 2 dx
3 3
1 1
7 20
= (3x + 2)(3 x + 2) 2 − (3x + 2) 2 dx
3 3
3 1
7 20
= (3x + 2) dx −
2 ( 3 x + 2) 2
dx
3 3

5 3
This transformation is meant
7 (3 x + 2) 2 20 ( 3 x + 2) 2
= × − +c to use the standard integration
3 5 3 3 n +1
3 3× n ( ax + b)
2 2 form ( a x + b) =
a ( n + 1)
5 3
7 2 20 2
= ( 3 x + 2) 2 × − ( 3 x + 2) 2 × + c
3 15 3 9
5 3
14 40
= ( 3 x + 2) 2 − ( 3 x + 2)2 + c
45 27
3
2 7 20
= ( 3 x + 2 ) 2 ( 3 x + 2) − + c
9 5 3

11) Evaluate I =
(3x + 4) dx
2x + 7

Express (3 x + 4) in terms of 2 x + 7 so as to use standard form of

n
integration ( ax + b )

3 13 3
( 2 x + 7) − ( 2 x + 7) =
2 2 2 0
I= dx = dx − dx1
? 0 2
1 1
( 2 x + 7 ) 2 ( 2 x + 7 ) 2 2 n + 7

3 1
13 −1 Both are of the
= ( 2 x + 7) 2 dx − ( 2 x + 7) 2 dx
form ( ax + b)
n
2 2
1 1
+1 − +1
3
= ×
( 2 x + 7) 2 13
− ⋅
( 2 x + 7) 2 +c
2 1 d 2 1 d
+ 1 ⋅ ( 2 x + 7) − + 1 ⋅ ( 2 x + 7)
2 dx 2 dx

235
Integration 1 3 13 1
= ( 2 x + 7) 2 − ( 2 x + 7) 2 + c
2 2

x3
12) Integrate
2x + 1

x3
Sol. I= dx
2x + 1
(Note that this is an algebraic expression wherein
1
2 x2 − 14 x + 18
x in the numerator has higher power compared to
2 x + 1 x3 x in the denominator. Hence, we can divide x 3 by
x3 + 12 x 2 2 x + 1 through long division method — a simple
− − x3
and useful method I = dx
− 12 x 2 2x + 1
− 12 x 2 − 14 x 1 1 1 1 1
A = B[ − + + − × ]
+ + 2 4 8 8 2 +1
GHIH
∵ = MNOPQ RP + ST U!QR V×
1
4 x
1
[ GHIHJKL
4 x − 18
− − GHIHJKL
W]
− 18
x dx+
− X 1dx + − X
1 2 1 1 1 1
= x dx − dx
2 4 8 8 2 1
− 1 8
1 1
=7 × :−7 × :+Y Z
2 3 4 2 8
1 log 2 + 1
−7 :+&
8 2
8
log 2 + 1
= − + − +&
6 8 8 16
Check Your Progress 1
1) Evaluate the following integrals:
a)
∫ (e )
−5 x
+ e 5 x dx
b) −4 .

dx
c) ∫ s − 2x (where s is any constant)

d)
∫ 10 x(1 − x)dx

2) Evaluate the following integrals:

∫ (x )
3
a) + 15 dx
236
b)
∫ 15
Indefinite Integrals
x 5 dx

1
c) ∫x 5
dx

∫ (3e )
3x
d) + 2 x dx

∫5
x
e) dx

13.4 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION

Above discussion relates to the integration of some standard form mentioned in
the section 13.3. In such cases integration can be found out by using some
standard formulae. But there are cases where this cannot be done. Here
separate techniques have been developed. These are:
i) Integration by Substitution
ii) Integration by Parts
iii) Integration by Partial Fractions
Let us take these one by one with some examples.
13.4.1 Integration by Substitution
Here the integrand, consisting of two functions, becomes easy by substitution
of old variable by a new one (say from x to z) through some suitable relation.
That is why it is called the method of integration by substitution. For example,
if y = f ( x ) , and we have x = g ( z ) , then we apply the following formula:

f ( x) dx = g ( z ) ⋅ g ′ ( z ) dz

That is, the integration of a given function f ( x ) is equal to the integration of

another function g ( z ) multiplied by its derivative g ′ ( z ) . Follow the following
steps in integrating the following functions:

1) I = (5 x + 7)5 dx

Sol:
Steps: 1) Put the inner expression 1) Put 5 x + 7 = t
equal to another variable, say, t

dt dt
2) Find 2) is =5
dx dx

3) Find dx in terms of dt dt
3) dx =
5

237
Integration
4) Substitute the value of (5x + 7) dt 1 5
and dx in the I (integrand) 4) I = t5 ⋅ = t dt
5 5

5) Integrate I in terms of t 1 t6 t6
5) = ⋅ +c = +c
5 6 30

6) Revert back to x values 1

6) = (5 x + 7)6 + c will be
30
the required answer.

2) Integrate e8 x + 5
dt dt
Sol: Put 8 x + 5 = t so that = 8 and dx =
dx 8
dt 1 t 1 1
I = et = e dt = et + c = e8 x + 5 + c
8 8 8 8
x3
3) Evaluate (a) 3
dx (b) ( 4 x + 2) x 2 + x + 1 dx
(x 2
+1 )
x3
Sol: a) I= 3
dx
(x 2
+1 )
dt
Put t = x 2 + 1 so that t − 1 = x 2 and − 0 = 2x
dx
dt x3 x2
or x dx = . Let us write dx as × x dx
2 ( )
x2 + 1 (x 2
+1 )
3

tt −11 dt
dt 11 tt −11 11 tt 11
II == 33
⋅⋅ == 33
dt ==
dx
dx 33
dt−− 33 dt
dt dt
tt 22 22 tt 22 tt tt

1 −12 1 1 1 t −11 11 t −21 12 11 1

= =t dtt − dt −t −3 dtt = dt = + + +c= − −+ + + c + c
2 2 2 2 2 ( −12) 12 2 2 22 24t 4t 2

1 1
or =− 1− +c.
2t 2t

b) ( 4 x + 2) x 2 + x + 1 dx

dt
Put t 2 = x 2 + x + 1 so that 2t ⋅ = 2x + 1
dx
or ( 2 x + 1) dx = 2t ⋅ dt
1
We can write I = 2 ( 2 x + 1) x 2 + x + 1 ( ) 2
dx

[= -[ =
or I = 2 t ⋅ 2t dt = 4 t 2 dt = 4 × +8 1+=c =t 3 8+ c+ &
238
 P= + + 1 0,
Indefinite Integrals
Substituting the value of we get
4 2 3

3
(
x + x +1 ) 2
+ c.

> \ > "#$@ >

4) Find ] >

Sol: Note that numerator is the derivative of denominator and that

10x log
loga 10. Therefore,
d
dx
( )
10 x = 10

10 log
log10 10
dt
Put t = x10 + 10 x so that = 10 x9 + 10
dx
ordt= 10 <
+ 10 log 10) dx

− log t + c = log x >++

1010 +&
dt
The Integrand becomes I = =
t
13.4.2 Integration by Parts
This method is more powerful than the method of substitution. It is based on
the product formula used under differentiation. It transforms one integration
problem into another which is easier to handle. Symbolically,

f ( x ). g ( x )dx = f ( x ) × dx − f ' ( x ) × g ( x )dx dx

wheref and g are two differentiable functions.

In words, we can state it as under
Integral of the product of two functions is equal to the first
function multiplied by the integral of the second function
less integral of the product of differential coefficient of the
first function and the integral of the second function.
Before, we attempt some question, let us note some important tips.
1) This method is useful when the integrand is given as the product of two
differentiable functions f and g in a given variable , say, x.
2) Choose a power/ algebraic function of x as the first function, and the
second function which is easy to integrate.
3) We can rearrange the two functions as first and second function,
according to our convenience, even at a later stage.
4) When the integrand is not a product of two functions we can treat 1 (one/
unity) as the second function. For example:

f ( x) dx = f ( x) × 1dx

5) When the product is of Inverse (I), Logarithmic (L), Algebraic (A),

Trigonometric (T) and Exponential (E). Then the first function will be
one which comes first in the order ILATE (To remember I, LATE)
6) If an integrant consists of functions that do not integrate, then see if its
parts can be integrated.
Let us attempt some questions to illustrate the method.
239
Integration 1) Integrate the following functions by the method of integration by parts.
log x
a) x 3e x b) x log x c) d) x 4 log x
x2
Sol:

a) I = x 3e x dx

According to the ILATE principle, we choose x 3 as first function.

Therefore,
d 3
I =Ix3 ⋅x e x dx
e x−dx
dx
( )
x x⋅ e x dxx
edx dx

= x 3e x − 3 x 2 ⋅ e x dx = x 3 ⋅ e x − 3 x 2 ⋅ e x dx

Applying the rule once again on second part, we get

I = x3e x − 3 x 2 ⋅ e x − 2 x ⋅ e x dx

= 8
− 3[ −2 − ]
= 8
− 3[ −2 − ]+c

== xx 3eexx −−33xx 2eexx −+−66xx⋅⋅eexx −−66eexx ++ cc

b) I = x log x dx
⋅ dx

Choosing log x as first function

x2 x2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1x 2 x 2
I =Ilog
= log
x⋅ x⋅ − − x dxx dx= =x log x −x − ⋅ ⋅ dx dx
x log
2 2 2 2 2 2 x2 2

x dx= = x 2xlog x −x − × + +c c
11 11 11 1 1 x2
= = x 2xlog x −
x − x dx
22 22 22 2 22 2
1 2 1
= x log x − x 2 + c .
2 4
log x 1
c) I= dx can be written as log x ⋅ dx
x2 x2
1
Let us treat log x as the first function and as second.
x2
d
logxx⋅ ⋅ xx−2−dx
I I==log 2
dx−− [ (logxx)×× xx−2−dx
log 2
dx ] dx
dx

x −1 1 x −1
= log x ⋅ − ⋅ dx
−1 x −1

log x x −1
= − x −1 log x + x −2 dx = − + +c
x −1

240
 − log x 1 1 Indefinite Integrals
= − + c = − (log x + 1) + c
x x x
d) A= -
log
-
Take log x as first function and as second.

x^
logxx⋅× −− [ (log -
dx ]
d
II= log _
logxx) xx dx
x dx
1 1 _
= _
log − B ` × a
5 5

=_ _
log − _ -

1 1 _ _
1
= _
log − × + & = blog − c + &
5 5 5 5 5

Let us now discuss some more Standard forms of Integrals.

1 1 1 1
1) I= dx = − dx [Identity: x 2 − y 2 =x − y x + y
x −a22
2a ( x − a) ( x + a)
x 2 − y 2 ( x − y)( x + y )]

1 1 1
= dx − dx
2a x−a x+a

1
= log ( x a ) log ( x a ) c
2a

=
1
log
( x − a) + c .
2a ( x + a)
1 1 1 1
2) I= dx = + dx
a −x22
2a ( a + x ) ( a − x)
[Identity: x 2x−
2
−y 2y=2x( x−−y y )(x x++y y )]

1 1 1
= dx + dx
2a a+ x a−x

1 log ( a x )
= log ( a + x ) + +c
2a −1

1
= log ( a x ) log ( a x) c
2a

=
1
log
( a + x) + c .
2a ( a − x)

241
Integration 1
3) I= dx
x + a2
2

Put x + x 2 + a 2 = t so that
1
dd 1 2 dtdt
dxdx 2
(
1 x x++ x x ++aa2 ) 2 ==2 x
dxdx
1

1 2 −1 dt x dt
1 x ( a2 ) 2
2x 1
2 dx (x 2
+ a2 ) dx

( x + a ) + x = dt
2 2
[
or dx =dx = 0
d 0
× (×x 2
)
+ xa 2 + a
( x + a ) dx
2 2
x a x

∴ I=
1
×
dt (x 2
+ a2 )= dt
= log t + c
(x 2
+a 2
) (x 2
+a 2
)+x t

= log x + (x 2
+ a2 ) +c

1
4) I= dx
(x 2
− a2 )
1
dt 1 −
Put t = x + ( x 2 − a 2 so that ) dx
= 1 + x2 − a 2
2
( ) 2 × 2x

dt
1
x (x − a ) + x
2 2

dx (x 2
− a2 ) (x − a )
2 2

dx (x 2
− a2 ) dt 2 1

dt t
or dx =
t
(
⋅ x − a2 ) 2

1 dt dt
I= × × (x 2
− a2 = ) = log t + c
(x 2
−a 2
) t t

= log x + (x 2
− a2 ) +c

13.4.3 Integration by Partial Fractions

f ( x)
Let f ( x ) and g ( x) be polynomials in x so that is a rational
g ( x)
fraction. Integration of a rational
fraction can be easily found by splitting it into partial fractions (two or more
than two). Let us trace the following steps and simultaneously take one
x +1
example 2 dx .
x + 4x − 5
242
 Indefinite Integrals
Step 1:Factorise the denominator into x 2 + 4 x − 5 = ( x − 1)( x + 5)
two or more parts.

Step 2:Express the fraction x +1 A B

(integrand) as the sum of two/ = +
( x − 1)( x + 5) ( x − 1) ( x + 5)
more factors.

Step 3:Cross multiply. A ( x − 1)( x + 5) B ( x − 1)( x + 5)

x +1 = +
( x − 1) x+5
or x + 1 = A ( x + 5) + B ( x − 1)

Step 4:a) Put 1st factor equal to zero a) x − 1 = 0, x =1

to get one value of x .
b) Put 2nd factor equal to zero b) x + 5 = 0, x = −5
to get another value of x .

Step 5: a) Put 1st value of x in the a) 1 + 1 = A (1 + 5) + B (1 − 1)

whole expression of step 3. 2 1
or 2 = 6 A or A = =
6 3
b) −5 + 1 = A ( −5 + 5) + B ( −5 − 1)
,-
b) Put 2nd value of x in the or −4 = −6 B or B = =
=
whole expression of step 3. ,+ 8

Step 6:Now express the Integrand in 1 2

the split form: 3 + 3
A B I= dx
I= ± dx ( − 1) ( x + 5)
x
factor 1 factor 2

1 2
= + dx
3 ( x − 1) 3 ( x + 5)

Step 7:Integrate each fraction 1 1 2 1

separately. I= dx + dx
3 ( x − 1) 3 x+5

1 2
= log ( x − 1) + log ( x + 5) + c
3 3

4x − 2
Example Evaluate I = dx
x − x2 − 2 x
3

Solution The denominator can be factorized into x ( x + 1)( x − 2)

4x − 2 A B C
Now,
∴ = + +
x ( x + 1)( x − 2) x x + 1 x − 2
, e , f , g
or 4 − 2 = + + ,
243
Integration 1 x x−−22) AA++x xnn−−−222)BB++x x x( x++11C
44x x−−22==( x x++1)( )C … 1

a) Put x = 0 in equation (1) so that −2 = ( 0 + 1)( 0 − 2) A + 0 + 0

or −2 = −2 A or A = 1
b) Put x + 1 = 0 ⇒ x = −1 in equation (1):
4 ( −1) − 2 = 0 + −1( −1 − 2) B + 0
,+
−6 = 3B or B= 8
=
= −2
−2

c) Put x − 2 = 0 ⇒x = 2 in equation (1): 4 ( 2) − 2 = 0 + 0 + C × 2 × 3

x = 2 and
6
or 6 = 6 C or C = =1
6
Now,
4x − 2 1A B2 C1
∴ = −+ ++
x(x +
− 1)( x −
+ 2) x (xx++11) x(−x 2− 2)

( 4 x − 2) dx = 1
dx − 2
1
dx +
1
dx
x ( x + 1)( x − 2) x x +1 ( x − 2)

= log x − 2 log(xn++ 11) ++log x −−2

log (x 2 )++Cc

x
Example Evaluate dx
( x − 1)( 2 x + 1)
x A B
Solution Let = + …(1)
( x − 1)( 2 x + 1) ( x − 1) ( 2 x + 1)
x A ( 2 x 1) B ( x 1) (By cross multiplication) …(2)

Now, put x − 1 = 0 or x = 1 in equation (2)

1
1 = A ( 2 × 1 + 1) + B ( 0) or 3A=1 or A=
3
1
Now, put ( 2 x + 1) = 0 x = − in equation (2)
or
2
1 1 3 1
or − = 0 + B − − 1 or − B = −
2 2 2 2
1 −2 1
or B = × or B=
−2 3 3
1
Therefore, A = B = . Substituting there values in (1), we get
3
1 1
x 3 dx + 3 dx
dx =
( )(
x − 1 2 x + 1) ( )
x − 1 ( + 1)
2 x

1 1 1 1 log121 1 1 1 log ( 2 x 1)
= dx + ==
dx − dx
x dx +++ = +=C logx(−x − 1+) +
dxdx +C+C
c
3 3 ( x − 1) 1 ( 2 x2+ 1) 1 3 3 22
244
 1 1 Indefinite Integrals
= log ( x − 1) + log ( 2 x + 1) + cC
3 6

7 x 2 + 3x + 1
Example Evaluate dx .
x2 + x
SolutionSince both numerator and denominator contain quadratic functions,
therefore, we first find the quotient by long division. Therefore,

77xx 2 ++ 33xx ++11 1 − 4x 1 − 4x

= 7+ 2 =7+
2
xx2 ++ 1x x +x x ( x + 1) …(1)
1 − 4x A B x
Let us now break into + = …(2)
x ( x + 1) x ( x + 1) x x + 1

On cross multiplication, we find that

1 − 4 x = A ( x + 1) + Bx …(3)

Now, put x = 0 in equation (3) so that

1 − 4 × 0 = A (0 + 1) + B (0)

or 1= A
Now, put x + 1 = 0 or x = −1 in equation (3), we get
1 − 4 ( −1) = A ( −1 + 1) + B ( −1) or 5 = − B or B = −5

Consider values of A and B and equations (1) and (2). We get

7 x 2 + 3x + 1 1 5
dx = 7+ − dx
x2 + x x x +1
1 1
= 7 1⋅ dx + dx − 5 dx
x x +1
= 7 x + log x − 5 log ( x + 1) + C

1
Example Integrate 2
dx by using the method of partial fractions.
x − x−6
Solution First factorize the denominator:

x 2 − x − 6 = x 2 − 3x + 2 x − 6 = x ( x − 3) + 2 ( x − 3)

or ( x + 2)( x − 3)
e f
Now, 0,
= = +
,+ ,8 ,8
…(1)
Cross multiplying, we get
1 = A ( x − 3) + B ( x + 2)
…(2)
Now, put x − 3 = 0 or x = 3 in equation (2) so that
1 = A (3 − 3) + B (3 + 2)
245
Integration 1
or 1 = 5B or B=
5
Now, put x + 2 = 0 or x = −2 in equation (2) so that
1 = A ( −2 − 3) + B ( −2 + 2)

1
or 1 = −5 A or A=−
5
Consider values of A, B and equation (1). We get,
1 1
−
1 1 1
= 5 + 5 = −
x − x − 6 x + 2 x − 3 5 ( x − 3) 5 ( x + 2)
2

1 1 1 1 1
or 2
dx = dx − dx
x − x−6 5 x−3 5 x+2
1
= log ( x 3) log ( x 2) C
5

1
= log
( x − 3) + C .
5 ( x + 2)
dx
Example Evaluate by using method of partial fractions.
1− ex

Solution We first convert e into some variable like t by putting e x = t or

[
= or dx = .
dt
t
dx 1 dt 1
∴ becomes ⋅ or dt
1− e x
1− t t t (1 − t )
e f
Now, let [ =[+ …(1)
,[ ,[

So that in cross multiplication we have

1 = A (1 − t ) + Bt …(2)

Now, put t = 0 in equation (2), so that 1 = A (1 − 0) + B ( 0)

or A =1

Now, put 1 − t = 0 , or t = 1in equation (2), so that

1 = A (1 − 1) + B (1)

or 1 = B or B =1
Consider values of A and B and equation (1). We get,

= +
1 1 1
= + so that [ ,[ [ ,[
t (1 − t ) t (1 − t )
"#$ –[
= log t + ,
+C
246
 t Indefinite Integrals
= log t − log (1 − t ) + C = log +C
1− t

Substituting the value of t = e x , we get

dx ex
= log +C
1− ex 1 − ex

Example Integrate:
( x − 1) dx
( x − 2)( x − 3)

Solution Let
( x − 1) = A + B .
( x − 2)( x − 3) ( x − 2) ( x − 3) …(1)

On cross multiplication, we get ( x − 1) = A ( x − 3) + B ( x − 2) …(2)

Now, put x − 3 = 0 or x = 3 in equation (2), we get
3 − 1 = A (3 − 3) + B (3 − 2) 2 B

Now, put x − 2 = 0 or x = 2 in equation (2), we get

2−1 = k 2 − 3 + l 2 − 2 or 1 = −k or k = −1
Consider values of A and B and equation (1). We get,
, ,
= +
, ,8 , ,8

= − log ( x − 2) + 2 log ( x − 3) + C
2
2
= log ( x − 3) − log ( x − 2) + C = log
( x − 3)
+C
( x − 2)

Example Evaluate:
( x − 1)( x − 2)( x − 3) dx
( x − 4)( x − 5)( x − 6)

Solution Let
( x − 1)( x − 2)( x − 3) = 1 + A + B + C
( x − 4)( x − 5)( x − 6) ( x − 4) ( x − 5) ( x − 6) …(1)
On cross multiplication, we get

( x − 1)( x − 2)( x − 3) = ( x − 4)( x − 5)( x − 6) + A ( x − 5)( x − 6) +

B ( x − 4)( x − 6) + C ( x − 4)( x − 5)
…(2)
Now, put ( x − 4) = 0 or x = 4 in equation (2), so that

( 4 − 1)( 4 − 2)( 4 − 3) = 0 + A ( 4 − 5)( 4 − 6) +

B ( 4 − 4)( 4 − 6) + C ( 4 − 4)( 4 − 5)

6 = 2A or A=3
Now, put ( x − 5) = 0 or x = 5 in equation (2), so that
247
Integration (5 − 1)(5 − 2)(5 − 3) = 0 + A (5 − 5)(5 − 6) +
B (5 − 4)(5 − 6) + C (5 − 4)(5 − 5)

24 = − B or B = −24
Now, put ( x − 6) = 0 or x = 6 in equation (2), so that

( 6 − 1)( 6 − 2)(6 − 3) = 0 + A ( 6 − 5)( 6 − 6) +

B ( 6 − 4)( 6 − 6) + C ( 6 − 4)( 6 − 5)

60 = 2C or C = 30
Consider values of A,B and C and equation (1). We get,
−1 −2 −3 3 24 30
B = B b1 + − + c
−4 −5 −6 −4 −5 −6
1 1 1
= B1 + 3B − 24 B + 30 B
−4 −5 −6
= + 3 log − 4 − 24 log − 5 + 30 log −6 +&

1
Example Evaluate 2
dx
2x + x − 1
1 1 A B
Solution Let = = +
2 x + x − 1 ( 2 x − 1)( x + 1) ( 2 x − 1) ( x + 1)
2

…(1)
On cross multiplication, we get
1 = A(x + 1) + B (2x −1)
…(2)
Now, put x + 1 = 0 or x = −1 in equation (2), so that
1 = A ( − 1 + 1) + B (2 1) 1 or 1 0 B ( 3)

1
or B=−
3
1
Now, put 2 x − 1 = 0 or x= in equation (2), so that
2
1 3
∴ 1= A + 1 + B ( 0) 1 A
2 2

2
or A=
3
Consider values of A and B, and equation (1). We get,

248
 2 1 Indefinite Integrals
1 3 dx − 3 dx
∴ 2
dx =
2x + x −1 2x − 1 x +1

2 1 1 1
= dx − dx
3 2x −1 3 x +1
"#$ ,
=8 − 8 log +1 +n

1 1
= log ( 2 x − 1) − log ( x + 1) + C
3 3
1
= log ( 2 x 1) log ( x 1) C
3

1
= log
( 2 x − 1) +C
3 ( x + 1)
5
Example Evaluate dp
( p + 3)( p − 2)
5 A B
Solution Let = + …(1)
( p + 3)( p − 2) ( p + 3) ( p − 2)

On cross multiplication, we get

5 = A (p−2) + B (p + 3) …(2)
Now, put ( p − 2) = 0 or p = 2 in equation (2), so that

5 = A ( 2 − 2) + B ( 2 + 3) or B =1

Now, put p + 3 = 0 or p = −3 in equation (2), so that

5 = A ( −3 − 2) + B ( −3 + 3) or A = −1

Consider values of A and B, and equation (1). We get,

5 −1 1
B o=B o+ B o
o+3 o−2 o+3 o−2
1 1
=B o−B o
o−2 o+3
= log ( p − 2) − log ( p + 3) + C

= log
( p − 2) + C .
( p + 3)

249
Integration Check Your Progress 2
1) Using the method of substitution evaluate the following:
x 2x − 7
a) e3 x + 4 dx b) dx c) 2
dx
3 2
x +1 ( 2
3 x − 7x + 6 )
1
d) dx
x+x
5
2) Evaluate (
x x 2 + 4 dx )
3) Using anyone of the various methods of Integration, evaluate the
following:
1 dx
a) x 2 e 3 x dx b) ( 4 x + 7) 2
dx c)
( 7 + 3 x )5
4) Integrate the following by method of substitution:

d 1+
1
a) b)
x (x 2
− a2 )
5) Using the method of integration by parts, evaluate the following:
(1+ x)
a) log (1 + x) dx

b) x 2 e ax dx
0
c)

d) log ( x + 2) dx .

6) Split the following functions in partial fractions and then integrate.

1 x3 − 2 x 2 − 13x − 12
a) b)
x − x3 x 2 − 3x − 10

13.5 SOME ECONOMIC APPLICATIONS OF

INTEGRATION
We are considering here a list of some of the applications of integration in the
field of Economics, in our attempt to create its importance and thereby create
an interest to learn it.
We know that marginal revenue is defined as the rate of change of total
revenue. Thus MR is derivative of TR. We have a function F(x) = TR, such
that its derivative F'(x) = MR, therefore we can say:
TR + C =
∫ MRdx
Where C is a constant and its value can be determined using the fact that TR =
0 when x = 0.

250
Similarly, we can deduce for the total cost function that Indefinite Integrals

TC + C = ∫ MCdx

Example 1: Let MR function be 60 , findTR. Also derive the

−2
demand function. ( x + 3)2

Solution:

 60  60
TR + C = ∫  (x + 3)2  dx = ∫ (x + 3)2 dx − ∫ 2dx
 − 2

, +>
– 2
8
TR + C =

To find C, we use the condition that Total Revenue will be zero when x is nil:

− 60 − 60
∴ 0+C = − 2(0 ) or C = = −20
0+3 3
− 60 20 x
∴ TR = − 2 x + 20 = − 2x
(x + 3) (x + 3)
We know that demand function = average revenue (AR) function

TR 20
∴ Demand function = AR = = −2
x (x + 3)
Example 2 : Let Marginal Cost function be : MC = 4 + 6x + 30x2. Find firm’s
total cost function if the fixed cost is Rs. 500.
Solution: Total Cost + C = 4 + 6 + 30 dx
= 4x + 3x2 +10x3
We know that total cost of production when output equals zero is equal to the
fixed cost.
∴500 + C = 4(0)+ 3(0)2 +10(0)3 or C = – 500
Hence, Total Cost = 10x3 + 3x2 + 4x + 500
Note: When a total cost function is presented by a polynomial, the constant of
integration represents Fixed Costs.
Example 3 : A company suffers a loss of Rs. 110 if its product does not sell
at all. Its marginal revenue (MR) and marginal cost (MC) curve are given by
MR = 50 – 4x and MC = –10 + x
Find out its profits function and equilibrium output. Also find maximum profit
and break-even output.
Solution: Profit Function: π(x)= Total Revenue – Total Cost

∴π(x)+ C = ∫ [(50 − 4 x ) − (− 10 + x) )]dx

5x 2
= ∫ (60 − 5x )dx = 60 x −
2
251
Integration We know that at zero output, company suffers a loss of 110, that is,
π (0) = –110 ∴–110 + C = 0 or C = 110
_ 0
Thus profit function will turn out to be π(x) = 60x− – 110

We know that equilibrium of the firm occurs when MR = MC

∴50 – 4x = –10 + x
or 5x = 60
or x = 12 will be the equilibrium output.
Maximum profit is earned by a firm at its equilibrium level of output
Break-even level of output is that level of output when profits are nil.
5 × 144
∴ π (12) = 60 ×2 12 − − 110 = Rs.250 / −
5x 2
⇒ 60 x − − 110 = 0
2
Therefore, π (x) = 0 will give break-even level of output.
or x2 – 24x + 44 = 0
or x = 2 or x = 22
Since firm starts getting positive profits when output exceeds 2, the Break-even
level of output will be x = 2.
To Sum Up:
a) Total Utility (TU) + C = Marginal Utility dx
b) Total Cost (TC) = Marginal Cost dx
c) Total Revenue (TR) = Marginal Revenue dx
d) Total Product (TP) = Marginal Product dx
Check Your Progress 3
1) The marginal revenue (MR) function of firm is:
ab
MR =
( x − b) 2
Prove that the demand curve in inverse form will be

a
p=
b−x

4
2) If the marginal cost (MC) function is given by MC = and fixed
3 x + 36
cost = Rs. 20, find the average cost of producing 15 units of output.
3) Given that MR = 20x – 2x2
MC = 81– 16x + x2
Assuming fixed cost as zero, find out profit maximising output, and
amount of profits at that output.

252
 Indefinite Integrals
13.6 LET US SUM UP
This unit was the first of the two units on integration. The next unit will deal
with definite integrals. We shall explain what definite integrals are and how
they differ from indefinite integrals when we come to it. This particular unit
was on indefinite integrals. We saw that integrals can be considered as the
reverse of derivatives; or to put it slightly differently, integration is the
opposite of the process of differentiation. We learnt that if a function is
differentiated, we get a new function. If, now the new function is integrated, we
will get back the original function.
The unit then went on to discuss certain standard forms of integrals, as also
certain properties or rules about integration. After that the unit took up for
discussion some specific techniques of integration, namely, integration by
substitution, integration by parts, and integration by partial fractions. Finally,
we saw that integration finds several applications in economics, particularly in
the way we can recover a ‘total’ function from a ‘marginal’ one. We saw
examples like getting total utility from marginal utility and getting a total cost
function from a marginal cost function.

13.7 ANSWERS/HINTS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1

1) a) − _ ,_
+_ _

0 ^
+
b) − . +&
_
,
c) log € − 2 +&
>
d) 5 − 8
8
+&
.
2) a) + 15 + &
-
_
b) +
+&
, /.
c) +&
-

d) 8
+ "#$ + &
_
(e) +&
"#$ _

Check Your Progress 2

= .
1) a) +&
8
0
8
b) +1 = +& (Hint: Put t 3 = x2 + 1)
-
,
c) 0 ,? +& (Hint: Put t = − 7 + 6)
8 +

d) 2 log 1 + √ +& (Hint: = 2. 0√

, where, is the
√ √ √
derivative of ƒ1 + √ „.
253
Integration f ′ ( x)
Hence, put t = 1 + √ . The integrand becomes of the form 2 dx )
f ( x)
0 - *
2) +& (Hint: Put t= x2 + 4)
=
3) a) − 8 S − 8W + &
8
=
- ? 0
b) +& (Hint: Put t 2 = 4x + 7)
+
,
c) . +&
? 8
"#$ 0
4) a) √ 0, 0
+&

(Hint: Put t 2= − ! ⟹ P = √ − ! ; also, = P + ! . Now, as we

[
have t 2 = − ! . Derivating both sides, we get 2P = 2 ⟹ P P =
[ [ [ [
⟹ 0 = ⟹ [0 0
= . Hence,
[
√ 0, 0
becomes P)
[0 0 [
^ =
0 0
b) 2 ` _
− 8
a+& (Hint: Put t 2 = 1 + x)
0
5) a) log 1 + − +&

(Hint: Take log 1 + as (1 + x) log (1 + x). Now, put t = (1 + x),

and then integrate by parts taking the logarithm as the first function.)

b) − S − W +& (Hint: consider x2 as first function)

c) − ,
−2 ,
−3 ,
+&
d) + 2 log +2 − +2 +&
(Hint: put t = (x + 2), and then integrate by parts taking the logarithm as
the first function.)
6) a) log − log 1 − − log 1 + + & [Hint: Convert , =
into

,
]
0 ,_
b) + − ? log +&

(Hint: Simplify the expression with the help of long division

= ( + 1 − 0 ,8 , > = + 1 −
x3 − 2 x 2 − 13x − 12
,_
)
x 2 − 3x − 10
Check Your Progress 3
1) See section 13.5 and answer.
2) Rs 1.4 (Approx.)
3) Profit maximizing output = 9 units; the firm breaks-even at this output
level, that is profit earned will be zero.

254