FlotationDESIGN AND OPERATION OF MECHANICAL FLOTATION MACHINES Michael G. Nelson’, Dariusz Lelinski, and Sami Gronstrand? "University of Utah Mining Engineering Department, 135 South 1460 Fast, Room 313, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA FLSmidth Minerals, 2850 South Decker Lake Drive, Salt Lake City, Utah, U.S.A, sami Grénstrand, Outoter Minerals Processing, P.O. Box 86, F-02200 Espoo, Finland ABSTRACT “Mechsnical flotation cells continue to increase in size. Revent introduction of 300 my cells has required careful analysis using conventional hydrodynamics and computational fluid dynamics (CFD), followed by extensive testing, frst ‘with water and then with slury. This chapter provides current information regarding the sizes and designs of mechanical flotation machines from major supplies, hydrodynamic data, and the installation bases for machines of various sizes tnd types. Also included are recommended operating procedures for lange machines, including mechanical and electrical ‘monitoring eritria, and procedures for machine shutdown and reconditioning. INTRODUCTION Mechanical flotation machines have been designed in a wide variety of configurations. Machines used for most ‘mineral flotation applications may be designated as either mechanical or pneumatie. Pneumatic machines include flotation columns, Jamieson cells, and aches, and are not considered inthis ehapeer. Mechanical machines are of three types 1.” Self-aerating tanks, with the rotor near the top ofthe tank; 2. Exterally-aerated tanks, with the rotar near the cener of the tanks or 3. _Extemally-arated tanks, withthe rotor near the bottom of the tank. Self-aerating machines are manufactured only by FLSmidth Minerals, under the names WEMCO® Smnarcell™ and WEMCO® I + 1°, Exterally-aerated machines are manufactured by FLSmidth Minerals, under the names Dor-Oliver (bottom roter)Agitair (bottom rotor), andl EXCELL (center rotor; by Metso Minerals; and by Outotee OY. Many of these ‘machines have been described previously (Nelson, etal. 2002) This chapter provides curent information on machine design and sizes available, desribes new machines and new features on machines deseribed previously, and provides detailed information on design installation, startup, and operation of mechanical flotation machines ofall makes. AVAILABLE EQUIPMENT Al the information in this section was provided by representatives of the respective manufacturers, or taken from manufacturers’ websites and printed literature. Machine descriptions and benefits are given as provided by each manufacturer, and readers are left to form their own opinions regarding the material presented, The respective ‘manufacturers are presented in alphabetical order, with no implication as to which the authors believe tobe superior. FLSmidth FLSmidth Minerals provides five types of flotation machines, the Agia, the Dore-Oliver®, the WEMCO® +19, the WEMCO* SmariCell™, and the XCELL. Both the WEMCO® machines are selfaerated; the other three are externally scrated. FLSmidth Minerals has delivered more $3,000 flotation cells to operations worldwide, ‘The frst Agitair machine was designed in 1934, and an expanded product line, with three different mechanism ‘designs, was sold by the Galigher Equipment Company for many years (Dreyer 1976). Figure | shows atypical Agitair machine; FISmidth sil offers Agitsir machines, but repos than none have heen sold for many yeas, Figure shows atypical Dor-Oliver® machine. FLSmidh iss the advantages of thes els follows Low power constmption—streamlined pump-action vortex profile rotor and overhung type stator are more efficient than other externally aerated units; + Non-clogging, low maintenance design rotor, ‘+ High ar dispersion capability—high shear rotor-stator combination gives a wider range ofseflow adjustment than competitive systems and results in greater control ofthe flotation process; ‘+ Superior metallurgical performance—intense recirculation in a well-defined mixing zone multiplies the chances of contact between mineral particles and air bubbles, providing for greater mineral recoveries and higher concentrate grades; + Easier restarting mechanism—overhung stator design and vortex rotor profile keeps pumping chennels free of setled solids, providing easier restarts after unplanned shutdowns; and + Low reagent costs—airis a natural reagent inthe flotation process, and a wide ar dispersion capability permits ‘tuning the flotation plant tothe optimum configuration. 168169 Figure 1. Large Agitalr Machine Figure 2. FLSmidth Dorr-Oliver machine The WEMCO® 1+1® machine was patented in 1969. FLSmidth literature describes the I+1° as follows: In direct ‘comparisons by major mining companies, Wemco 1+ cells have repeatedly delivered higher recovery and grade with casir star-up, simpler operation, lower reagent consumption, longer mechanism life and less required maintenance. At the heart of edch WEMCO® 1+1® cell isa patented rotar-disperser that delivers intense mixing and aeration. Ambient air is drawn into the cell and uniformly distributed throughout the pulp, providing optimum aiparticle contact. In Targer cells, a false bottom and draft tube channel slurry flo, ensuring high recirculation and eliminating sanding. The ‘combination of efficient aeration and optimum solids suspension give WEMCO® 1-1 cells the highest species recovery ‘and concentrate grade performance available, and reduced reagent consumption. Features inelude: + Seleinduced aeration, Elevated rotor postion, Large design clearances, 13 cell sizes, Reliable, automatic level contol, Durable rotor-disperser materials, Rugged mechanism assembly, Reversible operation, and Flexible, modula tank and box design. ‘The WEMCO® SmartCeII™, shown in Figure 3, was developed in 1995, by installing a redesigned 1+1® mechanism inacylindrical rank, FLSmidth iteraure describes the Smarcell™ as follows: The WEMCO® SmariCell™ flotation series retains the rugged WEMCO® 1+1° aeration mechanism that has been proven in thousands of installations worldwide, Its massive cast-iron bearing housing maintains accurate shaft alignment under all loads and moments, ensuring long service life. Induced air low provides sufficient aeration, mechanical simplicity and capital economy. Like the 1+ 1° the Sartell ean pe serviced online and restarted easly under Tull load, Features include: + Cylindrical ani, Froth erowders, Automatic air contro, Ultasonie pulp evel easing, Froth low measurement, and Sizes from 3 0 300 m' Jenefits inelude ‘Cylindrical tank design, which improves mixing efficiency and air dispersion, provides better surface stability, less pulp turbulence, lower capital costs, and reduced power consumption; Hybrid draft tube and beveled tank bottom, which improve hydrodynamic mixing and coarse particle recovery. and increase solids suspension; and ‘+ Racial launders and mixing baffles, which increase Froth mobility, decrease froth residence time, increase recovery, and enhance frth stability10 Figure 3. WEMCO® SmartCell™ machine The XCELL was introduced in 2003 by FFE Minerals USA, a subsidiary of FLSmigth. When FLSmigthseguied Dor-Olver EIMCO in 2007, the NCELL became par of te FLSnidth fltation product ine. Figure 4 shows an XCELL machine “According o FLSmidth iterate, the XCEL was designed to improved metallurgical perfomance by improving fine and coarse particle Hlotation and enhancing froth recover The symmetrical, cylindrical tank design improves bod hydrodynamics and froth recovery, resulting i improved metallurgical performance. The XCELL machine enhances the performance ofthe cylindrical tank by placing the oncenzateltndrs on the tank exterior The XCEL machine is unique in tht extemal launder are ofered on all cell Sizes from te smallest the largest 1.51 350m") The XCELL rotor hs eight bldes and is designed for radia low. The ori constructed with amid tel core and a long-wearing, ast urethane cover. Air injetion pors ae located under the rotor top plate between each par of blades ‘The rotor isin the center ofthe ank o separate the ener input region around the rotor from the fot surface allowing fora quiescent foth-pup interface but maintaining a short transport path from the contract region inthe stator volume ta the frath. This allows the XCELL wo operate wih shallow Fos, if equred, and reduces bubble-paricl disengagement by Keeping the ransprt path clatvely shor. Centering te rotor inthe tank also provides the opportunity to cntal the air ate. The ability to contol th rate of ir input enhances the operator's ability to contol and optimize metallurgical performance. The unique postion of the XCELL rotor provides & savings of up to 35% in overall power usage, eelstive to other, similarlysized flotation machines, In spite ofthe fact thatthe XCELL. machines use less power than other machines, measurement have indicated that shy pumping ates are similar to oth sland extemall-acated dsian, ‘poviing similar contact frequency numbers a signifies lower energy consumption or higher contact fequency numbers at eaual power eoasum ton Latest developments. FLSmidth Minerals and Rio Tinta recently commissioned the two SuperCels®, the world largest production ells. One is 300 the other 330-350 The cells are installed inthe bulk copper! molybdenum flotation ezeuit at Rio iato's Kennecott Copper The SuperCells® use a universal tank that can be fied wih any’ ofthe thre types of mechanisms manusctured by FLSmigth Minerals. The instalation js shown in Figure 5 Prior (o installation, a rigorous development program was complete, which integrated dimensionless scale-up parameters with state-of the-art CFD models ofthe machines. This rationalization process allowed FLSmidth 0 utilize Sperational information from over 100 installed 287-m’ SmarCell™, along withthe fundamental models developed forthe design ofthe WEMCO® SuperCell. Similar investigations were included in the design phase forthe use ofthe LXCELL ond Dore Olver Aottion mechanisms inthe SuperCell”. Examples ofthe CFD smodel fall three machines are presented in Figure 6. This fundamental understanding of equipment design allowed the construction and installation of the machines be fastracked, and complete in T10 days from iat ishFigure 4. FLSmidth XCELL machine Figure 5. WEMCO* SuperCell® Figure 6, CFD models of the XCELL, Dort-Oliver*, and WEMCO® mechanismsim Current machines offered. Machines offered by FLSmidth are shown in Tables Fior 1-4, Dore Oliver® machines are offered in three configurations: rectangular (R), rectangular with U-shaped bottom (U), and cylindrical (RT) ‘Table 1. Dorr-Oliver® machines Cylindrical Tanks Rectangular and U-bottom Tanks Efective Cell Eifective Cell Model Volume, | Motor, ki” Model Volume, m? Motor, [oT RT (piled 18 75. 10-1 0.02 06 OS RT, 3 75__ pour 024 1 [bo-toRr 10 149 po2sR 0.60 22, bo-20Rr 20 28 10-50 12 37 jpo-30 Rr 30 373 po-100R 24 36 boa Rr 0 a8 10-30 UT, 72 12 [po-50 er 30 36___JP0-600UT 143 224 DO-70 RT 70. 746 10-1000 UT EN ye] eee [po-60 RT 0 746 __[o0-1380UT 322, 373 [p0-100 Rr 100) tg po-assour 369) 448 po-30 Rr 30) 192 po-ssoUT 369 448 10-160 RT 160) 192 10-200 RT 200 1865 posorr 330 “410 ‘Table 2. WEMCO® 141" machines Effective Cell] Tank lank Width] Typical Lip ] Typical Froth | Maximum Air Modet__| Volume, | Lengttm | —m | Length,m | Area,nr? | Flow, m/min |Motor, A] 18 0.028 031 025 061 037 28 (0.085 0.46 [038 091 075 36 031 091 048 183 224 4 059 ta | 062, 224) 3 36 116 12 [on 284 3.60 6 7, a EE 7.6 66D 2.83 132__[ 0.80 3.05 12 4 425 160 12 320 12 120) 350 29 137 457 187, ae Ta16 274 196 5.49) 920) 680 DA 164 28.32 3m) 2.18 6.05 3 105, 48 190 248 338_|_ 251 716 156 159 746 235 8496 4i7_[_291 833 208 246 1692 FLSmidth Minerals Mixed Rows. Inthe past, mineral producers hadto choose between sel-xersted and externally- aerated mechanical flotation systems. FL Smid h introduced a mixed flotation circuit that uses WEMCO" se. aerated «and Don-Oliver® exterally-aerated machines. Combining flotation cells with markedly different processing actions ito single process bank increases recovery rates. The WEMCO® design is better for coarse particle recovery: the Dore Oliver* cel is better for recovering fines and inereasing concentrate grade. Large eels use a “Universal Tank" that can accommodate either mechanism Both cells Feature beveled bottoms, and a common radial launder design, Cell-to-cell connectivity is enhanced by patented, hinged dart valves, eliminating the need fora junction box and saving floor space. FLSmidth provides mixed rows using the combination of WEMCO", Dorr-Oliver, and XCELL machines tha i best suited forthe application in question. Figure 7 shows atypical mixed- row installation,‘Table 3. WEMCO* estoy ayn Or rtCell™ machines RATION OF MECHANICAL FLOTATION MACHINES ‘Table 4. XCELL Machines 173 ‘Model fettective Cell! Installed fEttexive Cet Tank Diameter] Tank] WeirLip | Launder ‘Volume,’ | Power, ki Volumen? my Height, m | Height,m | With, m TsGitey | 1S 5 1S @piley [136 125 13 [015 3 5 30 3 Ln, 183 158 | 020 10 10 3 5 203, 201 rst_[_020 20 20 30 10 2.62 247 217] 020 30 30 75 20 330 2.95 275 | 020 oO 0 0 30 3.80 338 3.13 | 020 30 30 00 0 450 400 385] 025 o o 150) 70 496 447 422 | 025 a 7 150) 100) 355 488 458__|_030 100) 100) 150) 130) 6.05 330 | 500 | 030 130) 130) 185) 160) 633 600 | 570 | 030 160 160 185 350 B64 636 607_| 0350 200 200 250 250 250 300 300 373 350 350 33) Figure 7. Row of Dorr-Oliver® cells left) and mixed row of Dors-Oliver® and WEMCO® SmartCells™ (right) Metso Minerals ‘Metso Minerals offers two types of machines. The RCS machine, shown in Figure 8, was developed in the mid- 19905, The primary design goal was to create the (wo classic 2ones within a flotation cell, an sctive lawer zone to ensure effective particle suspension and transportation and a relatively quiescent upper zone o minimize bubble-particle Separation. A circular cell design was adopted as being the most suitable tank shape to provide symmetrical hydraulic flow pattems with minimum upper-zone turbulence. ‘The DR machine, shown in Figure 9, is based on the DR design developed by the former Denver Equipment Company in 1968 (Darnan, 1968). It features rectangular tanks, connected in the open, “hog-trough” configuration.174 Fuoration Figure 8. Metso Minerals RCS™ machine Figure 9, Metso Minerals DR machine Features ofthe RCS™ machine include: ‘Maxinum partcle-bubble contact within the mechanism and the flotarion tank, Effective solids suspension during operation and re-suspension after shutdown, Effective air dispersion and distribution throughout the complete cell volume, Flotation air provided by a separate air blower, Aeration rate mannally or automatically controlled at each mechanism, ‘V-belt drive standard up to 70m! cell volume, and Gearbox drive with extended output shaft bearings and drywell construction for cell volumes over 70 [Benefits of the RCS™ machines include: ‘+ Mechanism minimize local high velocity zones within the impeller and diffuser to extend wear life Impellers and diffusers supplied in high abrasion resistant elastomers or molded polyurethane, + Impeller profile designed to minimize absorbed power, + The DV mechanism filly suspended from the cell superstructure, and can be removed as a complete anit for routine maintenance, and ‘Wear parts are replaceable within the flotation machine without removal ofthe mechanism, Features ofthe DR machines include: + Incorporates vertical circulation of pulp by combining a “recirculation well” witha top-feed impeller; provides positive vertical circulation of pulp; + Cell-to-cell «ype machines minimize sanding, a the pulp is 100% mixed in every cell as it pases through the ‘ed pipe and impeller, and + DR principle of vertical recirculation of pulp minimizes stratification and sanding, [Benefits ofthe DR machines include + Increases effective aeration through supercharging, ‘+ Maintains solids in suspension by vertical recirculation of pulp, + Impeller ejects pulp-air mixture over entire bottom of cell, lifts and suspends solids, and +,__Draws large volumes of pulp trom upper zone to break up any sanding at the bottom of the cell Current machines offered. Tables 5 and 6 show available models of the RCS™ and DR machines, respectively. Outotee Oy} All Outote flotation cells are externally aerated, from the smallest OK-0.5-R tothe largest TankCell-300. Outotec believes its important to maintain the maximum flexibility in tes of manipulating the gas ow rate and number of bubbles. The first Outotec flotation cells were the U-shaped OK-16 and OK-38, introduced in the 1970s and 80s. The cylindrical cell, Quotes TankCell” was intzoduce in the 1990's, and is now sold in sizes up to 300 All Outotec cells are designed using hydrodynamic analysis and modeling with computational fuid dynamics (CED). The belance between high intensity micro-tubulence and macro scale laminar Row velocities must be found to suit the partile sizes being floated. ‘The bottom part ofthe cells considered the contact zone, and is designed for suspending the solids and contacting the air bubbles with the particles by its turbulent conditions. Airis fe tothe rotor through a hollow shaft. The Aotaton air is uniformly dispersed into the slurry through the slots of the rotor. Particles are collected by air bubbles forming ageregates in the contact zone, and particle-bubbles aggregates rise by buoyancy towards the froth zone. The laminar flow field inthe quiescent zone is dedicated for selectivity; it allows separation of valuable particles from unwanted particles, Particle-bubble aggregates form a froth phase, which acts as a cleaning zone, which further rejects unwanted solids and water, upgrading the froth, The frath flows aver the concentrate lip ino the concentrate clieeton launder. “Hydrophilic solid particles are carved by the Maw fields inthe eell out ofthe cell through the valves atthe bottom of the cel tank. Figure 9 shows the conceptual operation ofthe Outotee TankCell?Dest Table 5. Current offerings of Metso Minerals RCS™ machines Axp OPFRATION OF MECHANICAL FLOTATION MAcHiNes 175 ig Eifective Cell] Motor, AIV (per eel ‘Air Flow, Al Pressure, Mode! Volume, m? | slurry @ 1.35 gem’) mio KPa RCSS 5 5 3 7 RCS 10 10 2 5 2 RESIS 5 30 z 25 RES20 20 37 5 7 RCS 30 30 4 10 3 RCSA fm 3 12 4 RES 50 30 75 15 38 RES 70 70 0 18 2 RS 100 10 110) 2 a RCS 130 0 132 27 3 RES 160 160 160) 30 3 RES 200 200 200 35 38 Table 6. Current offerings of Metso Minerals DR machines Effective Cell | Slury flow, [ Motor, k# (per cell; | AirFlow, | Air Pressure, | Maximum cells Medel_| Volume, mie | shuny @ 1.35 een) | miinin | kPa per section lor ts 034 35 i 0.67 7 15 [pR ise O71 35 30. 133 8 2 [R24 14 110) 30. 25 10 9 [pR 100 28 215 7S 38, 10 7 [pr 180 51 on Has 40 TH 6 [pR300 85 580 18 77, 1s 3 [oR 500, 142 760) 25.30 113 8 4 [pr 1300 25 1,780 3575 198 23 2 Figure 9, Outotec TankCel®, conceptual operation eben nse176 Figure 10, Conventional OK mechanisms: FrecFlow (lft); MultiMix (right) Conventional Mechanisms. Each mechanism is designed to maintain solids suspension, disperse the bulk gas flow fiom the shaft into small bubbles, and provide the acceleration required forthe partcle-bubble alachments to altach to the bubbles. These mechanisms are deseribed in detail in Nelson, etal (2002). nthe conventional mechanisms the rotor is mounted on the lower shu by a bolted Range joint. The ewo conventional mechanisms, shown in Figure 10, were developed for different duties. Generally, for fine and midding particles (< 100 microns) a MultiMix design is recommended. For coarser particles, ‘a FreeFlow design is mare suitable. Both the rotor ad the stator aze lined with thick elastomer (Iypcally polyurethane of ‘natural rubber) and the rotar is statically balanced for use. Anew mechanism design is now available, but vast majority installed Outote cells use one ofthe conventional mechanisms. The FloatForee Mechanism. It is known that ingested air deteriorates the performance of pump impellers. Air ‘occupies the space that should be filled with slurry, and in the extreme case of excess air addition, pumping can stop completely. Inthe FloalForve® mechanism, shown in Figure 11, the ai is introduced toa dedicated area ofthe impeller The core of the rotor is used only for slurry purnping, with minimal disturbance by the ar. Thus the mixing capacity remains high even when a high ar eed rat i used. Ar feed through Individual stator the shaft blades Wide, non-clogging pumping channels nyu ait ‘Unestiicted in-low of dispersion slots slury Figure 11, Outotee FloatForce® mechanism Figure 12 shows a comparison ofthe power draws ofthe conventional OK and the FloatForce® mechanisms, Even at high aeration rates, the FloatForce® mechanism maintains a higher power drav, indicating that itis stil pumping slury The FloatForce® mechanism was designed to provide improved metallurgical performance, Ialso provides decreased \wear. Because impact velocity affects the component wear exponentially, peripheral tip velocity ofthe FloatForee® rotor is kept as low as possible, while lll maintaining adequate turbulence to disperse ar into small bubbles. The FloatForce® ‘mechanism has wide channels far purping and air dispersion o eliminate clogging of the impeller, Stator blades up to a certain size are individually bolted and light enough for one person to handle without a lifting ‘whieh simplifies change-out. For larger sizes, blade sets are provided for one-quarter ofthe stator. This makes replacement of damaged blades quicker un less expensive than forthe conventional mechanisms, where all statars were changed one-half at atime. Size, spe, an lining thickness of the stator blades have been optimized using CFD provide maximum wear life as shown in Figure 13,SIGN AND OPFRATION OF MECHANICAL FLOTATION MACHINES 17 Conventional OK | —FloatForce” ‘Motor Power Draw [%of Installed Motor Power of the Conventional OK -Mech} 00 02 o4 08 o8 10 12 14 16 18 20 4g [omis} igure 12. Power draw vs. supert 208 velocity (J), for two mechanism types at constant impeller speed The FloaiForce® mechanism can be retrofitted to existing Outokumpu/Outotee flotation cells, I is available in the same sizes, configurations, and connecting dimensions as all previous mechanisms. For new projects, the FloatForce® mechanism does not use diferent stator designs or bottom clearances, asin the conventional mechanisms. Instead, the adaptation for particle size is done by selecting the size and speed of the mechanism, For finer particles and easier duties, a mechanism one size smaller than nominal run at higher speed is selected. For coarse particles, a larger ‘mechanism at lower speed will provide sulicient mixing the high turbulence that breaks the connection between a large Particle and a bubble. The benefits reported by for the FloalForce!® mechanism are summarized in Table 7 Figure 13. High-wear areas of an Outotee stator: CFD pressure distribution (lef); Actual worn blade Other Design Improvements. Outctee uses CFD modeling to test design modifications that may be needed to address changing operating conditions and constraints, For example, increased energy costs may lead to coarser grinding and require flotation of composite (semi-lberated) coarse panicles. In this ease, design ofthe cell must avoid excess turbulence, but provide decisive, upward carrying flow to shorten the travel time of the bubble-panticleaguregates while avoiding excessive turbulence in the froth phase. Using CFD modeling, Outotec designed the patented FlowBooster, an additional impeller installed above the primary mechanism, As shown in the CFD graphics in Figure 14 the rotation of | the second impeller drives the slurry down towards the primary mechanism, amplifying Now in the turbulent, mixing Portion ofthe cell It also enhances quiescent, laminar eiteulaton inthe top part of the tank, aiding the upward flow of collected material exiting the rotor stator178. FLorsnioy ‘Table 7. Reported benefits of the Outotee FloatRorce” mechanism Key Feature Eifect Potential result “Tereased mixing at the same | nereases bubble particle collisions Higher recovery ‘aeration rate Tnereases the suspension of coarse solids | Higher coarse recover Coarser grind size (if liberation allows) Enables the use oF higher slurry density | Added solids reteation time ‘More throughpue Pumps more slury Less sanding Maintained mixing ata Trereases bubble surface area ux (S)) | Higher recovery higher dispersed aeration rate “Maintained mixing and | Reduces power draw inno air/starup | Redvced energy cows aeration rate situation Reduced capital expense (when selecting lower speed (motor and cables) for new equipment) Lower spare pats cost Individual lightweight stator | Enablos easier and wafer stator Faster maintenance wear parts ‘maintenance Less time spent in confined space Enables testing of various wear materials | Longer wear life, higher availabilty Enables changing ofindividual stator | Reduced wear part costs Dlades incase of impact of foreign objects Figure 14, Flow velocities in an Outotee cell; Conventional mechanism (left); FlowBooster impeller added (right) Scale-up, For externally crated machines, hydrodynamic scale-up is eatively easy because thea eed is provided bby an extemal source, and the mechanisms only function is pumping slurry Ina cylindrical vessel, when the volume is tripled, the surface area only doubles, and the diameter increases by a factor of only 1.3. Flotation residence time is naturally related to volume, and gas flow rate through froth removal is related to surface area, Thus as ces become langer, concentrate flow rate does not increase proportionally to cell volume. Nonetheless, as lower-grade ore bodies are ‘mine, more tonnage has to be teated to yield the same amount of concentrate, and larger cells better suited to this task. Asis discussed below, in standard cell designs, power density decreases a cell volume increases. However, this does nol necessarily imply @ decrease in flotation performance. Current machines offered. Table § shows rectangular (R) and U-shaped (U) machines; Table 9 shows cylindrical ‘machines. The variables used inthe tables are! ‘+ Nominal Volume = minimum active volume or volume available for slury and ait. ‘Air Feed Rate = air feed, when superficial gas velocity J, in te tank is 1.5 cmisee. Installed Mechanism Motor = Nominal electric motor pSwver for typical slurry (specific gravity a mmisec ‘Condition and ‘Newly commissioned | Ok for normal, Maintenance needed | Maintenance suggested response | machine continuous operation [on next shutdown | required immediatelyDrstex ayp OreesTioy of MeciaNtcat. BLoTerton MAcHiNes 183 data for Outotee TankCells” Table 15. Vibrate “TonkCell”-100 “TankCell™-200 TenkCeil-300 ‘Year of Startup 1998) 2002 2007 Tank diameter * height 603m 68 "58m 80= 7.0m Installed power 132 22017 3150 ‘Measured Vibration “43 mmies 2.9 mmisoe 22 mmisec Velocity RMS ‘Measured Vibration 16mm 0.05 mm 0.03 mm Peak Displacement Figure 17. Installation of 3-axis aecelerometer on an Outotee shaft bearing housi Dart Valves Dart valves are the standard device for controlling flow between cells, and thus for regulating the pulp level in @ cell As shown in Figure 18, dart valves use a conical closing meckanism, or plug, that fits against a circular seat. As the conical mechanism is raised by the valve rad, the opening gets larger and flow through the valve increases. This characteristic is not necessarily linear, and should be analyzed in combination withthe characteristics ofthe controller ‘o ensure that flow control can be maintained inthe desired region, Plugs with a specially-designed taper provide a more nearly linear response characteristic. On large eels, two valves are offen used—one with high gain, for lange changes, and one with lower gain, for fine contol Dar valves ean be installed in an external conneetion or discharge box, or inside the cell They ean also be installed jn “dowa-flow’” oF "up-low” configuration. Figure 18 shows an extemal valve in down-flow configuration, nthe lef, and an internal valve installed in up-flow configuration, on the right. The benefits of internal dart valves inelude s reduced ootprnt, lower equipment cost, easier access fo valve plug and seat wear parts, and no air and froth accumulation inthe connection or discharge box. Up-Aow dart valves save hysontatic Bead, and this design is typically preferred. However, ‘in up-flow valves, oversized material tends to accumulate in the space just below the dart valves, and a fishing nozzle ‘ith an amply-sized rock port are recommended the allow removal of potential accumulation. If tere is no restriction con the height of the discharge box, a dowa-flow configuration i preferred, to avoid the problems of solids accumulation, However, the down-flow valves do require some back pressure, or a least zero gage pressure for satisfactory operation For this reason, a breather pipe is required directly after the valve, An excellent and detailed description of dart valve design and operation has bees prepared by Bourke (2006) Tankage The tankage associated with a machine includes feed boxes, the cell itself, connection boxes, and discharge boxes. Feed boxes provide a constant head for feed to a machine or row of machines. feed box is usualy designed to ‘admit feed at the top and pass it out tothe flotation process at the bottom, through an open connection. The box should be designed to accommodate process upsets, and should fit as closely as possible to the machine, minimizing required oor space. Feed boxes typically have a sloping bottom to enhance flow into the flotation cell. The size of the opening that eonneets the feed box tothe cell is based on the minimum linear velocity required to maintain slurry suspension. OF course, high velocities can cause high wear, so connections should be lined with wear-resistant materials. In concentrators ‘with SAG mills inthe grinding circuit, large Auctuations in grinding output ae common, In such installation, large feed boxes can provide valuable surge capacity inthe otation circuits. Flotation cells come in to basic shapes, rectangular and cylindrical. Rectangular eels are usually of the “hog- trough” design, to provide longer retention time, and often have a U-shaped or horseshoe bottom, to conform to184 FLoranios ‘Valve Actustor — Internal Froth Launder : ‘Sumy Flow hydrodynamic low pattems, and to minimize wear and sanding. The largest installed rectangular machines are 85-m3, WEMCO 1 + 1 machines. Rectangular cells are sill supplied for some portions of flotation circuits in smaller-volume plants, Cylindrical machines are symmetrical, and thus provide better hydrodynamics, They eliminate stagnant areas found in the comers of rectangular cells, and the turbulence resulting ftom corner effects. Plant layout using cylindrical cells roquires careful consideration to minimize requited flor space. However, some advantages can be achieved by configuring the layout so that connections can be modified, allowing one cell tobe taken out of service for maintenance ‘without shusting down an entre section. Connection and discharge boxes are practically the same, Both use dart valves to control the flow through the box. ‘Connection boxes, installed betveen adjacent eels, have a lower hydrostatic head, usualy just enough to maintain flow ‘through the bank of eells and accommodate changes in throughput. Discharge boxes have a higher hydrostatic head, to provide the required flow to the tilings circuit. Both boxes should be designed based on the minimum linear velocity requited co maintain slurry suspension. Again high velocities can eanse high wear, so connections should be lined with ‘wearresistant materials ‘There are four designs for connection and discharge boxes used with cylindrical tanks The fist, and conventional Aesiga, is based on the design sill used with rectangular cells. These are rectangular boxes, attached tothe outside of the associated eell or cells, The second design, which saves floor space and provides easier access, isa small, eslindical box, again attached to the outside, The third design places the dart valves inside the cel, with uses a smaller box, below the floor level. The advantages of this design ae reduced floor space, as shown for Outotec machines in Figure 19, lower —___Battom of Flotation Cal Figure 18. Dart valve designs: External down-flow (lft) and Internal up-flow (eight)_DESIGN AND OPERATION OF MEcHaNicat, FLOTATION MACHINES, Feed ~ 5 Be! (Upton Feed = Discharge (Upton) Figure 19. Floor space saved by Internal dart valves (bottom row), as compared with external dart valves (top row) ‘equipment cost, easier access to the valve and seat wear parts, and no accumulation of air and froth in separate box. In the three cases just described, the dart valve moves vertically. Inthe fourth design the dart valve is inside the tank, but the tanks are connected directly on their adjoining walls, The valve plug is connected tothe valve stem by’a linkage that allows the valve stems vertical motion to sving the valve plug in and out of an opening connecting the tanks. This fourth 9.5-10 or even higher i usually utilized to depress most of the Pyrite during rougher flotation GANGUE DEPRESSION ‘Gangue minerals or minerals that provide no economic value to the process, occur in two broad categories. The first category is sulfide minerals with pyrite and pyrzhoite being the most prevalent, although there ae a host of other sulfide minerals that may either add no economic value to the process or result in higher operating cost, Examples are ‘minerals that contain elements such as bismuth, antimony, seleaium or mercury and which will incur penalty costs if their ‘concentration ina copper concentrate is too high. The second major category is non-sufide gangue (NSG), that can be further sub-divided ino silica-bearing minerals such as quartz and s host of silicates (talc, various clays such as sericite and kaolinite) and carbon bearing minerals such as organic carbon and a variety of carbonate minerals. ‘The term “gangue depression” refers tothe intentional management of the flotation system s0 as to impede or climinate the flotation of the gangue during recovery of the value minerals. Gangue depression in the treatment of gold ‘ores is important for several reasons: 1. Tis imperative to depress (reject) both sulfide and NSG gangue during flotation of copper/god ores in order to produce a final copper concentrate that is of suitable grade for marketing or subsequent processing. Typical NSG present in gold ores can include quart, tale, clays, ete, whereas the most prevalent sulfide gangue is typically pyrite, Both aspects of gangue depression are presen a the Phoenix Mine ‘When producing concentrates for subsequent hydrometalurgical treatment the depression of gangue can help reduce the amount of species that might, for example, act as acid consumers or that might impede liquidisoids separation. For example, inthe pressure oxidation of a gold bearing sulfide concentrate a high concentration, of silica (i various forms) can lead to slurries that are dificult to loceulate and thicken, This was of concer. 1000 gpt), Overdosing ofthis reagent will ead to brite froth which can, in tur lead to reduced recoveries. Carboxymethyicellulose (CMC) is an anionie water soluble polymer whieh is # derivative of cellulase. The functional properties of CMC depend on the degre of substitution ofthe cellulose structure and onthe chain Tength ofthe cellulose bsekbone structure. The types of CMC products available to the flotation engineer can range in grade (typically measured as viscosity) and quality. The CMC products are used forthe depression of tale, serpentine, chlorite, pyrophyllte and other minerals with similar fotation properties. Starches offer the most diversity and probably the greatest degree of complexity in thet selection for use in Flotation. They can be derived from a multitude of sures but the ones most commonly used are derived from com, Their applications can vary significantly but in the case of gold ores they are useful forthe depression of organic carbon and some NSG. ‘Synthetic polymeric depressants have come into use in recent years and offer anew and sometimes very useful ‘ool forthe depression of gangue, These products ean be applied to the depression of both NSG and sulfide sgangue depending on ther functional groups. They are typically more restricted in their applications than the bother depressants and for this reason their testing and utilization ean be dificult. ‘The most common depressant for sulfide gangue (pyrite) depression is lime. Ils generally very effective by itself but it is not unusual to use it in eonjunetion with other depressants such as cyanide, sodium sulfve or other reagents ‘A “reagent” that is offen overlooked and litle appreciated is water. High slutry densities are beneficial for ‘minimizing plant equipment sizes but the addition of water (lowering slury densities) can be extremely useful for controling the rejection of gangue. Process development and ultimate plant design needs to account for this ‘option as itis often the most cost effective option. Application of Gangue Depression When selecting the “right” depressant the flotation engineer should have a full understanding of not only the mineralogy but also the dynamies within the particular flotation process. For example the presence of tale or pyrophylite will undoubedly lad to the selection of CMC or posibly a starch to cieve thee depression. Like most depressants the CMC's are susceptible o overdosing, sometines ‘within a very small range of adn rats. The overdosing can, for example, be manifested bythe generation ofa bile rth whieh can severly impact the tation process. Overdosing my als lead tothe depression ofthe sulfide minerals of interest (i, copper sulfides) and too much starch or CMEC has been found 1 depress the flotation of fee gold. Present plant testing at Newnont's Phoenix mine has indicated that change by as Tie as 20 to 30 gpt of CMC can determine whether oF not its desired effet is achieved, and whether ndverne elles are set into motion, “The slection and application ofa given depressant canbe impacted by the system's pH although in most cases the working range is generally raler forgiving eas i point i the use of lime as depressant for pyrite [At the Phoenix mine the use of lime produces pH 115 inthe cleaner cient but pyrite depression can sll be a problem. By comparison, the pyrite depression in suid ors fom Newimonts Yanacocha District can be ‘ery sensitive to lime additions and at pit 10.5 changes of stl s 0.5 pH units can significantly change the Pye’ lation respons. Ie shouldbe noted that the final copper concentrate a the Phoenix mine contain gold “alus that are predominantly ee god, so the use ohigh lime has not ben noted to depress the fee gold. Conditioning time i typically short for depressants such as CMC or som silicate but some conditioning is always beneficial. The depressing ation of some reagents can diminish with time and stage additions are the ‘most effective fr optinum metallurgy. ‘Newmont ha achieved very interesting results using ofthe synthetic polymers and has found that they offer appliclins that are “ouside the box." However, they must be used wih eauton since small changes inthe dosage rates an have very deleterious effects onthe metal recoveries. The locking of values (ypicaly as sulfides) at very fn sizes (<20,m) with gangu is not untypiel for many of Newmont’s ores. In sh eases an aguressve system for depression ofthe gangue wil sulin sgnificast ‘values losses. Asa result thee needs tobe abslance inthe operating system to achieve opximom metallurgy. An examples Nevimoa’s Mil S operation at Carlin where significant portion ofthe pod iscuntained in very fine seni pyrite (<1um) that is ocked with the gangue (siliceous and carbons). It isnot practical o berate194 Fuoration these sulfide values so their recovery as middlings is imperative. Therefore, a very aggressive depression ofthe zangue would lead to value losses. + tisnot unusual fora depressant o have an effect downstream of the flotation process. For example, depend ‘on the depressant, the liqud/solids separation characteristics of the concentrate andor tails can be afected tither in a good or a bad way. An example is flocculation which is typiclly sided by the use of lime but ‘impeded ifthe pH is modified by caustic or soda ash + Inthe selection of any depressant it s important to use @ product from a vendor who will supply a consistent ‘and reliable produet. Trying to resolve problems that are de to changes in reagent quality i not an efficient use ‘of the scare resources often present in a plant operation. +The selection ofthe reagent cannot always be based on costs. A low grade and less expensive reagent can often ‘equite higher dosages and be less cost effective than a mare expensive grade with a higher activity that can be used at lower dosages ‘CASE STUDIES NEWMONT FLOTATION MILLS/PROJECTS Callie Deeps ‘The Callie Deeps deposits located in the Tanammi Desert in the Northern Tenitory approximately 500 km north west ‘of Alice Springs, Australia. The Tanamsi underground mine is the largest underground gold mining operation in Australia ‘The deposit contains coarse gravity-recoverable gold and the so-called “nugger-effect” is very prevalent. Currently, ors atthe mine is boing processcd using gravity separation followed by eyonidation. The project is currently undergoing & review to establish various processing opportunities that may exist by including flotation of the eravity tal The flotation approach utilizes two collectors, PAX und a mercaptobenzothiazoleldthiophosphate blend at netural ‘BH. The objective in flotation isto recover all the naive gold together with any free milling sulfide gold-bearing minerals) that was not recovered during the gravity concentration stage. The resulting flotation concentrate will ultimately be leached with cyanide. KcoM Kalgoosie Consolidated Gold Mines (KCGM) is joint venture between Banick Gold and Newmont Mining Comoraton, located in Kalgootie, Wester Austaia. Gold is primarily associated with pyrite, but dere is also some fine native gold and gold teurides. The gold concentrate produced is dried and roasted prior to cyaniation. The flotation alings ae also laced with eyanie using CIP carbon-in-pulp). Receny, ulafine grinding of the tation concentrate was introduce, followed by agitated cyanide leaching of the ground product, minimizing the quantity of sulfide concentrates tat ned tobe roasted (Marsden and House, 2006). Since most ofthe gold in these ors is associated with pyrite, a funy strong flotation reagent scheme is uilized, Potassium amyl Xanthate is used together with copper sulfate at natural pH (-8.08.) to ensure adequate bulk sulde flotation i achieved. Hope Bay ‘Newmont Mining Corporation recently acquired the Hope Bay project located in Nunavut, Canada. Gold in this ‘orebody is primarily native and associated with sulfide minerals. In most instances the gold-bearing sulfides is considered free-miling (amenable to eyanidation) although there appears to be some reftactory gold-bearing sulfides present in certain areas in the deposit, Since the majority of these gold-bearing sulfides are ffee-millin. the main objective in the tation praces is to recover the majority ofthe naive gold and gold-bearing minerals. The cutent process flowsheet also includes a gravity concentration stage prior to flotation, since the gravity recoverable gold content ofthese ores can be quite significant Rougher flotation is carried out at aatural pH (-&.0) and a combination of PAX and diethyl dithiophosphate/i-see-buty ‘monothiophosphate is used as collectors. The purpose of the xanthate is to ensure that adequate bulk sulfide flotation is achieved, while the diethyl dithiophosphate/d-sce-butyl monothiophosphate blended collector is added to assist native gold recovery, Lone Tree ‘Gold at Lone Tiee occurs primarily in the form of arsenian pytite that reuls in poor flotation cesponse by conventional air tation, The Lone Tee Flotation Mil tocated near Bate Mountain, Nevada, was operated from 1997 thvouah 2007 using the NcTEC™ flotation technology 19 produce a sulfide concentrate For subsequent oxidation and gold extraction, The mil was designed to grind 4085 mud of oe to onthe order of 8% passing 270 mesh and produce 494 {pd of gold bearing slide concentrate which was subsequenlly treated by pressure oxidation on sit, or was shipped fo ater Newnnon autoclave or roasting facilies a Nevada, Remaining eyside soluble gold presen inthe olan ailing vs treated by CIL eyanidtion, The N,TEC™ technology was implemented ut Lone Tree by covering the ftation cells and reycling the captured gases alongwith adional itogen obained fom the enste oxygen plant. Primary reagents ‘ere potassium amyl xanthateand lead nate, and sulfuric acd adiion toa pl of 3.8,Fromm Feorarioy ror Gorn Recovery xt NEWMONT MINING CORPORATION 195 cain The Carin-rend ors havea similar mineralogy tothe Lone Tree ors, wih gold commonly associated with aseian pyrite (pyrite enriched in arsenic), as well satsenopyie, and pyrite. A sulfide Notation eweut was retofitito Calin Mil #5 in 2005, designe o Wea! blends of whole oe big-oxidaion residue, oxide and sulfide ores, Bio-oxidalion was to petal hen ovdzd aan pte, wie gold occuring wth tht ides Was exovere hy aie fotalion with PAX asthe primary collect and using lead nite as an activator. The circuit consists of rougher and ‘leaner dotation ata pH of5.5-6.0 (maintained with sulfuric acid addon). Floation tailings ae subsequently cyanide leached to recover pold associated with the oxidized pyrites. Interchange in the reagent scheme was Deen made £0 include an ausitay collector designated as Cytec blended reagent 6205 ‘One ofthe biggest challenges of Rotation at Carlin is dealing with the varieties of current and fire ore types and mineralogies. In Tate 2008, the bio-xidation ads were shutdown resulting in increased cid consumption and higher mas recovery of sulfides. The ore mineralogy is further complicated by increasing amounts of carbonate minerals (caletedolomite) which impacts the abit ofthe mill operations to contol the plat adequate levels (6.0) when present in high quantities (~15.0 w.2). Additionally, the high carbonatecontaining re types Seem to contain a greater ropetion of the refractory gold-baring sulfides as finely ciseminaed material requiring larger quaslites of Notation oneeniate mass recovery, which impacts (negatively) downstream processing (thickening and firation), Its also ‘Sonsiered Ua the carbonate containing minerals ueneate limes whieh may also nzpatively impact te tation kinetics ‘ofthe gol-bearing sulfide minerals. Research into ways of improving recovery wit these high earbonate ores includes the posible use ofa CMC depressant or a dispersant sich as sodium silicate, which might mitigate the impact of slimes, during Maton. The use ofthe N,TEC™ flotation technology has also shown a benefit of between 6-8% overall gold reeovery depending onthe oe te Boti-Hijau isa clasic porphyry complex wih bomite end chalcopyrite asthe dominant copper minerals and host of the gold mineralization (De Mullet, 2002). Mil operation began in 2001 with a flotation circuit consisting of rougher fouation and thee stages of conventional cleaners producing copper concentrates grading from 26%-339Cu, Rougher Aotation i erred ut at an alkaline pH (9.5) to minimize pyre flotation using a combination of PAX and a Blended collector containing dithiophosphatemereaptobenzothiazole. The Rowsheetis unique in tha tbe process wate i blend of sea water and site run-off wate. Batu Hijau has also implemented controled. otenial sulfation with sodium hnydroslfide wo improve recoveries when teating ors that have oxidized on stockpiles. Annual recoveries of copper and old have ranged trom 80,6%89.2%Cu and 75.2-81.9%Au fom ore grading 047%-0-75% Cu and 032-0.62 gt A Boddington “The Boddington copper-gold deposit is located near Perth in Western Australia and is curently scheduled for plant startup in mid-2009. In this deposit gold oscurs as native gold, gold associated with copper minerals (chalcopyrite, bomite and cubsnite) and free-milling gold-bearing sulfide ores. A gravity concentration stage is implemented peior {o flotation. In flotation the circuit consists of rougher flotation wilizing a dithionocarbamate collector under alkaline conditions with lime (pH ~10) to selectively produce a copper concentrate. Subsequently, copper sulfate is added (activator) together with PAX to produce a scavenger concentrate. The cleaner scavenger tal is leached with eyanide for fiee-milling gold recovery Phoenix ‘The ores treated at the Phoenix Mine, located near Battle: Mountain, Nevada, are primarily Cu/Au skams with relatively low average ore grades (0.15%Cu, 7.5 gt Ag and 0.7 git Au). Phoonix ore types are primarily chaleopyrite dominant sulfides; however, there are significant quantities of chalcocite/covelite in some ores as well a8 axide copper ‘minerals in transition and oxide hosted ares. Gold at Phoenix occurs in association with iron and copper sulfides with significant and variable quantities of gravity recoverable gold. The particle size ofthe gold is also highly variable ranging ‘rom <20um to as coarse as +150um. ‘The Phoenix flowsheet was designed fo accommodate highly variable ore mineralogy and gold associations and includes eravity, flotation and leaching ofthe flotation tailings. The gravity cireuit consisting of Knelson centrifugal gravity concentrators produces a gravity concentrate that is subsequently leached using a high intensity cyanidation CHIC) process. Because of the significant amounts of relatively coarse fee gold, a lash flotation cell was added to oat the Knelson gravity tailing with the concentrate pumped to cleaner Rotation. The flotation circuit consists of rougher location at pH 10.5 with lime followed by regrinding and two-stage cleaning at a pH of 11.5. The flotation reagents are generally selective copper collectors to produce a copper concentrate containing from 15%-25%Cu. The flotation tailings Aare subsequently cyefoned to remove eyanide soluble copper, and treated by cyanidation Flotation periormance is significantly affected by varying gangue mineralogy, most notably pyrrhotite, tale, and sericite. The use of CMC as a gangue depressant for talc and possibly sericite is being evaluated. Varying pyrrhotite content has been noted to adversely affect flotation recovery and frath quality, and the addition of the primary collector {othe SAG mill appears to somewhat mitigate this effect,196 ___Froranion REFERENCES AMTEL Report, 2007, “Gold Deportment in Tailings of the Bio-Oxidation/Flotation/CIL Carlin Plant: Issues & Opportunites." AMTEL Report 07/07 De Mull, TJ, Spenceley, J. and Hickey, P, 2002, “Batu Hijau: From Discovery to Production,” Mining Engineering. Gathje,5C. and Simmons, G.L., 1997, U.S. Patent 5,653,945. Marsden, J0,, House, C.., 2006, “The Chemistry of Gold Extraction,” SME Inc. 651 pp. Miller, .D., Du Plessis, R, Kotlyar,D.G., Zi, X-and Simmons, .L., 2000, “The Low Potential Hydrophobis State of Pyrite in Amyi Xanthate Flotation with Nitrogen,” SME Preprin’ 00-113, Simmons, G.L and Gathj, J.C., 1998, U.S, Patent 5,837,210, ‘Woodcocis J.T, Sparrow, G.I. and Brickard, WJ, 2007, “Flotation of Precious Metals and Their Minerals,” Frosh Flotation: 4 Centoy of innovation, SME tne. 891 pp.