International Journal of Linguistics

ISSN 1948-5425
2022, Vol. 14, No. 6

The Role of Corpus Linguistics in Grammar Instruction:

A Review of Literature
Basim Alamri
English Language Institute, King Abdulaziz University
Saudi Arabia
E-mail: [email protected]

Received: November 28, 2022 Accepted: December 15, 2022 Published: December 25, 2022
doi:10.5296/ijl.v14i6.20500 URL: https://doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v14i6.20500

Abstract
The development of grammar instruction and research has begun in the past two decades
(Conrad, 2000). Teaching English grammar has been delivered via a traditional method. The
present study provides a literature review of how grammar instruction has been influenced by
corpus linguistic (CL). The review points out the benefits of implementing corpus-based
approach in grammar instruction and some difficulties encountered both teachers and
students when applying CL tools. The perceptions of students and teachers towards using CL
in grammar instruction was also highlighted. The results of the review showed that
corpus-based approach enhanced students grammar knowledge, fostered learning autonomy,
and improved students scores in grammar tasks. The review also reported some challenges,
such as technical difficulties and glitches, issues in designing corpus-based materials and
conducting corpus-centered activities, and increased teachers workload. Overall, the
participants in the reviewed studies reported positive perceptions towards using corpus-based
approach in grammar instruction. Implementing this approach helps teachers design suitable
materials and students gain grammar knowledge. It is suggested that further studies are
needed to investigate the effectiveness of corpus-based approach in specific grammatical
aspects.
Keywords: Corpus linguistics, Corpora, Data-driven learning, Grammar instruction, Review
of literature
1. Introduction
Teaching grammar in academic writing for English as Second or Foreign Language (ES/FL)
students is considered a challenging task for English language teachers. Students encounter
several problems when they write academic essays or research articles. Such problems

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include the correct usages of tenses or the appropriateness of vocabulary/collocations choices.

Students could attempt to solve these problems throughout consulting traditional grammar
textbooks and dictionaries, or they could consult their teachers. The appropriateness of
answers to grammar questions would vary depending on teachers‟ knowledge which is mostly
based on traditional textbooks that they studied. Also, consulting the Internet is a good
strategy, but it could cause other problems unless the consulted website has an authentic
content. In recent years, there has been a growing interest to implement corpus linguistics
(CL) in classrooms.
Corpus linguistics is defined as “the study of language based on examples of “real life”
language use” (McEnery & Wilson, 1996). O‟Keefe et al. (2007) defined corpus as “a
collection of texts written or spoken, which is stored on a computer and can be analyzed
qualitatively or quantitatively using analytical software” (p.1). Corpus linguistics tools have
been developed and widely used to analyzing students writing and also different types of
texts. These tools can be divided into two types: desktop (offline) and web-based (online)
tools. AntConc (Anthony, 2019), WordSmith (Scott, 2013), and #LancsBox (Brezina et al.,
2015) are common desktop tools, whereas Wmatrix (Rayson, 2008) and SketchEngine
(Kilgarriff et al., 2014) are web-based online tools. These advanced tools have provided four
characteristics for corpus-based analyses of language:
 It is empirical, analyzing the actual patterns of use in natural texts.
 It utilizes a large and principled collection of natural texts, known as a „corpus‟, as the
basis for analysis.
 It makes extensive use of computers for analysis, using both automatic and interactive
techniques.
 It depends on both quantitative and qualitative analytical techniques (Biber et al.,
1998, p. 4).
Grammar has been taught traditionally in several EFL and ESL classrooms. Teachers explain
grammar rules (e.g., tenses) to students asking them to memorize these rules and structures.
Teachers then provide various activities such as multiple choice questions. In such situation,
students could perform better in the midterm or final exam, but it may not reflect to what
extent students recognize the inner meaning or how to apply these grammar rules in written
or oral communication (Xia, 2019). The lack of innovating new grammar teaching methods
could be related to teachers preparation. Gordon (2005), for instance, pointed out that many
teachers “avoid[ed] the need for grammatical content knowledge by approaching language
teaching from a predominantly sociological, rather than linguistic perspective” (p. 50). There
has been a call to include corpus linguistics into grammar teaching which could enhance
students and teachers involvement in teaching grammar (Lin & Lee, 2015; Özer & Özbay,
2022; Park et al., 2019).
Corpus linguistics plays significant roles in the reform of grammar instruction (Xia, 2019). A
corpus-based approach to grammar instruction could provide benefits for teachers and
students (Pham, 2020). Corpora provide real authentic examples from frequent academic

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English usage which allow teachers to create various activities based on students‟ needs
(Folse, 2016). Recent research studies have encouraged teachers and students to employ
corpora and concordance tools in learning process (Park et al., 2019). These studies reported
that students‟ language proficiency levels have increased after applying corpora inside and
outside the classroom. According to Conrad (2000), corpus linguistics studies would
revolutionize the teaching of English grammar through three major changes in 21st century:
“1) Monolithic descriptions of English grammar will be replaced by register-specific
descriptions; 2) The teaching of grammar will become more integrated with the teaching of
vocabulary; 3) Emphasis will shift from structural accuracy to the appropriate conditions of
use for alternative grammatical constructions” (p. 549).
Despite the fact that corpora resource tools need specific training sessions to use them
effectively, these tools play important roles in improving students‟ academic writing skills.
This improvement can be seen throughout different aspects, such as vocabulary and
collocations (Biber, 2009; Gaskell & Cobb, 2004; Gilmore, 2009) and grammar (Luo & Liao,
2015; Tseng & Liou, 2006). However, studies that investigated teaching English grammar by
using corpora are relatively scarce. Therefore, the present literature review study addresses
the following research questions:
1. How is corpus linguistics implemented in English grammar instruction?
2. How do teachers and students perceive this implementation to enhance academic
writing skills?
2. Method
The present study involved a comprehensive and systematic review of literature to investigate
the role of corpus linguistics in teaching English grammar. The study followed several
procedures. First, a list of keywords were identified including, corpus linguistics, corpora,
grammar teaching/instruction, concordance/concordancer/ concordancing, Data-driven
learning (DDL). These keywords then were searched for only peer-reviewed articles in
different database, including Google Scholar, Scopus, and EBSCO. Given the fact that the
topic of the present study is rather narrow, I included peer-review articles published from
2000 to 2022. The identified articles then were analyzed and reported in three themes: the
benefits and obstacles of implementing corpus linguistics tools in grammar instruction and
teachers and students‟ attitudes towards using corpora in developing academic writing and
grammar instruction.
3. Results and Discussion
To answer the first research question, the following sections illustrate the benefits and
hinderance of applying corpora in grammar instruction. Then the second question reports on
teachers and students perceptions towards corpus linguistics and grammar instruction.
3.1 Benefits of Using Corpora in Grammar Instruction
The role of corpora in improving grammatical knowledge is a debatable issue since the
results of different research studies have revealed a contradiction in approving the corpora

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effects. Several research studies have investigated implementing corpora resources to develop
academic writing skills in terms of grammar (Gaskell & Cobb, 2004; Tseng & Liou, 2006).
However, certain studies focused mainly on the students‟ attitudes towards using corpora to
teach grammar. Other researchers claim that corpora did not affect grammatical knowledge
development (Lee et al., 2009).
Starting from the opposed belief, Yoon and Hirvela (2004) examined students‟ perceptions
and uses of corpora and also the corpora strengths and weaknesses. Interestingly, even though
students reported that corpora benefited them in enriching their vocabulary knowledge and
usage, the mean of grammatical knowledge was low. The researchers could not explain the
reasons behind this result. They, the researchers, placed the blame on students‟ perceptions
since they had taught grammar for long time by using grammar teaching methods.
Furthermore, Vannestal and Lindquist (2007) examined students‟ attitudes towards corpus
when they learn English grammar through corpus tools. Two groups, controlled and
experimental, were taught grammatical content, for example, subject-verb agreement, article
usage and tense choices. The controlled group used traditional grammar textbooks and
regular exercises, whereas the experimental group used corpora activities such as online
activities after the students had taken a training course in how to deal with a corpus activity.
The results showed that students have positive attitudes towards corpora, and they reported
that corpora were more beneficial than regular textbook. Unfortunately, the study did not
investigate the improvement of academic writing in terms of grammar knowledge. To
investigate the reasons behind these findings, Lee et al. (2009) placed the blame of the failure
of corpus in developing grammatical knowledge on three elements “training, different notions
on learning grammar, and lack of knowledge on consultation skills” (p. 250).
On the other hand, several research studies have revealed the importance of corpora in
improving grammatical knowledge and usages (Elsherbini & Ali, 2017; Gaskell & Cobb,
2004; Kilichevna, 2022; Lin & Lee, 2015; Pham, 2020; Rodrí guez-Fuentes & Swatek, 2022;
Tseng & Liou, 2006). Tseng and Liou (2006) carried out a study to investigate the effect of
applying corpora in understanding the accuracy of conjunction in students‟ writing. Nineteen
EFL students were trained and taught to use online corpora exercises for one month. The
study found out that students showed development in the accuracy of using conjunctions, and
they understood how to use connectors correctly. Also, students‟ writing quality noticeably
improved. Further, students had positive attitudes towards using the online corpora activity.
An interesting study carried out by Gaskell and Cobb (2004) revealed unexpected findings.
Students were asked to use concordancer program to reduce their grammatical errors after
being given feedback on their writing. The results showed that students‟ ability to use and
understand different grammar points was improved, and the concordancer helped them
overcome the problem in forming sentences. When the researchers, however, attempted to
find out the errors which were affected by using concordancer in the given pre-test, they
found that grammatical errors did not decrease at all in the post-test.
In Lin and Lee‟s (2015) study, early-career teachers compiled their own data-driven learning
materials to teach English grammar to EFL college students. The results revealed that DDL

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was an innovative approach to teach English grammar. Likewise, the effectiveness of

DDL-based grammar instruction was observed in Özer and Özbay‟s investigation (2022) in
Turki. The authors conducted a 2 seven-week experimental study involving grammar
instruction strengthened by DDL techniques, conducting pre-test and post-test and a focus
group interview with the participants. A total of 19 grammar lessons were designed covering
different topics in the curriculum. The analysis revealed an improvement in students
achievement in the pre-and-post tests and grammar activities. The study also showed that
using DDL in grammar instruction could foster teachers and learners autonomy.
In Egypt, Elsherbini and Ali (2017) investigated students perceptions towards using
corpus-based activities and their effectiveness in developing student grammar knowledge.
The study involved 104 freshmen students studying business English. By implementing a
mixed-methods design, the authors collected different data, including a vocabulary test, a
grammar test, a questionnaire, and semi-structured interviews. The study results showed that
the experimental group who had corpus-based activities performed better than those who
were taught grammar and vocabulary in a traditional way. Also, the participants reported
positive perceptions towards using corpus linguistics in grammar and vocabulary classes.
In a recent study, Pham (2020) carried out an empirical study to investigate the effectiveness
of corpus-based approach to grammar instruction in IELTS writing classrooms. The author
implemented a concordance software program called AntConc (Anthony, 2019) to teach
English grammar in IELTS writing classes. Four steps were followed to apply the experiment
as follows: Step 1: Collect IELTS Essays Written by IELTS Experts, Step 2: Use AntConc to
Examine Passive Constructions, Step 3: Train Students to Use AntConc, Step 4: Provide
Students with Hands-on Experience with AntConc. The results showed that corpus linguistics
enhanced teachers‟ knowledge of what and how syntactic structure should be taught in IELTS
writing classrooms. The study also indicated the benefit of this approach in promoting
students autonomy and critical thinking skills. In a classroom-based study conducted in
Colombia, Rodrí guez-Fuentes and Swatek (2022) investigated the effectiveness of individual
study (i.e., homework) by implementing corpus informed (CI) and non-corpus informed (NCI)
grammar textbooks on the learning of one grammatical construction (post-predicate –ing and
infinitive clauses controlled by verbs) in a group of 89 EFL learners. The participants were
grouped into CI and NCI groups. The results from pretest, post-test, and delayed test revealed
that both groups gained significant knowledge regarding the grammar construction. However,
the CI group had a larger effect than the NCI group, “providing evidence for the potential
advantage of CI material use for homework as a supplement for instruction (p. 1).
Similarly, Kilichevna (2022) carried out an experimental study in Uzbekistan to explore the
impact of corpus-based grammar activities on enhancing students‟ grammatical knowledge.
The study involved an experimental group taught by corpus-based activities and task and a
control group which was taught by traditional way. The data collection included tasks,
questionnaires, and interviews. The author reported that the corpus-based grammar tasks were
more effective than traditional grammar tasks. Students reported that they would use corpus
sites to explore more about different usage of common grammar rules.

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Overall, the call of Conrad (2000) has dramatically affected teaching grammar reform in both
EFL and ESL contexts. Since then, there has been an increased number of studies
investigating corpus-based grammar approach (Kilichevna, 2022; Park et al., 2019; Pham,
2020; Rodrí guez-Fuentes & Swatek, 2022). From the presented research studies, it can be
clearly seen that corpus resources have great impact on improving students‟ grammatical
knowledge. Furthermore, corpus consultation reduces grammatical errors so that academic
writing skills will differently improve. In addition, by consulting concordancer programs,
students can become self-dependent in correcting their mistakes without the need for the
teachers‟ help to correct every mistake.
In addition, by presenting the previous benefits of using corpora tools, there are several
recommendations that have to be stated in order to effectively apply these tools to improve
academic writing skills. First, teachers and students should take advantage of all these
benefits in order to develop their writing skills. Moreover, teachers and students should take
the initiative step to integrate corpora resource tools in their teaching academic writing
lessons to develop their writing accuracy. Teachers also should not wait corpus linguistic
researchers to conduct studies on their students. Second, many research studies are needed to
investigate the influence of corpus linguistic in improving academic writing skills in term of
accuracy, collocations and writing styles. Since teaching English language through
collocations is a contemporary topic, researchers in the field of corpus linguistics have to
place great effort in conducting studies related to the use of collocations in writing. Third, the
universities‟ stakeholders have to encourage their faculty members to increase the awareness
of corpora and concordance programs. This can be done through providing these programs
for free at the universities. Moreover, the university administrators should provide training
courses for faculty, staff and students in order to tackle the problems that might be arise
during the learning process.
3.2 Hindrance of Implementing Corpora in Grammar Instruction
The majority of research studies shared similar challenges when applying DDL in grammar
instruction. For instance, Lin and Lee (2015) reported some challenges including technical
difficulties and glitches, issues in designing DDL materials and conducting DDL-centered
activities, and increased teachers workload. In addition, it has been widely argued by corpus
linguistic researchers that applying corpora tools inside and outside the classroom needs not
only a considerable experience in using computer but also training sessions and courses in
how to use corpora tools (e.g., concordancers) to look for a lexical or grammatical usages of
certain words or even certain sentences. This claim could be partially correct as the learners
need training courses for using concordancers software especially novice users. However,
since the era now is the technological revolution, the majority of today‟s students have the
capability to use computer effectively. Therefore, the first part of the problem is probably
solved.
As for the other part which is students‟ abilities in using concordancer program, it can be
resolved by providing training courses in how to deal with these programs. Based on my
experience, it only could take few hours for students to become familiar with some

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easy-to-use and basic corpora programs and even novice computer users can handle these
programs easily without any difficulties. A good example of the training course was done by
Lee et al. (2009). In their study, the training course was held for in-service teachers for just
two hours. The teachers had given clear instructions and explanations with various examples
in how to use online programs such as Concord Writer 2 (CW2) – a type of concordancer – in
order to improve their writing skills. Conroy (2010) also spent about one to four hours in his
study to train the participants in how to use concordancers (i.e., Google search techniques) in
their writing and the use of online dictionaries. Not far from these time periods, Gilmore
(2009) found that after only a 90-minutes introductory session, students appeared to be able
to use corpus resource tools effectively to improve the naturalness of their writing, and the
vast majority of the students found the training course useful. So that, as the previous
research showed, training students how to use corpora and concordancers does not take much
time, and also students do not have to spend much time to master using the corpora resources.
3.3 Teachers and Students’ Perceptions Towards Corpora
As a bridge to find out the influence of corpora in developing academic writing, students and
teachers‟ attitudes towards using corpora should be thoroughly explored. Several research
studies have found that students and teachers have positive attitudes towards corpora (Conroy,
2010; Sun, 2007; Vannestål & Lindquist, 2007; Yoon & Hirvela, 2004). The teachers and
students pointed out that corpora have helped them in improving their academic writing
especially in terms of certain aspects such as vocabulary, collocations and grammar.
Vannestal and Lindquist (2007) examined 23 ESL students from intermediate and advanced
levels about their behaviors towards corpora in their writing. The results revealed that
students believed that some corpora techniques helped them improve their writing abilities. In
Yoon and Hirvela‟s (2004) study, they found that students had positive feelings towards
corpus-based language learning techniques. The survey presented that these techniques
improved students‟ writing abilities in two ways; the usage of vocabulary and phrases and
learning the meaning of words. Sun‟s (2007) study emphasized the positive attitudes towards
corpus along with another benefit by using web-based concordance. It helped students in
“acquiring knowledge of the actual usage of individual words as well as phrases, and in
reading comprehension” (Yoon & Hirvela, 2004, p. 262).
4. Conclusions and Suggestions for Further Studies
The present literature review study has investigated the implementation of corpus linguistics
in grammar instruction. The review indicated that corpus linguistics play significant roles in
enhancing students‟ grammar knowledge which was reflected in their academic writing. Also,
both teachers and students were able to develop their skills in how to use corpus linguistics
tools to understand some grammar aspects. However, researchers are encourage to place
effort in tackling issues that encountered teachers and students when they employ
corpus-based approach. Furthermore, sufficient time should be spent to provide adequate and
various training courses in how to use corpora.
With respect to different notions on learning grammar, this can be solved through increasing
the teachers and students‟ awareness on how grammar knowledge is taught and learned.

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Learners should change their views on learning grammar, and they have to keep updated with
new teaching methods and approaches that deal with grammar. As long as students and
teachers have strong positive attitudes towards corpus linguistics and they believe that it
would help them improve their academic writing proficiency level, students and teachers
should move forward in applying corpora resource tools in their teaching process.
Future studies could investigate in more depth the impact of various corpus linguistics tools
on grammar knowledge. It would be interesting to study how data-driven learning techniques
and activities improve specific grammatical aspects, such as relative clauses and sentence
structure. More review studies are needed to identify the current status of implementing
corpus-based approach in other language aspects or skills, including listening and speaking.
By conducting further research studies, the role of corpora resource tools and their awareness
will dramatically increase. Consequently, other benefits will be discovered.
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