Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila

College of Engineering and Technology

PLM — Association of Civil Engineering Students
Academic Year 2022-2023

CIV 0211A — FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

FIRST SEMESTER, FINAL EXAMINATION REVIEWER

CONTENTS
Lesson 09 — Horizontal Curves
 Simple Curve
 Compound Curve
 Reverse Curve
 Spiral Curve
Lesson 10 — Vertical Curves
Lesson 11 — Earthwork Operations & Mass Diagram
Lesson 12 — Global Positioning System

LESSON 09 — HORIZONTAL CURVES

Curves are provided whenever a road changes its direction from right to S (vice versa) or changes
its alignment from up to down (vice versa). Curves are a critical element in the pavement design. They are
provided with a maximum speed limit that should lie followed very strictly. Following the speed limit becomes
essential as the exceed in speed may lead to the chances of the vehicle becoming out of control while
negotiating a turn and thus increase the odds of fatal accidents. Also, it is very necessary that appropriate
safety measures be adopted at all horizontal and vertical curves to make the infrastructure road user friendly
and decrease the risks of hazardous circumstances.
The low cost safety measures that can be adopted at curves included chevron signs, delineators,
pavement markings, flexible posts, fluorescent strips, road safety barriers, rumble strips etc.
TYPES OF CURVES
There are two types of curves provided primarily for the comfort and ease of the motorists in the
road namely:
1. Horizontal Curve
2. Vertical Curve
HORIZONTAL CURVES IN SURVEYING
Horizontal curves are provided to change the direction or alignment of a road. Horizontal Curve are
circular curves or circular arcs. The sharpness of a curve increases as the radius is decrease which makes
it risky and dangerous. The main design criterion of a horizontal curve is the provision of an adequate safe
stopping sight distance.
TYPES OF HORIZONTAL CURVE
 Simple Curve: A simple arc provided in the road to impose a curve between the two straight lines.
 Compound Curve: Combination of two simple curves combined together to curve in the same
direction.
 Reverse Curve: Combination of two simple curves combined together to curve in the same
direction.
 Transition or Spiral Curve: A curve that has a varying radius. It is provided with a simple curve
and between the simple curves in a compound curve.
While turning a vehicle is exposed to two forces. The first force which attracts the vehicle towards
the ground is gravity. The second is centripetal force, which is an external force required to keep the vehicle
on a curved path. At any velocity, the centripetal force would be greater for a tighter turn (smaller radius)
than a broader one (larger radius). Thus, the vehicle would have to make a very wide circle in order to
negotiate a turn.
 This issue is encountered when providing horizontal curves by designing roads that are tilted at a
slight angle thus providing ease and comfort to the driver while turning. This phenomenon is defined as
super elevation, which is the amount of rise seen on a given cross-section of a turning road, it is otherwise
known as slope.
Link: https://www.aboutcivil.org/curves-types-horizontal-
vertical.html#:~:text=Horizontal%20Curves%20in%20Surveying,makes%20it%20risky%20and%20danger
ous.

LESSON 10 — VERTICAL CURVES

Vertical Curves are the second of the two important transition elements in geometric design for
highways, the first being Horizontal Curves. A vertical curve provides a transition between two sloped
roadways, allowing a vehicle to negotiate the elevation rate change at a gradual rate rather than a sharp
cut. The design of the curve is dependent on the intended design speed for the roadway, as well as other
factors including drainage, slope, acceptable rate of change, and friction. These curves are parabolic and
are assigned stationing based on a horizontal axis.
FUNDAMENTAL CURVE PROPERTIES
PARABOLIC FORMULATION
Two types of vertical curves exist:
1. Sag Curves
2. Crest Curves
 Sag curves are used where the change in grade is positive, such as valleys, while crest
curves are used when the change in grade is negative, such as hills.
 Both types of curves have three defined points: PVC (Point of Vertical Curve), PVI (Point
of Vertical Intersection), and PVT (Point of Vertical Tangency).
 PVC is the start point of the curve while the PVT is the end point. The elevation at either
of these points can be computed as ePVC and ePVT for PVC and PVT respectively.
 The roadway grade that approaches the PVC is defined as g1 and the roadway grade
that leaves the PVT is defined as g 2 . These grades are generally described as being in
units of (m⁄m) or (ft⁄ft), depending on unit type chosen.
Both types of curves are in parabolic form. Parabolic functions have been found suitable for this
case because they provide a constant rate of change of slope and imply equal curve tangents, which will
be discussed shortly. The general form of the parabolic equation is defined below, where y is the
elevation for the parabola.
y = ax 2 + bx + c
At x = 0, which refers to the position along the curve that corresponds to the PVC, the elevation
equals the elevation of the PVC. Thus, the value of c equals ePVC . Similarly, the slope of the curve at x = 0
equals the incoming slope at the PVC, or g1 . Thus, the value of b equals g1 . When looking at the second
derivative, which equals the rate of slope change, a value for a can be determined.
g1 − g 2
a=
2L
Most vertical curves are designed to be Equal Tangent Curves. For an Equal Tangent Curve, the
horizontal length between the PVC and PVI equals the horizontal length between the PVI and the PVT. These
curves are generally easier to design.
OFFSET
Some additional properties of vertical curves exist. Offsets, which are vertical distances from the
initial tangent to the curve, play a significant role in vertical curve design. The formula for determining offset
is listed below.
Ax 2
Y=
200L
Where 𝐴 — The absolute difference between g 2 and g1 , multiplied by 100 to translate to a percentage
𝐿 — Curve Length
𝑥 — Horizontal distance from PVC along curve
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
Sight distance is dependent on the type of curve used and the design speed. For crest curves, sight
distance is limited by the curve itself, as the curve is the obstruction. For sag curves, sight distance is
generally only limited by headlight range. AASHTO has several tables for sag and crest curves that
recommend rates of curvature, 𝐾 , given a design speed or stopping sight distance. These rates of curvature
can then be multiplied by the absolute slope change percentage, 𝐴 to find the recommended curve length,
𝐿𝑚 .
𝐿𝑚 = 𝐾𝐴
Without the aid of tables, curve length can still be calculated. Formulas have been derived to
determine the minimum curve length for required sight distance for an equal tangent curve, depending on
whether the curve is a sag or a crest.
CREST VERTICAL CURVES
The correct equation is dependent on the design speed. If the sight distance is found to be less
than the curve length, the first formula below is used, whereas the second is used for sight distances that
are greater than the curve length. Generally, this requires computation of both to see which is true if curve
length cannot be estimated beforehand.

SAG VERTICAL CURVES

Just like with crest curves, the correct equation is dependent on the design speed. If the sight
distance is found to be less than the curve length, the first formula below is used, whereas the second is
used for sight distances that are greater than the curve length. Generally, this requires computation of both
to see which is true if curve length cannot be estimated beforehand.

To find the position of the low point on a SAG vertical curve: x is the horizontal distance between
the PVC and Low Point
G1L
x=
G1 − G2
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
In addition to stopping sight distance, there may be instances where passing may be allowed on
vertical curves. For sag curves, this is not an issue, as even at night, a vehicle in the opposing can be
seen from quite a distance (with the aid of the vehicle's headlights). For crest curves, however, it is still
necessary to take into account. Like with the stopping sight distance, two formulas are available to
answer the minimum length question, depending on whether the passing sight distance is greater than or
less than the curve length. These formulas use units that are in metric.

Link:
https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Civil_Engineering/Fundamentals_of_Transportation/07%3A_Geom
etric_Design/7.05%3A_Vertical_Curves#:~:text=Vertical%20Curves%20are%20the%20second,rather%2
0than%20a%20sharp%20cut.

LESSON 11 — EARTHWORK OPERATIONS & MASS DIAGRAM

The movement of soil or rock from one location to another for construction purposes is called
earthwork. A volume of earth that is excavated, that is, removed from its natural location, is called cut.
Excavated material that is placed and compacted in a different location is called embankment or fill. The
construction of the grade line for a new road or railway typically involves much cut and fill; the grading, or
reshaping, of the ground for a building site also involves cut and fill. Surveyors are often called on to
measure earthwork quantities in the field and to compute the volumes of cut and fill.
Earthwork quantities or volumes are measured in terms of cubic yards or cubic meters. Generally,
the volume is computed as the product of an area and a depth or distance. The area may be that of a
roadway cross section or that enclosed within a particular contour line; the distance or depth is that between
the cross-section stations, or the contour interval. The first part of this section deals with the computation
of irregular areas; the second part covers the computation of volumes and the balancing of cut-andfill
quantities.
CROSS SECTIONS AND AREAS
A cross section is a short profile taken perpendicular to the centerline of a roadway or other facility.
The cross section at a station along a road will typically show the profile of the original ground surface, the
base of the roadway, and the side slopes of the cut or fill. The base is the horizontal line to which the cut or
fill is first constructed; its width depends primarily on the number of lanes and the width of roadway
shoulders. A side slope is expressed as the ratio of a horizontal distance to a corresponding unit of vertical
distance for the cut or fill slope. This ratio depends largely on the type of soil and on the natural angle of
repose at which it remains stable. A side slope of 1:1 is possible for some compacted embankment sections,
whereas a flatter ratio of 2:1 or more is typical for a side slope in a cut section. Of course, a vertical concrete
retaining wall may be built to hold back the soil where very flat side slopes would require excessively wide
right-of-way acquisition. (Note that the definition of side slope is opposite that of gradient, which is “rise
over run”.)
THE MASS DIAGRAM
One of the objectives in vertical alignment design is to balance the volumes of cut and fill. This is
to minimize the quantity of earth that must either be “borrowed” from somewhere else and hauled to the
site or be disposed of off-site. The preliminary grade line can be located on the profile so that earthwork
appears to be balanced, but this is difficult to do visually because of the effect of shrinkage. Shrinkage
refers to the decrease in volume of soil due to compaction in an embankment. For example, if 1 yd3 of soil
is excavated from its natural position and then compacted in a fill, it may occupy a volume of only 0.8 yd3.
It would be characterized as having a shrinkage of 20 percent, or a shrinkage factor of 0.8.
A mass diagram may be used to determine the extent to which cut and fill are balanced in a
preliminary alignment design. The mass diagram is also useful to evaluate haul distances and to plan the
overall earthwork operation. It is simply a graph that depicts the accumulation of cut-and-fill quantities along
the route .Volumes of cut are positive, and volumes of fill are negative.

LESSON 12 — GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

The surveying and mapping community was one of the first to take advantage of GPS because it
dramatically increased productivity and resulted in more accurate and reliable data. Today, GPS is a vital
part of surveying and mapping activities around the world.
When used by skilled professionals, GPS provides surveying and mapping data of the highest
accuracy. GPS-based data collection is much faster than conventional surveying and mapping techniques,
reducing the amount of equipment and labor required. A single surveyor can now accomplish in one day
what once took an entire team weeks to do.
GPS supports the accurate mapping and modeling of the physical world — from mountains and
rivers to streets and buildings to utility lines and other resources. Features measured with GPS can be
displayed on maps and in geographic information systems (GIS) that store, manipulate, and display
geographically referenced data.
Governments, scientific organizations, and commercial operations throughout the world use GPS
and GIS technology to facilitate timely decisions and wise use of resources. Any organization or agency
that requires accurate location information about its assets can benefit from the efficiency and productivity
provided by GPS positioning.
Unlike conventional techniques, GPS surveying is not bound by constraints such as line-of-sight
visibility between survey stations. The stations can be deployed at greater distances from each other and
can operate anywhere with a good view of the sky, rather than being confined to remote hilltops as
previously required.
GPS is especially useful in surveying coasts and waterways, where there are few land-based
reference points. Survey vessels combine GPS positions with sonar depth soundings to make the nautical
charts that alert mariners to changing water depths and underwater hazards. Bridge builders and offshore
oil rigs also depend on GPS for accurate hydrographic surveys.
Land surveyors and mappers can carry GPS systems in backpacks or mount them on vehicles to
allow rapid, accurate data collection. Some of these systems communicate wirelessly with reference
receivers to deliver continuous, real-time, centimeter-level accuracy and unprecedented productivity gains.
To achieve the highest level of accuracy, most survey-grade receivers use two GPS radio
frequencies: L1 and L2. Currently, there is no fully functional civilian signal at L2, so these receivers
leverage a military L2 signal using "codeless" techniques.
The ongoing GPS modernization program is adding a dedicated civil signal at L2 that supports
high-accuracy positioning without the use of military signals. The GPS program is also adding a third civil
signal at the L5 frequency that will enhance performance even further. After 2020, the government will no
longer support codeless access to military GPS signals.
“The most effective way to achieve a robust and globally consistent continental reference system is
through the technology of the Global Positioning System (GPS). The explosive growth of GPS
applications and the economics of GPS make it the technique of choice for sustainable geodetic
operations within Africa.”
~ Claude Boucher, Former Secretary General, International Association of Geodesy (IAG)