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the Canadian Research and Development Center of Sciences and Cultures (CRDCSC), Montreal,
Quebec, Canada. ISBN:ISBN:
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 ADVANCED
NANOMATERIALS
Synthesis, Properties, and Applications
 ADVANCED
NANOMATERIALS
Synthesis, Properties, and Applications

Edited by
Sabu Thomas, PhD, Nandakumar Kalarikkal, PhD,
A. Manuel Stephan, PhD, B. Raneesh, and A. K. Haghi, PhD

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ABOUT THE EDITORS

Sabu Thomas, PhD

Dr. Sabu Thomas is the Director of the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma
Gandhi University, Kottayam, India. He is also a full professor of polymer science
and engineering and the Director of the International and Inter University Centre for
Nanoscience and Nanotechnology of the same university. He is a fellow of many pro-
fessional bodies. Professor Thomas has authored or co-authored many papers in inter-
national peer-reviewed journals in the area of polymer processing. He has organized
several international conferences and has more than 420 publications, 11 books and
two patents to his credit. He has been involved in a number of books both as author and
editor. He is a reviewer to many international journals and has received many awards
for his excellent work in polymer processing. His h Index is 42. Professor Thomas is
listed as the 5th position in the list of Most Productive Researchers in India, in 2008.

Nandakumar Kalarikkal, PhD

Dr. Nandakumar Kalarikkal obtained his master's degree in physics with a specializa-
tion in industrial physics and his PhD in semiconductor physics from Cochin Univer-
sity of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. He was a postdoctoral fellow at NIIST,
Trivandrum, and later joined with Mahatma Gandhi University. Currently he is the
Joint Director of the International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and
Nanotechnology as well as Associate professor in the School of Pure and Applied
Physics at Mahatma Gandhi University. His current research interests include synthe-
sis, characterization, and applications of nanophosphors, nanoferrites, nanoferroelc-
trics, nanomultiferroics, nanocomposites, and phase transitions.

A. Manuel Stephan, PhD

A. Manuel Stephan is a Scientist at the Electrochemical Power Systems Division of
the Central Electrochemical Research Institute in Tamilnadu, India. He is a life mem-
ber of the Society for the Advancement of Electrochemical Science and Technology
(SAEST) and the Materials Society of India.

B. Raneesh
B. Raneesh is currently working as an Analytical Engineer (HRTEM Division) at Interna-
tional and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi
University, Kottayam, India.
vi About the Editors

A. K. Haghi, PhD
Dr. A. K. Haghi holds a BSc in urban and environmental engineering from The
University of North Carolina (USA); a MSc in mechanical engineering from North
Carolina A&T State University (USA); a DEA in applied mechanics, acoustics and
materials from The Université de Technologie de Compiègne (France); and a PhD in
engineering sciences from Université de Franche-Comté (France). He is the author and
editor of 65 books as well as 1000 published papers in various journals and confer-
ence proceedings. Dr. Haghi has received several grants, consulted for a number of
major corporations, and is a frequent speaker to national and international audiences.
Since 1983, he served as a professor at several universities. He is currently Editor-in-
Chief of the International Journal of Chemoinformatics and Chemical Engineering and
Polymers Research Journal and on the editorial boards of many international journals.
He is a member of the Canadian Research and Development Center of Sciences and
Cultures (CRDCSC), Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
CONTENTS

List of Contributors ........................................................................................... ix

List of Abbreviations ........................................................................................ xv
Preface ............................................................................................................ xix
1. Recent Studies of Spin Dynamics in Ferromagnetic Nanoparticles ..............1
D. S. Schmool

2. Novel Magnetic Carbon Biocomposites .........................................................25

B. Kalska-Szostko, M. Rogowska, A. Pigiel, and D. Satula
3. AuNPs and Biosensors: A Hand to Hand Journey........................................45
Suman Singh, V. K. Meena, D. V. S. Jain, and M. L. Singla
4. Industrially Relevant Nanoparticles––Hematite:
Its Synthesis, Functionalization, and Applications .......................................73
Marimuthu Nidhin, Kalarical Janardhanan Sreeram, and Balachandran Unni Nair

5. Novel Dielectric Nanoparticles (DNP) Doped Nano-Engineered

Glass Based Optical Fiber for Fiber Laser ..................................................103
M. C. Paul, A. V. Kir’yanov, S. Das, M. Pal, S. K. Bhadra,
Yu.O. Barmenkov, A. A. Martinez-Gamez, J. L. Lucio Martínez,
S. Yoo, and J. K. Sahu
6. ZnO Nanostructures and Its Luminescent Properties................................ 117
P. M. Aneesh and M. K. Jayaraj
7. Thin Film and Nanostructured Multiferroic Materials .............................149
B. Raneesh and Nandakumar Kalarikkal
8. Current Advances in Nanomedicine: Applications in
Clinical Medicine and Surgery .....................................................................173
Indu Raj, Vinod Kumar P., and Nandakumar Kalarikkal
9. Study of Plasma Induced Gas Phase Growth Mechanism
of TiO2/Al2O3 Multilayer Thin Films and Its Correlation
with its Morphological and Electrical Properties .......................................201
P. Laha, A. B. Panda, S. K. Mahapatra, P. K. Barhai, A. K. Das, and I. Banerjee
10. Role of Interlayer Interaction on Mechanical Properties
of Carbon Nanotubes .....................................................................................221
Keka Talukdar and Apurba Krishna Mitra
11. Recent Advances in Nanomedicine: Applications in
Diagnosis and Therapeutics ..........................................................................251
Sandhya Gopalakrishnan, Kannan Vaidyanathan, and Nandakumar Kalarikkal
viii Contents

12. Role of Nanogrooves on the Performance of Ultra-Fine

Grained Titanium as a Bio-Implant .............................................................289
P. Priyanka, K. Sujith, A. M. Asha, Manitha Nair, S. V. Nair, R. Biswas, T. N. Kim, and
A. Balakrishnan

13. Super-Paramagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (Spions) as

Nano-Flotillas for Hyperthermia: A Paradigm
for Cancer Theranostics ................................................................................307
Madhuri Sharon, Goldie Oza, Arvind Gupta, and Sunil Pandey
14. Sustained and Responsive Release of Corrosion Inhibiting
Species from Multilayered Assembly of Zinc
Phosphomolybdate Containers with Application in
Anticorrosive Paint Coating Formulation ...................................................329
S. E. Karekar, B. A. Bhanvase, and S. H. Sonawane
15. Emerging Multifunctional Nanomaterials for Solar
Energy Extraction ..........................................................................................355
Mayank Bhushan, Nirmal Ghosh O. S., and A. Kasi Viswanath
Index ................................................................................................................377
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

P. M. Aneesh
Optoelectronic Devices Laboratory, Department of Physics, Cochin University of Science and Technology,
Kochi, India-682 022.
Present address:School of Physics, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Trivandrum
Campus, Trivandrum, India-695016.

A. Balakrishnan
Amrita centre for Nanosciences and Molecular medicine, Kochi, Kerala, India-682041.
E-mail: [email protected]
Telephone and Fax No.: +91-484-2801234

I. Banerjee
Department of Applied Physics, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi-835215, India.
E-mail: [email protected] and [email protected]

P. K. Barhai
Department of Applied Physics, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi-835215, India.
E-mail: [email protected]
Yu. O. Barmenkov
Centro de Investigaciones en Optica, Loma del Bosque 115, Leon 37150, Guanajuato, Mexico,
E-mail: [email protected]
S. K. Bhadra
Fiber Optics and Photonics Division, CSIR-Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute, 196, Raja S. C.
Mullick Road, Kolkata-700 032, India.
E-mail: [email protected]

B. A. Bhanvase
Chemical Engineering Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, 666, Upper Indiranagar,
Bibwewadi, Pune-411037, Maharashtra, India.
E-mail: [email protected]

MayankBhushan
Research Scholar, Centre for Nanoscience and Technology, Madanjeeth School of Green Energy Technolo-
gies, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India.
Centre for Nanoscience and Technology, Pondicherry University, Kalapet, Puducherry-605014, India.
E-mail: [email protected]

R. Biswas
Amrita centre for Nanosciences and Molecular medicine, Kochi, Kerala, India-682041.
E-mail: [email protected],
Telephone and Fax No.: +91-484-2801234
x List of Contributors

A. K. Das
Department of Applied Physics, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi-835215, India.
E-mail: [email protected]
Laser & Plasma Technology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Center, Mumbai-400085, India.

S. Das
Fiber Optics and Photonics Division, CSIR-Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute,
196, Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Kolkata-700 032, India.
E-mail: [email protected]

Nirmal Ghosh O. S.
Research Scholar, Centre for Nanoscience and Technology, Madanjeeth School of Green Energy Technolo-
gies, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India.
Centre for Nanoscience and Technology, Pondicherry University, Kalapet, Puducherry-605014, India.

Sandhya Gopalakrishnan
Govt. Dental college, Kottayam, Kerala 686 008, India.
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi Univer-
sity, Kottayam, Kerala 686 560, India.

Arvind Gupta
N.S.N. Research Centre for Nanotechnology and Bionanotechnology, SICES College, Jambhul Phata,
Kalyan - Badlapur Road, Ambernath (W), 421505, Maharashtra, India.
E-mail: [email protected]

D. V. S. Jain
Panjab University, Chandigarh, India

M. K. Jayaraj
Optoelectronic Devices Laboratory, Department of Physics, Cochin University of Science and Technology,
Kochi, India-682 022.
E-mail: [email protected]

Nanda-kumarKalarikkal
School of Pure and Applied Physics
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi Univer-
sity, Kottayam, Kerala 686 560, India.

B. Kalska-Szostko
Institute of Chemistry, University of Bialystok, Hurtowa 1, 15-399 Bialystok, Poland.
Faculty of Physics, University of Bialystok, Lipowa 41, 15-424 Bialystok, Poland.
E-mail: [email protected]

S. E. Karekar
Chemical Engineering Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, 666, Upper Indiranagar,
Bibwewadi, Pune-411037, Maharashtra, India.
E-mail: [email protected]

T. N. Kim
Department of Materials Engineering, Paichai University, Daejeon, S. Korea-302-735.
E-mail: [email protected]
Telephone and Fax No.: +91-484-2801234

A. V. Kir’yanov
Centro de Investigaciones en Optica, Loma del Bosque 115, Leon 37150, Guanajuato, Mexico,
E-mail: [email protected]
A.M. Prokhorov General Physics Institute (Russian Academy of Sciences) Vavilov Str. 38, Moscow 119991,
Russian Federation.
E-mail: [email protected]
List of Contributors xi

Sujith. K
Amrita centre for Nanosciences and Molecular medicine, Kochi, Kerala, India-682041.
Vinod Kumar
Assir specialist dental centre, Abha,Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
P. Laha
Department of Applied Physics, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi-835215, India.
E-mail: [email protected]
Asha Anish Madhavan
Amrita centre for Nanosciences and Molecular medicine, Kochi, Kerala, India-682041.

S. K.Mahapatra
Department of Applied Physics, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi-835215, India.
E-mail: [email protected]

A. Martinez-Gamez
Centro de Investigaciones en Optica, Loma del Bosque 115, Leon 37150, Guanajuato, Mexico,
E-mail: [email protected]
J. L. LucioMartíne, Instituto de Fisica de la Universidad de Guanajuato, Loma del Bosque 113, Leon 37150,
Guanajuato, Mexico
E-mail: [email protected]

V. K. Meena
Central Scientific Instruments Organisation (CSIR-CSIO), Chandigarh, India.

Apurba Krishna Mitra

Department of Physics, NIT Durgapur-713209, West Bengal, India.
E-mail: [email protected]

BalachandranUnni Nair
Chemical Laboratory, Central Leather Research Institute, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research,
Adyar, Chennai, 600 020 India.
E-mail: [email protected]
Telephone: +91 44 2441 1630
Fax. +91 44 2491 1589

Manitha Nair
Amrita centre for Nanosciences and Molecular medicine, Kochi, Kerala, India-682041.

S. V. Nair
Amrita centre for Nanosciences and Molecular medicine, Kochi, Kerala, India-682041.

Marimuthu Nidhin
Chemical Laboratory, Central Leather Research Institute, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research,
Adyar, Chennai, 600 020 India.
E-mail: [email protected]
Telephone No.: +91 44 2441 1630
Fax No.: +91 44 2491 1589

Goldie Oza
N.S.N. Research Centre for Nanotechnology and Bionanotechnology, SICES College, Jambhul Phata,
Kalyan - Badlapur Road, Ambernath (W), 421505, Maharashtra, India.
E-mail: [email protected]

M. Pal
Fiber Optics and Photonics Division, CSIR-Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute,
196, Raja S. C. Mullick Road, Kolkata-700 032, India.
E-mail:[email protected]
xii List of Contributors

A. B. Panda
Department of Applied Physics, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi-835215, India.
E-mail: [email protected]

Priyanka. P
Amrita centre for Nanosciences and Molecular medicine, Kochi, Kerala, India-682041.

Sunil Pandey
N.S.N. Research Centre for Nanotechnology and Bionanotechnology, SICES College, Jambhul Phata,
Kalyan - Badlapur Road, Ambernath (W), 421505, Maharashtra, India.
E-mail: [email protected]

M. C. Paul
Fiber Optics and Photonics Division, CSIR-Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute, 196, Raja S. C.
Mullick Road, Kolkata-700 032, India.
E-mail: [email protected]

A. Pigiel
Institute of Chemistry, University of Bialystok, Hurtowa 1, 15-399 Bialystok, Poland.
Faculty of Physics, University of Bialystok, Lipowa 41, 15-424 Bialystok, Poland.
E-mail: [email protected]

Indu Raj
Govt. Dental college, Kottayam, Kerala 686 008, India.
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi Univer-
sity, Kottayam, Kerala 686 560, India.

B. Raneesh
School of Pure and Applied Physics
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi Univer-
sity, Kottayam, Kerala 686 560, India.

M. Rogowska
Institute of Chemistry, University of Bialystok, Hurtowa 1, 15-399 Bialystok, Poland.
Faculty of Physics, University of Bialystok, Lipowa 41, 15-424 Bialystok, Poland.
E-mail: [email protected]

J. K. Sahu
Optoelectronic Research Centre, University of Southampton, Southampton So17 1BJ, United Kingdom.
E-mail: [email protected]

D. Satula
Institute of Chemistry, University of Bialystok, Hurtowa 1, 15-399 Bialystok, Poland.
Faculty of Physics, University of Bialystok, Lipowa 41, 15-424 Bialystok, Poland.
E-mail: [email protected]

D. S. Schmool
IFIMUP - IN and Departamento de Física e Astronomia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Campo Alegre 687,
4169 007 Porto, Portugal.
E-mail: [email protected]

Madhuri Sharon
N.S.N. Research Centre for Nanotechnology and Bionanotechnology, SICES College, Jambhul Phata,
Kalyan - Badlapur Road, Ambernath (W), 421505, Maharashtra, India.
E-mail: [email protected]

M. L. Singla
Central Scientific Instruments Organisation (CSIR-CSIO), Chandigarh, India.
List of Contributors xiii

Suman Singh
Central Scientific Instruments Organisation (CSIR-CSIO), Chandigarh, India.
Panjab University, Chandigarh, India.
E-mail: [email protected]
Telephone: 91-0172-265-17-87
Fax: 91-0172-265.70.82

S. H. Sonawane
Department of Chemical Engineering National Institute of Technology, Warangal, 506004 AP India.
E-mail: [email protected]

Kalarical Janardhanan Sreeram

Chemical Laboratory, Central Leather Research Institute, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research,
Adyar, Chennai, 600 020 India.
E-mail: [email protected]
Telephone No.: +91 44 2441 1630
Fax No.: +91 44 2491 1589

Keka Talukdar
Department of Physics, NIT Durgapur-713209, West Bengal, India.
E-mail: [email protected]

Kannan Vaidyanathan
Pushpagiri Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, Tiruvalla, Kerala 689 101, India.

Dr. A. Kasi Viswanath

Associate Professor, Centre for Nanoscience and Technology, Madanjeeth School of Green Energy Tech-
nologies, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India.
Centre for Nanoscience and Technology, Pondicherry University, Kalapet, Puducherry-605014, India.

S. Yoo
School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University.
E-mail: [email protected]
Optoelectronic Research Centre, University of Southampton, Southampton So17 1BJ, United Kingdom.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AFM Atomic force microscopy

AuNPs Gold nanoparticles
BBB Blood brain barrier
CET Cell encapsulation therapy
CG Colloidal gold
CHPP Continuous hyperthermic peritoneal perfusion
CLEM Correlative light and electron microscopy
CNT Carbon nanotubes
CPMV Cowpea mosaic virus
CPPs Cell-penetrating peptides
DBT Department of Biotechnology
DCs Dendritic cells
DDI Dipole-dipole interactions
DEG Zero-dimensional electron gas
DMIM Discontinuous metal- insulator magnetic multilayers
DNP Dielectric Nanoparticles
DOS Density of states
DSSC Dye sensitized solar cell
DST Department of Science and Technology
ECAP Equal channel angular pressing
ECM Native extracellular matrix
EDX Energy dispersive X-ray analyses
EEDF Electron Energy Distribution Function
EIS Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
ENM Electroactive nanostructured membranes
EPMA Electron probe micro analyzer
EPR Enhanced permeability and retention
FBGs Fibers Bragg gratings
FFF Field flow fractionation
FHV Flock house virus
FMR Ferromagnetic resonance
FRET Forster Resonant Energy Transfer
FWHM Full width at the half- maximum
GD Gene delivery
GMR Magnetoresistance systems
HCP Hexagonal close packing
HRTEM High resolution transmission electron microscopic
HTEM High-resolution transmission electron microscope
xvi List of Abbreviations

ICMR Indian Council of Medical Research

IDEG One-dimensional electron gas
INMs Inorganic nanomaterials
IR Infrared spectroscopy
LDC Lipid drug conjugate
LIBAD Low incident beam angle diffraction
LMA Large mode area
LO Longitudinal optical
LOD Limit of detection
LUMO Lowest unoccupied molecular orbital
MCVD Modified chemical vapor deposition
MDT Magnetic drug targeting
MERAM Electric-field controlled magnetic random access memory
MNPs Magnetic nanoparticles
MQW Multiple quantum well
MR Magnetoresistive
MRI Magnetic resonance imaging
NCI National Cancer Institute
NIR Near-infrared
NLCs Nanostructured lipid carriers
NMOF Nanoscale metal organic frameworks
NMR Nuclear magnetic resonance
NPs Nanoparticles
OES Optical emission spectroscopy
OSA Optical spectrum analyzer
PALM Photo-activated localizing microscopy
PCR Polymerase chain reaction
PDLSCs Periodontal ligament stem cells
PDT Photodynamic therapy
PET Positron emission tomography
PLA Pulsed laser ablation
PM Powder metallurgy
PV Photovoltaic
QCM Quartz crystal microbalance
QDs Quantum dots
QW Quantum well
RES Reticulo-endothelial system
RI Refractive index
RSV Respiratory syncytial virus
SAED Selected-area electron diffraction
SAMs Self-assembled monolayers
SBF Simulated body fluid
SD Solution doping
SEM Scanning electron microscopy
SERS Surface-enhanced Raman scattering
List of Abbreviations xv

SLNs Solid lipid nanoparticles

SPB Surface Plasmon band
SPD Severe plastic deformation
SPECT Single photon emission computed tomography
SPIONs Super paramagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles
SPR Surface Plasmon resonance
SS Stainless steels
SWCNTs Single wall carbon nanotubes
SWNT Single Waal Nano Tube
TCOs Transparent conducting oxides
TEM Transmission electron microscopy
UCNs Upconversion nanoparticles
VLP Virus-like particles
VNPs Viral nanoparticles
WCR Water confined regime
WDM Wavelength division multiplexer
XRD X-ray diffraction
YFs Ytterbium fibers
PREFACE

Recently, nanotechnology has attracted much attention because of its application in

chemistry, physics, materials science, and biotechnology to create novel materials that
have unique properties. The combination of a high surface area, flexibility, and supe-
rior directionality makes nanostructures suitable for many applications. Difference in
properties at bulk and nano-level has provided new insight and direction to researchers
to meet the ever-increasing demand of smaller and more efficient devices. Nanotech-
nology offers potential solutions to many problems using emerging nanotechniques.
Depending on the strong interdisciplinary character of nanotechnology, there are many
research fields and several potential applications that involve nanotechnology.
This book is the collection of peer reviewed-papers presented at the second in-
ternational conference on nanomaterials: synthesis, characterization, and application
in January 2012 (ICN 2012) in Kottayam, India, that showcased the research of an
international roster of scientists and students. It was organized by the Centre for Na-
noscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottyam, Kerala. The
conference had over 350 delegates, from all across the world, with good representa-
tion from France, Australia, USA, Netherlands, Germany, Iran, Sweden, Spain, and
Libya as well as a substantial number of eminent Indian scientists. The conference
was designed as the perfect opportunity for international researchers interested in na-
noscience and functional materials to meet, present, and discuss issues related to cur-
rent developments in the field of nanotechnology. The goal of the conference was to
promote interdisciplinary research on synthesis, characterization, and application of
nanoparticles, their composites and their applications in medicine, automotive, opto-
electronic, sensors, chemical, memory device, and engineering. The three-day confer-
ence included discussion on recent advances, difficulties, and breakthroughs in the
field of nanotechnology.
This book collects together a selection of 15 papers presented during the con-
ference. The papers include a wide variety of interdisciplinary topics in nanoscience
with emphasis on synthesis, characterization and applications. In this important work,
an excellent team of international experts provides an exploration of the emerging
nanotechnologies that are poised to make the nano-revolution become a reality in the
manufacturing sector. We trust that the work will stimulate new ideas, methods, and
applications in ongoing advances in this growing area of strong international interest.
We would like to thank all who kindly contributed their papers for this issue and
the editors of Apple Academic Press for their kind help and cooperation. We are also
xx Preface

indebted to the Apple Academic Press editorial office and the publishing and produc-
tion teams for their assistance in preparation and publication of this issue.

— Sabu Thomas, PhD, Nandakumar Kalarikkal, PhD,

A. Manuel Stephan, PhD, B. Raneesh, and A. K. Haghi, PhD
CHAPTER 1

RECENT STUDIES OF SPIN DYNAMICS

IN FERROMAGNETIC NANOPARTICLES
D. S. SCHMOOL

CONTENTS

1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 2

1.2 Theory of Dipole–Dipole Interactions in Ferromagnetic
Nanoparticle Assemblies .......................................................................................... 3
1.2.1 The Dipolar Interaction ................................................................................ 3
1.2.2 Simulations for Assemblies of Nanoparticles .............................................. 7
1.3 Ferromagnetic Resonance in Nanoparticle Arrays .................................................... 9
1.3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 9
1.3.2 Dipolar Interactions ...................................................................................... 9
1.3.3 Surface Anisotropy ..................................................................................... 11
1.3.4 Theory of Multispin Systems ..................................................................... 11
1.3.5 Resonance Linewidth ................................................................................. 15
1.4 Experimental Studies ............................................................................................... 16
1.4.1 Angular Dependence of the Resonance Field............................................. 16
1.4.2 Temperature Dependent Studies ................................................................. 19
1.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 22
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 22
Keywords .......................................................................................................................... 23
References ......................................................................................................................... 23
2 Advanced Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the study of magnetic nanoparticle systems has received growing at-
tention. With view to many applications, this area of scientific study shows enormous
potential for growth. One central theme of this line of investigation is how the mag-
netic properties of nanoparticle assemblies are modified with respect to the bulk. Such
differences in magnetic behavior are expected to arise from interparticle interactions,
which will depend on the intervening non-magnetic matrix in which the particles are
suspended, and from the size confinement effects, essentially due to the surface an-
isotropy of the particles. In addition to these fundamental effects, we also need to
consider the superparamagnetic (SPM) behavior that is of great importance to the
overall magnetic behavior of these systems. The SPM effects are strongly related to
the overall magnetic anisotropy of the individual particles and have strong temperature
dependences (Dormann et al., 1997).
Ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) can provide useful information not only on “bulk”
magnetic properties, but is also useful in evaluating surface magnetic properties and
interactions (Vonsovskii, 1966; Puszkarski, 1979; Maksymowicz, 1986). Much of the
previous FMR studies on nanoparticle systems have concentrated on the temperature
dependence of the resonance field. Raikher and Stepanov (1994) considered the case
of a suspension of single domain ferromagnetic particle ferrofluids. In this work the
authors consider the SPM thermal fluctuation and anisotropy effects and particle mo-
bility in an applied magnetic field. The double peaked spectra are explained in terms
of the alignment of the particles’ anisotropy axes in the field and from the random ori-
entation of the grains at low temperatures. Antoniak et al. (2005) considered nanopar-
ticle assemblies of FexPt1−x. In this study the authors show that the size distribution of
the particles is an important parameter in the evaluation of the blocking temperature
and the overall effective anisotropy. The particles were assumed to be noninteracting,
where a surface anisotropy was enhanced by the formation of an oxide ( – Fe2O3) sur-
face layer. The same system was studied by Ulmeanu et al., (2004), where frequency
dependent FMR measurements were used to assess the g factor of the nanoparticles.
Berger et al. (2001) considered the temperature dependence of superparamagnetic res-
onance in the maghemite ( – Fe2O3) system, where again the importance of the size
distribution is shown to be of fundamental importance in the evaluation of blocking
temperatures and the existence of double peaked spectra. Dipole-dipole interactions
(DDI) are discussed, but without calculating their effects. In a recent study we have
also studied this system where we use DDI to evaluate the angular dependence of the
resonance lines (Schmool and Schmalzl, 2007).
Nanogranular layered magnetic films are a special class of magnetoresistive (MR)
system which consists of separate layers of ferromagnetic nanoparticles embedded in
an insulating matrix and are usually called discontinuous metal- insulator magnetic
multilayers (DMIM) (Sankar et al., 1997). Due to their transport properties (tunnel
magnetoresistance properties; TMR ~ 10%) and multilayered structure, they possess a
general similarity with the well known magnetic multilayered giant magnetoresistance
(GMR) systems, (Baibich et al., 1988) see also GMR in magnetic metal/ nonmagnetic
metal discontinuous GMR multilayers (Hylton et al., 1993).
Recent Studies of Spin Dynamics in Ferromagnetic Nanoparticles 3

Our main objective will be to consider some of the main aspects of the behavior of
magnetic nanoparticles and in particular how ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) can be
applied to such assemblies. The FMR is a highly sensitive technique, which essentially
measures the internal effective magnetic field of ferromagnetic systems:

∂E
H eff = − (1)
∂M
where E represents the energy density of the magnetic system and M the saturation
magnetization. (In all cases where energy is considered we have parameterized such
that it is in the form of an energy density.) This is a convenient way of considering
the magnetic behavior since we can include only those contributions to the magnetic
properties, which are appropriate to a particular situation. For example, the Zeeman
energy, magnetostatic energies from sample shape, magnetocrystalline, and surface
anisotropies can all be easily included into the total magnetic energy.
In this chapter, we outline the basic study of the effects of the magnetic dipo-
lar interaction in an assembly of ferromagnetic nanoparticles, its effect on magnetic
properties of nanoparticle assemblies and in particular with respect to ferromagnet-
ic resonance studies. In the theory of dipole-dipole interactions, we show the basic
physics of the dipolar interaction and illustrate the overall effects using computer
simulations of regular and random arrays of particles. The theory is presented for
random general assemblies including an explanation of the nature of the simulations
for arrays of particles. We will introduce the basic theory of FMR and then show
how this is adapted to the study of nanoparticle systems; the relation between in-
terparticle interactions in NP assemblies and angular studies by ferromagnetic
resonance (FMR) will be discussed. An introduction to surface anisotropy is made
as well as the multispin approach to the problem. A brief overview of linewidth of
resonance is also given. We show some experimental results for random particle as-
semblies, and illustrate how information can be extracted from the FMR spectra. Some
studies with respect to sample temperature are also given.

1.2 THEORY OF DIPOLE–DIPOLE INTERACTIONS IN FERROMAGNETIC

NANOPARTICLE ASSEMBLIES

1.2.1 THE DIPOLAR INTERACTION

The fundamental interparticle interactions in ferromagnetic nanoparticle assemblies
(whatever form they may take) in which the particles are embedded in a non-conduct-
ing non-magnetic matrix will occur via the dipole – dipole interaction.
The basic magnetic dipolar interaction can be expressed by the equation:
4 Advanced Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications

1 ⎡ 3(mi ⋅ rij )(m j ⋅ rij ) ⎤

E ijDDI (rij ) = ⎢m ⋅ m − ⎥ (2)
4 πrij3 ⎣ i j
rij2 ⎦

where mi,j represents the magnetic moment of particle i,j and rij is the displacement
vector between them. We are principally interested in the effects of interactions in as-
semblies under conditions of ferromagnetic resonance. We consider the case in which
the applied magnetic field is sufficient to saturate the sample and as such all magnetic
moments will be aligned (as in the case of an FMR experiment).
Under this state, we can simplify (2) using the spherical coordinate system as:

mi m j
E ijDDI (θ ,ϑ, φ,ϕ) =
4 πrij3
[1 − 3(sinθ sinϑ cos(φ − ϕ) + cosθ cosϑ )2 ] (3)
All angles are defined in Figure 1 (a) and (b). This equation can be further simpli-
fied for the case, where the vector between magnetic moments is aligned along one
of the principal axes. Importantly, this equation demonstrates the introduction of a
magnetic anisotropy into the system. The overall anisotropy will depend explicitly on
the spatial distribution of the magnetic nanoparticle assembly.
We can sum all interactions in an assembly using the following equation:

1
DDI
E TOT = ∑ E ijDDI = ∑ ∑ E ijDDI (θ ,ϑ, φ,ϕ) (4)
i, j 2 i j ≠i

FIGURE 1 (a) Basic coordinate geometry for the dipolar interaction between two magnetic
particles. (b) Spherical coordinate system for the magnetic sample. (c) Schematic illustration of
a section of the nanoparticle assembly.
Recent Studies of Spin Dynamics in Ferromagnetic Nanoparticles 5

The factor of 1/2 is required so as to not count the interactions twice. Equation
(4) can be used for a random array of particles, though positions of all particles must
be known for the calculation to be performed. We illustrate simulations on systems
of this type to show how such calculations can be made. For systems in which the
ferromagnetic nanoparticles are arranged in layers, such as discontinuous magnetic
multilayer systems (Sankar et al., 1997), then we can separate the interactions to those
in the same plane and those in adjacent layers, where we neglect non-adjacent layer
interactions. Figure 2 illustrates the geometry of such a system. We consider contribu-
tions arising from dipolar interactions within each (discontinuous) layer in - plane (or
intraplanar interactions, IP) and those between the various planes (out of plane, OP),
or interplanar interactions.
DDI
Within the layer, the total (in - plane, IP) dipolar energy, E IP , is the sum over all
the magnetic moments, where ij = 90, which gives:

N N
1
E DDI
IP = ∑ ∑ E ijDDI = Γ1IP +Γ2IP sin 2 ϑ (5)
2 i=1 j =1
j ≠i

IP
Here Γ1,2 are constants depending on the distribution of the magnetic moments in
the layer:

1 N N mi m j
Γ1IP = ∑∑
2Vm i=1 j =1 4 πrij3
j ≠i
N N
1 mi m j 2
Γ = IP
∑ ∑
2Vm i=1 j =1 4 πrij3
2 sin Φij
(6)
j ≠i

The summation over j considers one particles’ interaction with all the other (N - 1)
particles within the layer, while the summation over i considers all of these interac-
tions for all N particles. The value of the constants (mi, mj, and <rij>) will determine
the energy scale, or in the FMR spectra, the field scale, of the total angular variation.
Vm represents the total magnetic volume of the particles, which can be expressed as:

N
Vm = ∑Vi (7)
i=1
6 Advanced Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications

FIGURE 2 Schematic diagram of the planar geometry for layered particle systems illustrating
(a) intraplanar interactions and (b) interplanar particle interactions.

We note that the magnetic volume and volume fraction are related via the expres-
sion, f = Vm/V, where V is the total volume of the sample. With regards to the dipolar
interaction between layers; only interactions between adjacent layers are considered,
while those between non-adjacent layers are considered as negligible. In this case, we
consider mi and mk as two magnetic moments from two different but adjacent layers.
Summing over all the magnetic moments of the two layers, we obtain:

DDI
E OP = Γ1OP + Γ2OP sin 2 ϑ + Γ3OP cos2 ϑ (8)

OP
where Γ1,2,3 are constants depending on the distribution of the magnetic moments in-
side the two layers.
These are given by:

1 N N ' mi mk
Γ1OP = ∑∑
2Vm i=1 k =1 4 πrik3
N N'
1 3mi mk
Γ OP
2 = ∑ ∑ 2 2
3 sin Θik sin Φ ik
2Vm i=1 k =1 4 πrik
N N'
1 3mi mk
Γ3OP = ∑ ∑
2Vm i=1 k =1 4 πrik3
cos2 Θik (9)

The sum over k corresponds to the combined interactions of a magnetic particle

in one layer with all N’ particles in an adjacent layer. The sum over i is required to
consider all the (N) particles of the layer (See Figure. 2). The total dipolar energy for
n layers will be:
Recent Studies of Spin Dynamics in Ferromagnetic Nanoparticles 7

n n
DDI
E TOT = ∑ (E IP
DDI
) L +∑ (E OP
DDI
) L' = Γ1eff + Γ2eff sin 2 ϑ + (n −1)Γ3OP cos2 ϑ (10)
L =1 L' =1

with Γ1eff = nΓ1IP + (n −1)Γ1OP and Γ2eff = nΓ2IP + (n −1)Γ2OP .

We note that the summation for the first term is over the n layers (intraplanar term)
while the second summation (interplanar term) is only between adjacent layers, of
which there are (n–1) pairs, care has been taken not to count interactions twice. In this
consideration, it is assumed that the interplanar and intraplanar interactions are effec-
tively identical for each (discontinuous) layer.

1.2.2 SIMULATIONS FOR ASSEMBLIES OF NANOPARTICLES

To perform the simulations, we have constructed a regular simple cubic lattice, with
lattice constant d, as illustrated in Figure 1(c). For all simulations, we use a slab shaped
spatial distribution (Figure 1(b)), this being the shape of the magnetic NP samples
measured by FMR.
We have performed two sets of simulations, which will be reported here:
(i) Variation of the aspect ratio, R, (thickness/length; R = z/x; where we maintain
x = y) of the particle distribution, that is varying the number of particles in the
z and x - directions.
(ii) Variation of the particle density, which can be controlled by simply varying
the lattice parameter d, where the particle density can be expressed as: N =
N/V = 1/d3. For the former, we have used random arrays of particles, while in
the latter we have performed simulations for both regular and random arrays
of NPs.
To assess these energy variations, we consider the angular dependence of Equation
(4), maintaining the azimuthal orientation constant. This illustrates the magnetic an-
isotropy introduced by the DDI, which is also proportional to the average interaction.
In Figure 3 (a), we show this variation for a regular array of (50 × 50 × 5) particles.
In this case the DDI variation can be written in the form:

DDI
E RA (ϑ ) = E 0 cos2 ϑ + E1 (11)

The size of the variation will be given by E0 and an offset E1 is also included. Both
constants will depend on the magnetic moment (magnetization) of the particles as well
as their average effective separation. The energy E0 is a measure of the maximum to
minimum energy of the angular dependence.
8 Advanced Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications

FIGURE 3 (a) Angular variation of the DDI energy for a regular cubic array of NPs
(50 × 50 × 5) as evaluated from (3) (points) and a fit to (4) (solid line). (b) Aspect
ratio (sample shape) dependence of E0 on R = z/x, the dashed line corresponds to the
demagnetizing energy of an uniformly magnetised sample.

In a series of simulations we have varied the aspect ratio R, from a thin layer (R ∼
0; R< 1) through a cube (R = 1) to a columnar shape (R >1). For such a shape varia-
tion, we see the dependence as illustrated in Figure 3 (b). We note that for slab type
geometries, E(0) > (π/2), that is positive E0, while for the cube shaped distribution,
we have E0 = 0 and E0 becomes negative for columnar samples distributions, that is,
DDI energy curve becomes inverted. The dashed line is based on the demagnetizing
energy with the dimensions of the NP distribution; E(R) = K(1 − R)/(1 + R), where
K is a constant (Schmool and Barandiarán, 1999). In Figure 4, we show the results
of simulations for both regular and random arrays of NPs, where we have varied the
density (or equivalently the filling factor, f = Vm/VTOT) of NPs in the assembly. For the
case of the random array calculations, a computer generated random number program
partially “occupies” a set number of lattice sites (depending on the density to be evalu-
ated). In these calculations, we repeat the simulation 20 times and obtain an average to
eliminate any distorted assembly distributions that may occur; the error in the random
distributions reflects the variance in these results. In both cases, we observe a density-
squared dependence.

FIGURE 4 Variation of DDI energy E0 as a function of particle density, ρN, for (a) random
particle arrays and (b) regular NP assemblies.
Recent Studies of Spin Dynamics in Ferromagnetic Nanoparticles 9

1.3 FERROMAGNETIC RESONANCE IN NANOPARTICLE ARRAYS

1.3.1 INTRODUCTION
While the basic theory of FMR in nanoparticle systems will use the usual formalism
common to ferromagnetic resonance experiments, we need to consider how the energy
contributions must be selected to account for the particular behavior of nanoparticle
assemblies. To obtain the resonance condition used in FMR we generally start by con-
sidering the Landau–Lifshitz equation with some form of damping. From this, the so-
called Smit–Beljers equation can be derived. This can be suitably modified to include
the possible existence of spin wave resonance modes, important in confined magnetic
systems, such as thin films and nanoparticles. This equation will require the energy
equation with full angular dependence from which we evaluate the second derivatives
with respect to the polar and azimuthal angles. We also require the equilibrium condi-
tions, which are used in conjunction with the resonance equation and are obtained by
setting the first derivatives of the energy, with respect to the angles, to zero.
Using the uniform FMR mode our resonance equation takes the form:

(1+ α ) ⎡⎛ ∂ 2 E ⎞⎛ ∂ 2 E ⎞ ⎛ ∂ 2 E ⎞ ⎤
2
⎛ ω ⎞2
⎜ ⎟ = ⎢⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝γ ⎠ M 0 sin 2 ϑ ⎢⎣⎝ ∂ϑ 2 ⎠⎝ ∂ϕ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ∂ϑ∂ϕ ⎠ ⎥⎦
(12)

where  is the angular frequency of the exciting field (microwave radiation), g is the
magnetogyric ratio and  is the Gilbert damping parameter. For spin wave resonance
additional terms must be added, see for example (Schmool and Barandiarán, 1998).

1.3.2 DIPOLAR INTERACTIONS

The essential ingredient in the evaluation of the resonance equation is the form of the
free energy density used in Equation (12). In previous studies, granular systems have
been considered by separating the magnetostatic energy into two components; one due
to the particle shape and another arising from the overall samples shape. Such a con-
sideration leads to the modified Netzelmann equation (Netzelmann, 1990; Dubowik,
1996; Kakazei et al., 1999):

1 ˜ p ⋅ M + 1 f 2M⋅ N
˜ s ⋅ M − fM⋅ H
E= f (1 − f )M⋅ N (13)
2 2
where f represents the volume fraction of particles; f = Vm/V, V being the total volume
of the sample, N˜ p is the particle shape tensor while N˜ s is that of the sample. In a recent
article we have shown that a more appropriate treatment would be to substitute the
sample shape energy with a summation of the dipolar interactions between all the
magnetic particles (Schmool et al., 2007).
10 Advanced Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications

In this case Equation (13) is replaced by:

1 ˜ p ⋅ M + E TOT
DDI
E= f (1 − f )M⋅ N − fM⋅ H (14)
2
where the dipolar energy term can be expressed as given in the dipole energy equations
shown above; Equation. (4) or (10), depending on the type of nanoparticle assembly
under consideration. We note that the form of the dipolar energy used is only valid for
the case where all magnetic moments are aligned, for example by an applied external
field. In FMR this is a valid assumption for weak magnetic anisotropies. Using this
analysis we can obtain the resonance equation in the following form (Schmool et al.,
2007; Schmool and Schmalzl, 2009):

sin θ cos(θ − ϑ 0 ) 2 sin θ cos2ϑ 0 ⎛ ω ⎞2

H appl − 2C H appl − ⎜ ⎟ = 0
sin ϑ 0 sin ϑ 0 ⎝γ ⎠ (15)

The angle ϑ0 is defined by the equilibrium condition:

C sin2ϑ 0 = H appl sin(θ − ϑ 0 ) (16)

where C is a constant which depends on details of the particle shape and assembly
type. For example, for spherical particles takes the form:

3
π r
C= MV (17)
6
<r> is the average particle radius. For non-spherical particles this constant will have an
additional term related to the particle shape anisotropy (Schmool et al., 2007).
In the case of the layered particle system we considered above we can write:

⎡ ⎤
N N
3MVm ⎢ n 1 (n −1) N N ' 1 ⎥
C= ∑ ∑ sin Φij − NN' ∑ ∑ r 3 cos Θik ⎥
8π ⎢ N(N −1) i=1 j =1 rij3
2 2

⎢⎣ j ≠i
i=1 k =1 ik
⎥⎦
(18)

where it has been assumed that all particles have the same volume (monodisper-

sion) and therefore magnetic moment, Vi = V j = V p such that ∑V i = NV p = Vm ,

i
Recent Studies of Spin Dynamics in Ferromagnetic Nanoparticles 11

∑V j = (N −1)V p ≈ Vm and M = mi /Vi . We see more clearly from this expression

j

the geometric factors, which must be evaluated in order to estimate the expected angu-
lar variation of the resonance field.

1.3.3 SURFACE ANISOTROPY

The perturbation of the crystal symmetry at the surface of nanoparticles should lead to
a magnetocrystalline anisotropy, which differs in magnitude and symmetry from that
of the bulk. The overall influence of surface anisotropy in a nanoparticle will depend
on the strength of the anisotropy constant itself and on the size of the particles. Such
effects will be more pronounced in smaller particles. With regards to the energy related
to surface anisotropy we can distinguish between cases where the surface spins have a
preferred orientation with respect to the crystalline axes, as described by (Kachkachi
and Bonet, 2006):

E Surf = −∑ K s (mi ⋅ uˆ i ) 2 (19)

i

where mi is the unit vector in the direction of the magnetization and uˆ i a unit vector
in the direction of the easy axis. Here Ks will be the anisotropy strength. This model
is known as the transverse surface anisotropy. The summation in Equation. (19) will
account for the combined energy of all the spins (i) in the nanoparticle. In this case
we can use a one-spin approach whereby all individual spins in the nanoparticle are
approximated by a macro-spin. A more realistic description is given by the Néel model
for surface anisotropy and can be expressed as (Kachkachi and Bonet, 2006):

Néel
E Surf = −K s ∑ ∑ (mi ⋅ eˆ ij ) 2 (20)
i j ≠i

where eˆ ij = rij /rij is an interatomic vector between surface atoms. This will naturally
account for the change in symmetry when a surface atom is encountered and is a mi-
croscopic model, which can be distinguished from the one-spin approximation. Such
expressions can be readily introduced into the FMR equation by summing the surface
anisotropy energy to the other components of the energy and applying the usual ap-
proach via Equation (12). Extension to a full multi-spin calculation is complex since
the N spins in the nanoparticle will have to be assessed for their individual resonance
condition giving rise to an N coupled resonance equation.

1.3.4 THEORY OF MULTISPIN SYSTEMS

Recent simulations based on a new model by (Sousa et al. 2009; Schmool, 2009) aim
to clarify the role of surface anisotropy in FM nanoparticle systems, where the theory
12 Advanced Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications

has been developed to study the resonance conditions in a multispin system. In this
model, a single nanoparticle is constructed of N – spins, which are exchange coupled,
the resonance condition for each spin (i) is then considered in its own specific effec-
eff
tive field, H i .
As such, the reduced free energy takes the form:

Hˆ i
zi

−ε i = − = h(eˆ h ⋅ si ) + ki A(si ) + si ⋅ ∑ λij s j

J j =1 (21)

In this equation, the first term represents the Zeeman energy, the second term is
the reduced anisotropy energy, which can be modified to include any relevant symme-
tries including spins at the particle surface and the final term is the reduced exchange
energy which accounts for the local coordination, zi. Using a similar approach to that
when considering the classical FMR theory, we obtain the N - spin resonance equation,
which is analogous to the Smit - Beljers equation, of the form:

∑ ∑{[H ik − Ωik (η)]I−η }

α ,β
δsk,β (0) = 0
β =ϑ ,ϕ k =1 (22)

where the following substitutions are used:

⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ∂ϑ kϑ i ε i ∂ϑ2kϕ i ε i ⎟
2

sin ϑ i
H ik (ε i ) = ⎜ ⎟
⎜⎜ 1 ∂ 2 ε 1
∂ϕ2kϕ i ε i ⎟⎟
ϕϑ i
⎝ sin ϑ k k i sin ϑ k sin ϑ i ⎠ (23)

⎛ −η −1⎞
Iη = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 −η⎠ (24)

iω
Ωik (η) = δ I
1+ η2 ik η (25)

Solutions for the resonance frequency are then obtained from the pure imaginary

[ ]
values of the matrix H ik I−η αβ . It is note worthy that the form of the kernel has a par-
ticular symmetry; the leading diagonal block terms (of 2 x 2) are of the form of the
Smit–Beljers equation for each spin, then off - diagonal (2 x 2) blocks will be interac-
Recent Studies of Spin Dynamics in Ferromagnetic Nanoparticles 13

tion terms between the various spins, where the further off-diagonal the further spins
are physically. Preliminary simulations illustrate the variation of the resonance (fre-
quency) spectra with possible indications of the influence of surface spins, which are
illustrated in Figure 5 for cubic- and spherical-shaped particles. The spectral analysis
is made as a function of the particle size (number of spins), this should show the influ-
ence of the surface spins which will be most important for the smaller particles. The
direct computed spectrum is comprised of the resonance frequencies of the individual
spins, which will be different for each spin environment (corner, edge, face, and so
on.). The corresponding correlation function is then evaluated to obtain the statisti-
cally most probable frequencies. The size dependence of the resonance frequency is
illustrated in Figure 5 (c) and 5 (d) for the cubic and spherical particles, respectively.
As the particles increase in size the resonance frequency tends to saturate. It will be
noted that the main resonance frequency saturates rapidly in the case of the cubic par-
ticles, which have a much larger surface area to volume ratio. Also, we note a small
contribution (shoulder) which appears to correspond to the resonance of the smallest
particle, which could be related to the surface spins resonance (Sousa et al. 2009,
Schmool, 2009).

FIGURE 5 (Continued)
14 Advanced Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications

FIGURE 5 (Continued)
Recent Studies of Spin Dynamics in Ferromagnetic Nanoparticles 15

FIGURE 5 Simulated frequency spectra for (a) cubic and (b) spherical shaped Fe
nanoparticles. The evolution of the dominant resonance peak for these are given in
(c) and (d), respectively.

1.3.5 RESONANCE LINEWIDTH

The resonance linewidth can provide valuable qualitative information. The inclusion
of a damping term in the Landau–Lifshitz equation of motion gives, for the case of the
so- called Gilbert damping:

1 ∂M α ⎛ ∂M ⎞
= −(M × H eff ) + ⎜M × ⎟ (26)
γ ∂t γM ⎝ ∂t ⎠
The Gilbert parameter, , represents the damping strength and is related to the intrinsic
linewidth by the relation (Vonsovskii, 1966; Farle, 1998):

α ⎛∂2E 1 ∂2E ⎞
ΔH 0 = ⎜ 2+ ⎟ (27)
M ⎝ ∂ϑ sin ϑ ∂ϕ 2 ⎠
There are other contributions to the linewidth that are related to material proper-
ties providing several broadening mechanisms. In general, we consider that anything
which gives rise to varying microscopic environments for individual spins will cause
some form of extrinsic broadening due to effective modification caused in the effective
field felt by the spins. This will produce a range of resonance conditions which, when
taken together in an experimental spectrum, will give rise to a superposition of the
various resonances resulting in an overall linewidth broadening. The various contribu-
tions, following Vittoria et al. (1967), can be expressed as:
16 Advanced Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications

⎛ ∂H ⎞ ⎛ ∂H ⎞ ⎛ ∂H ⎞ ⎛ ∂H ⎞
ΔH = ΔH 0 + ⎜ ⎟Δφ + ⎜ ⎟ ΔH i + ⎜ ⎟ ΔV + ⎜ ⎟ΔS
⎝ ∂φ ⎠ ⎝ ∂H i ⎠ ⎝ ∂V ⎠ ⎝ ∂S ⎠ (28)

Here the first term on the right-hand side represents the intrinsic linewidth given
by Equation (27), the second term is a contribution due to a spread in the crystal-
line axes, the third term arises from magnetic in homogeneities, the fourth term
arises from variations in grain size for particulate systems, and the final term is
the contribution due to surface spins of the magnetic particles. We have extended
this approach to include variations in particle volume and surface contributions in
nanoparticle systems. Here V will be a contribution from the distribution in par-
ticle volume e.g., log-normal behavior, which is frequently observed in nanoparticle
systems (Tronc et al., 2000).

1.4 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES

1.4.1 ANGULAR DEPENDENCE OF THE RESONANCE FIELD

Samples of γ − Fe2O3 NP assemblies, with mean particle diameters of 2.7, 4.6, and
7.3 nm, were measured by FMR as a function of the direction of the applied magnetic
field, from the perpendicular (0°) to the parallel (90°) orientations. In figure 6, we
show the angular dependence of the FMR resonance field of NPs with mean diameter
4.6 nm. Also shown is the theoretical variation of the resonance field as predicted by
Equation (15) and has only an angular dependence due to the DDI, where we assume
the particles are spherical. The points refer to experimental data and the line is the
theoretical fit. This curve is the representative of all samples measured, with other
sizes. We see an excellent agreement between the theory and experimental measure-
ments. This implies that the main influence on the angular dependent magnetic proper-
ties is due to DDI. The model assumes that all particles are of the same size with weak
magnetic anisotropy.
Recent Studies of Spin Dynamics in Ferromagnetic Nanoparticles 17

FIGURE 6 Angular dependence of the resonance field for samples of γ − Fe2O3 nanoparticles
with an average diameter of 4.6 nm. The line is a fit to Equation (15).

The layered type structures indicated can be realized with the deposition of dis-
continuous magnetic multilayers, in which the magnetic films are sub-coalescence
and effectively form a layer of nanoparticles. A multilayer system composed of ten
insulating/ferromagnetic bilayers given by [Al2O3(40 Å)/ Co80Fe20 (t)]10/Al2O3(30 Å),
where t is the effective thickness of the CoFe layer. This corresponds to an effective
thickness of a continuous layer with the same quantity of CoFe. We need to use this
effective thickness instead of an absolute thickness because below 18 Å, CoFe films
become discontinuous (Popplewell and Sakhnini, 1995; Kakazei et al. 2001). It will
be noted that the Al2O3 layers are insulating and only dipolar interactions between the
nanoparticles will be expected.
Figure 7 displays a sequence of representative FMR spectra as a function of the
angle of the applied field, θ , for the sample with an effective thickness of 13 Å. As the
angle increase from 0° to 90°, the resonance lines shift to lower fields. Figure 8 shows
the resonance fields, as well as theoretical simulations for these results, as a function
of θ , for the four samples studied. We can see that increasing the effective thick-
ness, the angular dependence of the resonance field becomes stronger. The difference
(H⊥ − H|| ) for the 13 Å sample is about 8750 Oe, while for the 7 Å sample it is only
2850 Oe. Simulations are based on a numerical solution of Equation (15), where the
fitting parameters are given in Table 1.
18 Advanced Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications

FIGURE 7 Representative spectra obtained for the [Al2O3(40 Å)/ Co80Fe20 (t)]10/Al2O3(30 Å),
sample with t = 13 Å for various angles.

FIGURE 8 Angular variation of the resonance field from out-of-plane 0° to in-plane 90° for
(a) t = 7 Å, (b) t = 9 Å, (c) t = 11 Å, and (d) t = 13 Å.
Recent Studies of Spin Dynamics in Ferromagnetic Nanoparticles 19

TABLE 1 Fitting parameters for the [Al2O3(40 Å)/ Co80Fe20 (t)]10/Al2O3(30 Å), sample with t =
13 Å used for angular measurements

t (Å) C (Oe) (/) (kOe)

7 990 3.30

9 1950 3.40

11 2800 3.45

13 3450 3.25

1.4.2 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENT STUDIES

In addition to room temperature measurements, measurements at low temperature
can also yield useful information. Angular studies were performed on the γ − Fe2O3
nanoparticles at fixed temperatures (5, 100 and, 295 K) where similar fitting proce-
dures have been performed. We have not explicitly included the presence of ‘bulk’
magnetocrystalline anisotropy into the energy. Given that the system we are consid-
ering has randomly oriented particles, that is, there is no preferential direction; we
would expect that this contribution would have no explicit angular dependence. De-
spite this we do expect a constant contribution for all configurations, as prescribed by
the random anisotropy model (Sankar et al. 1997). This can be simply incorporated

[ ]
2
into the resonance Equation (15) by taking (ω / γ ) → (ω / γ ) − H K , where HK is
2

the anisotropy field given by 2<K>/M, where <K> represents the average anisotropy
constant. The angular variation of Hres will in no way depend on this term and reflects
the variation of magnetization M in the superparamagnetic (SPM) regime, which can
be expressed using a weighted Langevin function (Goya et al., 2003):

⎛ HMVm ⎞
M = M s ∫ L⎜ ⎟ f (V )dV (29)
⎝ kB T ⎠
f(V) represents the log-normal distribution (Schmool and Schmalzl, 2007).
This can be expressed as:

⎪⎧ [ln(V /Vm )] ⎪⎫
2
1
f (V ) = exp⎨ − ⎬
2πσV ⎪⎩ 2σ 2 ⎪⎭
(30)

In this expression, Vm represents the mean volume of the particles and  is the
distribution width, obtained experimentally. In Figure 9 we illustrate the comparison
of the Langevin function with the experimental data. While this does not constitute a
20 Advanced Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications

proof, it shows the trend expected for this behavior. In Table 2 we give the fitting pa-
rameters used for the principal resonance of these data. Note that we are using a fixed
() = 3353 Oe, which corresponds to a frequency of 9.35 GHz and g = 2. We note
that the room temperature value for K compares reasonably well with the bulk value
of 4.7 x 105 erg cm-3 (Krupicka and Zaveta, 1975).

FIGURE 9 Comparison of experimental data points at the measured temperatures with the
Langevin function (line) for γ − Fe2O3 nanoparticles of mean diameter <D> = 4.6 nm.

TABLE 2 Fitting parameters for the γ − Fe2O3 nanoparticles of mean diameter <D> = 4.6 nm

T (K) C (Oe) HK (Oe) <K> (x 106 erg cm-3)

5 210 2223 3.034

100 180 713 1.13

295 61 463 0.239

Measurements were also performed in the discontinuous magnetic multilayer sys-

tem as a function of the sample temperature. The resonance field as a function of the
temperature for these samples is shown in Figure 10. Here we see that the resonance
field, Hres , reduces with T, from 300 to 100 K, in a manner expected from classical
FMR behavior of ferromagnetic materials. At approximately 90 K there is a significant
enhancement of Hres, which is very marked for lowest effective thicknesses.
Recent Studies of Spin Dynamics in Ferromagnetic Nanoparticles 21

FIGURE 10 Temperature dependence of the resonance field for the [Al2O3(40 Å)/ Co80Fe20
(t)]10/Al2O3(30 Å) discontinuous multilayers.

exp t exp t
In Figure 11, we plot Henh against 1/t, where H enh = H res − H res and H res is
the resonance field expected from a normal classical dependence, extrapolating the
high temperature trend to lower temperatures. Henh (1/t) shows a linear dependence in-
dicating that this enhancement may have its origin in surface anisotropy, which scales
as 1/t. It is clear that the surface contribution should grow with decreasing particle size,
since the surface area to volume ratio increases. Therefore, it appears that, although
the resonance equation used at room temperature is valid, for lower temperatures, < 90
K, we need to include an extra term corresponding to surface anisotropy to account for
the effective field. From Figure 10, it appears that the enhancement vanishes at 15K.

FIGURE 11 Maximum resonance field enhancement observed as a function of inverse

thickness for the discontinuous multilayers.
22 Advanced Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications

1.5 CONCLUSION
We have presented a theory for ferromagnetic resonance in magnetic nanoparticle sys-
tems, in which we use a direct approach to account for the dipolar interactions between
the magnetic particles. We have shown that the dipole–dipole interaction in ferromag-
netic nanoparticle assemblies is of great importance when considering the magnetic
properties of the assembly as a whole. By summing all interactions in the assembly,
it is possible to illustrate how this introduces a magnetic anisotropy into the system.
Results show that the spatial distribution will have a great influence on this overall
anisotropy and that random arrays of particles can be easily approximated to regular
arrays of NPs as they exhibit virtually identical results for the same particle density.
This is much simpler to treat from a theoretical point of view. The important factor is
the particle density and through this, the magnetic filling factor.
Measurements by FMR on NP assemblies of γ−Fe2O3 illustrate that the theory
presented here shows an excellent agreement with experiment. We are currently in-
vestigating the effects of the volume dispersion on the DDI and its influence in FMR.
We have also applied the theory to the discontinuous multilayer system [Al2O3(40 Å)/
Co80Fe20 (t)]10/Al2O3(30 Å), where the effective magnetic layer thickness, t, was varied
between 7 and 13 Å. We observe that the DDI theory adequately explains the angular
dependence of the resonance field and is directly related to the average dipole interac-
tion between the magnetic nanoparticles. From angular dependent FMR measurements
there appears to be a change in magnetic regime from thinner to thicker samples. For
samples with effective thicknesses of 7 and 9 Å there is an overall superparamagnetic
behavior, where dipolar coupling between particles almost vanishes, with each particle
acting in an isolated manner. On the other hand, thicker samples with effective thick-
nesses of 11 and 13 Å act as super ferromagnetic, through the mechanism of magnetic
dipolar coupling between nanoparticles. In this way, the magnetic dipolar interaction
reveals itself to play an important role in nanoparticulate systems.

SUMMARY
Magnetic nanoparticle assemblies present novel magnetic properties with respect to
their bulk constituent components. In addition to the surface effects produced by the
modified atomic symmetry in such low dimensional systems, the magnetic coupling
between the particles also plays a significant role in determining the overall mag-
netic behavior of a magnetic nanoparticle assembly. In this Chapter, we describe a
theoretical model that accounts for the dipolar magnetic interaction between particles.
There are two fundamental aspects of interest in our studies: the spatial distribution
of the particles and density of the particle. These aspects have been addressed in our
simulations, where we have performed simulations for regular and random arrays of
particles. We have discussed the general theory of ferromagnetic resonance (FMR)
applied to such systems and how the specific dipolar interactions can be incorpo-
rated for nanoparticle systems. The spatial distribution of particles can give valuable
information of the strength of the dipolar interaction between them and we will dem-
onstrate how this can be used in real systems. We have performed FMR experiments
on nanoparticle assemblies of  − Fe2O3 nanoparticles with different average particle
Recent Studies of Spin Dynamics in Ferromagnetic Nanoparticles 23

sizes (2.7–7.3 nm) and particle densities, where samples are in rectangular slab shape.
We have also performed detailed ferromagnetic resonance studies of [Al2O3(40 Å)/
Co80Fe20 (t)]10/Al2O3(30 Å),t = 7−13 Å, discontinuous multilayers, with measurements
taken as a function of the angle of the applied static magnetic field with respect to the
sample at room and low temperatures. Measurements were performed as a function of
the angle between the sample plane and applied magnetic field. Recent studies have
shown that the incorporation of the dipolar interactions into FMR theory can explain
the experimental results for angular studies in magnetic nanoparticle assemblies. A
brief overview is also given of the general theory of FMR in a multispin particle.

KEYWORDS

 Ferromagnetic Nanoparticles
 Ferromagnetic Resonance
 Dipole-dipole Interactions
 Magnetic Anisotropy
 Spherical Coordinate System

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1 CHAPTER 1: RECENT STUDIES OF SPIN

DYNAMICS IN FERROMAGNETIC NANOPARTICLES

1. Antoniak, C., Lindner J., and Farle, M. Magnetic

anisotropy and its temperature dependence in iron-rich x1-x
nanoparticles. Europhys. Lett, 70, 250 (2005).

2. Baibich, M. N. et al. Giant Magnetoresistance of (001)

Fe/(001)Cr Magnetic Superlattice. Phys. Rev. Lett, 61,
2472 (1988).

3. Berger, R., Bissey J. C., Kliava, J., Daubric, H. and

Estournès, C. Temperature dependence of superparamagnetic
resonance of iron oxide nanoparticles. J. Magn. Magn.
Mater, 234, 535 (2001).

4. Dormann, J. L., Fiorani, D., and Tronc, E. Magnetic

relaxation in fine-particle system. Adv. Chem. Phys., 98,
283 (1997).

5. Dubowik, J. Shape anisotropy of magnetic

heterostructures. Phys. Rev. B, 54, 1088 1996.

6. Farle, M. Ferromagnetic resonance of ultrathin metallic

layers. Rep. Prog. Phys., 61, 75 (1998).

7. Goya, G. F., Berquó, T. S., Fonseca, F. C., and Morales,

M. P. Static and dynamic magnetic properties of spherical
magnetite nanoparticles. J. Appl. Phy, 94, 3520 (2003)

8. Hylton, T. L., Coffey, K. R., Parker, M. A., and Howard,

J. K. Giant Magnetoresistance at Low Fields in
Discontinuous NiFe-Ag Multilayer Thin Films. Science, 261,
1021. (1993).

9. Kachkachi, H. and Bonet, E. Surface-induced cubic

anisotropy in nanomagnets. Phys. Rev, B, 73, 224402
(2006).

10. Kakazei, G.N., Kravets, A. F., Lesnik, N. A., Pereira

de Azevedo, M. M., Pogorelov, Yu G., and Sousa, J. B..
Ferromagnetic resonance in granular thin films. J. Appl.
Phy., 85, 5654 (1999).

11. Kakazei, G. N., Pogorelov, Yu. G., Lopes, A. M. L.,

Sousa, J. B., Cardoso, S., Freitas, P. P., Pereira de
Azevedo, M. M., and Snoeck, E. Tunnel magnetoresistance and
magnetic ordering in ion-beam sputtered Co80Fe20/Al2O3
discontinuous multilayers. J. Appl. Phys., 90, 4044
(2001).

12. Krupicka, S. and Zaveta, K. Magnetic Oxides, part I.

D.J. Craik (Ed.), Wiley Interscience (1975).

13. Maksymowicz, A. Z. Spin-wave spectra of insulating

films: Comparison of exact calculations and a
single-wave-vector model. Phys. Rev. B, 33, 6045 (1986).

14. Netzelmann, U. Ferromagnetic resonance of particulate

magnetic recording tapes. J. Appl. Phys. 68, 1800 (1990)

15. Popplewell, J., and Sakhnini, L. The dependence of the

physical and magnetic properties of magnetic fluids on
particle size. J. Magn. Magn. Mater, 149, 72 (1995).

16. Puszkarski, H. Theory of Surface States in Spin Wave

Resonance.Prog. Surf. Sci. 9, 191 (1979).

17. Raikher, Yu. L. ,and Stepenov, V. I. Ferromagnetic

resonance in a suspension of singledomain particles. Phys.
Rev. B, 50, 6250 (1994).

18. Sankar, S., Dieny, B., and Berkowitz, A. Spin-polarized

tunneling in discontinuous CoFe/ HfO2 multilayers. J. Appl.
Phys., 81, 5512 (1997).

19. Schmool, D. S. and Barandiarán, J. M. Ferromagnetic

resonance and spin wave resonance in multiphase materials:
theoretical considerations. J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 10,
10679 (1998).

20. Schmool, D. S. and Barandiarán, J. M. New phenomena in

the study of shape effects in ferromagnetic resonance. J.
Magn. Magn. Mater., 191, 211 (1999).

21. Schmool, D. S., Rocha, R., Sousa, J. B., Santos, J. A.

M., Kakazei, G. N., Garitaonandia, J.S., and Lezama, L.
The role of dipolar interactions in magnetic nanoparticles:
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5 CHAPTER 5: NOVEL DIELECTRIC
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6 CHAPTER 6: ZnO NANOSTRUCTURES AND ITS
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13 CHAPTER 13: SUPER-PARAMAGNETIC IRON
OXIDE NANOPARTICLES (SPIONS) AS
NANO-FLOTILLAS FOR HYPERTHERMIA: A
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