Introduction to

Transportation: Lecture 3

Characteristics of Driver, the

Pedestrian, the Vehicle, and the Road
Performance of the Driver, the pedestrian and the
Vehicle Impact the following design parameters

 Length of acceleration  Location of traffic

and deceleration lanes control devices
 Maximum highway
grades
 Speed limits
 Minimum turning radius  Traffic signal timing
 Sight passing distances  Stopping sight
 Lane widths distances
 Clearance heights  Roadside safety
features
Topics covered
 Driver Characteristics
 Vehicle Characteristics
 Static and Dynamic Characteristics
 Road Characteristics
Components of Highway Mode
 Need to understand the limitations and
interactions between the 4
 Driver
 Pedestrian
 Vehicle
◼ Heavy trucks
◼ Passenger vehicles
◼ buses
◼ Bike (but may have separate facilities)
 Road
Design Driver
Wide range of system users
What range of drivers use the system?
◼ Ages: 18 year old to 80 year old
◼ Different mental and physical states
◼ Physical (sight, hearing, etc)
◼ experience
Design Driver: driver most expected
to use facility (familiar or unfamiliar?)
 Percent of Driving Population

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
< 20

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

Age Groups
60-64

65-69

70-74

75-79
Age distribution of drivers

80-84

> 84
Human Characteristics
Perception-Reaction Time
Visual Reception
Walking Speed
Hearing Perception
Actions taken by drivers depend on
their ability to receive, evaluate, and
respond to situations – dog darting
into roadway
 Visual Reception

 Visual Acuity: Ability to see fine details

Static (stationary objects):
◼ Depends on brightness
◼ Increases with increasing brightness up to ~ 3
candles (cd/sq ft) -- remains constant after that
◼ Contrast
◼ Time (0.5 to 1.0 second)
Dynamic (ability to detect moving objects)
◼ Clear vision within a conical angle 3 to 5º
◼ Fairly clear within 10 to 12º
◼ Key criteria in determining placement of traffic
signs
Visual perception
 Peripheral Vision: Ability to see
objects beyond the cone of clearest
vision (160 degrees)
◼ Age dependent
◼ Objects seen but details and color are
not clear
Cone of Vision
 Visual Reception

Color Vision: Ability to differentiate

one color from another
◼ Lack of ability = color blindness
◼ Combinations to which the eye is the
most sensitive
Black and white
Black and yellow

Key in determining traffic signs colors

 Visual Reception

Vision: 20/20 can read 1/3 inch

letters @ 20'
Example: a driver with 20/20 vision can see a sign from a distance of 90 feet
if the letter size in 2 inches. How close would a person with 20/50 vision have
to be to see the same sign?

X = (90 feet) * (20/50) = 36 feet

How large would the lettering have to be for a person with 20/60 vision to see
the same sign from 90 feet?

h = 2 inches (60/20) = 6 inches

 Visual Reception

Glare Recovery: Ability to recover

from the effects of glare
Dark to light : 3 seconds -- headlights in
the eye
Light to dark: 6 seconds – turning lights
off
Usually a concern for night driving

Need to provide light transitions

Aging’s impact of vision
 Older persons experience low light
level
◼ Rules of thumb – after 50 the light you
can see halves with each 10 years
 Glare – overloading eye with light
◼ Older drivers can take twice as long to
recover from glare
 Poor discrimination of color
 Poor contrast sensitivity
Visual Reception
Depth perception
◼ Ability to estimate speed and distance
Passing on two-lane roads
Judging gaps
Signs are standardized to aid in perceiving
distance
◼ Very young and old have trouble judging
gap
 Age distribution of drivers
involved in TWSC crashes

Taken from Preston and Storm, “Reducing Crashes at Rural Thru-Stop

Controlled Intersections,” Mid-Continent Transportation Syposium, Ames, IA
Hearing
 Ability to detect warning sounds
 Sirens, horns
Perception-Reaction Process
 4 stages
 Perception
◼ Sees or hears situation (sees deer)
 Identification
◼ Identify situation (realizes deer is in road)
 Emotion
◼ Decides on course of action (swerve, stop, change
lanes, etc)
 Reaction (volition)
◼ Acts (time to start events in motion but not
actually do action)
 Foot begins to hit brake, not actual deceleration
Perception-Reaction Process
Perception
Identification

Emotion
Reaction (volition)

PIEV
Used for Signal Design and Braking Distance
Typical Perception-Reaction
time range is:
0.5 to 7 seconds
Affected by a number of factors.
What are they?
Perception-Reaction Time
Factors
Environment:
Urban vs. Rural
Night vs. Day
Wet vs. Dry
Age
Physical Condition:
Fatigue
Drugs/Alcohol
Perception-Reaction Time
Factors
 medical condition
 visual acuity
 ability to see (lighting conditions, presence of fog,
snow, etc)
 complexity of situation (more complex = more
time)
 complexity of necessary response
 expected versus unexpected situation (traffic light
turning red vs. dog darting into road)
From: Driver Characteristics and Impairment at Various BACs
H. Moskowitz, M. Burns, D. Fiorentino, A. Smiley, P. Zador
From: Driver Characteristics and Impairment at Various BACs
H. Moskowitz, M. Burns, D. Fiorentino, A. Smiley, P. Zador
How are these factored into design

Design criteria must be

based on the capabilities
and limitations of most
drivers and pedestrians
Pedestrians
Characteristics similar to driver
Design of pedestrian facilities
Signal timing – get peds across during
red phase
Pedestrians
Walking Speed varied between 3 to 8
ft/sec

Design value is 4 ft/sec

Used to calculate safe pedestrians

crossing time
Bicycles
 On-road
 Separate facilities
 Similar to driver (perception-reaction)
 Divided by AASHTO into 3 classes
◼ Class A: experienced or advanced bicyclists
Consider bike as a vehicle and ride comfortably with
traffic
Usually not allowed on freeways
◼ Class B: less experienced bicyclists
Usually prefer neighborhood streets and bike
facilities
◼ Class C: children on their own or with parents
Mainly residential
Transportation Facilities Users
Pedestrians
Bicyclists
Vehicles: AASHTO set 3 general classes of
vehiclesa Total of 15 different design vehicles
Passenger Cars
Trucks
Buses/RV
We need to know their Characteristics in
order to produce and efficient Design
Design Vehicle
Class of vehicle that sets design
criteria
Characteristics of “design” vehicle are
used to determine criteria for design,
sight-distance requirements, etc.
 Vehicle Characteristics
 Static: those characteristics that DO NOT
depend on the interaction with the
transportation facility

 Dynamic: those characteristics that DO

depend on the interaction with the
transportation facility
Important factor in determining the
design standards for the physical
components of the transportation facility
Static Characteristics
Size:
Design of lane widths, parking bays, etc…
Vertical clearance
Weight:
Pavement design, bridge design, axle loads
Maximum grade

Radius of Curvature:
Intersection design
Interchange ramps
Design Vehicle
Table 3.2 - Page 51

For a Passenger Car (P):

Height: 4.25 ft
Width: 7 ft
Length: 19 ft
Front overhang: 3 ft
Rear overhang: 5 ft
Wheelbase: 11 ft
Minimum Turning Path for
Passenger Design Vehicle
Vehicle Regulation and
Dimensions
 Vehicle attribute regulated
◼ Vehicle condition
◼ Vehicle weight and weight distribution
Bridge formula
Axle loading
◼ Vehicle dimensions
Total length
Length of trailers
Number of trailers
Height
Width
Why do we regulate dimensions
Safety
Create uniformity
Protect the infrastructure
Establish standards for design
Vehicle types (triples are not
shown)
Historical Perspective on
Dimensional Regulation
 Dimensional regulation was generally promulgated
through tradition and regulatory legacy
 First dimensional regulation appeared in
Pennsylvania and Massachusetts around 1913
◼ Based on practice at the time
◼ Ratcheted up by industry following the ever since
 By 1933 every state had their own regulation
 In 1932 AASHO recommended a minimum national
size and weight standard
◼ 16,000 lbs axle load
◼ 34 Semi-trailer length
Historical Perspective on
Dimensional Regulation
 1946 AASHO recommended another national
minimum standard
◼ 18,000 lbs, single axle load
◼ 32,000 lbs, tandem axle load
◼ 73,280 GVW for vehicle with extreme axles 57
feet apart following the bridge formula
 In 1956 the first federal regulation on
dimension was created and adopted the
AASHO recommendations as a minimum on
the interstate system with state level
grandfathering of prior regulation
Historical Perspective on
Dimensional Regulation
 In 1974 increased the minimums on the
interstate
◼ 46 foot long trailers – 60 foot overall
◼ Allow 8.5 foot widths
◼ 80,000 GVW – relaxing the bridge formula
◼ 20,000 lbs single axle load
◼ 34,000 lbs tandem axle load
◼ State did not have to adopt the higher limits and
a barrier of states along the Mississippi River did
not.
Historical Perspective on
Dimensional Regulation
 STAA of 1982
◼ Created uniformity of size and weight to 1974
standards on the interstate and the National
Highway Network
◼ Allow doubles with twin pup trailers
◼ Required reasonable access to services from the
National Highway Network
◼ Continued to allow states to issue divisible
permits for Longer Combination Vehicles
◼ ISTEA of 1991 froze the expansion of LCV
networks
Historical Perspective on
Dimensional Regulation
 14 jurisdictions permit LCVs
◼ Turnpike doubles with staging areas
◼ Rocky mountain doubles
◼ Triples with staging areas
◼ Intermediate doubles
Usually for natural resource hauling
Bridges
 Bridge Issues
◼ Many HS-15, and HS-20 design bridges
are still in use
Load Distribution
Bridge Design Type Gross Weight Front Axle Rear Axles
HS-15 30,000 lb (2 axles) 6,000 lb 24,000 lb
HS-20 40,000 lb (2 axles) 8,000 lb 32,000 lb
HS-20 72,000 lb (5 axles) 8,000 lb 32,000 lb
HS-25 90,000 lb (5 axles) 10,000 lb 40,000 lb
Bridge Formula
 NL 
Bridge formula W = 500 + 12 N + 36 
 N −1 
W = maximum weight on any group of two or more consecutive
axles to the nearest 500 lb
L= distance between the extremes of any group of two or more
consecutive axles (in ft.)
N= number of axles in the group under consideration

Governs the maximum load from consecutive axles that can be

imposed on a bridge without overstressing the bridge elements
Bridge formula graphic
Application of Bridge Formula
• Five axle truck
• One single axle (steering axle) - 51 ft separation from
steering axle to rear portion of back tandem
• Two tandem axles (34 ft separation for tandems)
• Each set centered 4 ft apart
 4(34) 
W = 500 + 12( 4) + 36  = 65,000 lbs
 4 −1 

(for the group of axles - steering to rear tandem)

Turning Radius
 Low speed and high speed off-
tracking and swept path

1
2
.5
m
5
.3
m
Kinematic (Dynamic)
Characteristics
Acceleration (Constant or variable):

Passing maneuvers
Gap acceptance
Dimensions of freeway ramps and passing
lanes
Motion elements (Distance and Velocity)
Dynamic Characteristics
Hill Climbing Ability

Cornering Dynamics

Braking Distance
Hill Climbing Ability
Force acting on a vehicle:
Engine Power
Air Resistance
Grade Resistance
Rolling Resistance
Friction
Weight
Air Resistance
Resistance due to air in front as well as friction of air
acting around it
ƒ(cross-sectional area, density of air, speed, etc)
Ra = 0.5 (2.15pCDAu2) =
where: g
Ra = air resistance force (lb)
p = density of air
CD = aerodynamic drag coefficient
A = frontal cross-sectional area (ft2)
u = vehicle speed (mph)
g = acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/sec)
Air Resistance
p = density of air
at sea level = 0.0766 lb/ft3

CD = aerodynamic drag coefficient

passenger cars = 0.4
trucks = 0.5 to 0.8
 Grade Resistance

• Movement against a grade

• Weight acts downward, creates force acting in opposite direction
to motion
• Uphill vehicle must apply acceleration to maintain constant speed
• Downhill vehicle must apply brakes to retard motion and maintain
constant speed
• Most significant for heavy-trucks

Rg = w x g
where
Rg = grade resistance

Weight
W = weight
g = grade (decimal)
Rolling Resistance
• Forces within the vehicle itself that retards motion
• Due to friction effects of moving vehicle parts and
friction between tire and pavement
For passenger cars:
Rr = (Crs + 2.15Crvu2)W
where:
Rr = rolling resistance (lb)
Crs = constant (usually 0.012 for passenger cars
Crv = constant (usually 0.65 x 10-6 sec2/ft2)
u = velocity (mph)
W = gross vehicle weight
Rolling Resistance
For trucks:
Rr = (Ca + 1.47Cbu)W
where:
Rr = rolling resistance (lb)
Ca = constant (usually 0.02445 for trucks)
Cb = constant (usually 0.00044 sec/ft)
u = velocity (mph)
W = gross vehicle weight
Curve Resistance
• External forces acting on a vehicle from maneuvering
around a curve
• Retards forward motion
Rc = 0.5 (2.15u2W)
gR
where:
Rc = cornering resistance (lb)
u = velocity (mph)
W = gross vehicle weight
g = acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/sec2)
R = radius of curve
Power Requirements
• Engine power required to overcome air grade, curve,
and friction resistance to keep vehicle in motion
• Power: rate at which work is done
• 1 HP = 550 lb-ft/sec

1.47 Ru
P=
550
where;

P = horse power

R = sum of resistance

Weight
u = speed (mi/hr)
 Example

How much force does the engine of a passenger car need to

provide to maintain 60 mph on a 3% grade around a 1000 foot
horizontal curve? Cross sectional area = 40 ft2, weight = 4,500 lb
P = 1.47 Rsu
550
Air resistance = Ra = 0.5 (2.15pCDAu2) =
g
Ra= 0.5(2.15(0.0766 lb/ft3)(0.4)(40 ft2)(602 mph)
32.2 ft/sec2
Ra= 147.3 lb
 Example

How much force does the engine of a passenger car need to

provide to maintain 60 mph on a 3% grade around a 1000 foot
horizontal curve? Cross sectional area = 40 ft2, weight = 4,500 lb
P = 1.47 Rsu
550

Grade Resistance = Rg = w x g = 4,500 lb x 0.03

Rg= 135.0 lb
 Example

How much force does the engine of a passenger car need to

provide to maintain 60 mph on a 3% grade around a 1000 foot
horizontal curve? Cross sectional area = 40 ft2, weight = 4,500 lb
P = 1.47 Rsu
550

Rolling resistance = Rr = (Crs + 2.15Crvu2)W

Rr= (0.012 + 2.15(0.65 x 10-6 sec2/ft2)(60 mph)2)4,500 lb

Rr= 76.6 lb
 Example
How much force does the engine of a passenger car need to
provide to maintain 60 mph on a 3% grade around a 1000 foot
horizontal curve? Cross sectional area = 40 ft2, weight = 4,500 lb
P = 1.47 Rsu
550
Curve resistance = Rc = 0.5 (2.15u2W)
gR
Rc= 0.5(2.15 (60 mph)2(4,500 lb))
(32.2 ft/sec2)(1000 ft)
Rr= 540.8 lb
 Example

How much force does the engine of a passenger car need to

provide to maintain 60 mph on a 3% grade around a 1000 foot
horizontal curve? Cross sectional area = 40 ft2, weight = 4,500 lb
P = 1.47 Rsu
550
Rs = 147.3 lb + 135.0 lb + 76.6 lb + 540.8 lb = 899.8 lb

P = 1.47(899.8 lb) (60 mph) = 144.35 HP

550
Braking Distance

Db
u

wf cos g
G
1.0

w
a
g
w
w sin g

g
Distance to stop vehicle
Braking Distance
w
w sin g − wf cos g = a
g
g = acceleration of gravity
− u2 a = acceleration of vehicle
a= u = initial velocity when
2x brakes are applied
Db = x cos g Db = braking distance
γ = angle of incline
u 2 (mph)
Db( ft ) = f = coefficient of friction
30( f  G ) G = grade (decimal)
Coefficient of friction
Pavement Maximum Slide
condition
Good, dry 1.00 0.80

Good, wet 0.90 0.60

Poor, dry 0.80 0.55

Poor, wet 0.60 0.30

Packed snow and 0.25 0.10

Ice
Braking Distance
Db = braking distance
u 2 (mph) u = initial velocity when brakes
Db( ft ) = are applied
(
30 f  G ) f = coefficient of friction
G = grade (decimal)
Assumes a rate of deceleration, driver may brake harder
a = 11.2 ft/sec2 normal
a = 14.8 ft/sec2 emergency, use tables from AASHTO
Friction is a function of pavement condition (wet, icy), tire, and
roadway surface
Depends on weight, but some assumptions are made to arrive at a
standard equation
Braking Distance
• AASHTO represents friction as a/g which is a function
of the roadway, tires, etc
• Can use when deceleration is known (usually not) or
use previous equation with friction
Db = braking distance
Db = __U12_-_ U22 u = initial velocity when brakes are
30({a/g} ± G) applied
a = vehicle acceleration (11.2 normal,
U1 > U2 14.8 emergency)
g = acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/sec2)
G = grade (decimal)
Stopping distance
Practical Stopping Distance

700
Stopping Distance

600
500
400
Series1
300
200
100
0
0 20 40 60 80
Speed in MPH
Grade impacts on stopping
Friction impact on stopping
Varying Friction
Stopping Distance in Feet

1800
1600
1400
1200 Friction = 0.5
1000
Friction = 0.25
800
600 Friction = 0.1
400
200
0
0 20 40 60 80
Miles per Hour
Impact of reaction time
Varying Reaction Time

800 2.5 second

Stopping
Distance

600 reaction time

1.5 second
400
reaction time
200 0.6 second
0 reaction time
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Miles per Hour
Road Characteristics
Sight distance

Distance a driver can see ahead at any specific time

Must allow sufficient distance for a driver to
perceive/react and stop, swerve etc when necessary
Stopping Sight Distance
Distance to stop vehicle, includes P/R time and braking
distance
S = 1.47ut + _____u2_____
30({a/g} ± G)
where:
Db = braking distance
u = initial velocity when brakes are applied
f = coefficient of friction
G = grade (decimal)
t = time to perceive/react
a = vehicle acceleration
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/sec2)
Stopping Sight Distance

With assumed acceleration, using friction

S = 1.47ut + _____u2_____
30(f ± G)
where:
Db = braking distance
u = initial velocity when brakes are applied
f = coefficient of friction
G = grade (decimal)
t = time to perceive/react
SSD Example
 A vehicle is traveling at uniform velocity, at t0 the
driver realizes a vehicle is stopped in the road ahead
and the driver brakes
 Grade = + 1%
 tP/R = 0.8 sec
 The stopped vehicle is just struck, assume vf = 0
 The distance since the driver realize the stopped
vehicle till he stopped is 405 feet
 Assume normal deceleration (11.2 ft/sec2)
 Should the police office at the scene cite the driver for
traveling over the 55 mph posted speed limit?
SSD Example
SSD = 1.47ut + _____u2_____
30({a/g} ± G)

Stopping distance = 405 feet

405 feet = 1.47u(0.8 sec) + ________u2________
30({11.2/32.2} + 0.01)
405 feet = 1.17u + ________u2________
30(0.358)
405 feet = 1.17u + ________u2________
10.73
Solving for u, u = 59.9 mph
Decision Sight Distance

When situation is unexpected or driver makes unusual

maneuvers or under difficult to perceive situations
Requires higher P/R time
Depends on type of maneuver made and roadway
setting (urban vs. rural)
Use table 3.5 from Text, page 75
Passing Sight Distance
• Minimum distance required to safely complete passing maneuver
on 2-lane two-way highway
• Allows time for driver to avoid collision with approaching vehicle
and not cut off passed vehicle when upon return to lane
• Assumes:
1. Vehicle that is passed travels at uniform speed
2. Speed of passing vehicle is reduced behind passed vehicle as it
reaches passing section
3. Time elapses as driver reaches decision to pass
4. Passing vehicle accelerates during the passing maneuver and
velocity of the passing vehicle is 10 mph greater than that of the
passed vehicle
5. Enough distance is allowed between passing and oncoming vehicle
when the passing vehicle returns to its lane
Passing Sight Distance
Passing Sight Distance
Dpassing = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
d1 = distance traveled during P/R time to point where
vehicle just enters the left lane

d1 = 1.47t1(u – m + at1)
2
where
t1 = time for initial maneuver (sec)
u = average speed of passing vehicle (mph)
a = acceleration (mph/s)
m = difference between speeds of passing and passed
vehicle
Passing Sight Distance

Dpassing = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

d2 = distance traveled by vehicle while in left lane

d2 = 1.47ut2
where:
u = speed of passing vehicle (mph)
t2 = time spent passing in left lane (sec)
Passing Sight Distance

Dpassing = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

d3 = clearance distance varies from 110 to 300 feet

d4 = distance traveled by opposing vehicle during passing

maneuver

d4 usually taken as 2/3 d2