SS121 ETHICS
LESSON 2
The Moral Agent
Key Concepts
2.1 Human Acts vs. Acts of Man
2.2 Culture and Morality
2.3 Cultural Relativism
2.4 Universal Values
2.5 The Filipino Way
FIRST SEMESTER 2022 -2023
DAVAO DEL NORTE STATE COLLEGE
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Lesson 2: The Moral Agent Learning
Outcomes:
• Distinguish the difference between human acts and acts of man.
• Define culture and cultural relativism.
• Reconcile the belief on universal values versus cultural determinism.
• Identify universal values.
• Intensify the practice of Filipino values.
• Check their personal growth against the stages of development.
Activity:
Instructions: Identify whether the following action is done voluntarily or involuntarily. Check (
) the box of your corresponding answer.
Action Voluntary Action Involuntary Action
1. Public speaking
2. Hearing the
birds chirping
3. Walking down the aisle
in the church
4. Breathing
5. Sweating
6. Your heart beats faster
when you see your
crush
7. Kicking
8. Smiling
Analysis:
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After identifying the actions above as voluntary or involuntary, what was your basis in
classifying them as voluntary or involuntary?
I classified the action as voluntary because
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________.
I classified the action as involuntary because
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________.
Abstraction:
HUMAN ACTS VS. ACTS OF MAN
Ethics is primarily concerned with man’s action. In this light, it is important to know and
distinguish man’s action, because not all actions are subject to the examination of ethics. Hence,
the distinction between human act and act of man should be drawn as used and understood in
ethics.
Montemayor (1994) defines human acts as:
1. Voluntary (free) acts of man.
2. Acts done with knowledge and consent.
3. Acts which are proper to man which is acted with knowledge and freedom of the will.
4. Acts which man is conscious, under his control, and for which man is responsible of it.
5. Acts which man is the master, as man has the power and control of doing and not
doing as he pleases.
Human acts, therefore, are actions done with KNOWLEDGE, FREEDOM, and VOLUNTARINESS.
a. KNOWLEDGE - Has intellectual knowledge of the act;
- When the doer is conscious and aware of the reason and the consequences of
one’s action – good or bad.
b. FREEDOM - When the doer acts on its own initiative and choice without being forced
to do so.
c. VOLUNTARINESS – An act is done voluntarily or willfully when the doer
approves/consents to the act and owning it as its own.
- It requires knowledge and freedom.
For instance, cheating - according to our school’s regulation, cheating is an act of
dishonesty, hence, it is not tolerated and permitted in any form (KNOWLEDGE). But despite of
this knowledge, students remain free, they have the FREEDOM to follow or not to follow such
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regulation. If the student opted to follow the regulation, its spring from his/her VOLUNTARINESS
or WILLINGNESS. And if the student opted to cheat, it is still the same, he/she acts voluntarily.
An act is a human act when the three qualities are present. The children below the age of
reason (when the time man can distinguish right and wrong; around 8 years old), insane, and the
like, are morally exempted. It is due to their incapacity to discern and to distinguish right from
wrong that makes them inept in making moral judgment. Hence, actions committed under this
circumstance cannot be called human act.
On the other hand, acts of man are actions done according to our biological and
physiological make up. It is instinctive, involuntary, and not within the control of the will
(Agapay, 1991). Ex. Breathing, digestion, sweating, snoring, sneezing, and the like. As such, it is
not the concern of ethics.
CULTURE AND MORALITY
What is culture?
“The last thing a fish would ever notice would be the water” (from a famous anthropologist)
Culture is a complex phenomenon. It contains nearly all aspects of shared human
experience. The Father of Sociology, Emile Durkheim asserted that culture has the power over
individuals to create beliefs such as belief in God. Durkheim added that with more people holding
the same beliefs, social order is also strengthened. Meanwhile, the Father of cultural
anthropology, Edward Taylor stated that in general, culture is the way of life of a group of people
that “includes their knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and
habits acquired by man as a member of society”. Culture includes language, beliefs, values,
norms, behaviors, and even material objects that are passed from one generation to another.
5 Basic Elements of Culture
SYMBOLS
Symbols can be anything that a group of people find
meaningful.
Ex: in religious group, the cross is a symbol for
Christianity while the crescent is for Islam.
LANGUAGE
Language is a complex symbol system that enable human beings to communicate either verbally
or through writing.
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BELIEFS
Beliefs are assumptions or convictions held to be true or by an individual or a group of people.
These assumption/convictions could be about events, people or things.
Ex. Ancient civilizations attributed events to spirits and gods. This is what we now call as
“superstitious beliefs”.
VALUES
Values are culturally acceptable standard of behavior. It is what a person considers important or
beneficial in life.
NORMS
Norm is an informal guideline by a particular group of people or social unit about what is
considered is normal or correct/incorrect social behavior. For instance, The Filipino norm in
relating to other people to other people is to get along well with others, even with complete
strangers. This Filipino traits called “pakikisama”.
How does culture affect human behavior?
Since human beings are naturally social creatures, we as people, are also:
• Naturally drawn to participate in culture.
• People want to belong.
• To be accepted by peers.
• We also need protection from danger and being part of social group not only feeds our
need to be accepted, it also increases the human being chance of survival.
How does culture define moral behavior?
The Republic cited three critical element that jointly influence the human person’s moral
development. These elements are:
• native traits (or what we might call genetic characteristics)
• Early childhood experience
• One’s cultural surroundings
Plato implied that if a person cultural surroundings reward conformity to agreeable norms it
would lead the person to behave much better and quell undesirable conduct. He also expressed
that the power of culture over an individual is more potent in children because they do not have
any pre-existing values.
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How moral character is developed?
First, let us take the most basic definition of the terms moral, character, and moral
character. MORAL is “concerned with the principles of right and wrong behavior or the goodness
and badness of the human character”. CHARACTER is defined as “the mental and moral qualities
distinct to an individual”. MORAL CHARACTER refers to the “existence (or lack of) virtues such as
integrity, courage, fortitude, honest and loyal”.
Philosophical Views on Moral Character
Confucian Traditions
The philosophy of moral development is rooted in ancient views. For Confucian tradition,
oral development was attributed to “four beginnings” of the human personality. These four
beginnings were considered as seeds of human personality that will naturally unfold to become
human activities.
The four beginnings in Confucian traditions are:
• The heart of compassion, which leads to Jen
• The heart of righteousness, which leads to Yi The heart of
propriety, which leads to Li The heart of wisdom, which leads to
Zhi.
Aristotle & Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethics is an approach that reduces the emphasis on rules, consequence and
particular acts. Instead, virtue ethics focus on the quality of the person. Although action and
consequence are significant, virtue ethics does not focus on whether an action is right or wrong;
nor on whether the consequence are good or bad. It is more concerned with whether the person
is acting as a virtuous person should act in the situation.
Virtue Ethics is largely identified with Aristotle. In ancient western philosophy, Aristotle's
discussion on moral character, particularly virtue, is the most influential view on the topic.
Aristotle argued that each person has a built-in desire to be virtuous and that if a person is
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focused on being a good person the right action will follow effortlessly, and you will do good
things.
So what does it mean to be virtuous?
Virtue for Greeks is equivalent to excellence. A person of virtue is someone who
performs the distinctive activity of being human well. The principle of being virtuous is called
“DOCTRINE OF THE GOLDEN MEAN” – that moral behavior is the one that is in the middle of
two extreme behaviors (or what he called vices). When he said “extreme behavior”, it meant the
act was either excessive of deficient.
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Kohlberg’s Theory
Lawrence Kohlberg studied morality using a very interesting technique. His theory holds
the moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical behavior, has identifiable development stages
and each become more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas as the person progress from
one stage to the next. Kohlberg asserted that the process Of moral development was principally
concerned with justice, and that the process goes on throughout the individual’s lifetime. After
looking at hundreds of interviews using several stories, Kohlberg outlined three broad levels and
six specific stages of moral development.
Three Broad Levels are;
Level I: Pre-conventional morality
Stage I: Punishment-Obedience Orientation
Stage II: Reward Orientation
Level II: Conventional Morality Stage III:
Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation
Stage IV: Authority Orientation
Level III: Post Conventional
Stage V: Social Contract Orientation Stage
VI: Ethical-Principal Orientation
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
TRIVIA!
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In some countries, children are allowed to marry but in most countries this is unacceptable. Divorce
is not allowed in the Philippines, but Filipino Muslim men and women can legally divorce their
respective wife or husband.
Why are there so many differences in societies on what is acceptable and what is not? Is it
true that different cultures have radically different moral codes? Are there any values that all
societies shared?
The philosopher and social theorist Alain Locke first used the term Cultural Relativism in
1924. Cultural relativism explains why one behavior or practice is completely acceptable by a
particular group of people, while it is wrong in another. It refers to the idea that values,
knowledge and behavior of people must be understood within its own cultural context, and not
by the standards of other culture.
Ethnocentrism - A tendency to use our own group’s ways of doing things as a yardstick for
judging others
Dr. James Rachels laid out five claims of cultural relativist as to why right or wrong is only a
matter of cultural standards.
1. Different societies have different moral codes.
2. The moral code of a society determines what is right or wrong. There is no universal
objective standard considered better than others.
3. There are no universal truths
4. The moral code of a particular society has no special status. It is but one among many.
5. It is arrogant for one culture to judge other culture there should be tolerance among
cultures.
Many of our practices are relevant only to our practical community. This implies our moral views
are a reflection of our society’s prejudices. Cultural relativism makes us understand that what we
think as truth may be just the result of cultural conditioning.
The advantages and dangers of cultural relativism.
Pros
1. It warns us from assuming that our preferences are the absolute rational standard
2. It teaches us to keep an open mind and to be more amendable in discovering the truth
Cons
1. We cannot call out societal practices that promote harm.
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If cultural relativism is true, then we should not condemn what Hitler and the Nazis did against
the Jews, Apartheid in South Africa, or any form of maltreatment, damage, injury or destruction
that one community inflicts upon anyone or anything.
2. We cannot justify/criticize our own cultures harmful practices.
This implies that to decide whether your action is right or wrong all you need to do is check
whether your action is in accordance with the standards of YOUR society. If your actions are in
line with your culture, then you have done nothing wrong – even though your actions were
harmful. After all, if it is true that you cannot criticize other cultures, then all the more can you
not criticize your own culture since people in your group accept it as a way of life.
3. The idea of social progress becomes doubtful.
Progress means replacing something old with something better. The idea of social reform is now
eradicated because we are prohibited from judging one society as better over others.
UNIVERSAL VALUES
“There are some moral rules that all societies will have in common, because these rules
are necessary for society to survive” (Rachels 2004). Imagine if human beings do not care for the
young homo sapiens will eventually be an extinct species. In the same manner, we will eventually
be wiped out too if people were free to kill other people. Moreover, what kind of society will it be
if everyone’s statement is a lie? What reason would you have to pay attention to anyone?
The empirical basis of cultural relativism is that cultures are dramatically different in its
views of what is right or wrong. However, when it comes to important moral issues, there are
three values that are universal (Rachels, 2004).
3 universal values shared by all cultures are;
• Caring for the young
• Murder is wrong
• Tell the truth
In the Philippines, one moral judgement against the RH law is that it violates universal human
rights and values such as the right to life and health of children. On the other hand, proponents of
the Law assert that family planning and sexual education consistent with one’s own beliefs and
moral convictions is exercising one’s freedom to choose.
If the basis of universal values is true and, taking into consideration our social problems due
to overpopulation then what could be our moral stand on the debate about having a
comprehensive reproductive health program in the Philippines?
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THE FILIPINO WAY
Qualities of the Filipino Moral Identity
The Filipino culture is mix of both Eastern and Western culture. The beliefs and traditions
of pre-colonial. Philippines was mainly indigenous Malay heritage (Baringer, 2006)
Dr. Patricia B. Licuanan (Psychologist, educator and former Chairperson of the
Commission on Higher Education) wrote the strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino character
are rooted in factors such as;
1. The home environment
2. The social environment
3. Culture and language
4. History
5. The educational system
6. Religion
7. The economic environment
8. The political environment
9. Mass media, and
10. Leadership and role models
Strengths of the Filipino Character
The Filipino traits listed here is certainly not exhaustive, but those are what we have in
common the most. The strong aspects of the Filipino character are;
1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao
2. Family orientation
3. Joy and humor
4. Flexibility, adaptable and creativity
5. Hard work and industry
6. Faith and religiosity
7. Ability to survive
Weaknesses of the Filipino Character
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The areas that need improvement in order to grow and develop as a person. An informed
Filipino will also result in a stronger and more progressive nation, generally, these weaknesses
are;
1. Extreme Personalism
2. Extreme Family-Centeredness
3. Lack of Discipline
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiatives
5. Colonial Mentality
6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome
7. Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflections
References:
Agapay, R. (1991). Ethics and the Filipino: A Manual on Morals for Students and Educators.
National Book Store.
Kohlberg, L. (1981). Essays on Moral Development. Vol.1of the Philosophy of Moral
Development: Moral Stages and the Idea of Justice. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row
Licuanan, P. (1994). “A Moral Recovery Program: Building a People-Building Nation.” In Values in
Philippine Culture and Education: Philippine Philosophical Studies I, ed. By Manuel Dy Jr.., 31-48.
Washington, DC: The Council for Research In Values and Philosophy
Montemayor, F. (1994) Ethics: The philosophy of life. National Book Store.
Palma-Angeles, A. “Cultural Drivers of Corruption in Business and Governance.” In Business
Ethics in Asia: Issues and Cases, edited by Bulaong, G., Dewi, L., Santiago, J. Quezon City: Ateneo
de Manila University Press
Rachels, J. (2004). “What is Morality”, Chapter 1 and “The Challenge of Cultural Relativism”,
Chapter 2 in the Elements of Moral Philosophy. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill College
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Application:
(For all programs)
According to Sec. 261 (a) of the Omnibus Election Code of the Philippines, vote-buying
and vote-selling are prohibited acts and are punishable by the law. For the last 20 years, it has
been observed that vote-buying has been a rampant practice as a means to win a position in the
government. In the 2022 national and local elections, the Department of Interior and Local
Government (DILG) said at least 245 vote buying incidents were reported. There were about 41
suspects identified for vote-buying from January 1 to May 9, according to Interior Secretary Ano.
Authorities have gathered evidence for 25 cases, while 20 cases are under investigation, and four
have been referred to the prosecution office and one has been filed before the courts.
https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2022/05/13/218 0747/245-vote-buying-incidents-
recorded?fbclid=IwAR0x2FIVGeZDzpTUiKh5byp5OQbb5dNpKPCLSd0SqfOnKdU0M7KJQnpu91M
1. What do you think is the root cause of this problem based on different perspectives?
a. According to moral perspective
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
___.
b. According to cultural perspective
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
___.
c. According to personal perspective
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_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
___.
2. What is the best solution that you can recommend to address this problem? Formulate a
personal response and a collective solution (as a nation).
a. Personally,
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________.
b. As a nation, we can
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________.
Grading Rubric for Essay
4 3 2 1
Content Content is accurate Content is accurate but Content is accurate Content is questionable.
(50%) and all required some required but some required Information is not presented,
information is information is missing information is making it difficult to follow.
presented. and/or not presented missing and/or not
but is still generally presented, making
easy to follow. it difficult to follow.
Organization of Thoughts flows well Thoughts flows well Thoughts flows Thoughts are unorganized.
Thoughts and logical. but is slightly illogical. well.
(30%)
Grammar & The paper is free Grammatical errors or Very few Grammatical, spelling &
Mechanics of grammatical spelling & punctuation grammatical, punctuation errors
(20%) errors, spelling & are rare and do not spelling, or substantially interfere from
punctuation. interfere from reading punctuation errors reading the paper.
the paper. interfere with
reading the paper.
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