SOLUBILITY

Definition:
• Quantitative: The concentration of solute in a saturated solution at
constant temperature

• Qualitative: The spontaneous interaction of two or more substances to

form homogenous molecular dispersion

Difference between solubility and dissolution

• Solubility is intrinsic property that can be altered only by chemical
modification

• Dissolution is extrinsic property that which can be effected by various

chemical and physical properties for instance, complexation, particle size,
temperature, pressure etc.
Thermodynamic Solubility:
The thermodynamic solubility of a drug in a solvent is the maximum amount of
the most stable crystalline form that remains in solution in a given volume of
the solvent at a given temperature and pressure under equilibrium conditions.

Solubility definition in the united states pharmacopeia

Description Forms Parts of Solvent Required
(Solubility Definition) for One Part of Solute
Very soluble (VS) <1
Freely soluble (FS) From 1 to 10
Soluble From 10 to 30
Sparingly soluble From 30 to 100
Slightly soluble Fromm 100 to 1000
Very slightly soluble From 1000 to 10,000
Practically insoluble 10, 000 and over
 Solubility curve

• Any point on a line represents a saturated

solution. Saturated

• In a saturated solution, the solvent contains the

maximum amount of solute.
Supersaturated

Solute gm/100
• Example

gm of water
Un-saturated
• At 90 c, 40 g of NaCl(s) in 100g H2O(l)
o

represent a saturated solution. Temperature

 HOW DO SUBSTANCES DISSOLVE?

TEA

“According to the kinetic theory, the water molecules in

each glass of tea are always moving. Some moving
water molecules collide with sugar crystals. When this
happens, energy is transferred to the sugar molecules at
the surface of the crystal.”
 FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY

1. Molecular structure
2. Pressure
3. Temperature
4. pH
5. Miscellaneous
I. Particle Size
II. Agitation/Stirring
III. Common Ion Effect
 Molecular Structure
• “Like dissolves like”
• Polar substances dissolve well in polar solvents
The solubility of a drug is due in large measure to the polarity of the solvent, that
is, to its dipole moment. Polar solvents dissolve ionic solutes and other polar
substances.
Consideration of dipole moments alone is not adequate to explain the solubility of
polar substances in water. The ability of the solute to form hydrogen bonds is a
far more significant factor than the dipole moment.
Water dissolves phenols, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, amines, and other oxygen
and nitrogen containing compounds that can form hydrogen bonds with water.
The solubility of a substance also depends on structural features such as;

• the ratio of the polar to the nonpolar groups of the molecule. As the length of
a nonpolar chain of an aliphatic alcohol increases, the solubility of the
compound in water decreases.
• Straight-chain monohydroxy alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, and acids with
more than four or five carbons cannot enter into the hydrogen-bonded
structure of water and hence are only slightly soluble.
• When additional polar groups are present in the molecule, as found in
propylene glycol, glycerin, and tartaric acid, water solubility increases greatly.
• Branching of the carbon chain reduces the nonpolar effect and leads to
increased water solubility. Tertiary butyl alcohol is miscible in all proportions
with water, whereas n-butyl alcohol dissolves to the lesser extent.
 Solubility of common compounds in water
Soluble compounds
NO3- salts

Na+, K+, NH4+ salts

Except for
Cl-, Br-, I- salts Ag+, Hg22+,
those containing
Pb2+
Except for
SO42- salts Ba2+, Pb2+, Ca2+
those containing

Insoluble compounds
S2-, CO32-, PO43- salts

Except for Na+, K+, Ca2+

OH1- compounds
those containing
• Non-polar substances dissolve well in non-polar solvents

• Nonpolar solvents are unable to reduce the attraction between the ions of
strong and weak electrolytes because of the solvents’ low dielectric
constants.
• Nor can the solvents break covalent bonds and ionize weak electrolytes,
because they belong to the group known as aprotic solvents, and they cannot
form hydrogen bridges with nonelectrolytes.
• Hence, ionic and polar solutes are not soluble or are only slightly soluble in
nonpolar solvents.
• The solute molecules are kept in solution by the weak van der Waals–London
type of forces.
• Thus, oils and fats dissolve in carbon tetrachloride, benzene, and mineral oil.
Alkaloidal bases and fatty acids also dissolve in nonpolar solvents.
• Semipolar Solvents

• Semipolar solvents, such as ketones and alcohols, can induce a certain degree
of polarity in nonpolar solvent molecules.

• In fact, semipolar compounds can act as intermediate solvents to bring about

miscibility of polar and nonpolar liquids.
• Acetone increases the solubility of ether in water.

• Propylene glycol has been shown to increase the mutual solubility of water
and peppermint oil and of water and benzyl benzoate.
• SOLUBILITY OF LIQUIDS IN LIQUIDS
• Frequently two or more liquids are mixed together in the preparation of
pharmaceutical solutions.
• For example, alcohol is added to water to form hydro-alcoholic solutions of
various concentrations;
• volatile oils are mixed with water to form dilute solutions known as aromatic
waters;
• volatile oils are added to alcohol to yield spirits and elixirs;
• ether and alcohol are combined in collodions; and
• various fixed oils are blended into lotions, sprays, and medicated oils.
• Liquid–liquid systems can be divided into two categories according to the
solubility of the substances in one another:
• complete miscibility polar – polar liquids and non polar nonpolar liquids
• partial miscibility. Polar –nonpolar liquids
 PRESSURE
• Has little or no effect on the solubilities of liquids or solids
• Has a great effect on the solubility of gases
– Higher the pressure, greater the solubility of a gas

HENRY’S LAW
The amount of gas dissolved in a solution is directly proportional to the
pressure of the gas above the solution
P = kC
P = partial pressure of the gas
k = constant of the solution
C = concentration of the solution
• Increasing pressure forces more gas into solution
• Pressure  solubility 
• Pressure  solubility 
low pressure

High pressure Gas

air

solution
 Temperature
1. For most solids and liquids, solubility increases with increasing
temperature
• In case of Endothermic solution (sugar in water)
2. For some though, solubility decreases as temp increases
• In case of exothermic solution (calcium carbonate in water)
3. No effect of temperature on solubility
• Nor endothermic nor exothermic (sodium chloride in water)
4. Initially increases and then no effect
• Hydrated salts (Na2SO4.10H2O)
• Most salts cause absorption of heat during the solution process e.g.,KNO3
and Na2SO4.5H2O and this reaction is called endothermic reaction i.e.,
heating increases solubility

• Some salts are not greatly affected by heating e.g., NaCl and this reaction is
called isothermic reaction

• Some salts e.g., Ca-sulfate, Ca-hydroxide and (CH3COO)2Ca.2H20 exhibit

exothermic reaction during solution i.e., heating decreases solubility

• Certain salts e.g., Na2SO4.10H2O exhibit endothermic reaction till

temperature reaches 32.4oC then reaction changes to exothermic due to
change in crystal structure to Na2SO4
• Solubility of gases decreases with increasing temperature

• Temperature increases the kinetic energy of solute particles therefore

more particles escape from solution.
• Carbonated water is a good example, if the temperature increases the
gas escapes from the water.
 Effect of pH
Most drugs are weak acids or weak bases
Acids ionize in alkaline medium, while bases ionize in acidic medium
Ionized drug is in the form of salt, conjugate or charged drug
The ionized drug is more soluble in water, while the neutral drug is more soluble
in other organic solvents e.g., alcohol, chloroform, acetone.
Example: Phenobarbital (acidic drug)
Increased pH leads to increased ionization leads to increased water solubility
and decreased solubility in other organic solvents.
Example: Procaine HCl (basic drug)
Increased pH leads to decreased ionization leads to decreased water solubility
and increased solubility in other organic solvents
• Consider the following equilibrium:
Mg(OH)2(s) ⇌ Mg2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq)
-
• Increasing the pH means increasing [OH ] and equilibrium will shift to the
left, causing some of Mg(OH)2 to precipitate out.
-
• If the pH is lowered, [OH ] decreases and equilibrium shifts to the right,
causing solid Mg(OH)2 to dissolve.
The fraction of the unionized or ionized form of the drug of a weak acid or weak
base is a function of the pH of the solution (medium) and the dissociation
constant (ka) of the acid or base
(A) Solubility of a weak acid:
  pH = Pka + log [salt (ionized) / acid (unionized)
This is called Henderson Hasselbalch equation
[HA]T = unionized + ionized
[HA]T = [HA] + [A-]
in case of saturated solution [HA] = [HA]ss This pH (pHp) is called precipitation pH
and defined as the minimum pH at
[HA]T = [HA]ss + [A ] -
which a weak acid at a given total
[A-] = [HA]T - [HA]ss concentration [HA]T will remain in
solution without precipitation i.e.,
pHp = Pka + log ([HA]T - [HA]ss) / [HA]ss) solution stable.
Example:
A solution contains 1 gm of sodium Phenobarbital in 100 ml at 25oC. Below
what pH will precipitation occur given that solubility is 4.78X10-3 M and pka is
7.48 and mol. Weight is 254 gm/mol.
[HA]T is 1gm/100ml convert to molar expression =10gm/1000ml
number of mole = weight / mol.weight
number of mole = 10gm/ 254 gm/mol = 0.0394 in 1000 ml = 0.0394 M
pHp = Pka + log ([HA]T - [HA]ss) / [HA]ss)
pHp = 7.48 + log [(0.0394 - 4.78X10-3) / (4.78X10-3)]
pHp = 7.48 + log 7.24 If the pH of the solution drops below 8.34,
some Phenobarbital will precipitate. A
pHp = 7.48 + 0.86 common cause of such a decrease in pH is
PHp = 8.34 absorption of atmospheric CO2.
(B) Solubility of a weak base:
pH = Pka + log [base (unionized) / salt (ionized)]
This is called Henderson Hasselbach equation.
[B]T = unionized + ionized
[B]T = [B] + [BH+]
in case of saturated solution [B] = [B]ss
[B]T = [B]ss + [BH+]
pHp is the precipitation pH of a base and
[BH+] = [B]T - [B]ss defined as the maximum pH at which a
weak base at a given total concentration
pHp = Pka + log ([B]ss / [B]T – [B]ss) [B]T will remain in solution without
precipitation i.e., solution stable.
Example:
Is 8.66 mg/ml procaine solution stable (i.e., no ppt.) at pH 7.4 given that 1 gm
dissolves in 200 ml water and pka = 8.05.
[B]T = 8.66 mg/ml
pka = 8.05
[B]ss = 1gm/ 200ml = 1000mg/200 ml =5 mg/ ml
pHp = 8.05 + log (5/ 8.66 – 5)
pHp = 8.05 + log 1.37
pHp = 8.19 This is maximum pH and 7.4 is less than
8.19, therefore solution is stable and no ppt.
occurs.
 Particle size (Surface Area)
• Particle size results in  surface area and  rate
•  Particle size will  surface area and  rate
• Increasing surface area increases opportunity for interaction between solute
and solvent

Log S/So = 2γV/2.303 RTr

Where;
S= solubility of fine particles
So= solubility of relatively large particles
γ= surface tension of solids
V= the molar volume
R= gas constant
T= absolute temperature
r= Radius of the particles
 Agitation/Stirring
• stirring  rate 
• stirring rate 
• Stirring increases particle motion so more particles can be dissolved at the
surface of the solid

Addition of salts (salting out)

• Gases dissolved in liquids are often liberated from solution in which they
are dissolved in by the introduction of an electrolyte such as NaCl or non
electrolyte such as sucrose and this phenomenon is called salting out. The
added salt or non electrolyte reacts with water which reduces the density of
the aqueous environment adjacent to the gas molecules due to consumption
of water.
 Common Ion Effect
• This applies to weak acids, weak bases and solubility of salts when a
common ion is added to the equilibrium reaction.
• Consider the following solubility equilibrium:
AgCl(s) ⇌ Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
• If NaCl is added, equilibrium shifts left due to increase in [Cl ] and some
-

AgCl will precipitate out.

surfactants
Surface Tension
• The molecules at the surface of water are not completely surrounded by other
molecules as they are in the bulk of the water. As a result there is a net inward
force of attraction exerted on a molecule at the surface from the molecules in
the bulk solution, which results in a tendency for the surface to contract. This
contraction is spontaneous and represents a minimum free energy state. We
express the strength of contraction by the work required to increase the
surface area by 1 m2; this is referred to as the surface tension γ.
Surfactant Definition
• Surfactants (Surface-active agents) are active at interfaces and possess both
polar (hydrophilic) and non-polar (hydrophobic) characteristics in the same
molecule. The hydrophilic part is referred as the head and the hydrophobic part
as the tail.
• These molecules are also referred to as amphiphilic or amphipathic molecules.
• Surfactants are also known as wetting agents, emulsifier,
foaming agent and dispersant
 Classification

1. On the basis charge characteristics the surfactants can be classified as;

a) Ionic
i. Anionic
ii. Cationic
b) Zwitterionic (amphoteric)
c) Nonionic

2. Polymeric surfactants
a) Synthetic
b) Natural
Anionic surfactants:
They carry negative charge in hydrophilic part. Examples of anionic surfactants
include
a) carboxylates: alkyl carboxylates-fatty acid salts; carboxylate fluoro surfactants
b) sulfates: alkyl sulfates (e.g., sodium lauryl sulfate); alkyl ether sulfates (e.g.,
sodium laureth sulfate)
c) sulfonates: docusates (e.g., dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate); alkyl benzene
sulfonates
d) phosphate esters: alkyl aryl ether phosphates; alkyl ether phosphates.

n=12 ⇒ sodium dodecyl sulfate, SDS

 Cationic Surfactants
The surface active portion bears a positive charge, for example
a) salt of a long-chain amine)
b) quaternary ammonium chloride also known as quats. (Benzalkonium
chloride)
The quaternary ammonium and pyridinium cationic surfactants have
bactericidal activity against a wide range of gram-positive and some gram
negative organisms.
They may be used on the skin, especially in the cleaning of wounds.
Spermicidal jellies also contain quaternary ammonium salts.

n=12 ⇒ dodecyl trimethyl ammonium chloride, DTAC

Zwitterionic(amphoteric) surfactants;

They can be anionic (negatively charged), cationic (positively charged) or

nonionic (no charge) in solution, depending on the pH.
a) Natural soaps (alkylcarboxylates), Lipids

b) Betaines
Non-ionic surfactants

The non-ionic surfactant can be classified as polyol esters, polyoxyethylene

esters, poloxamers. polyol esters includes glycol and glycerol esters and
sorbitan derivatives. Fatty acid esters of sorbitan (generally referred to as Spans)
and their ethoxylated derivatives (generally referred to as Tweens)
Alkylpolyoxyethylenes Spans Tweens
Examples of Span
• Sorbitan monolaurate Span 20
• Sorbitan monopalmitate Span 40
• Sorbitan monostearate Span 60
• Sorbitan mono-oleate Span 80
• Sorbitan tristearate Span 65
• Sorbitan trioleate Span 8

The Sorbitan esters are insoluble in water, but soluble in most organic solvents
(low hydrophile–lipophile balance (HLB) value and are used as water-in-oil
emulsifiers and as wetting agents.
Examples of Tween
• Polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monolaurate Tween 20
• Polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monopalmitate Tween 40
• Polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monostearate Tween 60
• Polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan mono-oleate Tween 80
• Polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan tristearate Tween 65
• Polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan tri-oleate Tween 85

The ethoxylated (Tweens) products are generally soluble in water and have
relatively high HLB numbers (greater than about 12).
Polymeric surfactants
1. Synthetic polymers
a) Homopolymers
i. Polyvinyl alcohol, PVA

ii. Modified polysacharides

b) Block-copolymers

Synperonics/Pluronics/Polaxamer, EOnPOmEOn
2. Natural polymers (proteins)
a) Globular
i. Bovine serum albumin, BSA
ii. β-lactoglobulin, BLG

b) Fibrilar
i. β-casein
ii. κ-casein
Properties of Surfactants
1. Critical micelle concentration (CMC)
2. HLB
Critical micelle concentration (CMC)
A micelle is an aggregate of surfactant molecules dispersed in a liquid.
A typical micelle in aqueous solution forms a roughly spherical or globular
aggregate with the hydrophilic "head" regions in contact with surrounding
solvent, sequestering the hydrophobic tail regions in the micelle center.
OR
When these surfactants are placed in water, the hydrophobic ends attract each
other and repel water. They arrange themselves into a spherical structure with the
hydrophobic ends inside the sphere with the hydrophilic ends on the outer surface
of the sphere, which is called a micelle.
Most micelles are spherical and contain between 60 and 100 surfactant
molecules.
Micelle structure
• CMC is the concentration of surfactants at which it
begins to form micelles.

• Increasing concentration of surfactant in water slowly

forming a layer on the surface and eventually forming
micelles at or above the CMC.

• Micelles formed by ionic surfactant are mostly

spherical in shape while micelles formed by non-ionic
surfactants are larger than their ionic counterparts and
may sometimes be elongated into an ellipsoid or rod-
like structure.

• Micelles formed by non-ionic surfactants are larger

than their ionic counterparts and may sometimes be
elongated into an ellipsoid or rod-like structure
Factors affecting the CMC and micellar size
Structure of the hydrophobic group
Increase in length of the hydrocarbon chain results in:
• a decrease in CMC,
• a corresponding increase in micellar size.

Nature of the hydrophilic group

• Non-ionic surfactants generally have very much lower CMC values and
higher aggregation numbers than their ionic counterparts with similar
hydrocarbon chains.
• An increase in the ethylene oxide chain length of a non-ionic surfactant
makes the molecule more hydrophilic and the CMC increases.
Type of counterion
• Micellar size increases for a particular cationic surfactant as the counterion is
changed according to the series Cl− < Br− < I−, and
• for a particular anionic surfactant according to Na+ < K+ < Cs+.
• Ionic surfactants with organic counterions (e.g. maleates) have lower CMCs
and higher aggregation numbers than those with inorganic counterions.

Addition of electrolytes
• Electrolyte addition to solutions of ionic surfactants decreases the CMC and
increases the micellar size. This is because the electrolyte reduces the forces
of repulsion between the charged head groups at the micelle surface, so
allowing the micelle to grow.
• At high electrolyte concentration the micelles of ionic surfactants may
become non-spherical.
Effect of temperature

• Aqueous solutions of many non-ionic surfactants become turbid at a

characteristic temperature called the cloud point. At temperatures up to
the cloud point there is an increase in micellar size and a corresponding
decrease in CMC.
• Temperature has a comparatively small effect on the micellar properties
of ionic surfactants.
Wetting of Solids

A drop of liquid when placed on a flat, homogeneous solid surface comes to

equilibrium, assuming a shape which minimizes the total free energy of the
system. The angle between the liquid and the solid is called the contact angle (θ),
the angle being measured through the liquid. The contact angle may be calculated
if the surface and interfacial tensions are known from Young’s equation;

Cosθ = γSA – γSL / γLA

Where γLA is the surface tension of the liquid, γSL is the interfacial tension
existing between the solid and liquid phases, and γSAis the surface tension (or
surface free energy) of the solid.
1. If θ< 900, wetting of the solid is said to take place.
2. If θ> 900, wetting does not take place.

The term ‘‘wetting’’ refers to the displacement from a surface of one fluid by
another. It is most commonly applied to the displacement of air from a liquid or
solid surface by water or an aqueous solution.

The term ‘‘wetting agent’’ is applied to any substance that increases the ability
of water or an aqueous solution to displace air from a liquid or solid surface.

For good wetting, Cosθ should be as close as possible to 1; that is, θ should be
as close as possible to 0.
Solubilization
• Above the surfactants' CMC, the solubility of poorly-soluble drugs increases
dramatically due to the formation of surfactant micelles. This ability of
surfactants is called solubilization, the surfactants. are called solubilizer
and the solutes are called solubilizates. Surfactants with HLB values 15~18
are the best solubilizing agents.
• The commonly used solubilizers: Tweens
 The mechanism for solubilization

Solubilization is the process of incorporation of the

solubilizate into or onto the micelles.
Solubilization by micelles

The location of a solubilized molecule in a micelle is determined primarily by

the chemical structure of the solubilizate. Solubilization can occur at a number
of different sites in a micelle:

1. On the surface, at the micelle–solvent interface,

2. At the surface and between the hydrophilic head groups,

3. In the palisades layer, i.e., between the hydrophilic groups and the first few
carbon atoms of the hydrophobic groups that comprises the outer regions of
the micelle core.

4. More deeply in the palisades layer, and in the micelle inner core.
Examples

1. Polar alcohols are soluble in aqueous solution, so it located in solution / on

surface of micelle.
2. Phenol are having polar –OH group and non polar benzene ring. In which OH
group is located in hydrophilic environment and benzene ring in hydrophobic
environment, so it located at the surface and between the hydrophilic head
groups.
3. Semipolar materials, such as fatty acids are usually located in the palisades
layer, the depth of penetration depending on the ratio of polar to non-polar
structures in the solubilisate molecule.
4. Non-polar additives such as hydrocarbons tend to be intimately associated
with the hydrocarbon core of the micelle.
Pharmaceutical Examples of solubilization

• The solubilization of phenolic compounds such as cresol, chlorocresol,

chloroxylenol and thymol with soap to form clear solutions for use in
disinfection.

• Solubilised solutions of iodine in non-ionic surfactant micelles (iodophors)

for use in instrument sterilization.

• Solubilisation of drugs (for example, steroids and water insoluble vitamins),

and essential oils by non-ionic surfactants (usually polysorbates or
polyoxyethylene sorbitan esters of fatty acids)
 Detergency

It is most important property of surface active agents. Surface active agents are
referred as detergents.  The term Detergency is mostly used in the cleaning /
removing of grease, oil and dirt from the solid surface. The principle of
detergency is based on the formation of micelle.

This property is achieved by lowering the surface tension of the medium in

which surfactants is dissolved. By lowering this interfacial tension between two
media or interfaces (e.g. air/water, water/stain, stain/fabric) the surfactant plays
a key role in the removal and suspension of dirt. The lower surface tension of
the water makes it easier to lift dirt and grease off of dirty dishes, clothes and
other surfaces, and help to keep them suspended in the dirty water.
Emulsification

This is the property of surfactants to form a stable emulsion of two or more

immiscible liquids.
When oil and water mixed together and agitated, droplets of varying size are
produced.
Molecules of one phase are repelled by other phase due to greater interfacial
tension, but for dispersion of liquid reduction of interfacial tension is necessary.
This is done by addition of surfactants which promote emulsification by the
following mechanisms.
1. Reduction of interfacial tension – Thermodynamic stabilization.
2. Formation of interfacial film – mechanical barrier to coalescence.
3. Formation of electrical double layer – electrical barrier to approach of
particles.
Hydrophile-lipophile Balance (HLB)
Surfactants contain both hydrophilic groups and lipophilic groups with one or
the other being more predominant, the hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB)
number is used as a measure of the ratio of these groups.
It is the relative efficiency of the hydrophilic portion of the surfactant
molecule to its lipophilic portion of the same molecule. It is a value between
0-50 defining the affinity of a surfactant for water or oil. HLB value of
nonionic surfactants ranges from 0-20 (Griffinˊs Scale). HLB numbers >10
have an affinity for water (hydrophilic) and number <10 have an affinity for
oil (lipophilic).
HLB
0 10 20
lipophilic hydrophilic
• The higher surfactant HLB value, the more hydrophilic it is.
• The lower surfactant HLB value, the more lipophilic it is

HLB = 20*M(hydrophilic) / M(surfactant)

Example

Brij 58 = Polyoxyethylene-20 hexadecyl ether C16H33(C2H4O)20OH

M(hydrophylic) =20*44=880
M(surfactant) = 1120
⇒ HLB = (880*20)/1120 = 15.7
Relation between HLB and surfactant applications
• Mixing unlike oils together
surfactants with HLB’s of 1 to 3
• Preparing water-in-oil emulsions HLB < 8
surfactants with HLB’s of 4 to 6
• Preparing self emulsifying oils
surfactants with HLB’s of 7 to 10
• Preparing oil-in-water emulsions
surfactant blends with HLB’s of 8 to16
• Detergent solutions
surfactants with HLB’s of 13 to 15 HLB > 10
• Solubilization of oil into water (microemulsion)
surfactant blends with HLB’s of 13 to 18
• Spans are sorbitan fatty acid esters having low HLB values ranging from 1.8
to 8.6.

• Tweens are polyoxyethylene derivatives of spans. So, they are more

hydrophilic having higher HLB values ranging from 9.6 to 16.7.
Applications of Surfactants
1. Used in aerosols: to act as lubricant for metering valves, to stabilize emulsions
and suspensions
2. Emulsions: to stabilize emulsions
3. Semisolid: to stabilize cream and ointments, penetration enhancer, wetting
agent
4. Solid dosage form: used in tablets and capsules to improve dissolution. Also
used as lubricant, anti-adherent and glidant
5. Formulations of shampoo
6. Liquid dosage form: to solubilize water insoluble ingredients and stabilize
suspensions
7. Used as laxative
8. Used as antimicrobial
9. Suppositories: To improve wettability and water absorption
10.Foaming agent