INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL—$- ==. Industrial Motor Control, Fifth Edition By Stephen Hectan Vice President, Technology and Trades Marketing Director: Production Manager: SHU: Dave Garza Larry Main ‘Alar Elken Senior Channel Manager: Senior Project Hater: Baltorial Director: Dennis Wilson Christopher Chien Sandy Clark ‘Marketing Coordinate ArUDesign Specialist: Senior Acquisitions Raitor: Casey Bruso CChesiPlasse Steve Helba Production Director: ‘Technology Project Manager: Development Bator: ‘Mary Elen Black Kevin Smith Christophe Short Senior Editorial Assistant: Dawn Daugherty COPYRIGHT © 2005, 1999, 1998, 1990, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 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The publish shall not be able fr any special consequential, o exemplary damages resulting im Whole (pat rom te eeaders use fo teliance upon, his materialCONTENTS Preface Features of the Fifth Edition Content Highlights ‘About the Author ‘Acknowledgments RC Unit 1 General Principles of Electric Motor Control ‘Motor Control Installation Considerations Purpose of Controller Manual Control Remote and Automatic Control Starting and Stopping ‘Speed Control of Motors Protective Features Classification of Automatic Motor Starting Control Systems ‘Troubleshooting Review Questions Unit 2 Semiconductors Conductors Insulator Semiconductors Review Questions Unit 3 The PN Jun ‘The PN Junction Review Questions Unit The ‘The Zener Diode Review Questions er Diode x 31 33 Unit S The Transistor ‘The Transistor Review Questions Unit 6 The Unijunction Transistor ‘The Unijunction Transistor Review Questions Unit? The SCR The SCR in a DC Circuit ‘The SCR in an AC Circuit Phase Shifting the SCR ‘Testing the SCR Review Questions Unit 8 The Diac ‘The Dine Review Questions Unit 9 The Triae ‘The Triae Used as an AC Switch ‘The Triac Used for AC Voltage Control Phase Shifling the Triae ‘Testing the Triae Review Questions Unit 10. The 556 Timer Circuit Applications Review Questions Unit 11 The Operational Amplifier Basic Circuits Circuit Applications Review Questions FT 34 37 38 38 40 a 2 43 4a 45 45 a7 8 49 49 49 50 sl 52 st 58 59 ol 68 69—$- iv © Contents Soe Unit 12 Fractional and integral Horsepower Manual Motor Starters 2 Fractional Horsepower Manual Motor Starters 72 Automatic and Remote Operation " ‘Manual Push-Button Line Voltage Starters. 75 ‘Thermal Overload Protection 16 Review Questions 1 Unit 13 Magnetic Line Voltage Starters % “Magnetic vs. Manual Starters B Starter Electromagnets 9 Shaded Pole Principle 81 ‘Magnet Coil 83 Power (or Motor) Circuit of the Magnetic Starter. 84 ‘Motor Ovetheat 86 ‘The AC Magnetic Starter 2 AC Combination Starters 94 Review Questions 98 Unit 4 Push Buttons and Control Stations 100 Push Buttons: 100 Selector Switches 102 Control Stations 103 Review Questions 106 Unit 15 Relays and Contactors 108 Control Relays 108 Contactors Mm AC Mechanically Held Contactors and Relays 113 ‘Vacuum Contactors 116 Review Questions 119 Unit 18 The Solid-State Relay 120 ‘The Solid-State Relay 120 Review Questions 122 Unit 17 Timing Retays 123 Pneumatic Timers 124 Clock Timers. 125 ‘Motor-Driven Timers 126 Capacitor Time Limit Relay 126 Electronic Timers 127 Review Questions 133 Unit 18 Pressure Switches and Regulators Pressure Sensors Review Questions Unit 19 Float Switches Mercury Bulb Float Switeh ‘The Bubbler System Review Questions Unit 20 Flow Switches and Sensors Flow Sensors Review Questions Unit 21 Limit Switches Micro Limit Switches Subminiature Micro Switches Review Questions Unit 22 Phase Failure Relays Review Questions Unit 28 Solenoid and Motor Operated Valves ‘Two-way Solenoid Valves Four-way Solenoid Valves Motor Operated Valves Review Questions Unit 24 Temperature Sensing Devices Expansion of Metal Resistance Temperature Detectors Expansion Due to Pressure ‘Smart Temperature Transmitters Review Questions Unit 25 Hall Effect Sensors Principles of Operation Hall Generator Applications Review Questions Unit 26 Proximity Detectors Applications Circuit Operation Mounting Capacitive Proximity Detectors Ultrasonie Proximity Detectors Review Questions 134 13s 137 198 139 140 144 M5 18 152 153 154 156 156 17 158 189 160 160 161 164 165 165 170 173 1% 175 176 176 7 180 181 181 181 184 184 185 186Unit 27 Photodetectors Applications ‘Types of Detectors Mounting Review Questions Unit 28 The Control Transformer Review Questions REM Unit 28 Basic Control Circuits Two-Wire Controls, ‘Three-Wire Contiols Review Questions Unit 30. Schematics and Wiring Diagrams Review Questions Unit 31 Review Questions Unit 32 Float Switch Control of a Pump and Pilot Lights (Circuit #3) Review Questions Unit 33 Developing a Wiring Diagram (Circuit #41) Review Questions Unit 34 Developing a Wiring Diagram (Circuit #2) Review Questions Unit 35 Developing a Wiring Diagram (Circuit #3) Review Questions Unit 35 Reading Large Schematic Diagrams Review Questions Unit 37 Installing Control Systems Review Questions See Unit 38 Hand-Off Automatic Controls Review Questions 187 187 187 192 194 195 197 2 200 200 202 203 206, Timed Starting for Three Motors (Circuit #2) 207 210 at 213 24 27 218 219 2m 23 228 232 233 2a ED 20 2a Contents Unit 38 MaitplePush-Buttn Stations 243 Review Questions 243, Unit 40 Interocking Methods fr Reversing Control. 245 “Mechanical Interlock 245, Push Button Interlock 247 ‘Auxiliary Contact Interlock 248 Review Questions 250 Unit 41 Sequence Control 252 ‘Automatic Sequence Control 258 Review Questions 255 Unit 42 Jogging (inching) Control Circuits 258 Jogging Control Circuits 256 Jogging Using a Control Relay 257 Review Questions 263 Unit 43. Plugging 284 Plugging Switches and Applications 268 Plugging withthe Use of a Timing Relay 267 ‘Alternate Citcuits for Plugging Switeh 268 Antiplogging Protection 2m Review Questions 203 SEE A Unit 44 C Motors 216 Applicaton 26 ‘Speed Control 216 Motor Construction a7 [dentfying Windings 218 ‘Types of DC Motors 28 Direction of Rotation 219 Standard Connections 281 Review Questions 283, Unit 45 —Across-the-Line Starting mt Review Questions 285 Unit 48 Definite Time Starting Control 288 Review Questions 288 Unit 47 Soid-State OC Motor Controls 208 ‘Tae Shunt Field Power Supply 289 ‘The Armature Power Supply 290vi Contents Voltage Control Field Failure Control Current Limit Control Speed Control Review Questions REL Unit 48 Stepping Motors ‘Theory of Operation Winding Four-Step Switching (Full Stepping) Eight-Step Switching (Half Stepping) AC Operation ‘Motor Characteristics Review Questions, Unit 49 The Motor and Starting Methods The Motor ‘Typical Starting Methods Review Questions Unit 50 Primary ResistorType Starters Primary Resistor-Type Starters Review Questions Unit 51 Review Questions, ‘Autotransformer Starters Unit 52 Automatic Starters for Star-Delta Motors Applications Overload Protection Open Transition Starting Closed Transition Staring Review Questions Unit 53 Consequent Pole Motor Control “Mistaken Reversal Caution ‘Two-Speed Starter with Reversing Controls ‘Three-Speed Consequent Pole Motors Four-Speed Consequent Pole Motors Review Questions Unit 54 Wound Rotor Motors and Manual Speed Control Review Questions —$- 291 291 292 294 296 Ey 300 300 302 302 302 303 308 307 308 308: 312 318 319 319 323 324 329 330 330 333 337 338 342. 342 342. 344 354 355 337 Unit 55 Automatic Acceleration for ‘Wound Rotor Motors Automatic Acceleration with Reversing Control Automatic Acceleration Using Frequency Relays Review Questions Unit 6 Synchronous Mator Operation Power Factor Correction by Synchronous Motor Brushless Synchronous Motors Review Questions Unit 57 Synchronous Automatic Motor Starter Rotor Control Equipment Summary of Automatic Starter Operation Review Questions Unit 58 Variable Speed AC Motor Control Variable Voltage Speed Control Variable Frequency Contro! Control Using SCRs Review Questions Unit 99 Magnetic Clutch and Magnetic Drive Electrically Controlled Magnetic Clutches Magnetic Drives Review Questions Unit 60 Motor Installation Determining Motor Current Determining Conductor Size for a Single Motor Overload Size Determining Locked-Rotor Current Short-Circuit Protection Starter Size Multiple Motor Calculations Review Questions RTA Unit 61 Direct Drives and Pulley Drives. Ditecdy Coupled Drive Installation 358 359 359 364 365 366 368. 368 369 369) 372 375 378 376 378 380 383 384 384 388 390 m1 391 397 399 402 403 412 On a6 416Pulley Drives Review Questions Unit 62 Developing Control Circuits Developing Control Circuits Review Questions —$- ais. 420 wat 421 433 ECC METSEO Unit 63 Digital Logic ‘The AND Gate ‘The OR Gate ‘The INVERTER ‘The NOR Gate ‘The NAND Gate Integrated Circuits ‘Testing Integrated Circuits Review Questions Unit 64 The Bounceless Switch Review Questions Unit 65 Start-Stop Push-Button Control Review Questions Unit 65 Programmable Logic Controllers Differences between the PLC and the Common Computer Basic Components Internal Relays Review Questions 436 431 438 438 439 440 440 443 443 ry 4a7 a 455 458, 436 457 461 466 Contents vii Unit 67 Programming a PLC Circuit Operation Developing a Program Converting the Program Programming in Boolean Developing the Program Parameters of the Programmable Controller ‘Operation of the Circuit Entering the Program Review Questions Unit 68 Analog Sensing for Programmable Controllers Installation ‘The Differential Amplifier Review Questions Appendix ‘Testing Solid-State Components Identifying the Leads of a Three-Phase, ‘Wye-Connected Dual-Voltage Motor Ohm's Law Formulas ‘Standard Wiring Diagram Symbols Electronic Symbols ‘Motor Types and Line Diagrams Power Supplies Motor Circuit Elements Blossary Index 487 467 469 an 43 473 43 414 475 478 a9 481 482 482 483 483 490, 494 495 496 497 498 498 499 509PREFACE In ecent years, the amount of knowledge an electrician must possess to be able to install and woubleshoot modem industrial control systems has increased dra- matically. A continuous influx of improved control ‘components allows engineers and electricians to design and instal even more sophisticated and complex con- trol systems, Industrial Motor Control presents the solid-state devices common in an industrial environ- ment early in the text. This is intended to help the student understand the operation of many control com- Ponents, including solid state relays, rectifiers, SCR Arives for direct current motors, variable frequency drives for alternating current motors, and the inputs and ‘outputs of programmable controllers. Although most electricians do not troubleshoot circuits on a compo- nent level, u basic knowledge of how these electronic devices operate is necessary for understanding how various control components perform their function. ‘The influx of programmable logic controllers into industry has bridged the gap between the responsibil- ities of the electrician and the instrumentation technician. Many industries are now insisting that ‘electricians and instrumentation technicians be eross- luained so they can work more closely together, Industrial Motor Control helps to fulfill this requite- ment, Many of the common control devices found ‘oughout industry are also discussed from a basic instrumentation standpoint by providing information fn analog sensing of pressure, flow, temperature, and liquid level ‘The fifth edition of Industrial Motor Control has updated many of the schematic diagrams of previous editions. The unit on motor installation has been up- dated to reflect changes in the 2005 National Electrical Code®, and a new unit has been added that instructs students on how to read large schematic diagrams. Industrial Motor Control presents many exam- ples of control logic and gives the student step-by-step instructions on how these circuits operate, There are ‘examples of how ladder diagrams can be converted into wiring diagrams. This is the basis for under- standing how co connect control circuits in the field The concept of how motor control schematics are ‘numbered is thoroughly discussed. Students are also given a set of conditions that a circuit must meet, and then that circuit is developed in a step-by-step proce dure. Learning to design control circuits is a very effective means of learning how circuit logic works. It is impossible to effectively troubleshoot a control circuit if you do not understand the logic of what the circuit is intended to do. ei This editions based on the results of extensive research into content, organization, and effective leaning styles. The textbook is built around short units of instruction that allow the student to completely under- stand and digest one topic before going on to the next, ach unit contains extensive illustrations, which have been designed for maximum learning, The illustra- tions in this edition have been improved to make them easier to read and many have been redrawn in a more pictorial style, so the student can quickly identify components and understand how they relate to one an- other. Color images make it easier forthe reader to un- derstand the information in the illustration (see the fol lowing sample illustration) Industrial Motor Control fifth edition, isa complete learning package which includes this comprehensive Features of t—$- x Preface ou tearen —> OY -O { { \ SOLDER POT HEATING ELEMENT an Jam Qe — yoworon ——— — ‘SPRING PRESSURE ON CONTACT ‘Sanople Uaswaton textbook, a hands-on Lab Manual, an_ Interactive Companion on CD, an Instructor’ Guide, and an instructors eesource. The Lab Manual offers practical hands-on cireits to be wired by the student. Each ofthe labs uses standard components that most electrical labo ratories either have on hand or can be obtained without lificuty. Using this approach, students learn by doing, ‘The Interactive Companion CD, which can be found in sleeve on the inside baci cover of this textbook, in- cludes applications and explanations ofthe concepts de~ veloped in the textbook. This exciting CD includes out standing graphics, animations, and video segments and provides students with reinforcement of important con cepts, The text of the licensing agreement for this soft- ‘ware, along with instructions for installing and operating it, can be found on the pages following the index. ‘The Instructor's Guide includes the learning ob- jectives from the textbook for the instructor's conve- rience, as well as a bank of test questions, and the answers to all ofthe test questions and textbook Unit Review Questions. ‘The new Instructor's e,resource is an invaluable addition to the Industrial Motor Control package. It includes PowerPoint slides for each unit (a total of neatly $00), nearly 1,000 Computerized Test Bank questions, and an image library containing hundreds of full-color images in electronic format Content Highlights + The most commonly used solid-state devices are thor- ‘oughly described, in terms of both operation and typical application + Information on unalog devices that sense pressure, flow, and temperature has been added to help bridge the gap between the industrial electrician and the instrumentation technician $e—$- + DC and AC motor theory is included so students will understand the effects of control circuits on motor characteristics, + The text covers the operating characteristics of step- ping motors when connected to either DC or AC voltage. + Detailed instructions are given for connecting motors Jn the field, including the size of conductors, over- load relays, and fuses or circuit breakers. ll caleuls- tions are taken from the National Electrical Code®. + The principles of digital logic are described in sufi- cient detail for students to understand programmable controllers and prepare basic programs. + A step-by-step testing procedure for electronic com- ponents is provided in the Appendix. + Starting methods for hermetically sealed single-phase ‘motors includes the hot-wire relay, solid state start ing relay, current relay, and potential relay * The fifth edition provides increased coverage on overload relays and methods of protecting large horsepower motors + Increased coverage of variable frequency drives has bbeen added to the fourth edition. + Extensive coverage of solid-state control devices in addition to electromagnetic devices + Basic electronics isnot a prerequisite for studying this, text, Sufficient solid-state theory is presented to en- able the student o understand and apply the concepts discussed, Ce ue Stephen L, Herman has been both a teacher of industrial electricity and an industrial electrician for many years, He obtained formal training at Catawba Valley Technical College in Hickory, North Carolina, and at ‘numerous seminars and manufacturers’ schools. He also attended Stephen F. Austin University in Nacogdoches, ‘Texas, and eared an Associates Degree in Electrical Technology from Lee College in Baytown, Texas. He was employed as an electrical installation and mainte- hance instructor at Randolph Technical College in Asheboro, North Carolina for nine years. Mr. Herman then returned to industry for a period of time before be- coming the lead instructor for the Elecirical Technology ‘Program at Lee College in Baytown, Texas. He tetited. mi Preface xi from Lee College with 20 years of service und presently lives with his wife in Pittsburg, Texas. Mr, Herman is a recipient of the Excellence in Teaching Award presented by the Halliburton Education Foundation. Ear ue ‘The following individuals provided detailed critiques of the manuscript and offered valuable suggestions for improvement of the fourth edition of this text: Mr. Richard Cutbirh Electrical JATC 620 Legion Way Las Vegas, NV 89110 Mr. Harry Kare South Texas Electrical JATC 1223 Bast Euclid San Antonio, TX 78212 ‘Mr. Rick Hecklinger Toledo Electrical JATC 803 Lime City Road Rossford, OH 43460 ‘Mr. Alan Bowden Central Westmoreland Area Vocational School Arona Road New Stanton, PA 15672 ‘The following companies provided the photographs used in this text Allen-Bradley Company 1201 South Second Street ‘Milwaukee, WI 53204 Automatic Switch Company 50-A Hanover Road Florham Park, NJ 07932 Eaton Corporation Cutler-Hammer Products 4201 North 27th Street “Milwaukee, WI S3216 Eagle Signal Controls A Division of Gulf & Western Manufacturing Company 736 Federal Street Davenport, IA $2803, $ewii Preface Emerson Electric Company Industrial Controls Division 3300 South Standard Street Santa Ana, CA 92702 Furnas Electric Company 1007 McKee Street Batavia, TL 60510 GE Fanuc Automation North America, Inc. P.O. Box 8106 Charlotesville, VA 22906 General Electric Company 101 Merritt 7, PO. Box $900 Norwalk, CT 06856 Hevi-Duty Electric ‘A Dwvision of General Signal Corporation P.O. Box 268, Highway 17 South Goldsboro, NC 27530 International Rectifier Semiconductor Division 233 Kansas El Segundo, CA 90245 McDonnell & Miller, ITT 3500 N. Spaulding Avenue Chicago, IL 60618 MeGraw-Edison Company Electric Machinery 800 Central Avenue ‘Minneapolis, MN 55413 Micro Switch A Honeywell Division 11 West Spring Street Freeport, IL 61032 RCA Solid State Division Route 202 Somerville, NJ 08875 Ramsey Controls, Inc. 335 Route 17 ‘Mahwah, NJ 07430 Reliance Electric 28701 Euclid Avenue Cleveland, OH 44117 Sparling Instruments, Co. Inc 4097 North Temple City Boulevard EI Monte, CA 91734 —$- Square D Company PO, Box 472 Milwaukee, W153201 The Superior Electric Company Bristol, CT 06010 Struthers-Dunn, Inc Systems Division 4140 Utica Ridge Road PO. Box 1327 Bettendorf, IA $2722-1327 Tektronix, Inc P.O. Box 500 Beaverton, OR 97077 Telemecanique, Inc. 2525 S, Clearbrook Drive ‘Adlington Heights, IL 60005 Turck Ine 3000 Campus Drive Plymouth, MN 55441 US. Electrical Motors Division Emerson Electric Company 125 Old Gate Lane Milford, CT 06460 Vactee, Inc. 10900 Page Boulevard St. Louis, MO 63132 Warner Electric Brake & Clutch Company 449 Gardner Street South Beloit, TL 61080 ‘The following individuals provided detailed review ‘comments and suggestions for this edition of the text Bob Keller Dayton Electrical JATC Green County Career Center Xenia, OH 45385 ‘Madison Burnett Assistant Training Director/instructor Electrical JATC of Southern Nevada, Las Vegas, Nevada 89110 Richard Paredes ‘Training Instructor IBEW Local Union 164 Jersey City, NI $eDEVICESUnit 7 General Principles of Electric Motor Control Semiconductors The PN Junction The Zener Diode The Transistor The Unijunction Transistor The SCR The Diac The Triac The 555 Timer The Operational AmplifierUNIT 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES 0 ELECTRIC MOTOR CONTR OBJECTIVES F OL After studying this unit, the student will be able to State the purpose and general principles of electric motor control State the difference berween manual and remote control List the conditions of starting and stopping, speed control, and protection of electric motors, Explain the difference between compensating and definite time delay action ‘There are certain conditions that must be considered when selecting, designing, installing, or maintaining ‘motor control equipment. The general principles are dis- ceussed to help understanding and to motivate students by simplifying the subject of electric motor control, “Motor control was a simple problem when motors ‘were used to drive a common line shaft to which sev- eral machines were connected. It was simply necessary to start and stop the motor a few times a day. However, with individual drive, the motor is now almost an inte- gral part ofthe machine and itis necessary to design the ‘motor controller to fit the needs of the machine to which it is connected. Modern installations and the problems of controlling motors in these situations may bbe observed in Figures 1-1 and 1-2. ‘Motor control isa broad term that means anything. from a simple toggle switch to a complex system with ‘components such as relays, timers, and switches. The ‘common function of all controls, however, isto control the operation of an electric motor, AS a resull, when ‘motor control equipment is selected and installed, ‘many factors must be considered to ensure that the control will function properly for the motor and the machine for which itis selected, ‘When choosing a specific device fora particular appli- cation, iis important to remember that the motor, ma- chine, and motor controller are interrelated and need to bbe considered asa package. In general, five basic factors influence the selection and installation of a controller.Unit 1 General Principles of Electric Motor Control = (Courtesy Simmons Machine Too! Co.) Figure 1-2 Robot ar contlled by 6 progamnablecoawoler [1-1 Programmable conirleroperaes several moors inthe manlaciring OSES 1, ELECTRICAL SERVICE Establish whether the service is direct (de) or alter- nating eurrent (ac). If ac, determine the frequency (hertz) and number of phases in addition to the voltage. 2. MOTOR ‘The motor should be attached to the electrical ser~ vice, and correctly sized for the machine load in horsepower rating (hp). Other considerations is clude motor speed and torque. To select proper pro- tection for the motor, its full load curtent rating (FLO), service factor (SP), time rating (duty, and other pertinent data—as shown on the motor name plate—must be used 3. OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROLLER The fundamental tasks of a motor controller are to Start and stop the motor, and to protect the motor, ‘machine, product, and operator. The controller may—$- 6 Section 1 Solid-State Devices also be called upon to provide supplementary func tions such as reversing, jogging or inching, plug- ging, operating a several speeds or at reduced levels. of current and motor torque. 4, ENVIRONMENT Controller enclosures provide safety protection for ‘operating personnel by preventing accidental contact with live parts. In certain applications, the controller itself must be protected from a variety of environmental conditions that might include: + Water, rain, snow or sleet + Dirt or noncombustible dust + Cutting ols, coolants or lubricants Both personnel and property require protection in environments made hazardous by the presence of explosive gases or combustible dusts, 5. ELECTRICAL CODES AND STANDARDS ‘Motor control equipmentis designed to meet the pro- visions of the National Electrical Cade® (NEC®), (National Electrical Code® and NEC® are regis tered trademarks of the Natiowal Fire Protection Association Ine., Quincy, MA 02269.) Also, local ‘code requirements must be considered and met when installing motors and control devices. Presently, code sections applying to motors, motor circuits, and controllers and industrial control de- ‘vices ae found in Article 430 on motors and motor controllers, Article 440 on air conditioning and n frigeration equipment, and Article SO on haz- ardous locations of the NEC®. ‘The 1970 Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) as amended, requires that each employer Turnish employment in an environment free from recognized hazauds likely to cause serious harm. ‘Standards established by the National Electrical ‘Manufacturers Association (NEMA) assist users in the proper selection of control equipment. NEMA. standards provide practical information concerning. the construction, testing, performance, and manu- facture of motor control devices such as starters, relays, and contactors ‘One of the organizations that actually test for conformity to national codes and standards is Underwriters’ Laboratories (UL). Equipment that is tested and approved by UL js listed in an annual publication, which is kept current by means of bi- ‘monthly supplements fo reflect the latest additions and deletions. A UL listing does not mean that a product is approved by the NEC®. Itmust be accept able tothe local authority having jurisdiction. SUC ‘Some of the complicated and precise automatic appli- cations of electrical control are illustrated in Figures 1-3 and 1-6, Factors to be considered when selecting and installing motor control components for use with particular machines or systems are described inthe fol- lowing paragraphs, Starting ‘The motor may be started by connecting it directly across the source of voltage. Slow and gradual starting may be required, not only to protect the machine, but also to ensure that the line current inrush on starting is not t00 great for the power company’s system, Some driven machines may be damaged if they ate started with a sudden turning effort, The frequency of starting Figure 18 Automotive asembly ine $e—$- Figure 1-4 Combination moter saree wih creat breaker, slsconnect itch, and contl uansfomer. (Shown inside module used for insertion into a motor contol center) (Couresy Square D Company) ‘4 motor is another factor affecting the controller, A combination motor starter with circuit breaker and. control transformer is shown in Figure 1-4, Stopping Most controllers allow motors to coast to a stand- still. Some impose braking action when the machine ‘must stop quickly. Quick stopping isa vital function of the controller for emergency stops. Controllers assist, the stopping action by retarding centrifugal motion of ‘machines and lowering operations of crane hoists. Reversing Controllers ate required to change the direction of rotation of machines automatically or at the command Unit 1 General Principles of Electric Motor Control = of an operator at a control station. The reversing action of a controller is a continual process in many industrial applications. Running Maintaining desired operational speeds and char- acteristics is a prime purpose and function of controllers, They protect motors, operators, machines, and materials while running. There are many differen lypes of safety circuits and devices to protect people, equipment, and industrial production and processes against possible injury that may occur while the ‘machines are running, Speed Control Some controllers can maintain very precise speeds for industrial processes, Other controllers can change the speeds of motors ether in steps or gradually through ‘continuous range of speeds, Safety of Operator Many mechanical safeguards have been replaced or aided by electrical means of protection. Electrical con- tuo! pilot devices in controllers provide a direct means ‘of protecting machine operators from unsafe conditions, Protection from Damage art of the operation of an automatic machine ist protect the machine itself and the manufactured or processed materials it handles, For example, a certain ‘machine control funetion may be the prevention of con- veyor pileups. A machine control can reverse, stop, slow, or do whatever is necessary to protect the ‘machine or processed materials. Maintenance of Starting Requirements Once properly installed and adjusted, motor starters will provide reliable operation of staring time, volt- ages, current, and torques for the benefit ofthe driven ‘machine und the power system. The National Flectrical Code, supplemented by local codes, governs the sel tion of the proper sizes of conductors, starting fuses, circuit breakers, and disconnect switches for specific system requirements, $e—$- 8 m Section 1 § ee A manual control is one whose operation is accom- plished by mechanical means. The effort required to actuate the mechanism is almost always provided by a ‘human operator. The motor may be controlled manu ally using any one ofthe following devices, tate Devices Taggle Switch A toggle switch is a manually operated electric switch, Many small motors are started with toggle ‘switches. This means the motor may be started directly without the use of magnetic switches or auxiliary equipment, Motors started with toggle switches are protected by the branch circuit fuse or circuit breaker. ‘These motors generally drive fans, blowers, o other light loads. Safety Switch In some cases itis permissible to start « motor directly across the full line voltage if an externally. ‘operated safety switch is used (Figure 1 ~-§). The mo: tor teceives starting and running protection from dual- clement, time-delay fuses. The use of a safety switch requires manual operation. A safety switch, therefore, hhas the same limitations common to most manual starters. Drum Controller Drum controllers ate rotary, manual switching de- Viees often used to reverse motors and to control the speed of ac and de motors. They are used particularly where frequent start, stop, or reverse operation is re- quired. These controllers may be used without other control components in small motors, generally those with fractional horsepower ratings, Drum controllers are used with magnetic starters in large motors. A drum ‘controller is shown in Figure 1 Tare 1-5 Threephase sconnest sich, (Coureny Square D Figure 1 Drum contaler with cover emaved so that sides visible, (Courtesy Square D Company) $e—$- Unit 1 General Principles of Blectric Motor Control = Remote and Automatic Control ‘The motor may be controlled by remote control using push buttons (Figure 1-7). When push-button remote control is used or when automatic devices do not have the electrical capacity to carry the motor starting and running currents, magnetic switches must be included ‘Magnetic switch control is accomplished by electro ‘magnetic means, The effort required to uetuate the elec- tromagnet is supplied by electrical energy rather than by the human operator. If the motor is to be automati- cally controlled, the following two-wire pilot devices may be used, Float Switeh ‘The raising or lowering of a float that is mechani- cally attached to electrical contacts may start motor- driven pumps to empty or fill tanks, Float switches are also used to open or close piping solenoid valves to control Nuids (Figure 1-8) i<2l “3 ~op- Figure 1-8 Rod operated Qoat switch wit lectical wiring symbols $e—$- 10 Section 1 Solid-State Devices Pressure Switch Pressure switches are used to control the pressure of liguids and gases (including at) within a desired range (Figure 1-9). Aircompressors, for example, are started ditectly or indirectly on a call for more air by a pressure switch, Electrical wiring symbols are shown as nor- ‘mally closed and normally open in Figure 1-10. Time Clock ‘Time clocks can be used when a definite “on and off” period is required and adjustments are not nec~ essary for long periods of time, A typical requirement 1 Prewre wich with cover removed Normally Normally closed) YF is a motor that must start every morning at the same time and shutoff every night at the same time, or that switches the foodiights on and off Thermostat In addition o pilot devices sensitive to liquid levels, ‘gas pressures, and time of day, thermostats sensitive temperature changes are widely used (Figure 1-11). ‘Thermostats indirectly control large motors in air con- dlitioning systems and in many industrial applications {to maintain the desired temperature range of air, gases, liguids, or solids. There are many types of thermostats and temperature-actuated switches. Limit Switeh Limit switches (Figure 1-12) are designed to pass aan electrical signal only when a predetermined limit is reached. The limit may be a specific position for « ‘machine part or a piece of work, or a certain rotating speed. These devices take the place of a human opera~ tor and are often used under conditions where it would be impossible or impractical for the operator to be present orto efiicienty direct the machine. Figure 110 NEMA symbol for pressive switch contact ‘Figure I-11 Line volnge Bermostr (Gouresy Waite Rogers) $e—$- Figure 1-12 Limit switch with cover removed o show intemal Limit switches are used most frequently as over- travel stops for machines, equipment, and products in process, These devices are used in the contsol cizcuits ‘of magnetic starters to govern the starting, stopping, or reversal of electric motors. Electrical or Mechanical Interlock and Sequence Control Many of the electrical control devices described in this unit ean be connected in an interlocking system so that the final operation of one or more motors depends upon the electrical position of each individual control device, For example, afloat switch may call for more liguid but will not be satisfied until the prior approval ‘of a pressure switch or time clock is obtained. To de- sign, install, and maintain electrical controls in any electrical or mechanical interlocking system, the elec- trical technician must understand the total operational system und the function of the individual compone ‘With practice, itis possible to transfer knowledge of, circuits and descriptions for an understanding of addi tional similar controls, It is impossible—in instruc tional materials—to show all possible combinations of tan interlocking control system. However, by under standing the basic functions of control components and their basic ciruitry, and by taking the time to trace and Unit 1 General Principles of Electric Motor Control = 11 draw circuit diagrams, difficult interlocking control systems can become easier to understand Seite LCS In starting and stopping a motor and its associated ma- chinery, there are a number of conditions that may af fect the motor. A few of them are discussed here, Frequency of Starting and Stopping ‘The starting duty cycle of a controller is an impor- tant factor in determining how satisfactorily the con- troller will perform in a particular application, Magnetic switches, such as motor starters, relays, and contactors, actually beat themselves apart from repeated opening ‘and closing thousands of times. An experienced electei- ian soon learns to look for this type of component fail- lure winen troubleshooting any inoperative contro! pan- els. NEMA standards require that the starter size be erated ifthe frequency of star-stop, jogging, ot plag~ aging is mote than 5 times per minute. Therefore, when the frequency of starting the controller is great, the use of heavy duty controllers and accessories should be con- sidered, For standard duty controllers, more frequent in- spection and maintenance schedules should be followed, Light or Heavy Duty Starting Some motors may be started with no loads and oth- crs must be started with heavy loads. When motors are started, large feeder line disturbances may be created that can affect the electrical distribution system of the entive industrial plant. The disturbances may even al- fect the power company’s system. Asaresult, the power ‘companies and electrical inspection agencies place cer- tain limitations on “across-the-line” motor starting Fast or Slow Start (Hard or Soft) To obtain the maximum twisting effort (torque) of the rolor ofan ae motor, the best starting condition isto apply full voltage to the motor terminals. The driven, machinery, however, may be damaged by the sudden surge of motion. To prevent this type of damage to ma- chines, equipment, and processed materials, some con- rollers are designed to start slowly and then increase the motor speed gradually in definite steps. This type is often used by power companies and inspection agen cies to avoid electrical line surges. $e12 Section 1 Solid-State Devices Smooth Starting Although reduced electrical and mechanical surges can be oblained with a step-by-step motor starting ‘method, very smooth and gradual starting will require different controlling methods, These are discussed in detail later in the text. Manual or Automatic Starting and Stopping While the manual starting and stopping of ma chines by an operator is still a common practice, many ‘machines and industrial processes are started and re- started automatically. These automatic devices result in tremendous savings of time and materials. Automatic stopping devices are used in motor control systems for the same reasons. Automatic stopping devices greatly reduce the safety hazards of operating some types of ‘machinery, both for the operator and the materials be~ ing processed. An electrically operated, mechanical brake is shown in Figure 1-13, Such a brake may be re- uired to stop @ machine's motion in a hurry to protect materials being processed or people in the area FigureIois Typiealelecietake, (Quick Stop oF Slow Stop Many motors are allowed to coast to 2 standstill However, manufacturing requirements and safety con- siderations often make it necessary to bring machines to as rapid a stop as possible. Automatic controls can retard and brake the speed of a motor and also apply a Figure Inf Dynami baking fora de compound motor—$- torque in the opposite direction of rotation to bring about a rapid stop. This is called plugging. Plugging can only be used ifthe driven machine and its load will, not be damaged by the reversal of the motor torque ‘The control of deceleration is one of the important functions of « motor control Another method of braking electric motors is ‘known as dynamie braking. When this method is used to reduce the speed of de motors, the armature is, connected across a load resistor when power is disconnected from the motor, Ifthe field winding of the motor remains energized, the motor becomes a genera lor and current is supplied to the load resistor by the armature (Figure 1-14). The current flowing through 1 2 La atovac 30° LC . Mt STE?-D0Wn ‘TRANSFORMER aR ‘CONTROL TRANSFORMER 480/120 Unit 1 General Principles of Electrie Motor Control i 13 the armature winding creates a magnetic field around the armature, This magnetic field causes the armature to be attracted to the magnetic field of the pote pieces. This action in a de generator is Known as counter forgue. Using counter torque to brake a de motor is known as dynamic braking, ‘Ac induction motors can be braked by momentar: ‘ly connecting de voltage to the stator winding (Figure 1-15). When direct current is applied to the stator winding of an ac motor, the stator poles become clectromagnets, Current is induced into the windings of the rotor asthe rotor continues to spin through the mag- netic field, This induced current produces a magnetic field around the rotor. The magnetic field of the rotor is ounTRs 9) er BRIOGE RECTIFIER CONVERTS {AG VOLTAGE INTO DC VOLTAGE. ‘Figure I-15 Dynamic baking foran ar motor—$- 14 Section 1 Solid-State Devices attracted to the magnetic field produced in the stator ‘The attraction of these two magnetic fields produces & braking action in the motor ‘An advantage of using dynamic braking is that mo- tors can be stopped rapidly without wearing brake lin- ings or drums, It cannot be used to hold a suspended load, however, Mechanical brakes must be employed ‘when a load must be held, such as with aerane or hoist Accurate Stops ‘An elevator must stop at precisely the right location so that itis aligned with the floor Ievel, Such accurate stops are possible with the use of automatic devices interlocked with control systems, Frequency of Reversals Required Frequent reversals of the direction of rotation of the ‘motor impose large demands on the controller and the electrical distribution system, Special motors and special starting and running protective devices may be required to meet the conditions of frequent reversals ‘A heavy duty drum switeh-controlleris often used for this purpose emer LOM ‘The speed control is concerned not only with starting the motor but also with maintaining or controlling the ‘motor speed while itis running. There are « number of conditions to be considered for speed control Constant Speed Constant speed motors are used on water pumps (Figures 1-10 and 1-16). Maintenance of constant speed is essential for motor generator sets under all load Figure 1-16 (Courtesy Tennessee Valley Autboriy) $econditions. Constantspeed motors withratingsas owas 80 rpm and horsepower ratings up to 5000 hp are used in di- rect drive units. The simplest method of changing speeds is by gearing, Using gears, almost any “predetermined” speed may be developed by coupling the input gear to the shaft of @ squitrel-cage induction motor, A speed reducing cycloidal gear motor is shown in Figure 1~17. Varying Speed A varying speed is usually preferred for cranes and hoists (Figure 1-18). In this type of application, the motor speed slows as the load increases and speeds up as the load decreases. Adjustable Speed With adjustable speed controls, an operator can {gradually adjust the speed of a motor over a wide range ‘while the motor is running. The speed may be preset but once itis adjusted it remains essentially constant at any load within the rating of the motor Unit 1 General Principles of Electric Motor Control 15 “Cutaway view of peed reducing eycloidal ear rotor. Cys gsar bores ae concentric cm with roles insead of conventional gears. (Courtesy Sumitomo Machinery Corporation af America}—$- 16 Section 1 Solid-State Devices Multispeed For multispeed motors, such as the type used on {urret lathes in 2 machine shop, the speed can be set at ‘two or more definite rates. Once the motor is set at a definite speed, the speed will remain practically constant regardless of load changes, Protective Features ‘The particular application of each motor and control installation must be considered to determine what protective features are required to be installed and maintained. Overload Protection Running protection and overload protection refer to the same thing. This protection may be an integral part ‘of the motor or be separate. A controller with electrical ‘overload protection will protect a motor from burning up ‘while allowing the motor to achieve its maximum avail- able power under a range of overload and temperature conditions. An electrical overload on the motor may be caused by mechanical overload on driven machinery, & low line voltage, an open electrical Iie in a polyphase system resulting in single-phase operation, mator prob- Jems such as too badly worn bearings, loose terminal ‘connections, or poor ventilation within the motor. Open Field Protection De shunt and compound-wound motors can be pro- tected against the loss of field excitation by field loss relays. Other protective arrangements are used with starting equipment for de and ac synchronous motors. Some sizes of de motors may race dangerously with the loss of field excitation while other motors may not race due to friction and the fact that they are stall Open-Phase Protection Phase failure ina three-phase circuit may be caused by a blown fuse, an open connection, a broken line or other reasons, If phase failure occurs when the motor is at a standstill during attempts to start, the stator cur- rents will rise to a very high value and will remain there, but the motor will remain stationary (not turn). Since the windings are not properly ventilated while the motor is stationary, the heating produced by the high currents may damage them, Dangerous conditions also ate possible while the motor is running. When the ‘motor is running and an open-phase condition occurs, the motor may continue to run. The torque will decrease, possibly fo the point of motor “stall”; this condition is called breakdown torque. Reversed Phase Protection Ito phases of the supply of a three-phase induc tion motor are interchanged (phase reversal) the motor ‘ill reverse its direction of rotation. In elevator opera~ ‘ion and industrial applications, this reversal can result in serious damage, Phase failure and phase reversal relays are safety devices used to protect motors, ‘machines, and personne] from the hazards of open- phase or reversed-phase conditions Overtravel Protection Control devices are used in magnetic starter cir cuits to govern the starting, stopping, and reversal of electric motors. These devices can be used 10 control regular machine operation or they can be used as safety ‘emergency switches to prevent the improper function- ing of machinery. Overspeed Protection Excessive motor speeds can damage a driven ma chine, materials inthe industrial process, or the motor. Overspeed safety protection is provided in control equipment for paper and printing plants, steel mills, processing plants, and the textile industry. Reversed Current Protection Accidental reversal of currents in de controllers can have serious effects. Direct-current controllers used ‘with three-phase alternating-current systems that expe~ rience phase failures and phase reversals are also subject to damage, Reverse current protection is an important provision for battery charging and electro- plating equipment, Mechanical Protection ‘An enclosure may increase the life span and con- tribute (o the trouble-free operation of a motor and $e—$- Figure I-10 Explosion prof eclosre fora magnetic motor ‘controller. Enclosures with particular ratings such as general purpose, watertight, dustproof, explosionproof, sand corrosion resistant are used for specific applications (Figure 1-19). All enclosures must meet the require ‘ments of national and local electrical codes and building codes, Short Circuit Protection For large motors with greater than fractional horse- power ratings, shor circuit and ground fault protection generally is installed inthe same enclosure asthe motor isconnecting means. Overcurrent devices (such as fuses and cireuit breakers) are used to protect the mo- ‘or branch circuit conductors, the motor control appa- ratus, and the motor itself against sustained overcurrent ddue to short circuits and grounds, and prolonged and excessive starting currents, Classification of Automatic Motor Starting Control Systems ‘The numerous types of automatic starting and c trol systems ate grouped into the following classiti- cations: curtent limiting acceleration and time delay acceleration. Unit 1 General Principles of Electric Motor Control = 17 Current Limiting Acceleration Current limiting acceleration is also called com- ensating time, It refers to the amount of current or voltage drop required to open and close magnetic switches when used in a motor accelerating controller ‘The rise and fall of the current or voltage determines a timing period that is used mainly for de motor conte. Examples of types of current limiting acceleration are: + Counter emf or voltage drop acceleration + Lockout contactor ot series relay acceleration Time Delay Acceleration For time delay acceleration, definite rime relays are used to obtain a preset timing period. Once the period is preset, it does not vary regardless of current or vot- age changes occurring during motor acceleration. The following timers and timing systems ate used for mo- tor acceleration; some are also used in interlocking cir- cuits for automatic control systems. + Pneumatic timing + Motor-driven timers + Capacitor timing + Electronic timers PSs) One of the primary jobs of an industrial electrician is, ‘uoubleshooting control cizcuits. An electrician that is proficient in troubleshooting is sought after by most of, industry. The greatest troubleshooting tool an elect ‘cian ean possess is the ability to read and understand control schematic diagrams. Many of the cireuits shown, in this text are accompanied by detailed explanations of the operation of the cixcuit, If the circuit and explana- tion ate studied step by step, the student will have an excellent understanding of control sciematies when his, text is completed ‘Most electricians follow a set procedure when troubleshooting a circuit. Ifthe problem has occurred several times in the past and was caused by the same component each time, most electricians check that component first. If that component proves to be the problem, much time has been saved by not having to tuace the entixe circuit, $e—$- 18 Section 1 Solid-State Devices ‘eavouts ac Figure 1-20 Trooblesbooting a roa Another method of troubleshooting acircuitis shot ‘gun troubleshooting, This method derives itsame from the manner in which components ate tested. Instead of following the circuit in a logical step-by-step proce- dure, the electrician quickly checks the major compo- nents of the circuit, This approzch is used to save time because in many industrial situations an inoperative piece of equipment can cost a company thousands of dollars for each hour itis not working. ‘When neither of these methods reveals the prob- Tem, the electrician must use the control schematic to ‘race the circuit ina logical step-by-step procedure. The primary tool used to trace a circuit is the volt-ohm- ‘milliammeter (VOM), which measures voltage, current, and resistance, ILis often necessary to use jumper leads to bridge open contacts when using the VOM. When a jumper lead is used for this application, it should be provided with shor circuit protection. This ean be done by connecting a small fuse holder or circuit breaker in series with the jumper lead. In this way ifthe jumper is accidently shorted, the fuse or cieuit breaker will open and protect the rest of the circuit, ‘When troubleshooting a circuit, most electricians ‘work backward through the cizeuit. For example, one line of a control schematic is shown in Figure 1-20, M relay coil is connected in series with a normally closed overload contact, a normally open limit switch contact, « normally closed pressure switch contact, & normally closed CR relay contact, and @ normally ‘open float switch contact. The problem with the cir- cuit is that M relay coil will nt energize. The first test should be to measure the voltage at each end of the circuit to confirm the presence of control voltage, The next procedure is to connect the voltmeter across exch of the circuit components to determine which one is ‘open and stopping the current flow to the coil, When the voltmeter is connected across a closed contact, there is no voltage drop, and the meter indicates 0 volts, Ifthe voltmeter is connected across an open contact, the meter indicates the full voltage of the circuit ‘Assume inthis circuit that the full circuit voltage is indicated when the meter is connected actoss float switch FS, This reading signals that float switch FS is ‘open. The next step isto determine ifthe switch is bad or if the liquid lever itis sensing has not risen high «enough to close the switch. Once that has been deter- ‘mined, the electrician can correct the problem. Review Questions 1, What is a controller and what is its function? (Use the Glossary and the information from this unit to answer this question ) 2, What is meant by remote control? 3, To what does current limiting, or compensating time, acceleration refer? 4, List some devices that are used to control a motor automatically, Briefly describe the purpose of ‘each device,—$- Unit 1 General Principles of Electric Motor Control = 19 Select the best answer for each ofthe following. 5. The general purpose of motor contol is a, to start the motor b. t0 stop the motor «, toreverse the motor 4, all of the above 6. A motor may be controlled manually by using & ‘float switch . pressure switeh «. toggle switch 4d time clock 7. A motor may be controlled remotely or automatically by using @ ‘a. drum controller ’. thermostat . safety switeh 4. faceplate control 8. Conditions that may affect starting and stopping ‘of motor driven machinery are ‘a Fast or slow starts . Light or heavy duty starting ¢. frequency of starting and stopping 4. all of the above 9. Which factor is not to be considered for motor speed control when the motor is running? ‘a. Constant speed b. Varying speed cc. Multispeed 4, Starting protection 10. Which is not considered 2 motor controller protective feature? ‘&. Overload ». Short circuit IL 12. 13. 14, . Adjustable speed 4. Mechanical Which function is not a fundamental job of a motor controller? ‘Start and stop the motor b, Protect the motor, machine, and operator . Reverse, inch, jog, speed control 4, Motor disconnect switch and starting protection ‘What factors are to be considered when selecting and installing a controller? Electrical service Motor Electrical codes and standards All of the above Dynamic braking for a de motor is accomplished by . connecting ae voltage to the armature 'b. maintaining de current flow through the field and connecting the armature to load resistor ‘c. maintaining de current flow through the armature and connecting a load resistor to the field 4. disconnecting de power from the motor and reconnecting the armature to 4 load resistor Dynamic braking for an ac motor is accomplished by 8. disconnecting ae power from the motor leads and reconnecting the motor o a load resistor b. reversing the direction of rotation of the motor «. connecting de voltage to the stator leads 4. connecting a load resistor in series with the motor leadsUNIT 2 SEMICONDUCTORS OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, the student will be able fo: Discuss the atomic structure of conductors, insulators, and semiconductors, Discuss how a P-type material is produced, Discuss how an N-type material is produced. Many of the control systems used in today’s industry are operated by solid-state devices as well as magnetic ‘and mechanical devices. To install and troubleshoot control systems, an electrician must have an under- standing of electronic control devices as well as relays and motor starters, Solid-state devices, such as diodes and transistors, are often called semiconductors, Tae ‘word semiconductor refers to the ype of material used to make solid-state devices, To understand how solid state devices operate, one must first study the atomic structure of conductors, insulators, and semiconductors, Conductors are materials that provide easy paths for the flow of electrons, Conductors are generally made from materials that have large, heavy atoms, For this reason, most conductors are metals. The best electrical conductors are silver, copper and aluminum, Conductors ae also made from materials that have only one or two valence electrons in their ators, (Valence electrons are the electrons in the outer orbit of » aan atom, Figure 2-1). An atom that has only one va- Tence electron makes the best electrical conductor be~ cause the electron is held loosely in orbit and is easily sven up for current flow. Figur ‘Arom ofa conductor $eUnit2 Semiconductors = 21 Tier Atom ofan iaaltor ITA Insulators are generally made from lightweight materi- als chat have small atoms. The outer orbits ofthe atoms of insulating materials are filled or almost filled with valence electrons. This means an insulator will have seven or eight valence electrons as in the example in Figure 2-2. Since an insulator has its outer otbit filed ‘or almost filled with valence electrons, the electrons are ‘held tightly in orbit and are not easly given up for cur- rent flow, Figure 5 Atom ofasemicondocior SEIT Semiconductors, as the word implies, are materials that are neither good conductors nor good insulators. Semi- ‘conductors are made from materials that have four valence elections in their outer oxbits (Figure 2~3). Germanium and silicon are the most common semi- ‘conductor materials used in the electronics field. Of these materials, silicon is used more offen because of its ability to withstand heat.22m Section 1 Solid-State Devices igure 4 Latice sractre of pre semicondacior mate When semiconductor materials are refined in pure form, the molecules arrange themselves into a crystal structure with a definite pattem (Figure 2-4), This type of patter is called lattice structure. A pure semiconductor material such as silicon has no special properties and will do little more than make & poor con- ductive material. To make semiconductor material use- ful in the production of solid-state components, it isUnit 2 Semiconductors l= 23 ‘mixed with an impurity. When pure semiconductor ‘material is mixed with an impurity that has only three valence electrons, such as indium or gallium, the lattice structure changes, leaving a hole in the material (Figure 2-5). This hole is caused by a missing elec- tron, Since the material now lacks an electron, itis no longer electrically neutral. Electrons ate negative particles. The hole, which has taken the place of an24m Section 1 Solid-State Devices Figure 2-6 Lanice arortre ofa N-ype material electron, has a positive charge; therefore, the semicon ductor material now has a net positive charge and is called a P-type material When a semiconductor material is mixed with an ‘impurity that has five valence electrons, such as arsenic for antimony, the lattice structure has an excess of electrons (Figure 2-6), Since electrons are negative particles, and there are more electrons in the material than there should be, the material has a net negative charge. This material is called an Naype material because ofits negative charge ‘All solid-state devices ate made from combinations ‘of P- and N-type materials. The type of device formed is determined by how the P- and N-type materials areUnit2 Semiconductors = 25 Figur it The PN pnaton ‘connected. The number of layers of material and the thickness of each layer play an important part in deter- ‘mining what type of device is formed, For example, the diode is often called a PN junction because itis made by Tiga 8 The wamison Joining a piece of P-rype material anda piece of N-type ‘material (Figure 2~7), The transistor, onthe other hand, is made by joining thee layers of semiconductor ‘materials (Figure 2-8) 1, The atoms of a material used as a conductor gener- ally contain valence elee- ‘wons 2. The atoms of a material used as an insulator gener ally contain valence elec- ‘wons 3, The two materials most often used to produce semiconductor devices are and. 4, What isa lattice structure? 5, How is a P-type material made? 6, How is an N-type material made? 17. Which type of semiconductor material can with- stand the greatest amount of heat? 8, All electronic components are formed from P-type ‘and N-type materials, What factors determine the kind of components formed?UNIT 3 THE PN JUNCTION OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, the student will be able fo: Discuss how the PN junction is produced, Recognize the schematic symbol for a diode. 1M Discuss the differences between the conventional current flow theory and the electron flow theory. ‘Test the diode with an ommeter. Ue Hundteds of different electronic devices have been pro- duced since the invention of solid-state components, Solid-state devices are made by combining P-type and N-type materials, The device produced is determined by the mumber of layers of material used, the thickness of the layers of material, and the manner in which the layers are joined, It is not within the scope of this text to cover even. aa small portion of these devices. The devices that are covered have been selected because of their frequent use in industry as opposed to communications or computers. These devices are presented in a straight- Discuss how the diode operates in a circuit emtify the anode and cathode leads of a diode. Properly connect the diode in an electric circuit. Discuss the differences between a half-wave rectifier and a full-wave rectifier forward, practical manner, and mathematical explana- tion is used only when necessary. ‘The PN junction is often called the diode. The diode is the simplest ofall electronic devices. tis made by joining a piece of P-type material and a piece of, N-type material (Figure 3-1). The schematic symbol for a diode is shown in Figure 3-2. The diode operstes like an electric check valve in that it permits current to low through it in only one direction, Ifthe diode isto ‘conduct current, it must be forward biased. The diode is forward biased only when a positive voltage is con- nected tothe anode and a negative voltage is connected to the cathode. Ifthe diode is reverse biased, the nega- tive voltage connected to the anode and the positivefi Figur S01 The PN jnction or diode DIRECTION OF CONVENTIONAL CURRENT FLOW («TO -) ——$ CATHODE SOE _p_orrvoe_ Schematic symbol Tora dogs voltage connected tothe cathode, it will actlike an open switch und no current will low through the device. ‘When working with solid-state circuits, i is impor- tant to realize that circuits ae often explained assuming conventional current flow as opposed to electron flow. ‘The conventional current low theory assumes that cur: rent flows from positive fo negative, while the electron flow theory states that current flows from negative to positive. Although it has been known for many years that current flows from negative to positive, many electronic cieuit explanations assume a positive to neg ative current flow, There are several reasons for this assumption. One reason is that ground is generally negative and is considered to be O volts in an electronic circuit, Any voltage above, or greater, than ground is positive, Most people find itis easier to think of some thing flowing downhill or from some point above to some point below. Another reason isthatall of the arrows inn electronic schema ure pointed inthe direction of conventional current flow. The diode shown in Figure 3-2 is forward biased only when a positive voltage is applied to the anode and a negative voltage is applied to the cathode, Ifthe conventional current flow theory is, used, current will flow in the direction the arrow is pointing. Ifthe electron theory of current flow is used, ‘current must flow against the arrow. Unit3 The PN Junetion = 27 A.common example ofthe use of the conventional ccurrent flow theory is the electrical system of an auto mobile. Most automobiles use a negative ground sys- em, which meuns thatthe negative terminal of the bi tery is grounded. The positive terminal ofthe battery is considered fo be the “hot” terminal, and itis generally assumed that current flows from the “hot” terminal to ground, The diode can be tested with an ohmmeter (See Pro- cedure 1 in the Appendix). When the leads of an ohm- ‘meter are connected to a diode, the diode should show continuity in only one ditection. For example, assume that when the leads of an ommeter are connected to a diode, it shows continuity. Ifthe leads are reversed, the ‘ohmmeter should indicate an open cireuit, Ifthe diode shows continuity in both directions, it is shorted. Ifthe ohmmeter indicates no continuity in either dizection, the diode is open The diode can be used to perform many jobs, but it jis most commonly used in industry to construct rectifier. A rectifier is a device that changes, oF con: verts, ae voltage into de voltage, The simplest ype of rectifier is the half-wave rectifier (Figure 3-3). The half-wave rectifier can be constructed using only one diode. It gts its name from the fact that it will rectify only half of the ac waveform applied to it. When the voltage applied tothe anode is positive, the diode is for- ward biased and current flows through the diode, the load resistor, and back to the power supply, When the voltage applied to the anode is negative, the diode is reverse biased and no current will flow. Since the diode permits current to flow through the load resistor in only one direction, the current is direct current. Loan: Figo 3 Wl28 m Section 1 Solid-State Devices Figures -4 Badge eciier Diodes can be connected to produce full-wave rectification, which means that both halves of the ac waveform are made to flow in the same direction, One type of full-wave rectifier is the bridge rectifier (Figure 3-4), Notice that four diodes are required to construct the bridge rectifier. ‘To understand the operation of the bridge rectifier shown in Figure 3~ at point X of the ac source is positive and point Y is negative. Current lows to point A of the rectifier. At point A, diode Dd is reverse biased and D1 is forward biased: therefore, the current flows through diode D1 to point B of the rect fier. At point B, diode D2 is reverse biased, so the eur rent must flow through the load resistor to ground, The ‘current returns through ground to point D of the rect fier. At point D, both diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased, but current will not flow from positive to posi tive, Therefore, the curtent flows through diode D3 to point C of the bridge, and then to point Y of the ac source, which is negative at this time. Since current flowed through the load resistor during this half eyele, a voltage developed across the resistor. ‘Now assume that point Y of the ae source is posi- ive and point X is negative. Current flows from point Y¥ to point C of the rectifier. At point C, diode D3 is re verse biased and diode D2 is forward biased. The cur tent flows through diode D2 to point B of the rectifier. ‘At point B, diode D1 is reverse biased, so the current ‘must flow through the load resistor to ground. The eur rent flows from ground to point D of the bridge. At point D, both diodes D3 and D4 are forward bissed, Since current will nt flow from positive to positive, the ccurrent flows through diode Dé to point A ofthe bridge and then to point X which is now negative, Current flowed through the load resistor during this half eycle, so a voltage developed across the load resistor. Notice that the current flowed in the same direction through the resistor during both half cycles. Bridge rectifiers in single cases ate shown in Figure 3-5, In industry three-phase power is used more often than single-phase power. Six diodes can be connected to form a three-phase bridge rectifier that will chang: three-phase ac voltage into de voltage (Figure 3-6). Figure— eo Unit3 The PN Junetion = 29 Figure 3-0 Thre-phase bridge reste, ‘When the diode is to be connected in a circuit, there smust be some means of identifying the anode and the ‘cathode, Diodes are made in different case styles, as shown in Figure 3~7, so there ate different methods of identifying the leads. Large stud mounted diodes often, have the diode symbol printed on the case to show proper lead identification. Small plastic case diodes ‘often have @ line or band around one end of the case (Figure 3-8). This line or band represents the line in front of the arrow on the schematic symbol of the diode. An ohmmeter can always be used to determine the proper lead identification if the polarity of the ‘ohmmeter leads is known, The positive lead ofthe ohim- meter must be connected to the anode to make the diode forward biased, Figure 7 Diodes shown in vanous case sles ‘caTHODE Figures Tad eniication ofa pass case ode.oe 30H Seetion 1 Solid-State Devices PETE 1. The PN junction is more commonly known as 5. Explain the difference between a half-wave the rectifier and a full-wave rectifier. 2. Draw the schematic symbol for a diode, 6. Explain how to testa diode with an ohmmeter. 3. Explain how a diode operates. 4, Explain the difference between the conventional ‘current fiow theory and the electron flow theory.UNIT 4 THE ZENER DIODE OBJECTIVES After studying this uni, the student will be able to: 1m Explain the difference between a junction diode and a zener diode. Discuss common applications of the zener diode. Connect a zener diode in a cieuit. aie a ‘The zener diode is a spectal device designed so be op- erated with reverse polarity applied to it. When a diode is broken down in the reverse direction, it enters what Js known as the zener region. Usually, when a diode is, broken down into the zener region, itis destroyed: the zener diode, however, is designed to be operated in this, ‘region without harming the device. When the reverse breakdown voltage of a zener diode is reached, the voltage drop of the device remains almost constant regardless of the amount of current flowing inthe reverse direction (Figure 4—1). Since the voltage drop of the zener diode is constant, any device connected parallel to the zener will have a constant volt- ‘agedrop evenif the current through the load is changing In Figure 42, resistor RI is used to limit the total current ofthe circuit, Resistor R2 is used to limit the current in the load cizcuit, Note that the value of RI is, less than the value of R2, This is to ensure that the sup- ply can furnish enough current to operate the load. Note also that the supply voltage is greater than the zener voltage The suply voltage must be grater than the Voltage ofthe zener diode or the iui eanot operate. Tevistor Rand te ener diode fonm asec exit ground, Since the zener dod as voltage drop of 12 vel, essor RI asa volage dep of 8 vols (20 wots ~ 12 volts = 8 vols). Therefore, este RI wil permit maximum curent flow inthe iat of 1 amperes or 80 milisnps l i= 0s) ‘The load circuit, which is a combination of R2 and 3, is connected parallel to the zener diode. Therefore, the voltage applied o the load cireuit must be the same as the voltage dropped by the zener, Ifthe zener diode ‘maintains a constant 12-volt drop, a constant voltage of 12 volts must be applied to the load circuit ‘The maximum current that can flow thyough the Toad circuit is .06 amperes or 60 mA: ( I2volts aoc =) a—$- 32, Section 1 Solid-State Devices ‘CURRENT (FORWARD) vous yous (pEVERSE) (FORWARD) zexen FEN Tae Notice thatthe value of R2 (200 ohms) is used to sevorrse ensure that there is enough current available to operate the load. ‘The maximum current allowed into the circuit by mS eens resistor RI is alays equal tothe sum of the curren passing through the zener diode and the load, For ex- ample, when the load is connected parallel tothe zener diode as shown in Figure 4-2, and resistor R3 is ad= justed to 0 ohms, meter AI will indicate a current of 20 mA, and meter A2 will indicate a current of 60 mA. ‘Therefore, the maximum current allowed into the cir- cuit by resistor RI will be 80 ma (20 mA + 60 mA. revours 80 mA). The voltage value indicated by meter El will ‘SWAT be the same as the zener voltage value. resistor R3 is inereased in value to 200 obms, the resistance of the load will increase to 400 ohms (200 ~ 200 = 400). Meter Al will indicate a current of $0 mA land meter A2 will indicate a current of 30 mA. Tae voltage value indicated by meter EI will still be the same as the zener voltage value. The zener diode, therefore, makes a very effective voltage regulator for the load circuit, Allnough theoe ‘current through the load circuit changes, the zener diode forces the voltage across the loud circuit to re- main at a constant value, and conducts the current not used by the Ioad circuit to ground. ‘The schematic symbol for a zener diode is shown in Figure 43, The zener diode can be tested with an ‘ohmmeter in the same manner as 8 common junction diode is tested, provided the zener voltage is greater than the battery voltage of the ohnmmeter. Unit4 The Zener Diode = 33 Review Questions 1, How isa zener diode connected in a circuit as ‘compared to a common junction diode? 2. What is the primary use of a zener diode? 3. A S.L-volt zener diode isto be connected to an 8.volt power source. The current must be limited 10 50 mA. What value of curtent-limiting resistor ‘ust be connected in series with the zener diode? 4, How is a zener diode tested? 5. Ina zener diode circuit, the current-limiting resis tor limits the total circuit current to 150 mA. Ifthe load circuit is drawing a current of 90 mA, how ‘much current is flowing dhrough the zener diode?UNIT 5 THE TRANSISTOR OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, the student will be able to Discuss the differences between PNP and NPN transistors. ‘Test transistors with an ohmmeter, Discuss the operation of a transistor. Connect a transistor in a ciceuit, The Transistor Transistors are made by connecting three pieces of semiconductor material. There are two basic types of transistors: the NPN and the PNP (Figure 5~1), The schematic symbols for these ansistors are shown in Figure S~2. These transistors differ in the manner in which they are connected in a circuit. The NPN tran- sistor must have positive voltage connected to the col- lector and a negative voltage connected to the emitter ‘The PNP must have a positive voltage connected to the ‘emitter and a negative voltage connected to the collec tot. The base must be connected to the sane polarity as the collector to forward bias the transistor, Notice that the arrows on the emitters point in the direction of con- ventional current flow. ‘An obmmeter can be used to testa transistor which, will appear 10 the ohmmeter to be two joined diodes (Figure 5-3), (For an explanation of how to test a Mentify the leads of standard, case-style transistors. ransistor, see Procedure 2 in the Appendis.) Ifthe po- larity ofthe ouiput ofthe ohmmeter leads is known, the ‘ansistor can be identified us NPN or PNP. An NPN {ransistor will appear to an ohmmeter to be two diodes ‘with their anodes connected. If the positive lead of the ‘ohmmeter is connected to the base of the transistor, 2 diode junction should be seen between the base collector and the base-emitter, Ifthe negative lead of Two baie types of wanaUnit § The'Transistor = 35 Figure 2 Sehematc symbols for tanison, Fiza ‘Ohne et for ans ‘the ohmmeter is connected to the base of an NPN transistor, there should be no continuity between the ‘base-collector and the base-emitter junction. "APNP transistor will appear to an ohunmeter to be ‘wo diodes with their cathodes connected. Ifthe nega- tive lead of the ohmmeter is connected to the base of the transistor, a diode junction should be seen between, ‘the base-collector and the base-emitter. If the positive ‘ohmmeter lead is connected tothe base, there should be, ‘no continuity between the base-collector or the base- ‘emitter. The simplest way to describe the operation of a ‘uansistor is to say that it operates like an electric valve. ‘Current will not flow through the collector-emitter un- til curtent flows through the base-emitter. The amount ‘of base-emitter current, however, is small when com- ‘pared tothe collector-emitter current (Figure S~4). For ‘example, assume that when I milliamp of current flows, through the base-emitter junction, 100 mA of current flow through the collector-emitter junction, If this tran- sistor isa linear device, an inerease or decrease of base ‘curtent will cause a similar increase or decrease of collector current, Therefore, if the base current is in- ‘creased to 2 mA, the collector current will increase to 200 mA. Ifthe base current is decreased to .5 mA, the collector current will decrease to $0 mA. Notice that a Figure 5-4 A small ave curent conto a arg cllecor small change in the amount of base current can cause a large change in the amount of collector current. This permits a small amount of signal current to operate a larger device such as the coil of a control relay. One of the most common applications of the tran- tor in industry is that of a switch, When used in this manner, the transistor operates like a digital device instead of an anaiog device. The term digital means a device that has only two states, such as on and off. An analog device can be adjusted to different states, An example of this control can be seen in a simple switch connection. common wall switeh isa digital device. It ean be used to turn light on or off. Ifthe simple toggle36H Seetion 1 Solid-State Devices Figures = 10 [Seas wansinon Figure 87 10S cae aniston TosTo18 o@ Tigre 6 10220 case ransnor switch is replaced with a dimmer control, the light can be turned on, off, or it can be adjusted to any position between on and off. The dimmer is an example of ana Jog contro Ifo current flows through the base ofthe transis- ‘or, the transistor acts like an open switch and no cur- rent can flow through the collector-cmitter junction. If enough base current is applied to the transistor to turn itcompletely on, it acts like a closed switch and permits current to flow through the collector-emitter junction, This is the same action produced by the closing con- tats of a relay or motor starter, but, unlike a transistor, aarelay or motor starter cannot turn on and off several thousand times a second, ‘ig 5-5 Lead ciicaon of aston ‘Some case styles of transistors permit the leads to bbe quickly identified, Figures S~5, 5-6, and 5~7. The ‘TOS and TO 18 cases, and the TO 3 case ae inthis cat- cegory, The leads of the TO § and TO 18 case transistors ccan be identified by holding the case of the transistor with the leads facing you as shown in Figure $-8A, ‘The metal tab on the case of the transistor is closest to the emitter lead, The base and collector leads are posi- tioned as shown, ‘The leads of a TO 3 case transistor can be identified as shown in Figure 5-8B. When the transistor is held ‘with the leads facing you and down, the emitters the left lead and the base is the right lead. The ease of the tran sistoris the collector. —>-oe Unit § The'Transistor = 37 PETE 1. What are the two basic types of transistors? ‘5, What polarity must be connected tothe collector, 2. Explain how to test an NPN transistor with an base, and emitter of a PNP transistor to make it ohmmeter, Forward biased? 3, Explain how to test a PNP transistor with an 6. Explain the difference between an analog device cohmmeter. and a digital device, 4. What polarity must be connected to the collector, base, and emitter of an NPN to make it forward biased?UNIT 6 THE UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR OBJECTIVES After studying this unt, the student will be able to Discuss the differences between junction transistors and unijunetion transistors, Identify the leads of a UIT. Draw the schematic symbol for a UIT. ‘Test a UIT with an ohmmeter Connect a UIT in a circuit er TU CUS ‘The unijunction transistor (UIT) isa special trans that has two bases and one emitter, The unijunetion ransistor is a digital device because it has only two states, on and off. Itis generally classified with a group of devices known as thyristors. Thyristors are devices that are turned completely on or completely off. Thyris- tors include such devices as the SCR, the trac, the disc and the UIT. ‘The unijunction transistor is made by combining due layers of semiconductor material as shown in Figure 6-1. Figure 6-2 shows the schematie symbol of the UYT with polarity connections and the base diagram, Describe the operation of the unijunction transistor (UIT). Current flows in two paths through the UIT, One path is trom base #2 to base #1. The other path is through the emitter and base #1. In its normal state, current does not flow through either path until the ‘Figure 0-1 The nijunction wanison $e—$- Unit 6 The Unijunction Transistor = 39 noes BASE 20) er jax ASEH (4) ” o Figure 6-2 The schematic ombol forthe unijuneton transistor with polarity cmectons and ave dagram voltage applied to the emitter is about 10 volts higher than the voltage applied to base #1. When the voltage applied tothe emitter is about 10 volts higher than the voltage applied to base #1, the UST turns on and current, flows through the base #1base #2 path and from the emitter through base #1, Current will continue to flow through the UST until the voltage applied to the emitter drops to a point that is about 3 volts higher than the e voltage applied to base #1, When the emitter voltage drops to this point, the UIT will tum off and will re- ‘main off until the voltage applied to the emitter again reaches a level about 10 volts higher than the voltage upplied to base #1 ‘The unijunction transistor is generally connected = = to a circuit similar to the cireuit shown in Figure 6 The variable resistor controls the capacitor’s rate of charge time, When the capacitor has been charged to about 10 volts, the UJT turns on and discharges the capacitor through the emitter and base #1. When the capacitor has been discharged to about 3 volts, the UIT tums off and permits the capacitor to begin charging again, By varying theresistance connected in series with the capacitor, the amount of time needed for charging the capacitor can be changed, thereby controlling the pulse rate of the UST (T = RC). ‘The unijunction transistor can furnish a large out- pt pulse because the output pulse is produced by the discharging capacitor (Figure 6~4). This large out put pulse is generally used for triggering the gate of a silicon-controlled rectifier ‘The pulse rate is determined by the amount of re= sistance and capacitance connected tothe emitter of the UIT. However, the amount of capacitance that can be connected tothe UIT is limited, Forinstance, most UIT should not be connected to capacitors arger than 10 nF because the UIT may not be able to handle the current Tigureo Figureo-s ourput $e—$- 40m Scetion 1 Solid-State Devices spike produced by a larger capacitor, and the UT could be damaged. ‘The unijunction transistor can be tested with an ‘ohmmneter in a manner very similar to that used to test «4 common junction transistor. (For an explanetion of hhow to test a unijunction transistor, see Procedure 3 in the Appendix.) ‘When testing the UIT with an ohmmeter, the UIT will appear as a cireuit containing two resistors con- nected in series with a diode connected to the junction point of the two resistors as shown in Figure 6-5, Ifthe positive lead ofthe ohmmeter is connected to the emi ter of the UIT, a circuit should be seen between emitter and base | and emitter and base 2, Ifthe negative lead TES CS 1. What do the letters UIT stand for? 2, How many layers of semiconductor material are used to construct a UIT? ae ‘Testing @ UT, Figuee of the ohmmeter is connected to the emitter, no circuit shouldbe seen between the emitter and either base. Ifthe ‘ohmmeter leads are connected to the two bases, conti- nity will be seen between these two leads provided that the output voltage of the ohmmeter is high enough, 3. Briefly explain the operation of the UIT. 4, Draw the schematic symbol for the UIT. 5. Briefly explain how to test a UIT with an okummeter.UNIT 7 THE SCR OBJECTIVES After studying this uni, the student will be able to: Discuss the operation of an SCR in a de citeuit. Discuss phase shifting ‘Test an SCR with an ohmmeter Connect an SCR in a circuit, ‘The silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) is often referred tos a PNPN junction because its made by joining four layers of semiconductor material (Figure 7-1). The schematic symbol for the SCR is shown in Figure 7-2. Notice thatthe symbol for the SCR is the sume as the symbol for the diode except that a gate lead has been added. Case styles for SCRs are shown in Figure 7-3. ‘The SCR isa member ofa family of devices known as thyristors. Tayristors are digital devices in that they Ihave only two states, on and off, The SCR is used when itis necessary for an electronic device to control a large ‘umount of power, For example, assume that an SCR has been connected in a circuit as shown in Figure 7=4 When the SCR is turned off it will drop the full voltage of the circuit and 200 volts wll appear across the anode and cathode. Although the SCR has a voltage drop of 200 vols, theres nocurrent flow inthe circuit, The SCR ddoes not have co dissipate any power in this condition (200 volts X 0 amperes = 0 watts). When the push Discuss the operation of an SCR in an ae cixeuit. Draw the schematic symbol for an SCR, Figur 7-1 The PNPN junction ANODE: ‘oaTHODE Figure 1-2 The schematic symbl fora alison convoled 4 $eoe 42m Seetion 1 Solid-State Devices button is pressed, the SCR tums on, producing a volt- age drop across its anode and cathode of about | volt, ‘The load resistor limits the circuit current to 2 amperes 200 volts 100 ohms? SRPHES Figure 7-3 SCRs shown in different case ses Since the SCR now has a voltage drop of 1 volt and 2 amperes of current flowing through it, it must dissi- pate 2 watts of heat (1 volt 2 amperes = 2 wats), No- tice that although the SCR is dissipating only 2 wats of| power, itis controlling 400 watts of power. Pe acs ‘When an SCR is connected in a de cizeuit as shown in Figure 7-4, the gate will turn the SCR on, but it will not turn the SCR off. To turn the anode-cathode sec- tion of the SCR on, the gate must be connected to the same polarity as the anode, Once the gate has turned the SCR on, the SCR will remain on until the current flowing through the anode-cathode section drops to & low enough level to permit the device to arn off. The amount of current required to keep the SCR turned on is called the holding current In Figure 7-5 assume that resistor RI has been ad- justed to its highest value and resistor R2 has been adjusted to its lowest or 0 value, When switch SI is closed, no current will low through the anode-cathode section of the SCR because resistor RI prevents the amount of current needed to trigger the device from flowing through the gate-cathode section of the SCR. the value of resistor R1 is slowly decreased, current flow through the gate-cathode section will slowly in- crease. When the gate reaches a certain level, assume SmA for this SCR, the SCR will fire, or turn on. When. the SCR fires, current will flow through the anode- cathode section and the voltage drop across the device ‘will be about 1 volt. Once the SCR is turned on, the gate has no control over the device, It could be = mvorrsve LOND 100 OAs Figure The SCR i ted on by he pe,Unit7 The SCR mt 43 fa Fa ‘Figure 7-5 Opsaton ofan SOR ina de cova disconnected from the anode without affecting the cir cuit, When the SCR fires, the anode-cathode section becomes a short circuit and current flow is limited by resistor R3, Now assume that resistor R2 is slowly increased in value. When the resistance of R2 is slowly increased, the current flow through the anode-cathode section will, slowly decrease. Assume that when the current flow through the anode-cathode section drops to 100 mA, the device suddenly turns off and the current flow drops to 0, This SCR requites 5 mA of gate current to turn it fn, and has a holding current value of 100 mA. Ro ‘The SCR is a rectifier; when it is connected in an ac cir- cuit, the output direct current. The SCR operates inthe same mannerinan ae cireuitasitdoesinadeciscuit. The difference in operation is caused by the ac waveform falling back to 0 atthe end of each half cycle. When the ac waveform drops o Oat the end ofeach half eyele, the SCR turns off. This means that the gate must retrigger the SCR for each cycle it is to conduct (Figure 7-6). Assume that the variable resistor connected to the gate has been adjusted to permit $ mA of current to flow when the voltage applied to the anode reaches its peak value. When the SCR turns on, current will begin, owing through the load resistor when the ae wave- form is at its positive peak, Current will continue to flow though the load until the decreasing voltage of the sine wave causes the current to drop below the hold ing current level of 100 mA. When the current through the anode-cathode section drops below 100 mA, the SCR turns off and all current flow stops. The SCR will remain turned off when the ac waveform goes into its negative half cycle because during this half cycle the SCR is reverse biased and cannot be fted, the resistance connected in series with the gate is reduced, a current of S mA will be reached before the ee Y Figure 7~6 The SCR fires when the ac waveform rashes pea vale $e44. Section 1 Solid-State Devices Faure The SCR Gres befor he ac waveform rearhos peak value aac waveform reaches its peak value (Figure 7~7). This will cause the SCR to fire easlir in the eycle. Since the SCR fires earlier in the eycle, current is permitted to flow through the load resistor for a longer period of time, which produces a higher average voltage drop across the load, Ifthe resistance ofthe gate circuits te duced again as shown in Figure 7-8, the 5 mA of gate current needed to fire the SCR will be reached earlier than in Figure 7~7. Current will begin flowing through the load sooner than before, which will permit a higher average voltage to be dropped across the load, ‘Notice tha this circuit enables the SCR to control only half of the positive waveform. The latest the SCR ccan be fired in the eycle is when the ae waveform is at 90° or peak. Ifa lamp were used as the load for this circuit it would buen at half brightness when the SCR first turned on, This control would permit the lamp to bbe operated from half brightness to full brightness, but it could not be operated at a level less than half brightness, Phase Shifting the SCR ‘The SCR can control all of the positive waveform through the use of phase shifting. As the term implies, phase shifting means to shift the phase of one thing in reference to another, In this instance, the vollage ap- plied to the gate must be shifted out of phase with the voltage applied o the unode, Although there are several methods used for phase shifting an SCR, itis beyond the scope of this text to cover all of them. The basic principles are the same forall ofthe methods, however, so only one method is covered, ‘To phase shift an SCR, the gate circuit must be un- locked or separated from the anode cireuit. The circuit shown in Figure 7-9 will accomplish this, A 24-volt, center-tapped transformer is used to isolate the gate circuit from the anode circuit. Diodes Dl and D2 are used to form a two-diode type of full-wave rectifier to operate the UIT circuit. Resistor RI is used to $eUnit7 The SCR = 45 Figure 7-9 OFT phase sit fran SCR. SCR gate currents provid determine the pulse rate of the UIT by controlling the charge time of capacitor C1. Resistor R2 is used to limit the current through the emitter of the UFT if resistor RI is adjusted to 0 ohms. Resistor R3 Kunis current through the base base 2 section when the UIT turns on, Resistor R4 permits a voltage spike or pulse to be pro- duced across it when the UIT turns on and discharges capacitor C1. The pulse produced by the discharge of capacitor C1 is used to trigger the gale of the SCR. Since te pulse of the UVT is used to provide atrig- ger forthe gate ofthe SCR, the SCR can be fired at any time regardless ofthe voltage applied tothe anode, This ‘means that the SCR can now be fired as early or late during the positive half cycle as desired because the gate pulse is determined by the charge rate of capacitor CI. The voltage across the load can now be adjusted from 0 to the full applied voltage. by he dscharging capacitor when the UFT Bis Testing the SCR ‘The SCR can be tested with an obmnmeter (see Procedure 4 in the Appendin), To test the SCR, connect the positive ‘output lead of the obmmerer tothe anode and the nega- tive lead to the euthode, The ohmmeter should indicate ‘no continuity. Touch the gate of the SCR to the anode. ‘The ohmmeter should indicate continuity through the SCR. When the gate lead is removed from the anode, conduction may stop or continue depending on whether the ohmmeter is supplying enough current to keep the device above its holding current level. Ifthe ohnmmeter indicates continuity through the SCR before the gate is touched to the anode, the SCR is shorted. If the ohm- ‘meter will not indicate continuity through the SCR after the gate has been touched tothe anode, the SCR is open, KOE TANTS ‘What do the letters SCR stand for? fan SCR is connected to an ae circuit, will the ‘output voltage be ac or de? Briefly explain how an SCR operates when con- necied to ade citeuit. ‘How many layers of semiconductor material are used to construct an SCR? $e 5, SCRs are members ofa family of devices known 2s thyristors. What is a thyristor? Briefly explain why thyristors have the ability to ‘control large amounts of power, ‘What isthe average voltage drop of an SCR when. it is tured on? Explain why an SCR must be phase shifted,UNIT 8 THE DIAC OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, the student will be able fo: Draw the schematic symbol for a diac Discuss the operation of a diae. Connect adiae ina cireuit. The diac isa special-purpose, bidirectional diode. The primary function of the diac isto phase shift triac. The ‘operation of the diac is very similar to that of a unijun ‘on transistor, except thatthe diae is a two-directional device. The diac has the ability to operate in an ac cuit while the UIT ean operate only in a de circuit, ‘There are two schematic symbols for the disc (Figure 8-1). Both of these symbols are used in elec- tronic schematics t illustrate the use of a die. Therefore, you should make yourself familiar with both symbols. The disc is a voltage sensitive switch that can ‘operate on either polarity Figure 8~2). Voltage applied to the diac must reach a predetermined level before the diac will activate. For this example, assume tha the pre- determined level is 15 volts. When the voltage reaches 15 volts, the diae will turn on, or fire, When the diac fires, it displays a negative resistance, which means that ‘twill conduct ata lower voltage than the voltage needed to tum it on, In this example, assume that the voltage drops to S volts wien the diac conducts, The die will remain on until the applied voltage drops below its conduction level, which is 5 volts Figure 8-3). +H Figure S71 Sehonatc sya forthe deUnit TheDiae = 47 [igure 2 The diac can operate on ee poy Figure 0-9 The dia operates unl ihe applied wotage Falls ‘below is conduction lve Figure 0-4 The dae wil conduct on ithe half of he allerating caren Since the diac is a bidirectional device, it will in the same manner on both halves of the ae eycle. ‘conduct on either half eycle of the alternating current The simplest way to summarize the operation of the applied to it (Figure 8-4). Note that the diac operates dic isto say tha itis & voltage sensitive ac switch, 1, Briefly explain how a diac operates. 3, What is the major use of the diac in industry?” 2, Draw the two schematic symbols used to represent 4, When diac firstturns on, does the voltage drop, re- the diac, ‘main atthe same level, or increase to a higher level?UNIT 9 THE TRIAC OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, the student will be able fo: Draw the schematic symbol for a tiac Discuss the similarities and differences between CRs and triacs, Discuss phase shifting a tia. Connect atria in a circuit Testa triac with an ohmmeter, ‘The tac is a PNPN junction connected parallel to an NPNP junction. Figure 9-| illustrates the semiconduc~ tor arrangement ofa tiac, The trae operates in a man ner similar to that of two connected SCRs (Figure 9-2), The schematic symbol for the trisc is shown in Figure 9-3, ‘When an SCR is connected in an ac circuit, the out put voltage is direct current. When a triac is connected ‘nn ae circuit, the output voltage is allermating current, Since the triac operates like two SCRs that are con. nected and facing in opposite directions it will conduct both the positive and negative half eycles of ac current, ‘When a trae is connected in an ac circuit as shown in Figure 9~4, the gate must be connected to the same polarity as MT2. When the ac voltage applied to MT2 is positive, the SCR, whieh is forward biased, will con- duct. When the voltage applied to MT2 is negative, the other SCR is forward biased and will conduct shat half cof the waveform. Since one of the SCRs is forward Discuss the operation of a triac in an ae circuit. biased for each half cyele, the triac will conduct ac ‘current as long as the gate lead is connected to MT2, The triae, like the SCR, requires a certain amount of gate current to tum it on. Once the triae has been triggered by the gate it will continue to conduct until the current flowing through MT2-MTI drops below the holding current level Figure 0-1 The remivonductor avangemen ofa $e—$- > igure 2 Ths ac operates ina manner Snir to fo SCR ‘wih common gate “ Tigers 5 The schematic wibol fora ae VOR iE Ta SS ‘The triac is a member of the thyristor family, which ‘means that it has only two states of operation, on and off. When the trac is turned off, it drops the full applied voltage of the circuit at 0 amps of current flow, When the tric isturned on, it has «voltage drop of about I volt and circuit current mustbe limited by the load connected to the circuit, ‘The triac has become very popularin industrial eir- cuits as an ac switch, Since it isa thyristor, it has the ability to contro a large amount of voltage and current. ‘There are no contacts to wear out, it is sealed against dirt and moistute, and it can operate thousands of times Unit 9 The‘Triae m 49 per second. The triac is used as the output device of ‘many solid-state relays witich will be covered later, ‘Two types of triacs are shown in Figures 9-5 and 9-6. The Triac Used for AC Voltage Control ‘Thetriac canbe used to control ac voltage (Figure 9-7) Ifa variable resistors connected in series with the gate, the point at which the gate current is high enough to fre the tric can be adjusted. The resistance can be adjusted. to permit the tric to fire when the ac waveform reaches, its peak value, This will cause half of the ac voltage to be dropped across the trac and half to be dropped across the load, the gate resistance is reduced, the amount of gate current needed to fire the triac will be obtained before the ac waveform reaches its peak value, This means that less voltage will be dropped across the triac and more voltage will be dropped across the load. This circuit permits the triac to control only one half of the sc waveform applied to it. If lamp is used asthe load, i can be controlled from half brightness to full brightness. IF an attempt is made to adjust the lamp to ‘operate at les than half brightness, it will turn off Laie ULC RUM To obtain complete voltage control, the trac, like the SCR, must be phase shifted. Several methods can be used to phase shift trie, but only one will be covered inthis unit. I Figure 9-8, a diac is used to phase shift the tric, Resistors RI and R2 are connected in series With capacitor CI. Resistor RI isa Variable resistor used to control the charge time of capacitor C1, Resistor R2 are prs Figured The as conduct both halves ofthe ac waveTor $e—$- 50H Seetion 1 Solid-State Devices [igure 5 The War sed Forlow power applcalions Tian 0-0 The te shown ina moun ce is used to limit current if resistor RL is adjusted to O ohms. Assume that the diac connected in series with the gate ofthe triac will tum on when capacitor CI has been charged to 15 volts. When the diac turns on, capacitor CI will discharge through the gate ofthe tric, ‘This permits the trac to fire, or turn on, Since the diac is bidirectional device, it will permit a positive or nega- tive pulse (o trigger the gate of the trac ‘When the triac fires, there isa voltage drop of about | volt across MT2 and MT, The trae remains on until the ac voltage drops to low enough value to permit the ‘tiac toturn off. Since the phase shiftcireuitis connected parallel to the triac, once the triac turns on, capacitor Cl cannot begin charging again until the wiae turns off atthe end of the ac cycle. Notice that the pulse applied to the gate is con- trolled by the charging of eapacitor Cl, not the ampli- tude of voltage. If the correct values are chosen, the triue can be fired at any point in the ac eycle applied twit, The triac can now control the ac voltage from Oto the full voltage of the circuit. A common example of this type of trac circuits the light dimmer control used {in many homes. Testing the Triac ‘The tiac can be tested with an ohmmeter (see Proce- dure 5 im the Appendix). To test the trite, connect the ohmmeter leads to MT2 and MT. The ohmmeter should indicate no continuity, Ifthe gate lead is touched to MT2, the tiac should turn on and the ohmmeter should indicate continuity through the tac, When the ate lead is released from MT2, the triac may continue to conductor it may turn off depending on whether the ‘ohmmeter supplies enough current to keep the device above its holding current level. This tests one half of the triae oO Figure 0-7 Tie lav contols Tlf of he ae applied alaeUnit The‘Triae = 51 ‘igure Phase sift croat fora ac, When the dn urs on, gate rents opie othe rn by the dvcharge of apastor I ‘To test the other half of the tiae, reverse the con-- MT2, the chmmeter should indicate continuity through nection of the ohmmeter leads. The ohmmeter should the device. The other half of the triac has been tested, indicate no continuity. Ifthe gate is touched again to CEES 1, Draw the schematic symbol for atria, '5, What electronic component is frequently used to 2. When a triac is connected in an ac circuit, is the phase shift the triac? output ac or de? (6. When the triac is being tested with an ohmmeter, 3, The triac is a member of what family of devices? which other terminal should the gate be connected toit the ohmmeter is to indicate continsity? 4, Briefly explain why a triac must be phase shifted. ‘UNIT 10 THE 555 TIMER OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, the student will be able fo: Describe the operation of the $95 timer. Discuss the uses of the $55 timer: Connect the timer as an oscillator . Connect the 555 timer as an on-delay timer. The 555 timer is an eight-pin integrated circuit that has become one ofthe most popular electronic devices used inindustral electronic circuits. The reason forthe 555's popularity is its tremendous versatility. The 555 timers used in circuits that require atime delay function, and is also used as an oscillator to provide the pulses needed to ‘operate computer circuits, The 555 timer is most often housed in an eight-pn, in-line integrated cireuit (IC) (Figures 10-1 and 10-2), ‘This package has a notch at one end, oF a dot by one pin, which is used to identity pin #1. Once pin #1 has been identified, the other pins are numbered as shown in Figure 10-1. The 55S timer operates on voltages that range from about 3 to 16 vol. Following is an expla- nation of each pin and its function, Pin #1 Ground—This pin is connected to circuit ground, sumbe Alter pin hasbeen ened the ober pins ae su shown, Pin #2 Trigger—Pin #2 must be connected to a volt- age that is less than Ys Vee (the applied voltage) to tigger the unit. This usually is done by—$- Figure 10-2 An eighty, incline, integrated rca. ‘connecting pin #2 to ground. The connection to ‘4 Vee or ground must be momentary. If pin #2 is not removed from ground, the unit will not ‘operate. Pin #3 Oufput—The output tums on when Pin #2 is tuiggered and tums off when the discharge is tured on, in #4, Reset—When this pin is connected to Vee, it permits the unit to operate, When tis connected to ground, it activates the discharge and keeps the timer from operating. Pin #S Control Voltage—I this pin is connected to ‘Vee through « variable resistor, the on time is Tonger, but the off time is not affected. If pin #5 is connected to ground through a variable re- sistor, the on time is shorter, andthe off time is sill not affected, If pin #5 is not to be used in ‘the eicuit, its usually taken to ground through 1 small capacitor. This helps to keep circuit noise from “talking” to pin #5, Pin #6 Threshold—When the voltage across the ca ppacitor connected to pin #6 reaches % the value ‘of Vee, the discharge turns on and the output turns off. Pin #7 Discharge—When pin #6 turns the discharge fon, it discharges the capacitor connected to ppin #6. The discharge remains tured on until pin #2 retriggers the timer. The discharge then ‘urns off and the capacitor connected to pin #6 begins charging again. Unit 10 The S85 Timer = 53 Pin #8 Vee—Pin #8 is connected to Vee. (For the following explanation, assume that pin #2 is connected to pin #6. This permits the unit to be retriggered by the discharge each time it tus on and. discharges the capacitor to / the value of Vee.) ‘The 555 timer operates on a percentage of the applied voltage. This permits the time setting to remain constant even if the applied voltage changes, For example, when the capacitor connected to pin #6 reaches % of the applied voltage, the discharge turns on and discharges the capacitor until it reaches / of the applied voltage. Ifthe applied voltage ofthe timer is connected to 12 volts de, of the applied voltage is 8 volts and Js is 4 volts. This means that when the voltage actoss the capacitor connected to pin #6 reaches 8 vots, pin #7 will tum on until the capacitor is discharged to the value of ‘Vee, or 4 volts, and will then turn off Figure 10). If the voltage is lowered to 6 volts at Vee, ¥s of the applied voltage is 4 volts and ¥ of the applied voltage is 2 volts, Pin #7 will now turn on when the voltage across the capacitor connected to pin #6 reaches 4 volts and will turn off when the voltage across the capacitor drops to 2 volts ‘The formula for a RC time constant is (Time Resistance x Capacitance). Notice that there i no men- tion of voltage in the formula, This means that it will take the same amount of time to charge the capacitor regardless of whether the circuit is connected to 12 volts I ome Figure 10-5 The charge and Gaoharge is determined by @ percentage of the apled volage.—$- 54 Section 1 Solid-State Devices for to 6 volts Ifthe time it takes for the voltage of the capacitor connected to pin #6 to reach % of Vee when the timer has an applied voltage of 12 vols is measured, it will be the same as the amount of time it takes when the applied voltage is only 6 volts. The timing of the circuit remains the same even if the voltage changes. ‘The circuit shown in Figure 10-4 is used 10 explain the operation of the $55 timer. In Figure 10-4, normally closed switch, S1, is connected between the discharge, pin #7, and the ground, pin #1. A normally ‘open switch, 82, is connected between the output, pin #8, and Vec, pin #8, ‘The dotted line drawn between these two switches shows mechanical connection. This means that these switches operate together. If $1 opens, $2 closes at the same time. If $2 opens, S1 closes, Pin #2, the trigger, and pin #6, the tueshold, are used to control these switches. The trigger can close switch S2, and the threshold can close SI ‘To begin the analysis of this circuit, assume that switch SI is closed and switch S2 is open as shown in Figure 10-4, When the rigger is connected to a volt- age that is less than 14 of Vee, it causes switch $2 to close and switch $1 to open. When switch $2 closes, voltage is supplied tothe output at pin #3, When switch SI opens, the discharge is no longer connected to ‘ground, and capacitor Cl begins to charge through re- sistors RI and R2. When the voltage across C1 reaches ¥ of Vee, the threshold, pin #6, causes switch $1 to close and switch $2 to open, When switch $2 opens, the output turns off. When switch SI closes, the dis- charge, pin #7, is connected to ground. Capacitor C1 then discharges through resistor R2. The timer will re= ‘main in tis position until the trigger is again connected to a voltage that is less than of Vec. Ifthe rigger is connected permanently toa voltage less than % of Vee, switch $2 will be held closed and switch $1 will beheld open. This, of course, will stop the ‘operation of the timer. As stated previously, the trigger ‘must be a momentary pulse, not a continuous connec- tion, in order for the 555 timer to operate. Teer The Oscillator ‘The $55 timer can perform a variety of functions. Iis commonly used as an oscillator, The 555 timer has become popular for this application because it is so easy 10 use, ‘The 555 timer shown in Figure 10-5 has pin #2 connected to pin #6. This permits the timer to retrigger itself at the end of each time cycle. When the applied voltage is tumed on, capacitor C1 is discharged and has a voltage of O volts across it. Since pin #2 is connected to pin #6, and the voltage at that point is less than / of ‘Vee, the timer will tigger. When the timer is triggered, ‘wo things happen tthe same time: the output turns on, and the discharge tums off. When the discharge at r RI re 6 c— — ‘Tigare 10-9 A simple sire Minato ow he timer works $eUnit 10 The S55 Timer 55 r L a emecrtomino—f, 7 © e Wes pe 0 0 pin wns fcr Cl cares togh esis cap of gsr Cal hess of #2 Sinan aned tat of Rand RS. potamonanne dagen Whe di ciVeuiiconuttunsacaedchueapaf! ~The ano of tine requ ecg er cham tug voser «pwn The anomt 2. Thedsenape tins hove Sri 5 eo ms : = “T $e—$- 56H Section 1 Solid-State Devices Since the timer’s output is turned on while eapaci- tor Cl is charging, and tuned off while Cl is discharging, the on time of the outpat is longer than the off time, Ifthe value of resistor R2 is much greater than the value of resistor RI, this condition is not too evident. For example, if resistor RI has a value of 1 kilohm and R2 has a value of 100 kilohms, the sesistance connected in series with the capacitor during charging is 101 kilohms. The resistance connected Jn series with the capacitor during discharge is 100 kilohms. In this eiteuit, the difference between the charge time and the discharge time of the capacitor is 1%, IF an oscilloscope is connected tothe output of the timer, a waveform similar to the waveform shown in Figure 10-7 will be seen ‘Assume that the value of resistor RI is changed to 100 kilolims and the value of resistor R2 remains at 100 kilohms. In this circuit, the resistance connected Jn series with the capacitor during charging is 200 kilos, The resistance connected in series with the capacitor during discharge, however, is 100 kilohms. ‘Therefore, the discharge time is SO% of the charge time, ‘This means that the output ofthe timer will be turned on twice as long as it will be turned off. An oscilloscope connected fo the output of the timer would display a ‘waveform similar to the one shown in Figure 10-8 Although this condition can exit, the 555 timer has «provision for solving the problem. Pin #5, the control voltage pin, can give complete contzol of the output voltage. If variable resistor is connected between pin 45 and Vee, the on time ofthe output can be lengthened to any value desired. Ifa variable resistor is connected between pin #5 and ground, the on time of the output cean be shortened to any value desired, Since the on time ofthe timer is adjusted by connecting resistance to pin #5, the off time is set by the values of C1 and R2. ‘The output frequency of the unit is determined by the values of capacitor Cl and resistors RI and R2. Tae '555 timer will operate al almost any frequency desired, It is used in many industrial electronic circuits that require the use of a square wave oscillator. The On-Delay Timer In this circuit, the 555 timer is used to construct an on-delay relay, The 555 produces accurate time delays which can range from seconds to hours depending on the values of resistance and capacitance used in the circuit. In Figure 10-9, transistor QI is used to switch relay coil KI on or off. A transistor is used to control the relay because the 555 timer may not be able to supply the current needed to operate i ‘Transistor Q2 is used as stealer transistor to steal the base current from tansistor QI. As long as transis- {or Q2 is turned on by the output of the timer, transistor Ql is tumed off, ‘igure 10 Waveform produced when an ostloscope ls connected to the ouput ofthe 555 ner (Reprodived by peonission of ‘Tekeronit, Ine, copyright © 1983)Figure 10-6 A diffwent waveform is produced when the value of one of he esis is changed, (Reproduved by prison oh ‘Tektronix Ine. copyright ©1983.) —— aI recltA r al eo eevee 1 Tiga 10-9 Ondelay timer—$- 58. Section 1 Solid-State Devices Capacitor C3 is connected from the base of transis tor QI to ground. Capacitor C3 acts as short time delay circuit. When Vee is tured on by switch SI, capacitor C3 is discharged. Before transistor QI can be ‘turned on, capacitor C3 must be charged through resis- tor R3. This charging time is only a fraction of a second, but it ensures that transistor Ql will not turn on before the output of the timer can turn transistor Q2 on, Once transistor Q2 has been turned on, it will hold transistor QI off by stealing its base current. Diode Dl is used as a kickback or freewheeling diode to Kill the spike voltage induced into the coil of relay KI when switch S1 is opened, Resistor R3 litnits the base current fo transistor QI and resisior Ré limits the base curtent to transistor Q2. Pin #4, the reset pin, is used as a latch in this circuit. When power is applied at Vee, wansistor Ql is turned off, Since transistor QI is off, most ofthe applied voltage is dropped across the transistor, causing about 12 volts to appear atthe collector ofthe transistor, Since pin #4 is connected to the collector of transistor Q1, 12 volts is applied to pin #4, For the timer to operate, pin #4 must be connected to a voltage that is greater than % of Vee. When pin #4 is connected to a voltage that is less than % of Vee, it turns on the discharge and keeps the timer from operating. When transistor QL ‘urns on, the collector of the transistor drops to ground oF 0 volts. Pin #4 is also connected to ground, which prevents the timer from further operation, Since the timer can no longer operate, the output remains turned off, which permits transistor QI to remain turned on. Capacitor C1 and esstors RI and R2 ate usedto set ‘he amount of time delay. Resistor R2 shouldbe kept at, 4 value of about 100 ohms. The job of resistor R2s to limit the curtent when capsecitor C1 discharges. Resis- tor R2 has arelatvely low value to enable capacitor C1 to discharge quickly. The time setting ean be changed by changing the value of resistor RI ‘To understand the operation of the cicuit, assume that switeh SI is open andall capacitors are discharged. ‘When switch $1 is closed, pin #2, which is connected {0 0 voll, Wiggers the timer. When the timer is tig- ered, the output activates transistor Q2 which steals the base current from transistor QI. Transistor QU re- ‘mains off as long as transistor Q2 is on. When capaci- torCI has been charged to of Vee, the discharge tums con andthe outputof the timer turns off, When the output turns transistor Q2 off, transistor QI is supplied with base current through resistor R3 and suns on relay coil KL. When transistor Ql is turned on, the voltage ap- plied tothe reset pi, #4, is changed from 12 volts to Ovols, This causes thereseito lock thedschargecon and the output off. Therefore, when transistor Ql is turned on, switch SI must be reopened to rest the circuit. Cems 1, How is pin #1 of an in-line, mlegrated cireuit identified? 2, A555 timer is connected to produce a pulse at the ‘output once each second. The timer is connected to 12 volts de. Ifthe voltage is reduced to 8 volts de, the 555 will continue to operate at the same pulse rate, Explain why the timer will operate at the same pulse rate when the voltage is reduced. 3, What is the range of voltage the 555 timer will ‘operate on? 4, Explain the function of the control voltage, pin 45, when the timer is being used as an oscillator. 5. Explain what happens to the output and discharge pins ofthe 555 timer when the trigger, pin #2, is ‘connected to a voltage that is less than Ys of Vee. ‘6, Explain what happens tothe output and discharge ppins when the threshold, pin 46, is connected to a voltage that is greater than % of Vee. 1, Refer to igure 10-6, The values of what compo- nents determine the length of time the output will be turned on? 8, The values of what components determine the amount of time the output will remain turned off? 9, Explain the operation of pin #4 on the 555 timer 10, What is a stealer transistor? $eUNIT 11 THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER OBJECTIVES After studying this uni, the student wil be able to: Discuss the operation of the operational amplifier (op amp), List the major types of connections for operational amplifiers. ME Connect a level detector circuit using an op amp. . Connect an oscillator using an op amp. ‘The operational amplifier, like the SSS timer, has become a very common component in industrial elec- tronic circuits. The operational amplifier, or op amp, is used in hundreds of applications. Different types of ‘op amps are available for different types of circuits, Some op amps use bipolar transistors for input while others use field-effect transistors. The advantage of field-effect transistors is that they have an extremely ‘high input impedance that can be several thousand, megohms, As a result of this high input impedance, the amount of current needed to operate the amplifier is small. In fact, op amps that use field-effect transis tors for the inputs are generally considered to require no input current. ‘The ideal amplifier would have an input imped- tance of infinity, With an input impedance of infinity, ‘the amplifier would not drain power from the signal source; therefore, the strength of the signal source would not be affected by the amplifier. The ideal am- plifier would also have zero output impedance. With zero output impedance, the amplifier could be con- nected to any load resistance without causing a voltage «drop inside the amplifier. If it had no internal voltage «drop, the amplifier would utilize 100% of its gain. Fi- nally, the ideal amplifier would have unlimited gain, ‘This would enable it to amplify any input signal as such as desired. Although the ideal amplifier does not exist, the op ‘amp is close, In this unit the operation of an old op amp, the 741, is described as typical of all operational am- plifiers. Other op amps may have different character tics of input and output impedance, but the basic theory ‘of operation isthe same forall of them, ‘The 741 op amp uses bipolar transistors forthe in- puts. The input impedance is about 2 megohms, the ‘output impedance is about 75 ohms, and the open loop, ‘or maximum gain, is about 200,000. The 741 is im- practical for use with such a high gain, so negative feedback (discussed later) is used to reduce the gain, For ‘example, assume thatthe amplifier hasan output voltage 9