College of Teacher Education

Second Semester, A.Y. 2020-2021

PS 5: FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING

MODULE 2
LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES:
COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

Introduction

This module entitled Learner-Centered Psychological Principles: Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors is
about the different cognitive and meta-cognitive processes that takes place in learners and on how the metacognitive
process affects learning. This module also talks about the role and significance of educators in the metacognitive process.

I. Objectives

At the end of the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Discuss metacognition in their own words;

2. Advocate the use of the principles in the teaching-learning process;
3. Assess themselves about the different metacognitive strategies to identify their learning strengths and
weaknesses.

II. Lecture
A. LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles were put together by the American Psychological Association. The
following 14 Psychological Principles pertain to the learner and the learning process. The 14 principles have the following
aspects:

✔ They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of the learner rather than
conditioned habits or physiological factors. However, the principles also attempt to acknowledge external
environment or contextual factors that interact with these internal factors.
✔ The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-world learning situations. Thus,
they are best understood as an organized set of principles no principle should be viewed in isolation. ✔ The 14
principles are divided into those referring to:
1) cognitive and metacognitive;
2) motivational and affective;
3) developmental and social; and
4) individual differences influence learners and learning.
✔ The principles are intended to apply to all learners from children, to teachers, to administrators, to parents, and to
community members involved in our educational system.

B. COGNITIVE AND META-COGNITIVE FACTORS

1. Nature of the learning process

The learning of a complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning
from information and experience.

▪ There are different types of learning processes for example habit formation in motor learning and learning that
involves the generation of knowledge or cognitive skills and learning strategies.
▪ Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional process of that students can use to construct meaning from
information, experiences and their own thoughts and beliefs.
 ▪ Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating and assume personal responsibility for contributing to
their own learning.
2. Goals of the Learning Process

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent
representations of knowledge.

▪ The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal-directed.

▪ To construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning strategies necessary for
continued learning success across the lifespan, students must generate and pursue personally relevant goes.
Initially, students short term goals and learning a bit sketchy in an area, but over time they're understanding can be
refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies and deepening their understanding of the subject matter is so that
they can reach longer-term goals.
▪ Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent with both personal and
educational aspirations and interests.

3. Construction of Knowledge. 

The successful learner can link your information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.

▪ Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new information and experiences and
their existing knowledge base. The nature of these links can take a variety of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or
reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How these links are made or develop may vary in different subject areas,
and among students with varying talents, interests and abilities. However, unless new knowledge becomes
integrated with the learners’ prior knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated, cannot be
used most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new situations.
▪ Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of strategies that have been shown
to be effective with learners of varying abilities, such as concept mapping and thematic organization or categorizing.

4. Strategic Thinking.

The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex
learning goals.

▪ Successful learners use strategic thinking and their approach to learning, reasoning, problem solving and concept
learning.
▪ They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them reach learning and performance goals command to
apply their knowledge in novel situations.
▪ They also continue to expand their repertoire strategies by reflecting on the methods they used to see which work well
for them, receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or interacting with appropriate models. ▪ Learning
outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners and developing come up lying and assessing their strategic
learning skills.

5. Thinking about thinking. 

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facility creative and critical thinking.

▪ Successful learners can reflect on how do you think and learn, set reasonable learning or performance goals, select
potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor their progress towards these goals. ▪ In addition,
successful learners know what to do if a problem occurred or if they are not making sufficient or timely progress toward
a goal. They can generate alternative methods to reach their goal or reassess the appropriate nice and utility of the
goal.
▪ Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop these higher order strategies can enhance student
learning and personal responsibility for learning.

6. Context of Learning. 

Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and instructional practices.
 ▪ Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with both the learner and the learning
environment.
▪ Cultural or group influence on students can impact many educationally relevant variables, such as motivation,
orientation toward learning and ways of thinking.
▪ Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners’ level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities
and their learning and thinking strategies.
▪ The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not, and also have significant impacts on
students learning.

WHAT IS METACOGNITION?

The term metacognition was coined by John Flavell. According to Flavell (1979, 1987), metacognition consists
of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences or regulation. Metacognition, simply put, is thinking about
thinking or learning how to learn. It refers to higher order thinking which involves active awareness and control over the
cognitive processes and gauged in learning.

Metacognitive knowledge refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive processes, knowledge that can be used to
control cognitive processes. Flavell further divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories: knowledge of person
variables, task variables, and strategy variables.

Person Variables. This includes how one views himself as a learner and thinker. Knowledge of person variables refer to
knowledge about how human beings learn and process information, as well as individual knowledge of one's own learning
processes. For example, you may be aware that you study more effectively if you study very early in the morning and then
late in the evening, and that you work better in the quiet library rather than at home where there are a lot of things that make
it hard for you to focus and concentrate.

Task Variables. Knowledge of task variables includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of
processing demands that it will place upon the individual. It is about knowing what exactly needs to be accomplished,
gauging its difficulty and knowing the kind of effort it will demand from you. For example, you may be aware that it takes
more time for you to read and comprehend a book in educational philosophy than it is for you to read and comprehend a
novel.

Strategy Variables. Knowledge of strategy variables involves awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a topic and
evaluating whether this strategy is effective. If you think your strategy is not working, then you may think of various
strategies and try out one to see if it will help you learn better. Terms like 'meta-attention' and 'meta-memory' are related to
strategy variables.

Meta-attention is the awareness of specific strategy so that you can keep your attention focused on the topic or task
at hand. Meta-memory is your awareness of memory strategies that work best for you.

These three variables all interact a seller in apply metacognition. Omrod includes the following in the practice of
metacognition:

● Knowing the limits of one's own learning and memory capacities.

● Knowing what learning tasks one can realistically accomplished within a certain amount of time.
● Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not.
● Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful.
● Using effective learning strategies to process and learn new material.
● Monitoring one's own knowledge and comprehension. In other words, knowing when information has been
successful in learned and when it's not.
● Using effective strategies for retrieval of previously stored information.
● Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly used in a purposeful manner to ensure that a goal is met.

METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES TO FACILITATE LEARNING

 Researches such as that of Fang and Cox showed that metacognitive awareness was evident in preschoolers and
in students as young as eight years old. Children already have the capacity to be more aware and reflective of their own
learning. However, not many have been taught and encouraged to apply metacognition.
The challenge then to future teachers like you is to integrate more activities that would build your students capacity
to reflect on their characteristics as learners (self-knowledge), the tasks they are to-do task knowledge and strategies they
can use to learn strategic knowledge. Remember, metacognition is like any other thing you will teach. Metacognition
involves knowledge and skills which you and your students can learn and master.

Here are some examples of teaching strategies to develop metacognition:

1. Have students monitor their own learning and thinking.

2. Teach students study or learning strategies.

TQLR - This can be taught to younger students such as primary grades. It is a metacognitive strategy before listening to a
story or presentation.

T is for Tune in. It is first important for the learner himself to be aware that he/she is paying attention come on that
he/she is ready to learn.
Q is for Question. The learner is given questions or he/she thinks of questions about what he/she will soon learn.
L is for Listen. The learner then intentionally exerts effort to listen. He/she becomes aware if he/she is momentarily
detracted and goes back to listen again.
R is for Remember. The learner uses ways or strategies to remember what was learned.

PQ4R - This is usually for older students in the intermediate level and onwards. This strategy is used to study a unit
or chapter.

P - Preview. Scan the whole chapter before delving on each paragraph. Check out the objectives. Look for outlines
or advance organizers that will give you an idea about the important topics and ideas in the chapter. Read the
summary of the chapter first.
Q - Question. Read the guide questions provided, or think of your own questions about the topic. R - Read.
Check out some headings as you read. Pay attention on words that are printed in bold or italics eyes. Find out
the meaning of words that are not clear to you.
R - Recite. Work on answering the questions you had earlier.
R - Review. Pinpoint topics you may need to go back to and read in order to understand better. R - Reflect. Think
about what you read. Is everything clear to you? What are the main points you learned? How is this relevant or
useful to you?

3. Have students make predictions about information to be presented next based on what they have read. 4. Have
students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures. (It is important to have relevant knowledge structures
well-learned).
5. Have students develop questions; ask questions of themselves, about what's going on around them. 6. Help
students to know when to ask for help. (He/she must be able to self-monitor; require students to show how they have
attempted to deal with the problem of their own).
7. Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills, to other situations or tasks.

C.Motivational and Affective Factors

The affective-motivational aspects include emotions related to a specific situation or interest and motivation related
to a task or subject matter. Therefore, those can be the value connected or assigned to a subject or task, the
experienced enjoyment, or the intrinsic motivation to engage in this task or situation. Previous research showed that
enjoyment eventually contributes to students’ intrinsic motivation (cf. Ryan and Deci, 2000a), yet it is considered an
emotion and as such also a strong indicator of students’ sustainable effort and persistence in learning. In
comparison, intrinsic motivation should be mostly initiated by interest and the way in which students’ attention and
exploratory behavior are directed. In comparison to test anxiety as a negative emotion related to achievement
outcomes (e.g., Elliot and McGregor, 1999; Steinmayr et al., 2016), positive emotions, such as learning enjoyment,
are less often in the focus of research on learning outcomes, even though previous research highlights the impact
of positive emotions on the achievement of students (e.g., Pekrun et al., 2002). To this end, both positive emotions,
such as learning enjoyment, as well as motivational aspects, such as the intrinsic motivation, might have affected
students’ learning efforts during school closures in addition to their willingness to exert effort. Affective-motivational
factors are most relevant predictors of human behavior (McAdams and Olson, 2010) and students with more
positive emotions have been found to show higher achievement gains over time (Stipek et al., 2010).
D. The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
Excerpt from Assessing the Role of Educational Technology in the Teaching and Learning Process: A Learner-Centered Perspective by Barbara L.
McCombs, University of Denver Research Institute, in Secretary's Conference on Educational Technology 2000
[http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/tech/techconf00/mccombs_paper.html]

Beginning in 1990, the American Psychological Association (APA) appointed a special Task Force on Psychology in
Education, one of whose purposes was to integrate research and theory from psychology and education in order to
surface general principles that have stood the test of time and can provide a framework for school redesign and
reform. The result was a document that originally specified twelve fundamental principles about learners and
learning that, taken together, provide an integrated perspective on factors influencing learning for all learners (APA,
1993). This document was revised in 1997 (APA, 1997) and now includes 14 principles that are essentially the
same as the original 12 principles with the exception that attention is now given to principles dealing with diversity
and standards. [Note to readers: For those interested in research support for the Principles, several sources are
relevant. The specific research and theory that was reviewed in developing the Principles is described in McCombs
and Whisler (1997). Further research support is also provided in Alexander and Murphy (1998) and Lambert and
McCombs (1998)].

The 14 learner-centered principles are categorized into four domains as shown in the table below (Table 1.) These
categories group the principles into research-validated domains important to learning: metacognitive and cognitive
factors, affective and motivational factors, developmental and social factors, and individual difference factors. An
understanding of these domains and the principles within them establishes a framework for designing
learner-centered practices at all levels of schooling. It also helps define what "learner-centered" means from a
research-validated perspective.

Defining "Learner-Centered"
From an integrated and holistic look at the Principles, the following definition emerges:

"Learner centered" is the perspective that couples a focus on individual learners - their heredity, experiences,
perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests, capacities, and needs - with a focus on leaning - the best available
knowledge about learning and how it occurs and about teaching practices that are most effective in promoting the
highest levels of motivation, learning, and achievement for all learners. This dual focus then informs and drives
educational decision making. Learner-centered is a reflection in practice of the Learner-Centered Psychological
Principles - in the programs, practices, policies, and people that support learning for all.

This definition of learner-centered is thus based on an understanding of the Learner-Centered Psychological

Principles as a representation of the current knowledge base on learners and learning. The Principles apply to all
learners, in and outside of school, young and old. Learner-centered is also related to the beliefs, characteristics,
dispositions, and practices of teachers - practices primarily created by the teacher. When teachers and their
practices function from an understanding of the knowledge base delineated in the Principles, they (a) include
learners in decisions about how and what they learn and how that learning is assessed; (b) value each learner's
unique perspectives; (c) respect and accommodate individual differences in learners' backgrounds, interests,
abilities, and experiences; and (d) treat learners as co-creators and partners in the teaching and learning process.
Table 1: The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

Principle 1: Nature of the learning process.

The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from
information and experience.

Principle 2: Goals of the learning process.

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent
representations of knowledge.

Principle 3: Construction of knowledge.

The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.

Principle 4: Strategic thinking

The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning
goals.

Principle 5: Thinking about thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical

thinking. Principle 6: Context of learning

Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and instructional

practices. MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS

Principle 7: Motivational and emotional influences on learning

What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner's motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the
individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.

Principle 8: Intrinsic motivation to learn

The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn.

Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing
for personal choice and control.

Principle 9: Effects of motivation on effort

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided practice. Without learners'
motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.

DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS

Principle 10: Developmental influence on learning

As individuals develop, they encounter different opportunities and experience different constraints for learning. Learning
is most effective when differential development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is
taken into account.

Principle 11: Social influences on learning

 Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with

others. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTORS

Principle 12: Individual differences in learning

Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience
and heredity.

Principle 13: Learning and diversity

Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken
into account.

Principle 14: Standards and assessment

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner and learning
progress-including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment-are integral parts of the learning process.

Summarized from the APA Work Group of the Board of Educational Affairs (1997, November). Learner-centered psychological
principles: Guidelines for school reform and redesign. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

---END OF LECTURE NOTES OF MODULE 2---

References:

◆ Bilbao, P.P., Corpuz, B.B., Avelina, T.L., and Salandanan, G.G. (2006). The teaching profession. Lorimar Publishing Co.,
Inc.: Boston Street, Cubao, Quezon City, Metro Manila.
◆ http://www.jodypaul.com/LCT/LCT.PsychPrinc.html

Prepared by:

JAN KARLO THOMAS V. RANCHEZ, LPT

Instructor, College of Teacher Education

BLESSMA JOY C. ABENES, LPT

Instructor, College of Teacher Education

Checked by:

RAYMOND N. CLARO, PhD

Program Head, CTE