REVIEWER FOR PURPOSIVE

COMMUNICATION

Chapter 4: Varieties and Registers of English

 Each of the languages all over the world exhibits

variation
 Languages can vary in vocabulary and grammar
depending on the context it is used
 Any language that exhibits variation as its users in
a host of communication activities every day

Language Variety or Lect

- According to sociolinguistics, refers to the
distinctive form of a language

Two Broad Types Filipino English and American English

 Being a former colony of the USA, the
1. User-Related Varieties Philippines belongs to the Outer Circle of
- associated with the specific people who use it and world Englishes
naturally with the places where they live  With that the English language in the
Philippines occupies a privileged position of
2. Use-Related Varieties being one of the official languages of the
- associated with function such as literary English (the country
language used in literary texts or business English (the  Since the Philippines is an archipelago,
language used in business and corporate filipinos speak different regional languages;
communication) and many others because of it, English serves as an alternative
lingua franca and being a second language in
Varieties of English the educational system
 English being a bridge language for doing
 Since English language is widely utilized all over business with foreigners
the world, it has gained the reputation of being an
international language  Since the 1900s, English was being taught by the
 Its spread may have been brought about by Americans. Thus, the grammar, spelling and
colonization, migration, and globalization pronunciation of English by those who
among others successfully learn the language approximate the
 And with this, the English language has evolved American English variety
into a language with many varieties such as
Scottish English, American English, Filipino  Because of the interference of Filipino languages,
English, Malaysian English, etc. many Filipinos could not pronounce just like of
that AE native speaker.
Braj Kachru  But with the booming BPO industry in the
- Indian linguist, developed a model trying to country, there is a great demand for English-
explain the spread of the English language and proficient workers
introduced the idea of “World Englishes”  The Philippine government, business sector, and
educational institutions join forces to improve the
1. Inner Circle – according to the model, those quality of English language learning in the
countries that belong are those that use the English country in order to attract more companies to
language as their own native language outsource customer care and other services
- considered to be native speakers of the English through call centers
language
- UK, USA, New Zealand, Australia Canada English in the country evolved into a variety with a
Filipino flavor or uniquely Filipino:
2. Outer Circle – those countries that belong are those
that use the English language as their second language 1. Pronunciation
- this was brought about by colonization by either the - this is a result from the absence of “schwa” sound in
British or the Americans Filipino native languages
- The Philippines, India, Nigeria, South Africa
2. Expression and words
3. Expanding Circle – countries that use the English - English expressions that have come down to this
language as a foreign language generation with a distinctive twist
- utilized the English language for social and economic
mobility Difference between American and British English
- those countries which have not been subjugated by
English-speaking colonizers America and Britain “are two nations divided by
- China, Korea, Japan common language”

Similarities and Differences can be found in:

 Vocabulary, Spelling, Pronunciation

Vocabulary
American English British English
flat apartment
eraser rubber
 gasoline/diesel petrol 2. Formal
cookie biscuit - one-way, uninterrupted presentation
elevator lift - uses technical vocabulary
- complex and divergent grammatical structure
Spelling - careful and standard speech
American English British English - e.g. use by plenary speakers in conferences
gray grey
tyre tire 3. Consultative
color colour - most operational, two-way participation, use in small
realize realise group discussion
- spontaneous, use slang and or jargon
neighbor neighbour
- sentences tend to be shorter and usually delivered in
average speed
Language Register
- Refers to the style or level by which one
4. Casual
communicates in a given context
- often used in conversation with friends and family in
- Also known as “tone or tenor”
social setting
- The kind of language for a specific situation - sentences are shortened
- Uses specialized words, phrases, and - presence of ellipsis and slangs are common
concentrations that can be exclusive only to one
particular social setting and may sound strange or 5. Intimate
off it used in another - used by close members of family or friends
- Determined by its use and not by its users - intonation can be important than wording or grammar
- it can use private vocabulary and many non-verbal
Two Forms of Language Registers messages

1. Formal language register Choosing the Appropriate Language Variety and

a. mostly seen or found in written communication Language Style
b. business letters, research reports, professional emails
etc.  Living in a multicultural setting poses many
c. certain writing conventions are strictly followed challenges in communication
d. avoids “Colloquilism” - using of familiar or  While learning a second language or third
ordinary words or phrases in the context of a language for educational and economic
conversation advancement, one must not discount the value of
e. avoids contraction one’s native language
 People who desire to be effective communicators
2. Informal language register must choose the best language variety and
a. use in ordinary conversations, text messaging, etc. registers to express their ideas
b. uses a casual tone
 Careful analysis of the place and time of the
c. utilizes contraction
communication encounter, the participants, its
d. uses colloquialism
purpose or end, the sequence or organization of
e. in case of bilinguals, code-mixing or code-switching
the speech of the speech acts, tone appropriate for
the event, language, the rules or norms, and the
Formal and Informal Language in Written English
kind of communication activity
1. Contractions
Formal: The amount of sugar is not enough
Informal: The amount of sugar isn’t enough

2. Phrasal
Formal: She cannot tolerate his rudeness anymore.
Informal: She can’t put up with his rudeness anymore

3. Slang/Colloquialism
Formal: Only food purchased here may be eaten on the
premises.
Informal: Only food bought here may be eaten on the
premises.

4. First person pronouns

Formal: Various theoretical frameworks were
considered for the study
Informal: I considered various frameworks for the
study.

Five Styles in Spoken Language

1. Frozen
- found in Biblical quotations or any text using literary
language are delivered in specific situations
- language that is static and usually used in ceremonies
and weddings
- static register, uses old languages
- e.g. thy, thou, thee, art, etc.
Chapter 5: Text and Context Analysis in Purposive - eye contact, gestures, and facial expressions (non-
Communication verbal communication) which may have different
interpretation and meaning in different cultures
 As global society evolves, the division of world
citizens is slowly diminishing 4. Personality Stereotyping
 What used to be segmented by language, - give assumptions of characteristics of individuals
ethnicity, creed, or culture, the global society from a particular cultural or social group
has connected individuals through
communication, knowledge, information, and The Complexity of Intercultural Communication
network
 Individual differences brought by race, age,
Globalization – aims to make it possible for gender, faith, language and culture make
everyone to have a collaborative culture where communication very complicated
individuals despite differences in genetics,  There is always a breakdown in
education, cultures, traditions, aspirations coexist, communication when meanings are
work and learn together misinterpreted and misunderstood

 Sharing and networking are bywords of global Some Reasons for Miscommunication
people who intend to outgrow the tendency to
subscribe to a social construct that defines “to 1. Verbal Utterances
each their own” mentality - terms may not appropriately used may give
ambiguous (not clear) references that could be
 People in many different countries share interpreted in different ways
common cultural experiences and information
vital to the understanding of various events  People coming from different region who
around the world speak fast have the tendency to mispronounce
words
 Global society paved the way toward  Articulation may produce different sounds of
intercultural communication words that lead to misunderstanding in terms
of terms used when given wrong meaning
Language and Culture Factors in Communication
2. Non-Verbal Cues
 Human communication requires an acceptable  Misinterpretations of gestures and body
code to be understood movements may lead to giving wrong
meaning of the message
Language as a system – has rules in production of  Speakers and writers need to become
sounds, formation of words, construction of sentences, aware of the racial identities and
and expression of meanings differences in non-verbal codes of the
person they are communicating with
Language code – help people understand each other
when they belong to the same speech community as 3. Cultural Diversity
they share a set of rules in the language system and  People have languages, lifestyles, ways of
process thinking, speaking, and behaving
 Differences are expressed in the manner they
 They speak their mother tongue or first communicate with others.
language. They acquire this language in their  Understanding the culture of other people will
community. As they recognize the need to deal help lessen miscommunication
with others outside their community, they
discover the use of other languages for certain Multimodal Communication
reasons
(Roxanne Derr) Text – communicate their messages
 They learn their second language either formally using more than one channel of communication
when they go to school or informally on their
own effort WOVEN (Written, Oral, Visual, Electronic,
Nonverbal) Process
 Language acquisition and learning are - Elements of a successful communication that
significant processes in human communication should be involved
activities - Using all forms of communication (Katherine
Hue Harrison)
 The global world requires effective
communication across cultures Examples: magazine articles, advertisements, oral
presentations, blog or video conferences with audio,
Cultural Barriers that Cause Difficulty when Not video clips or with moving images
Properly Understood:
 The phenomenon of multimodal communication
1. Language has greatly challenged
- a reflection of culture educators, businessmen, and advertisers to sell
their products or services and practically everyone
2. Behaviors who wants to be understood well
- bring miscommunication sometimes
 Even ordinary people need to understand the
3. Cultural differences (body language) intended meaning of a certain message.
 Communication blunders happen when – Do a simple environment scanning
multimodal texts take on new meanings – Check personal or network contacts
or connotations and are interpreted – Determine certain cultural factors
differently surrounding it

How to Avoid Future Communication Blunders: 7. Recognize feedback that helps determine the
message is well understood
1. Plan the message carefully (Sender or Source)
- Why are you communicating? Body language – important source of clues to the
• Determine your purpose, objectives. effectiveness of oral communication

– With whom are you communicating? – Observing the facial expressions, gestures, and
• Know your audience posture of the receiver of the communication:
• Level of confidence
– What do you want to say to answer what the • Defensiveness
audience need to know? • Agreement
• Outline your content or message • Comprehension
• Lack of interest
– How are you sending your message? • Lack of engagement with the message
• Identify the ways and means to connect to the • Truthfulness
audience
Knowledge of communication process
2. Create a clear and well-crafted message by and enhancement of communication
encoding a precise message that considers not only skills will ensure successful exchange of
the complete content, but also the perspective of the messages.
receiver; how the message will be perceived and • Learning the language, understanding
received culture, and the ability to process the
messages will help communicators
– Analyze what you want and need to say make sense of the ideas, feelings, and
– Anticipate the receiver’s reaction to the thoughts conveyed from one individual
passage to another
– Choose carefully the words, the
appropriate of the language, and the tone Regardless of the mode of
of the communication communication such as face-to-face
interaction, video-audio conference, and
3. Choose the right channel that gives way to a more text-based communication, human
efficient way of communicating communication is interpersonal,
purposive and in this global society, it is
– Some subject matter has sensitivity and intercultural
emotional content
– Minute details are easily communicated Approaches to Intercultural Communication
– The receiver may have specific preference (Martin & Nakayama)
– Eliminating time constraints as factor in
miscommunication 1. Functionalist Approach
– There may a need for asking and - considering the role of behavior in communication
answering questions - based on social science discipline
- the relationship between culture and communication
4. Receive and interpret the message by decoding can be predicted through observation
clearly the content of the communication - analysis of context is not considered but significant
in identifying cultural variations and recognizing
– Body language when properly understood can be cultural differences in communication
very useful in deciphering the message.
– Distractions should be avoided 2. Interpretative Approach
– Acknowledge a well-understood point by nodding or – Founded on sociolinguistics which aims to
smiling describe behavior
– Process what the speaker is saying – Assumes that human behavior is voluntary
– Let the speaker to clarify topic of communication and creative
– Avoid interrupting the speaker at any point of – Culture is created and maintained through
communication communication
– Emphasizes the study in context of cultural
5. Identify the noise, also known as interference differences communication

Questions that may be helpful to determine 3. Critical Approach

if messages are sent properly: – Interdisciplinary foundation
- Is the message accurately conveyed? – Focuses on the change of behavior based on the
- Is it received by the concerned or proper assumption of reality which is subjective and material
authority? – Considers the changeable nature of human behavior
- Does the receiver respond as expected? – Uses textual analysis of communication media
- Is the response appropriate to the message – Helpful in understanding culture as a means of power
struggle.
6. Determine the context that refers to the – Recognizes economic, social, and political forces
environment surrounding the message affecting culture and communication with the assertion
that all intercultural interactions are characterized by
power
 - All about the relationship that the text is
Analyzing Intercultural Communication establishing with its recipients, the use of either
Text Analysis personal or impersonal tone, speech acts, and the mood
- The messages found in the text of of the statement are analyzed
correspondence or important
documents should be carefully 2. Ideational Function
evaluated to be able to respond - Concerned with the means of representing
effectively the reality by the text, the way the characters are
represented together with the arrangement or
Texts - refer to books, essays, discussions, organization of information and meaning the text is
newspapers, articles, historical documents, conveying
speeches, advertisements, correspondence, conventions
or conference readings, literary selections, or any other 3. Textual Function
events of communicative language - Reference of the sentences which makes
the text cohesive and coherent
Context Analysis - Serves the purpose of studying the discursive devices
- An evaluative study of communicative such as ellipsis, repetition, anaphora
occurrence - Focuses on the effectiveness of the stylistic
- Text is coded and broken down into properties of the texts to determine their suitability to
categories on a variety of levels such the perceived meaning and contribution to overall
words, phrases, sentences, or themes interpretation

Content Analysis may either be conceptual or Guides to Text Analysis of Literary Arts:
relational
 Analyze the rhetorical context
 Text is examined focusing on its content - Studies the external factors or circumstances
to explore linguistic, social, cultural, surrounding the writing situation which includes
affective and historical significance of the purpose, audience, and focus
the message
1. Identify the writer / persona in the text
Other Possible Uses of Content Analysis: 2. Give the role or position of the writer /
persona
 Determining international differences in 3. Identify intended reader / audience
communication content 4. Clarify exigency of purpose of writing
 Recognizing the presence of propaganda  Examine the textual features
 Identifying intentions with focus on – Includes the distinctive formal aspects of
communication trends of an individual, group, or utterance, text, or art work in any medium
institution 1. Clarify concern or issue addressed in the
 Describing attitudinal and behavioral text
responses to communication 2. Give the position taken by the writer
 Determining psychological or emotional state of 3. Asses language used in the text
persons or groups 4. Identify text specific features supporting
the issue or the writer’s stand.
Context Analysis 5. Evaluate suggestive level of meanings
- The environment, which includes when found in the text
the text is produced, where it originated,
and how or why the communication existed, is an  Place the text in a new context
important aspect in the – Helps identify how the text relate to other texts
analysis of the message and how might another writer or even use the text.
- The analysis of the background or – Includes the contexuality and intertextuality of
surrounding circumstances of the text literary readings.
1. Identify the influences of external factors on
the text (socio-political and cultural context)
 Gathering information about the text helps
2. Assess the relationship of the text and other
understand the influence of socio-
text across culture
cultural or even historical factors in
3. Check the universality of the meaning of the
communication
text
Analyzing literary text includes the study of
structure and style of selection  Interpreting the meaning and communicating this
orally or in writing is
- concerned with the examination of grammar,
what the reader does in response to the
lexis, semantics, phonological properties and
text.
discursive devices which is also known as the
stylistic properties of literary arts
 It is important to note that a text can be
Stylistics in Literature meaningful to a reader who cannot
express this meaning words
- examines oral and written text in order to
determine crucial characteristic of linguistic
properties, structures, and patterns influencing  Literary texts are identified because of their
perception or interpretation of the texts subtleties and intricacies of their multi-level
meanings and actual meaning of the text is always
Functions of Analysis of Literary Texts hidden and implicit in the fabric of the work’s
devices.
1. Interpersonal Function
 Meaning in literature is through the complete
evaluation of the signifying complexity of the
rhetoric, figures of speech, images, symbols,
allusions, connotations, suggestions and
implication of the entire text.

 The reading of literature is in the perspective of

building connections among nations and culture
Chapter 6: Communication Aids and Strategies  Audio-visual aids are preferred by the
Using Tools of Technology audience or participants to maximize their
full attention
Selecting Audio and Visual Aids
3. Location and Size of Audience
Communication tools – are important in delivering
speech through a visual and audio presentation  Determine the size of the audience whether
large or small, and how they will be seated
 Choosing the appropriate tools to deliver a  For the optimum group size of 100 people, large
message to the audience is essential screen and a technical assistant are needed.
 Audio materials can be used regardless of the
Visual Aids: size of the audience; however, proper
• handouts amplification methods must be
• PowerPoint carefully observed to ensure that all participants
• overhead transparencies can hear.
• Slides  Handouts are always useful for a large or small
• Flip-cards crowds. They are best distributed before the
• Blackboards actual presentation
• Whiteboards
• Other forms of Print media 4. Facilities and Equipment

Audio Aids:  Check to be sure that the necessary equipment is

 Digital audio (mp3 or mp4) available
players  Check the facilities to determine if certain aids
• compact discs can be used such as the availability of DLP
• radio broadcast projector, large screen projector, and computer.
 Check the room dimension, location of
Audio-Visual Aids electrical outlets, whiteboard, or blackboard.
 computer media, videotapes, and  PowerPoint slides or a large screen projector
films ideally requires the room to be darkened to
positively impact the successful delivery of the
Major Steps: intended message
1. Planning Audio and Visual Aids Preparation
 Do a quick rehearsal prior the actual presentation
to ensure everything will run General Guidelines
smoothly 1. Keep your audio and visual aids simple.
 Include the audio and visual aids during the 2. Prepare visual aids in color, rather than
rehearsal black and white
 Make sure that audio visual aid is appropriate for *Color is more effective in getting the attention of the
the size of the room and can be seen by all audience
participants 3. Be conservative on the volume of your materials

2. Presenting Text on Visual Aids

 Use a variety of audio and visual aids appropriate  Text on visual aids should be written in point
for the audience during the presentation. form, not paragraph form
 A mix of aids during your presentation helps  Use highlighting tools such as bullets or arrows
maintain participant’s interest to emphasize important ideas.
 Do not overuse audio aids; the lack of visual  Prepare aids visible enough to the audience
stimuli can be boring
Diagrams and Charts on Visual Aids
3. Delivery  Use charts and diagrams to graphically represent
 Ensure that the use of the audio and the visual complex ideas and issues.
aids does not interrupt the flow of the  Use bar graphs or pie charts to represent
presentation. numeral or statistical data
 To prevent boredom, plan group activities, ask
questions and work in a break, if
appropriate.
 Use humor as it can not only put the audience
ease, but it can make you more relaxed well General Rules for Preparing AV Material

Major Details 1. Always be conscious of the time limit for your

1. Time and Budget presentation
 election of audio and visual aids should
fit within the time and budget frame. 2. All slides must be in landscape format.
 If time and budget are insufficient, don’t
use poorly prepared audio or visual aid 3. Use color carefully; avoid color combinations
 Use simple aids such as whiteboard, resulting in a low contrast.
blackboard, flip chart, or handouts.
 Professional digital videos, digital audios, 4. The first slide should contain the title of your
or computer multi-media presentation and the presenter or group members’
names
2. Audience Preference - Objectives or basic idea of the work
- Outline of the topic
- Conclusion of the topic

5. Keep the material simple and make sure that the

font size in your slides is readable at a distance of 15
meters
Unit 2 Chapter 1: Academic Writing Direct Voice – either your own voice or the direct “cut
+ paste” voice of another thinker or writer
Academic Writing
- Form of writing that follows the traditional Direct Quotation
conventions of punctuation, grammar, and - Use of someone else’s ideas
spelling (Bowker) - Use to emphasize or strengthen a point
- May be organized around a formal order or - (Brick) should be sparingly and not as a
structure to present and ensure that ideas or substitute for one’s own ideas written in one’s
concepts are supported by author citations own writer’s voice
- Academic writing needs to be both objective and
persuasive Ex.: In discussing the importance of teaching study
- Like taking a journey where you need a good tour skills, Jordan comments that “study skills are not
guide who maps out the journey in a logical order something acquired instinctively.”

Academic Writing Styles  Quotation marks are used for direct words in
the text
1. Specific – concerned with facts rather than vague  This is essential whenever an author’s exact
assumptions words are used
 The use of the reporting verb comments
Vague: In a certain university, students are
expected to write academically.  Quotations longer than 30 words should be
indented from the margin
Specific: At Central Philippine University, students
are expected to write using formal language, and Indirect Voice – summarizing, paraphrasing, and used
clear structure. to synthesize someone else’s ideas or to make general
points
2. Language – uses formal language references and
supporting evidence to defend your argument Ex.: Paraphrasing
As students do not obtain study skills automatically, it
Wordy: The reason why most people want to travel is very important to teach them these skills (Jordan,
is that they want to experience other cultures. 1997).

Concise: Most people want to travel to experience Ex.: Summary

other cultures. It is important to teach study skills to students (Jordan,
1997).
Cliché: Rebuilding Southern Leyte is easier said
than done. Paraphrasing – rewriting or ‘translating’ someone
else’s ideas into your own words
Revised: According to Eduardo del Rosario, head
of the disaster response agency, rebuilding Leyte Original text: With an understanding of the
City involves prudence, determination, and hard conceptualization and methods of application,
work. Quality of Life can be an important concept for
occupational therapists to use in outcome
3. Clarity – clear and direct to the point measurement

Vague: It is really amazing just how strange the Paraphrase: Quality of Life has been described as
characters in “A Rose for Emily” are. an important outcome measure for occupational
therapists, provided it is adequately conceptualized
Clear: Faulkner creates mysterious and complex and the methods of applying it are understood
characters in “A Rose for Emily” through his use of (Liddie & McKenna, 2000)
tone and symbolism.
Summarizing – contains the main ideas of an author or
Features of Academic Writing the essence of their arguments and is always
substantially shorter than the length of the original text
1. Refers to research, not opinion
2. Makes statements as clearly as possible without lots Summary: Quality of life can be important concept
of extra words and outcome measure for occupational therapists
3. Builds on with examples (Liddie & McKenna, 2000)
4. Uses both large and small words because they are
the right words
Techniques on How to Express Your Own
Voice in Academic Writing
1. Use hedging (language which safeguards your
Academic Voice – expression used to differentiate statements)
your thoughts and words, and those of other authors - use words like may, might, could
- intensifiers: certainly, definitely or must
 In order to sound scholarly or academically, one
needs to include both the writer’s point and Ex.: “The investigators to date may indicate a
proofs such as voices of scholars in the field to fundamental flaw in this approach. It certainly shows a
support his or her argument need for more research on this topic.”

Direct and Indirect Voice in Academic Writing 2. Substitute ‘according to’ with a variety of adjectives
and adverbs that show what you think of the writer’s
opinion
Ex.: “Peters is misguided when she inaccurately
claims that students need.”

3. Show your point by using exact verb usage,

modality, and another evaluative language

Ex.: “Furthermore, it appears that Field may have

overlooked some key date when he raises the
possibility that…”

 It is a MUST to include WHERE and HOW you

found a piece of information
 Reference styles provide guidelines on how to
present the information about the sources
 You should use the style your university requires
regardless of what topic you are writing
Unit 2 Chapter 2: Critical Academic Writing - Scholarly, to the point, objective, opinionated
 One of the writing skills that college students
should develop is the ability to write effective 5. Media – one of the means or channels of general
arguments communication in society
- Requires them to think and persuade their - includes television, newspapers, radio, electronic
target audience media, etc.
- Good practice will improve writing capacity
(ex: scrutinize magazine ads, journals, and 6. Thesis Statement – focuses on your ideas into one
other articles) or two sentences
- presents the topic and makes a comment about your
Examples of Critical Academic Writing: position in relation to the topic
- Critique of a journal article
- Political paper analysis Tells about your topic to your readers:
- Literature review that identifies the strengths and  What is it all about
weaknesses of existing research  Serve as a guide in your writing
 Keep your argument in focused
Kinds of Instructions for Critical Writing:
- Critique, debate, disagree, evaluate Three-pronged Thesis Statement
- a sentence that includes three reasons to support
Guidelines in Writing Critical Academic Papers: the thesis

1. Topic – subject of conversation or discussion in Example:

order to provide a topic (Sawyer, 2018) a. We should wear school uniforms because they would
help reduce discipline, cheaper than other clothing, and
Position Paper – discusses certain benefits or negative help create school pride.
aspects of existing laws b. Zoos should be banned because animals need to
- One does not have to get too technical with legal remain in the wild, zoos cannot provide natural
position topics experiences for animals, and animals in zoos get sick
- Research on the current laws about your chosen and die
topic
7. Method of Paragraph Development – methods that
will clarify and support the main point of the paragraph
 The best topic is the one you know well the
literature
Includes:
 Must have an interesting and original position that
- facts and statistics
you can defend or argue
- examples or illustrations
 It has to be a topic you know well and have
- processes
thought a lot about (and debated with) because if
you miss something, your main position will not - comparison and contrast
be very strong or interesting - cause and effect
 Creative and original; bring your view on the - classification and analysis
topic and explain why it is both valid and - definition
interesting - analogy

2. Purpose – an intention, an aim, or a reason for

writing something or for allowing something to happen

 If you do something on purpose, you do it

intentionally.
 Its purpose is to generate support on an issue.
 It describes a position on an issue and the
rationale for that position.
 Position paper is based on facts that provide a
solid foundation for your argument and it should
be relevant to what is happening in your
community
 It is also crucial to consider a target audience (a
specific group of people with shared
characteristics who are most likely to be
interested in your topic)
- professionals
- educators
- students
- Etc.

3. Genre – a category that characterizes similarities in

form, style, or subject matter
- It could be letters, reports, position paper, essay,
webpage, etc.
4. Stance – the position taken on an issue, the beliefs
held about something or the way a person stands or
holds them

Characteristics of Stance: