IG 11 – COMPUTER SCIENCE

CHAPTER 3- Hardware

DATA STORAGE
Memory is a hugely important aspect of computing, without memory
nothing could be saved and you would have to start every work session
from scratch. Even more importantly there would be nowhere to store
an operating system thus meaning that computers would not exist as
we know them.
Memory and storage devices can be split up into three distinct groups:
• Primary Memory
• Secondary Storage
• Offline storage.
Primary Memory
Primary memory is the memory that is used by the computer to
maintain smooth operation. Primary memory, also known as main
memory or built-in memory can be divided into two categories,
these are RAM and ROM.

Random Access Memory (RAM ):

Ram is used to store data / programs that are currently in use, this
includes:
• The Operating System e.g. Windows
• The software in use e.g. Photoshop, Excel, Chrome
When a program is no longer being used, for example a web browser
is closed, it is then removed from RAM to make space for another
program
The features of RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM) are:
• It is volatile/temporary memory (this means that when the
 power is lost, any data being stored on it is lost
• It can be written to or read from and the contents of the memory
can be changed
• In general, the larger the size of RAM the faster the computer
will operate.
There are currently two types of RAM technology
• Dynamic ram (DRAM)
• Static RAM (SRAM
Dynamic RAM (DRAM): Each DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM) chip consists of a
number of transistors and capacitors .Each of these parts is tiny since a single
RAM chip will contain millions of transistors and capacitors. The function of
each part is:
• Capacitor this holds the bits of information (0 or 1)
• Transistor this acts like a switch; it allows the chip control
circuitry to read the capacitor or change the capacitor’s value.
DRAMs have a number of advantages over SRAMs:
• They are much less expensive to manufacture than SRAM
• They consume less power than SRAM
• They have a higher storage capacity than SRAM Static RAM

Static RAM (SRAM):

• SRAM is much faster than DRAM when it comes to data access
typically, access time for SRAM is 25 nanoseconds and for
DRAM is 60 nanoseconds).
• DRAM is the most common type of RAM used in computers, but
where absolute speed is essential, then SRAM is the preferred
technology. For example, the processor’s MEMORY CACHE is
the high-speed portion of the memory; it is effective because
 most programs access the same data or instructions many
times. By keeping as much of this information as possible in
SRAM, the computer avoids having to access the slower DRAM.
• There is also static RAM(SRAM), which does not have to be
refreshed. Although faster than DRAM, SRAM uses more
transistors and is thus more costly; it is used primarily for CPU
internal registers and cache memory.

Application:
We will now consider an application, other than a computer, where
both RAM and ROM chips are used:
A remote-controlled toy car has a circuitry which contains both
RAM and ROM chips. The remote control is a hand-held device.
We will consider the function of each type of memory
independently:
•ROM
• Stores the factory settings such as remote control frequencies
• Stores the ‘start-up’ routines when the toy car is first switched
on
 • Stores the set routines; for example, how the buttons on the
hand-held device control turning left, acceleration, stopping, and
so on.
•RAM
• The user may wish to program in their own routines; these
new instructions would be stored in the RAM chip
• The RAM chip will store the data/instructions received from
the remote control.
Secondary and off-line storage
Secondary memory can be thought of as the computers long term
memory, it stores the user’s files and programs whilst they are not
being used. Secondary memory is also non-volatile meaning that it
will not lose its data when power is lost.
Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
➢ Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface of the
disks (platter)
➢ Number of read/write heads can access all of the surfaces of
the disk
➢ Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to store
the data
➢ Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks
➢ HDD have very slow data access compared to RAM
Structure of the Platters
Data on each platter is organised in a way that allows the read write head
to easily find the required data. The platters are divided into tracks and
sectors.
 ➢ Track-A single circular area of the disk that works all the way
around the surface. Tracks are concentric meaning that they do
not spiral, instead they are separate circular entities
➢ Sector-A specific portion of the platter which splits each track

Solid-State Storage (SDD)

➢ No moving parts and all data is received at the same time (not
like HDD)
➢ Store data by controlling the movement of electrons within
NAND chips, as 1s and 0s
➢ Non-volatile rewritable memory
➢ Benefits of using SDD rather than HDD:
 ➢ More reliable (no moving parts)
➢ Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops)
➢ Lower power consumption
➢ Run much cooler than HDDs
➢ Very thin
➢ Data access if faster than HDD
➢ Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)

OFF-LINE STORAGE
CD/DVD Disks
➢ Laser (red) light is used to read and write data in the surface of
the disk
➢ Use a thin layer of metal alloy to store data
➢ Both systems use a single, spiral track which runs from the
centre of the disk to the edge
➢ DVD uses Dual-Layering which increases the storage capacity
(two individual recoding layers)
 ➢ On disk data is stored in pits and lands or cracks that are
burned into a spiral track that circles outwards from the centre
of the disk.
DVD-RAM:
DVD-RAM uses a very different technology to CDs and DVDs. They
have the following features:
➢ Instead of a single, spiral track, they use a number of
concentric tracks
➢ Use of concentric tracks allows simultaneous read and write
operations to take place.
➢ They allow numerous read and write operations (up to 100
000 times) and have great longevity (over 30 years) which
makes them ideal for archiving.

Blu-ray Disks
➢ Uses blue laser to carry out read and write operations
➢ Wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD (stores up to
five times more data than DVD)
➢ Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent privacy
and copyright infringement)
➢ Used as back-up systems

USB Flash Memories

➢ Very small, lightweight suitable from transferring files
➢ Small back-up devices for photo, music
➢ Solid state so need to be treated with care

Removable Hard Disk Drives

➢ HDDs that can be connected to the computer using a USB port.
They can be used as back-up devices.
Virtual memory
➢ Virtual memory is needed when there is not enough physical
space in RAM to store the open programs.
➢ Virtual memory is held on hard disk
➢ Programs are transferred out to virtual memory from RAM
when they are not currently being executed.
➢ Programs are transferred back to RAM from virtual memory
when they are needed.
➢ Virtual memory takes program addresses and
map them to RAM addresses.
Pages and Paging
A page is a fixed length contiguous
(consecutive) block (unit of data) of
virtual memory.
Paging is the name given to the process of storing and retrieving data
between a HDD/SSD and RAM.
Thrashing is a condition or a situation when the system is spending a
major portion of its time servicing the page faults, but the actual
processing done is very negligible

Cloud Storage: The concept of storing and retrieving data virtually via the
internet instead of a local storage device.
Advantages
➢ Data can be accessed at any time from any device, providing
it has a internet access.
➢ Data can easily be shared without physical transfer (eg. USB
drive.)
➢ Easy collaboration with shared documents
 ➢ Storage considered to be limitless from the user’s
perspective.

Disadvantages
➢ Can be expensive
➢ Slow to access if connectivity is poor
➢ No internet connection means no access.

All files kept in cloud storage are still stored on physical storage media
in a remote location. Cloud storage warehouses often have thousands of
servers containing hard drives.
Types of Cloud :
Public Cloud
A public cloud is a computing environment in which
computing infrastructure and resources are shared with
the public over the Internet.
Private Cloud
A private cloud is a computing infrastructure and resource-
sharing network that is connected via the Internet to a
private network.
Hybrid cloud
A combination of the two above environments; some data
resides in the private cloud and less sensitive/less
commercial data can be accessed from a public cloud
storage provider.

Network interface card (NIC)

➢ A network interface card (NIC) connects a device to a wired or
wireless network.
 ➢ A NIC uses a protocol to ensure successful communication.
➢ A NIC contains a media access control (MAC) address,
generated at manufacturing stage.

Media Access Control (MAC)

➢ Every device on a network has a network interface card (NIC).
➢ MAC addressing is used to route frames on a local area
network(LAN)
➢ Each MAC addresses are static and assigned by the
manufacturer.
➢ MAC addresses are static and assigned by the manufacturer.
➢ A MAC address is 48 bits in length.
➢ MAC addresses are represented as six groups of hexadecimal
digits(eg. 00:0a:95:9d:68:16)
o The first six hex digits (3 bytes) represent a unique
manufacturer code.
o The second six hex digits (3 bytes) represent the unique
serial code for the device.

Internet Protocol (IP) address -IPv4 and IPv6

➢ IP addressing is used to route packets on a wide area
network(WAN)
➢ There are two versions of IP address – IPv4 and IPv6
➢ IP address can be static, meaning they do not change,
o IPv4
• 32 bits in size
• Four numbers between 0 to 255 separated by periods
(eg. 69.89.31.212)
 • A router has a unique, WAN -facing IP address and a
LAN- Facing IP address – this enables a LAN device to
have the same IP address another device On a separate
LAN
• IPv4 is being replaced to IPv4 because unique static
addresses are running out.
o IPv6
• 128 bits in size
• Eight groups of four 16 bits hex values separated by
colons(e.g –
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:8a2e:0370:021d:7334)

The role of a router

• A router sends data between networks – it is
required to connect a local area network to a wide
area network.
• Routers use devices IP address to route traffic to
other routers
• Routers can assign IP addresses to devices on a local
network
Embedded systems
An embedded system is a small computer that forms part of a larger
system, device or machine. It includes both hardware and software
and its purpose is to control the device and to allow a user to interact
with it. They tend to have one, or a limited number of tasks that they
can perform.
Examples of embedded systems include:
• Central heating systems
 • Engine management systems in vehicles
• Domestic appliances, such as dishwashers and tvs
• Digital watches
• Electronic calculators
• Gps systems
• Fitness trackers

Depending on the embedded system’s purpose, they use input

devices like sensors and switches to produce output, for example
sounding warning buzzers and switching lights on.
Advantages
• Lower power consumption
• Less noise and lower failure rate
• Smaller size , Lower weight
• Little to no human involvement
• Dedicated task completion
• Uninterrupted operation
• A high degree of fault tolerance
Disadvantages
• Once configured, these systems cannot be changed.
Hence, no improvement or upgradation on the ones
designed and created can be made.
• They are hard to maintain. It is also difficult to take a
back-up of embedded files.
• Troubleshooting is difficult for embedded systems.
Transferring data from one system to another is also
quite problematic.
 • Because these systems are made for specific tasks,
hardware is limited.

Some real-life applications of Embedded Systems are as follows:

1. Consumer electronics – Televisions and digital cameras; computer

printers; video game consoles and home entertainment systems like
PS4.
2. Household appliances – Refrigerators; washing machines,
microwave ovens, air conditioners
3. Medical equipment – Scanners like those for MRI, CT; ECG machines;
devices to monitor blood pressure and heartbeat
4. Automobiles – Fuel injection systems, anti-lock braking systems,
music and entertainment systems, controls for air-conditioner
5. Industrial applications – Assembly lines, systems for feedback,
systems for data collection
6. Aerospace – Systems for navigation and guidance, GPS
7. Communications – Routers, satellite phones

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