Chapter 2: Nerve Physiology Bio 35 | Animal Physiology (Lecture)

Chapter 2: Nerve Physiology Bio 35 | Animal Physiology (Lecture)

Chapter 2: Nerve Physiology

Nervous System
- Controls and integrates all body activities within limits that maintain life (homeostasis)
- Any disturbance that would occur that leads to homeostatic imbalance, the nervous system would come into play.
- Stimuli – any change in the internal or external environment that would affect the body processes.
- 3 Basic Functions
a. sensing changes with sensory receptors
b. interpreting and remembering those changes
c. reacting to those changes with effectors
Diversity of Nervous System
- Simple, slow moving animals like hydra have neurons arranged in a network of bipolar neurons called a nerve net.
a. Cnidarian – Hydra have nerve nets
b. Echinoderm – Sea star has a radial nerve and nerve ring
c. Flatworms – Planarian has an eye, brain, nerve cord, transverse nerve
d. Annelid – Leech has a brain, ventral nerve cord, segmental ganglion
e. Arthropod – Insect has a brain, ventral nerve cord, ganglia
f. Mollusk – Chiton has an anterior nerve ring, ganglia, and longitudinal nerve cord
g. Chordate – Salamander has a brain, spinal cord (dorsal nerve cord), sensory ganglion
Chapter 2: Nerve Physiology Bio 35 | Animal Physiology (Lecture)

Three Trends in the Evolution of the Nervous System

A. Centralization – are nerves (cells) concentrated or centralized?
B. Cephalization – Is there a head region? Concentration + Centralization = Brain
C. Specialization – Are its sense organs complex? Very specific and highly specialized functions.
Kingdom Animalia – Nerve Physiology
I. Porifera / Sponges
 Only multi-cellular organism with no nervous system
 Filter feeders that are sessile, attached to any substrate in the sea.
 Simply wait for any nutrients to come. Choanocytes act like primitive pseudo-nerve organs of poriferans.

II. Cnidarians
 A nerve net is a collection of separate, but "connected" neurons.
 No ganglia, no centralization.
 Some jellyfish (predators) have structure that detect
 light (called ocelli)
 balance (called statocysts)
 chemical detection (olfaction),
 touch (called sensory lappets) – Rhopalia
 nematocysts will release immediately and attach to the Aurelia aurita (moon jellyfish)
prey, releasing a toxic substance to paralyze the
prey.
III. Platyhelminthes / Flatworms
 Nerve net connected by nerve cords connected to
ganglia.
 Contain some receptors to find food and to find light so
that they can avoid it.
 More cephalization than Cnidarians

IV. Nematodes / Roundworms

 Nerve cells are even more centralized.
Chapter 2: Nerve Physiology Bio 35 | Animal Physiology (Lecture)

 Has two nerve cords that transmit impulses in the roundworm.

V. Annelida / Segmented Worms

 An earthworm has a nervous system with a simple
brain and nerve cord.
 The "brain" is located above the pharynx and is
connected to the first ventral ganglion.
 Each segment has its own ganglia, gets info from
its own segment and controls muscles in its own
region
 Earthworms have touch, light, vibration and
chemical receptors all along the entire body
surface.
 One of the earthquake warning signs are
earthworms out in the ground.
VI. Echinoderms
 Simple nerve ring surrounds mouth and radial nerves into
the arms
 Eyespots on each arm that have light sensitive pigments.
 Think back: What type of protist had an eyespot? –
Euglena
VII. Mollusks
 Ganglia are organized into a brain
 centralized brain and a multitude of sense organs
 Example:
1. Snails: 6 ganglia.
2. Bivalves: 3 pairs of ganglia
Specialization: controls esophagus, muscles close to the shell, and foot.
 Chapter 2: Nerve Physiology Bio 35 | Animal Physiology (Lecture)

VIII. Arthropods / Insecta

 Example – Grasshopper
 centralized brain and many sense organs
 Most diverse and successful phyla
 Receptors for taste and smell and on
antennae and legs
 Antennae can detect odors or touch objects.
 Insects have
o simple eyes
o compound eyes
IX. Chordates / Chordata
 Synapomorphies that Develop into the Nervous System:
1. Notochord – is the defining structure of the chordates, in which they were named
(Greek: noto – back; chord – string)
 a semi-flexible rod running along the length of the animal.
 all chordates have a notochord at some stage in their lives
 has a turgid core and fibrous sheath
 replaced by the vertebral column in most adult vertebrates
 later condenses into the nucleus pulposus
2. Dorsal Nerve Cord (Latin: dorsal – back)
 hollow, with pairs of nerves branching from it at intervals and running to the muscles.
 the anterior (forward) end of the nerve cord is often enlarged into a brain.
 formed from a part of the ectoderm that rolls
 Nonvertebrate chordates: simple nervous system with a mass of nerve cells that form a brain
 Vertebrates: More complex brains with distinct regions each with different functions.
A. Chondrichthyes – cartilage endoskeleton
o They have a network of small jelly-filled pores called electroreceptors which help
o the fish sense electric fields in water. 8-10 pairs of cranial nerves and a spinal cord.
B. Osteichthyes – bony endoskeleton
o Well-developed nervous systems, highly developed sense organs (olfactory bulbs), and a lateral line system
that detects water movement (That is why we do not pound on the glass of an aquarium)
C. Amphibians
o Well-developed nervous and sensory systems, keen vision for spotting insects, hear through their tympanic
membranes, lateral line system in water.
o Their system is highly comparable to that of humans.
o They have nerve centers for all reflex functions and, thus, regulates particularly those functions of the body
for camouflage and avoiding predators
D. Reptiles / Reptilia
o Similar pattern of brain as amphibians
o Cerebrum and cerebellum in reptile are much bigger than amphibians
o Many snakes have good sense of smell
Chapter 2: Nerve Physiology Bio 35 | Animal Physiology (Lecture)

o Simple external ear drum and single bone conducting sound to inner ear
o Reptiles have proportionately smaller brains compared to mammals and there are no thoracolumbar
sympathetic or cranio-sacral parasympathetic divisions in reptiles.
E. Birds / Aves
o Well-developed sense organs needed for flight
 Birds see well, hear well
o Bird’s brain is large for its body size. More instinctive than learners.
o Possess cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla oblongata
o Poor sense of smell but highly-developed eyes. Lens is highly flexible in water birds
o Ear lacks external pinna and sound still conducted by a single bone (columella).
o Cochlea is present though not spiraled as in mammals
F. Primates
o Binocular vision, well-developed cerebrum, fingers and toes, and arms that rotate around their shoulder
joint.
Summary of Kingdom Animalia Nervous System / Evolution of Nervous System

PHYLUM NERVOUS SYSTEM

Cilium, they have genes associated with neurons, behaviors indicating sensing of
Phylum Porifera external stimuli, and secretory cells involved in sensory behavior that express
neural genes.
Phylum Cnidarian Nerve net-collection of nerve cells
Phylum Echinoderms Nerve ring at the center and five radial nerves extending outward along the arms
Phylum Platyhelminthes Cephalized nervous system that consists of head ganglion
Neuronal processes consist of neurons that have a neurocyte; group of neurocyte
Phylum Nematoda
is called ganglion
Phylum Annelida Ventral nerve cord and prostomial brain
Phylum Mollusks Have complex brains containing millions of neurons
Have clusters of nerve cell bodies called ganglia located along the ventral nerve
Phylum Arthropods
cord
Chapter 2: Nerve Physiology Bio 35 | Animal Physiology (Lecture)

Human Nervous System – Neuro Anatomy

I. Major Structures of the Nervous System
1. Brain – 100 billion neurons
o On the average, we only use 10%
2. Cranial Nerves
 Nerve – bundle containing hundreds to
thousands of axons. Follows a defined path
and serves a specific region of body.
3. Spinal Cord – 100 million neurons
4. Ganglia – small masses of nervous tissue
containing cell bodies of neurons located outside
the brain and spinal cord
5. Sensory Receptors – dendrites of sensory
Brain, cranial nerves, spinal cord, spinal nerves, ganglia,
neurons or specialized cells that monitor changes enteric plexuses and sensory receptors
in external or internal environment.
II. Organization of the Nervous System

1. Somatic Nervous System

A. Central Nervous System – Brain and Spinal Cord
B. Somatic Motor Neurons (Voluntary) – Skeletal Muscles
2. Autonomic Nervous System / Peripheral Nervous System
 Autonomic Motor neurons (Involuntary) – Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands, adipose tissue
A. Sympathetic Division – “fight or flight”
B. Parasympathetic Division – “rest and digest”
3. Enteric Nervous System
 Special Nervous System: Sensory receptors and neurons in gastrointestinal tract and enteric plexuses
 Eneteric motor neurons (involuntary) in enteric plexuses – Smooth muscle, glands, and endocrine cells of
GI tract.
Chapter 2: Nerve Physiology Bio 35 | Animal Physiology (Lecture)

III. Types of Cells in the Nervous System

1. Neurons – Functional unit of the nervous
system
 Have capacity to produce action potentials
(electrical excitability)
 Cell body
o single nucleus with prominent
nucleolus
o Nissl bodies (chromatophilic
substance)
 rough ER & free ribosomes
for protein synthesis
o neurofilaments give cell shape and
support
o microtubules move material inside cell
o lipofuscin pigment clumps (harmless aging)
 Cell Processes = Dendrites & Axons
A. Dendrites – input portion
 Conducts impulses
towards the cell body
 Typically short, highly
branched &
unmyelinated
 Surfaces specialized for
contact with other
neurons
 Contains neurofibrils &
Nissl bodies
B. Axons – output portion
 Conduct impulses away
from cell body
 Long, thin cylindrical
process of cell
 Arises at axon hillock
 Impulses arise from
initial segment (trigger
zone)
 Side branches
(collaterals) end in fine
processes called axon
terminals
 Swollen tips called
synaptic end bulbs
contain vesicles filled with neurotransmitters
 Electrical signals can no longer be transmitted at axon terminals, hence why neurotransmitters
(chemcial substances) are utilized.
Chapter 2: Nerve Physiology Bio 35 | Animal Physiology (Lecture)

C. Axonal Transport and Disease

 Cell body is the location/site for most protein synthesis – neurotransmitters and repair proteins.
 Axonal transport system moves substances
1. slow axonal flow
 movement in one direction only – away from cell body
 movement at 1–5 mm per day
2. fast axonal flow
 moves organelles & materials along surface of microtubules at 200-400 mm per day
 transports in either direction
 for use or for recycling in cell body
 Fast axonal transport route by which toxins or pathogens reach neuron cell bodies
o tetanus (Clostridium tetani bacteria)
o disrupts motor neurons causing painful muscle spasms
o toxins spread faster if more proximal (nearer to the CNS)
 Bacteria enter the body through a laceration or puncture injury
o more serious if wound is in head or neck because of shorter transit time
D. Functional Classification of Neurons
a. Sensory (afferent) neurons
 transport sensory information from skin,
muscles, joints, sense organs & viscera
to CNS
b. Motor (efferent) neurons
 send motor nerve impulses to muscles &
glands
c. Interneurons (association) neurons
 connect sensory to motor neurons
 90% of neurons in the body
E. Structural Classification of Neurons – based
on number of processes found on cell body
a. multipolar = several dendrites & one axon
 most common cell type
b. bipolar neurons = one main dendrite & one axon
 found in retina, inner ear & olfactory
c. unipolar neurons = one process only (develops from a bipolar)
 are always sensory neurons
Chapter 2: Nerve Physiology Bio 35 | Animal Physiology (Lecture)

2. Neuroglia
 Half of the volume of the CNS
 Smaller cells than neurons; 50X more numerous
 Cells can divide – rapid mitosis in tumor
formation (gliomas)
A. Neuroglia in the Central Nervous System
1. Astrocytes
 Star-shaped cells
 Metabolize neurotransmitters
2. Oligodendrocytes
 Most common glial cell type
 Each form myelin sheath of axons
in CNS
 Found only in brain and spinal cord
3. Microglia – Phagocytic role
 “Cell eating”
4. Ependymal Cells
 Produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Myelin Sheath
1. lipid & protein covering
produced by neuroglia
2. electrically insulates the axon
of a neuron
3. increases the speed of nerve
impulse conduction
Myelination in the Central Nervous
System (CNS)
 Oligodendrocytes – myelinate
axons in the CNS
 Broad, flat cell processes wrap about CNS axons, but the cell bodies do not surround the axons
 No neurolemma

B. Neuroglia in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

1. Satellite Cells
 Flat cells surrounding neuronal cell bodies in peripheral ganglia
2. Schwann Cells – counterpart of oligodendrocytes
 Produces the myelin sheath of axons in the PNS
Chapter 2: Nerve Physiology Bio 35 | Animal Physiology (Lecture)

Myelination in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

a. Schwann Cells
 myelinate (wrap around) about 1 mm
of axon’s length by spiraling many times
axons in the PNS during fetal
development
b. Neurolemma / Neurilemma
 outermost nucleated cytoplasmic layer
which encloses myelin sheath
 found only in PNS axons
 aid in regeneration and regrowth of axon

c. Nodes of Ranvier
 gaps in myelin sheath that appears at intervals along the axon
 short (1 µm), specialized regions in the axonal membrane that are not insulated by myelin
Chapter 2: Nerve Physiology Bio 35 | Animal Physiology (Lecture)

Human Nervous System – Nerve Physiology

I. Electrical Signals in Neurons
 Neurons are electrically excitable due to the voltage difference across their membrane
 Communicate with two (2) types of electric signals
o action potentials that can travel long distances
o graded potentials that are local membrane changes only, short distances
II. Action Potential (AP)
 allows communication over both short and long distances within the body
 sequence of rapidly occurring events that decrease and eventually reverse the membrane potential
A. Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)
 an electrical voltage difference across the membrane
 in neurons, RMP ranges from -40 to -90 mV
 -70 mV – typical value
 more negative in cytosol than in extracellular fluid

 Resting potential exists because

1. concentration of ions different inside & outside
 extracellular fluid rich in Na+ and Cl-
 cytosol full of K+, organic phosphate, amino acids, & proteins
2. membrane permeability differs for Na+ and K+
 50-100 greater permeability for K+
 inward flow of Na+ can’t keep up with outward flow of K+
 Na+/K+ pump removes Na+ as fast as it leaks in
B. Phases of Action Potential
1. Resting State
 -70 mV, Na+ and K + channels are closed
2. Depolarization Phase – Na + channels open
 -55 mV to 0 mV to +30 mV
3. Repolarizing Phase – from +30 mV to 0 mV to -70 mV
 K+ channels permit the outflow of K+ to extracellular fluid, restores the RMP
Chapter 2: Nerve Physiology Bio 35 | Animal Physiology (Lecture)

4. Hyperpolarization Phase
 -90 mV, membrane is more permeable to K+ than the resting state
 caused by outflow of K + while K + channels are open

All or None Principle

if depolarization reaches a certain level,
then ion channels open and an action
potential occurs
There are no big or small action potentials
in one nerve cell - all action potentials
are the same size. Therefore, the neuron
either does not reach the threshold or a
full action potential is fired

Local Anesthetics
• Prevent opening of voltage-gated
Na+ channels
• Nerve impulses cannot pass the
anesthetized region
• Novocaine and lidocaine
Chapter 2: Nerve Physiology Bio 35 | Animal Physiology (Lecture)

III. Refractory Period

 period of time during which an excitable cell cannot generate action potential
 under normal body conditions, the maximum frequency of nerve impulses in different axons ranges between
10 to 1000 per second
A. Absolute Refractory Period
o a second action potential cannot be initiated even with a very strong stimulus
o inactivated Na channels cannot reopen, they must first return to resting state
B. Relative Refractory Period
o a second action potential can be initiated but only suprathreshold stimulus
o coincides with the period when K + are still open after Na + channels have returned to resting state
IV. Impulse Travel – The propagation speed of a nerve impulse is not related to stimulus strength.
A. Continous Conduction
o occurs in muscle fibers and unmyelinated axons
o ionic current flow across each adjacent portion of the membrane
B. Saltatory Conduction
o propagation of an action potential along the exposed portions of a myelinated nerve fiber

Speed of Impulse Propagation

 The propagation speed of a nerve impulse is not related to stimulus strength.
Factors:
a. Diameter of Axon
b. Myelin Sheath
c. Temperature
Stimulus Integrity
 How do we differentiate a light touch from a firmer touch?
 frequency of impulses – firm pressure generates impulses at a higher frequency
 number of sensory neurons activated – firm pressure stimulates more neurons than does a
light touch
Fiber Types
a. A fibers largest (5-20 microns & 130 m/sec) – myelinated somatic sensory & motor to skeletal
muscle
b. B fibers medium (2-3 microns & 15 m/sec) – myelinated visceral sensory & autonomic
preganglionic
c. C fibers smallest (.5-1.5 microns & 2 m/sec) – unmyelinated sensory & autonomic motor