ISSMGE Bulletin: Volume 3, Issue 4 Page 11
Case History
Concepts on CFRDs Leakage Control ‐ Cases and Current Experiences
Manoel S. Freitas Jr. – Consulting Engineer
[email protected]
1. Introduction
Concrete Face Rockfill Dams (CFRDs) technique has been extensively used especially in 80s and 90s in design and construction of several rockfill
dam structures with heights ranging from 140 to 190m, such as: Foz do Areia (Brazil, 160 m), Xingó ( Brazil, 145m), Aguamilpa (Mexico, 187m) and
Segredo ( Brazil, 145m). This tendency has been effectively followed in the last decade too for some other iconic projects like: Tianshengqiao 1‐
TSQ.1 (China, 178 m), Sanbanxi (China, 186 m), Hongjiadu ( China, 192 m), Barra Grande ( Brazil, 185 m), El Cajón (Mexico, 188 m), Kárahnjúkar
(Iceland, 190m), Bakun ( Malaysia, 205m), Campos Novos (Brazil, 202m) and Shuibuya (China, 233m) the tallest CFRD structure ever made. Mazar
(Ecuador, 166 m), Porce III (Colombia, 160m) and La Yesca (Mexico, 210 m) and Jiangpinghe (China 219m) ‐ still under construction ‐ are equally
excellent examples of CFRDs progress and use. However, during the 90s decade, some crack events occurred in several CFRDs, such as: Xingó,
Aguamilpa, Itá and Itapebi (Brazil), and the dam leakage reached up to 1000 to 1800 l/s ( Itapebi and Ita CFRDs). Remedial slab treatments have
been implemented and leakage flow rates dropped below 200 l/s during operation period. More recently, several unpredicted slab ruptures
occurred in Tianshengqiao 1 (2003 and 2004) during reservoir operation, and Campos Novos and Barra Grande in 2005, as well as in Mohale in 2006
during first reservoir impounding. In these CFRDs, due to the slab horizontal stresses, a sudden concrete spalling rupture along vertical joints at slab
center areas was followed by significant dam leakages of around or higher than 1000 l/s in Campos Novos and Barra Grande and 600 l/s in Mohale.
Currently and mainly for CFRDs with heights > 190 m, rockfill zoning, compaction procedure control and changes of the perimeter and vertical joints
design for slab strain control have been implemented. However, tall CFRDs structures (heights > 250 m) face new dam behavior challenges and
cracking control during impounding.
2. Rockfill Zoning
CFRDs zoning designations is one of the most important concepts (Cooke and Sherard 1987). They clearly define the functions and requirements of
each zone of the embankment and allow the exchange of information between CFRDs designers and constructors. These zoning concepts are still
present in the large majority of the dams. Figure 1 reproduced from Cooke and Sherard (1987) show the original zoning designations.
Figure 1 Zone designations for CFRD of Sound Rockfill (Cooke and Sherard,1987)
“Zone 1 – A compacted blanket impervious soil“ was placed on the lower part of the concrete face at Alto Anchicaya Dam (1974). This detail has
since been repeated on the Areia, Khao Laem, and Golillas Dams and in several other tall dams. The purpose is to cover the perimeter joint and slab
in the lower elevations with impervious soil, preferably silt, which would seal any cracks or joint openings. In addition, dams without this upstream
Zone 1, have been completely successful.
“Zone 2 – Such select grading of Zone 2 provides a semi‐impervious barrier, preventing any large leakage, even if a leakage path develops through a
crack in the concrete slab or a defective water‐stop. Crusher‐run minus‐15‐7.5 cm rock fill has been used”. The semi‐pervious property is of value
near the perimeter joint, and to an elevation where flood retention during diversion could rise, before the placement of the concrete face. The early
and primary purpose of the thin zone of finer rock directly under the slab (cushion zone) was to provide uniform and firm support for the concrete
slab.
ISSMGE Bulletin: Volume 3, Issue 4 Page 12
Case History
Concepts on CFRDs Leakage Control ‐ Cases and Current Experiences
(continued)
An important and revolutionary construction procedure was introduced at Itá CFRD ( 1999) by the main civil constructor (Resende, Materón, 2000).
An extruded concrete wall built as support for the concrete face replaced all the troublesome operations of compaction along the slope of zone 2
and eliminates the asphalt emulsion or the shotcrete spray. Benefits of this curb, nominated by Cooke like “The Itá Method” and from 1999 on has
been adopted in all CFRDs already constructed in the World. Figures 2a and b, show the curb details and curb extruding machine.
79‐75 Kg
60‐75 Kg
Cement/m33
Cement/m
(a) Curb Detail
(b) extruding machine (El Cajón CFRD)
(Méndez, Marengo, 2008)
Figure 2: The ”Itá Method” ( Resende, Materón , 2000)
Figures 3, 4, 5, and 6, present for Campos Novos, Tianshengqiao 1, El Cajón and Shuibuya, respectively, maximum cross section zoning, and
upstream view , as well.
(a) (b)
Figure 3: Campos Novos : cross section – (a) (Courtesy of Oficina de Textos, Editor) and (b) upstream view in the end of construction
(a)
(b)
Figure 4: Tianshengqiao 1 (TSQ.10 : cross section – (a) (Courtesy of Oficina de Textos, Editor) and (b) upstream view in the end of construction
(2000)
ISSMGE Bulletin: Volume 3, Issue 4 Page 13
Case History
Concepts on CFRDs Leakage Control ‐ Cases and Current Experiences
(continued)
(a)
(b)
Figure 5: El Cajón : cross section – (a) (Courtesy of Oficina de Textos, Editor) and (b) upstream view in the end of construction (2006)
(a) (b)
Figure 6: Shuibuya : cross section – (a) (Courtesy of Oficina de Textos, Editor) and (b) upstream view in the end of construction (2007)
Rockfill construction specified thickness layers restricted to 0.5 m to 1 (one) meter (max.) at upstream zone, dumping and spreading facilities
avoiding intense segregation, compaction by using 10 to 12 ton vibrator rollers ( 6 to 8 passes) and rockfill watering facilities ≥ 250 liters/s have
been implemented as international proceedings. Remarkable vertical settlements were recorded for high CFRDs, such as: Foz do Areia : 3,80 m;
Segredo : 2,22m; Xingó : 2,90 m; TSQ.1 : 3,20 m. Monitoring data showed that 80 to 90 % of the total dam settlements (construction +
impounding) were recorded during construction period.
CFRDs as an inherent safe structure have been designed and constructed, so far, as an interesting alternative in time and costs comparatively with
RCC ‐ Roller Compacted Concrete dam alternative.
Recorded deformations on construction and after impounding showed that rockfill construction methodology and valley shape factor effect (A /
2
H ; where A is the face slab area; H is the max. dam height) have influenced significantly CFRDs deformations at plinth abutment areas and slab
center parts. In 80s and 90s, CFRDs design have specified selected sound or low weathered rock from required excavation for upstream shell
zone. Construction deformation modulus ranged from 40 to 70 MPa, such as Foz do Areia, Segredo, Xingo, Khao Laem. Weathered rocks were
used ( Xingó and Tianshengqiao 1) with special consideration of rock properties, placement procedures, zoning and drainage provisions (Cooke, J.B.,
1991). Alluvium coarse materials (deformation modulus ranged from 100 to 350 MPa), were successfully used in several dams: Salvajina, Golillas
and Aguamilpa (upstream shell). Table 1 shows several CRFDs features.
3. Plinth and Conceptual evolution of the Perimeter joint
The plinth as is usually the name used for the toe slab has an important role in the performance of CFRD structures: the control of the flow through
the foundation, because in the upstream side is the reservoir and behind the plinth the rock fill. Foundation requirements as mentioned by Cooke
and Sherard are essential. Whenever the foundation is not in sound rock, other treatments are specified.
ISSMGE Bulletin: Volume 3, Issue 4 Page 14
Case History
Concepts on CFRDs Leakage Control ‐ Cases and Current Experiences
(continued)
Good correlations have been obtained between geomechanical classification of the rock foundation and the required gradient to be applied to
prevent the erosion of the plinth (Cruz, Materón, Freitas, 2008). Plinth structure is usually on “ hard, nonerodible fresh rock which is groutable. For
less favorable foundation rock, after a trench is made to an estimated acceptable foundation, many methods are available to treat local
imperfections. The criterion is to eliminate the possibility of erosion or piping in the foundation. Careful excavation is used to minimize fracturing of
the rock surface on which the toe slab is placed. Air or air‐water cleanup, just prior to placing concrete, is required to obtain a bonded contact of the
concrete to the foundation.” ( Cooke, Sherard, 1987)
Since 1970´s, the main factors that caused perimeter joint movements and potentially intense dam leakage were: rockfill differential
settlements from construction stages, rock type (upstream and downstream shells ), plinth abrupt geometry foundation (at abutment areas) and
valley geometry.
Perimeter joint design evolution has progressed from the “simple concept” ‐ one central rubber waterstop and/ or bottom copper backed by a
concrete pad, Cethana Dam– 1971, to a “double or multiple defense concept”, as Alto Anchicaya Dam ‐1974, with two waterstops, one made
of copper (bottom) and a center one made of PVC, and a mastic cover. Foz do Areia, Segredo and Xingó CFRDs followed similar concept.
However, Segredo and Xingó have eliminated the center waterstop to ensure a better concrete quality. A sand‐asphalt pad and a filter material (φ
max = 1 ½” ) under the slab as a safe and leakage control feature, have been designed as an additional defense line, as an international
proceedings issue.
An earthfill blanket at upstream deepest sections in river bed at plinth and slab lower areas has been built as an international practice, and an
additional protection in case of cracking issue.
Pinto and Mori (1988) presented a new defense concept, using a “dirty fine sand” over the perimeter joint. Segredo (1993) and Xingó ( 1994) have
been designed with a “ fine sand layer” over the perimetric joint as an additional protection (“ clogging effect”), in case of the damage of the
mastic. Aguamilpa ( 1993) and Tianshengqiao 1( 2000), besides double waterstops placement, a fly ash material protected by a geotextile wrap
and a metallic plate (perforated) completed the perimeter joint design ( Figure 4, b). In EL Cajon ( 2006) a multiple defense concept, similar as
designed for Aguamilpa and Tianhengqiao 1, was adopted and complemented by a addition of copper waterstop at joint upper part.
Table 1 : CFRDs Features
Settlement Max.
Complection Dam max. Valley Shape Settlement
Dam (country) Rock type 2 / dam max.
Year Height H (m) Factor ‐ A/H Max. (m)
height (%)
Alto Anchicayá
1974 Hornfels ‐Diorite 140 1.1 0.77 0.55
(Colombia)
Basalt/Basaltic
Foz do Areia (Brazil) 1980 160 5.4 3.52 2.20
breccia
Aguamilpa (Mexico) 1993 Gravel/Rockfill 187 3.9 1.70 0.90
Basalt/Basaltic
Segredo (Brazil) 1993 140 4.4 2.23 1.59
breccia
Xingó (Brazil) 1994 Granite‐Gneiss 140 6.9 2.90 2.07
Itá( Brazil) 2000 Basalt 125 7.0 1.30 1.04
Limestone/Mudst
TSQ.1 (China) 2000 178 5.7 3.32 1.87
one
Machadinho (Brazil) 2002 Basalt 125 6.0 1.60 1.28
Barra Grande (Brazil) 2005 Basalt 185 3.0 3.40 1.84
Campos Novos (Brazil) 2005 Basalt 202 2.6 3.10 1.53
El Cajón (Mexico) 2006 Ignimbrita 188 3.2 0.85 0.45
Mohale (Lesotho) 2006 Basalt 145 3.6 2.86 1.97
Kárahnjúkar (Iceland) 2007 Basalt 190 2.7 1.53 0.81
Limestone /
Shuibuya ( China) 2008 233 2.6 2.47 1.06
Mudstone
Bakun (Sarawak – Greywacke/shale
2008* 205 3.0 2.28 * 1.37
Malaysia) /mudstone
Mazar (Ecuador) 2009* Quartzitic schists 166 1.7 1.28* 0.77
(*) end of construction
ISSMGE Bulletin: Volume 3, Issue 4 Page 15
Case History
Concepts on CFRDs Leakage Control ‐ Cases and Current Experiences
(continued)
In China, rubber sealing materials have been used as “GB” and “ SR” replacing the “IGAS” material (Guocheng and Keming, 2000). GB filler
material combined with a corrugated GB rubber joint, ( Figure 7) designed and manufactured by China Institute of Water Resources and
Hydropower Research (IWHR), Beijing, were applied in Shuibuya, Bakun and currently Mazar CFRD (166 m, under construction), (Cruz, Bayardo,
Freitas, 2009).
For CFRDs structures higher than 200m such as Shuibuya, 233m (2008), Bakun, 205m (2008), Campos Novos, 202m, ( 2005 ), a perimeter joint
“multiple defense concept” has been successfully designed and implemented.
Figure 7– Corrugated Joint adopted in Shuibuya ( China), Bakun ( Malaysia) and Mazar (Ecuador)
Cruz, Materon, Freitas , 2009 ( Courtesy of OFICINA DE TEXTOS, Editor)
Reinforcing bars placed in plinth (perimeter joint) and in the face slab seek to reduce concrete shrinkage, and to minimize cracks developed from
bending strains imposed mainly during reservoir impounding. Two layers of longitudinal steel have sometimes been used in the past. Recently, it is
generally accepted that a single layer should be used. The steel is put 10 ‐ 15 cm clear of the upper surface as temperature steel, where it is hooked
by the anchors: 0,3% each way appears adequate. The purpose of the anchors is simply to pin the concrete to the rock. The anchors are not to
resist any given uplift loads.
Plinth construction progress continually in sections (each 50 to 80m aprox.), with construction joints, without waterstops. The longitudinal
reinforcement steel passing through the construction joint represents as a good practice solution (Cruz, Bayardo, Freitas, 2008). Construction joint
green cutting joint treatments are used commonly before re‐start concrete pouring.
4. Vertical and horizontal joints
4.1 Horizontal joints
Horizontal construction joints have been designed and constructed according to the face slab construction stages, 2 to 3, as an international
practice. Horizontal joints treatment before next slab stage consist in removing some centimeters of the pre‐existent concrete, surface cleaning
with air or green cutting facilities to remove exposed aggregates. The reinforcement steel being continue is overlapping the next concrete pouring
stage. Construction joint should not be considered as contraction joints, waterstops are not required as unnecessary and expensive according to
good engineering practices.
4.2 Slab – plinth connection joints
Aiming to sealing protection (in case of cracks) improvement, at a “L” distance (often ranged from 10 to 20 m) from the plinth, an additional joint
sealer (besides of the copper joint sealer at the slab bottom) has been installed in some CFRDs structures. In TSQ.1, an additional PVC joint sealer
has been designed embedded along slabs vertical joints at a distance of L = 20m from the plinth.
In Barra Grande and Campos Novos CFRDs, a PVC cover has been designed over the slab vertical joint top at a distance L = 20m from the plinth.
However, these sealing protection systems have often shown troubles during construction stages to keep a good concrete pouring in these restrict
parts, besides difficulties in maintaining the alignment of the PVC joint during the slipping form works (Cruz, Bayardo, Freitas, 2009).
Drainage facilities at upstream lower areas during construction are mandatory to control and to protect against slabs uplift (bulging
displacements) along perimeter joint due to relevant piezometric head pressures in rockfill river bed low parts at plinth areas.
4.3 Vertical joints
Vertical joints are “contraction joints” ‐ between slabs, which means, no steel bars trespassing between slabs are required, ‐ current international
practice. Two different design concepts have been followed according to slab areas: at abutments (tension zones) and center part (compression
zone). At abutment areas (tension zones), where joint openings are predicted, tension joint designs have progressed to a double defense
concept as a common practice, a copper joint sealer installed at the slab bottom, and a second joint sealer (JEENE type, or PVC) on the joint top.
ISSMGE Bulletin: Volume 3, Issue 4 Page 16
Case History
Concepts on CFRDs Leakage Control ‐ Cases and Current Experiences
(continued)
This practice has been adopted in several CFRDs, such as : Itá (1999), Itapebi (2002), Machadinho (2002), Campos Novos ( 2005) and Barra
Grande ( 2005) (Figure 8 b).
Aguamilpa and Tianshengqiao 1 followed the similar concept, a double water stop (copper at bottom and a PVC at center part) and an additional fly
ash ( coal ash in case of TSQ.1) on the joint top, protected by a geotextile wrap and metallic perforated cover.
In Itá CFRD was introduced the extruded curb, for the first time, over the upstream slope (cushion zone) protection thus replacing the traditional
compaction and asphalt coat protection alternative.
Slab Central areas (compression zones): vertical joints in center areas (compression zone) have been designed with a bottom copper joint only as
standard solution (Figure 8a). In addition, a V‐ notch ( 10 x 10 mm) at upper part and an asphalt paint was applied along concrete joint. This
practice was adopted until year 2005.
Cracking and concrete spalling phenomenon was initially recorded in Tianshengqiao 1 (2003, 2004), after three years of operation ‐ Figures 9 and
10. Barra Grande ‐ Figure 11, and Campos Novos (2005), Figure 12, and Mohale (2006), Figure 13, during the reservoir impounding, have
recorded similar spalling issues. Slab horizontal compression strains due the combination of following dam features: dam height, low construction
rockfill deformation modulus and valley shape ( Pinto, N. , 2007), seem to give an explanation for this problem.
To mitigate this cracking phenomenon, a new vertical joint concept has been adopted, according to the following items: i) mortar pad imbedded
into the curb extruded concrete (keeping the original slab thickness design); ii) flexible filler along vertical joint (wood, neoprene); iii) to reduce
(maximum 2 mm) or eliminate the upper V notch; iv) anti‐spalling reinforcement.
Figure 9 ‐ Tianshengqiao 1 concrete spalling along Figure 10 ‐ Tianshengqiao 1 : horizontal reinforcement
Center slabs L3 and L4 ( 2003) bending along vertical joint (slabs L3 & L4)
Figure 11 ‐ Barra Grande Figure 12 ‐ Campos Novos Figure 13 ‐ Mohale (March 2006)
(Sept. 2005) ( Oct. 2005)
ISSMGE Bulletin: Volume 3, Issue 4 Page 17
Case History
Concepts on CFRDs Leakage Control ‐ Cases and Current Experiences
(continued)
In TSQ.1, concrete spalling at face slabs were caused by concentrated stress along vertical joints slabs L3 and L4. A maximum horizontal strain
recorded was ‐912μ ( in strain gage SGH20) (where minus means compression) in June 2003 ( Keming and al. 2007) just before rupture and spalling
( Figures 9 and 10). This monitored strain corresponds to a failure compressive rupture ≈ 22 MPa ( Econc = 24.000 MPa). In Mohale, during
concrete spalling along vertical joint L 17/ L18 , horizontal strains ranging from ‐600 to – 620 μ have been recorded, which means a failure
compressive rupture ≈ 20 M Pa ( Palmi, Tohlang, 2007). The usual specified concrete is a pozzolanic cement with strength between 20 and 25
MPa at 28 days, (sometimes this strength is specified for 60 or 90 days). Therefore, Mohale and TSQ.1 slabs should not have collapsed probably
by horizontal compressive strain only, but due to the bending stresses. Horizontal reinforcement bending (Figures 10 and 13) confirmed this
hypothesis. Barra Grande ( Figure 11) and Campos Novos with a similar spilling phenomenon ( Figure 12) must be followed the same behavior.
Barra Grande, Campos Novos and Mohale CFRDs, have in common low construction modulus of deformability (40 – 70 MPa) and relatively narrow
valley (Valley Shape Factor of 3.0, 2.6 and 3.6 respectively). (Pinto N.,2007). Tianshengqiao 1 has also low construction modulus of deformability ,
ranged 30 – 48 MPa. (Wu, Freitas and al., 1999), but a high Valley Shape Factor ( 5.7).
Despite the necessity of having a high rockfill modulus of deformability (> 90 MPa), in order to avoid high deformations, narrow Valley Factor deep
influence in rockfill performance and slab deformations are not clearly explained, so far, in this author view. Reservoir water level pressure
induces rockfill deformations from center areas toward dam top and consequently slab high deflections along all these areas. Since CFRDs spalling
issues ( 2003 – 2006), center vertical joints have been designed with a flexible filler material between slabs, consisting of wood or PVC or similar
materials, to mitigate compression stresses (Materón, 2008). This “compressive fill concept” along the vertical joint was applied during the repairing
works at Barra Grande and Campos Novos. Currently has been adopted in several tall CFRDs, such as: Shibuya, El Cajón, Kárahnjúkar (Figure 14) ,
Bakun and Mazar.
Figure 14 Kárahnjúkar face slab at central compression zone, modified design ( Perez,
Joahannesson & Stefansson, 2007).
Slabs current experiences show a tendency to generate high stresses close to abutments. Therefore, the use of 0.5% reinforcing in area of 25‐30m
perpendicular to the plinth alignment has been recommended. Also in high dams located in narrow valleys anti‐spalling compression rebars have
been located in two layers increasing the percentage to 0.5% as protection against high compression stresses. For current CFRDs, the following
design criteria are being adopted along vertical joint: i) keep the slab design thickness by imbedding the mortar pad into the curb extruded
concrete; ii) use flexible filler along vertical joint ( wood, neoprene, etc ); iii) reduce (maximum 2 mm) or eliminate the upper V notch; iv) anti‐
2
spalling reinforcement. In addition, for narrow valleys ( Shape Factor A / H ≤ 3.0), additional vertical joints (7.5 m slab wide) must be considered
at abutments areas to mitigate stresses, as adopted at Shuibuya, Bakún and Mazar CFRDs.
4.4 Expansion joints: are placed as a connection between the slab upper part and the parapet wall crest wall. Although localized some meters
above the Normal Water Level operation, the expansion joint design is a key point for a good slab leakage control. A copper waterstop is often used
in this expansion joint.
5. Final Comments
Mathematical models and numerical FEM analysis are interesting designing tools to estimate the deformation pattern and slab bending movements
of the embankment deformations during construction and impounding, and in the long run (dam operation) due to the rock fill creep effect.
However, empirical design and construction details from experience and observation of CFRDs performance still prevails, significantly, so far.
Tall CFRDs structures ranging between 250 and 300m are being currently in feasibility studies. Therefore, basic criteria design proposed by Cooke
and Sherard in 1987, are under review. A better estimation of the rockfill and concrete face displacements and inter face stresses of rockfill,
extruding curb and concrete slab must be deeply concerned in mammoth CFRDs structures taller than 300m, to avoid ruptures and high leakage
issue. Central vertical (compression) joints current design concept, introducing wood, neoprene, flexible materials, has aiming to mitigate high
compression and bending stresses and bending movements along vertical joints. Slab spalling ruptures recorded in Mohale and Tianshnegqiao 1
CFRDs, cannot be explained as horizontal compression stress issues, only. Bending stresses seem to have caused bending of the rebars and
concrete spalling as the main effect. Similar phenomenon occurred in Barra Grande and Campos Novos, in this author opinion.
Bond‐breaker design concept, as asphalt emulsion or other materials, placed between the slabs and curb face have not clearly proved as a good
solutions to mitigate interface friction in the contact curb x slab, in this author view.
The spalling mentioned accidents that occurred just confirm the inherent safety of the tall CFRDs dam type. A recent earthquake (2008) of 8.0
(Richter) magnitude occurred in Zipingpu CFRD (China, 160 m height), with the epicenter at 10 km from the dam, registered a horizontal
acceleration of 2g at crest level. A settlement of 40 cm in the crest, some slabs damaged and an increase in the
ISSMGE Bulletin: Volume 3, Issue 4 Page 18
Case History
Concepts on CFRDs Leakage Control ‐ Cases and Current Experiences
(continued)
leakage flow from 10 to 15 l/sec were the only consequences. The dam resisted quite well the earthquake, confirming inherent safety conditions
(Zeping X., 2009).
6. References
1. Cooke, J.B.; Sherard, J.L.(1987) , “ Concrete Face Rockfill Dams: 1. Assessment;II. Design.
Journal of Geotechnical Engeineering, ASCE,v.113,1987.
2. Resende, F.; Materón, B., (2000) “ Itá Method – New Construction Technology for the Transition Zone of CFRDs. ICOLD, Beijing, China 2000.
3. Méndez F.; Marengo, H.M, ( 2008) , “ Extruded curb technology and a fast‐track high CFRD” Key Technology for High CFRDs Construction –
International Sympos., Hong Kong, China.
4. Cooke, J.B.,(1991), “ The Concrete‐faced rockfill dam” – Water Power & Dam Construction – January 1991.
th
5. Pinto, N.L.S., Mori, R.T. ( 1988), “ A New Concept of a Perimetric Joint for Concrete Face Rockfill Dams” – Proceedings , 16 Congress of
ICOLD , Q61, San Francisco, USA, 1988.
6 Guocheng, J., Keming, C. (2000), “ Concrete Face Rockfill Dams in China“ ‐ Proceedings of International Symposium on High Earth‐Rockfill
Dams, Vol. I –Oct. 1993, Beijing, China.
7. Cruz, P., Bayardo ,M., Freitas, M.S., (2009) ” Concrete Face Rockfill Dams” , Oficina de Textos, Editor, 2009.
8. Cruz, P., Bayardo ,M., Freitas, M.S., (2008) “ Design Criteria for CFRDs “, Key Technology for High CFRDs Construction – International
Symposium , Hong Kong, China.
9. Pinto, N.J. de S. ( 2007) , “ The Design and Construction of Extra High CFRDs, Third International Symposium on CFRDs, Florianopolis, SC,
Brazil.
10. Keming, C, Zhongping and Caichang Guang (2007) , “ Design Research for very High CFRD” , Workshop on High Dam Know‐How, May 22 ‐24,
Yichang, China.
11. Johannesson, P., Tohlang, S., ( 2007), “ Updated Assessment of Mohale Dam Behavior, including of slab cracking and seepage evolutation”,
Third Symposium on CFRD –Dams, Oc. 2007, Florianopolis, SC, Brazil.
12. Wu, G., Freitas, M.S. and al. (1999), “ Tianshengqiao 1 CFRD‐ Monitoring of the Rockfill Dam displacements”, Proceedings of 99` Internacional
Conference on Dam Safety and Monitoring”, Three Gorges Project Site, 1999, China.
13. Materón, B. ( 2007) : “ State of Art of Compacted Concrete Face Rockfill Dams “(2007) , Workshop on High Dam Know‐How, 2007, Yichang,
China .
14. Perez, H.J.; Johannesson, P.;Stefansson, B., (2007) “ The Kárahnjúkar CFRD in Iceland Instrumentation and First Impoundment Dam Behavior”,
Third International Symposium on CFRDs, Florianopolis, SC, Brazil.
15. Zeping Xu, ( 2009) , “ Performance of Zipingpu CFRD during the Wenchuan earthquake”, Hydropower & Dams, Issue three, 2009.
