Hops--Their Botany, History, Production

and Utilization
T h e f e m a l e cone-like inflorescences of this v i n e are
c o m p o s e d of scales covered with glandular ha/rs which
produce, a m o n g o t h e r c o m p o u n d s , t h e bitter principle
which has long b e e n a n indispensable ingredient in t h e
brewing of beer. These large-scale catkins have been
used also in medicine because of their s e d a t i v e a n d
soporific properties, and as a tordc.

J O H N R. EDWARDSON 1
Harvard University

History basis of manures in most countrie~ pro-

Various parts of the hop plant have ducing beer. Although hops have been
been used by man in the past and are used for many and varied purposes, their
still utilized. Pliny referred to this plant principal use today is in the brewing of
in his Natural History as lupulus salic- beer.
taffies, a plant which at his time served The art of brewing and the pleasure
as an appetizer and as a salad green. of drinking beer date back more than
The Greeks used hops only as a salad 5,500 years. In 1935 an expedition of
plant, and young hop shoots arc still archaeologists from the Museum of the
eaten in parts of Central Europe as a University of Pennsylvania and the
salad vegetable. In the past, many ills American Schools of Oriental Research,
of man were treated by physicians with who were excavating in Mesopotamia,
prescriptions of hops to be consumed found a seal baked in pottery which
green or in various liquid concoctions, of showed two brewery workers using long
which hops were the principal ingredient. poles to stir the contents of a brewery
Hops were reputed to cure a wide range vat. The date of this artifact was esti-
of maladies; they were supposed to free mated as the 37th Century ~.c. Fifty-
the blood of all " impurities, tumors and three hundred years later a publication
flatulence", to cure the itch and other in 1622, " A Relation, or Journal, of the
skin diseases, and to " relieve the liver Beginning and Proceedings of the Eng-
and spleen ". Recently the antibacterial lish Plantation Settled at Plymouth, in
agents of hops, humulon and lupulon, New England ", indicates that shortage
have been found to inhibit growth of the of the beer supply on the Mayflower was
tuberculosis bacterium (8). Fibers from partly responsible for the landing of the
hop stems have been used in the manu- Pilgrims at Plymouth: " For we would
facture of twine and a textile fabric re- not now take time for further search or
sembling linen in Sweden; an extract of consideration: our victuals being much
hops has been used as a hair rinse for spent, especially our beer . . . " (10).
brunettes in Russia; and brewers' spent The beer of the Ancients was con-
hops have been used as fodder and as the sumed for much the same reasons
1 Mailing address: 187 Banks Street, Cam- modern beer is consumed today. The
bridge 38, Mass. principles of brewing are essentially the
160
 HOPS 161

same today as they were at the begin, in Virginia in 1648. It did not become
nings of civilization. However, ancient important, however, until about 1800,
beer must have tasted different from and by 1849 the New England states and
modern beer, since different herbs were New York produced nearly 1,500,000
added for bitterness. Moreover, ancient pounds. After the Civil War the indus-
beer did not keep well, whereas modern try developed in Wisconsin. Growing of
beer, as a result of pasteurization and hops on the Pacific Coast was started
the preservative value of hops, can be between 1859 and 1869, and by 1909 this
kept for long periods of time. region had become the leading hop-pro-
There is no evidence that any beer ducing area in the United States.
produced before the 8th Century A.D.
TABLE 12
contained hops. Beer was undoubtedly
hopped before that time, but the earliest PRINCIPAL HOP-PRODUCING COUNTRIES
records on the hop as a cultivated plant AND REGIONS
are dated 760 A.D. This report is a re- United States:
cording of a gift in which King Pdpin le Willamette Valley and Grant's Pass Dis =
Bref, the father of Charlemagne, donated trict in Oregon;
homularias (hop gardens) to the Monas- Yakima Valley and Western Washington
Districts in Washington State;
tery of St. Denis (6). In the first years Sonoma County, Mendocino County and
of the 9th Century the Abbot of St. Ger- Sacramento Valley in California; also
main-des-Prds issued the Polyptych of Idaho and New York State.
Irmino which mentions the payment of England:
Kent, Sussex, Hereford, Worcester, Hants,
hop-dues. Surrey.
During the Middle Ages many monas- Czechoslovakia:
teries became famous for their hopped Saaz, Auscha, Raudnitz, Dauba.
beers. Beer was the chief drink for Germany:
breakfast, dinner and supper at that Hallertau, Spalt, Hersbruck, Tettnang,
Wuerttenberg, Baden.
time, and the beer trade developed Yugoslavia:
greatly as the towns grew. By 1320-30 Wojwodina, Slovenia.
.~.D. hopped beer was in general favor in France:
Germany. Later in the 14th Century Alsace, Burgundy and Lorraine, northern
France.
the hop crop became important in Flan- Belgium:
ders, and Flemish and northern German Alost, Poperinghe.
towns became wealthy through sale of Poland:
their hopped beer. Ghent was the most 9 Wolhynia, Congresspoland, Galicia, Posen.
Australia and New Zealand.
famous town in Flanders, and Eimbeck Russia.
the most famous in Germany. Canada.
Hops were not introduced into Eng-
land until toward the close of the 15th Botany
Century. Henry VII and Henry VIII
of England liked beer without hops and The common hop (Humulus lupuhts
therefore prohibited their use. In Sweden L.) and a native American species (H.
tastes were quite the opposite; an ordi- americanus Nutt.) include all commer-
nance in 1440 required every farmer to cial hop varieties. These species, which
grow 40 poles of hops. In Bohemia the differ in the shape of their leaves and
Emperor Charles IV personally selected stipules, belong to the family Moraceae.
the spot most suitable for hop growing. -~From: The Practical Brewer, Vogel, E. H.,
Hop growing in North America began Jr., et al.; published by The Master Brewers
in ~ew Netherlands as early as 1629 and Association of America, 1946.
162 ECONOMIC BOTANY

The [lop plant is a perennial herba- short lateral axes. At the base of each
ceous vine. Tile root system is exten- lateral is a pair of bracts. Each lateral
sive, with m a n y of the roots penetrating axis is a cymose branch carrying four
to great depths. The horizontal roots pistillate flowers. Each of these flowers
give rise to enormous numbers of fine is subtended by a bracteole.
rootlets. At pollination the bracts are small and
There are two types of stem in the hop only the basal ones are visible. The
plant: perennial underground rhizomes stigmas are conspicuous and are poili-
and annual herbaceous " hines " above nated by wind drifted pollen from the
ground. The latter develop from buds staminate plants. After pollination the
on the rhizomes each year. The main stigmas fall off anti the bracteoles en-
stems carry opposite lateral branches large, the seed staI~s to develop, and in
which attain their greatest length around a short time the cone takes on a charac-
the middle of tlle stem. These lateral teristic " fir-cone " appearance. If pol-
branchcs bear tile pistillate inflores- lination is prevented, no seed is set and
ccnces. Tim aerial stems are incapable tile bracteolcs remain comparatively
of supporting their own weight and twine small (1).
in a clockwise direction around any On the cup of tile perianth, on the
available support. Growth in length is outer and lower surfaces of the bracte-
greatest and the internodes longest when otes, and to a lesser extent on the bases
the support is vertical. If the support of the stipular bracts, there occur yellow
is inclined at a slight angle, growth con- pollen-like structures constituting the
tinues for a longer period and is more "hop-meal " o r " lupulin ". In the young
even. If the support is placed at a 45 or hop they are bright golden and trans-
60 degree angle, climbing is checked parent; in the ripe hop they are citron
because the tips fall away from the yellow and opaque. Tlle commercial
support. value of hops depends on the amount
The hop is dioecious, altbough occa- and quality of this lupulin.
sionally a monoecious plant m a y be Each such granule is tile product of a
found. Plants producing male or female glandular hair which develops from a
flowers, or both types, in a n y one year single epidermal cell in the perianth or
tend to be similar in other years; but bract. Before pollination each gland
occasional exceptions occur in which consists of a short stalk, one to three
monoecious plants become dioecious, and cells long, and a terminal cup. This cup
formerly dioecious plants become mo- is composed of a single layer of cells
noecious. with a thick cuticle. During elongation
Tile staminate inflorescences are much of the bracts, each cell of the cup com-
branched cymose panicles, two to six mences to produce an internal secretion
inches long, developing in the leaf axils which accumulates beneath the cuticle.
of either the main or the lateral shoots. As this secretion increases, the cuticle is
The pistillate inflorescences are spike- slowly raised until it bulges into a dome-
like in appearance and are born in leaf shaped mass. F o r the most part, the
axils of either the main stem or more usable constituents of the hop are con-
frequently the lateral branches. T h e y tained in this secretion of the glands.
are called " burrs ", " strobiles " or These substances will be discussed in the
" cones ". These constitute the commer- section on utilization.
cial hop. The main axis of the cone is Late Clusters is the most widely grown
thick, covered with fine downy hair, and American hop. This variety m a y have
carries a series of opposite and alternate originated as a hybrid between an im-
 HOPS 163

TABLE II The hop is a deep-rooted plant requir-

CONSTITUENTS OF KILN-DRIED HOPS s
ing a deep well-drained soil. In general,
alluvial soils, or deep sandy or gravelly
Percent Percent loam soils, are most desirable. Because
of differences in the amount of rainfall
Moisture 9-13 P e c t i n s 9-11 and sunshine, and in the force of prevail-
Resins 10-20 Ash 6-10
Oil 0.2-0.5 Nitrogen 2-4 ing winds, soils suitable for hop culture
Tannin 2-5 Glucose, Fructose 2-4 in one region may be unsuitable in an-
other. Heavy wet soil or stiff clay soils
are avoided in planting hops. In Europe
1)orted English hop and an American and to a lesser extent in the United
hop. It is a good yielder with a high States, leguminous green manure crops
soft resin content, but is quite suscepti- are planted immediately before hop har-
ble to downy mildew, plant lice and red vest. The green manure crop is plowed
spider. Early Clusters, an earlier ma- under early the following spring. Some
turing selection from Late Clusters, is growers use a mixture of legumes and
also susceptible to downy mildew. Fug- winter cereals, or winter cereals alone,
gles, an introduced English hop, is re- for a cover crop.
sistant to downy mildew, but its yields
are much lower than those of Late or Growing and Handling
Early Clusters; also, its soft resin con-
Hops are usually propagated from
tent is comparatively low. These three
rhizome cuttings. Seed planting is im-
varieties are the principal ones grown in
practical because the seedlings' lack of
the United States. uniformity varies their time of ripening.
Environment The cuttings are commonly referred to
as " root cuttings" or " roots". The
The quality of hops is markedly influ- numerous rhizomes sent out t)y the plant
enced by environmental conditions. The just below ground level are usually re-
plant does best under temperature con- moved during the pruning operation in
ditions without sharp and often repeated spring. The runners, which are approxi-
fluctuations. The plant develops more mately one-half inch in diameter, are cut
satisfactorily when the temperature rises into pieces six to eight inches long, each
slowly and constantly from early spring piece bearing at least two pairs of buds
to the middle of summer and then gradu- or " eyes ". These are used to produce
ally and uniformly diminishes. Ideal new plants. In some sections of the Pa-
nmisture conditions are provided when cific Coast a crop may be obtained from
the plant has abundant moisture ac-
cuttings planted in the spring, but gen-
cunmlated during the winter to draw
erally a full crop is not harvested until
on. After growth starts, cold spring
rains are harmful. The latter part of the second or third year.
the summer should be dry; however, The common practice is to plant the
protracted dry periods or hot dry winds cuttings in hills in rows. In the older
have an unfavorable effect on the nor- hop yards, the hills are six to seven feet
real development of the vines. Exces- apart. In more recently established
sive rainfall in the harvest months, late yards the plants are set eight feet apart.
August and September, frequently re- The methods of cultivating the hop
sults in heavy damage from insects and yards necessitate straight rows. Two or
diseases. four cuttings are usually set in each hill.
The setting of extra cuttings is a pre-
3 From: Brewing Science and Practice, Vol.
I, Hind. H. L. caution against losses due to vacant
164 ECONOMIC BOTANY

hills. The upper ends of the cuttings are which allows easy access to any part of
placed about seven inches below the sur- the yard. Also, tim hops receive more
face of the soil. As the cuttings grow, uniform exposure to light and are better
the holes are filled up until level with the developed; cultivation is not hampered
ground, or the holes may be covered im- so much by drooping arms as in the low
mediately after planting. Old hop plants trellis system; and the hop can be easily
produce a superior quality of hops, al- sprayed, even at picking time wimn the
though they bear scantily. Seven years worst attacks of insects usually occur.
is usually the limit of profitable culti- Training in the high trellis system re-
vation. quires the use of training sleds or carts.
Excess shoots and old vines are re- A typical high trellis system consists
moved by pruning a short depth below of setting posts at every sixth or seventh
the soil surface to suppress the forana- hill each way throughout the yard. Wires
tion of undesirable runners. Working are strung at right angles to each other
over the ground incident to pruning is an at or near the top of these posts. Twine
important part of cultivation. A com- is used to support the vines until they
mon practice is to draw four or five fur- reach the wires.
rows with a snmll plow on each side of When the vines are about two feet
the row, turning the earth away from the long, training is begun. The desirable
hills. The yard is then cross plowed in vines are selected in each hill and the
a similar manner, leaving each hill a remainder are cut off. In light produc-
small undisturbed area (4). ing areas the first vines are trained to
There are two systems of hop culture, provide them with as long a growing
the plants being trained on poles or on season as possible. In heavier producing
wires. In the pole system a pole about areas tile second or later "crop" of
20 feet long is set in the ground beside vines are chosen. Here sufficiently vigor-
each plant, and two vines are trained ous vine growth is obtained in a mini-
up on it, held in position by twine. This mum period of time. As soon as the de-
system has been largely discarded in sired number of vines have been trained,
favor of the trellis system in both Europe it is customary to remove the lowest pair
and the United States. The wire trellis of leaves. This is done to prevent spread
is constructed in many ways, but all of of downy mildew. This practice is known
these can be included in the two general as " s t r i p p i n g " , but if the vines are
classes, the high and the low trellis. The stripped too high, a " top crop " results
low trellis generally is set up on poles or and the yield is reduced. All suckers are
stakes about eight feet long at each hill. removed from around the bases of the
Wires are run over the tops of the poles plants. Both stripping and suckering are
for the full length of the yard each way, primarily employed to force the growth
crossing at right angles. The vines are of the selected shoots (4).
led up the poles and then supported by Hops should be picked when fully
the wires. The hop vine will not follow mature, the time of which varies with
a horizontal support; therefore it must locality, variety and seasonal conditions,
be trained by hand around the hori- but is usually fairly constant from sea-
zontal wires of the trellis. son to season in any one location. The
The high trellis is the most widely earliest ripening hops are ready for pick-
used. Fertility of the soil and wind ing in early August in the United States.
damage are the limiting factors of the Ripeness largely determines quality.
trellis height which ranges from 12 to When the acreage is large, growers begin
20 feet. This is a permanent structure picking the crop before it is ripe because
 HOPS 165

Fro. 1 (Upper). A low trellis hop yard in western Washington.

Fro. 2 (Lower). A high trellis yard in the Sacramento area of California. (Photos by
co,~,l~.~g o] U. S. B~oeau o] Plant Industry).
166 ECONOMIC BOTANY

of fear of loss by over-ripeness or dam- conditions, however, they are apt to be-
age from insects and diseases. Unripe come fluffy, shatter easily and have a
or immature hops are deep green, soft scorched aronia, making them less de-
and pliable, and lack resiliency or elas- sirable to the trade.
ticity. The cones are smaller and con- Hops are dried in kilns. There are
tain more moisture. The lupulin in un- two types in general use: the natural-
ripe hops is not fully developed and con- draft stove kiln, in which a stove or
tains less resins and essential oil. Ripe furnace placed under the floor heats the
or fully matured hops have a full agree- hops; and the forced-draft kiln, in which
able aroma and contain their maximum a current of heated air is drawn through
content of humulon and lupulon. They or forced in through the hops by a fan.
are u s u al l y b r i g h t yellowish-green, There is no definite rule for determining
sticky, crisp or papery to the touch, and when hops are sufficiently dried. In gen-
noticeably resilient. eral, drying should be continued until
In recent years, due to labor shortages, tile stems or cones are shriveled but are
use of both portable and stationary hop- still soft and pliable.
picking machines has increased in the Formerly sulfuring was ahnost a uni-
United States. For example, approxi- versal practice which gave the hops a
nmtely 40% of the Imp crop in Oregon uniform golden appearance. Sulfur was
is machine picked (9). The lateral cone- burned beneath the kiln floor at a rate
bearing branches are fed to the picking of one to four pounds for 100 pounds of
machines by rotary drums, and continu- undried hops. Besides a bleaching effect
ous belts deposit the cones in baskets or it was thought that drying was accelcr-
bags. It has been found that machine ated. Dealers are guided as much by
picked hops generally contain less leaves the color of tile hops as by any other
and stems than those which are hand criterion, and at one time unsulfured
picked. hops were graded inferior, while sulfured
hops from tile same field were graded
Drying choice. But tastes in color have changed
The next step in preparation of hops and now green hops are preferred.
for market is the drying process. Freshly Whether sulfuring had any real value
picked hops contain from 65% to 80% for the purposes mentioned, other than
nmisture, depending on the variety and for bleaching, is problematical (4~.
the degree of i'ipeness. This moisture After the hops have been dried they
nmst be reduced to approximately 12% are cooled to equalize the moisture con-
or heating will take place. Heating tent, since each batch from the kiln does
causes a brownish color to develop in the not have the same percent of moisture.
bracts and a loss in essential oil through This curing or sweating process lasts ten
volatilization. days to two weeks. After being placed
It is possible to dry hops by forcing a in the cooler, the hops are handled as
large volume of air at relatively low little as possible to prevent breakage.
temperatures through them. In arid In the curing process they become tough
regions hops are dried by forcing large and pliable and acquire a finer aroma
volumes of dry air through them at tem- and better appearance.
peratures of 110 ~ to 115 ~ F. (12). In After the moisture content of the hops
more humid sections the air is heated to is equalized to approximately 12% they
145 ~ to 150 ~. If temperatures above are baled. The dimensions and cubic
165 ~ F. are used, the hops can be dried contents of commercial bales va~5" be-
in ten to 12 hours. Under such extreme cause of differences in dimensions of
 HOPS 167

baling presses, as well as in the pressures often hold baled hops in storage for con-
to which the hops are subjected. The siderable periods. Unless there is avail-
bale for domestic use in the United able cold storage space, with a tem-
States contains approximately 18 cubic perature of 32o-33 ~ F., and a relative
feet of hops. In this type of bale, which humidity of less than 75%, the baled
weighs about 195 pounds net, the hops hops are usually subject to compara-
are compressed to approximately 11 tively high temperatures which are detri-
pounds per cubic foot. For export the mental to quality. Under such conditions
hops are compressed to as much as 20 the soft resins are partially oxidized to
to 24 pounds per cubic foot. Such hops hard resins, and the essential oil is vola-

Fro. 3. Typical high trellis yard in the Willamette Valley of Oregon. Vine growth ia late
~ason just before harvest. (Photo by courtesy oJ U. S. Bureau o/ Plant hldustry).

are termed " recompressed ", since they tilized. Unless the hops are sold im-
are compressed from domestic bales. mediately or placed in cold storage, the
Hops are baled in jute bagging, 16 grower will be forced to take a reduction
threads or less to the inch. About five in price because his hops will have been
running yards of bagging are used for lowered in quality.
each bale. This weighs from seven to
D i s e a s e s and Insects
ten pounds, and in selling, a five-pound
deduction of weight is made in allow- The diseases of hops which are of the
ance for the weight of the bagging. greatest economic importance are downy
Hops undergo gradual changes in their mildew, sooty mold, root rots, several
constituents while in the bale, depending virus diseases, powdery mildew and
on the conditions of storage. Growers crown gall. Fungicidal dusts and sprays
168 ECONOMIC BOTANY

are used to control the mildews. There In the process of brewing beer, hops
are no effective controls for sooty mold, are added to the wort (the mixture of
root rots or virus diseases. The only fermentable extract from flaked cereals
measures the grower can take are to or raw grain, plus hot water) in the
plant healthy stock and exercise care in " copper ", a vessel in which the wort is
pruning and cultivation so the plants boiled with the ilops. Boiling sterilizes
will be injured as little as possible. the wort, extracts from the hops the pre-
Hops are subject to attack by a large servative substances which also give
nulnber of insects and other pests. flavor and aroma to the beer, and coagu-
Among the more common insect pests lates and precipitates part of the pro-
are tile hop aphid, the common red teins which, if left in, would gradually
spider, hop-plant borer, hop butterfly, separate as haze in the beer. The wort
hop flea beetle and the western spotted is concentrated and the enzymes of the
cucumber beetle. The two most impor- malt are destroyed in the boiling process.
tant pests responsible for serious annual The bitter acids humulon and lupulon
losses in the United States are the hop are synthesized during growth of the
aphid and the common red spider. hops. During ripening, drying and stor-
Aphids devitalize the plants by ex- age these acids are oxidized to resins.
tracting sap from the leaves, and they Hmnulon is converted by oxidation in
excrete honey dew in which sooty mold part to alpha soft resin and in part to
develops. The most common insecticide alpha hard resin. Lupulon is converted
used in combating hop aphids is nicotine by oxidation in part to beta soft resin
sulfate, applied as a liquid spray or as and in part to beta hard resin. The hard
a dust. resins have little or no value in brewing.
The common red spider injures the Hop preservative substances prevent
hop plant by withdrawing the sap from Gram-positive bacteria from growing in
punctures in the lower leaf surfaces. The either the beer or the wort. Gram-nega-
punctures become more numerous as tive bacteria and acetic bacteria are not
feeding continues, and cventually the affected by the hop resin antiseptic.
leaves shrivel and die. Late in the sea- Microeocci will not develop in hopped
son the cones are attacked, and their beer but may develop slowly in the wort.
color is changed to a reddish brown, Lactic acid bacteria, Lactobacillus and
rendering them unmarketable. Burning Streptococcus are retarded by hop rates
infested plants after harvest, suckering of as low as one half pound per barrel.
and stripping the vines are common Until a few years ago it was taken for
practices of control. Most growers are granted that all the resins dissolved in
forced to spray or dust several times the " copper " more or less come through
during a season in order to hold these in ttle beer. However, Walker's (16) ex-
pests in check. Sulfur in some form is periments show that only a small percent
the standard control for the common red survives the boiling and fermentation
spider. processes and that the preservative value
which finds its way into the beer is a
Utilization
small fraction of the original preserva-
The brewer uses hops for production tive value of the hops used. By utilizing
of aroma and bitter flavor, and because the ratio of the percentage of reduction
they contain preservative substances. of acid formation by Lactobacillus Bul-
The most important of these active garicus to the percentage concentration
principles are the bitter acids humulon of antiseptic hop substances, a preserva-
and lupulon, contained in the lupulin. tive value of 10 alpha was determined.
 Fro. 4 (Upper). Hop strobiles or cones.
Fzc.. 5 (LowerS. A partially dissected strobi]e and strig. (Photos bg cottrlesy o] ('bapman
a,,l H,II, Ltd., London,, Et~glatM).
170 ECONOMIC BOTANY

Alpha represents the percentage of humu- nental European and American hops
lon in the hop sample. This is an ex- often exceed 4%. Tannin is readily oxi-
pression of the preservative power of dized to an insoluble condensation prod-
hops, representing what is gotten out of uct, phlobaphene, during boiling in the
the hop in brewing, rather than what the wort. Protein-phlobaphenes are insolu-
hop contains before its use in brewing. ble and are precipitated during boiling.
It was found that after completion of Protein-tannins are responsible for the
the boiling and fermentation processes, haze in beer. The tannin compounds are
all the preservative value of lupulon and soluble in hot wort, but on cooling they
its derivatives had been lost, while the are precipitated and then redissolved
remaining antiseptic material, derived when the wort is heated again. They
from humulon, had a preservative value are deposited with a fine sludge during
of only 10% to 20% of that of the quan- -cooling, but the precipitation is slow and
tity of humulon initially present before incomplete. It continues during fernlen-
the hops were added to the wort. The ration and storage and in finished beer,
use of the value 10 alpha by the brewer giving rise to haze.
in selecting hops will be discussed later. The amount of nitrogen dissolved from
There is a definite limit to the solu- hops in the " copper" is comparatively
bility of hop resins in the " copper ", and small, comprising 4% to 5% of the per-
apparently the limits are reached using manently soluble nitrogen in the wort.
hops with a 5% humulon content at the About 60% of this nitrogen is capable of
rate of 1.5 pounds per barrel. As far as assimilation by yeast, so that hops do
preservative value goes, it is not eco- improve the yeast feeding properties to
nomical to use higher rates (17). a small extent, although it is doubtful
Preservative value and bitterness are that it is sufficient to have much practi-
so intimately connected with the resins cal significance.
that usually it is assumed a pleasant The amount of essential oil contained
bitterness will be associated with ade- in hops is small, varying from 0.2% to
quate stability in the beer. Since the 0.5%. Humulene (C15H..,409) and myr-
resins are colloidal, the bitterness is more cene (C~oH~) form 80% to 90% of the
intense as they are dispersed, due to the oil distilled from hops. Humulene ac-
increased surface effects on sensory counts for approximately 50%, while
nerves (3). The alpha soft resin con- myrcene accounts for 30% to 40% of the
veys much more bitterness to the wort oil distilled from new hops. The essen-
than beta soft resin. However, the alpha 9tial oil of hops is completely volatilized
resins have been found to give no aroma, for practical purposes in the boiling
while the beta resins give a definitely process. For this reason extracts of hop
pleasant aroma. The bitter of hops oil are added to the beer in the racks to
differs from all other vegetable bitters increase the hop aroma. The oil is added
in its fugitive character. When the at the rate of approximately one milli-
bitter liquid has left the palate, the liter per ten barrels.
bitter taste also disappears and does not In order to increase aroma some beers
continue to effect the palate as do other are dry hopped. Two ounces to one
bitters (5). pound of specially selected hops are
The tannin content of hops varies and placed in the casks previous to storing.
has little or no relationship to either The oil is only slightly soluble, so the
quality or degree of ripeness. Amounts hops must remain in contact with the
contained in English hops range from beer for several weeks. The preservative
1.7% to slightly over 3%, while Conti- value of dry hopped beer is increased
 Fro. 6 (Upper). Bracts and bracteoles of a dried hop cone.
Fro. 7 (Lower). B a ~ of a bracteole with lupulin. (P]~olos by courtesy of Ch{q)m{t~ and
H~dl, Ltd., London,, England).
 172 ECONOMIC BOTANY

slightly, and the cones prevent settle- Seeds increase the weight of the hops,
ment of yeast into a hard deposit, thus but they are of no value to the brewer.
facilitating subsequent cask washing. Hops containing a high percentage of
It has been mentioned that hop rates seeds would be objectionable, since they
over 1.5 pounds per barrel do not in- can cause obstrtictions in refrigerator
crease the preservative value. However, pans and cask taps. Growth of male
the aroma and bitterness imparted to the plants is permitted in the United States
beer by the hops is as important as the and England, but premium prices are
antiseptic qualities. Therefore, hop rates paid for seedless hops in these countries.
of from 2.5 pounds to four pounds per In Continental Europe production of
barrel are customary in European beers. seed is prohibited by law, since they are
Each 31-gallon barrel of beer brewed in held to impair the quality and flavor of
the United States utilizes only one-half to beer.
four-fifths of a pound of hops. American The aroma of hops, an indication of
beers are pasteurized, and the hop rate essential oil content, is judged after rub-
does not have to be so high in regard bing some of the sanlple in the hand.
to preservative value. American beers, The brewer is concerned in satisfying
however, are less bitter and their aromas himself that the hops possess sufficient
less pronounced compared to European arolna of the right kind, and that they
beel~: with high hop rates. are free from objectionable odors, or
The brewer selects hops after judging odors which in his experience connote
a sample by hand examination; however, deterioration due to age or damp pack-
many brewers rely on the analysis of ing. Damp packing gives rise to a musty
preservative value for their final decision odor, while old hops acquire an odor
on hop selection. The formula 10 alpha somewhat like that of cheese.
gives the brewer an insight into the pre-
servative value and the aroma and bit- Improvement and Breeding
terness he can get out of a sample of In the United States the first con-
hops when the humulon content has been certed effort toward improvement of
determined. A reliable estimate of the hops was begun in 1900 when roots of
brewing value can usually be reached, superior European varieties were im-
however, by hand examination of the ported by the Department of Agricul-
sample. ture. Yield tests showed, however, that
The brewer likes a whole hop and a these varieties did not produce enough
sticky hop. When hops are broken up, to make their use profitable under Amer-
there is danger that ruptured glands ican conditions. This is comparable with
may lose their resinous contents. Good the results of corn trials in the United
fresh samples of individual hops, rich in States where many varieties do well only
lupulin, stick together and slowly open within restricted localities.
out again when pressed tightly in the I n 1908 Stockberger outlined a com-
hand, although as a whole a properly prehensive breeding program for hops in
dried sample is elastic and springy. The which he proposed a study of domestic
lupulin glands are examined with a hand varieties, selection of promising indi-
lens. The indications of high quality viduals and development of desirable
lupulin are golden yellow glands with types by hybridization. Work proceeded
slightly wrinkled surfaces and oily con- on this plan until 1916 when it was in-
tents which ooze out under pressure. terrupted by World War I. Later the
Most brewers show a decided prefer- lack of funds and finally prohibition led
ence for a hop with very few seeds. to abandonment of the project.
 HOPS 173

The U.S.D.A. in 1930-31 made an ex- advantage in dealing with the Ft genera-
tensive survey of plant material being tion. If he obtains a desirable female
grown in commercial yards in Oregon. plant in the Ft, his breeding work is
As a result of this survey and of less finished. This rather unique situation
comprehensive ones in California and is due to the possibility of vegetative
Washington, vegetative selections were propagation of the selected F~ females
made. In addition, in 1931 importation and the fact that seeds are not desired in
of superior English and Continental va- commercial hops.
rieties was resumed (14). Three varie- The lapse of the entire hop improve-
ties from Gernmny and one from Alsace ment program in the United States in
were found to maintain a very high soft 1916 seriously retarded the breeding pro-
resin content, from 18% to 21%, over a gram. In spite of this, many hybrids
period of six to eight successive seasons have been made and tested; and although
(11). most of these were discarded because of
hni)roved varieties have been produced inferior quality, some hybrids have been
in Europe and the United States by retained to form the basis of the more
vegetative selection, but the most promis- intensive breeding program now under
ing method of varietal improvement is way (2).
selection of superior plants from seed. The English have had a program of
The hop is one of the few cultivated hybridization and selection in production
plant species which is dioecious. Al- since 1907 and are leaders in the field
though seeded hol)s arc discriminated of hop breeding. English hybrids which
against on the market, and male plants E. S. Sahnon has developed trove higher
are unnecessary in producing commer- preservative values than the richest hops
cial hops, seed production is necessary imported by English brewers. In addi-
in breeding work. tion to the improvement of flavor and
Smith (14) has pointed out that the aroma qualities of English hops, hybridi-
l)roblem of breeding improved hops is zation has also increased yields (13).
analogous to the problem of increasing Similar improvement by breeding may
milk production in dairy cattle. Cone be expected in American hops. The va-
development is purely a female charac- rieties now used by American growers
ter, but genetically the male also con- will be improved or supplanted by new
tributes to the qualities of the hop. The ones produced by the breeder. Of course,
only method of determining the value of this wiI1 come about only after continu-
the male's contribution to the character- ous experimentation over a long period
istic being selected is by progeny testing. of time.
Economics
Seed may be collected from a good
female with the expectancy that some of The 1949 hops crop in Washington,
the progeny will exceed the maternal Oregon and California totaled 49,340,000
plant in some characters. The male pounds which is 12% above the 1938-
parent is unknown in such cases. Seed 1947 average of 44,146,000 pounds.
may be obtained also by artificial polli- Under a marketing agreement and order
nation. The results of such crosses allow regulating the handling of hops, the
selection in the F~ generation for desira- U.S.D.A. fixed the quantity of the 1949
ble plants and for judging the male crop which could be handled as hops or
parent. While the hop breeder is at a in the form of hops products, 'at 39,000,-
disadvantage in working with a crop 000 pounds. The balance of the crop
that does not permit rapid inbreeding was not marketed; in fact, a large part
for fixation of genotype, he has a distinct of it was not harvested.
174 ECONOMIC BOTANY

TABLE III
U. S. EXPORTS OF HOPS 1941-42 TO 1949-504

Months 1941-42 1942-43 1943-44 1944-45 1945-46 1946-47 1947-48 1948-49 1949-50

1,000 ~ 1,000 ~ 1,000 ~ 1,0005 1,0005 1,000t+ 1,000 ~ 1,000 ~ 1,000$

Sept.-Feb. 7, 441 5,295 3,488 6,030 8,816 8,757 9 , 3 8 2 9 , 0 0 1 7,825
March-Aug. 2,018 3,378 2 , 8 2 3 2,656 5,474 3,503 1 , 6 9 9 3,375 ....
Total 9,459 8,673 6,311 8,686 14,290 12,260 11,081 12,376 ....

Before World War II a substantial tion of beer in the United States were
part of the U. S. hop crop was exported. rapidly increasing. In 45 out of the
During World War II, U. S. exports in- past 50 years, exports have far exceeded
creased markedly. Areas formerly sup- imports.
plied by Czechoslovakia and Germany Advertising
switched to the United States and have A well-known beer brewed in New
continued importing from the U. S. be- Orleans has recently become increas-
cause of slow recovery of hop production ingly popular throughout Louisiana be-
in tho.-:e former major exporting coun- cause someone in this brewery's adver-
tries. In fact. 39,981 pounds of U. S. tising department began to tell beer
Imps were exported to Germany and drinkers that this particular beer not
372,290 pounds to Czechoslovakia in tim only is manufactured with tile best malt-
period from September to February, ing barley and the purest water but that
1949-50 118). it also contains lupulin. All American
Many breweries in the United States beer contains lupulin, and this fact was
use small quantities of foreign hops for undoubtedly known to the advertising
blending purposes. Despite such state- man who also knew that there is a
ments in the literature as " The market limited number of items used in the
for American hops has been unneces- manufacture of beer which can be al-
sarily limited because many American luded to as being superior to those used
brewmasters, being of German birth, be- by competitors. However, the use of
lieve that foreign hops are superior" lupulin had never been emphasized in
{7), in only five of the past 50 years advertising beer before. Among the
have imports equalled or exceeded ex- colored population of New Orleans, the
ports. These years were immediately rumor circulated that this substance,
before repeal of the 18th Amendment, lupulin, increases man's sexual powers
1932-33. and in the period 1935-36 to considerably, and sales of this beer have
1938-:~9. when production and consump- increased substantially.

4 From: I'.S.D.A., For. Agr. Circ. FH 1-50, n From: U.S.D.A., For. Agr. Cir. FH 1-50,
5Iay 5. 1950. ~'Iay 5. 1950.

TABLE IV
U. S. IMPORTS OF HOPS BY COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN IN POUNDSs

Period Czechoslovakia Yugoslavia Germany Russia Others Total

1947-48 2,407,961 112,178 2,722,355 303,031 8,226 5,580,751

1948-49 1,509,225 133,863 1,936,769 .... 320,095 3,899,952
1949-50 1,726,378 937,927 1,707,197 .... 12,243 4,383,745
Sept.-Feb.
 HOPS 175

T h e a d v e r t i s i n g of hops n o r t h of the 4. Hoerner, G. R., and Rabak, F. Production

M a s o n - D i x o n L i n e is as h o n e s t a n d of hops. U. S. Dept. Agr., Farm. Bull.
1842. 1940.
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d as t h e a d v e r t i s i n g m e n - 5. Jones, G. C. Bitters and resins of hops.
tioned above. T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s of Allen's Commercial Organic Analysis.
u s i n g seeded hops h a v e been i n d i c a t e d . Vol. VII: 164-193. 1913.
T h e q u a l i t i e s of a b e e r b r e w e d in M a s s a - 6. Klages, K. H . W . Ecological crop geogra-
c h u s e t t s e n h a n c e d b y t h e use of seedless phy. 587-590. 1942.
7. Landis, P. H. The hop industry, a social
hops a r e e x t o l l e d in singing c o m m e r c i a l s . and economic problem. Econ. Geog. 15:
As y e t no r u m o r s c o n c e r n i n g t h e effect 85--94. 1939.
of seedless hops on h u m a n m e t a b o l i s m , 8. Lewis, J. C., et al. Antibacterial agents
such as t h e one i n v o l v i n g luputin, h a v e from hops. U . S . Dept. Agr., Agr. Res.
Admin., Bur. Agr. & Ind. Chem., AIC
c o m e to t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e w r i t e r . T i m Series 231. 1949.
i m p o r t a n c e of seedless hops is r a t t l e r 9. M o r a n , G. Hop growing in Oregon. Ore.
l e n g t h i l y d i s c u s s e d d u r i n g b r o a d c a s t s of Agr. Exp. Sta., Bull. 163. 1949.
baseball games. A singing commercial 10. Persons, W. M. Beer and brewing in
m e n t i o n s t h a t this b e e r is m a d e w i t h t h e America. United Brewers Ind. Found.
1938.
finest seedless hops. T h i s is followed b y 11. Rabak, F. ttop research and quality im-
a scientific m o n o l o g u e in which t h e lis- provement. Master Brewers Assoc. Am.,
t e n e r is a s k e d if he e v e r bit into a g r a p e Comm. Vol. 11: 4-6. 1950.
s e e d ; t h e n he is r e m i n d e d , in case he h a s 12. ~ _ Improvement of hops. Jour. Inst.
f o r g o t t e n , t h a t tim g r a p e seed is b i t t e r ; Brewing 47: 115-116. 1941.
13. Salmon, E. S. Twenty-third report on the
t h e n t h e high p o i n t of t h e c o m m e r c i a l is trial of new varieties of hops. Jour.
p r e s e n t e d . T h e l i s t e n e r is i n f o r m e d t h a t Inst. Brewing 46: 367-375. 1940.
h o p seeds a r e j u s t as b i t t e r as g r a p e 14. Smith, D. C. Varietal improvement in
seeds, b u t t h a t he need n o t f e a r e n c o u n - hops. U . S . Dept. Agr., Yearbook 1937:
t e r i n g b i t t e r n e s s of t h i s n a t u r e in t h i s 1215-1239.
15. Vogel, E. H., Jr., et al. The practical
c e r t a i n beer, for this b e e r is m a d e w i t h brewer. Master Brewers Assoc. Am.,
seedless hops ! 31)-40. 1946.
16. Walker, T . K . Report on the preservative
Literature Cited principles of hops. Jour. Inst. Brewing
1. Hector, J. M. Introduction to the botany 47: 362-370. 1941.
of field crops. Vol. I I : 521-525. 1936. 17. - - , and Parker, A. Report on the pre-
2. Hill, D. D. The coordinated hop research ~m'ative principles of hops. Jour. Inst.
program. Master Brewers Assoc. Am., Brewing 46: 337-361. 1940.
Comm. Vol. 11. Jan., 1950. 18. World's 1949 hop crop lower than esti-
3. Hind, H . L . Brewing science and practice. mated last fall. U.S. Dept. Agr., OFAR,
Vol. I : 335-407. 1948. For. Agr. Circ. FH 1-50. 1950.

Utilization Abstract
C a s t o r Oil. About 350,000,000 pounds of North American economic and edaphic con-
castor beans are annually needed in the ditions. Great progress in this direction has
United States, most of which come from been made by the lJ. S. Department of Agri-
Brazil, 80% of the crop in that country culture and the Baker Castor Oil Company
being .-_-hipped to the U. S. In recent years of California.
domestic production has been increasing, and Certain very specific qualities of castor oil
in 1952 about one-seventh of the foregoing products render them extremely valuable in
need-_ will be furnished by farms in Cali- a great variety of industrial uses, perhaps
fornia, Arizona, Texas, Oklahoma and neigh- the most significant of which today is their
boring States. Development of domestic lubricating merit at high temperatures in jet
SUl)plies has been greatly dependent on the planes. (I. M. Colbeth, Chemurgic Digest
sucee,~ful breedin~ of varieties suitable to H ( / ) : $. 1952).