Biochemistry

Biochemistry

For the students of

Pharmacy Technicians
(Category-B)

Compiled By
Syed Bilal Hussain
Lecturer
Lahore College of Pharmaceutical Sciences

Under Supervision of

Dr. Asma Razzaq

Lecturer
Lahore College of Pharmaceutical Sciences

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 Biochemistry

Dedication

To

Prof. Dr. Naim Anwar Muzaffar “The Father of Pharmacy”

Whose Dedications Toward Pharmacy Education Are Priceless.

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Acknowledgement
I am very grateful to Ch. Muhammad Shamoon, Secretary, Punjab Pharmacy Council, Lahore, who

allowed me to compile BIOCHEMISTRY Book for the students of Pharmacy Technician.

I am very thankful to my teacher Dr. Asma Razzq who generously contributed their time and efforts to

help me make this book as accurate and as useful as possible.

Special thanks to Hafiz Muhammad Zubair, Haroon Shahzad & Dr. Sara for providing help in

composing and proof reading of the text.

Syed Bilal Hussain

Lecturer
Lahore College of Pharmaceutical Sciences

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 Biochemistry

Contents
BIOCHEMISTRY 10
WHAT IS BIOCHEMISTRY USED FOR? 10
BIOCHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 12
HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION 12
PH 12
BUFFER SOLUTION 12
THE COLLOIDAL STATE 12
CRYSTALLOIDS 12
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS 13
ADSORPTION 13
ION EXCHANGE RESINS 13
DIFFUSION 13
PASSIVE TRANSPORT 13
ACTIVE TRANSPORT 13
OSMOSIS 13
SEMI-PERMEABLE MEMBRANE 14
OSMOTIC PRESSURE 14
SURFACE TENSION 14
VISCOSITY 14
CARBOHYDRATES 15
GENERAL FORMULA 15
CHARACTERISTICS OF CARBOHYDRATES 15
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS OF CARBOHYDRATES 15
ALDEHYDE GROUP 16
KETO GROUP 16
SOURCE OF CARBOHYDRATES 16
OCCURRENCE OF CARBOHYDRATES 16
NATURAL PRODUCTION OF CARBOHYDRATES 16
CARBOHYDRATES MAJOR SOURCE OF ENERGY 17
HOW CARBOHYDRATES SUPPLY ENERGY 17
FUNCTION OF CARBOHYDRATES 17
SWEETNESS IN CARBOHYDRATES 18
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES 18
MONOSACCHARIDE 18
CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDE 18
DISACCHARIDES 19
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CLASSIFICATION OF DISACCHARIDES 19
HOMOGENEOUS 19
HETEROGENEOUS 19
POLYSACCHARIDES 19
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYSACCHARIDES 20
HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES 20
HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDES 20
LIPIDS 21
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS 21
SIMPLE LIPIDS 21
FATS AND OILS 21
WAXES 22
COMPOUND OR COMPLEX LIPIDS 22
GLYCOLIPIDS ALSO CALLED GLYCOSPHINGOLIPIDS 22
SULFOLIPIDS 22
PHOSPHOLIPIDS 22
LIPOPROTEINS 22
DERIVED LIPIDS 22
FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS 23
PROTEINS 24
GENERAL FORMULA OF AMINO ACID 24
FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS 24
STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS 25
PRIMARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS 25
SECONDARY STRUCTURE 25
TERTIARY STRUCTURE 25
QUATERNARY STRUCTURE 25
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS 25
SIMPLE PROTEINS 26
CONJUGATED OR COMPOUND PROTEINS 26
DERIVED PROTEINS 26
AMINO ACIDS 27
STRUCTURE 27
STANDARD AMINO ACIDS 27
NON-STANDARD AMINO ACIDS 27
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS 27
NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS 28
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FUNCTIONS OF AMINO ACIDS 28

NUCLEIC ACIDS 28
NUCLEOTIDES 28
COMPONENTS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS OR NUCLEOTIDES 29
TYPES AND FUNCTION OF RNA 29
MRNA OR MESSENGER RNA 30
RRNA OR RIBOSOMAL RNA 30
TRNA OR TRANSFER RNA 30
FUNCTIONS OF DNA 30
HORMONES 31
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 31
CHEMICAL MESSENGERS 31
ENDOCRINE GLANDS 31
THE MAIN ENDOCRINE GLANDS INCLUDE 31
HORMONES INTRODUCTION 32
CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES 33
CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES BASED ON THE SITE OF PRODUCTION/ ACCUMULATION 33
HORMONES OF PITUITARY GLANDS 33
HORMONES OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY FLANDS 33
HORMONES OF POSTERIOR PITUITARY FLANDS 33
HORMONES OF THYROID GLANDS 33
HORMONES OF PARATHYROID GLANDS 33
HORMONES OF ADRENAL GLAND 33
HORMONES OF OVARY GLAND 33
HORMONES OF TESTIS 33
HORMONE OF PANCREAS 34
CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES BASED ON THE CHEMICAL NATURE 34
STEROID HORMONES 34
PROTEIN HORMONES 34
DERIVATIVE OF THE AMINO ACID CALLED TYROSINE 34
HORMONAL ACTIONS 34
GROWTH HORMONE (GH) 35
NORMAL FUNCTIONS OF GH 35
EFFECT ON PROTEIN METABOLISM 35
EFFECTS ON CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM 35
EFFECTS ON FAT METABOLISM 36
EFFECTS ON INORGANIC METABOLISM 36
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EFFECTS ON BONE, CARTILAGE, AND SOFT TISSUES 36

VASOPRESSIN/ ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH) 36
OXYTOCIN (OT) 36
ACTION IN FEMALES 37
ACTION IN MALES 37
INSULIN 37
EFFECTS OF INSULIN 37
EFFECTS OF INSULIN ON CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM 37
EFFECTS OF INSULIN ON FAT METABOLISM 37
EFFECTS OF INSULIN ON PROTEIN METABOLISM 37
EFFECTS OF INSULIN ON GROWTH 38
TESTOSTERONE 38
EFFECTS OF TESTOSTERONE 38
EFFECT ON THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 38
EFFECTS ON SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS 38
EFFECT ON PROTEIN MMETABOLISM 38
EFFECT ON BONE 39
EFFECT ON RBCS 39
EFFECT ON ELECTROLYTE AND WATER BALANCE 39
ESTROGEN 39
ACTIONS OF ESTROGENS 39
ENZYMES 40
DEFINITIONS 40
CATALYSTS 40
SUBSTRATES 40
PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES 40
MECHANISM OF ENZYME REACTIONS 41
GENERAL REACTION 42
CHEMICAL NATURE OF ENZYME 42
CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES 42
OXIDOREDUCTASES 43
TRANSFERASES 43
HYDROLASES 44
LYASES 44
ISOMERASES 44
LIGASES 44
FACTOR AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITIES 44
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FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES 46
"LOCK AND KEY" MODEL 47
VITAMINS 48
DEFINITION 48
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF VITAMINS 48
CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS ON THE BASIS OF SOLUBILITY 48
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS 48
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS 48
CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS ON THE BASIS OF HEAT STABILITY 48
THERMO LABILE VITAMINS 48
THERMO STABLE VITAMINS 49
VITAMIN-A 49
PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTION 49
CLINICAL FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN-A 50
TOXICITY OF VITAMIN-A 51
VITAMIN-D 51
FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN D 52
EFFECT OF VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY 52
TOXICITY OF VITAMIN-D 53
VITAMIN-E 53
FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN-E 53
EFFECT OF VITAMIN-E DEFICIENCY 54
TOXICITY OF VITAMIN-E 54
VITAMIN-K 55
FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN-K 55
EFFECT OF VITAMIN-K DEFICIENCY 56
TOXICITY OF VITAMIN-K 56
THIAMINE 56
FUNCTIONS OF THIAMINE 57
EFFECT OF THIAMINE DEFICIENCY 57
RIBOFLAVIN 57
FUNCTIONS OF RIBOFLAVIN 58
EFFECT OF RIBOFLAVIN DEFICIENCY 58
PANTOTHENIC ACID 58
FUNCTIONS OF PANTOTHENIC ACID 58
EFFECT OF PANTOTHENIC ACID DEFICIENCY 59
NIACIN 59
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FUNCTIONS OF NIACIN 59
EFFECT OF NIACIN DEFICIENCY 60
PYRIDOXAL PHOSPHATE 60
FUNCTIONS OF PYRIDOXAL PHOSPHATE 60
EFFECT OF PYRIDOXAL PHOSPHATE DEFICIENCY 61
BIOTIN 61
FUNCTIONS OF BIOTIN 61
EFFECT OF BIOTIN DEFICIENCY 61
FOLIC ACID 62
FUNCTIONS OF FOLIC ACID 62
EFFECT OF FOLIC ACID DEFICIENCY 62
ASCORBIC ACID 62
FUNCTIONS OF ASCORBIC ACID 63
EFFECT OF ASCORBIC ACID DEFICIENCY 64
CYANOCOBALAMIN 64
FUNCTIONS OF CYANOCOBALAMIN 65
EFFECT OF CYANOCOBALAMIN DEFICIENCY 65
INTRODUCTION TO BIOTECHNOLOGY 66
RED BIOTECHNOLOGY 66
GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY 67
WHITE BIOTECHNOLOGY 67
BLUE BIOTECHNOLOGY 67
FUTURE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY 68
GENETIC ENGINEERING 69
APPLICATIONS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING 69
GENETIC ENGINEERING AND MEDICINE 69
GENETIC ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH 69
GENETIC ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRY 69
GENETIC ENGINEERING AND AGRICULTURE 70
ELECTROLYTES OF BODY 71
ELECTROLYTE BALANCE 71
ACID- BASE BALANCE: 71
BICARBONATE BUFFER SYSTEM 72
PHOSPHATE BUFFER SYSTEM 72
PROTEIN BUFFER SYSTEM 72

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 Biochemistry

BIOCHEMISTRY
Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within
and relating to living organisms. Biochemistry deals with chemical or metabolic processes which
take place in tissue cells. These metabolic reactions take place in the material called protoplasm
which is the basis of all forms of life. As long as these reactions take place in an organized form
we remain healthy.

Much of biochemistry deals with the structures, functions and interactions of biological
macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids, which provide the
structure of cells and perform many of the functions associated with life.

WHAT IS BIOCHEMISTRY USED FOR?

 Biochemistry is used to learn about the biological processes which take place in cells
and organisms.

 Biochemistry may be used to study the properties of biological molecules, for a variety of
purposes. For example, a biochemist may study the characteristics of the keratin in hair
so that a shampoo may be developed that enhances curliness or softness.

 Biochemists find uses for biomolecules. For example, a biochemist may use a certain
lipid as a food additive.

 Biochemists can help cells to produce new products. Gene therapy is within the realm of
biochemistry. The development of biological machinery falls within the realm of
biochemistry.

 Biochemistry has been explaining the mechanisms of many physiological processes

which were unknown in mystery.

 Physiology, pharmacology, bacteriology and pathology and even therapeutics have also
greatly benefited from new discoveries in biochemistry.

 Biochemistry has assumed an increasingly important role in various branches of

medicines and biochemists have frequently been called upon to provide the special
techniques and knowledge to the solution of clinical problems.

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 Biochemistry

 Biochemical investigations can lead quite directly to the suggestion of remedies. For
example, the discovery of specific biochemical deficiencies in rickets, pellagra, beriberi,
scurvy and pernicious anemia led rapidly to the successful therapy by a rational method.

 The biochemist has provided vitamins and hormones in pure conditions and has aided in
the preparation of vaccines, antitoxins, sera, etc. the fields of enzyme inhibitors,
recombinant DNA technology, genetic engineering, gene mapping.

 DNA profiling and cloning have opened a new era in medicine. Last but not the least it
has provided a large number of chemical tests as aids in the diagnosis of diseases.

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 Biochemistry

BIOCHEMICAL PRINCIPLES

HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION

Water is most abundant substance in human body making up to 65% to 70% body mass
hydrogen bonding exists in water molecule.

Pure water is very slightly dissociated therefore called weak electrolyte. At 25c only one of every
molecule in pure water is ionized at any instant.

H2O  H+ + OH-

PH

pH is a unit of measure which describes the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. It is

measured on a scale of 0 to 14.

The term pH is derived from "p", the mathematical symbol of the negative logarithm, and "H", the
chemical symbol of Hydrogen. The formal definition of pH is the negative logarithm (or negative
log) of the Hydrogen ion activity.

pH = -log[H+]

Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are
basic or alkaline. Pure water has a pH very close to 7 and blood has a pH 7.35.

BUFFER SOLUTION
Buffer is the compound or mixture of compounds that resist to changing pH of any solution on
slight addition of acidic or basics solution or compound.

THE COLLOIDAL STATE

The word colloid means glutinous or resembling glue and was first used for solutions of certain
substances such as proteins, starch and gums which do not diffuse through most of the
membranes.

CRYSTALLOIDS
A crystallizable substance that dissolve in liquid and passes easily through membrane is called
crystalloids.

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COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

Colligative properties are those which depend on the number of solute particles. The following
four changes in the colligative properties are seen as the number of particles increases in a
solution.

 The osmotic pressure is increased

 Boiling point is raised
 Freezing point is depressed
 Vapor pressure is decreased

ADSORPTION
The process by which molecules of a substance such as gas or liquid collect on the surface of
another substance such as solid is called adsorption. Or

The condensation or adhesion of a gas, vapor, liquid or dissolved substances on the surface of a
solid or liquid is called adsorption.

ION EXCHANGE RESINS

There is a very important group of substances called ion exchange resins that are widely used
for the adsorption of negatively and positively charged ions from solutions in the laboratory in
industry and in medicine. These substances are insoluble synthetic polymers of two types,
cation and anion exchange resins, which contain acidic and basic groups respectively.

DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the process in which ions or molecules move from a region of higher concentration
to a region of lower concentration.

PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Passive transport is the transport of ions or molecules across a cell membrane by diffusion.
Molecules moves from a region of high concentration to one of lower concentration. It does not
require energy for diffusion process.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Active transport is the transport of ions or molecules across a cell membrane from a region of
lower concentration to one of higher concentration assisted by enzymes and requiring energy.

OSMOSIS
The process by which a solvent passes from a solution of lower solute concentration to a
solution of higher solute concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.
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SEMI-PERMEABLE MEMBRANE
A membrane, which is permeable to the solvent but not to the solute particles e.g. natural
membranes.

OSMOTIC PRESSURE
Osmotic pressure of a solution is defined as the equivalent to the hydrostatic pressure which is
produced when the solution is separated from a solvent by a semi-permeable membrane.

SURFACE TENSION
Surface tension is a contractive tendency of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an
external force. The cohesive forces among liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon
of surface tension.

VISCOSITY
Viscosity can be described as “it is the internal resistance of the molecules of any liquid to flow
called viscosity.

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CARBOHYDRATES
The definition of the carbohydrates is given as “carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or
ketones or their complex substances which on hydrolysis give polyhydroxy aldehydes or
ketones. Or

A carbohydrate is a large biological molecule, or macromolecule, consisting of carbon (C),

hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen, oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in
water). Or

The carbohydrates are the organic compounds. They are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
The literally meanings of carbohydrates are the hydrated carbons. Carbohydrates also called
sugar. Or

Carbohydrates are aldehyde or ketone compounds with multiple (two or more) hydroxyl groups.

(Breakdown of water molecule in any compound is called hydrolysis)

GENERAL FORMULA
As the carbohydrates are the hydrated carbons so the number of water molecules attach to the
carbon are equal in number to the no of carbon atoms.

Thus the general formula is given as Cn (H2O)n. here “n” is the whole number.

Exception to the general formula and definition

There are some such carbohydrates which contain nitrogen, phosphorous or sulpher in addition
to carbon.

Also all the compounds having formula Cn(H2O)n may not be carbohydrates formic acetic and
lactic acids are some examples of such compounds.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CARBOHYDRATES
In general, carbohydrates are white solids, sparingly soluble in organic liquids but except for
certain polysaccharides are soluble in water. Many carbohydrates of low molecular weight have
a sweet taste.

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS OF CARBOHYDRATES

The carbohydrates have two major categories on the basis of function group.

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ALDEHYDE GROUP
CHO it is on the first carbon the carbohydrate with aldehyde group is called aldoses (aldose
sugar).

Aldehyde Group

KETO GROUP
Is on the second carbon the sugars with ketonic group are called ketoses (Keto-sugar).

Keto Group

SOURCE OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are the natural compounds and their basic source is plants. The chief source of
carbohydrates is the cereals (a grain used for food, e.g. wheat). Starch is the abundant in the
cereals.

The other source of carbohydrates is:

 Vegetables: e.g. potato, carrot
 Legumes: e.g. peanut
 Fruits: both sweet and non-sweet fruits provide carbohydrates.

OCCURRENCE OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are the 2nd most occurring substance in nature after water. The surprising
quantity of carbohydrates can be known by considering the point that cell wall of all plants made
up of cellulose 50-80% of dry weight of plants is due to cellulose.

NATURAL PRODUCTION OF CARBOHYDRATES

The carbohydrates are prepared by the plants by the process of photosynthesis. The
photosynthesis involves the following reaction.

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CARBOHYDRATES MAJOR SOURCE OF ENERGY

Carbohydrates are the macronutrients as 55% of our daily calories come from carbohydrates. 1g
of carbohydrates provides 4 cal.
“When the molecules are oxidized so produced a high amount of energy” this is the principle
used by carbohydrates to give energy. The process of oxidation of carbohydrates (also all other
nutrients) is called respiration.

The reaction involve in respiration

C6H12O6 + O2 --------------- CO2 + H2O +E

HOW CARBOHYDRATES SUPPLY ENERGY

The simple sugars are absorbed directly by the small intestine into blood stream. But the
disaccharide and polysaccharide do not absorbed in blood directly first convert into
monosaccharide. This bond breaking also provides energy. Then the monosaccharides are
absorbed by blood.

(Glucose stored in muscles & liver in the form of glycogen)

FUNCTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
The carbohydrates perform the following major role in the living body.

 Carbohydrates are mainly utilized by the body for fulfilling the major part of the energy
needs
 The main function of carbohydrate is to supply energy for the body processes. A greater
part of the energy in the diet (more than 50-80%) is supplied by carbohydrates.
 Construction of body organs.
 Assist body in absorption of calcium.
 Helps in lowering cholesterol level.
 Provides nutrients to the friendly bacteria in digestive track that help in digestion.
 Balance water mineral balance.
 Oligosaccharides are present in the molecule of integral protein of al cell membranes.

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SWEETNESS IN CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates that has lower molecular mass are sweet in taste. as the molecular mass
increases the sweetness decreases.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
There is no single satisfactory classification of carbohydrates. One commonly described
classification is given below

1. Monosaccharide
2. Disaccharide
3. Polysaccharide

MONOSACCHARIDE
These are simple sugars which cannot be further hydrolyzed and have empirical formula
(CH2O)n, where n=3 or larger number.

Monosaccharides are the most basic units of carbohydrates. They are the simplest form of
sugar and are usually colorless, water-soluble, crystalline solids. Some monosaccharides have
a sweet taste.

Examples of monosaccharides include glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose) and galactose.

Monosaccharides are the building blocks of disaccharides (such as sucrose) and
polysaccharides (such as cellulose and starch).

Mono=one
Saccharide=sugar

 They are sweet in taste

 It cannot further hydrolyse
 Generally they are water soluble
 Two types of functional group are present in it, Aldehyde group or Keto group

CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDE
Monosaccharide can be classified on the basis of functional group.

1. Aldose
2. Ketose

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 Biochemistry

Monosaccharides are either aldoses (containing aldehyde group) or ketoses (containing ketone
group).
Glucose, dextrose, ribose are examples of aldose monosaccharides, while fructose is a ketoses
monosaccharide.

DISACCHARIDES
Two joined monosaccharides are called a disaccharide. Or we can say disaccharides give two
monosaccharides on hydrolysis.

 Disaccharides give two monosaccharides on hydrolysis

 Disaccharides occur naturally
 They are less sweet than monosaccharide
 They are soluble in (H2O) water
 Their molecular mass greater than monosaccharide

CLASSIFICATION OF DISACCHARIDES

1. Homogeneous Disaccharides
2. Heterogeneous Disaccharides

HOMOGENEOUS
If all sugar molecules in disaccharides are same it is called homogeneous disaccharides e.g.
maltose.

HETEROGENEOUS
If all sugar molecules are different in disaccharides then it is called heterogeneous e.g. sucrose.

Examples of Disaccharides
Sucrose (table sugar): (glucose + fructose)
Lactose (milk sugar): (glucose +galactose)
Maltose (fruit sugar): (glucose + glucose)

POLYSACCHARIDES
Having more than ten sugar molecules and give disaccharides on hydrolysis and on further
hydrolysis the monosaccharides are met.

 Many saccharides join to form polysaccharides

 They are tasteless and not optically active

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 Polysaccharide serves as stores of fuel and also forms structural elements of cells
 Their molecular mass greater than monosaccharide or disaccharide

CLASSIFICATION OF POLYSACCHARIDES
There are two types of polysaccharide.

1. Homopolysaccharides
2. Heteropolysaccharides

HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES
The polysaccharides which yield one type of monosaccharide on hydrolysis is called
homopolysaccharides e.g. starch, Glycogen

HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDES
The polysaccharides which yield different types of monosaccharide on hydrolysis called
heteropolysaccharides e.g. Mucilage’s, Hemi cellulose

Examples of Polysaccharides

 Cellulose: most abundant on earth present in cell wall of plants.

 Starch: it is stored food material in plants in corns, grains etc.
 Glycogen: it mainly occurs in animal muscles and liver.
 Starch: it occurs in grains seeds and tubers

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LIPIDS
The lipids are organic substances occurring in plant and animal tissues belong to a very
heterogeneous group of substances.

Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, steroids & defined as substances having the following
properties.

 They are insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but soluble in non-polar solvents (ether,
chloroform, benzene)
 Their primary building blocks are fatty acids, glycerol
 In most cases they can be utilized by the living organisms
 Most common lipid is fat in animals & plants

(Fatty acid = an organic acid with a long straight hydrocarbon chain and even number of carbon
atoms e.g. oleic acid, stearic acid, butyric acid)

(Glycerol = a sweet colorless or yellowish syrupy alcohol)

CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
These are classified as

1. Simple Lipids
2. Compound Lipids or Complex Lipids
3. Derived Lipids

SIMPLE LIPIDS
Naturally occurring oils, fats and waxes are collectively known as “simple lipids". Simple lipids
are the esters of long chain fatty acids with alcohols. Or

Simple lipids are esters of fatty acids with various alcohols. They contain mainly fatty acids and
alcohols alone.

Note: Ester is a chemical compound formed by the interaction of acid and alcohol

FATS AND OILS

These are esters of fatty acids with glycerol (Trihydroxy alcohol). Fat is also called triglyceride A
fat in liquid state called oil
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 Biochemistry

WAXES
These are esters of fatty acids with long chain monohydric alcohols.

Occurrence
Waxes are wide spread in nature as secretion of certain insects as protective coating of skin e.g.
honey bee wax, fur of animals, certain animal oil & whale largely composed of waxes. Sebum is
a secretion of human skin having waxes. It helps skin to be moist and flexible.

COMPOUND OR COMPLEX LIPIDS

These are the esters of glycerol with two saturated or unsaturated fatty acids and some other
compound such as carbohydrate, amino acid, phosphoric acid or protein etc. They are also
known as complex or conjugated lipids.

(Fatty acid = an organic acid with a long straight hydrocarbon chain and even number of carbon
atoms e.g. oleic acid, stearic acid, butyric acid)

Compound or complex lipids are subdivided as follows

GLYCOLIPIDS ALSO CALLED GLYCOSPHINGOLIPIDS

These contain sphingosine, fatty acid, and a monosaccharide or an oligosaccharide unit.

SULFOLIPIDS
These contain sphingosine, fatty acids, sugar and a sulfate group.

PHOSPHOLIPIDS
These lipids contain phosphoric acid, fatty acid, nitrogenous base and alcohol.

LIPOPROTEINS
These are the macromolecular complexes of lipids with proteins.

DERIVED LIPIDS
These lipids are obtained on hydrolysis of simple and complex lipids. These lipids contain
glycerol and other alcohols. This class of lipids includes steroid hormones, ketone bodies,
hydrocarbons, fatty acids, fatty alcohols etc.

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 Biochemistry

FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS

 Lipids are good source of energy.

 Lipids are essential for the absorption of fat soluble vitamins like vitamin A, D, E and K.
 The dietary lipids decrease gastric motility and have a high satiety (a feeling or condition
of being full after eating food) value.
 Body fat gives anatomical stability to organs.
 Fats are good reservoir in the body. Adipose tissue is best suited for this purpose due to
its very little water content.
 Lipids exert an insulating effect on the nervous tissue.
 Lipids are integral part of cell protoplasm and cell membranes.
 Some lipids act as precursors of very important physiological compounds e.g. cholesterol
is precursor of steroid hormones.

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 Biochemistry

PROTEINS
The proteins are extremely complicated molecules and are nitrogenous compound made up of a
variable number of amino acids joined to each other by specific type of covalent bond called
peptide bond or peptide linkage.

(Peptide Bond = A molecule consisting of two or more amino acid linked by bond between the
amino group (-NH) and carboxyl group (-CO) this bond is known as a peptide bound)

Or simple we can say that “Proteins are polymers of amino acids”

(Polymer = a natural or artificial substance made from many small molecules)

GENERAL FORMULA OF AMINO ACID

FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS

 Protein is termed the building block of the body. It is called this because protein is vital in
the maintenance of body tissue, including development and repair.
 Protein is a major source of energy.
 Protein is involved in the creation of some hormones.
 Enzymes are proteins that increase the rate of chemical reactions in the body.
 Protein is a major element in transportation of certain molecules. For example,
hemoglobin is a protein that transports oxygen throughout the body.
 Protein is also sometimes used to store certain molecules.
 Protein forms antibodies that help prevent infection, illness and disease.
 Many of the hormones which regulate the chemicals and other process of the body are
also protein in nature.
 Plasma proteins take part in blood coagulation and transport of substances such as
hormones, drugs, metal like iron and copper.

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 Biochemistry

 They perform hereditary transmission by nucleoproteins of the cell nucleus.

STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
Each type of proteins contains a specific number of amino acids. Different kinds of proteins have
different shapes are related to their particular function in life processes. Proteins molecules have
different several different level of structure.

(Polypeptide = A molecule consisting of three or more amino acids linked together by peptide
bond is called polypeptide or polypeptide chain)

(Peptide Bond = A molecule consisting of two or more amino acid linked by bond between the
amino group (-NH) and carboxyl group (-CO) this bond is known as a peptide bond)

PRIMARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS

Linear sequence of Amino acids is called primary structure, in it, amino group (NH2) is on left
side and carboxylic group (COOH) is on right side

SECONDARY STRUCTURE
The folding of the polypeptide chain into a specific coiled structure held together by Hydrogen
bond is called secondary structure.

TERTIARY STRUCTURE
The tertiary structure of a protein means it’s over all three dimensional shape (3D). Complex
secondary structure will take on three dimensional structures, in which there is folding looping
and binding of chain including all of its secondary structure. The final shape may be a globe or
an irregular shape.

QUATERNARY STRUCTURE
When a protein molecule is made up of more than one polypeptide chains subunit, each of
which has its own primary, secondary and tertiary structure, the number as well as the
arrangement of these polypeptide subunits is called the quaternary structure.

CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
Proteins are divided into three main classes

1. Simple Proteins
2. Conjugated or Compound Proteins
3. Derived Proteins

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 Biochemistry

SIMPLE PROTEINS
On hydrolysis these proteins yield only amino acids or their derivatives.

CONJUGATED OR COMPOUND PROTEINS

Conjugated proteins are composed of simple proteins combined with a non-proteinous
substance. The non-proteinous substance is called prosthetic group or cofactor.

DERIVED PROTEINS
This class of proteins includes substances which are derived from simple and conjugated
proteins. We can say that these are not naturally occurring proteins and are obtained from
simple proteins by the action of enzymes and chemical agents.

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 Biochemistry

AMINO ACIDS
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. They form protein by a biochemical bond called
peptide bond or peptide linkage. Various number of amino acid joins to one another with peptide
bond to form “protein”. There are twenty different kinds of amino acids but with different
combination they form different kinds of protein.

Amino acids can be used to produce energy, but their primary job is building proteins. Some
amino acids also fill non-protein-building roles, such as forming neurotransmitters and
hormones.

STRUCTURE
Amino acid has very simple structure. It contained a central alpha carbon (The carbon attached
with the functional Group is called alpha carbon). There is carboxlic acid present on one side
and an amino group on other side of alpha carbon. Hydrogen is present on alpha carbon with R
group. The R group may vary to produce different types of Amino acids.

STANDARD AMINO ACIDS

Although more than 300 naturally occurring amino acids are known but only twenty amino acids
take part in the formation of all types of proteins plant as well as animal in origin. These twenty
amino acids are called primary standard or normal amino acids.

NON-STANDARD AMINO ACIDS

The non-standard amino acids are those amino acids which do not take part in protein synthesis
but many of them play important role in the body.

ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

Essential amino acids are those amino acids which are not produced by our body and must be
taken in diet.

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 Biochemistry

NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

Non-essential amino acids are those amino acids that can be synthesized by our body.

FUNCTIONS OF AMINO ACIDS

“Amino acids are building blocks of proteins”
So all the functions which proteins perform are the function of amino acids

Roles and Functions of Proteins or Amino Acids

 Protein is termed as the building block of the body. It is called this because protein is
vital in the maintenance of body tissue, including development and repair.
 Protein is a major source of energy.
 Protein is involved in the creation of some hormones.
 Enzymes are proteins that increase the rate of chemical reactions in the body.
 Protein is a major element in transportation of certain molecules. For example,
hemoglobin is a protein that transports oxygen throughout the body.
 Protein is also sometimes used to store certain molecules.
 Protein forms antibodies that help prevent infection, illness and disease.
 Many of the hormones which regulate the chemicals and other process of the body are
also protein in nature.
 Plasma proteins take part in blood coagulation and transport of substances such as
hormones, drugs, metal like iron and copper.
 They perform hereditary transmission by nucleoproteins of the cell nucleus.

NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are large biological molecules, essential for all known forms of life. Nucleic acids,
which include DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), are made from
monomers known as nucleotides.

Two types of nucleic acids

1. DNA or Deoxyribonucleic Acid
2. RNA or Ribonucleic Acid

NUCLEOTIDES
Nucleotides are the building blocks of all nucleic acids. Each nucleotide has three components,
5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

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 Biochemistry

(The combination of a Nitrogen Base and 5-Carbon Sugar is called a nucleoside, when
phosphate is added to a nucleoside; the molecule is called a nucleotide).

COMPONENTS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS OR NUCLEOTIDES

 Nitrogen Base (Pyrimidine or Purine)

 5-Carbon Sugar or Pentose Sugar (Ribose or Deoxyribose)
 Phosphate Group

Nitrogenous Bases
Purines and pyrimidines are the two categories of nitrogenous bases. Adenine and guanine are
purines. Cytosine, thymine, and uracil are pyrimidines. In DNA, the bases are adenine (A),
thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). In RNA, the bases are adenine, thymine, uracil, and
cytosine,

 Purines: These include adenine and guanine which are abbreviated as A and G
respectively.
 Pyrimidines: These include cytosine, uracil, and thymine, abbreviated as C, U, and T
respectively.

5-Carbon Sugar
Two kinds of 5-carbon sugar fond in nucleic acid or nucleotides

1. Ribose
2. Deoxyribose

Both ribose and deoxyribose are 5-csrbon sugars or pentose sugar. If the sugar is ribose, the
polymer is RNA, if the sugar is Deoxyribose, the polymer is DNA.

Phosphate Group
A phosphate group consists of a central phosphorous surrounded by four oxygen (PO4).

TYPES AND FUNCTION OF RNA

There are actually several types of ribonucleic acid or RNA, but most RNA falls into one of three
categories

1. mRNA or Messenger RNA

2. rRNA or Ribosomal RNA
3. tRNA or Transfer RNA
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 Biochemistry

MRNA OR MESSENGER RNA

Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the genetic information copied from DNA into a form that can
be read and used to make proteins. mRNA carries genetic information from the nucleus to the
cytoplasm of a cell.

RRNA OR RIBOSOMAL RNA

rRNA is located in the cytoplasm of a cell, where ribosomes are found. rRNA directs the
translation of mRNA into proteins.

TRNA OR TRANSFER RNA

Like rRNA, tRNA is located in the cellular cytoplasm and is involved in protein synthesis.

FUNCTIONS OF DNA

 All known cellular life and some viruses contain DNA.

 The main role of DNA in the cell is the long-term storage of information.
 DNA contains the "programmatic instructions" for cellular activities.
 DNA provides the information needed to make a new living cell by cell division.
 When a cell divides, its DNA is copied and passed from one cell generation to the next
generation.
 DNA control everything in the cells, the response to external agents, the regulation of
proteins, ribosome and RNA.
 DNA holds the instructions for an organism's or each cell’s development and
reproduction and ultimately death.
 DNA is vital for all living beings even plants. It is important for inheritance, coding for
proteins and the genetic instruction guide for life and its processes.
 DNA carries the codes for proteins. However, the actual protein differs a lot from the
codes present on the DNA.
 DNA is important in terms of heredity. It packs in all the genetic information and passes
it on to the next generation. The basis for this lies in the fact that DNA makes genes and
genes make chromosomes.
 DNA contains the genetic information that gives rise to the chemical and physical
properties of living organisms.
 Apart from coding for proteins, DNA also replicates. This helps in a variety of functions
including reproduction to maintenance and growth of cells, tissues and body systems.

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HORMONES
All the physiological activities are regulated by two major systems in the body

1. Nervous System
2. Endocrine System

These two systems interact with one another and regulate the body functions.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system is the system of glands, each of which secretes different types of
hormone directly into the bloodstream to regulate the body. The endocrine system does not
include exocrine glands such as salivary glands, sweat glands and glands within the
gastrointestinal tract.

CHEMICAL MESSENGERS
The chemical messengers are the substances involved in cell signaling, these messengers are
mainly secreted form endocrine glands.

Some chemical messengers are secreted by nerve endings and the cells of several other
tissues. Generally the chemical messengers are classified into two types

 Classical Hormones
 Local Hormones

(Classical hormones secreted by endocrine glands)

(Local hormones secreted from other tissues)

ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Endocrine glands are glands, which synthesize and release the classical hormones into the
blood. The endocrine glands are also called ductless glands because the hormones secreted by
them are released directly into the blood without any duct.

These hormones are transported by blood to the target organs or tissues in different parts of the
body where the actions are executed.

THE MAIN ENDOCRINE GLANDS INCLUDE

 Pineal gland  Parathyroid gland
 Pituitary gland  Adrenal gland
 Thyroid gland  Pancreas
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 Ovaries (in female only)  Testes (in male only)

HORMONES INTRODUCTION
These are chemical substances released by a cell or a gland into the bloodstream and have a
physiological control effect on other cells of the body.

Some important hormones are growth hormone (GH), Testosterone, Estrogen, Progesterone,
Oxytocin, Calcitonin, Aldosterone, Cortisol, and Insulin. Or

Hormones are the chemical messengers of the body. They are defined as organic substances
secreted into blood stream to control the metabolic and biological activities. These hormones
are involved in transmission of information from one tissue to another and from cell to cell.

These substances are produced in small amounts by various endocrine (ductless) glands in the
body. They are delivered directly to the blood in minute quantities and are carried by the blood
to various target organs where these exert physiological effect and control metabolic activities.
Thus frequently their site of action is away from their origin.

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CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES

1. Based on the site of production/ accumulation

2. Based on the chemical nature

CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES BASED ON THE SITE OF PRODUCTION/ ACCUMULATION

HORMONES OF PITUITARY GLANDS

HORMONES OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY FLANDS

 Growth hormone
 Thyroid stimulating hormone

HORMONES OF POSTERIOR PITUITARY FLANDS

 Oxytocin hormone
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

HORMONES OF THYROID GLANDS

 Tri-iodothyronine (T3)
 Tetraiodothyronine (T4)
 Calcitonin

HORMONES OF PARATHYROID GLANDS

 Parathormone (PTH)

HORMONES OF ADRENAL GLAND

 Aldosterone hormone
 Cortisol hormone

HORMONES OF OVARY GLAND

 Estrogen hormone
 Progesterone hormone

HORMONES OF TESTIS
 Testosterone hormone
 Dihydrotestosterone hormone

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HORMONE OF PANCREAS
 Insulin

CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES BASED ON THE CHEMICAL NATURE

Chemically, most hormones belong to one of three major groups…

1. Steroid Hormones
2. Protein Hormones
3. Derivative of the Amino Acid Called Tyrosine

STEROID HORMONES
These are hormones formed from cholesterol or its derivatives, e.g. testosterone, aldosteron,
estrogen, progesterone.

Steroid hormones help control metabolism, inflammation, immune functions, salt and water
balance, development of sexual characteristics.

PROTEIN HORMONES
These are large or small peptide, e.g. growth hormone, oxytocin, insulin. Several important
peptide hormones are secreted from the pituitary gland.

DERIVATIVE OF THE AMINO ACID CALLED TYROSINE

These are derivatives of amino acid, e.g. dopamine, adrenaline.

HORMONAL ACTIONS
Hormone does not act directly on the cellular structures. First the hormone combine with
transmembrane (transmembrane existing or occurring across a cell membrane) receptors
present on the target cells and forms a hormone-recapture complex. This hormone-receptor
complex induces various changes or reactions in the target cells.

The hormones receptors are situated either in cell membrane, cytoplasm or nucleus of the cells.

Cell Membrane
Receptors of protein hormones are situated in the cell membrane.

Cytoplasm
Receptors of steroid hormones are situated in cytoplasm of target cells.

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Nucleus
Receptors of the thyroid hormones are in the nucleus of the cell.

Generally when a hormone is secreted in excess, the number of receptors of that hormone
decreases this process is called down-regulation. During the deficiency of hormones, the
number of receptors increases which is called up-regulation.

Proteins and peptides cannot enter the cell and so act via cell membrane receptors, producing
their effects by 'second messengers', which are activated in the cell as soon as the hormone
binds to the receptor. Thus peptide hormones can produce quite rapid responses. Steroid and
thyroid hormones, by contrast, can enter the cell and bind to intracellular receptors, producing
their effects by stimulating the production of new proteins. There is therefore a relatively long lag
period before the response to these hormones is seen.

GROWTH HORMONE (GH)

Growth hormone (GH) is a peptide hormone that stimulates growth, cell reproduction and
regeneration in humans and other animals. Growth hormone is a 191-amino acid, single-chain
polypeptide that is synthesized, stored, and secreted by anterior pituitary gland. Its half life is
about 20 minutes.

NORMAL FUNCTIONS OF GH
Effects of growth hormone on the tissues of the body can generally be described as anabolic
(building up). Like most other protein hormones, GH acts by interacting with a specific receptor
on the surface of cells. Increased height during childhood is the most widely known effect of GH.

EFFECT ON PROTEIN METABOLISM

Growth hormone has predominately anabolic effects on skeletal and cardiac muscles. It
stimulates the synthesis of protein, RNA, DNA.
It promotes amino acid entry into cells.
It decreases the catabolism of protein because growth hormone mobilizes free fatty acids to
supply energy.

EFFECTS ON CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

Growth hormone is one of an important chemical substance that maintains blood glucose within
a normal range. Growth hormone is often said to have anti-insulin activity

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EFFECTS ON FAT METABOLISM

Growth hormone enhances the utilization of fat by stimulating triglyceride breakdown and
oxidation in adipose tissues.

EFFECTS ON INORGANIC METABOLISM

Growth hormone increases the retention of the phosphorus and calcium. It also causes the
retention of sodium, potassium, and magnesium.

EFFECTS ON BONE, CARTILAGE, AND SOFT TISSUES

 It acts on cartilage and bone to stimulate the growth.

 It increases the deposition of connective tissue.
 It increases the thickness of skin.
 It increases the growth of important organs of the body like liver and kidney etc.
 It increases milk secretion in lactating animals.

VASOPRESSIN/ ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH)

The Antidiuretic hormone is the hormone of the posterior pituitary gland. It prevents excessive
urine production. ADH is a polypeptide, containing 9 amino acids. Its half life is 18-20 minutes.

Vasopressin is responsible for regulating the body's retention of water by acting to increase
water absorption in the collecting ducts of the kidney nephron.

It increases the permeability of the collecting tubules and ducts to water, increasing water
absorption from the lumen of the collecting tubules and ducts.

ADH can also raise blood pressure by bringing about constriction of arterioles. It causes the
contraction of all smooth muscles in the body such as the GIT, Bile Duct, and Uterus.

OXYTOCIN (OT)
Oxytocin (OT) is traditionally thought of as a ‘female’ hormone due to its role in milk ejection.
However, OT is recognized as having roles in male reproduction. It is secreted in both males
and females. Oxytocin is best known for its roles in sexual reproduction, in particular during and
after childbirth.

This is a hormone of the posterior pituitary gland. It is polypeptide containing 8 amino acids. Its
half-life is about 6 minutes.

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ACTION IN FEMALES
In females, oxytocin acts on mammary glands and uterus. It causes ejection of milk from the
mammary glands.

Oxytocin causes contraction of uterus and helps in the expulsion of fetus. It is released in large
quantity just prior to delivery.

ACTION IN MALES
In male, the release of oxytocin increases during ejaculation. It facilitates release of sperm into
urethra by causing contraction of smooth muscles fibers in reproductive tract.

INSULIN
Insulin is a peptide hormone, produced by beta cells of the pancreas, which acts to lower the
blood glucose level, regulating carbohydrate and fat metabolism in the body.

Chemical Nature
Insulin is small soluble protein containing 51 amino acids.

EFFECTS OF INSULIN

EFFECTS OF INSULIN ON CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

 It increases the entry of glucose into cells by stimulating the process of facilitated
diffusion, especially in muscles, adipose tissue, the heart, smooth muscles, of the uterus
by activating glucokinase. But on the other hand insulin does not facilitate glucose entry
into the brain and RBCs.
 It increases utilization of glucose for energy.
 It increases glycogen storage in cells
 It increases the conversion of glucose into fat to be stored in adipose tissues.

EFFECTS OF INSULIN ON FAT METABOLISM

 Insulin forms fatty acids from excess liver glucose.
 Fatty acids are utilized from triglycerides which are stored in adipose tissues.
 It inhibits hydrolysis of triglycerides in fat cells by inhibiting hormone sensitive lipase.

EFFECTS OF INSULIN ON PROTEIN METABOLISM

 It causes active transport of amino acids into cells.
 It promotes translation of mRNA in ribosomes to form new proteins.
 It promotes transcription of DNA in nucleus to form mRNA.

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 Biochemistry

 It inhibits protein catabolism.

EFFECTS OF INSULIN ON GROWTH

Insulin is essential for growth as it increases protein formation.

TESTOSTERONE
This is the principle hormone of the testes which consists of 19 carbon atoms. It is responsible
for the proper development of male sexual characteristics. Testosterone is also important for
maintaining muscle bulk, adequate levels of red blood cells, bone growth, a sense of well-being,
and sexual function.

Nature
Steroid in nature

EFFECTS OF TESTOSTERONE

EFFECT ON THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

During intrauterine life, testosterone is secreted by the genital ridge. Later on it is secreted by
the placenta. At this stage it causes the development of male sex organs including the penis,
scrotum prostate, seminal vesicle, and male genital duct.

This hormone also causes descent of the testes (during last 2 months of gestation) and
suppresses the formation of female genital organs.This hormone causes the enlargement of the
male sexual organs. It acts on different male sex organs, increasing spermatogenesis and
maintaining the motility and fertilizing power of sperm.

EFFECTS ON SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS

The effects of testosterone on secondary sex characteristics are as follow. Growth of hairs on
the face, chest, and pubis are increases, while decreased on top of the head, voice becomes
deeper. Testosterone causes thickness of the skin, roughness of the subcutaneous tissue.
Testosterone is also responsible for aggressive moods, active attitudes and interest in the
opposite sex.

EFFECT ON PROTEIN MMETABOLISM

 It increases protein synthesis and build up the musculature.
 Causes positive N- balance.
 Decreases blood urea levels.

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EFFECT ON BONE
 Increases thickness of bones
 Increases total quantity of bone matrices.
 Increases the deposition of calcium salts in bones.
 Narrows the length of the male pelvis outlet.
 Increases the length of the male pelvis and makes it funnel shaped.
 Increases the strength of the pelvis and makes it strong.

EFFECT ON RBCS
Testosterone increases the number of RBCs (15-20%). However this difference may be due to
the increased metabolic rate following testosterone administration rather than to a direct effect of
testosterone on RBC production.

EFFECT ON ELECTROLYTE AND WATER BALANCE

Testosterone can increase the reabsorption of NA+ and water in the distal tubules of the
kidneys. This effect of testosterone is of a minor degree.

ESTROGEN
Estrogen is a group of hormones that play an important role in the normal sexual and
reproductive development in women. They are also called sex hormones. The woman's ovaries
produce most estrogen hormones, although the adrenal glands also produce small amounts of
the hormones.

Nature
An 18 carbon steroid

ACTIONS OF ESTROGENS

 Increases the size of the vagina

 Increases the size of the uterus
 Causes growth of the uterine glands
 Causes enlargement of the musculature of the walls of the vagina
 Increases the size of the llitoris and labia minora
 Promotes the development of the tubular duct system
 Increases vascularity of the skin. Causes softness and smoothness of the skin (This is
why estrogen is used in creams, soaps and oils for cosmetic purposes)
 The larynx of a female retains its prepubertal, so size the voice remains high pitched
 Causes broadness of the pelvis

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 Biochemistry

 Increases the synthesis and deposition of proteins

 Increases the synthesis of fat
 Increases the deposition of fat in subcutaneous tissue especially the breasts medial side
of the thigh and buttocks
 It increases the retention of Na+ and water increasing the E.C.F.
 This hormone is responsible for the proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle
 Decreases blood cholesterol levels

ENZYMES

DEFINITIONS
Enzymes are biological molecules that catalyze chemical reactions.

Enzymes are important group of bio-molecules synthesized by the living cells. They are
catalysts of biological systems, colloidal, thermo-labile and protein in nature.

CATALYSTS
A catalyst is an agent, which in minute amount increases the velocity of a reaction without
appearing in the final product of the reaction.

SUBSTRATES
Substances on which enzymes act to convert them into products are called substrates.

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES

 Catalytic property
 Enzymatic property
 Solubility
 pH
 Temperature
 Specificity
 Protein nature

Catalytic Property
Small amount of enzyme can catalyze the large amount of substrate in biological reactions.

Enzymatic Property

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 Biochemistry

The velocity of the enzymatic reaction increase as the concentration of the substrate increases
up to certain maximum. But after certain period of time it decreases.

Solubility
Enzymes are mostly soluble in water and diluted alcohol solution. The enzymes can precipitate
in concentrated Alcohol, Ammonium Sulphate, Tricholoro Acetic Acid.

pH
Acid:
Acid deactivates those enzymes that act at alkaline pH, e.g Trypsin. At acidic pH, it will destroy,
(Trypsin is very important enzyme that secreted by Pancreas and very important for proper
digestion of food).

Base:
Base deactivates the enzymes that act at acidic pH, e.g. Pepsin, at alkaline pH, it will destroy.

Temperature
Optimum temperature for enzymatic activity is 35 o C to 40o C.
At 0 o C inactive
At 10 o C to 20 o C very little active
At 35 C to 40 C
o o
max. Active
At 50 o C inactive
At 60 o C destroy

In solid condition, it may be stable up to 100 o C.

Specificity
Enzymes are usually very specific as to which reactions they catalyze and the substrates that
are involved in these reactions.

Protein Nature
In general with the exception of “Ribozymes, which are few RNA molecules with enzymatic
activities” all enzymes are protein in nature with large molecular weight.

MECHANISM OF ENZYME REACTIONS

The three dimensional structure of enzyme permits them to recognize their substrates in a
specific manner.

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According to the most acceptable hypothesis, the enzyme molecule (E) first combine with a
substrate (S) to form a enzyme-substrate complex (ES) which further dissociate to form product
(P) and enzyme (E) back.

Enzyme once dissociated from the complex is free to combine with another molecule of
substrate and form product in a similar way.

GENERAL REACTION
E + S  ES  EP  E + P

CHEMICAL NATURE OF ENZYME

In general, with the exception of Ribozymes which are few RNA molecules with enzymatic
activity, all the enzymes are either pure proteins (simple protein) or contain protein as essential
components (conjugated protein).

Few enzymes are simple proteins while some are conjugated proteins. In such enzymes
(conjugated protein) the non-protein part is called prosthetic group or coenzyme and the protein
part is called apoenzyme.

(The complete structure of apoenzyme and prosthetic group is called holoenzyme)

Holoenzyme = apoenzyme (protein part) + coenzyme (non-protein part/ prosthetic group)

Certain enzymes with only one polypeptide chain in their structure are called monomeric
enzyme e.g. Ribonuclease, several enzymes possess more than one polypeptide chain and are
called oligomeric enzymes e.g. Lactate Dehydrogenase.

(Polypeptide = a condensation of amino acids that forms a protein molecule, or a molecule

consisting of three or more amino acid linked together by peptide bonds.)

Coenzyme
Certain enzymes require a specific thermostable, low molecular weight, non-protein organic
substances called coenzymes. A coenzyme may bind covalently or non-covalently to the
apoenzyme. The term prosthetic group denotes a covalently bonded enzyme.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
Enzymes are generally named after adding the suffix “ase” to the name of the substrate, e.g.
enzymes acting on “nucleic acid” are known as “nuclease”. Even-though few exceptions such as

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Trypsin, Pepsin, and Chymotrypsin are still in use. Further, few enzymes exist in their inactive
forms and called as Proenzymes or Zymogens e.g. Pepsin has Pepsinogen as its zymogen.

There are six main classes of enzymes

1. Oxidoreductases
2. Transferases
3. Hydrolases
4. Lyases
5. Isomerases
6. Ligases

(Catch words to remember the classification of enzymes = OTH-LIL)

OXIDOREDUCTASES
These enzymes catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions, e.g. Alcohol dehydrogenase, Lactate
dehydrogenase.

This group is further divided into six-subgroups

 Oxidases
 Reductases
 Aerobic Dehydrogenases
 Anaerobic Dehydrogenases
 Hydroperoxidases
 Oxygenases

TRANSFERASES
Enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a functional group (e.g., a methyl or phosphate group)
from one molecule (called the donor) to another (called the acceptor).

For example, an enzyme that catalyzes this reaction would be a transferase

A–X + B → A + B–X

In this example, A would be the donor, and B would be the acceptor. The donor is often a
coenzyme.

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There are many types of transferases, some important are

 Transaminases
 Phosphotransferases
 Transmethylases
 Transpeptideases

HYDROLASES
These enzymes catalyze hydrolysis, e.g Pepsin, Trypsin
They have many subgroups some important are

 Carbohydrases
 Aminohydrolases
 Lipids Hydrolyzing Enzymes

LYASES
Enzymes that facilitate removal of small molecules from a large substrate, e.g. Histidine
Decarboxylase, Carbonic Anhydrase.

ISOMERASES
Enzymes involved in isomerization of substrate, e.g. Retinal Isomerase.

LIGASES
Enzymes involve in joining together two substrates, e.g. RNA synthetase, Glutamine
Synthetase.

FACTOR AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITIES

Following factors affect enzyme activities

 Enzyme concentration  Effect of pH

 Substrate concentration  Effect of activator and coenzyme
 Product concentration  Effect of inhibitors
 Effect of temperature  Effect of time

Enzyme Concentration
The rate of reaction is directly proportional to the amount of enzyme present.

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Substrate Concentration
The rate of reaction is directly proportional to the substrate concentration. However this is true
up to a certain concentration of substrate.

Product Concentration
Excess of product may lower the enzymatic reaction by occupying the active site of the enzyme.
It is also possible that, certain conditions, on high concentration of products a reverse reaction
may be favored forming back the substrate.

Effect of Temperature
Optimum temperature for enzymatic activity is 35 o C to 40o C.
At 0 o C inactive
At 10 C to 20 C
o o
very little active
o o
At 35 C to 40 C max. Active
At 50 o C inactive
At 60 o C destroy

In solid condition, it may be stable up to 100 o C. some plant enzymes act best at temperature
around 60 o C.

Effect of pH
Optimum pH is required for the proper function of enzyme
Acid:
Acid deactivates those enzymes that act at alkaline pH, e.g Trypsin. At acidic pH, it will destroy,
(Trypsin is very important enzyme that secreted by Pancreas and very important for proper
digestion of food).

Base:
Base deactivates the enzymes that act at acidic pH, e.g. Pepsin, at alkaline pH, it will destroy.

Effect of Activator and Coenzyme

The activity of certain enzymes is greatly dependent of activators and coenzymes.

Effect of Inhibitors
Enzymes are protein and they can be inactivated by the agents that denature them. The
chemical substances which inactive the enzymes are called as inhibitors and the process is
called enzyme inhibition. Certain substances inhibit the enzyme activities.

Effect of Time

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 Biochemistry

The time required for completion of an enzyme reaction increase if the optimum temperature
and pH is not present.

FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES
Enzyme plays a vital role in our daily life. They perform following important functions.

 Decrease in activation energy  For cancer treatment

 Digestion  Curing of diseases
 Cheese making  Blood clotting
 Sweetener  Alcoholic beverages
 As detergent  Meat tenderizing
 As drug

Decrease in Activation Energy

Enzymes decrease activation energy.

Digestion
Enzymes play important role in digestion for the conversion of large complex and non-diffusible
molecules into smaller, simple and diffusible molecules, e.g. Trypsin, Lipase, Amylase.

Cheese Making
Enzymes are also used in the manufacturing of cheese.

Sweetener
Some enzymes are used as sweetener,
E.g. Sucrose (glucosidase enzyme) Glucose + Fructose
Glucose is 72% sweeter while fructose is 132% sweeter than sucrose.

As Detergent
Carbohydrate and protein breaking enzymes are heat stabilizer and are used as detergent, e.g.
Proteases

As Drug
Some enzymes are used as drugs if there is any disturbance in the digestive system.

For Cancer Treatment

Some enzymes are used for cancer treatment, e.g. L. Asparginase

Curing of Diseases
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Enzymes are also play important role in curing of diseases such as rickets and jaundice, for
heart problem Lactate Dehydrogenase, and for liver problem certain Kinases are used.

Blood Clotting
Enzymes also cause blood clotting by protein thrombin.

Alcoholic Beverages
Amylase is used in manufacturing of alcoholic beverages.

Meat Tenderizing
Trypsin, Pepsin and Papain are meat tenderizing to facilitate the process of digestion.

"LOCK AND KEY" MODEL

The specific action of an enzyme with a single substrate can be explained using a Lock and Key
model. Enzymes are very specific, and it was suggested by chemist that this was because both
the enzyme and the substrate possess specific complementary geometric shapes that fit exactly
into one another. This is often referred to as "the lock and key" model.

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VITAMINS

DEFINITION
A vitamin is defined as naturally occurring essential organic constituents of the diet which in
minute amount aids in maintaining the normal metabolic activities of the tissues.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF VITAMINS

 Vitamins are complex organic substances

 The molecular weight is low
 Essential vitamins for one species may not be essential for another
 Some vitamins are synthesized in the body
 Vitamins are not destroyed in the digestive processes and are absorbed as such
 The daily requirement for any vitamin is increased during growth pregnancy and lactation

CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS ON THE BASIS OF SOLUBILITY

Based on their solubility, vitamins are classified into fat soluble vitamins and water soluble
vitamins

FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

 Vitamin A
 Vitamin D
 Vitamin E
 Vitamin K

WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

 Vitamin C
 Vitamin B complex

CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS ON THE BASIS OF HEAT STABILITY

Based on the heat stability, vitamins are classified into thermo labile vitamins and thermo stable
vitamins

THERMO LABILE VITAMINS

 Thiamine (Vitamin–B1)
 Antithetic Acid (Vitamin –B3)

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THERMO STABLE VITAMINS

 Riboflavin (Vitamin–B2)
 Pyridoxine (Vitamin–B6)
 Niacin / Niacinamide (Vitamin–B3)
 Biotin (Vitamin–B7)
 Folic Acid (Vitamin–B9)
 Cobalamin Vitamin–B12)

VITAMIN-A
Vitamin-A is a fat soluble vitamin, it is a complex alcohol and is now a day called retinol. Its
derivatives called retinal or retin-aldehyde.

Synonyms
 Retinol
 Retinal
 Retinoic Acid

Chemistry of Vitamin-A
1. The precursor provitamin “A” is the carotenoid pigments of certain plant known
chemically as carotene.
2. Vitamin A is a complex alcohol found in following two forms
Vitamin-A1
Vitamin- A2

Source
 Animal: Fish liver oil, milk, butter, egg yolk, kidney and muscles etc.
 Plant: They are the sources of provitamin-A as Carotene e.g. (yellow/ red colored
vegetable like carrot, corn, apricot, sweet potato, tomatoes, etc.

PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTION

Eyes
Vitamin-A is actively involved in the maintenance of normal visual process of eyes serious
problem of the vision and eyes are found in various degrees of deficiencies of Vitamin-A like
night blindness. Vitamin-A participates both in dark/light vision as well as in color vision

Reproduction

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Retinol and Retinal forms of Vitamin-A are concerned with the normal reproduction. In male they
facilitate the process of spermatogenesis. In female they prevent fatal resorption.

Epithelial Tissues
Vitamin-A is appeared to be the essential factor for maintenance of normal healthy epithelial
surfaces. Several changes have been observed especially to epithelial linings of salivary glands,
tongue, pharynx, mouth and respiratory tract in its deficiency.

Bones and Teeth

It is essential for the normal growth and Development of bones and teeth.

Carbohydrate Metabolism
Various experiments on animals have done that Vitamin-A is engaged in conversion of sugar
into glycogen.

Prevention of Infections
By keeping body surfaces/lining healthy been said as A – infective vitamin.

Miscellaneous Functions
 Involved in protein synthesis
 Involved in nucleic acid metabolism

CLINICAL FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN-A

Eyes
 Xerophthalmia
 Xerophthalmia caused by a severe Vitamin-A deficiency. Xerophthalmia is a medical
condition in which the eye fails to produce tears.

 Keratinizing Metaplasia
 Keratinizing metaplasia is a condition affecting the epithelial surfaces of cornea and
conjunctiva. It is caused by a dietary deficiency of Vitamin-A

 Keratomalacia
 Keratomalacia is an eye disorder that results from Vitamin-A deficiency. Vitamin-A is
required to maintain specialized epithelia (such as in the cornea and conjunctiva)

Epithelial Tissues

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Various epithelial linings of the body are affected they become dry. Keratinized and stratified.
Nasal passage, respiratory tract, oral cavity and uro-genital tract are usually affected.

Skin
Skin become dry, scaly and thick keratinized

Miscellaneous
 Increased chances of stone formation in urinary tract
 Increased chances of infections especially in oral cavity, nasal, sinuses, and respiratory
passage
 Generalized growth failure
 Delayed Dentition
 Malformation of teeth and bones

TOXICITY OF VITAMIN-A
 Acute: headache, nausea and vomiting
 Chronic: dry skin, cracking of lips, bone pain, fragility, brittle nails, hair loss, gingivitis
and portal hypertension.

VITAMIN-D
Vitamin-D is a fat soluble vitamin that enhances the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from
the intestine. Its deficiency may cause rickets in children and osteomalacia (softening of the
bones) in adults.

Synonyms
 Calciferol
 Ergosterol (D2)
 Anti-ricketic vitamin.

Chemistry of Vitamin-D
These are sterols which are precursor of Vitamin-D. There are about 10 compounds of Vitamin-
D and are named as D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6, D7, D8, D9, and D10, out of these only 2 have
anti-ricketic property e.g. Ergosterol and Calciferol Vitamin-D2 is of vegetable and Vitamin-D3 is
of animal sources.

Source

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Vitamin-D is not well distributed in nature. The few rich sources are Liver, viscera of fish, liver of
the animals which feed fish, eggs, butter, fortified milk, halibut liver oil, cod liver oil. Vitamin-D
formed in the skin of human beings by ultraviolet-rays.

FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN D

Absorption of Calcium in Gut

Vitamin D promotes the Ca++ absorption from the intestine

Phosphate Absorption
Intestinal absorption of phosphate is increased by Vitamin-D.

Growth of Bones
Promote endochondral growth of long bones. It ensures that Ca++ is deposited in the bones.

Parathyroid Activity
Activity of parathyroid hormone is exhibited only in the presence of Vitamin-D

Teeth
Vitamin-D helps in normal teeth formation if Vitamin-D is lacking malformation of teeth occurs
such as
 Cavity formation
 Hypoplastic teeth
 Defective enamel &dentine formation

EFFECT OF VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY

Deficiency of Vitamin-D may cause rickets in children and Osteomalacia in adults.

Rickets
It is a disease primarily due to deficiency of dietary intake of Vitamin-D, but an inadequate
supply of calcium, phosphorus and sunlight may also play a part in it.
The deficiency of Vitamin-D results in a lowered plasma calcium level, which stimulates the
secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH), which acts to restore the plasma calcium at the
expense of bone calcium.

Osteomalacia
Osteomalacia is the softening of the bones caused by defective bone mineralization, secondary
to inadequate amounts of available phosphorus and calcium. The most common cause of the

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disease is a deficiency in Vitamin-D, which is normally obtained from the diet and/or from
sunlight exposure.

TOXICITY OF VITAMIN-D
Too much Vitamin-D can cause an abnormally high blood calcium level, which could result in
nausea, constipation, confusion, abnormal heart rhythm, and even kidney stones.

VITAMIN-E
Vitamin-E is a fat soluble vitamin; it is most important vitamin to maintain the normal process of
reproduction.

Synonyms
 Tocopherol
 Anti sterility factor
 Anti oxidant factor

Chemistry of Vitamin-E
 Fat soluble and heat stable vitamin
 Alpha- Tocopherol is the most active form of Vitamin-E.
 These are all methyl derivatives of compound Tocol.
 It is acid stable alkali and oxidation labile.

Source
 Animal: Egg yolk, milk (Human milk contains more than Cow’s milk) liver, cheese, butter
etc.
 Plant: Cotton seed oil, peanut oil etc

FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN-E

Anti- Oxidant
Vitamin-E is a strong anti-oxidant. It provides protection against diseases such as cancer and
cardiovascular diseases.

Act as Co-Enzyme
In certain tissues, it acts as co enzyme.

DNA Synthesis
It controls the rate of synthesis of DNA.

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Muscles
It is essential for the normal functions of muscles

Care of RBCs
Vitamin-E looks after RBCs and prevents them from haemolysis (breakdown of RBCs)

Act as Activator
Vitamin-E acts as activation for enzyme system

Reproduction
It is necessary for normal process of reproduction. It keeps the layers of the embryo healthy and
is useful in prevention of habitual abortion.

Act as Drug
Vitamin-E is used in angina pectoris and in coronary insufficiency.

EFFECT OF VITAMIN-E DEFICIENCY

Vitamin-E deficiency is rare and is almost never caused by a poor diet. The deficiency of
Vitamin-E may cause following disorders.

 Rupture (bursting) of RBCs membrane due to increased lipid per oxidation

 Its deficiency can cause edema (abnormal accumulation of fluid in the tissues) especially
in new born.
 Vitamin-E deficiency causes neurological problems due to poor nerve conduction.
 Signs of Vitamin-E deficiency include neuromuscular problems
 Reproduction failure
 In male, testicular dystrophy and defective spermatogenesis.
 In Female, infertility due to abnormalities in menstrual cycle. (resorption of fetus)
Abortion
 Liver necrosis
 Premature infants. Growth and development retardation.

TOXICITY OF VITAMIN-E
Most studies have shown that Vitamin-E has not toxic effects. However, high doses of Vitamin-E
increase the risk of bleeding. Vitamin-E reduces the blood’s ability to form clots after a cut or
injury. High doses of Vitamin-E may also cause serious bleeding in the brain.

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VITAMIN-K
Vitamin-K is a fat soluble. The name K stands for coagulation vitamin, a substance that prevent
hemorrhagic tendency

Synonyms
 Anti-Hemorrhagic vitamin
 Coagulation vitamin

Chemistry of Vitamin-K
 Fat soluble and heat stable
 Chemically there are three forms of Vitamin-K
 Vitamin-K1 is Plant Origin
 Vitamin-K2 Bacterial Origin
 Vitamin-K3 Synthetically Preparation

Sources
 Plant: Green leafy vegetables such as Alfalfa, Spinach, Cauliflower, Cabbage, Tomato,
Soybeans etc.
 Animals: Fish, meat, milk, egg yolk, Endogenous synthesis, by intestinal bacteria

FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN-K

Blood Clot Formation

Prothrombin Formation
The most important function of Vitamin-K is that it helps in the formation of prothrombin by liver.

(prothrombin is a plasma protein produced in the liver in the presence of Vitamin-K)

Respiratory Mechanism
Vitamin-K is an essential component of respiratory mechanism of cells. In plants, Vitamin-K is
an essential component of photosynthetic process.

Healthy Bones
Vitamin-K2 plays an important role in bone formation. It is also involved in the prevention of
bone loss. Vitamin-K modifies the protein osteocalcin.

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Cell Growth
Growth Arrest–Specific 6 (GAS6) is a protein that is important for regulating cell growth,
proliferation and preventing cell death. Its function is dependent on Vitamin-K

Cardiovascular Disease
Vitamin-K prevents some cardiovascular diseases.

EFFECT OF VITAMIN-K DEFICIENCY

 Deficiency of vitamin-K results in serious complications such as prolonged blood clotting

time and an increased risk to hemorrhage.
 Appearance of blood in urine or stool and experiencing, heavy bleeding during menstrual
cycle are also signs of vitamin-K deficiency.
 Deficiencies of vitamin-K are not very common among adults, but newborns are found to
be at a higher risk as breast milk is typically low in vitamin-K and the infant’s natural
vitamin-K cycle may not be fully developed. 
 Signs of vitamin-K deficiency include weakening of bones, osteoporosis, and fractures.
 Other symptoms of vitamin-K deficiency are hardening of heart valves, accumulation of
calcium salts in a body tissue and neural tube defects.

TOXICITY OF VITAMIN-K
The effects of vitamin-K toxicity can include jaundice in newborns, hemolytic anemia, and
hyperbilirubinemia (too much bilirubin in the blood, Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment found in bile).
Toxicity also blocks the effects of oral anticoagulants.

THIAMINE
Thiamine or thiamin or Vitamin-B1 is a water soluble vitamin, its deficiency is characterized by
beriberi.

Synonyms
 Vitamin-B1
 Thiamine
 Anti-Beriberi factor

Source
 Animal: Egg yolk, liver, milk, kidney, heart and liver of fish
 Plant: Whole cereal, yeast, whole wheat flour, pulses, fresh fruits and vegetables.

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FUNCTIONS OF THIAMINE

Beriberi
The most important use of thiamine is to treat beriberi, which is caused by not getting enough
thiamine in your diet. Symptoms include swelling, tingling, or burning sensation in the hands and
feet, confusion, trouble breathing because of fluid in the lungs, and uncontrolled eye movements
called nystagmus.

Act as Carboxylase
Vitamin-B1 plays an important role in various decarboxylase reactions

Growth
Vitamin-B1 is essential for the normal growth and development of body just like other vitamins.

Cardio Vascular System

Due to deficiency of Vitamin-B1 congestive heart failure can occur

EFFECT OF THIAMINE DEFICIENCY

Symptoms of vitamin-B1 deficiency are fatigue, irritability, depression and abdominal discomfort.
People with vitamin-B1 deficiency also have trouble digesting carbohydrates.

RIBOFLAVIN
Riboflavin or Vitamin-B2 is a water soluble heat stable vitamin its deficiency is characterized by
Ariboflavinosis (A condition caused by a riboflavin deficiency, characterized by angular
stomatitis and a magenta-colored tongue). Vitamin-B2, or riboflavin, works together with the
family of B-complex vitamins to provide the body with energy by metabolizing carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins.

Synonyms
 Vitamin-B2
 Riboflavin
 Lactoflavin

Source
 Animal: Well distributed in the nature excellent sources are liver kidney heart fish eggs
milk
 Plant: Fresh fruits root vegetable like carrot also synthesized by intestinal bacteria to
some extent.
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FUNCTIONS OF RIBOFLAVIN
Riboflavin is used for cervical cancer, and migraine headaches. It is also used for treating, acne,
muscle cramps, burning feet syndrome. Some people use riboflavin for eye conditions including
eye fatigue, cataracts, and glaucoma.
Other uses include increasing energy levels; boosting immune system function; maintaining
healthy hair, skin, mucous membranes, and nails.

EFFECT OF RIBOFLAVIN DEFICIENCY

Signs and symptoms of riboflavin deficiency include cracked and red lips, inflammation of the
lining of mouth and tongue, mouth ulcers, cracks at the corners of the mouth and a sore throat.
A deficiency may also cause dry and scaling skin.

PANTOTHENIC ACID
Pantothenic acid or vitamin-B5 is a water-soluble vitamin; it is among the most important of the
B vitamins for the basic processes of life

Synonyms
 Vitamin-B5
 Pantothenate

Source
It is widely found in both plants and animals including meat, vegetables, cereal grains, legumes,
eggs, and milk.

FUNCTIONS OF PANTOTHENIC ACID

 Pantothenic acid is used in the synthesis of coenzyme A (CoA).

 To break down fats as fuel, Pantothenic acid via the CoA is necessary for building fats
for storage.
 Without Pantothenic acid, you would be unable to use fats, carbohydrates, or proteins as
energy sources. You would be unable to make hormones and your immune system
would collapse.
 Pantothenic acid is also used for treating dietary deficiencies, acne, alcoholism, allergies,
baldness, asthma and heart failure. It is also taken by mouth for dandruff, depression,
diabetic nerve pain, enhancing immune function, improving athletic performance.

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EFFECT OF PANTOTHENIC ACID DEFICIENCY

Pantothenic acid deficiency is exceptionally rare. However some deficiency symptoms are
disorders of the nervous system, gastrointestinal, and immune systems, reduced growth rate,
skin lesions and changes in hair coat, and alterations in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism.

NIACIN
Niacin or Vitamin-B3 is water soluble, thermo-stable vitamin. Its deficiency is characterized by
pellagra (Skin rash, nerve disorder and diarrhea).

Synonyms
 Vitamin-B3
 Nicotinic acid
 Niacin amide (Nicotinamide)
 Pellagra preventing factor

Source
This vitamin is widely distributed both in animal and plant.
 Animal: Liver, Kidney, Meat, Fish, Eggs, Milk
 Plants: Dried yeast, dried legumes whole wheat, peanuts, tomatoes, leafy vegetables
etc.

FUNCTIONS OF NIACIN

Act as Co-Enzymes
It is the most important function of niacin, as it acts as “H” acceptor in various “Redox” reactions
in the form of NAD & NADP. They worked in association with dehydrogenises and act as “H”
acceptor Co-Enzyme.

Prevents Pellagra
Niacin prevents pellagra by keeping various “Redox Reactions”

Growth
Like other vitamins Niacin is essential for the normal growth and development.

Act as CNS Stimulator

It has stimulatory effect on CNS.

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EFFECT OF NIACIN DEFICIENCY

Severe deficiency, called pellagra, can cause symptoms related to the skin, digestive system,
and nervous system. They include

 Thick, scaly pigmented rash on skin exposed to sunlight

 Swollen mouth and bright red tongue
 Vomiting and diarrhea
 Headache
 Fatigue
 Depression

If not treated, pellagra can lead to death.

PYRIDOXAL PHOSPHATE
Pyridoxal Phosphate or Vitamin-B6 is water soluble heat stable vitamin; it is widely distributed in
nature.

Synonyms
 Vitamin-B6
 Pyridoxine
 Pyridoxamine
 Pyridoxa

Source
 Animal: Egg yolk, meat, fish, milk, yeast etc
 Plant: Whole grains, cabbage, legume, cauliflower etc

FUNCTIONS OF PYRIDOXAL PHOSPHATE

 Vitamin B6 is used by the body for many functions, including uses with metabolism, the
nervous system and oxygen transport in the blood.
 Vitamin B6 is used by the body in many places including the metabolism of protein and
the release of glucose from glycogen, both necessary for energy production in the body.
 Vitamin B6 is also important to the body because it is required for the synthesis of many
neurotransmitters including serotonin, epinephrine and dopamine along with histamine.
 The other major function of Vitamin B6 is its important role with hemoglobin and oxygen
transport. Vitamin B6 is used in two very different ways that both have an impact on your
body ability to transport oxygen to cells. First, Vitamin B6 is used by the body to create

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hemoglobin, which is used inside red blood cells to carry oxygen. Once the hemoglobin
is created, the body also later uses Vitamin B6 to increase the effectiveness of the
oxygen-carrying capacity of the red blood cells.

EFFECT OF PYRIDOXAL PHOSPHATE DEFICIENCY

 Pyridoxal Phosphate deficiency can cause a form of anemia.

 Confusion
 Depression
 Irritability
 Mouth and tongue sores

BIOTIN
Biotin or vitamin-B7 is water soluble, heat stable, and an important vitamin for growth.

Synonyms
 Vitamin-B7
 Co-Enzyme-R

Source
 Animal: Liver, Kidney, milk eggs
 Plants: Fruits, vegetables, tomatoes

FUNCTIONS OF BIOTIN
It acts as co-enzyme for various carboxylation reactions it is involved in the formation of
carbonyl phosphate from NH3 and CO2 and ATP in urea cycle.

EFFECT OF BIOTIN DEFICIENCY

Deficiency of biotin may cause following clinical features.

 Lassitude
 Anemia
 Increased cholesterol level
 Muscular pain
 Dermatitis
 Retardation of growth
 Fall of hairs

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FOLIC ACID
Folic acid or vitamin-B9 is water soluble, heat stable and antianemic factor.

Synonyms
Vitamin-B9

Source
It is widely distributed in nature; It is named folic acid because it occurs especially in foliage of
plants.
 Animals: Liver, Kidney, Yeast
 Plant: Root vegetables. It is also synthesized by intestinal micro organisms.

FUNCTIONS OF FOLIC ACID

Folic acid is used for preventing anemia (Megaloblastic anemia) Folic acid is also used for other
conditions commonly associated with folic acid deficiency, including ulcerative colitis, liver
disease, alcoholism, and kidney dialysis.

Women who are pregnant or might become pregnant take folic acid to prevent miscarriage and
“neural tube defects,” birth defects that occur when the fetus’s spine and back don’t close during
development.

Some people use folic acid to prevent colon cancer or cervical cancer. It is also used to prevent
heart disease and stroke, as well as to reduce blood levels of a chemical called homocysteine.

EFFECT OF FOLIC ACID DEFICIENCY

 Bone marrow depression  Growth retardation

 Pancytopenia  Diarrhea
 Megaloblastic anemia  Weakness
 Reproductive detects  Fatigue

ASCORBIC ACID
Ascorbic acid or Vitamin-C or L-ascorbic acid is water soluble, white crystalline, odorless and
sour taste vitamin.

Synonyms
Vitamin-C

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Chemistry
 In human body vitamin-C is found as L- Ascorbic Acid.
 Human body is unable to synthesize vitamin-C
 It is a strong reducing agent and therefore readily oxidized in the body to dehydrate
ascorbic acid
 Freezing and dehydration retains the vitamin-C
 Stable in solid form and in acidic solution but rapidly destroyed in alkaline solution

Source
 Plant: Fresh Fruits: orange, lemon, grapes, guava, apple, strawberry etc. fresh
Vegetables: tomatoes, cauliflower, cabbage, onion, lettuce, green peas, beans etc.
 Animal: Liver, kidney, adrenal glands etc.

FUNCTIONS OF ASCORBIC ACID

Intercellular Substance
Ascorbic acid is required for the functional activities of fibroblast (connective tissue cell) and
osteoblast and consequently for the formation of collagen fibers (connective tissue fiber) and
mucopolysaccharide of connective tissues and osteoid tissues collagen.

Wound Repair
Vitamin C takes active part in wound repair. It lays down the connective tissue which helps in
healing of wound.

Haematopoiesis (the process of blood cell formation)

Vitamin C has a stimulating effect on haematopoiesis because anemia usually accompanies
scurvy.

Growth
It is probably involved in the growth process of a child.

Bones & Teeth

Vitamin C helps in the deposition of Ca and PO4 in the bones and teeth.

Synthesis of Protein Matrix

It helps in the synthesis of protein matrix. It also plays an important role in certain amino acid
metabolism.

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Iron Absorption and Mobilization

Vitamin C is one of the factors influencing the absorption of iron from the food.

Oxidation-Reduction
Vitamin C is possible to involve in various oxidation-reduction systems of the body.

Detoxification
Vitamin C helps in the detoxification of certain poisonous substance that’s why it is given in large
amount in all types of infections and after burns.

EFFECT OF ASCORBIC ACID DEFICIENCY

 A severe form of vitamin C deficiency is known as scurvy. Scurvy causes general
weakness, anemia, gum disease, and skin hemorrhages.
 Loose teeth
 Superficial bleeding
 Fragility of blood vessels
 Poor healing
 Compromised immunity
 Mild anemia

Non Specific Symptoms

This includes
 Weakness
 Weight loss
 Restlessness
 Drowsiness

Toxicity
Vitamin C toxicity is usually caused by taking too many supplements. It is usually not caused by
getting too much vitamin C from food. Vitamin C toxicity can cause diarrhea, nausea, stomach
cramps. Vitamin C toxicity is usually not serious and is treated by stopping vitamin C
supplements.

CYANOCOBALAMIN
Cyanocobalamin or Vitamin-B12, also called cobalamin, is a water-soluble vitamin with a key
role in the normal functioning of the brain and nervous system, and for the formation of blood.

Synonyms

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 Vitamin-B12
 Cobalamin
 Cyanocobalamin
 Antipernicious anemia factor

Source
Coblamine is present in liver whole milk kidney eggs fish cheese and muscle. It is not found in
plants
It is synthesized by micro organisms.

FUNCTIONS OF CYANOCOBALAMIN

Erythropoiesis
Erythropoiesis is the process by which red blood cells (erythrocytes) are produced. Along with
folic acid vitamin B12 is actively involved in the development of RBCs.

WBCs Maturation
It is required for the normal maturation of WBCs and thrombocytes.

Protein Synthesis
Vitamin B12 activates amino acid for the synthesis of protein.

EFFECT OF CYANOCOBALAMIN DEFICIENCY

Cyanocobalamin deficiency can have a number of possible causes. Typically it occurs in people
whose digestive systems do not adequately absorb the vitamin from the foods they eat. This can
be caused by Pernicious anemia and Atrophic gastritis (thinning of the stomach lining).

Its deficiency may also causes symptoms such as

 Weakness, tiredness or light-headedness
 Rapid heartbeat and breathing
 Sore tongue
 easy bruising or bleeding, including bleeding gums
 Stomach upset and weight loss
 Diarrhea or constipation

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INTRODUCTION TO BIOTECHNOLOGY

‘Biotechnology’, the term was coined by a Hungarian engineer, Karl Ereky and is defined as per
the UN convention on biological diversity as,

“Any technological application that uses biological system or living organisms to make
or modify the process or products for specific use.”

Simply we can say that Biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or
make useful products.

Biotechnology has touched almost every aspect of human life. Biotechnology dealing with
medical and health care is termed as Red biotechnology. It is Green biotechnology when it
concerns about agricultural processes, White biotechnology when comes to industrial processes
and Blue biotechnology when dealing with marine and freshwater organisms.

1. Red Biotechnology (Dealing with medical and health care)

2. Green Biotechnology (Dealing with agricultural processes)
3. White Biotechnology (Dealing with industrial processes)
4. Blue biotechnology (Dealing with marine and freshwater organisms)

RED BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biotechnology applied to the medical and health care field is termed as ‘Red Biotechnology’.
Intensive research in this field has not only assured a ray of hope for various life threatening
diseases but has also enhanced the quality of life.

Red biotechnology deals with pharmacogenomics, designing organisms to produce antibiotics

and vaccines, clinical research and trials, gene therapy and diagnostics. The technology is
useful in veterinary science and poultry farming as well.

Commonly the areas covered by red biotechnology is

 Genetic Engineering
 Pharmacogenomics and Medicines
 Produce antibiotics and vaccines
 Cloning
 Stem cell Therapy

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GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biotechnology has brought a revolution in the field of agriculture. It is now common to hear
about genetically modified fruits, vegetables available in any season and offering you specific
nutritions.‘Trans-genetic plants’ modified for increased resistance to pests and diseases,
improved flavor and enhanced growth in adverse weather conditions have started occupying
place in our refrigerators. Not just this, but there is much more that green biotechnology also
known as Plant Biotechnology has done especially alleviating the pains of farmers.

Main research areas and applications include...

 Plant tissue culture
 Plant Genetic Engineering
 Bio fertilizers and bio pesticides
 Hybridization

WHITE BIOTECHNOLOGY
With the distinguished potential witnessed in medical and agriculture sectors, the industrial
processes cannot remain untouched. When dealing with industrial processes, it is termed as
White biotechnology. It deals with the production of various products, from bread to biodiesel.
Enzymes and organisms are employed for the processing and production of chemicals and
other products. Such fermentation and enzymatic processes are also economical and eco-
friendly as compared to their physical and mechanical processes.
 
White Biotechnology is significantly affecting chemical, textile, paper, food, mining and
cosmetics industries, by introducing environment friendly biological processes in place of
traditional methods dependent on petroleum based synthetics. The use of enzymes for washing
processes at textile industries is a good example, where biological processes have reduced the
cost and energy employed. It is also used for purification of water with certain bacteria,
production of bio degradable plastics, enzymes in food manufacturing, insulin production and
many more.
 
White Biotechnology is also concerned with production of alternative energy resources.
Production of ethanol as a substitute of gasoline, from starch and carbohydrates begun the era
of Bio fuels. Ongoing research in this field is promising and we can hope for a future fuelled by
eco friendly Bio fuels; changing ‘hydrocarbon economy’ to ‘carbohydrate economy’.

BLUE BIOTECHNOLOGY
Blue biotechnology is concerned with the application of molecular biological methods to marine
and freshwater organisms. It involves the use of these organisms, and their derivatives, for

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purposes such as increasing seafood supply and safety, controlling the proliferation of noxious
water-borne organisms, and developing new drugs.

FUTURE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biotechnology has the potential to change our world. Coming years may witness the whole new
way of growing crops, dealing with deadly disease and handling future of Biotechnology
environmental problems.

From our medicines to our food, biotechnology offers all new healthier ways to every aspect of
life. In the future age of biotechnology, children will be produced in hatchery rather than born.
Moreover, parents will be able to choose which of their gene combination they want to hand
down to their children.
Many techniques like Crytogenetics, Xenotransplantation, Proteomics, DNA microarrays are
ready to add new horizons to the advancement of biotechnology.

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GENETIC ENGINEERING
Genetic engineering is the process of transferring specific genes from the chromosome of one
organism and transplanting them into the chromosome of another organism in such a way that
they become a reproductive part of the new organism. Or

Genetic engineering is the process of removing a gene from one organism and putting it into
another. Often, the removed genes are put into bacteria or yeast cells so that scientists can
study the gene or the protein it produces more easily. Sometimes, genes are put into a plant or
an animal.

APPLICATIONS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering has applications in medicine, research, industry and agriculture and can be
used on a wide range of plants, animals and micro organisms.

GENETIC ENGINEERING AND MEDICINE

In medicine genetic engineering has been used to mass-produce insulin, human growth
hormones, treating infertility, human albumin, monoclonal antibodies, vaccines and many other
drugs.
The first two commercially prepared products from recombinant DNA technology were insulin
and human growth hormone, both of which were cultured in the E. coli bacteria.

Gene therapy is the genetic engineering of humans by replacing defective human genes with
functional copies. Gene therapy has been successfully used to treat multiple diseases, including
X-linked SCID, chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), and Parkinson's disease.

GENETIC ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH

Genetic engineering is an important tool for natural scientists. Genes and other genetic
information from a wide range of organisms are transformed into bacteria for storage and
modification, creating genetically modified bacteria in the process.

Bacteria are cheap, easy to grow, clonal, multiply quickly, relatively easy to transform and can
be stored at -80 °C almost indefinitely. Once a gene is isolated it can be stored inside the
bacteria providing an unlimited supply for research.

GENETIC ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRY

Using genetic engineering techniques one can transform microorganisms such as bacteria or
yeast, or transform cells from multi-cellular organisms such as insects or mammals, with a gene
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coding for a useful protein, such as an enzyme, so that the transformed organism will over
express the desired protein.

One can manufacture mass quantities of the protein by growing the transformed organism in
bioreactor equipment using techniques of industrial fermentation, and then purifying the protein.

GENETIC ENGINEERING AND AGRICULTURE

One of the best-known and controversial applications of genetic engineering is the creation and
use of genetically modified crops. There are four main goals in generating genetically modified
crops.

1. Protection from environmental threats, such as cold or pathogens, such as insects or

viruses. There are also fungal and virus resistant crops developed or in development.

2. Modify the quality of the agriculture products, for instance, increasing the nutritional
value or providing more industrially useful qualities or quantities of the products.

3. Accelerating the growth of crops

4. Reduce the usage of chemicals, such as fertilizers and pesticides, and therefore
decrease the severity and frequency of the damages produced by this chemical
pollution.

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ELECTROLYTES OF BODY
Electrolytes are minerals in your blood and other body fluids that carry an electric charge.
Electrolytes affect the amount of water in your body, the acidity of your blood (pH), your muscle
function, and other important processes. You lose electrolytes when you sweat. You must
replace them by drinking fluids.

Common electrolytes include:

 Calcium
 Chloride
 Magnesium
 Phosphorous
 Potassium
 Sodium

ELECTROLYTE BALANCE
Electrolyte balance, or salt balance, is necessary in controlling fluid movements within the body.
Salts are lost in perspiration, urine, feces and may be lost excessively in diarrhea, vomiting and
sweating. Sodium is the most important electrolyte in maintaining electrolyte balance.
Regulating the balance between sodium input and output is an important renal function.

ACID- BASE BALANCE:

Acid-base balance is the part of human homeostasis concerning the proper balance between
acids and bases, also called body pH. The body is very sensitive to its pH level, so strong
mechanisms exist to maintain it. Outside the acceptable range of pH, proteins are denatured
and digested, enzymes lose their ability to function, and death may occur.

The body's acid-base balance is tightly regulated by buffering system of our body. Arterial blood
must be kept at a pH of 7.35 to 7.45. When the pH rises above 7.45 or falls below 7.35. The
quickest way (less than 1sec) that blood pH is adjusted by buffering system of our body.

There are three important buffer systems in our bodies

1. Bicarbonate Buffer System

2. Phosphate Buffer System
3. Protein Buffer System

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BICARBONATE BUFFER SYSTEM

The bicarbonate buffering system is an important buffer system in the acid-base homeostasis of
living things, including humans. As a buffer, it tends to maintain a relatively constant plasma pH
and counteract any force that would alter.

PHOSPHATE BUFFER SYSTEM

The phosphate buffer system operates in the internal fluid of all cells. This buffer system
consists of Dihydrogen Phosphate ions (H 2PO4-) as Hydrogen-ion donor (acid) and Hydrogen
Phosphate ions (HPO42-) as Hydrogen-ion acceptor (base). If additional hydrogen ions enter the
cellular fluid, they are consumed in the reaction with HPO42-. If additional hydroxide ions enter
the cellular fluid, they react with H2PO4- and maintain the pH.

PROTEIN BUFFER SYSTEM

The protein buffer system is the most important and widely operating buffer in the body fluid. An
example of a protein buffer is hemoglobin. Protein molecules possess basic and acidic groups
which act as H+ acceptors or donors respectively if H+ is added or removed.

Course Outline Biochemistry

1.          General introduction and basic biochemical principles.
2.          General introduction, basic chemistry, nature and classification and functions of
carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins and Amino acids, Nucleic acids, Vitamins, Hormones, Enzymes.
3.          Role of vitamins, Physiological role of Fat-soluble Vitamins (A, D, E and K) and Water-
soluble vitamins (Thiamin, Riboflavin, Pantothenic acid, Niacin, Pyridoxal phosphate, Biotin Folic
acid, Cyanocobalamin-members of B complex family and Ascorbic acid).
4.          Introduction to Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering.
5.          Acid Base and electrolyte balance in human body.

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