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Caribbean Studies Academy

Sociology-Unit One (1)
Research: Qualitative Methods
Content adapted from Nasser Mutsapha

Qualitative research methods include the following primary or secondary forms:

 Unstructured interviews (primary)
 Participant observation (primary)
 Non-direct/non-participant observation (primary)
 Case studies (secondary)
 Documents (secondary)
 Focus Groups (primary data) Discussed in class/See class notes
Unstructured Interviews
The unstructured interview is a face-to-face interaction process in which a researcher tries to get
as much useful information as possible from a respondent or a number of respondents.
Advantages of Unstructured Interviews
 The validity of data is enhanced by the following:
o The researcher can detect lies or inconsistencies in the interviewees’ accounts by
observing facial reactions or body language.
o Due to the interaction between interviewer and respondent, misunderstandings can be
clarified.
o The researcher can understand the world from the point of view of the interviewee. J.
Young (1971) in a study of hippie marijuana users in Notting Hill, England, found
that they began to see themselves in terms of the police’s perception of them – as
‘worthless’ and ‘lazy’. Patricia Mohammed (1988) found, in her interview of two
East Indian women in Trinidad, that she could understand their feelings about the
traditional female role as housewife and mother.
o The researcher can gain information that he never thought about asking. Such was the
case of Elizabeth Bott (1971) who found that conjugal relationships are affected by
spouses’ social networks. The more involved a spouse is in a social network, the less
dependent he/she is on the other partner.
 The use of unstructured interviews may be the most practical research technique for
exploring specific issues. A questionnaire completed by a rape victim may provide limited
amounts of data, but an unstructured interview can help the inter viewer understand the
victim’s experiences.
 Because small samples are used, the unstructured interview can be useful for challenging or
refuting already existing theories. For example, Ann Oakley interviewed her respondents in
order to dispute Young and Willmott’s claim that by the 1970s the working-class family had
become symmetrical, that is, there was more sharing of housework, childcare and decision-
making (Young and Willmott 1969).
Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews
 The validity of the data can be reduced (that is, made invalid) by a number of factors.
 These are explained below:
o The ‘observer effect’ – this occurs when the presence of the interviewer influences or
inhibits the interviewees. They may provide responses that they believe the
researchers want to hear. Rice reported that researchers often induce specific
responses when they express their views to respondents.
o A related case involves deliberate lies on the interviewees’ part. Laurie Taylor (1984)
experienced being lied to by former members of the London underworld who wanted
to see how gullible he was.
 Interviews may also be time-consuming, especially if the researcher has not yet gained the
trust of respondents.
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 The large quantity of qualitative data collected by interviews can pose problems in analysis.

 Having to listen to long transcripts of talk can also prove both tedious and time-consuming.
 Sometimes interviews can produce limited information on a particular topic. This happens in
times of unwillingness or open hostility on the part of the respondent. This point can be
directly related to the issue of trust and acceptance.
 Interviews of respondents in geographically dispersed areas can prove to be quite expensive
and time consuming.
Participant Observation
Participant observation is widely regarded as a scientific tool because the researcher studies
people in their natural environment by joining their daily activities. However, he/she tries to be
as objective (non- j u d g m e n t a l , not overly involved) as possible, in order to capture the
reality of the subjects.
The Advantages of Participant Observation
 The validity of data is enhanced by the fact that
o the researcher witnesses the group first hand, which makes it difficult for people
to provide false information repeatedly over an extended period of time
o the ‘observer effect’ is minimized if the researcher does not reveal his/her identity
to the subjects (for example, in covert studies)
o the researcher can ask questions to clarify events and actions of the group (for
example, in overt studies)
o the researcher can understand the group’s subjective point of view by studying
them in their natural environment.
 The information is useful for formulating theories about human behaviour. By studying a
group over a protracted period of time, the researcher understands the effect of social
change. Thus, a change in leadership over time can lead to new group dynamics in a
deviant group of young people. Data from participant observation can be used to
challenge already existing theories.
 Participant observation may be the most practical method for studying deviant or secret
groups and activities such as gangs and homosexuality. The covert form allows the
researcher the opportunity to gain information that would not be obtained from open
methods like unstructured interviews and questionnaires.
The Disadvantages of Participant Observation
 The validity of data may be compromised in the following situations:
o The covert observer may overlook information when making secret recordings
(that is, in the field notes).
o The covert observer may provide his/her own interpretations of the group’s
behaviour because asking for clarification may reveal the researcher’s identity.
o Overt observation is likely to produce the ‘observer effect’, since the participants
may change their behaviour once under the scrutiny of the observer.
 The data may lack reliability because
o the study takes a long time to be completed, thus social changes such as further
education or maturation may change the social outlook of the group, making it
impossible to study the group again; and/or
o there is no standardized way to observe people’s behaviour. Sociologists will use
their own observational techniques. Cicourel (1968) admitted this in studying
delinquency in the US.
 Participant observation is costly and time-consuming. The researcher takes very long to
collect valid data, and this may prove too expensive for the researcher, especially if
sponsorship is inadequate. For example, anthropologists interested in studying tribes in
less-developed societies for long periods may need financial assistance during the
research, for basic items such as food, clothing, and toiletries.
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NON-Participant Observations
This involves the researcher being completely detached from the group under observation. It is
effective in experimental situations where people are observed under laboratory-like conditions.

The Advantage of Non-Direct Observation

The data are more objective than data obtained from participant observation, because the
researcher’s presence does not influence the group’s behaviour.
The Disadvantages of Non-Direct Observation
 The validity of the data is compromised by the fact that the researcher draws conclusions
about the behaviour of people with whom he/she did not interact (that is, findings may result
from personal interpretation or guesswork). As such, data are dependent upon the
researcher’s subjective interpretation and objectivity is undermined.
 Putting people under laboratory conditions creates artificiality (that is, people are aware that
their behaviour is to be observed and thus may respond unnaturally). The ‘Hawthorne effect’
is the most applicable way to describe this phenomenon.
Case Studies
Case studies are unique because they do not require the use of any specific data-gathering tool or
tools. The researcher turns to this method when he/she wants to gain an in-depth insight into a
typical example of specific phenomena. Such studies are similar in nature to social surveys in
one way: they cannot be actually administered to respondents. Some other method(s) must be
used to gather the data for the case studies to be affected. Ken Pryce (1976) in his study of St
Paul’s, Bristol, employed this method to study West Indian subcultures. He used both covert and
overt participant observation (together with unstructured interviews) in order to collect the data.
Undoubtedly, one of the most famous case studies is that done by Paul Willis (1977) who also
made use of participant observation and unstructured interviews. He focused on a group of 12
working-class male students in a single school in England. The study demonstrated that schools
are not always successful in transmitting middle-class values, as the ‘lads’ displayed resistance to
academics by deliberately disrupting classes.
The Advantages of Case Studies
 The data may be valid because a number of qualitative methods are used. These provide an
in-depth understanding of the phenomenon being studied.
 They are useful for challenging theories because of the use of non-representative samples.
 In-depth information is gained since focus is placed upon a single phenomenon.
The Disadvantages of Case Studies
 They are low in reliability, since they are time-consuming.
 They cannot be used for generalizing about human behaviour because one may not know the
extent to which one example may demonstrate the typical characteristics of a particular social
phenomenon.
Documents
Documents contain information, usually in qualitative form. There are two main types of
documents: personal and historical. Personal documents include letters, diaries, biographies and
autobiographies. However, historical documents usually contain information written by people
who lived during a particular era, for example, Columbus’s log, or accounts by plantation
bookkeepers or owners. Documents, unlike unstructured interviews and observation, are
secondary data sources. The data already exist, and hence save time for the sociologist.
The Advantages of Documents
 Documents save the researcher time and money.
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 They provide insights into aspects of life to which sociologists would otherwise have no
access. For example, diaries can provide information about the individual’s private life that
he/she would not easily disclose (we can see the world through the eyes of the producer).
 Documents may be the most practical method of studying past events. For example, we will
rely on documents to help us understand the social and economic history of
 the Caribbean. In this way, documents can provide a solid framework for background
information concerning a particular area under study.
 The information from documents can be used to measure the extent of social change. For
example, planters’ log entries can help us understand how levels of social justice have
increased since slavery.
The Disadvantages of Documents
The main disadvantages of documents are the invalidity and unreliability of the data.
 The data may be invalid because of producer bias. People may deliberately falsify
information, especially if they know that their writing will attract an audience. People can
forge documentary evidence.
 Information from old documents may be difficult to read, and some documents may be
damaged or affected by missing pages. This reduces the usefulness of the document for
drawing conclusions.
 Some types of documents may be extremely difficult to access (that is, they may be lost,
misplaced or stolen).