1.

UNITS AND MEASUREMENT a

Physical Quantities
Those quantities which can describe the laws of physics are called the physical
quantity. A physical quantity is one that can be measured. Thus, length, mass,
time, pressure, temperature, current and resistance are the physical quantities.
Classification of physical quantities
The physical quantities are classified into
(i) Fundamental quantities -They are independent of each other are length, mass,
time. (ex- length, mass, time etc.)
(ii) Derived quantities- They are expressed in terms of the fundamental quantities
(ex-Velocity, Force etc.)

Units
The reference standard used to measure the physical quantities is called the unit.
Types of Units
(i) Fundamental Units – Used to measure fundamental quantities. (ex-meter,
kilogram and second and etc.)
(ii) Derived Units- Used to measure derived quantities (ex-ms-1, newton and etc.)

System of Units
(1) FPS System: In this system, the unit of length is foot, unit of mass is pound and
the unit of time is second.
(2) CGS System: In this system, the units of length, mass and time are centimetre,
gram and second, respectively.
(3) MKS System: In this system, the unit of length, mass and time are meters,
kilogram and second, respectively.
(4) SI System: This system is widely used in all measurements throughout the
world. The system is based on seven basic units and two supplementary units.

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Fundamental units

Quantity Unit Symbol of the unit

Length metre m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Temperature kelvin K

Electric current ampere A

Number of particles mole mol

Luminous intensity candela cd

Supplementary Units

Plane angle radian rad

Solid angle Steradian sr

Supplementary Units
1. Radian (rad): The radian is the angle subtended at the centre of the circle by
the arc whose length is equal to the radius of the circle.

2. Steradian (Sr): The steradian is the solid angle subtended at the centre of a

sphere by a spherical surface of an area equal to the square of its radius.

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MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH
Measurement of Large Distances -parallax method
Apparent shift in the position of an object when it is viewed from two different
positions is called parallax. The distance between the two points of observation is
called the basis. In this example, the basis is the distance between the eyes.

θ is called the parallax angle

AS = BS so that AB = b = D θ where θ is in radians. D = b/ θ
Range of Lengths
1 milli -10-3 m
1 micro - 10-6 m
1 nano-10-9 m
1 fermi = 1 f = 10–15
1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10–10 m
1 astronomical unit = 1 AU (average distance of the Sun from the Earth) = 1.496 ×
1011 m
1 light year = 1 ly= 9.46 × 1015 m (distance travelled by light in one year.

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1 parsec = 3.08 × 1016 m (Parsec is the distance at which average radius of earth’s
orbit subtends an angle of 1 arc second)
MEASUREMENT OF MASS
Unified atomic mass unit (u) is used to measure mass of atom
1 unified atomic mass unit = 1u = (1/12) of the mass of an atom of 6C12 = 1.66 ×
10–27 kg
MEASUREMENT OF TIME
We now use an atomic standard of time, which is based on the periodic vibrations
produced in a caesium atom. This is the basis of the caesium clock, sometimes
called atomic clock
ACCURACY, PRECISION OF INSTRUMENTS
Accuracy is defined as the value or how much our calculated value is close to the
true value of that particular calculation.
While precision refers to the values or how close our calculated values to each
other.

ERROR-It is the difference between the measured value and the true value.
Types of Errors:
(a) systematic errors and (b) random errors (c) Least count error
Systematic errors- Due to known reason
These errors may be in one direction, either positive or negative.
(i)Instrumental errors: - due to imperfect design or calibration of the measuring
instrument
(ii)Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure –due to external
conditions (such as changes in humidity, temperature
(iii)Personal errors-due to an individual’s bias
Random errors – Due to known reason These errors can be positive and negative
Least count error
Least count is the smallest value that can be measured by the measuring
instrument.
Least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument.
For example, a Vernier callipers has the least count as 0.01 cm; a spherometer
may have a least count of 0.001 cm.

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Absolute Error, Relative Error and Percentage Error

Let the values obtained in several measurements are a1, a2, a3...., an.

amean = (a1 + a2 + a3 … + an)/n

Absolute error (|Δa|)

The magnitude of the difference between the true value of the quantity and the
individual measurement value is called the absolute error of the measurement.
Then the errors in the individual measurement values are

Δa1 = amean – a1,
Δa2 = amean – a2,
.... .... ....

.... .... ....

Δan = amean – an
The Δa calculated above may be positive in certain cases and negative in some
other cases. But absolute error |Δa| will always be positive.
Mean absolute error
It is the arithmetic mean of the magnitude of absolute errors in all the
measurement of the quantity. It is generally represented by Δamean
If we do a single measurement, the value we get may be in the range amean ±
Δamean
i.e., a  = amean ± Δamean
Relative Error
The relative error is the ratio of the mean absolute error Δamean to the mean
value amean of the quantity measured.
i.e., Relative error = Δamean/  amean
Percentage Error
Percentage error, δa = (Δamean/amean) × 100%

Combination of Errors

(i) (a) Error of a sum or a difference

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Z = A ± B
Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) + (B ± ΔB
The maximum possible error in Z is ΔZ = ΔA + ΔB

(ii) Error of a product or a quotient

Z = AB or Z = A/B
Z ±ΔZ = (A ±ΔA)(B ±ΔB)
The maximum possible error in Z is ΔZ/ Z = (ΔA/A) + (ΔB/B).

(iii) Error in case of a measured quantity raised to a power

Z = A2
ΔZ/Z = (ΔA/A) + (ΔA/A) = 2 (ΔA/A).

In general, if Z = (Ap Bq)/C r
Then, ΔZ/Z = p (ΔA/A) + q (ΔB/B) + r (ΔC/C)

Significant Figures- It gives the number of digits in which we have confidence.

Important Rules of counting significant figures

1. All the non-zero digits are significant. [2786 – 4 significant figures]

2. All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant, no matter where
the decimal point is, if at all. [ 20008- 5 significant figures]
3. If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) on the right of decimal point but to
the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant. [In 0.00 2308, the
underlined zeroes are not significant].
4. The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a number without a decimal point are not
significant. [Thus 123 m = 12300 cm = 123000 mm has three
significant figures, the trailing zero(s) being not significant.] However, you
can also see the next observation.
5. The trailing zero(s) in a number with a decimal point are significant. [The
numbers 3.500 or 0.06900 have four significant figures each.]

Rules for Arithmetic Operations with Significant Figures

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 (1) In multiplication or division, the final result should retain as many
significant figures as are there in the original number with the least
significant figures.

Example
(i)The speed of light is given as 3.00 × 108 m s-1 (three significant figures)
(ii) one year (1y = 365.25 d) has 3.1557 × 107 s (five significant figures)
(iii) The light year is 9.47 × 1015 m (three significant figures).

(2) In addition or subtraction, the final result should retain as many decimal
places as are there in the number with the least decimal places

For example, the sum of the numbers 436.32 g, 227.2 g and 0.301 g by
mere arithmetic addition, is 663.821 g. But the least precise measurement
(227.2 g) is correct to only one decimal place. The final result should,
therefore, be rounded off to 663.8 g.
Similarly, the difference in length can be expressed as: 0.307 m – 0.304 m =
0.003 m = 3 × 10–3 m
Rounding off
Rounding off means a number is made simpler by keeping its value intact
but closer to the next number.
Rules for rounding off
1. If the digit dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left
unchanged.
2. If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the preceding digit is raised
by one.
3. If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, then the
preceding digit is raised by one.
4. If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeroes, then the preceding
digit is left unchanged, if it is even.
5. If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeroes then the preceding
digit is raised by one, if it is odd.
Dimensions
Dimensions of any physical quantity are those powers which are raised

Velocity = displacement/ time= [L]/[T]. The dimension of velocity is [M 0L1T-1]

Homogeneity Principle
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If the dimensions of left hand side of an equation are equal to the dimensions of
right hand side of the equation, then the equation is dimensionally correct. This is
known as homogeneity principle.
[A + B] = [C + D]

Dimensional formulae for some physical quantities

Physical quantity Relation with other Dimensional

quantity formula
1. Area Length × breadth L × L = [L2]
2. Density Mass/volume
3. Acceleration

4. Force F = ma [MLT−2]
5. Linear momentum P = mv [MLT−1]
6. Pressure P = F/A [ML−1T−2]
7. Universal gravitational [M−1L3T−2]
constant
8. Work W=F×d [ML2T−2]
9. Energy (kinetic, potential [ML2T−2]
and heat)
10.Surface tension [ML°T−2]
11.Strain [M°L°T°]
12.Modulus of elasticity [ML−1T−2]

13.Angle [M°L°T°]

14.Planck’s constant h = mvλ [ML2T−1]

Four types of quantities

1. Dimensional constant: These are the quantities whose values are constant
and they possess dimensions. For example, velocity of light in vacuum,
universal gas constant etc.
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 2. Dimensional variables: These are the quantities whose values are variable,
and they possess dimensions. For example, area, volume, density etc.
3. Dimensionless constants: These are the quantities whose values are
constant, but they do not possess dimensions. For example, , 1, 2, 3, …..
etc.
4. Dimensionless Variables: These are the quantities, whose values are
variable, and they do not have dimensions, e.g., angle, strain, specific
gravity etc.

Applications of Dimensions

1. To check the accuracy of physical equations.

2. To change a physical quantity from one system of units to another system
of units.
3. To obtain a relation between different physical quantities.
4. To find the units for constants in an equation.

1.Check the correctness of the physical equations

(a) v2 = u2 + 2as2.

The computations made on the L.H.S and R.H.S are as follows:
L.H.S: v2 = [v2] = [ L1M0T–1]2 = [ L1M0T–2] ……………(1)
R.H.S: u2 + 2as2
Hence, [R.H.S] = [u]2 + 2[a][s]2
[R.H.S] = [L1M0T–1]2 + [L1M0T–2][L1M0T0]2
[R.H.S] = [L2M0T–2] + [L1M0T–2][L2M0T0] [R.H.S] = [L2M0T–2] + [L1M0T–2][L2M0T0] [R.H.S]
= [L2M0T–2] + [L3M0T–2]…………………(2)
From (1) and (2), we have [L.H.S] ≠ [R.H.S]
Hence, by the principle of homogeneity, the equation is not dimensionally
correct.
(b) s= ut+1/2at2

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LHS= S =displacement=[M0L1T0]
RHS= ut = velocity×time = [M0LT−1][T1]=[M0L1T0]
and ½ at2=(acceleration)×(time)2=[M0LT−2][T]2=[M0L1T0]
As LHS=RHS, formula is dimensionally correct.

2. To change a physical quantity from one system of units to another system of

units

The measurement of a physical quantity is given by:  Q = nu 

If the unit of a physical quantity in a system is u1, and the numerical value is ni, then: 
Q=n1u1 ................(1) 
Similar in the other system if the unit is u2 and magnitude is n2 then: 
Q=n2u2. .......(2) 
From Eqs. (1) and (2) 
n1u1= Q=n2u2.................(3) 
If a,b,c are the dimensions of a physical quantity in mass, length and time, then: 
n1[M1aL1bT1c]=n2 
Here M1,L1,T1 and M2,L2,T2 are the units of mass, length and time in the two systems,
then 
n2=n1[M2/M1]a[L2/L1]b[T2T1]c 
The equation can be used to find out the value of a physical quantity in the second or
the new system, when its value in first system is known. 
(a) The value of universal gravitational constant G in CGS system
is 6.67×10−8 dyne cm2gm−2. Convert it into SI system
6.67×10−3dynegm2cm2(CGSunit)
⇒6.67×10−8×(10−5N) × (10−6) kg2(10−4) m2=6.67×10−11kg2Nm2

(b) Using Dimensional analysis convert newton into dyne.

Using the formula

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n2 = n1 [M1/M2] a [L1/L2] b [T1/T2]c
n2=1[1kg/1g]1[1m/1cm]1[1s/1s]−2
n2=1[1000g/1g]1[100cm/1cm]1×1
n2=1000×100=100000=105 dynes

3.To obtain a relation between different physical quantities

(a) Consider a simple pendulum, having a bob attached to a string, that oscillates
under the action of the force of gravity. Suppose that the period of oscillation of
the simple pendulum depends on its length (l), mass of the bob (m) and
acceleration due to gravity (g). Derive the expression for its time period using
method of dimensions.

The dependence of time period T on the quantities l, g and m as a product may be

written as:
T=klagbmc
T=klagbmc Where, K is dimensionless constant and a, b and c are the exponents.
By considering dimensions on both sides, we have
[L0M0T1]=[L1]a[L1T−2]b[M1]c[L0M0T1]=[L1]x[L1T-2]y[M1]z
=La+bT−2bMc
On equating the dimensions on both sides, we have,
a+b =0, -2b= 1 , and c=0
So that a=1/2,b=−1/2,c=0
Then, T=kl1/2g−1/2 or, T=k √l/g
Note that value of constant k cannot be obtained by the method of dimensions .
Here it does not matter if some number multiplies the right side of this formula,
because that does not affect its dimensions.
Actually , k=2π so that T= 2π √l/g

(b) The frequency of vibration (f) of a string may depend upon length (l) of the string,
tension (T) in the string and mass per unit length (m) of the string. Use method of
dimensions for establishing the formula for frequency (f)
Here, f∝laTbmc=klaTbmc  where k is proportionality constant. Now substituting
dimension of each quantity, [T−1] =[L]a[MLT−2]b[M]c=[Mb + CLa+ b T−2b]

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Comparing the both sides, b+c=0,a+b=0 and −1=−2b Thus,
b=1/2,c=−b=−1/2,a=−b=−1/2 so, f=k√T/ml

4.To find the units for constants in an equation.

(a) In Vander Waal's gas equation (P+a2/V) (V−b) =RT. Determine the dimension
of a and here, P is pressure, V is volume, T is temperature and R is gas constant.

(b)Write the dimension of a and b in the relation

P= b-x2/at where, P is power , x is distance and t is time

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Limitations of dimensions

(i) This method gives no information about the dimensionless constants in the
formula like 1, 2, ……………….ππ, e etc.
(ii) This method cannot decide whether the given quantity is a vector or a scalar.
(iii) This method is not suitable to derive relations involving trigonometric,
exponential and logarithmic functions.
(iv) It cannot be applied to an equation involving more than three physical
quantities.
(v)I It can only check on whether a physical relation is dimensionally correct but
not the correctness of the relation
For example using dimensional analysis, s=ut+1/3at2 is dimensionally correct
whereas the correct relation is s=ut+1/2at2.

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