QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY

DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

LOGIC

DEFINITION. A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both.
If a proposition is true, then its truth value is true, which is denoted by T; otherwise, its truth
value is false, which is denoted by F.

Propositions are usually denoted by small letters. For example, the proposition

p: Everyone should study logic

may be read as p is the proposition “Everyone should study logic.” If a sequence of propositions
is considered, we denote the propositions by p1, p2,…

Example 1. Determine whether each of the following statements is a proposition or not. If it is

a proposition, give its truth value.

p: Mindanao is an island in the Philippines.

q: Find a number which divides your age.

r: My seatmate will get a perfect score in the logic exam.

s: Welcome to the Philippines!

t: 2 + 3 = 5.

u: x+1 is a rational function.

v: What is the domain of the function?

w: I am lying.

x: It is not the case that √ 2 is a rational number.

p1:Either logic is fun and interesting, or it is boring.

p2: if you study hard, you get good grades.

p3: If you are a Grade 11 student, then you are a Filipino.

DEFINITION. A compound proposition is a proposition formed from simpler proposition using

logical connectors or some combination of logical connectors. Some logical connectors involving
propositions p and/or q may be expressed as follows:

not p

p and q

p or q

If p, then q

where <.> stands for some proposition. A proposition is simple if it cannot be broken down any
further into other component propositions.

Example 2. For each of the propositions in Example 1, determine whether it is a simple or a

compound proposition. If it is a compound proposition, identify the simple components.

Furthermore, we can determine the simple propositions that make up the propositions p1, p2,
p3, and p4. We do so in the following table

Proposition Simple components

p1 a:√ 2 is a rational number
p2 b: logic is fun
c: logic is interesting
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d: logic is boring
p3 e: you study hard
f: you get good grades
p4 g: you are a Grade 11 student
h: you are a Filipino

The compound propositions can thus be expressed as follows:

p1: not a

p2: b and c or d

p3: if e, then f

p4: if g then h

EXERCISES:

Determine whether the following statements are propositions. If the proposition is a compound
proposition, identify the simple components and the logical connectors used.

1. Define a polynomial function.

2. Justin Bieber has over one million followers on Twitter and Instagram.

3. If Ted’s score is less than 50, then Ted will fail the course.

4. What time is it?

5. Either it is sunny in Metro Manila or its streets are flooded.

6. Dinner is served with coffee or tea.

7. If a, b and c denote the lengths of the legs and the hypotenuse of a right triangle, then
2 2 2
a + b =c .
8. Timothy’s average is at least 92 and he is getting an A for the course.

9.-5 is not a negative number.

10. A password must be at least 6 characters long or it must be at least 8 characters long.

11. If Jerry receives a scholarship, then he will go to college.

12. If you fix my computer, then I will pay you Php 2,000 and if I pay you Php 2,000, then you
will fix my computer.

13. If you do not run 1 kilometer a day or do not eat properly, then you will not be healthy.

Logical Operators

DEFINITION. Given a proposition, its truth table show all its possible truth values.

Example 1. Since a proposition has two possible truth values, a proposition p would have the
following truth table.
p
T
F
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Truth tables can also be used to display various combinations of the truth values of two
propositions p and q. The rows of the table will correspond to each truth value combination of
p and q, so there will be 22=4 rows. The truth table for propositions p and q are as follows:

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

In general, a truth table involving n propositions has 2n rows.

DEFINITION. The negation of a proposition p is denoted by ∽ p (“not p”) and is defined

through its truth table
p ∽p
T F
F T
Example 2. State the negation of the following propositions.

h: f(x) = x - 1 is a linear function.

i: 2 is an odd number.

j:The tinikling is the most difficult dance.

k: Everyone in Visayas speaks Cebuano.

DEFINITION. The conjunction of the propositions p and q is denoted by p ∧q (p and q) and is

defined through its truth table

P q p ∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

The propositions p and q are called conjuncts.

Example: Let p and q be the propositions.

p: Forever exists.

q: 2 is less than 3.

Express the following conjunctions in English sentences or in symbols, as the case may be.

1. p ∧q

2. p ∧∽q

3. ∽ p ∧q

4. “Angels do not exist and 2 is less than 3.”

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5. “While angels do not exist, 2 is less than 3.”

DEFINITION. The disjunction of two propositions p and q is denoted by p ∨q (p or q) and is

defined through its truth table

p q p ∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

The propositions p and q are called disjuncts.

Example. Let p, q and r be the propositions.

p:Victor has a date with Liza.

q: Janree is sleeping.

r: Eumir is eating

Express the following propositions in English sentences or in symbols, as the case may be.

1. p ∨q
2. q∨r
3. q ∨(∽ r )
4. p ∨¿ ∨r ¿
5. “Either Victor has a date with Liza or Janree is sleeping, or Eumir is eating.”
6. “Either Victor has a date with Liza and Janree is sleeping, or Eumir is eating.”
7. “Either Victor has a date with Liza, or Janree is sleeping, and Eumir is eating.”
8. “Either Victor has a date with Liza and Janree is sleeping, or Victor has a date with Liza
and Eumir is eating.”

REMEMBER!

The above discussion may also be summarized in the following table:

p q R ∽p q∧r ∽ p ∨ (q ∧ r ¿
F F T T F T

DEFINITION. The conditional of the propositions p and q is denoted by p →q : (If p, then q) and
is defined through its truth table

P Q p →q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

The conditional p →q may also be read as “p implies q”. The proposition p is called the
hypothesis, hypothesis, while the proposition q is called the conclusion.
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Example. Suppose that Geebee is a Grade 11 student. Consider the following conditionals.
Analyze the truth value of these conditionals

p1: If Geebee is in Grade 11, then she is a senior high school student.

p2: If Geebee is in Grade 11, then she is working as a lawyer.

p3: If Geebee has a degree in computer science, then she believes in true love.

DEFINITION. The biconditional of propositions p and q is denoted by p ↔q (p if and only if q)

and is defined through the truth table

p Q p ↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

The proposition may also be written as “p iff q”. The propositions p and q are the components
of the biconditional.

Example 9. Suppose that Geebee is a Grade 11 student. Let us now consider the following
biconditionals.

q1: Geebee is in Grade 11 if and only if she is a senior high school student.

q2: Geebee is in Grade 11 if and only if she is working as a lawyer.

q3: Geebee has a degree in Computer Science if and only if she believes in true love.

Constructing Truth Tables

Example 1. Let p and q be propositions. Construct the truth table for the compound
proposition ( p →q ) ∧ ( q → p ).

Example 2. Let p, q, and r be propositions. Construct the truth table for the compound
proposition [ ( p →r ) ∧ ( q → r ) ] → [ ( p ∨q ) → r ] .
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COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Constructing Truth Tables

Example 1. Let p and q be propositions. Construct the truth table for the compound
proposition ( p →q ) ∧ ( q → p ).

Since there are two propositions involved, there are 4 rows.

P q p →q q→ p ( p →q ) ∧ ( q → p )
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F Example 2. Let p, q,
F F T T T and r be propositions.
Construct the truth table for the compound proposition [ ( p →r ) ∧ ( q → r ) ] → [ ( p ∨q ) → r ] .

p q r p →r q→r ( p →r ) ∧ ( q →pr ∨q
) ( p ∨q ) → r [ ( p →r ) ∧ ( q → r ) ] → [ ( p ∨q ) → r ]

T T T T T T T T T
T F T T T T T T T
T T F F F F T F T
T F F F T F T F T
F T T T T T T T T
F F T T T T F T T
F T F T F F T F T
F F F T T T F T T

Definition. A proposition that is always true is called a tautology, while a proposition that is
always false is called a contradiction. We denote tautologies by τ and contradictions by ϕ .

Example. Let p and q be propositions. Using truth tables, show the following:

1. p ∨τ is a tautology.
2. p ∧ϕ is a contradiction
3. p → ( p ∨q )is a tautology.
4. ( p ⋀ ( ∼ q ) ) ∧ ( p ∧q )is a contradiction

Definition. Suppose p and q are propositions. From the conditional proposition p →q , we

derive three other conditional statements;

a. Converse: q → p
b. Contrapositive: ∼ q → ∼ p
c. Inverse: ∼ p →∼q

Example. Determine the converse, contrapositive, and inverse of the following conditional
propositions.

a. “If the clothes are neatly stacked and pressed, then the house help arrived today.”
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b. “If it did not flood yesterday, then the streets are dry today.”
c. “Whenever Nico studied alone, he got the highest score in the class.”
d. “Her parents gave her monetary allowance if Bianca accompanied her parents to
the PTA meeting.”
e. “If Mariah hit the high whistle note, then the audience gave her a standing ovation.”

Valid Arguments and Fallacies

Definition. An argument is a compound proposition of the form

( p ¿ ¿ 1 ∧ p2 ∧ p 3 ∧ …) → q ¿

The propositions ( p ¿ ¿ 1 ∧ p2 ∧ p 3 ∧ …)¿ are the premises of the argument, and q is the
conclusion. Arguments can be written in propositional form, as in above, or in column or
standard form:

p1
p2
___________
∴q
Example 1. Explain why the following set of propositions is an argument.

a. If General Antonio Luna is a national hero, then he died at the hands of the Americans
in 1899.
General Luna is a national hero.
Therefore, General Luna died at the hands of the Americans in 1899.
b. If your grades are high, then you studied hard.
You studied hard.
Therefore, your grades are high.

Example 2. Write the following argument in standard form:

If there is a limited freshwater supply, then we should conserve water.
There is a limited freshwater supply.
Therefore, we should conserve water.
p →q
p
___________
∴q

Definition. A valid argument satisfies the validity condition; that is, the conclusion is true
whenever the premises are all true. Alternatively, the argument is valid if the conditional
( p ¿ ¿ 1 ∧ p2 ∧ p 3 ∧ …) → q ¿ is a tautology.

Example 1. Tell whether the following arguments are valid or not. Explain.

a. If General Antonio Luna is a national hero, then he died at the hands of the Americans
in 1899.
General Luna is a national hero.
Therefore, General Luna died at the hands of the Americans in 1899.
b. If your grades are high, then you studied hard.
You studied hard.
Therefore, your grades are high.

Example 2. Consider the arguments in the previous examples:

Argument A
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If my alarm sounds, then I will wake up.

My alarm sounded.
Therefore, I woke up.
Argument B
If there is a limited freshwater supply, then we should conserve water.
There is a limited freshwater supply.
Therefore, we should conserve water
Argument C
If General Antonio Luna is a national hero, then he died at the hands of the
Americans in 1899.
General Luna is a national hero.
Therefore, General Luna died at the hands of the Americans in 1899.

***Note that all these arguments are in the form [( p → q)∧ p]→ q or p →q
p
___________
∴q

known as Modus Ponens. Since Modus Ponens is a tautology, it is valid.

***Hence, by Modus Ponens, all three arguments are valid. However, this does not mean that
the conclusions are true. Asserting that an argument is valid simply means that the
conclusion logically follows from the premises.

RULES OF INFERENCE
These are used to prove that the argument is VALID
RULES/LAWS Propositional Form Standard
Form
Rule of Simplification ( p ∧q ) → q p∧q
q
Rule of Addition p → ( p ∨q ) p
p∨q
Rule of Conjunction ( p ∧q ) → ( p ∧ q ) p∧q
p∧q
Modus Ponens [ ( p →q ) ∧ p ] → q p→q
p
q
Modus Tollens [ ( p →q ) ∧ ( ∼q ) ] → ( ∼ p ) p→q
∼q
∼p
Law of Syllogism [ ( p →q ) ∧ ( q → r ) ] → ( p → r ) p→q
q→r
p→r
Rule of Disjunctive [ ( p ∨q ) ∧ ( ∽ p ) ] → q p∨q
Syllogism ∽p
q
Rule of Contradiction [( p)→ ∅ ]→ p p→∅
p
Rule of Proof by Case [ ( p →r ) ∧ ( ∼q → r ) ] → [ p ∨ ( ∼q ) ] → r p→r
q →r
p
∼q
r
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Definition. An argument which is not valid is called a fallacy. In a fallacy, it is possible for the
premises to be true, while the conclusion is false. In this case, the conditional is not a
tautology.
FALLACIES IN LOGIC
These are used to prove that an argument is NOT VALID

Fallacies Propositional Form Standard Form

Fallacy of the Converse [ ( p →q ) ∧ q ] → p (p→q)
q
p
Fallacy of the Inverse [ ( p →q ) ∧ ( ∼ p ) ] → ( q ) (p→q)
∼p
∼q
Affirming the Disjunct [ ( p ∨q ) ∧ p ] → ( q ) p∨q
p
q
Fallacy of the Consequent ( p →q ) → ( q → p ) p→q
q→ p
Denying a Conjunct [ ( p∧ q ) ∧ ( ∽ p ) ] →q ( p ∧ q)
∽p
q
Improper Transposition ( p → q)→ [ ( p ) → ( q ) ] p→q
( p ) → ( q)

Example 10. Determine whether the given is a valid argument or a fallacy.

a. Either Alvin sings or dances with Nina.
Alvin sang with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin did not dance with Nina.
b. It is not true that Alvin sings and dances with Nina.
Alvin did not sing with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin danced with Nina.
c. Antonio Luna is a scientist.
Therefore, either Antonio Luna or Jose Rizal is a scientist.
Valid and Sound Arguments
Definition. An argument is said to satisfy the truth condition if its premises are generally true.
Definition. A sound argument is a valid argument which also satisfies the truth condition. An
argument which does not satisfy either the validity condition or the truth condition is called a
bad argument

Example 11. The following arguments were already shown to be valid. Tell whether they are
sound or bad arguments.
a. Antonio Luna and Jose Rizal like Nelly Boustead.
Therefore, Antonio Luna likes Nelly Boustead.
*VALID BY THE RULE OF SIMPLIFICATION
b. Antonio Luna is a scientist.
Therefore, either Antonio Luna or Jose Rizal is a scientist.
*VALID BY THE RULE OF ADDITION
SOLUTION:
A simple history verification will show that the premises of both arguments are true. Nelly
Boustead was the object of affection of Antonio Luna and Jose Rizal while they were in Spain.
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Moreover, Luna is known as a brilliant general, but he is also a scientist. He studied Chemistry
at the University of Santo Tomas, and went to Spain where he obtained his license and
doctorate in pharmacy.
Hence, these arguments satisfy both truth condition (all the premises are generally true) and
validity condition(through the different Rules of Inference), so they are sound arguments.

Example 12. Determine whether each of the following arguments is valid, and if each is sound.
a. If I was born poor, then I cannot serve my country.
I was born poor.
Therefore, I cannot serve my country.
b. If I study every day, then I will develop a good work ethic.
I study every day
Therefore, I will develop a good work ethic.

Solution. By Modus Ponens, both arguments are valid. We then check for soundness through
the truth condition.
a. Note that being poor does not prevent one from serving one’s country (you can probably
think of some examples). Hence, the given argument is a bad argument.
b. It is accepted as true that if one studies every day, then a good work ethic will be developed.
However, it cannot be assumed true that “I study every day”. If it is true, then the argument is
sound. Otherwise, the argument is bad

EXERCISES
1. Determine whether the following arguments are valid. If it is valid, then identify the rule of
inference which justifies its validity. Otherwise, state a counterexample or identify the type of
fallacy exhibited by the argument.

a. If it rains today, then 2 x 2 = 4 .

It rained today.
Therefore, 2 x 2 = 4.

b. Either Lina or Lino will take the trash to the recycling center.
Lina did not take the trash to the recycling center.
Hence, Lino must have taken the trash to the recycling center.

c. If Joe makes a reviewer for his class and studies it well, then he will get a high
grade in his exam.
Joe did not get a high grade in his exam.
Therefore, either Joe did not make a reviewer for his class or he did not study it
well.

d. It is not the case that x is an odd number and y is a prime number.

Furthermore, x is not an odd number.
Therefore, y is a prime number.
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e. If Leona wins the singing competition, then she will land a recording contract
with a famous company.
She landed a recording contract with a famous company.
It follows that Leona won the singing competition.

f. If Michael sleeps early tonight, then he will wake up early tomorrow.

If he does not play with his pet dog, then he will wake up early tomorrow.
Therefore if Michael sleeps early tonight or does not play with his pet dog, then
he will wake up early tomorrow.

Sets
A set is a collection of objects, called elements of the set. A set can be represented by
listing its elements between braces: A={1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 }. The symbol ∈ is used to express that an
element is (or belongs to) a set, for instance 3 ∈ A . Its negation is represented by 6 ∈, e.g. 7 ∉ A
. If the set is finite, its number of elements is represented ¿ A∨¿, e.g. if A={1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 } then
¿ A∨¿5 .

Sets can be expressed through roster method or set – builder notation.

1. Roster Method. Suppose we have

to list the first five counting
numbers. By roster method, we
have:

Based on the condition that the

elements of set S are the first five counting
numbers, then we say that:

1 ∈ S means “1 is an element of set S”

7 ∉ S means “7 is not an element of set S”

Suppose we will list down all positive integers, then:

This means that S also contains 6, 7, 8, and so on.

Suppose we will list down all negative integers, then:

This means that T also contains -4, -5, -6 and so on.

Suppose we will list down all integers, then:

This means that Z contains all positive integers greater than 2 and all negative integers
lesser than -2.
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2. Set – Builder Notation. What if we want to know the set containing ALL real numbers
between 0 and 1 (including 0 and 1)?

This means that S contains all x ’ s such that x is greater than or equal to 0 and x is
less than or equal to 1.
We can also write it this way:

To simplify this, we may write:

The following are some known sets:

1. N={0 , 1 ,2 , 3 ,· ·· } = the set of natural numbers.
2. Z={· ·· ,−3 ,−2 ,−1 , 0 , 1, 2 , 3 ,· ·· } = the set of integers.
3. Q=¿the set of rational numbers.
4. R=¿the set of real numbers.
5. C=¿the set of complex numbers

Subset
If A and B are sets, then A is
called a subset of B, written A ⊆ B , if and
only if every element of A is also an
element of B .

In symbols, we write:
A ⊆ B means that for all elements x , if
x ∈ A then x ∈ B .

It follows from the definition that if A ⊈ B , it means that there is at least one element x
such that x ∈ A and x ∉ B . If A and B are sets, A is a proper subset of B if and only if, every
element of B is in B but there is at least one element of B that is not in A .

To know more about subsets, take a look at the following examples:

1. { 1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 } is a subset of { 1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 } .
2. { 1 , 2 } is a proper subset of { 1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 }.
3. { 6 , 7 } is not a subset of { 1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 } .
4. { 1 ,3 ,6 } is not a subset of { 1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 } .
5. The empty set, ∅ , is a subset of { 1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 } .

Complement of a Set
Suppose A is any set, then A'
is a complement of A .

Suppose, the universal set

U ={ 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ,6 ,7 , 8 , 9 , 0 } .

If A={1 , 4 , 5 , 6 } then
'
A ={2 ,3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 0}
If B= {1 , 2 ,3 } then B' ={ 4 ,5 ,6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 0 } .
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If C={ 0 , 1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ,8 ,9 } , then C=∅ .

Set Operations
1. The union of sets A and B, denoted by ∪, is
the set that contains all the elements that
belong to A or to B or to both.

2. The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by

∩, is the set of elements common to both A
and B.

3. Cartesian Product
Consider two sets A∧B where:

A={ 1, 2 } and B={3 , 4,5 }

Set of all ordered pairs of elements of A∧B is {(1,3),(1,4),( 1,5) ,(2,3) ,(2,4),(2,5) }.

This set is denoted by A × B={( 1,3 ) , ( 1,4 ) , ( 1,5 ) , ( 2,3 ) , (2,4 ) , (2,5 ) }

Cartesian product of B sets and A by B× A . In the present example, it is given by:

B× A={(1,3),(1,4) ,(1,5),(2,3),(2,4), (2,5)}

Clearly, A × B ≠ B × A .

Relations
Consider the following example:
A={Mohan , Sohan , David , Karim }
B= { Rita , Marry , Fatima }
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Suppose Rita has two brothers Mohan and Sohan, Marry has one brother David, and
Fatima has one brother Karim. If we define a relation R "is a brother of" between the elements
of A∧B then clearly.

Mohan R Rita, Sohan R Rita, David R Marry, Karim R Fatima. After omiting R between
two names these can be written in the form of ordered pairs as:

( Mohan , Rita) ,( Sohan , Rita),( David , Marry) ,( Karima , Fatima).

The above information can also be written in the form of a set R of ordered pairs as
R={(Mohan , Rita),(Sohan , Rita ),( David , Marry), Karim, Fatima }

Clearly R ⊆ A × B ,i . e . R={ ( a , b ) :a ∈ A , b ∈ B∧aRb }

If A × B are two sets then relation R from A ¿ B is a subset of A × B .

Domain and Co-Domain of a Relation
Let A∧B be sets. A relation of R ¿ A ¿ B is a subset of A × B. Given an ordered pair
(x , y ) in A × B , x is related ¿ y by R , written x R y , if and only if, (x , y ) is in R . Set A is called
the domain and set B is the co-domain.

Consider previous example:

Domain={Mohan , Sohan , David , Karim }
Co−Domain={Rita , Marry , Fatima }

Another example:
Let A={1,2 } and B={1,2,3} and define a relation R from A ¿ B as follows:

x− y
Given any (x , y ) means that is an integer.
2

a. State explicitly which ordered pairs are in A × B and which are in R .

b. Is 1 R 3 ? Is 2 R3 ? Is 2 R2 ?
c. What are the domain and co-domain of R .

Solution:
a. A × B={( 1,1 ) , ( 1,2 ) , (1,3 ) , ( 2,1 ) , ( 2,2 ) , ( 2,3 ) }. To determine explicitly the composition of R ,
examine each ordered pair in A × B to see whether its elements satisfy the defining
condition in R .
1−1 0
( 1,1 ) ∈ R becasuse = =0 , whichis an integer
2 2
1−2 −1
( 1,2 ) ∈ R becasuse = , whichis not aninteger
2 2
….
….
2−3 −1
( 2,3 ) ∈ R becasuse = , which is not integer
2 2

Thus, R={( 1,1 ) , ( 1,3 ) , ( 2,2 ) .

b. Yes, 1 R 3 because ( 1,3 ) ∈ R .

No, 1 R 3 because ( 2,3 ) ∉ R .
Yes, 2 R2 because ( 2,2 ) ∈ R .
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c. The domain of R is ( 1,2 ) and the co-domain is { 1,2,3 } .

Function
A function F ¿ a Set A ¿ a Set B is a relation with domain A and co-domain B that satisfies
the following properties:
1. For every element x in A , there is an element y in B such that ( x , y ) ∈ F .
2. For all elements x in A and y and z in B ,
if ( x , y ) ∈ F and ( x , z ) ∈ F , then y=z .

To say it simply, a relation F from A ¿ B is a function, if and only if:

1. Every element of A is the first element of an ordered pair of F .
2. No two distinct ordered pairs in F have the same first element.

Consider the relation f : { ( a ,1 ) , ( b , 2 ) , ( c , 3 ) , ( d , 5 ) } .

In this relation, we see that each element of A has a

unique image in B . This relation f from set A ¿ B where every
element of A has a unique image in B is defined as a
function from A ¿ B . So, we observe that in a function no two
ordered pairs have the same first element.

We also see that an element in B does not have a pre-image in A . Thus,

a. Set B will be termed as co-domain and
b. Set {1, 2, 3, 5} is called the range.

From the given example we can conclude that range is a subset of co-domain. Symbolically,
this function can be written as
f : A→B