Lighting Guide 6:

Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

The exterior environment

The Society of Light and Lighting

ISBN 978-1-906846-68-8

Lighting for the

built environment
The Society of Light and Lighting is part of the
The Society of
Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers 9 781906 846688 Light and Lighting

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 Lighting Guide 6:
The exterior environment

The Society of
Light and Lighting

222 Balham High Road, London SW12 9BS, UK

Tel: 020 8675 5211. Fax: 020 8673 3302. E-mail: [email protected]. www.sll.org.uk

The Society of Light and Lighting is part of the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

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 This document is based on the best knowledge available at the time of publication.
However, no responsibility of any kind for any injury, death, loss, damage or delay
however caused resulting from the use of these recom­mendations can be accepted
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and Lighting, the author or others involved in its publication. In adopting
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The rights of publication or translation are reserved.

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transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission of the
publisher.

© January 2016 The Society of Light and Lighting

The Society is part of CIBSE which is a registered charity, number 278104.

ISBN 978-1-906846-68-8 (print edition)

ISBN 978-1-906846-69-5 (PDF edition)

Editing, layout and typesetting by Alasdair Deas for CIBSE Publications.

Printed in Great Britain by The Lavenham Press Ltd., Lavenham, Suffolk

CO10 9RN.

Cover illustrations: upper left: Wembley Stadium (courtesy Thorn Zumtobel;

photographer Joss Guest); upper right: coloured fountain lighting (courtesy
Ustigate Ltd.); lower left: steps using illuminated handrail (courtesy DW
Windsor Ltd.); lower right: Beaune Collegiale (courtesy iGuzzini illuminazione
S.p.A; photographer Didier Boy)

Note from the publisher

This publication is primarily intended to provide guidance to those responsible
for the design, installation, commissioning, operation and maintenance of
building services. It is not intended to be exhaustive or definitive and it will
be necessary for users of the guidance given to exercise their own professional
judgement when deciding whether to abide by or depart from it.

Any commercial products depicted, mentioned or described within this

publication are included for the purposes of illustration only and their inclusion
does not constitute endorsement or recommendation by the Society.

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 Foreword

Since the last edition of this guide, in 1992, there has been a surge of interest in
lighting the exterior environment – in particular, light pollution, energy use and
long-term sustainability have become more pertinent than ever. In the 1990s,
LEDs that could produce a functional amount of light were simply not available.
This technology will continue to develop and there is a strong expectation that it
will replace conventional light sources.

The aim of this guide is to reflect these changes and provide readers with a
firm foundation from which to approach exterior lighting design. Since light
source technology is advancing rapidly, the guide provides a holistic approach
to the design of the exterior environment, rather than concentrating on product
performance, which quickly becomes out of date.

Author
Alan Tulla (Alan Tulla Lighting)

Task Group
Alan Tulla (chairman)
Lorraine Calcott (it does Lighting Ltd)
David Mooney (Atkins)
Theo Paradise-Hirst
Chris Wilkes (Holophane Europe Ltd)

Technical and Publications Committee

Paul Ruffles/Simon Robinson (chairman)
John Fitzpatrick (publications co-ordinator)

SLL Secretary
Brendan Keely

CIBSE Head of Knowledge

Nicholas Peake

Editorial Manager
Ken Butcher

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 Acknowledgements

The Task Group wishes to acknowledge the individual contributions to the guide
provided by:

—— Francesco Anselmo
—— Iain Carlile
—— Pat Holley
—— Ray Pang
—— Liz Peck

Picture credits:
Figures 2.1: Thorn Zumtobel; photographer Joss Guest
Figure 2.15: Courtesy of iGuzzini illuminazione S.p.A; photographer Didier Boy
de la Tour.
Figures 2.16, 2.23, 2.44, 2.45: NDY Light, London
Figures 2.19, 2.26: Courtesy of it does Lighting Ltd; photographer James Newton
Figures 2.20, 2.25: dpa lighting consultants, London
Figures 2.28, 3.3: Courtesy of DW Windsor; photographer James Newton
Figure 2.32: Copyright Arup
Figure 2.35: Francesco Anselmo
Figures 2.36, 2.39–2.41: Courtesy of Traxon Technologies
Figure 2.37: Courtesy of Arup Lighting; copyright Zhou Ruogu Architecture
Photography
Figure 2.38: Courtesy of Arup Lighting; copyright Frank P Palmer
Figures 2.42, 2.43, 2.46–2.49: Ray Pang
Figure 2.50: Courtesy of Abacus Lighting and Marlec Engineering
Figures 2.51: Thorn Zumtobel
Figures 3.1, A4.1: Copyright Alan Tulla Lighting
Figure 3.2: Courtesy of Ustigate Ltd

Figures 2.3–2.5, 2.10–2.14, 2.17, 2.18, 2.22, 2.30, 2.31, 2.33 and A4.2 used under
licence from Shutterstock.com

Permission to reproduce extracts from BS EN 12464-2 is granted by BSI. British

Standards can be obtained in PDF or hard copy formats from the BSI online
shop: www.bsigroup.com/Shop or by contacting BSI Customer Services for
hardcopies only: Tel: +44 (0)20 8996 9001, Email: [email protected].

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 Contents 1 Introduction........................................................................1

2 General design aspects for exterior lighting....................1

2.1 Context.....................................................................................................2
2.2 Legislation and guidance...........................................................................8
2.3 Area lighting.............................................................................................9
2.4 Amenity lighting.....................................................................................12
2.5 Landscape lighting..................................................................................15
2.6 Facade lighting........................................................................................20
2.7 Security lighting .....................................................................................35
2.8 Roadways...............................................................................................37
2.9 Vision......................................................................................................38
2.10 Video walls, streaming onto building facades..........................................39
2.11 Digital advertising signs...........................................................................49
2.12 Presentation of lighting concepts and lighting software...........................50
2.13 Equipment – off-grid systems..................................................................54
2.14 Luminaires...............................................................................................56
2.15 Light sources...........................................................................................62
2.16 Saving energy, signalling and switching...................................................66

3 Lighting for specific applications.....................................68

3.1 Flags and statues.....................................................................................68
3.2 Pedestrian routes, cycleways and subways...............................................68
3.3 Water features, fountains and pools........................................................70
3.4 Steps, stairs and changes of level.............................................................70
3.5 Maintenance of external lighting systems................................................73

Appendix 1: IP ratings..................................................................76

Appendix 2: IK ratings..................................................................76

Appendix 3: Floodlighting calculations.......................................77

Appendix 4: Artificial lighting and its effect on

animal and plant ecology.......................................79

Glossary..........................................................................................84

References.....................................................................................93

Index ...........................................................................................96

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 Introduction 1

1 Introduction One of the major differences between this current guide and the previous edition
is the emphasis on environmental and energy issues. Digitally controlled lighting
is becoming an increasingly important facet of lighting design.

Any new outdoor lighting design will be subject to much more scrutiny in terms
of its impact on the night environment and energy consumption. Most major
planning applications require a visual impact assessment of both the daytime and
the night-time appearance.

There is a balance to be struck between increased social amenity and the desire
for darkness. A typical example is the tension between the need to provide
floodlighting for sports while minimising light pollution and sky glow. The social
benefits to be gained by adults and children being able to play sport after dark
must be balanced against the environmental (in its widest sense) impact. There is
also an increasing trend towards ‘lighting for darkness’ in exterior design.

Another major difference is the growing use of solid state lighting (SSL). This
normally refers to LEDs, although other SSL sources are being introduced. The
major difference between these and conventional light sources is that they are very
easily controllable using digital signals; for example, they can easily restrike from
hot or dim smoothly to 10% (or less) output and are therefore highly responsive
to pedestrian and traffic movement. They can easily be made to respond to other
factors, such as atmospheric conditions, temperature, visibility, etc.

Apart from the fact that LEDs have luminous efficacies which can sometimes
exceed those of high-pressure sodium, there are also major energy savings to be
made by programmed switching (as opposed to simple photocell control) and
dimming. Dimming and proactive controls should play a major part in any
exterior lighting scheme.

It is anticipated that LEDs will replace conventional light sources for most
applications.

The relative cost of energy will inevitably increase in the long term, so we discuss
ways of minimising consumption without compromising the function or visual
aspect of the design.

The longevity of exterior lighting installations means that issues can arise which
were not seen as important at the time of the design (e.g. the energy cost of
streetlighting or recycling of electronic components, such as LEDs or their drivers).

Of particular relevance to exterior lighting is the issue of light pollution in all

its forms. Any new lighting installation makes an impact on the night-time
environment and this should be balanced against the needs of the population
and improved social amenity.

A lighting scheme that does not benefit society in some way should not be
installed in the first place.

2 General A comfortable and stimulating outdoor environment is usually the result of a

combination of factors: location, topology, history, architecture, the physical
design structure of the environment and the elements and activities contained within it.

aspects for External lighting can greatly enhance the outdoor environment by creating a
exterior heightened sense of place. It can extend the use of an area or activity well into the
evening, contributing to a real and perceived sense of security at night, enhancing
lighting the night-time experience for visitors and residents alike. On a broader scale,
sensitive exterior lighting can instil a feeling of civic pride and significantly

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 2 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

contribute to the regeneration of urban areas. Lighting can also be used as a

means to guide people, in much the same way as a road sign or traffic signal can,
but perhaps in a more subtle and intuitive manner.

Lighting can be used to reveal and enhance a space, creating a sense of place,
especially at focal points and nodes of activity, while making positive connections
between the various elements of a development and its locale. Lighting can
sometimes become a focal point in itself.

In addition to the visual impact, there are a number of other aspects that
need to be considered in the development of any external lighting design: the
creation of a safe and pleasant environment, the appropriate use of energy,
ease of maintenance, countering the threat of vandalism and harmonising the
appearance of the lighting equipment with its surroundings.

Inappropriate external lighting is a potential environmental nuisance in any

context. Artificial light should always be delivered to the point where it is
required, and nowhere else. Issues such as brightness, direction and context
also need to be considered in the development of the external lighting design to
ensure that light pollution and light spill is avoided.

Savings can be made throughout the entire life of an installation by the careful
consideration of energy efficiency, light-source and luminaire efficiency, the
overall cost of a scheme, maintenance regimes and ensuring that the most
environmentally sustainable schemes are installed.

People’s reactions to the nocturnal environment are centred on a sense of well-

being resulting from a complex combination of factors, such as:

—— visual comfort
—— sense of place
—— spatial legibility
—— way finding
—— personal safety and security

—— a psychologically comfortable balance between lit and unlit spaces.

2.1 Context A lighting masterplan considers all elements of the exterior lighting of a
development, from the macro-scale to the micro-scale. It lays down a set of
2.1.1 Lighting rules and guidance that need to be adhered to for any new project within the
masterplans boundaries of the development in order to ensure consistency of approach in the
lit effect. A lighting masterplan can be applied to smaller areas, such as a new
residential development, business park or town square, or to larger scale areas,
such as entire towns or cities.

For new developments, this can sometimes be more easily achieved as they
present the opportunity to ensure that appropriate provision is made to include
certain items within the lighting masterplan. For existing developments, such
as a city quarter, with a myriad of architectural styles, street layouts and existing
lighting equipment, a lighting masterplan can really help to bring cohesion to
the night-time appearance of an area, creating a more legible and attractive space,
reducing the fear of crime, helping to promote the night-time economy and,
ultimately, promoting the brand and identity of the area.

The lighting masterplan can then act as a guide for further development,
identifying priority projects and encouraging funding from stakeholders.

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 3

2.1.2 Research Any lighting masterplan has to start with detailed research on the local area. For
a new development, this is likely to be driven by the desires of the client and
design team, but for existing developments it is important to undertake detailed
daytime and night-time surveys and photographic surveys. As well as helping
to understand the local context and architectural style(s), exploring an area at
pedestrian level also helps to establish and confirm a number of the criteria
which must be considered within the lighting masterplan; these considerations
are discussed in further detail below.

2.1.3 Approaches By what method do occupants, workers and visitors arrive in the space, and
therefore what defines the person’s arrival sequence?
and gateways
Do people mainly arrive via a high-speed road network, by air, by train, by foot
or by slow-moving vehicle?

Gateway structures can help to signify arrival in a new location. These can take
the form of public artwork and sculpture, iconic buildings, bridges or existing
geographical features.

The size and scale of any gateway feature needs to be carefully considered so that
it is relevant to the speed of arrival, viewing distance and viewing direction to
ensure it has an appropriate visual impact.

The appropriate illumination of such structures can highlight these important

gateway features, signifying an approach to a different area and helping to
promote interest on arrival during the night-time.

2.1.4 Circulation routes Any large development is likely to have a multitude of different types of circulation
routes, including primary, secondary and tertiary roads, pedestrian routes and
cycle paths (both segregated and non-segregated from vehicular traffic). There
may also be other circulation routes, such as beach promenades and rivers.

Using different light colours and varying the visual brightness of surfaces,
directions of light and types and spacing of lighting equipment can all help to
visually indicate different circulation routes, subtly aiding navigation, speed of
travel and use of space. A lighting masterplan should provide guidance on these
criteria for each different circulation route, thereby creating a visual hierarchy of
the different routes that exist within the development.

For example, primary vehicular routes may all be illuminated with a cool white
light source using street lighting luminaires mounted on tall columns, whereas
a pedestrian route may be illuminated at a lower illuminance level using a warm
white light source and human-scale bollard luminaires.

2.1.5 Landmarks, Landmarks can help people to navigate through a space by acting as visual
markers, thereby helping individuals to identify their current location and
destinations and determine their direction of travel. Landmarks can include items such as
nodes of activity government and municipal buildings, statues, bridges, tall buildings, historical
buildings, geographical features, or sometimes just buildings that are visually
prominent due to their location.

During the daytime, these landmarks can be quite distinctive, but at night
they may be unlit or poorly illuminated, making them difficult to identify
and therefore creating confusion when trying to use them as navigational aids.
Appropriate lighting of these landmarks can help them to be identified at night,
reinforcing their presence (Figure 2.1).

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 4 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

Figure 2.1 A typical landmark:

Wembley Stadium arch
(photograph courtesy
of Thorn Zumtobel)

Sometimes a landmark can be a single destination in itself, at other times a

destination can be a group of buildings, such as restaurants, theatres, transport
hub or a retail street. Nodes of activity can include areas such as public squares,
parks and major junctions. By varying the lighting approaches for destinations
and nodes of activity it is possible to create visual interest and define the area as
distinct from its surroundings. Extending an area’s activities into the nocturnal
hours helps to animate the night-time environment and extend hours of
operation, which can give a boost to the local economy.

2.1.6 Views and vistas As alluded to above, views from both within the area of the masterplan and from
afar can help people to navigate at night by indicating the direction of travel
required. Consideration must be given to the visual brightness of key items along
a line of sight to ensure that they are appropriately illuminated in contrast with
their surroundings to help promote the view.

Vistas can help create iconic scenes of an area at night, such as a city skyline,
which can help to attract visitors to the location, further enhancing the local
economy.

2.1.7 Lighting palette An important aspect of any lighting masterplan is to consider the visual
appearance of the light and the lighting equipment, both of which can be used
and equipment to characterise the development and the different areas and circulation routes
within it.

In the development of the lighting masterplan, a lighting hierarchy must be

established for the following aspects:

—— Visual brightness and contrast:  can help to subtly indicate different

areas, buildings and activities.
—— Light colour (both varying colour temperature of white light and
saturated coloured light):  can help to subtly indicate different areas,
buildings and activities. The application of saturated coloured light
should generally only be considered for a few key structures and
spaces to help make them more easily recognisable.
—— Colour rendering:  areas of high pedestrian usage will benefit from
light sources with a better colour rendering.

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 5

—— Luminaires: differentiating between luminaire types helps to

identify different application areas within the masterplan area
through varying the distribution and direction of light as well as the
visual appearance of the luminaires themselves. For example, the
use of a visually different lighting column within the masterplan
area can help to signify the area’s status in a subtle but intuitive
way. The development of a custom column can add an iconic nature
that is exclusive to the masterplan area.

Taking these features into account, consideration should be given to how the
various elements of the masterplan will be lit, to help identify them as a discrete
group within the broader masterplan area while retaining their separate identities.

2.1.8 Lighting details In the application of any masterplan, consideration must be given to standard
lighting details for application within the areas defined by the masterplan. In
and integration addition to reducing street clutter though the use of integrated lighting, the
lighting details themselves can help to give character to particular areas and spaces
or define the limits of the masterplan (Figure 2.2). For example, it may be desirable
to utilise a bench detail with concealed integrated lighting, helping to mark the
space as a destination and encouraging people to rest for a while within the space.

To help further reduce street clutter, it may be desirable to consider the

integration of more visual elements of lighting equipment, such as street lighting
columns, with other items of street furniture, such as street signage, banners and
litter bins. Detailing of such items will need to be co-ordinated with the other
members of the design team.

Figure 2.2 Excerpt from masterplan

2.1.9 Maintenance As with any lighting scheme, the maintenance regime needs to be appropriate to
ensure the designed lit effect is maintained over time. To this end it is important to
develop all lighting proposals in collaboration with the client’s maintenance team
to agree appropriate maintenance intervals for cleaning and lamp replacement,
as well as the number and types of different lighting equipment and lamps that
will need to be serviced and replaced. Therefore, the lighting equipment selected
should be sufficiently varied to ensure that the aims of the masterplan are met,
but without introducing an excessively large number of different lamps and
luminaires, which would make ongoing maintenance difficult. If the maintenance
regime is too onerous or difficult to implement then, ultimately, over time, the
lighting masterplan will fail.

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 6 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

2.1.10 Environmental In the design of any exterior lighting scheme it is important to consider the
local context, ensuring that any exterior lighting design is appropriate so that it
zones E0–E4 does not appear visually out of keeping with the immediate surrounds. It is also
important in the design of all exterior lighting schemes to avoid obtrusive light,
ensuring that luminance, illuminance and source intensity levels are within
appropriate limits for the immediate area.

The ambient brightness of a space will vary depending on its location, therefore
lighting guidance sets out values for each of the lighting criteria that are
suitable for a development’s immediate area, so that buildings and spaces appear
appropriately lit in comparison with their surroundings. The locations vary
from the darkest, E0, protected areas such as Dark Sky Parks, where no electric
lighting is permitted, through to the brightest, E4, which encompasses urban
areas with a high district brightness, such as a city centre with a busy night-time
economy (Table 2.1).

It is therefore important during the design stages of any external lighting scheme
to undertake detailed daytime and night-time surveys of the area. Information
gathered during a survey on the existing lighting and character of the area can
help to inform the selection of the correct environmental zone.

Table 2.1  Environmental zones

Zone Surroundings Lighting environment Examples
E0 Protected Dark IDA Dark Sky Parks, UNESCO Starlight
Reserves
E1 Natural Intrinsically dark Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty,
relatively uninhabited rural areas
E2 Rural Low district brightness Village or relatively dark outer suburban
locations
E3 Suburban Medium district brightness Small town centres or suburban locations
E4 Urban High district brightness Town and city centres, commercial areas

Source: CIE 150: 2003.

2.1.11 Dark Sky Parks Dark Sky Parks are areas of outstanding natural beauty with exceptional views of
starry skies and nocturnal habitat, where all light pollution, whether from direct
upward light or reflected light, is mitigated to ensure the preservation of the
area’s night-time beauty and educational, cultural, scenic and natural resources.
Guidance on the requirements for classification as a Dark Sky Park is given by
the International Dark-Sky Association.

2.1.12 Reducing Visual clutter can be defined as a visually chaotic scene, caused by the inclusion
of multiple elements of street furniture without consideration of the overall scene,
visual clutter which detracts from the overall quality of the environment. Street furniture
contributing to visual clutter can include (but is not limited to) such items as
lighting columns, signage, litter bins, pedestrian barriers, planters, benches and
bollards.

Poorly planned street furniture, signage and lighting equipment can all add
to visual clutter, detracting from the visual character of an area and making it
increasingly difficult to navigate a space and potentially devaluing the external
scene (Figure 2.3).

A well thought out public realm can minimise the impact of visual clutter
through the careful location and integration of these various elements, thereby
reducing the number of items cluttering the streetscape. Further reduction of the
impact caused by the installation of lighting equipment can be achieved through
the integration of lighting with other items of street furniture, such as mounting

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 7

Figure 2.3 Visual clutter (Ilia Torlin/

Shutterstock.com)

bins and signage on street lighting columns. Alternatively, building-mounted

street lighting could be used although, in order to implement this approach, the
appropriate permission, such as wayleaves in the UK, would need to be sought
from the building owner.

2.1.13 Environmental An EIA is normally required for new developments, such as buildings, hard
landscaping, residential and industrial estates, etc. The environmental
impact assessment includes factors such as impact on flora and fauna, noise, traffic, air
assessments (EIA) quality, the character of the location and many others. One section of the EIA
deals with the visual impact assessment (VIA). This will include issues such as
the visual appearance/impact of the buildings or development on the landscape,
commenting on visual clutter, character of the area, etc.

Any artificial lighting is normally included in the VIA and known as a lighting
visual impact assessment (LVIA). (Note that the term LVIA can also refer to a
landscape and visual impact assessment.) The assessment will include issues such
as the daytime visibility of lighting columns or any building-mounted lighting
equipment. This assessment is normally carried out by an independent lighting
consultant. The report will include the existing ‘baseline’ conditions plus the
impact of the proposed lighting.

See section 2.2 for more In terms of the night-time assessment of the development proposal, guidance
information is available on minimising light pollution and glare, such as SLL Lighting
Factfile 7, ILP GN01 and CIE 126-1997 (see section 2.2). These documents

Figure 2.4 Sky glow over Los Angeles

(logoboom/shutterstock.com)

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 8 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

contain recommended values for the luminance of buildings, source intensity

towards viewers, light spill into windows, minimising the contribution to sky
glow, etc. (Figure 2.4). Although the recommended values in these documents
were reached subjectively by groups of experts and interested parties, they do
represent objective criteria against which the values calculated for a lighting
proposal can be compared, allowing the proposal to be judged to be compliant or
non-compliant with the criteria.

Related to these ‘hard’ criteria are others where compliance cannot simply be
calculated. One example is whether the lighting could be considered to be a
nuisance. This issue is described more fully in DEFRA’s guidance: Statutory
nuisance from insects and artificial light (2006). Another example concerns whether
the lighting is in keeping with the character of the location – for example, whether
coloured light would be acceptable in a given location.

2.2 Legislation The need to minimise sky glow and upward light applies to all exterior lighting
applications. Specific guidance can be found in the Society of Light and Lighting
and guidance (SLL) Lighting Factfile 7: Design and assessment of exterior lighting schemes, the
Institution of Lighting Professionals (ILP) Guidance Note GN01: Guidance notes
for the reduction of obtrusive light and the International Commission on Illumination
(CIE) 126-1997 Guidelines for minimizing sky glow.

Lighting for outdoor workplaces is covered by BS EN 12464-2, which gives

recommendations for various tasks taking place on building sites, farms, fuel filling
stations, shipyards, builders’ storage compounds and vehicle parking areas. Note
that there is often supplementary guidance for a particular activity (e.g. railway
companies have extra criteria for the lighting of platforms and petrochemical
companies make recommendations for specific task areas). Airports and their
approaches will also have particular guidance relating to column height, upward
light spill, etc.

Before starting any design, information should be gathered from the client and
any related industry-specific criteria established.

Lighting of roads, highways and residential areas is covered by BS EN 13201-2

and BS 5489-1. Again, these deal solely with the functional and safety aspects
of lighting. These documents also consider areas such as car parks, ramps and
stairs.

The Equality Act 2010 (which replaced the Disability Discrimination Act 1995)
and BS 8300:2009 Design of buildings and their approaches to meet the needs of disabled
people are of particular relevance to open areas, such as pedestrian precincts.
See section 3.4 for more Lighting is discussed as part of the overall design to allow greater access for
information disabled people. In terms of lighting, ramps, steps and changes of direction need
the most attention. Recommendations for these areas are given in section 3.4 of
this guide.

In the UK, light can be considered to be a statutory nuisance under the

Environmental Protection Act 1990. This is defined as ‘Artificial light emitted
from premises so as to be prejudicial to health or a nuisance’. Note that it applies
to ‘premises’ and not to landscapes. There are many exceptions, such as airports,
railways, dockyards, etc. Special conditions also apply to sports pitches and
industrial and business premises. Highway lighting should also be considered
to fall within this Act. Note that some local authorities exclude highways
because they consider them not to be premises. The SLL Guide to Limiting
Obtrusive Light covers all aspects of this topic. A further related document is
produced by the ILP: PLG04: Guidance on undertaking environmental lighting
impact assessments.

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 9

Mounting luminaires on buildings can make them subject to wayleaves. These

can be costly and the process of obtaining approval often takes a long time.

Similarly, access for maintenance can sometimes be problematic, especially if the

equipment is on private land/buildings but lighting a public space or right of
way. You should check, as early as possible, whether wayleaves apply.

2.2.1 Guidance Much of the guidance on luminance, illuminance values, glare and intensity
limits is based on the concept of environmental zones (see section 2.1.10). These
range from E0 for a protected environment, such as a Dark Sky Park, to E4 for
busy city centres. There are no hard and fast descriptions of these zones and
so you should use your professional judgement, or ask others, to determine the
classification of the area under consideration. If there is doubt, use the more
onerous values recommended.

The Secured by Design (SBD) series of design guides published by the Association
See section 2.8 for more of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) concern mainly residential areas. The SBD
information guides stress that BS 5489-1 must be achieved and that a competent designer
must be engaged to do the design. See section 2.8 on roadways for more detail.

Information on exterior lighting for specific applications can be found in other

SLL guides:

—— Sports lighting recommendations can be found in SLL Lighting

Guide 4: Sports lighting. Sports organisations such as the Lawn
Tennis Association also give guidance.
—— Tram/train platforms and bus stops are covered by the forthcoming
SLL Lighting Guide 14: Transport lighting.
—— Building and construction sites are dealt with in SLL Lighting
Guide 1: The industrial environment.

The latest research on the whole range of lighting issues can be found in the
journal Lighting Research and Technology (LR&T) published by Sage Publications
in association with the SLL. A list of relevant publications and legislation is
given in the references section.

2.3 Area lighting This section deals with general open areas, such as car parks, hardstandings,
kickabout areas and non-specific open spaces that need to be illuminated.

The first question to be asked is why the area needs to be lit. This may seem obvious,
but the answer may well determine the solution. For example, security lighting for
a storage yard may not require good colour rendering, whereas locations which are
used by people during the evening and night-time will be much more amenable if a
‘white light’ source is used. Conversely, much greater uniformity may be required
for the storage area so that CCTV can see into the shadows.

Floodlighting for security is almost invariably switched on from dusk to dawn. Car
parks often have peak periods of use and considerable energy savings can be made
by reducing the lighting level when it is not required. It is not recommended that
lighting is totally switched off because this can dissuade people from using the space.

Car parks need lighting from several directions. Lighting from one side only
will produce deep shadows (Figure 2.5). Single-side illumination also means that
people and the sides of vehicles away from the light can only be seen in silhouette.
This can generate a feeling of insecurity among users. Related to this, low-level
lighting, such as bollards, can easily be obscured by vehicles. The ACPO Secure
by Design series does not recommend the use of bollards.

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 10 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

Figure 2.5 Typical area with deep

shadows (Tumarkin Igor -
ITPS/Shutterstock.com)

See SLL Lighting Guide 4 for

more information Kickabout areas can usually be illuminated to a fairly low level of illumination –
refer to the football section of the SLL Lighting Guide 4: Sports lighting.

2.3.1 Layout and The major problem at the initial stage of designing a floodlighting installation
is that there are so many possible variables. Unlike interior lighting, where
mounting height the boundaries are clearly defined by walls and ceiling and floor, floodlighting
equipment can be placed within the area to be lit or located on columns well outside
the area. The height of the columns and their distance outside the area will have to
be considered because, until such matters are decided, it is impossible to tell what
beam distributions are required or how the floodlights should be aimed. The best
advice for anyone beginning a design is to start by studying the characteristics
and limitations of the site. With areas of regular shape and set dimensions, such as
sports areas, standard column layouts may be available to guide the designer, but
this is rarely the case with industrial and commercial areas.

Generally, the greater the mounting height, the smaller the number of columns,
masts and towers required. As a result, a higher mounting height generally
achieves the most effective and efficient floodlighting at the lowest installation
cost, but the relationship between mounting height H and the depth of the area
to be lit D is important, see Figures 2.6 to 2.8.

If an open area is to be lit from one side (shadows permitting), the ratio D/H
should not be greater than 5. If there are obstructions within the area, such as in a
stock yard, then the ratio should be reduced to 3 or even 2 in the case of extensive
obstructions (the ratio also expresses the relationship between shadow length and
object height at the far edge). When lighting from two or more directions, the
ratio can be increased to 6, but should be reduced to 4 if there are obstructions.
In terms of actual aiming angle, there is little difference between a 4:1 throw (76°
from the downward vertical) and a 6:1 throw (80° from the downward vertical).
Of course, the higher the aiming angle, the greater the chance of glare or light
being emitted above the horizontal.

The height of the column is also dependent on the surrounding buildings. In

residential areas, columns should be no higher than the eaves of the adjacent
buildings. If this proves impractical (due to the number of columns required),
then the columns should be no higher than the adjacent road lighting.

It is important to minimise glare to residents and this can be achieved by low

D/H ratios (e.g. 2–3 rather than 5–6).

A solution for car parks where the area is wide in relation to the column height is
to mount columns inside the area, usually centrally. In this way, the D/H ratio can

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 11

Figure 2.6 Typical floodlight aiming

for an area 2H wide

10°
53°
H

1.3 H

2H

Figure 2.7 Typical floodlight aiming

for an area 3H wide
9°
63°
H

2H

3H

Figure 2.8 Typical floodlight aiming

for an area 6H wide
from both sides
5°
76°
H

4H
6H

be much smaller, thus reducing column height, aiming angle and possible glare.
To make best use of the columns, it is usual to mount several lanterns on each. A
common solution is to mount four lanterns at 90° intervals. An alternative is to
use lanterns with a road lighting type of distribution, back to back, to light the
circulation routes within the car park.

In the initial design, the peak intensity of the floodlight is usually directed at a
point some two-thirds of the way across the depth of the area. Floodlights with
double asymmetric light distributions can provide vertical beam spreads suitable
for different D/H ratios, but such floodlights have wide horizontal distributions.
Where the D/H ratio exceeds 3, it is often necessary to use a supplementary
floodlight with a wide vertical beam angle aimed at a lower elevation to fill in
the area close to the base of the column. If floodlights with symmetrical light
distributions are installed to illuminate very large spaces, a series of projectors
is used. Those aimed at high elevations have narrower beam angles than those
aimed at lower elevations.

Note that higher aiming angles put proportionately more flux onto vertical
surfaces than horizontal ones. High levels of vertical illumination can be a benefit
in terms of facial recognition but may also cause glare.

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 12 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

One disadvantage of high aiming angles is that the reflector needs to have a sharp
run-back above the peak intensity to avoid wasting light (and contributing to sky
glow) above the horizontal. At a 6:1 throw (80°), there is only a narrow angle (10°)
above the peak intensity before light is emitted upwards – thus wasting energy
and contributing to light pollution.

Bollards are commonly used to light car parks but they suffer from several
disadvantages, the main one being that a single vehicle adjacent to the bollard
can block the spread of light. Also, in order to achieve any reasonable uniformity,
the bollards need to be placed relatively close together (e.g. 1 m high bollards
should be no more than 10 m apart unless calculations show that the required
degree of uniformity can be achieved). Due to their accessibility, they are also
vulnerable to vandalism.

2.3.2 Spacing Where areas are to be lit from one or two sides, the spacing between columns
may be dictated by site limitations (Figure 2.9). Given no constraints, the
spacing to height ratio (SHR) is determined primarily by the horizontal beam
spread of the floodlights, selected in the first place because of their vertical beam
characteristics.

Values of SHR in the range 1.5–2.0 are commonly used with asymmetrical
floodlights: values over 3.0 are unlikely to provide acceptable uniformity.
Where higher SHR values prove to be necessary because of site constraints, some
floodlights may have to be aimed at points which do not lie on a transverse line
from their column, or a more complex aiming pattern of symmetrical floodlights
may have to be used. It will be necessary to check the consequences of the aiming
pattern on both illuminance and uniformity by point-by-point calculations.

Figure 2.9 Column spacing

S = 2H
SHR = 2

2.4 Amenity The general description of public areas can include many different types of
space, including squares, entrance foyers, courtyards and piazzas, single-owner
lighting and multi-owner shopping centres, breakout spaces associated with stadia and
2.4.1 Public realm public buildings. For the purposes of this section of the guide, open areas are
area lighting considered as pedestrian-dominated spaces with minimal vehicular movements,
which would normally be restricted to out-of-hours deliveries, maintenance and
emergency services access.

To illustrate the wide range of lighting projects that could be covered by the term
public open area, these could be anything from spaces of national significance,
such as Trafalgar Square, to small shopping squares (Figures 2.10 and 2.11).

The largest square in the world is Xinghai Square in Dalian, China in which
1 100 000 m2 is lit by a combination of lighting techniques (Figure 2.12). Trafalgar
Square is the UK’s largest single public square at 23 000 m2.

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 13

Figure 2.10 Trafalgar Square (Kiev.Victor/ Figure 2.11 Village square (Sean Pavone/
Shutterstock.com) Shutterstock.com)

The non-lighting aspects of design criteria for open areas need to be considered at
the outset of the design process. It is important to consider ownership of the area
itself and the surrounding properties. A single owner of the whole area offers the
simplest situation, giving the designer the freedom to evaluate all options. When
multiple owners are involved, it is important to assess the effect on the lighting
options available and to advise the client early of the effects of ownership on the
lighting strategy. Stakeholder engagement is essential in achieving acceptance of
the scheme.

Depending on the complexity of the open area, the design drivers should
be identified before lighting techniques are considered. The feasibility of the
client’s brief should be carefully evaluated and challenged where necessary. It
is always worth writing a basis of design (BoD) and obtaining client agreement
before moving on to the concept design stage. The agreed design drivers should
be separated into pros and cons to enable viable solutions to be identified before

Figure 2.12 Xinghai Square, Dalian

(kitzcorner/Shutterstock.com)

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 14 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

evaluating concepts. A good method of identifying and rating the pros and cons
is to carry out a strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis.

The following is an example of the types of design drivers that will be common
for most open area lighting schemes:

—— client’s aspirations
—— use of the space
—— cultural significance (local and national)
—— listed buildings
—— aesthetic considerations, including architectural appropriateness
—— entertainment and theatrical effect
—— local pressure groups (e.g. historical societies)
—— planning consent and listed building consent
—— local infrastructure: water, gas, electricity and drainage
—— ownership of site and adjacent buildings
—— local planning guidance and lighting masterplanning requirements
—— requirements of vehicular traffic in and around the area
—— availability of electrical power at luminaire locations
—— local authority lighting specifications and highways adoption
—— availability of suitable luminaire mounting positions
—— colour and types of existing materials
—— changes in level and identification of obstructions
—— choice of light source
—— choice of luminaire
—— vulnerability to vandalism/strength of equipment
—— maintenance and construction design and management issues
—— access requirements (visually impaired and physically disabled
people)
—— health and safety of the public/staff and local fauna and flora
—— environmental considerations, including disposal of lamps and
luminaires at the end of their lives
—— obtrusive light
—— cost of maintenance
—— capital cost, including installation costs and equipment costs
—— interfacing with temporary installations (including theatrical
lighting)
—— energy usage and availability
—— lighting control.

While the above is not an exhaustive list of design drivers, it does illustrate the
potential complexity of open area lighting and the fact that each scheme is likely
to have certain special requirements. The mix of design drivers is likely to make
each project unique, even for similar types of space.

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 15

Identification of the client’s key performance indicators and stakeholder

requirements early in the design process, usually at RIBA Stage 2, is essential to
establishing the scope and the basis of design. Only when these documents have
been signed off, is it worth entering into the concept design and ‘optioneering’
phase.

See section 2.1.1 for more In the early stages of the design process, it is important to assess the scope of
information the lighting over which the designer has control and the adjacent existing and
proposed third party schemes. There may be a lighting masterplan (see section
2.1.1) in place; if so, the key aspirations of the masterplan need to be considered
early as they could represent specific planning constraints. Key vistas are
normally a prime consideration of masterplans and may restrict options for the
placement of lighting columns.

Third party and existing lighting schemes need to be evaluated via surveys and
consultations so that the appropriate project target maintained illuminance levels
and light source types can be agreed.

There are no specific illuminance levels detailed in BS EN 12464-2 for open

squares. The figures mentioned in Table 2.2 should be seen as a starting point
for the design and provide the benchmark for establishing good practice from
a health and safety standpoint. BS 5489-1 and BS EN 13201-2 should also be
considered.

Table 2.2  Excerpt from BS EN 12464-2:2014 (reproduced by permission of BSI)

–
Ref. no. Type of area, task or activity E m Uo RGL Ra Remarks
(lux) (–) (–) (–)
5.1.1 Walkways exclusively for pedestrians 5 0.25 50 20
5.1.2 Traffic areas for slowly moving vehicles
(max. 10 km/h), e.g. bicycles, trucks
and excavators 10 0.40 50 20
5.1.3 Regular vehicle traffic (max. 40 km/h) 20 0.40 45 20 At shipyards and in
docks, RGL may be 50
5.1.4 Pedestrian passage, vehicle turning,
loading and unloading points 50 0.40 50 20

It should be noted that privately owned open areas are considered workplaces
from a legal standpoint, so a duty of care exists for both the landlord and tenants.

Access requirements are of particular concern in open areas when considering

the placement or use of luminaires that are directly in the visual field of
disabled persons. Luminaires such as bollards and ground-mounted uplights
and floodlights should be sited carefully so that disability glare is not caused.
This is especially important for in-ground luminaires; the surface temperature
of the glass is also a concern if children are likely to be present. A glass surface
temperature of below 60 °C is recommended.

Luminaires can also be integrated into structures and street furniture where
lighting columns are considered undesirable (e.g. in front of architecturally and
historically significant buildings). Focal lighting to statues and monuments can
also aid the general brightness of an open area. Glare can be a particular concern in
the lighting of monuments and statues. All viewing angles should be investigated
at the design stage. 3D computer modelling for proposed installations and site
trials for existing ones are especially useful.

2.5 Landscape Landscape and public realm projects offer many opportunities for imaginative
lighting design approaches. Lighting can be designed to cover a broad view of
lighting a scene and the arrangement of elements within a view; alternatively, a more

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 16 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

Figure 2.13 Mapping on building

at Fête des lumières,
Lyon (Pierre-Jean Durieu/
Shutterstock.com)

selective approach can be taken to highlight key elements. Regardless of the

approach adopted, the design brief and scope should be based on the satisfaction
of the client’s needs, established by assessing the various outdoor activities, the
social context, any CCTV presence and key features, balanced by the need to
minimise energy consumption. The overall experience must also be considered
to design a scheme which adds value to the locality.

3D mapping projection events, short-term ‘guerrilla lighting’ and son et lumière

performances have made the public aware of the potential of light to produce
special effects at landscape scale (Figure 2.13).

By night, the landscape architect and lighting designer can use light to reveal
objects and form selectively. Through directional lighting, designers can
emphasise modelling, and by modulating and composing the areas of brightness
a sense of depth and perspective can be given to a scene. Designers might consider
the possibility of creating an enhanced sense of visual hierarchy by emphasising
particular areas of detail.

This approach is equally applicable to the view of a town as to a park or a domestic

garden.

2.5.1 Landscape The following subsections provide a guide to the basic stages and principles in the
development of an outdoor lighting scheme. When considering the development
lighting design in the context of landscape design, it is important to understand the design
method process involved.

This may be summarised in the following stages: survey; analysis; design;

appraisal; installation; and commissioning/focusing.

2.5.2 Survey It is important to be familiar with and fully understand the site. Existing sites
should be surveyed during both day and night, ideally over a period of time, to
understand the ambient conditions. It is also worthwhile making a preliminary
risk assessment in terms of where the proposed lighting equipment could be
located. Where sites are being newly developed, copies of the project drawings
should be obtained. Useful scales are 1:500 for site plans and 1:200 for details

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 17

and sections. Google Earth may be helpful in identifying the general context and
existing site attributes.

2.5.3 Plans Information may include:

—— roads:  classification, alignment, width, crossings, lay-bys, bollards,

signs, parking
—— paths:  alignment, width, steps, ramps, signs, users (e.g. pedestrians,
cyclists)
—— buildings:  use, shape and location, entrances, services
—— artefacts:  phone points, post boxes, seats, signs, urban features, art
objects
—— natural environment:  tree species, locations, shrub species, hedge
species, pools, water channels/features.

2.5.4 Elevation/sections Vertical features and levels provide the principal clues for identifying places and
opportunities for potential lighting solutions. Consider:

—— buildings:  form, texture, colour, night-time use/appearance

—— trees/shrubs: species, height, form, density of foliage, type and
colour.

2.5.5 Functional As well as addressing health and safety issues and the general need for people to
feel safe, there may be other requirements, such as CCTV. A first step is to consult
requirements the standards which are recommended or laid down for the proposed site uses;
for example, the following may have specific requirements:

—— Department for Transport classification (transport)

—— sports councils (sport)
—— Health and Safety Executive (places of work)
—— police and insurance companies (security)
—— local authority, community or developers.

In some cases, this information may not readily be available so a brief will need to
be developed with the key stakeholders. In areas such as National Parks or Sites
of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) there may be specific limitations.

2.5.6 Visual and The need for inspirational and aesthetically pleasing schemes has never been
greater because both planners and developers are seeking to craft and create more
creativity interesting outdoor environments. In urban areas, there is often the desire to
requirements create a ‘café society’ feel to a space.

Detailed consideration needs to be given to the holistic effect from the outset.
This has a profound impact on the final lighting scheme provided. The client’s
expectations and landscape designer’s vision must be developed together to
achieve the best results.

2.5.7 Analysis The purpose of this stage is to produce a performance brief, providing the basic
criteria against which the success of the design can be measured.

The most direct technique is to document and note on a survey drawing of the
site all the factors which must be considered, indicating the relevant features.
The major factors to be considered are:

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 18 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

—— site conditions: obstacles, changes of level, security of people,

key elements and principal views, movement patterns and routes,
destinations, etc.
—— performance:  activity-related areas where lighting needs are known
(e.g. sports events, workplaces, roads, stations, airports, ports, etc.)
—— character:  ambience, image, mood
—— public interaction and main circulation routes
—— intended experience for those using the space.

2.5.8 Design The basis of all design is usually human need, perception and response. A
successful lighting design must principally fulfil the practical requirements of
safety and security, and at the same time satisfy both psychological and aesthetic
needs.

The eye adjusts to ambient light – depending on the individual, the eye can be
extremely sensitive to low levels of illuminance where only the minimum of
visual information is required. The lighting design is often required to function
at various incremental levels for differing applications:

—— minimum lighting for safety at times of least use

—— general lighting for normal use
—— special lighting for visual effects.

Care and attention during the design stages should be given to appropriate
surface and feature brightness to ensure that a space is not overly lit, or indeed
underlit. A scheme should not make the eye work hard through an imbalance
of light levels and luminance contrast. Consideration must be given to a wide
potential user base, including the very young and old, and the range of uses of
the space.

2.5.9 Technical It is advisable to seek professional guidance at an early stage. The best schemes
are the direct result of a close partnership between the lighting designer or project
solutions engineer and the environmental designers. The skill of the lighting designer/
engineer lies in the practical realisation of the design objectives, using the most
appropriate technical resources.

2.5.10 Basic decisions There is no absolute single solution to any given situation. The brief, aspirations
and site constraints will always vary, therefore each design must be approached
in a unique way.

There can, however, be basic design correlation between:

(a) locations of light sources (i.e. identifying mounting locations,

mounting height, spacing, distance from lit objects, etc.) and
(b) the types of light sources (i.e. intensity, distribution, resulting light
colour, controls etc.).

If lighting equipment can be integrated within a landscape to take advantage of

existing materials, surfaces, buildings and structures, a more holistic scheme can
be developed. This, in turn, also reduces unnecessary clutter and the introduction
of additional structures.

Most design processes begin with a trial proposal, which presupposes elements
of both (a) and (b) above, based on experience. This proposal is then modified to
take account of other considerations, such as:

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 19

—— further review and approval/opinion from clients and stakeholders

on aesthetics
—— the colour of light, colour temperature, brightness and colour
rendering
—— efficiency, capital equipment and operational costs
—— visibility of light sources (concealed, visible, directly seen).

2.5.11 Technical design The lighting proposals are normally documented on a site plan, supplemented by
sections and elevations where necessary.

Generally, these will need to show:

—— the location of each lighting source (ideally both in plan and in

section, showing tilt/aiming angle)
—— a specification of the type of light source
—— the means of supporting the luminaires
—— maintenance provisions (e.g. hardstanding requirements for tower
access)
—— switching arrangements, cableing and protective devices
—— location of control or supply equipment.

2.5.12 Design appraisal Skilled designers can easily interpret a technical drawing and will be able to
understand and assess the design intent of a scheme from a visual and technical
perspective. Lay clients may need help, which can be offered in a number of
ways:

—— demonstrations can be provided: luminaires can be rigged up

temporarily, samples provided or similar installations visited
—— drawings can be highlighted:  plans can be coloured to illustrate
the distribution of light on a given horizontal plane
—— illustrations can be drawn:  elevations and perspective sketches can
convey an impression of the visual effect; alternatively, computer-
generated illustrations can be provided to demonstrate the effects
proposed
—— models can also be made: these can be used to demonstrate
principles; however, light sources must be reduced in power and
relate to the scale.

2.5.13 Parameters The main design objectives can always be met by a wide variety of equipment and
a range of solutions. The following considerations may influence the development
for choice of an optimum solution:

—— capital cost of initial installation

—— running costs
—— maintenance costs
—— resistance to anticipated abuse
—— colour rendering
—— daytime appearance
—— appropriate specification of light source and technology for the
scheme

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 20 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

—— appropriateness/acceptability within the community

—— appreciation of improved environment
—— increased utilisation of the landscape
—— increased sense of security
—— increased sense of civic pride
—— mitigation of light pollution and glare
—— regulations and local authority requirements
—— legal/statutory requirements and duties.

2.6 Facade lighting Many of Britain’s towns and cities owe much of their individual character to
fine historic buildings and well-designed contemporary buildings and structures
2.6.1 Benefits of which boast rich, ornate facades and beautiful architecture.
exterior lighting
of buildings, Other places, perhaps less fortunate in having a legacy of fine historic buildings,
are nevertheless likely to have many interesting buildings and structures of one
structures and form or another, churches, monuments and other features, together with an
features increasing wealth of modern architecture, even if impressive facades conceal
commercial office complexes, precincts, flats and hotels.

The grandeur of the historic and the qualities of the modern can both be
accentuated during the hours of darkness by well-conceived installations of
exterior lighting and architectural lighting. It is important not to over-light
external buildings and spaces or use poor light sources, as this can be detrimental
if not fully considered.

Floodlighting was the term previously applied to the general method for
illuminating building facades. It is a generic term which is still often used.
With the introduction of smaller and more focused technologies, such as LEDs
and narrow beam metal halides, more integrated and detailed lighting can be
provided to illuminate specific architectural details and forms at night. The term
floodlighting is becoming increasingly less frequently used within the lighting
design community as it suggests a large volume of lighting, which is often flat
and uncontrolled in nature.

In the case of the commercial sector in urban areas, the buildings are likely
to be offices, retail stores and accommodation for hospitality-based activities.
Exterior lighting can attract attention and create a favourable impression, which
enhances the appearance of a building and its offering. Good exterior lighting
can be an extremely effective form of advertising. A high-quality lighting design
will complement the building’s function, boost its success and enhance the
appearance of its location, adding considerable value to a community.

A significant advantage to exterior building facade lighting is that it is likely to

increase a general sense of well-being at night. Lit buildings tend to look more
welcoming and attractive; they can offer an enhanced sense of permanence and
reinforce community safety. Well-planned lighting acts as a deterrent to anti-
social behaviour as criminals prefer not to be seen; good illumination will draw
people out in the evenings, increasing footfall and promoting self-policing.

As natural daylight and sunlight is general and non-selective, the daytime

presence of a space will differ markedly from what will be seen at night. The
most obvious difference being that, by day, light comes from above whereas, by
night, the floodlight beams are usually shining upwards.

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 21

Artificial lighting can reveal specific buildings and highlight particular

characteristics, and the effects can be modified with lighting controls to vary
the appearance. The lighting designer is able to select precisely which aspects
to accent or ignore. Most buildings of any merit can be successfully lit and the
techniques for achieving a good lighting effect are not based solely on the science
of illumination engineering but include an appreciation of the aesthetic values
of the architecture.

This is particularly applicable in the exterior lighting of key civic and community
buildings, such as cathedrals, castles, churches, bridges and ancient monuments,
which respond remarkably well to light. Not only are the buildings themselves
enhanced, so is the landscape as a whole.

Modern buildings and the dynamics of material trends are constantly evolving.
Lighting methods and selection need to carefully consider the building finishes
and how light will affect them.

2.6.2 General design Any external lighting project should not be started until a comprehensive survey
has been made of the building and the surroundings in which it stands. It is
considerations essential to study the features of the facade under the conditions of natural light
and preferably to view it in sunlight at regular intervals throughout the day. A
detailed appraisal of the effects created by variations in the angles of sunlight
striking the architecture can reveal which features of the building are the most
attractive and identify the principal aspects that lend themselves to enhancement
with artificial lighting.

Close consideration must be given to the architectural character. Features such

as window reveals, columns, entry points, repetitive facade expressions and
principal surfaces (vertical, horizontal or fragmented) should be identified and
appraised during the development of the lighting design. A selective approach is
often appropriate to allow shadows and three-dimensional qualities to be clearly
expressed. There will be choices to make at this stage, for example it might be
best to backlight a series of columns to express them in silhouette or, alternatively,
front light them if they are decorative, but not both. A good lighting designer
will be able to articulate these choices to optimise the unique opportunities. An
architectural lighting designer will have much to contribute to these choices as
they will have a valuable insight into the architectural references and their origins.

Many early architectural styles were considered only in relation to the natural
light of day and decorative illumination after the sun had set would have been
impossible. There is now no limit to the form that a modern building may
take; living architects are more inclined to believe that a building should also
be attractive to view after dark, when the various surfaces and textures may
be illuminated electrically. The appearance of the building at night-time may
well have been considered when the design was in its early stages and it is often
helpful if the original architect can be consulted in order to ensure that the
correct interpretation of the original concept is maintained.

2.6.3 Viewpoints It is helpful to identify whether there are principal locations from which the
building will be viewed. There may be one or two preferred viewing positions
(Figure 2.14). Some facades can be partially obscured and there is little value in
lighting a building from all directions if there is a singular vantage point. Tall
features, such as church spires and towers, often have their best viewpoints from
some distance away.

These aspects should be identified prior to starting and developing the design
process.

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 22 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

Figure 2.14 The principal viewpoint

here is from across the
lake (np/Shutterstock.com)

The location of the lighting equipment must also be considered in relation to the
building and to the predominant view.

It is helpful for design purposes to decide what should be considered as the

normal distance between the viewer and the building, based on the optimal
directions of view, as this will affect the scale and form of the selected fixtures.
It may be desirable to conceal fittings so that the lighting effect is seen but the
equipment that creates the effect is not obvious or visible.

Whether an observer will be able to discern all or any of the architectural details
on the facade will depend on the distances involved, the modelling and the urban
context.

Often, a tall building will be seen standing against a black night sky. If the
immediate surroundings and background are also dark, a relatively small
amount of illumination will make the building appear much lighter and give
it prominence. This might also be achievable from selective internal lighting
within the building, which can offer a different night-time appearance. A
thorough approach to the lighting design development will assist in defining
which options are viable and which is best for the project.

If there are other buildings adjacent to the subject building, which are themselves
illuminated, or if the ambient light levels are already high due to road lighting
or signage, the illuminance on the building facade will normally have to be of a
higher value in order to achieve an effective contrast between the building and
its surroundings.

Alternative solutions where ambient light levels are high may be achieved by
creating a contrast in colour, tone or texture rather than a contrast in brightness.
The use of colour in exterior lighting enables differences in planes and surfaces
to be highlighted but, as a general approach, colour should be used sparingly and
with great discretion to avoid the result looking garish.

Local buildings, cityscape and surrounding buildings must be considered prior

to introducing colour on buildings.

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 23

Figure 2.15 Collégiale Notre-Dame,

Beaune, showing
strong modelling
(photograph courtesy of
iGuzzini illuminazione)

Local restrictions, local authority requirements and relevant guidance (such as ILP
GN01) must be fully consulted. Where heritage buildings or conservation areas
are affected, it is essential to ensure that all the statutory requirements are followed
correctly and any permission, such as wayleaves, obtained. Some buildings will
have features and, in certain cases, lighting equipment, that is specifically listed.
Other buildings will have separate requirements to fulfil, such as churches and
cathedrals, which are likely to require further or additional approvals from a trust
or fabric advisory committee or specific agreements to be made.

2.6.4 Techniques If spotlights are positioned parallel to the line of the building and aimed directly
at the facade it is possible that the lighting effect will be flat and disappointing. It
is often desirable to achieve fairly strong modelling on all but the plainest facade.
A degree of modelling can be obtained by ensuring that the highest proportion
of light arriving at principal surfaces ideally comes from a single direction,
although the actual number of spotlights providing this flow of light may be
large. The greater the angle between the line of view to the building and the
direction at which the light incident upon the surface arrives, the stronger and
more dramatic the modelling effect is likely to be (Figure 2.15). The optimum
effect is likely to be achieved when the direction of light flow is between 30° and
60° to the direction of view.

A complete facade could potentially be illuminated to show the entire building

outline to the viewer. This approach maintains the proportions of the architecture
and allows the more prominent and desirable features to be given due emphasis.
In any case, the building needs to appear as more than simply an illuminated,
two-dimensional front face. Its solidity can be emphasised by adding light at a
lower illuminance to the sides or, at the very least, to the return corners, allowing
the illuminance to decay gradually towards the rear of the end wall. It may be
necessary to illuminate a sloping roof in order to achieve a coherent picture,
otherwise chimney stacks may appear as if they are suspended in mid-air.

The view of a building can appear incomplete if lower areas of the walls or
facade are partially concealed from a distance by trees or other larger structures.
Trees and bushes may usefully be allowed to show up in silhouette against the
building, or be provided with their own separate lighting arrangement in a

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 24 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

contrasting colour. Alternatively, should the obstructions detract from the effect,
the illuminance can be decreased in the lower areas of the building, thereby
diminishing the presence of silhouettes.

It may be desirable in some instances to soften the strong modelling effect of

unidirectional light. This can be achieved by illumination in the form of fill-in
light from the opposite direction to the main flow of light. In most cases, it is
likely that there will be sufficient ambient or inter-reflected light to give the
desired result. Any fill-in light should generally be based at approximately one-
tenth of the value of the main illuminance.

It may be desirable to add lighting to highlight the outline of the building, to

prevent it disappearing against the backdrop of the dark sky. It is in assisting
with these types of choices and decisions that an experienced lighting designer
can add value to a project.

2.6.5 Practical There are four basic architectural forms which may serve to classify or describe
the general style of many building facades/envelopes.
considerations
for specific —— degree of detailing
characteristics —— vertical characteristics
—— horizontal characteristics
—— external recesses.

Facades which Typical examples of buildings with completely flat facades are the plain brick
are basically flat fronts of factory units or unadorned concrete office blocks (Figure 2.16).

Functional forms without any projections or architectural detailing are not

always ideal subjects for architectural lighting. In these instances a more layered
approach might be worth considering, where interior lighting plays a role in the
external expression of the form.

The achievement of any definition may only be possible by placing the luminaires
at exceptionally close offset positions. This approach may not be helpful for
security surveillance, where a high level of uniformity is required. However, a
certain degree of unevenness in the brightness patterns across the facade can
provide visual interest.

Figure 2.16 Lighting a building

with a predominantly
flat facade (photograph
courtesy of NDY Light)

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 25

This effect can be achieved by variations in placement and aiming of the light
sources. However, if the surface is pitted or has deep slots, the result may be an
unevenly lit surface. To overcome this, the light sources should be positioned closer
together.

Facades with Strong vertical lines on a facade are characteristic of both medieval and classical
predominantly architecture. Many modern buildings have a strong vertical emphasis not only
vertical in their basic forms but in details such as pillars, support columns or the sinews
of the cladding framework; this is often seen in contemporary office and hotel
characteristics
structures.

It can be helpful to acknowledge pronounced vertical influences and the form

can then be emphasised by applying illumination from the left and/or right
sides of the facade with medium or narrow beam spotlights (Figure 2.17).
Generally, if a fairly pale coloured surface material is used, the shadows formed
by sharply oblique lighting can be too strong and create too distinct a contrast.
In-fill lighting from the opposite direction using light sources with wider beam
reflectors is likely to reduce the contrast and soften the appearance. The overall
visual impression is often optimised when the direction of view is towards the
areas of shadow, i.e. parallel to the flow of in-fill illumination.

Uplighting to facade reveals and integrated building lighting can be incorporated

during the development of the building design to create striking visual features
within the building.

Light projections may be considered to create visual interest on flat facades, but
the cut-off and exact angle of the fittings needs careful planning to ensure that
waste upward light is minimised. In some instances, local restrictions may apply
with regard to uplighting.

Figure 2.17 Lighting a facade with

predominantly vertical
characteristics (Peter
Wallace/Shutterstock.com)

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 26 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

Visual interest and lighting effects can also be created by using internal lighting
to give a sense of occupancy within a building. By using controls that can be
programmed to fade, increase or colour shift, a sequence of scenes can be achieved.
The narrative of the subtleties of colour, brightness and the natural hierarchy can
be adjusted over time to change the emphasis from one feature to another.

Facades with Post-war changes in planning and the introduction of new materials and
predominantly construction techniques enabled architects who were trained with modernist
horizontal values to exploit the full potential of prestressed concrete forms and a wide
variety of both vertical and horizontal cladding (Figure 2.18).
characteristics
A great many of the impressively high modernist office and hotel blocks have a
markedly horizontal emphasis. Often, such design includes horizontal elements
which project slightly, for example window ledges or continuous bands that run
across the facade from one side of the building to the other.

Architectural lighting placed close to the facade and aimed upward will produce
bands of dark shadow above any physical protrusion. The wider the shadow band
the more likely it will be that the surface area of the facade above the projecting
ledge will appear to be floating on air and the building can appear as a series of
dismembered sections.

Supplementary lighting may be placed on the ledge to in-fill and eliminate the
shadow if this effect is not desired. Alternatively, the projectors may have to be
moved away from a close offset position to gain a greater distance between the
facade and the light source. There are a wide variety of possibilities in these
varying parameters and the totality of the lighting effect will be influenced by
the offsets and locations selected.

Figure 2.18 A facade with

predominantly horizontal
characteristics (George
Green/Shutterstock.com)

Facades with A facade is often designed to incorporate features such as balconies or recessed
external recesses galleries, which may project forward or be set deep into the facade (Figure 2.19).
In both cases the lighting could be located some distance back from the building
in order to prevent excessively dark shadows being formed. If a lack of available
space in front of the facade prevents this, supplementary illumination can be
placed inside the balcony/recess space or incorporated within the zone creating
the shadow. Supplementary light of a contrasting colour may be used to good
effect in some circumstances. In many cases the use of shadow can be helpful
to express the form of a building. The lighting designer should ensure that the
concept design clearly defines the intentions of the scheme so the client or local
planners can understand the overall intent and range of possibilities achievable.

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 27

Figure 2.19 Lighting a facade Triangular pediments with sculptured compositions, such as those found in
with external recesses classical architecture, dominate the entrance porches of some historic buildings.
(photograph courtesy of
it does Lighting Ltd)
Due regard should be given to these features in the lighting design and specific
lighting can be applied to highlight them to good effect. Specific illumination
in these instances can be achieved by locating spotlights at some distance away
– permissions from neighbouring buildings may be required to achieve this.
Alternatively, linear sources positioned at close offset to the base of the triangle
can work, but are generally less effective and can be difficult to service.

Balustrading can be visually attractive if given prominence by lighting. One

method to achieve this would be to use a line of fluorescent or LED luminaires
mounted on a balcony and aimed outwards to provide a pleasing modelling of the
balusters. These features can also be very effective when revealed in silhouette
against an illuminated wall.

Generally, the appearance of a lit facade can be greatly enhanced if any balconies,
galleries with railings at the front and similar recesses are illuminated individually,
preferably by lighting which contrasts subtly in colour, tone or intensity with
that used for the principal facade lighting.

1.6.6 Columned Columned arcades and porticoes present interesting opportunities for lighting
design. Columns may be incorporated as part of the lighting effect in silhouette.
arcades and Lighting concealed behind the columns can be used to illuminate the inner
porticoes walls and soffit of the portico, thereby silhouetting the columns against their
background. A discreet use of colour or a shift in tone in this situation may
help to emphasise the effect. Columns that are relatively close to the facade are
often best revealed by lighting them directly using narrow or medium beam
spotlights which have an elongated light distribution horizontally and with
asymmetric distribution vertically. Ordinarily these luminaires would preferably
be positioned at ground level. They should be vandal-resistant and the surface
temperature of the glass should be kept low. The luminaires will then need to
be aimed upwards at a high angle with the lighting finely adjusted on site to
achieve the best effect. The capitals of certain column types can be particularly
ornate; revealing these features with light can add significant interest to the
craftsmanship and design of these components. The final design should provide
a pleasing and balanced appearance of all of the principal features.

1.6.7 Windows It is worth considering that when a building is lit from the exterior, light will
only illuminate the frames, and not the glass itself. As a result, the windows
themselves will often appear dark compared with the other surfaces of the

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 28 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

building and facade. Window lighting should, therefore, be treated separately.

With the exception of stained glass, it is usually the window reveals that are the
more important elements.

A decision should be taken as to whether it is the windows, the frames or the glass
within them that is more important architecturally. The design and form of the
window will offer a range of possibilities for lighting. Sometimes the window
reveal is of significant architectural merit, for example a gothic window reveal
or a building with roman references where deep recesses of rusticated stonework
have been applied. In more contemporary buildings, the frames and architectural
rhythm of repeated offsets can be attractive if lit and these offer interesting visual
expressions with light. The glass itself should also be considered; ancient glass will
provide a rippled surface which can be visually striking if lit with a grazing beam of
of narrow light. The glass can also add sparkle and visual interest if etched or cut.

With general exterior lighting, especially close offset, care must be taken to avoid
unwanted shadows being cast upwards by ledges or into the interior ceilings.
Shadows can be reduced or avoided by mounting small luminaires on ledges and
using lenses and cowls. Luminaires should be as inconspicuous as possible. It is
preferable to specify them to be supplied in a colour to match the surroundings.

Sometimes fittings can be hidden behind mouldings or balustrades. Fixtures that

provide a general wash should have a wide angle asymmetric vertical beam with
a sharp run-back above its peak. If fittings are aimed upwards, they should be
completely waterproof when mounted in a forward configuration. Water, snow
and ice may accumulate on the lenses’ surface so the fitting must be suitably
ingress protection (IP) rated.

If fluorescent lamps or linear LED luminaires are mounted on a continuous ledge

close to the surface they light, care must be taken to minimise the gaps between
the fittings to avoid dark patches.

Figure 2.20 Regular pattern of

windows lit from inside
(photograph courtesy of
dpa lighting consultants)

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 29

Shielded battens or LED fittings can be mounted at the top and/or bottom of
a window. Some manufacturers make luminaires dedicated to this particular
purpose. Light will reflect from curtains or blinds if present – their appearance
should harmonise, in brightness, tone and colour, with any facade lighting.
Windows in a building that is not lit externally may be attractively revealed by
this form of lighting (Figure 2.20). However, if windows are lit in this way care
must be taken by the building users to ensure that all the blinds or curtains
remain in planned positions, otherwise a patchy and unsightly appearance can
result.

Alternatively, the lighting of the interior itself can be designed with a view to
the night-time appearance from outside – for retail premises this a common
approach.

2.6.8 Stained glass In buildings of a religious or educational nature there are often stained glass
windows which offer the opportunity for backlighting, front lighting or
sometimes both.

At night, internal backlighting will add visual interest to these features and will
command attention to possibly previously unseen features. Internally, this can
also be helpful as the ornate detail can become legible at night – for evening
events and services this additional effect can be dramatic.

Coloured glass windows can present both opportunities and challenges. If a

window is to appear lit from inside the building as well as from outside, the
relationships and methods of lighting need to be carefully planned. If the glazing
is very lightly coloured then specific care and attention must be given to the
aiming angles. It is likely that the interior surfaces around the window will need
to be lit to achieve a reference value against which the colouring can be viewed.

In Figure 2.21(a) the light from floodlight A passes straight through the clear
glass with little or no scatter so that the window will appear dull or black from
positions on either side. The floodlight at B will be seen directly through the
glass, the rest of the window remaining dark. If a single light source is used at A,
a projected image and shadow of the window itself will appear on the surface of
any overhang or ceiling, assuming that this is reasonably light coloured.

In Figure 2.21(b) diffusing glass will scatter the light from a floodlight at position
A, its apparent brightness depending on the degree of diffusion or colour
saturation. Position B may be unsuitable as the degree of diffusion is unlikely
to be such that the source image is completely obliterated. Owing to the angle
of incidence of the light on the surface of the glass and the consequent losses
by reflection, absorption and diffusion, only a limited component of the light
falling directly on the windows will be effective in providing a glow (but it may
be sufficient to create a pleasing effect). As every heritage window is unique, a
test in situ is ideally required. Consequently, in direct lighting of stained glass
windows which are rich in colour saturation and where the pane is thick, the use
of high output projection equipment with good colour rendering sources is likely
to be required.

In Figure 2.21(c), light coloured surfaces inside the room or screens placed
behind the window are lit by equipment placed in either position A or B to give
the effect of a lit window without the use of a diffusing medium against the glass.
General interior lighting can produce a similar effect if the walls and ceilings
have reasonably high surface reflectance characteristics. It is almost always
necessary to experiment on site to achieve optimised results due to the many
variables but, in spite of the difficulties, lighting stained glass windows can, with
care and patience, produce some extremely striking effects (Figure 2.22).

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 30 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

Figure 2.21 Stained glass B

window lighting
(a) with clear glass
(b) with diffusing glass
(c) using reflected light

Clear
glass
(a)
A

Diffusing
glass
(b) A

Clear or
diffusing glass

(c)
A

Figure 2.22 Illuminated abstract

stained glass (Alastair
Wallace/Shutterstock.com)

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 31

2.6.9 Modern buildings New materials and methods of construction play a significant role in developing
the distinctive character of contemporary buildings. For example, the external
and internal walls of modern steel-framed buildings are non-loadbearing and are
often made from lightweight materials and prefabricated before delivery to the
site. Reinforced concrete structures, some with roofs spanning 40 m or more, are
also typical.

Provided that the type of structure is suitable and location is appropriate, external
lighting can be used to emphasise the social and architectural significance of
civic, educational and commercial buildings. It may also serve to advertise the
products of the company that owns or occupies a building.

Generally, flooding the exterior with light is inappropriate if a building facade

is flat and extensively glazed. Where detailed exterior lighting is suitable, the
system design should be focused on the emphasis of the important features of
the building. Provision for any external lighting should preferably be made in
the early stages of design. Wiring outlets and mountings for lights can then be
incorporated within the building structure or provided at the necessary points
in the surroundings, resulting in a fully considered installation and reducing
unsightly clutter (Figure 2.23).

Economics usually demand that the building footprint in the central areas of
towns and cities is fully utilised. Consequently, the boundary line of a building’s
edge may not be sufficiently set back for exterior lights to be installed within it.

A close offset system, with the lights mounted on the building, or in recesses,
could then be considered (Figure 2.24). Careful planning in consultation with
the architect/owner is necessary to locate the luminaires in suitable positions to
ensure that that coverage is adequate, shadows are not excessively distorted, the
scheme can be readily maintained and unintended patches of brightness are not
produced on the facade adjacent to the external light fittings.

Figure 2.23 LEDs integrated into

the architecture due
to lack of mounting
positions (photograph
courtesy of NDY Light)

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 32 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

Figure 2.24 [above and right]

Close offset floodlights
mounted on a ledge

If the height of a lit high-rise block is accentuated by reducing the brightness

progressively towards the top, it may be worth considering whether the building
should be ‘capped’ or ‘expressed’ with light, perhaps of a linear presentation or
possibly a different tone/character from that used for the main facades.

Some modern buildings are raised on columns and have an open paved area at
ground level for car-parking or pedestrian access. If the building is intended to
be lit or lighting is added later, the structural ceiling above the paved area and the
supporting columns should also be lit to provide an illuminated base, otherwise
the building may appear to be floating incongruously.

Linear features and structures can be picked out using LED/cold cathode tubing
or side-emitting fibre optics for easier remote access. These effects can be very
beautiful if carefully designed and detailed, but an overly intense scheme or a
poor selection of colour can be over-the-top or garish. Care and integrity are key
factors in developing the overall lighting concept.

2.6.10 Heritage lighting Listed buildings and historic sites need careful treatment and permission from
the relevant local authority must be obtained prior to works being carried out.
It is a criminal offence to carry out work which needs listed building consent
without obtaining it in advance.

It is important to note that the term ‘listed building’ includes:

—— the building itself

—— any object or structure fixed to it
—— any object or structure that has been within the curtilage of the
building since 1948.

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 33

In addition to listed buildings, consent must be obtained for scheduled

monuments; these are ‘nationally important’ buildings or sites.

Permission must be sought if you want to ‘alter or extend a listed building in a

manner which would affect its character as a building of special architectural or
historic interest’ and, as a listing applies to the whole building or site, lighting is
likely to fall into that category, certainly any new lighting installation.

What can, and what cannot, be done is under the control of the local authority,
although guidance is often sought from English Heritage, Historic Scotland and
other conservation/heritage groups.

In theory, you cannot drill holes into the building fabric or damage it in any
way. This can pose a challenge for new lighting installations. The key is to do
everything possible to mitigate any damage or alteration to the appearance of the
building.

For example, cabling can often be run in mortar joints of stone or brick buildings
and cable colour can be specified to blend in or be painted to match if necessary.
In some cases, an outer layer of new mortar may be specified to cover the cabling.

If it is not possible to utilise mortar joints, then self-adhesive cable tie holders
may be used as these cause no permanent change or damage to the building.

Mounting luminaires can also prove tricky but, for facade lighting especially,
paving slabs can be an invaluable tool as luminaires can be slab-mounted and
the slabs laid, unfixed, onto ledges or other parts of the building, eliminating any
Figure 2.25 Stepped luminaire intrusion onto the fabric itself.
mounting to uplight a
wall (photograph courtesy Sometimes it is necessary to manufacture new housings within which to mount
of dpa lighting consultants)
luminaires. Figure 2.25 shows stone steps with a newly constructed luminaire
housing that sits on the steps, allowing ‘recessed’ luminaires to graze up the wall.

2.6.11 Spires and towers Towers, steeples and domes are often challenging structures to light and so careful
planning is required. Towers and steeples appear more natural when illuminated
from only one general direction. An impression of greater height can be obtained
by diminishing the value of illuminance progressively from the base to the top.

Richly decorated spires are usually shown to best advantage when lit from the
main supporting structure of the building; the resulting patterns of light and
shade are, in general, more pleasing than those produced by spotlights located
on distant buildings. It is sometimes necessary to use both methods to achieve
the best effect, particularly when the aiming angles and distances vary around
the specific structure. Lanterns within a spire can be illuminated effectively by
internal lighting (this can be visually rewarding if created by a warmer light
source). Pinnacles, crockets and similar features can be lit with narrow-beam
spotlights mounted ideally at close offset positions; a similar method can be used
to reveal the decoration of ornamental brick or stone chimneys.

2.6.12 Colour Attractive effects can be achieved by using light of different colours at different
times of the year or for special events. For example, cool LED or metal halide
lamps can be used in winter, their bluish-white light suggesting the cold of the
season.

It is important to remember that the colour of surface materials is accentuated

more effectively and accurately if light of the same colour is used. Alternatively,
if white light from various light sources is used, it may be balanced or converted
into a more suitable colour by the use of filters (Figure 2.26).

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 34 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

Figure 2.26 Good use of colour on a

facade (photograph courtesy
of it does Lighting Ltd)

2.6.13 Design stages and Having decided on the external lighting effects required from key viewing
positions and the direction(s) from which the light should come, the more
considerations practical aspects of the lighting design should be resolved in detail.

It should be noted that the illuminance required to achieve certain brightness

contrasts on a given facade depends on a number of factors:

—— building surface material reflectance values

—— environmental zone (existing and any prescribed limits/
recommendations)
—— location of the building relative to the general surroundings
—— the dimensions of the building
—— the quality and location of the lighting equipment selected.

Figure 2.27 Flowchart of design stages

Effect wanted Principal views Modelling
Consider
scheme
Colour Direction of Location of
flow of light floodlight

Surface reflectance
Calculate the
illuminance
District brightness

Aiming Cleaning
Select
equipment
Re-lamping

Set-up aiming of
floodlights

Check coverage

Commission system

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 35

Facades or areas of surface material that have reflectance values of less than 20%
will generally be more difficult to light. It may be more practical to accentuate a
part of the building which has a higher reflectance, rather than attempt to make
dark stone appear visually bright.

2.6.14 Useful checks There are certain essentials that should be an integral part of the design
specification, although it might only be possible to check some of these aspects
on site prior to the final commissioning of the installation:

—— no spill light should be allowed to fall onto neighbouring buildings

—— no glare should be caused to road users, the occupants of nearby
buildings or visitors to the building being lit
—— there should be no confusion with transport signalling or navigation
—— there should be no danger to the public from inconsiderate
placing of lighting equipment, cabling or control gear boxes – all
electrical and lighting equipment should be vandal-resistant and
mechanically, electrically and thermally safe
—— lighting, cabling and associated accessories should be as discreetly
concealed as is practical
—— check the internal lighting arrangements and understand the
method of window curtaining/blinds to be used
—— explore all relevant options to test whether the interior and exterior
lighting can be organised differently to improve the overall effect
—— there may be good reasons why it is not possible to conceal all
luminaires from view and every effort should be made to ensure
there are no objectionable highlights caused by excessive patches of
brightness or bright objects close to the luminaires
—— check that the control and switching systems operate correctly and
that these reflect the client’s expectations.

2.7 Security lighting The general approach is to provide a uniform, shadowless, glare-free environment
with good vertical and horizontal illumination. When dealing with security
lighting issues, the aim is to increase the feeling of safety for those using the space.
Lighting alone cannot prevent crime; however, it does make natural surveillance
easier and increases visual acuity, making crime less likely.

Shadows should be minimised since they can hide miscreants. Shadows can also
be used to conceal stolen goods or tools to aid in the commission of crime later.

Generally, white light is preferable as it gives the greatest feeling of security

to those using the space. Having a high colour rendering index (CRI) enables
the eye to see colour and skin tone clearly and this allows us to more readily
recognise people and make more informed judgements about those sharing
the space.

Maintenance is a significant consideration as lamps which are hard to replace,

or luminaires which cannot be changed, will result in the scheme quickly
deteriorating and potentially allowing security to be compromised. Ensure that
maintenance staff can easily access the luminaires and that lamp life is as long as
possible to avoid outages.

Vandal-resistant luminaires with an impact protection (IK) rating of 10 will be the

most suitable for these types of designs. An IP rating of at least 65 is also desired
for outdoor use. Check that fixings are robust. If the luminaires are mounted on

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 36 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

columns, fit vandal-resistant fixings to the doors so they cannot easily be opened
by the general public or vandals.

2.7.1 Switching Basic-level security lighting is often controlled via a passive infrared (PIR) sensor
where the location is dark until someone approaches. However, this can lead
to nuisance switching, where the lights are switched on too frequently or un-
necessarily. Generally, a better option is to have a constant uniform level of light
or lighting that dims to a low level (but never switches off completely) when
absence is detected so that the area never falls into complete darkness. LED and
compact fluorescent luminaires can be easily dimmed, making this option is far
more viable and cost effective than when halogen or discharge lighting was in
favour.

A photocell or timer should be fitted to switch off the luminaires during daylight
hours.

2.7.2 Glare For basic- and intermediate-level security, lighting should be designed so
that glare is eliminated. A bright source which causes glare will affect the eye
adaptation level, making it difficult, or impossible, to see into shadows. Having a
direct line of sight to the actual light source is not advisable. Light source in this
case also refers to the reflector.

High security installations often use glare as a technique to deter intruders. High
power point sources facing ‘outwards’ disable the vision of someone approaching
the installation. Additionally, this same technique means that security staff have
a very good view of people approaching. Similarly, security checkpoints have
high levels of illumination outside and staff work behind mirror glass and are
unseen.

2.7.3 Fences A technique for perimeter fences is to use streetlighting lanterns (Figure 2.28).
These give wide lateral spacing and can be configured to minimise rearward
spill light (i.e. the lanterns face outwards, allowing people approaching the fence
to be easily seen). Streetlighting optics are also better suited to providing good
uniformity along the fence line.

2.7.4 Open areas Large areas are best illuminated by floodlights. Lighting from several directions
will minimise shadows. This can often be achieved by locating multi-lantern
columns in the centre of the area. Care needs to be taken to avoid glare to security
staff.

Figure 2.28 Security lighting using

streetlighting lanterns
(photograph courtesy
of DW Windsor)

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 37

As well as lighting the area around the building, a useful technique is to provide
uniform illumination on the walls. This enables possible intruders (or their
shadows) to be easily seen against a light background.

Good vertical illumination is necessary for facial recognition by the security staff
and CCTV.

The aiming of floodlights must be carefully managed so that the beam does
not spill above the horizontal. This wastes energy and contributes to sky glow.
Double asymmetric, flat glass lanterns are ideal for this purpose (see Figure 2.51).
There will inevitably be a balance to strike between the spread of light required
and the height of the column. This can only be determined by the particular site
conditions.

Wall-mounted bulkheads are also used for security lighting and should be
mounted at around 2–3 m for maximum effect. Luminaires which throw light
downwards rather than just forward will generally give better horizontal
illuminance; however, for good facial recognition, luminaires with some vertical
output may be preferable. It is worth considering whether a small streetlighting
luminaire will perform the function more effectively than a conventional
bulkhead unit.

2.7.5 CCTV CCTV camera suppliers often have their own particular requirements and advice
should be sought whenever cameras are to be used. The light source must also
have sufficient colour rendering (CRI > 80) for images to be obtained which can
be used for prosecution.

2.8 Roadways Roadway lighting should meet BS 5489-1 and BS EN 13201. Although non-
adopted and private roads need not meet these standards, it is good practice to do
2.8.1 Industrial estates so, even if for the simple expedient that they may be adopted in the future.

Care should be taken that floodlighting on private property does not adversely
affect the road lighting (e.g. reflections in windows or other sources of glare).

See section 2.9.3 for more Note that BS 5489-1:2013 has introduced the concept of mesopic vision in
information determining lighting levels. The lighting levels are based on the scotopic/
photopic (S/P) ratio of the light sources (see section 2.9.3). This concept only
applies to light sources with a CRI > 60.

2.8.2 Residential Where there are blocks of flats, social housing, care homes, dementia residences,
etc. it may be a requirement that the design meets the guidance in the Secured
lighting by Design guides published by ACPO. Much of the content of these documents
covers hardware, such as window locks and doors, and architectural features,
such as avoiding recesses in alleyways or dark corners. However, there are
references to lighting, the most important being that the lighting design meets
the requirements of BS 5489-1 and is carried out by a competent person.

Another requirement is that the design reduces fear of crime because the police
feel that if residents and visitors feel safe, they are more likely to be safe. The
reasoning is that if more people go out and use the space, then criminals are more
likely to be spotted and deterred.

In terms of lighting, bollards are not seen as suitable since they can be vandalised
and the light can easily be blocked by vehicles. Another requirement is for white
light sources with a CRI > 80. Long-life sources are seen as an advantage since
they require less maintenance and stay illuminated for longer periods, thus
reducing the possibility of lamp outages and dark spots.

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 38 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

2.8.3 Use of Note that it is not mandatory to light roads and highways to these standards or,
in fact, to provide any lighting at all. However, local authorities have a ‘duty of
BS 5489-1 and care’ to residents and to road users. This is usually taken to mean conformance
BS EN 13201-2 to these standards. The local authority needs to undertake a risk assessment to
determine whether lighting is required and, if so, to what level.

2.9 Vision Photopic vision is well understood by most lighting practitioners. All interior
lighting design is based on photopic viewing conditions, where both the rods and
2.9.1 Photopic vision cones in the retina are fully operational. The cones in the fovea (the central high-
resolution area in the centre of the retina) enable fine detail to be seen, the degree
of accuracy and repeatability being based on the task illuminance. There are many
other issues concerned with interior lighting design, such as glare, colour rendering,
uniformity and luminance contrast, all based on photopic viewing conditions.

It is also worth pointing out that the current recommendations for exterior sports
lighting applications are based on photopic vision.

It is important to remember that the lumen, the SI unit of luminous flux, is a

photopic unit based on the CIE photopic luminosity standard (V(m)) response
curve.

2.9.2 Scotopic vision This is the situation under very low levels of illuminance, when which the cones
are no longer able to operate. We are literally colour blind. Since there are no rods
in the fovea, discrimination of fine detail is impossible. Scotopic vision occurs
at very low levels of adaptation – the usual upper limit given is 1 × 10–3 cd/m2.
Depending on the average reflectance of objects in the field of view, this might
represent an illuminance of 0.01 lux. In practical terms, this will not occur under
artificial lighting – it is only moonlight and starlight that result in such conditions.
A full moon in a clear sky in the UK can produce an illuminance of 0.3–0.5 lux.

Note that, under these conditions, the rods are much more responsive to light
from the blue end of the spectrum. This is known as the Purkinje shift and means
that objects with a high blue content (or illuminated by light sources containing
significant blue wavelengths) are seen as ‘brighter’ than they would be under
normal photopic viewing conditions.

2.9.3 Mesopic vision As darkness falls and the luminance of the visual field reduces from photopic to
scotopic conditions, we enter a condition known as mesopic vision. Since this is
a transitional stage, there is no standard CIE mesopic eye response curve as there
is with photopic and scotopic vision (Figure 2.29).

The lower limit of mesopic vision is the same as that of the upper limit of scotopic
(i.e. 1 × 10–3 cd/m2). However, opinion varies as to the upper limit of the mesopic

Figure 2.29 Photopic and scotopic 1.0

sensitivity curves (mesopic 0.9
Spectral luminous efficiency

spans the two, depending Scotopic vision Photopic vision

0.8
on the adaptation level)
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Wavelength / nm

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 39

condition: the SLL Code for Lighting gives 3 cd/m2, whereas the US ASSIST
See SLL Code for Lighting for (Alliance for Solid-State Illumination Systems and Technologies) programme
more information gives 0.6 cd/m2.

The relevance of mesopic vision to exterior lighting is that most streetlighting

is seen under these conditions. In a city centre, where the streets are brightly
illuminated by shop fronts, advertising hoardings, video signs, vehicular traffic
and the streetlighting lanterns themselves, our vision may well be considered to
be photopic or just slightly entering mesopic. Conversely, in lightly populated
areas, where the streetlighting is only giving mean values of illuminance of less
than 3 lux, then the Purkinje effect is more significant.

The effect of this is that light sources with greater blue content may give better
viewing ability than other sources with an equal (photopic) lumen output. This
is especially true for objects seen in the periphery of the eye, where there is a high
concentration of rods.

BS 5489-1 incorporates mesopic vision into its recommendations for road

lighting, where the illuminance values may be reduced if light sources with
a high blue content are used. Sources are categorised by the S/P ratio of their
spectral power distribution (SPD).

Another useful reference is the Lighting Industry Association (LIA) Technical

Statements on topics such as mesopic vision, S/P ratio and illuminance meters
when used with LED luminaires.

Mesopic vision is also significant for the floodlighting of car parks and building
facades, where only low levels of illuminance are required. If the concept of S/P
ratios becomes more accepted, this is bound to have an impact on the way we
light our exterior environment.

2.10 Video walls, In the past few years, the presence of large screens and urban projections for
commercial purposes has intensified, thanks to decreasing production costs,
streaming onto to the introduction of new lighting and imaging technologies and to the
building facades miniaturisation of digital components.
2.10.1 Media
Public spaces have been gradually invaded by a new flow of visual information,
architecture with an impact seldom planned and often dictated exclusively by commercial
and advertising pressures (Figure 2.30). At the same time, new possibilities for

Figure 2.30 Piccadilly Circus, London

(GTS Productions/
Shutterstock.com)

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 40 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

artistic and architectural exploration have opened up, and some buildings have
been transformed into entities which are not only able to show pictures in motion,
but to communicate with the surrounding environment and their occupants,
providing the basis for the definition of the concept of media-building.

The convergence of architecture, lighting and facade design, motion picture

production, high-power computer graphics processors, information and audio/
visual technologies has therefore led to the development of a new design
discipline: media architecture.

The definition of media architecture is continuously evolving and difficult to

capture and frame in a short description. In its simplest manifestation, it appears
as the juxtaposition of a screen on a building facade. This approach has gradually
evolved into the concept of media facade, where the screen is not a separate
product but is integrated into the facade of a building. Media architecture has
recently emerged which incorporates a higher degree of integration between
digital and physical technologies, to the point of creating buildings that are able
to change their appearance, to interact dynamically with their occupants and to
communicate with their surroundings.

In all this, light plays one of the most important roles. With its easily changeable
appearance and digital control, it has become a new building material that is
able to communicate information through dynamic visual sensations. On
the one hand, the very idea of ‘media facade’ can be framed as an evolution of
architectural lighting, with the introduction of increasingly complex and versatile
control systems, initially borrowed from theatre and performance lighting. On
the other hand, ‘urban screens’ can be seen as a magnification and expansion of
television and computer screens, with large screens, initially used for sports and
entertainment, now increasingly being integrated into the building fabric.

Note that, in the UK, advertisements are subject to planning restrictions and
require consent (deemed or otherwise) from the local planning authority. In the
absence of other guidance, these restrictions are often applied to media facades.

2.10.2 Classification Media architecture projects are very diverse and difficult to categorise. However,
it is possible to provide an initial classification based on the type of technology
that has been adopted.

—— Urban screens: These are perhaps, historically, the first type of

intervention where multimedia content has been introduced on
a building envelope, with large-scale screens attached to building
facades without any architectural integration effort (Figure 2.31).
The screen and the building remain two separate layers, in both
technical and communication terms. Urban screens are independent
elements, devised with the sole purpose of communicating and
displaying pictures in motion. Their size, height, resolution, pixel
pitch and viewing directions are optimised to follow the streams
of urban circulation and to capture the attention of their target
group (e.g. 4 Times Square in New York and the Galeries Lafayette
in Berlin).
—— Media facades:  In this case, building facades integrate light sources
or kinetic elements and a network infrastructure to distribute power
and data. This level of integration is achieved in two principal ways:
• Dynamically illuminated facades, where exterior lighting
systems that illuminate the facade can be designed in a
Figure 2.31 Moving digital facade (Lev modular way and connected to programmable control
Radin/Shutterstock.com) systems. In this case the communicative aspect becomes

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 41

Figure 2.32 Yas Hotel, Abu Dhabi

(photograph courtesy of Arup)

Figure 2.33 Flame Towers, Baku (cesc_

assawin / Shutterstock.com)

more abstract, such as in the Agbar Tower in Barcelona,

GreenPix in Beijing, Star Place in Taiwan or the Yas Hotel in
Abu Dhabi (Figure 2.32).
• Integration of multimedia systems on the facade, where
modular lighting systems (usually LEDs) specifically designed
for this type of application are integrated into the facade,
such as in front of the Flame Towers in Baku (Figure 2.33).
Further distinctions can be made in relation to the following aspects: transparency
or opacity of the media surface, high or low resolution, colour characteristics,
brightness and level of interaction.

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2.10.3 Design of the The design of the media facade presents a challenge in terms of creativity and
integration between different disciplines: architecture, materials, structure,
media facade lighting and multimedia content are just some of the aspects to be considered in
the design phase.

It is possible initially to subdivide the design of such systems into two categories:

—— design of the multimedia surface

—— design of the visual content:  this is normally done by specialists
and is beyond the scope of this guide.
In this context, this guide only considers the main aspects related to the design
of multimedia surfaces that may involve skills related to the lighting design
profession. The wider criteria to consider in the design include:

—— structural aspects, including:

• forces transmitted from the building and the structure of the
facade system
• loads due to weather conditions, such as wind and snow
—— architectural aspects, for example:
• integration between the facade and the building
• form
• construction details and their visual impact
• resistance to atmospheric agents
—— technological aspects related to viewing and appearance:
• area of the ‘screen’
• required minimum viewing distance
• viewing angle (there may be a need to restrict the viewing
angle to avoid the screen being seen from, or throwing light
onto, buildings, roads, flight paths or railway tracks from
certain directions)
• content type and display type appropriate in relation to the
level of content definition to be conveyed (e.g. text, still
images, moving images)
• external conditions of vision (night, day)
• orientation of the facade.
Related to the above are issues such as communication, the purpose of the media
facade, the level of public attention and level of interaction with the public.

Finally, there are the economic and operational aspects, such as budget and
maintenance strategy.

From the above considerations, it is possible to define the performance criteria

of the media surface:

—— type of display (colour, monochrome, required levels of brightness,

colour depth)
—— resolution and distance between the pixels (pixel pitch)
—— dimensions

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 43

—— duration of operation (24 hours a day, only at night, etc.)

—— typology of light sources (LED, fluorescent, etc.) and peak luminance
—— mode of integration with the building and its envelope
—— degree of transparency (for example, in case it is important to
ensure there is natural lighting and views to the outside through
the media facade system)
—— data transfer protocol (HDMI, DVI, DMX, RDM, ArtNet, etc.)
—— environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, etc.)
—— sustainability of the installation (energy consumption, materials,
installation lifetime, etc.).

Finally, the development of full-scale mock-ups and prototypes of the proposed

media surface system is always beneficial to the project. It allows the process of
construction and maintenance of the system to be clearly understood and limits
or avoids integration problems later, when the project has reached an advanced
stage and correction of inappropriate choices would be more expensive.

2.10.4 Choice of screen The first performance parameters to be considered for the design of the media
architecture intervention are whether the display is in colour or monochrome
performance and which brightness level is required. These choices have a direct impact on the
parameters selection of the type of light source and are obviously closely related to the final
cost of the intervention.

The choice of colour is a prerequisite for the representation of high resolution

advertising; however, in some cases the use of monochromatic sources may be
sufficient or even deliberate – for example, in the case of text or abstract visual
effects.

The media screen brightness is technically translated into the peak luminance
of its lighting elements and must be related to the viewing conditions and the
brightness of the surrounding environment (refer to Table 2.3 for typical diurnal
and nocturnal luminance values). High dynamic range imaging techniques can

Table 2.3  Typical luminance values experienced by humans

Vision type Condition Luminance (cd/m2)
Photopic Direct view of the sun 900 000 000
Tungsten filament (2700 K) 3 000 000
Snow on a clear day 25 000
Surface of T5 fluorescent lamp 14 000
Surface of the moon high in the sky in clear sky conditions 2 000
Typical bright computer screen luminance 200
Surface of the moon low in the sky in clear sky conditions 100
White paper under good reading conditions (300 lux) 80
Mesopic Road surface under street lighting 0.2–2
Busy traffic route 1
White paper in moonlight 0.1
White paper in clear night sky 0.001
Scotopic Snow in starlight 0.000 3
Grass in starlight 0.000 05
Threshold of vision 0.000 003

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 44 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

be used to capture the daytime and night-time luminance of the site location for
a more responsive approach to the design of the peak luminance of the media
surface. For instance, if the design brief requires visibility in daytime conditions,
the peak luminance should be in the order of 1500–3000 cd/m2. This is excessive in
night-time conditions: consequently, if the average facade is designed to operate
both day and night, it will be appropriate to provide a mechanism for reducing
the luminous flux, which can, for example, be connected to a light sensor or to a
timer. Some LED matrix systems currently on the market already include devices
that automatically vary the luminous intensity, thereby reducing the brightness,
the energy load and the running costs.

Guidance on the luminance of digital media depending on location and use can
be found in ILP PLG05: The brightness of illuminated advertisements.

The relative contrast between the pixels forming the image is another important
factor in the design of the media screen. Commercial LED screens are typically
finished in black in order to reduce the brightness of the support elements in
relation to the brightness of the pixels, and this approach should also be used in
the design of larger media surfaces if the design intent is to create ‘crisp’ images.
In daytime conditions, these requirements would translate into shielding the
pixels and background supporting structures from direct sunlight and bright
illumination as far as possible.

The dimensions and proportions of the media surface are the next important
performance parameter to consider, as they strongly influence the overall visual
appearance and are particularly critical for the success of a media facade project.

Commercial pressures are pushing towards the adoption of increasing screen

resolutions, bigger media surface sizes and denser pixel arrangements.

A higher resolution allows any type of visual content to be played, whether a

motion picture with photographic quality, high contrast graphics or simple text.
The flexibility to play a diverse range of media content may be important on the
one hand but, on the other hand, lower resolutions allow large-scale displays to
integrate more intimately with the architecture of the building, revealing a more
abstract and artistic nature.

In the UK, there are restrictions on the frame rates for signs that are visible
to moving traffic. This is especially relevant because most media facades are in
locations where there is a lot of vehicular traffic.

A rule of thumb to be used to define the screen size in relation to the viewing
distance is to specify the diagonal of the screen (i.e. the distance between the
pixels furthest apart) as half the minimum viewing distance, and approximately
equal to one-tenth of the maximum viewing distance (Figure 2.34). This rule
also applies in reverse: if a particular dimension of the screen has been chosen

Figure 2.34 Recommended relationship

between viewing distance
and screen diagonal
Diagonal

Minimal viewing distance Vmin = 2 x diagonal

Viewing distance V = 10 x diagonal

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 45

for architectural reasons (for example, limited by the available wall space), it is
possible to derive the viewing distance.

For example, according to this rule, to view the media surface from a distance
of 100 m, the diagonal of the screen should be at least 10 m, and the minimum
viewing distance for a comfortable view would be approximately 20 m.

For high-resolution screens, the pixel pitch (i.e. the distance between the pixels)
can be calculated in relation to the viewing distance by using another simple
rule: the viewing distance at which the typical human eye with normal visual
acuity cannot distinguish the cells of the pixel matrix is equal to 1 m for each
millimetre of distance between the pixels. Therefore, if the screen is seen from at
least 20 m away, the recommended pixel pitch must be 20 mm or less. Billboard
LED screens have typical pixel pitches between 4 and 30 mm; however, newer
products can now reach pixel pitches of around 1 mm.

The pixel pitch also defines the final screen brightness. For the same pixel
luminance, a denser arrangement of pixels (smaller pixel pitch) would pack
in a higher number of pixels, and that would therefore translate into a higher
luminance Figure 2.35 shows the different visual effects created by varying the
pixel pitch with the same geometrical configuration of the screen and the same
viewing distance.

A higher pixel density implies a higher cost per unit area but, in general, as
density increases, the cost per pixel tends to decrease. In principle, arrays with a
Figure 2.35 Visual effects created by
varying the pixel pitch pixel pitch of 10 mm can cost up to five times more than arrays with inter-pixel
(photograph courtesy of distances of 25 mm, with the same pixel type. Economies of scale can obviously
Francesco Anselmo) distort these figures.

2.10.5 Choice of Any dimmable and digitally controllable source of light can be a viable candidate
for the design and implementation of media architecture. However, LEDs are
light source almost invariably used in preference to other sources.

Higher resolution media screens can also be created by tessellating different

plasma or LCD screens, especially for indoor applications, and although the
cost of this technology may seem prohibitive, high-resolution media screens are
becoming a ubiquitous medium for advertising in the urban environment and in
public spaces.

LED systems have become the lighting system of choice for media surfaces for the
following reasons:

—— the coloured light emitted from LED sources has higher saturation
and allows a wider range of colours, and although the luminous
flux can degrade with time at different rates for each colour, it is
possible to correct this behaviour via software with image based
recalibration techniques
—— it is possible to achieve finer dimming control with LEDs
—— LED light sources are solid state and have a small form factor, and
therefore can be more easily integrated with the architecture of the
facade
—— the longevity of LED sources is, in general, greater than that of
other lighting technologies.

LED light sources and luminaires are far more robust than fluorescent lighting;
linear fluorescent lamps are fragile and contain a small amount of mercury, which
constitutes an environmental hazard if not disposed of in an appropriate manner.

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The lighting modules used for the LED arrays are constituted by pixels with
one or more LED. A colour display requires the use of at least three LEDs per
pixel (red, green and blue – RGB) that are able to recreate a range of colours by
additive mixing. The addition of one or more white LEDs with different colour
temperatures can be useful in case there is a specific demand for greater precision
in the tone reproduction of white light.

The positioning and integration of lighting systems in the facade poses

substantial challenges to their operation. For this reason it is necessary to check
the environmental conditions (temperature and humidity range, facade loads,
water, snow, etc.) of the light sources and their power supplies and drivers and
ensure that the operational limits are not reached. This means that lighting
systems used for media facade applications require a greater robustness and
weather protection than interior ones. They also require an increased tolerance
to thermal stress and action of atmospheric pollutants. For example, in the case
of sealed facades, the temperature and range to which the lighting devices may be
subjected can be outside the manufacturer’s recommended limits and it may be
necessary to discuss having a special warranty written for the project.

In the context of media architecture, it is extremely important to design the

lighting system for easy access, maintenance and upgrade, because failure of
luminaires is visible. The replacement of the LEDs in case of early failure or at
the end of their life cycle is an aspect which needs to be considered early in the
design stage. Some manufacturers provide modular and replaceable LEDs.

Finally, emerging lighting and material technologies can also offer potential
applications for media architecture. Recent developments in the field of organic
LEDs (OLEDs), large-scale electronic ink (e-ink) and electro-chromic glass have
offered new tools to designers, which can transform the appearance of exterior
and interior architectural surfaces.

2.10.6 Choice of lighting Ultimately, media surfaces are designed to convey information and visual effects,
and the desired content must be transformed into a useful data protocol that can
control system be transmitted by the media player and lighting control software and hardware.
and data transfer
protocol There are some preliminary steps that must be followed to ensure that the content
is shown in the desired way on the media surface.

The first step is to ‘patch’ the luminaires to lighting control addresses. If the
lighting pixels are varying only their intensity (but not colour), each luminaire
has a single address. But if the lighting pixels are RGB, at least three control
channels will be needed to control each luminaire as a single entity and create
the desired colour mix. It will then be important to patch the luminaire so that
the control system can relate the three independent colour channels to a single
luminaire.

The second step is called ‘pixel mapping’. The virtual pixel matrix of the
media content layer must be mapped to the physical lighting layer by creating
a relationship between the pixel position in the media player and the physical
position in space of the luminaires, using their patched control addresses
(Figure 2.36).

Once these operations are done, the control software is able to send the media
content, pixel-by-pixel, to the mapped luminaires, displaying the required visual
effect and media stream.

The media communication protocol is generally chosen in relation to the type of

system used. For example, for an array of LEDs (media screen) it would be most

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 47

Figure 2.36 Example of media player

and pixel mapping
software for lighting
control (photograph courtesy
of Traxon Technologies)

effective to design the system architecture to input a video signal (employing the
DVI format, for example).

In the case of systems that integrate multiple lighting devices, these devices can
instead use a standard and open protocol of transmission (for example DMX512,
the standard protocol for the control of entertainment lighting) for which each
unit is equipped with one or more addresses to which the control software will
assign particular values in relation to the required colour or intensity.

2.10.7 Energy and In the design phase it is necessary to consider the energy consumption
implications and the environmental and light pollution impacts of the media
environmental surface intervention (Figures 2.37 and 2.38).
aspects
Due to their large area, any lighting system or bright screen requires a substantial
amount of energy to operate; for example, the typical consumption of an LED
matrix display with a pixel pitch of 30 mm is approximately 300 W/m2.

Figure 2.37 The GreenPix facade integrates photovoltaics Figure 2.38 Close-up of GreenPix’s facade
to achieve a zero-energy balance in operation (photograph courtesy of Arup Lighting)
(photograph courtesy of Arup Lighting)

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Media facades rarely need to be seen from above, so there is no need for them to
emit any upward light. However, many commonly available screens have little or
no, upward light control. Steps should be taken to save energy and minimise the
contribution to sky glow by ensuring that no light is emitted above the horizontal.

2.10.8 Media screen Depending on the topological configuration, it is possible to classify media screen
systems into three categories:
product
typologies and —— dot systems
selection —— linear systems
—— mesh systems.

A further distinction can be made between systems where the light source is
directly visible and systems where the light source illuminates the architectural
elements of the facade.

Some of these products are directly related to the application of LED matrix
screen technologies in architecture, while others have their roots in the evolution
of theatre and entertainment lighting equipment.

Figure 2.39 Examples of dot

systems: white and
GRB (images courtesy of
Traxon Technologies)

Dot systems Dot systems are typically made of compact RGB LEDs, connected by flexible
cables and individually addressable (Figure 2.39). They may be supported by
mechanical structures that can be configured in a free-form manner or which
have a more regular arrangement.

Dot systems are usually designed for direct view and the LEDs require colour
control to maintain a level of colour consistency similar to that achieved on tiled
LED displays. The distance between the pixels is usually standardised, but it is
also possible to request a project-specific configuration.

Linear systems In linear systems, LEDs are arranged in rows and typically mounted on dedicated
supports, which in turn may be distributed in continuous rows with appropriate
vertical spacing (Figure 2.40).

The horizontal and vertical distances between pixels can be varied as required,
and the mapping between the image and the illuminated pixels is assigned to the
control software. The option to achieve different horizontal and vertical spacing
makes it possible to create effects of transparency and achieve solar shading.

Most of these systems are designed for direct viewing of the pixel or include a
diffuser, but some systems can also be used as lighting projectors to illuminate
the architectural surfaces and details of the facade.

Mesh systems In mesh systems, the light sources (typically LEDs) are arranged in a rigid or
deformable matrix (Figure 2.41). Again, the light sources are most frequently
designed to be viewed directly.

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 49

Figure 2.40 [left] Example of a

linear system
Figure 2.41 [right] Example of
a mesh system
(images courtesy of
Traxon Technologies)

Several manufacturers market solutions offering different levels of architectural

integration.

2.11 Digital These signs are increasingly widespread and are often found alongside major
traffic routes. They can be very large (> 50 m2). By definition, an advertisement
advertising signs needs to be noticeable. However, for reasons of safety, they should not be
distracting to drivers, hence a delicate balance must be struck between attracting
attention and not distracting drivers. This is made more difficult by the fact that
digital signs usually have moving images.

The night-time luminance of a sign should be set according to the context of its
surroundings. The environmental zone classification of E0–E4 is a useful starting
point. BS EN 12899-1 gives recommendations for traffic signs. While, within the
limits of ILP PLG05, advertisements may be brighter than traffic signs, it is
important to consider what difference in brightness can be justified.

If possible, the luminance of the existing road and advertising hoardings should
be measured to give a baseline from which to determine the luminance of the
proposed digital sign.

2.11.1 Luminance General guidance on the brightness of illuminated advertisements is found in

ILP PLG05: The brightness of illuminated advertisements. However, this does not
refer to the brightness of signs during the day.

Signs which face the sun may be allowed to be brighter than those facing north.
In the absence of any specific requirements, we recommend an upper limit of
3000 cd/m2. Night-time values should be much lower and based on the specific,
local conditions. Programmed controls can handle dimming regimes and turn off
at set times for energy saving or to suit planning restrictions.

Signs can be set to dim to specified levels at particular times of day. It is

recommended that the maximum luminance levels should only be altered by the
local authority rather than the advertiser or landlord.

2.11.2 Moving images Moving images are obviously more distracting than static ones. The more slowly
the images change, the less distracting they will be. Guidance can be found in the
ILP PLG05. This recommends that images or text should not be changed more
frequently than once every 5 seconds.

Moving images, animation, video or full motion images should not be displayed
at locations where they could present a hazard, for example if they could be
seen by drivers in moving traffic. Local planning authorities may also wish to
impose additional controls by setting limits on the times when the illuminated
advertisement may be lit.

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Sky glow and Many of these signs have no control over the emission of upward light. In
spill light luminaire terminology, they have an upward light output ratio (ULOR) of 50%.
This obviously wastes a great deal of energy and contributes to sky glow.

Some manufacturers offer louvres as an option or have the LEDs set back in the
sign face, which reduces the upward spill. Similarly, the lateral beam angle is
typically 140° (2 × 70° about the axis). A site survey should be conducted to see
whether the beam should be reduced in width to avoid spill light.

2.12 Presentation It is often necessary for lighting designers to accurately express their design to
non-specialists, such as planners, councillors and architects. There is currently
of lighting a large number of tools and methods available to lighting designers, which allow
concepts them to produce and present their lighting design concepts and ideas to clients.
and lighting
software A number of methods and practices commonly used by lighting designers are
listed below. The final choice and preference depends mainly on the designers’
2.12.1 Introduction skills and expertise in using each tool.

2.12.2 Pencil and A traditional and still very common method of presenting lighting design
concepts is through the use of coloured pencils/crayons on a black background
crayon sketches (Figure 2.42). This method is simple and effective, providing clients with an
image that is easily understood.

Figure 2.42 Crayons on black paper

(image courtesy of Ray Pang)

2.12.3 Combined sketch Freehand or computer-generated sketches assist the lighting designer and team
to understand the architectural design and aspirations. To successfully illustrate
and Photoshop a concept, black and white sketches can be turned into colourful lighting design
illustrations images through computer software such as Adobe Photoshop (Figure 2.43).

Very often there are no sketches available and the project may involve the
illumination of an existing site or building. In these instances it is common to
use available photo-realistic renders or site photographs by photo-manipulating
(e.g. in Photoshop) these into a night-time shot to illustrate lighting design ideas
(Figures 2.44 and 2.45).

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 51

Figure 2.43 Architect’s sketched image [left]; night-time concept generated using
Photoshop [right] (images courtesy of Ray Pang)

Figure 2.44 External lighting render by architect [left]; night-time concept generated
using Photoshop [right] (images courtesy of NDY Light)

Figure 2.45 External lighting render by architect [left]; night-time concept generated
using Photoshop [right] (images courtesy of NDY Light)

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 52 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

Figure 2.46 DIALux modelling in

wireframe model (image
courtesy of Ray Pang)

Figure 2.47 Two examples of external lighting modelling in DIALux

(images courtesy of Ray Pang)

2.12.5 3D modelling A number of lighting calculation packages incorporate a 3D visual element

within them to allow the designers to view their concepts in addition to obtaining
accurate technical data on their designs. The most common method of illustrating
designs to clients is to build a simple 3D model.

With the increasing computing power of office computers, 3D modelling can

be taken to a high level of detail. Most software packages have the capacity for
construction of 3D models (Figures 2.46 and 2.47). Alternatively, software such
as SketchUp and Autodesk 3ds Max can be used, which permits the resulting
model to be exported into the lighting calculation software in a commonly used
format such as .drg, .dxf or .3ds (Figures 2.48 and 2.49).

2.12.6 Computer Today, lighting calculations are invariably performed by computer. While the
results are accurate, certain precautions should be taken.
programs used
for external Where performance is critical, such as the avoidance of glare, overspill light
lighting design or illuminance over a small area, it is important to check that the original
and calculations photometry has been measured with sufficient accuracy. Some photometric
measurements are taken at 5° intervals, rather than 1° or 2.5°. An interval of 5° is
greater than the difference between aiming a floodlight at 4 times the mounting
height and at 6 times the mounting height (i.e. a 20 m difference in aiming point
if using a 10 m column).

Always check that the photometric data are suitable for the particular optical
combination of light source type, source position and reflector/refractor. If in
doubt, ask the manufacturer.

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Figure 2.48 3D modelling using

SketchUp (image
courtesy of Ray Pang)

Figure 2.49 Modelling in 2D using Photoshop (left); 3D modelling and

DIALux render in Ray-Trace (images courtesy of Ray Pang)

Some luminaires supplied by manufacturers can have multiple distribution

options for the same source within the same housing, so if a lighting design
requires a number of different tasks to be lit (car park, road, path, etc.), it is
perfectly possible to find luminaires from many suppliers that can accommodate
those lighting requirements within a single housing.

There is currently a large number of software packages available which are capable
of producing lighting design calculations and 3D visualisations. Computer
simulation plays a significant role within the lighting industry and the standard
way in which we present and formalise the technical elements of a design.

Note that these programs often require powerful processors and large amounts of
memory so are not suitable for most tablet devices or laptops.

Many programs have the ability not only to perform complex calculations and
models, but to generate information on numerous technical parameters, such
as illuminance, luminance, glare, etc. This information can be generated in the
form of ISO-contour and ‘false-colour’ images. Additionally, most programs also
incorporate rendering and ray-tracing software, offering the potential to generate
visual aids, such as rendered perspectives.

Some software is free and some requires a paid licence; some is more visual while
other packages are more calculation based and technical.

A number of manufacturers offer their own, free lighting software in which their
products’ photometry is preloaded but into which other manufacturers’ data can
also be imported.

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The following are some of the most common, independent software packages
used by lighting designers to run calculations:

—— DIALux (free)
—— Relux (free)
—— AGi32
—— Lighting Reality PRO
—— Autodesk 3ds Max.

2.12.7 DIALux and Relux DIALux and Relux are free programs that can run both daylighting and lighting
calculations for interior and exterior scenarios. They are the two most commonly
used software packages in the lighting industry and can import and export to
all CAD programs using the .dwg and .dxf file formats. Complex architectural
environments can be created internally, or externally created 3D environments
can be imported via .dwg or .dfx format files.

The basic technique for both electric and daylight calculation is a radiosity
method for the calculation similar to the AGi32 software.

2.12.8 AGi32 AGi32 is a paid for 3D lighting design and rendering software package for electric
lighting and daylight analysis.

Compared with many free packages, AGi32 offers more scope in terms of views
and the options to add information to create really smart presentations. Some
contributors to this guide consider that AGi32 produces renderings that more
faithfully reflect the real-life experience of the space. AGi32 is a complex program
that requires training or a reasonable level of experience to use effectively.

2.12.9 Lighting Lighting Reality PRO is a real-time lighting design package intended as a fast
and easy-to-use PC software package, enabling lighting designers to quickly
Reality PRO produce standards-compliant street and outdoor area lighting plans in real time.
Its predominant use in the UK is for highway lighting design.

The Lighting Reality PRO application comes ready-loaded with photometric

data supporting all the key road-lighting standards, including ANSI/IES RP-8-
14 for North American users and BS EN 13201-2 for European users.

2.12.10 Autodesk For those who are familiar with the old Autodesk ‘lighting design’ software, such
as Lightscape and VIZ, these have been merged into the 3ds Max. The software
3ds Max offers further benefits in terms of continuity and consistency with the AutoCAD,
Autodesk Revit and Autodesk Inventor families of software products. It is said to
be capable of performing photometrically accurate calculations.

2.13 Equipment – This section focuses purely on projects where there is no cabled mains power.
Often, photovoltaic (PV) and wind power are used in combination (Figure 2.50).
off-grid systems
2.13.1 Introduction Since PV cells are only operational during the daylight hours and the wind blows
only intermittently, both PV and wind-powered luminaires will require stand-by
power in the form of batteries. This is exacerbated in northern latitudes during
winter months, when sunlight is weak and daylight hours are few, making it
difficut to accumulate energy. By contrast, equatorial countries have almost
12 hours of sunlight every day, with little seasonal variation, from which to
accumulate energy.

Comprehensive guidance on solar irradiation is offered in the CIBSE guides

KS15 and TM25.

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Electrical storage is probably the most important single element in the design of
off-grid systems. The aim of the lighting design should therefore be to minimise
electrical energy consumption (techniques are given below).

The other major consideration is the projected area of the PV cells and wind
speed. Obviously, the greater the area of the PV array, the stronger the support
column must be and, in turn, the larger the foundations.

2.13.2 PV cells Some cells are manufactured to give optimum output under overcast conditions,
while others are designed to achieve maximum output in direct sunlight.
Obviously, the latter have an optimum tilt and orientation depending on latitude.

There is always an element of compromise concerning the tilt angle. A shallow

tilt will absorb most irradiance from an overcast sky and sunlight during the
summer. Conversely, in winter when the sun is low, a steep tilt will maximise the
collection of sunlight but at the expense of irradiance from overcast conditions.
It is advisable to speak to a reputable PV panel supplier regarding the best
combination of cell type, tilt and orientation.

Most installations have a PV array for each lighting position, but some, especially
low-wattage ones, have a large array that feeds several lighting positions.
Figure 2.50 Column with PV array and
wind vane (photograph
courtesy of Abacus Lighting As a general rule, regardless of orientation, cells should be tilted at an angle
and Marlec Engineering) greater than 30° so that any dust that accumulates will be washed off by rain.

2.13.3 Light sources Obviously, these should be as efficient as possible in terms of lumens/watt. If
appearance or colour rendering is not critical, consider sources with a high
correlated colour temperature (CCT) since these often have greater efficacy and
their blue content may be beneficial under mesopic conditions. LED sources are
particularly suited to this application.

A related factor is the control gear. Since the output of most PV panels is 12 V
or 24 V, it makes sense to use control gear/drivers at this voltage rather than
converting the panel output to 230 V and using conventional gear. It should be
borne in mind that transforming voltage or frequency always entails power losses
and therefore reduces efficiency.

Light sources which are easily dimmable can considerably reduce the drain on
batteries.

2.13.4 Batteries Some installations mount the batteries at high level, under the PV array, for
reasons of safety and security. However, this has two serious disadvantages. First,
the batteries are subject to large fluctuations in temperature and are open to the
elements. This reduces their life – possibly by as much as 70%. Second, a heavy
mass oscillating at the top of a column means that the column and foundations
have to be larger than would otherwise be needed.

If the batteries are mounted at ground level, they must be protected against
vandalism and theft. However, access for maintenance is much simpler. A better
solution is to mount the batteries in a pit with drainage. This option both reduces
temperature fluctuations and keeps the equipment out of sight. It is also easier to
protect them against vandalism.

Lead-acid batteries, despite being large and heavy, are often chosen for reasons
of capital cost. Batteries should be of the sealed type, as topping up is not
practical. They are also comparatively easy to recycle. Lithium-ion batteries are
considerably lighter and more resistant to vibration, but the cost of storage in
terms of watt-hour/£ is much higher.

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Consideration needs to be given to whether the batteries can be recycled as this

will have a significant effect on the financial viability of the project.

2.13.5 Standby period Since the quantity of daylight and sunlight varies, especially in the winter when
there are many dull, overcast days, it is necessary to have extra storage power
in the batteries (i.e. the number of nights’ standby power required must be
calculated). Typically, for a traffic route, this may be 3–5 nights.

The amount of storage power required will depend on the daytime irradiance
available, the length of night and the illuminance level.

Where the lighting is functional, it may be necessary to have a much longer

standby period than for a more decorative purpose, such as the floodlighting of
a building.

2.13.6 Techniques —— Use the most efficient light source for the project. How important is
colour rendering and the colour temperature?
for minimising
electrical energy —— Consider the efficiency of the electrical system. There is no point
in stepping up the voltage from a PV cell for the 230 V control gear
consumption only to step it down to feed the lamp circuitry.
—— Do the luminaires need to be on all the time? Speed limit signs and
some security signs only operate when the presence of a vehicle or
person is detected.
—— Use dimming whenever possible. Can parks and traffic routes be
dimmed to a much lower level when there is little or no traffic?
—— Consider how long a standby period is required during periods
when there is not enough daylight or sunlight to fully charge the
batteries. This directly affects the number and size of batteries
required. Lighting for traffic routes and security will need a longer
standby period and, most probably, higher levels of illumination.

2.14 Luminaires There is a general requirement that luminaires and associated accessories adhere
to the relevant directives as outlined in the bibliography section of this guide by
testing to the appropriate standards, with the key standards being:

—— BS EN 60598 – in particular Part 1, and Parts 2-1, 2, 3 and 5

depending on the type of luminaire
—— BS EN 55015, BS EN 61000 and BS EN 61547, in relation to
electromagnetic compatibility testing.

In choosing luminaires for outdoor use, the design life of the installation and
total cost of ownership must be considered. The initial cost of equipment may be
a small part of the total cost in use of the installation, as the cost of electricity and
the ease and frequency of necessary maintenance can greatly affect the economics.

Other initial considerations are:

—— the requirement that the daytime appearance of luminaires and

columns should be in keeping and scale with the surroundings
—— the luminaires are physically suitable for their environment,
in terms of IP rating, temperature fluctuation tolerance, vandal
resistance, etc.
—— some lamps, such as low-pressure sodium or high wattage metal
halide, permit only limited burning positions; however, most light

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sources sold in new luminaires are only minimally affected by

burning position and the majority are unaffected
—— where floodlights or spotlights are used, it is better to choose
equipment that can be relamped without altering the aiming
position. If this is unavoidable, the correct position should be
indicated with durable paint or an engraved mark.

2.14.1 General An outdoor luminaire must be well constructed if it is to function for a number of
years without problems arising. Metalwork should be protected against corrosion,
requirements and luminaire parts which have to be removed for access to the interior should
Mechanical have proper gaskets to restrict the entrance of moisture and dirt where appropriate.
characteristics Columns, brackets and stirrup mounting, etc. should be appropriately galvanised
(or otherwise protected) to ensure longevity of the parts.

It is advisable to use luminaires that allow the door/glass frontage to hang freely
during re-lamping/cleaning for ease and simplicity of maintenance. However,
movement should be restricted so they cannot impact walls, columns, etc.

As light sources continue to develop, they are tending to have longer operational
lives than their predecessors. This is a benefit of technological advance, but
it should be remembered that the optical cover/luminaire will still need to be
cleaned/maintained at regular intervals to ensure optimal performance. All light
sources reduce in output over time.

Regular maintenance includes:

—— cleaning of the optical system/reflector in line with the dirt

depreciation maintenance factor used at the lighting design stage
—— examining the luminaire interior for the ingress of moisture or dirt
—— checking that moveable parts have not seized and lubricating/
greasing exposed bolts and joints.

It is recommended that screws on luminaires that need to be loosened to allow

for maintenance should be captive to allow for ease of handling, especially on
luminaires at high mounting positions, where the retrieval of a dropped screw
could be a major task.

Some plastic/polymer materials used in outdoor luminaires can ‘outgas’ for the
first few hours of use. This can cause a film on the cover glass and reflector, thus
reducing the optical efficiency. Normally, this can be removed using a petrol-based
cleaner, but always check any cleaner’s suitability with the manufacturer first.

Consideration should be given to vibration. This can simply be from high wind
making the mast/column oscillate, but can also be caused by passing vehicles, a
situation which is especially applicable to structures such as steel bridges. All
threaded components should have locknuts or another anti-vibration device,
such as nylon inserts or threadlocker.

Weather protection The IP rating against the ingress of water and dust is well established. The first
digit of the IP number represents the degree to which solid objects and dust
can enter the luminaire. The second digit applies to moisture and water (see
See Appendix 1 for more Appendix 1).
information
Note that the testing of the IP rating of luminaires differs from the testing of
related equipment, such as electrical junction boxes. Luminaire testing involves
switching on and off the equipment, letting it warm up and cool down, so that
it ‘breathes’ and dust/moisture can be sucked in. Currently available outdoor

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luminaires can be fitted with breathable membrane ‘plugs’ that allow this process
to take place while maintaining the required IP rating.

The tests are based on whether the thermal, electrical and mechanical
characteristics and the safety of the luminaires are affected.

Although it is tempting to use the highest rated IP luminaire available, there

may be countervailing factors, such as cost or maximum operating temperature.
Therefore, IP65 or higher is not necessarily recommended as a minimum
requirement of an outdoor luminaire. Components within luminaires, such as
the driver or reflector, can be ‘IP sealed’ in a more cost effective manner than
sealing the whole luminaire.

Where luminaires are flush-mounted in the ground, it is recommended that IP68

is used, since puddling can occur and the equipment is, in effect, submerged.
Note that luminaires marked IP68 should state the depth at which testing was
carried out. A shallow submersion depth at IP68 can be less onerous than an IP67
test rating.

An additional letter suffix can be used with the IP system to denote the level of
protection from access to hazardous parts (e.g. A – Back of hand, B – Finger, etc.),
but these are rarely used.

2.14.2 Mechanical Sometimes a third digit was added to the IP rating to represent the degree of
impact resistance, but this has been superseded by the IK rating system (see
impact resistance Appendix 2).

See Appendix 2 for more This mechanical impact rating is classified by the energy needed to exceed a
information specified resistance level, which is measured in joules (J). This is called the IK
number, as specified in BS EN 62262. Put simply, the higher the figure, the
higher the impact resistance.

The IK impact tests differ from those used by the IP rating system, so there is no
direct equivalence.

Note that the BS standard lists ratings up to IK10, although some manufacturers
quote higher IK ratings to denote higher impact resistance. In this case, the
impact value and test method should be checked with the manufacturer. BS EN
60068-2-75:2014 Hammer tests is often used for this purpose.

2.14.3 Vandal resistance If vandal resistance is required, other techniques than simply using an impact-
resistant luminaire can be employed, for example (but not limited to):

—— mounting the luminaires out of reach

—— using a wire or polycarbonate enclosure – some manufacturers offer
these as an option
—— applying anti-graffiti finishes to luminaires, allowing for easy
cleaning
—— using non-drying paint.

If there is a concern about possible vandalism when purchasing luminaires, it is

advisable to discuss this with potential suppliers, as they may well be able to offer
several of these options, as standard, with their luminaires.

Ground-mounted luminaires have particular issues. Small luminaires (pavers)

can be set into the ground using soft silicone adhesive. This has the advantage
that if the pavers are damaged or fail in some other way, they can easily be

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removed and replaced. However, this ease of removal can be a vulnerability. An

alternative is to use an epoxy-based adhesive. This permanently fixes the paver to
its surroundings. The disadvantage is that if the paver does need to be removed,
it often involves breaking up and replacing the stone or concrete paving, which
can be costly and time consuming.

Luminaires which are obscured from general view, such as in underpasses, are
likely to be more prone to vandalism and should be carefully assessed to ensure
that they are fit for purpose. In these instances it is recommended to chose more
hardwearing substances, for example polycarbonate rather than glass (unless the
glass can be proved to be adequately toughened or otherwise protected).

With low-level luminaires, such as pavers, bollards and wall lights, an advisable
course of action would be to specify fittings that have, or can be fitted with,
vandal-resistant screws and which have high impact resistance. It should be
noted that the ACPO’s Secured by Design initiative recommends that these types
of luminaire should not be used. Instead. pole-mounted fittings should be used
wherever possible. Several ACPO documents on the topic of security based on
the principles of ‘designing out crime’ are available.

There are other mechanical design considerations of importance in lighting

systems, i.e. those affecting their installation, their aiming and their maintenance,
which depend on the particular application. For example, the characteristics of a
low wattage unit to be used to light features in a garden will be quite different to
those provided on a high wattage narrow beam discharge projector intended to
light railway sidings from a height of 30 m.

2.14.4 Luminaire There is a tendency to choose a luminaire with the highest light output ratio
(LOR) on the grounds that this will be the most efficient. However, more often
efficiency and than not, this is an incorrect assumption. Controlling light and directing it to
distribution precisely where it is required inevitably reduces LOR. The more you control the
light, the lower the LOR will be. However, this usually lights the space more
effectively because spill and nuisance light is kept to a minimum. A better metric
is the utilisation factor of the luminaire as it applies to a specific application.
The best way to investigate this is with the advice of a lighting designer and the
photometric files from luminaire manufacturers.

The vast majority of outdoor lighting luminaires have at least a bilaterally

symmetric distribution (where the light emitted from the ‘left’ of the axis is
identical to the light emitted from the ‘right’ of the axis).

2.14.5 Protection When designing exterior schemes for more extreme weather conditions than we
experience in Europe, it is worth looking at the local conditions to see what types
for extreme of construction and materials have been used successfully. It is equally useful to
conditions see which materials have failed. Some general guidance follows on conditions
that might affect the longevity of the equipment.

Dry, hot regions, The UV in sunlight can have a dramatically detrimental effect on plastics.
such as deserts Polycarbonates can yellow within a short space of time. This is exacerbated
where they are used as the front cover of a luminaire, since the yellowing causes
the polycarbonate to absorb more heat from the lamp, causing it to degrade even
faster. Acrylics, such as PMMA, are affected to a lesser extent.

Note that the body of the luminaire can heat up during the day, even when
switched off. Thus, when darkness falls, the ambient temperature inside the
luminaire can be higher than outside. This is not normally a problem for high-
power luminaires with remote gear but can be an issue with smaller luminaires,
especially LEDs, where the electronics and light source share the same housing.

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Aluminium or bronze are therefore more suitable materials for the luminaire
body than stainless steel, since the latter is a poor conductor of heat.

As a rule, luminaires should be suitable for operation in an ambient air temperature

of > 40 °C, but specifications for the Middle East will often ask for 50 °C or more.
At this point the project-specific requirements must be considered. If the peak
temperature is only reached on one or two occasions a year, then a luminaire with
a maximum ambient temperature rating (Ta) of 40 °C should be acceptable. The
very brief occasions when the luminaire has to operate at higher temperatures
will not have a detrimental effect on the life of the luminaire. The luminaire
supplier should be consulted and may be able to supply an extended warranty
based on the specific site conditions.

The manufacturer should be able to provide a declaration of conformity and, if

required, a test report to demonstrate the performance.

Generally, LEDs with low junction temperatures will give a longer life.

Note that the light output of LEDs reduces with increased temperature. Where
illuminance levels are critical, the luminaire (not the LED chip) manufacturer
should supply details of the flux output at the relevant temperature. Similarly,
LED life is reduced at elevated temperatures.

Related equipment, such as photocells, should also be considered.

If the dry, hot region is prone to dust storms, the luminaire manufacturer should
be asked to run dust tests on their luminaire in line with BS EN 60068-2-68, or
similar. If the fitting has not already been tested to this standard, consider the IP
rating and construction of other luminaires that are operating successfully in the
environment.

Marine Salt is the main enemy here since, in principle, all outdoor luminaires are designed
environments to resist water and moisture ingress. Untreated aluminium is not recommended,
neither is painted mild steel.

Powder-coated paint finishes offer good protection, but the pre-treatment of the
base material must be thorough and paint must be applied properly. Luminaires
should be examined for any abrasions or scratches.

It is preferable to use aluminium with a low copper content (LM6), although

higher copper content aluminium can be used if treated appropriately. Salt air
can attack the copper and cause the paint finish to lift. If this may be an issue, the
luminaire should be tested to BS EN ISO 9227. Alternatively, a risk assessment
could be based on similar luminaires installed in similar applications if the test
data is not available.

Control gear should be potted with a flexible resin. Brittle resins can crack when
flexed due to fluctuations of temperature.

Use stainless steel fastenings wherever possible. Be especially careful of

electrolytic corrosion caused by dissimilar adjacent metals.

Extreme cold The main issue here is electrical insulation becoming brittle. PVC, in particular,
can crack when flexed below about 0 °C. This also applies to the supply cables
during installation.

The ability of the drivers and ballasts to function at low temperatures should be
confirmed. Drivers will often be listed as being able to function below 0 °C.

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Where the equipment is not running 24/7, potential formation of condensation

should be considered. For example, it can form on the inside of columns and on
electronics or build up on the inside of cabinets. The condensation can then go
through a cycle of freezing and thawing, putting stress on joints and glands.

Most materials become more brittle when cold. This may not be an issue for fixed
equipment, but where there are high winds or significant vibration it should be
taken into account.

Fluorescent lamps have considerably reduced output at lower temperatures. This

effect is sometimes overcome by putting the fluorescent lamps in a clear outer
sleeve.

Restriking when cold can also be an issue. As a rule, T5 lamps will not operate
below 5 °C.

Since LEDs emit more light when cold and are more efficient than many other
light sources, they are becoming the de facto light source for cold environments.

2.14.6 Floodlights Minimising upward light is becoming increasingly important. Today, many
floodlights are of the ‘flat glass’ type where the aperture is horizontal in both
planes (Figure 2.51). This does not mean that the luminaire has to have a flat
piece of glass, simply that the lamp and reflector are not visible from above.
These floodlights emit no light upwards, but there is a tendency for them to
produce a ‘hot spot’ directly underneath, especially with columns of 4–6 m,
unless appropriate optics are used. This may not be an issue for general areas,
such as car parks, but can cause problems of uniformity in sports applications,
such as tennis courts.

Naturally, a ‘flat glass’ luminaire with a standard optic does not have the forward
throw of a conventional tilted floodlight; however:

—— a small tilt (5°–10°), can be given to the luminaire (but the upward
Figure 2.51 Flat glass floodlight, light would have to be calculated to demonstrate compliance with
the peak intensity is obtrusive light guidance)
projected forwards at
60°–70° (photograph —— many of these luminaires have a reflector with a strong forward
courtesy of Thorn Zumtobel) throw at a particular angle.

Floodlights come with an array of different optics, to provide a range of beam

shapes, within the same housing to suit the requirements of the area they are
mounted in. It is essential to obtain the range of photometric files from the
manufacturer to allow the lighting to be designed in the most efficient manner
possible.

2.14.7 In-ground Luminaires mounted flush with the ground and shining upwards are a
popular way of lighting facades and statues. Since the light is emitted upwards,
uplights minimising sky glow is a priority. However, by choosing the correct beam width,
using internal louvres and tilting the luminaire so that most of the light falls on
the facade, an environmentally satisfactory solution can usually be found.

Some lenses become slippery when wet. Anti-slip coatings are available, but these
may affect the light output and distribution.

Unless there is no chance of the uplight being submersed in a puddle, IP68 is

recommended. Note that clay soils can flood more easily than well-drained ones.

The surface temperature of the glass is not normally an issue except where it is
likely to be touched. Examples would be in a swimming pool, a tiered seating

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area or places where young children are likely to be present. A maximum surface
temperature below 60 °C is recommended.

Drive-over uplights need particular consideration. Obviously, the static load from
vehicles is much greater than that from pedestrians. Specifications showing the
maximum allowable load should be available from the manufacturer. Of greater
concern are moving vehicles; the flexing of the tyre as it moves over the uplight
can tend to pull it from its mountings. This is exacerbated where vehicles are
braking or accelerating. The solution is to ensure that the uplight is firmly fixed
in the ground. This may mean adding extra foundations or using longer fixing
bolts. Consider whether speed limit signs are necessary.

Long-life light sources are preferred since relamping may mean that the uplight
is not resealed correctly. Similarly, the cable glands need special attention during
installation and maintenance.

Small uplights are often held in place using adhesive. Soft, flexible adhesives, such
as silicone rubber, have the advantage that the uplight can easily be removed in
case of failure. However, this facility does make them more prone to vandalism.
More permanent adhesives, such as two-part epoxy resins, overcome this problem,
but their use may mean disturbing the adjacent paving in circumstances where
the uplight does need to be removed.

Where high wattage uplights are used, consideration should be given to the heat
transfer to the adjacent ground. Damp soil and concrete conduct heat reasonably
well; sand and clay do not.

2.15 Light sources Since the last edition of this guide and, in particular, over the past 5–10 years,
light source technology has undergone a seismic shift compared with the steady
2.15.1 Light sources development in the preceding 30–50 years. LEDs have entered the professional
lighting market, causing a revolution in the design of luminaires and lighting
design.

This rapid change to LED lighting is still ongoing, so data on these particular
technologies’ performance characteristics (lumen output, life, etc.) within this
guide are given as indicative at the time of writing. Users of this guide should
refer to light source or luminaire manufacturers’ technical literature to ensure
that they have the most up-to-date information. A useful reference document for
the specification of LED products for exterior light applications is the Guide to the
Specification of LED Lighting Products, jointly produced by the Lighting Industry
Liaison Group.

A light source not only provides light, it can also influence the way in which
the light is distributed by the optical system, none more so than the LED, which
will generally only emit light in a 180° cone, while conventional sources are
much more omni-directional. This strong directionality from the LED source
dramatically changes the nature of the optical design, as Figure 2.52 indicates.

The smaller the physical size of the light source, the more accurately the
distribution of the light can be controlled, and/or the smaller the luminaire can
be. This should be countered with the caution that the smaller the luminaire/
optic, the greater the chance of glare situations being caused by it. A 1 mm2 high-
output LED is much more likely to cause glare than a traditional low-pressure
sodium lamp with its comparably huge surface area and large optic. Precise optical
control is the key element in minimising or reducing glare from small sources.

The light source also provides an intrinsic colour to the light emitted by the
luminaire.

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 63

Figure 2.52 Light from LEDs (left)can be

accurately directed from
the start; conventional
sources (right) have to
redirect the light, losing
efficacy in the process

The choice of lamp for a particular installation may be influenced by the following
considerations:

—— The general requirement that lamps comply with the

recommendations of the relevant British and European Standards.
This includes labelling and energy requirements such as DIM1 and
DIM2 and the Energy-using Products Directive.
—— The need to reduce running costs and conserve electricity by utilising
light as efficiently as possible, and by using lamps of the highest
luminous efficacy consistent with satisfying other requirements (e.g.
those of acceptable colour appearance and colour rendering).
—— The spectral distribution and S/P ratio of the light. These need to
be considered in exterior lighting at lower levels:
• Where strong colours are required, a lamp that emits light of
a predominant colour is normally chosen. Colour intrinsic
to the light source is more efficient than that obtained by
filtration. For example, if blue light is required, then it is
more efficient to use a blue LED than to transmit by filter
what little blue light there is in a high-pressure sodium lamp.
• The spectral distribution of the light source also affects how
our eye perceives the amount of light available. In external
lighting at low levels (car parks, roads) a light source with
See section 2.9.3 for more a high S/P ratio has the potential to save more energy, by
information lighting to a lower photopic lux level but giving the same
perceived performance (see also section 2.9.3). More
information on this subject is available in the LIA’s TS24:
SP ratios and mesopic vision.
—— The maintenance facilities available and the cost of servicing. In
general, costs will be reduced if light sources with a longer life
are used. It is strongly recommended that LED luminaires have
replaceable modules and drivers (i.e. it should not be necessary
to dispose of the complete luminaire in the case of LED or driver
failure).
—— Limitations imposed on the light source size, for example by the
size of enclosure, as in handrail lighting (e.g. LEDs are more suited
to this application than metal halide).
—— The conditions under which the lamp will operate – for instance,
at low ambient temperatures fluorescent lamps may not strike or
may give low output. In contrast, the efficiency (lm/W) of LEDs
increases at low temperatures and starting is not an issue, but their
light output reduces at high temperatures.

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 64 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

—— The range, rate of change of light level and accuracy of control of

dimming of the light source.
Current data for light sources readily available in the UK at the time of
publication of this guide are presented in Table 2.4 and Figure 2.53. Within
each type, there is a range of lamps available which differ in construction,
wattage, luminous efficacy, colour properties, cost, etc. For exact details of the
characteristics of a specific light source, the manufacturer should be consulted
or the LIA’s Lamp guide.

It should be noted that, at the time of writing, LEDs in luminaires tend not to
be easily replaceable by the end user. Due to the thermal characteristics and
electronic nature of LEDs, they are often engineered into the body of the luminaire
in a much more integral way than conventional light sources. The luminaire
manufacturers generally design the LEDs on bespoke printed circuit boards or
attached directly to castings, which are difficult, or impossible, to source from
third parties. There are moves towards introducing standardised connection

Table 2.4  Typical characteristics of light sources

Light source Construction and Luminous Life (hours) Colour Restrike Run-up Typical application
type appearance efficacy rendering time time
(lm/W) (min) (min)
Metal halide An electric discharge in high- 84 1000 Good 0–10 1 Feature lighting – tall
reflector (PAR pressure mercury atmosphere buildings
lamps) with metal halide
Metal halide An electric discharge in 66–84 4000–12 000 Good 4–10 2 Building and area
a high-pressure mercury floodlighting, used where
atmosphere with metal halide better colour rendering of
additives in an arc tube cool appearance is required
(quartz, but more commonly
ceramic). Needs control gear
Fluorescent An electric discharge in a low- 37–100 5000–15 000 Moderate 0 0 Generally more suitable for
pressure mercury atmosphere Lives of >50 000 to excellent, indoor than outdoor use
contained in a glass tube are available depending but valuable for some types
internally coated with a from specialist on the of precinct lighting and
fluorescent material. Needs suppliers properties of close offset floodlighting.
control gear the fluorescent Compact versions suitable as
coating replacements for tungsten
lamps
Induction An electrodeless fluorescent, 80–90 60 000 Good 0 0 Inaccessible areas where
usually rectangular in section lamp changing is costly or
difficult
High-pressure An electric discharge in a high 67–137 6000–24 000 Varies from 1 3–6 Building, area lighting,
sodium pressure sodium atmosphere. poor to floodlighting, road lighting,
The arc is contained within an acceptable security lighting
outer envelope depending on
pressure used,
and if clear of
coated lamp
Low-pressure An electric discharge in a low- 101–190 5000–20 000 Non-existent 0–10 8–12 Road lighting, security
sodium pressure sodium atmosphere. lighting. Suitable for
The arc is contained within an applications
outer envelope
Light emitting An electronic component, 50–130 25 000–100 000 Typically >80 0 0 LEDs can be used in almost
diode semiconductor, doped/ but note lumen every application, with a
gated to create an electrical depreciation large potential range of light
imbalance. When electric outputs, colours and colour
energy is applied, energy is temperatures
emitted in the form of light
Organic light OLEDs are multiple layers 40–80 10 000–30 000 Typically >80 0 0 Small displays, such as
emitting diode of organic LED substrates depending on smartphones and tablets
contained within thin sheets, output
usually of glass, that emit light

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 65

Efficiency Average life Colour Colour

Lamp type (lumens per watt) (thousand hours) temperature
rendering
10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 2 6 10 14 18 22 26 30 40+ K

Tungsten halogen 100

excellent 3000

Tubular fluorescent 80–100

(triphosphor and multi-phosphor) very good/excellent 2700–6500

Compact 70–90
fluorescent average/good 2700–6000

High pressure sodium 20–39

(SON/E and SON/T) very poor 2500

80–100
Metal halide very good/excellent 3000–6000

40–90
Light emitting diodes (LEDs) 3200–8000
poor/excellent

Figure 2.53 Performance characteristics methods in the shape of initiatives by the Zhaga Consortium, to enable LED
of different lamp types sources to be retrofitted in a similar way to conventional sources, but this is not
currently common practice. However, the potentially long life of LEDs may mean
that the light source will not need to be replaced within the useful life of the
luminaire. It is recommended that luminaires which have easily replaceable LED
modules and drivers are chosen.

2.15.2 Summary of The broad properties of the light sources commonly used for exterior lighting are
summarised in Table 2.4. The meaning of each column heading is given below:
light source
characteristics

Light source type Different manufacturers (lamp and luminaire) throughout the UK and Europe
refer to light sources using different prefixes, so within this guide a generic light
sources description has been used to cause the least possible confusion.

Construction and This column describes the method of light production and the physical
appearance appearance of the light source.

Luminous efficacy This is a measure of how efficiently the light source converts electrical power
(watts) into light (lumens). With conventional sources, the higher the value of the
luminous efficacy, the more efficient the lamp. With LEDs, the rule of thumb is
the lower the drive current/junction temperature, the higher the efficacy. A range
of values is given for each lamp type because luminous efficacy varies with power.
These values do not include the power consumed by any control gear that may be
required, nor do they take into account the optical efficiency of the luminaire.

Conventional sources generally provide the same amount of light both inside
and outside the luminaire over a wide range of ambient temperatures. LEDs, on
the other hand, can produce very different amounts of light at the same ambient
temperatures, depending on whether they are inside or outside the luminaire.
Care must therefore be taken by the designer regarding the values of luminous
flux they actually require, bearing in mind the site conditions.

Life The life of a light source will be affected by such factors as the switching cycle,
the voltage supply and the physical operating conditions. The lives of metal
halide and high-pressure sodium discharge lamps are particularly sensitive to
the voltage applied. This can be overcome by the use of electronic control gear,
provided it is available for the required wattage.

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Within a range of light sources, the life can vary from one wattage to another:

—— for conventional sources, generally the lower wattage lamps have

a shorter life, though there are exceptions, especially at very high
power (>1000 W)
—— for LEDs, the lower the drive current, and the better the thermal
management of the light source, the longer the life that can be
expected, and the higher the efficacy (lm/W).

It is always advisable to contact the lamp manufacturer for current data regarding
the particular light source under consideration. The range of lamp life given in
Table 2.4 refers to the typical light source’s life, defined as the point at which 50%
of the lamps in a large installation fail. The lower value in each range refers to the
lower wattage lamps and the higher value refers to the higher wattages. Typically,
the life of LEDs is quoted as the point when the light output has dropped to 70%
of its initial value. This is known as the L70 value. Other values of Lxx may be
applied, depending on the application.

Restrike time Compact fluorescent, tubular fluorescent and LED light sources produce significant
amounts of light immediately when switched on. All the other lamp types
require several minutes to reach full light output; this may be important where
installations have to be used at unexpected times (e.g. in emergency situations).

Run-up time Compact fluorescent, tubular fluorescent and LED light sources can all be
switched off and then on again immediately. All the other lamp types, unless
fitted with special control gear, show a significant delay after switch-off before
they will re-ignite. This property may have important safety implications as
a momentary interruption in the electricity supply can extinguish these light
sources and it may be some time before they can be re-lit. This is especially
important for luminaires lighting emergency escape routes.

2.16 Saving energy, In an age of energy-saving targets and carbon-reduction methods, street lighting
is one of the largest contributors to energy bills in the public realm. As designers,
signalling and it is our duty to reduce this impact as far as possible without compromising
switching design integrity or public safety.

Dimming and switching is mainly used for streetlighting but can be applied to
outdoor lighting systems (e.g. switching off shop window displays or decorative
floodlighting of buildings after a certain time). This is often referred to as ‘curfew’.

The commonest method of controlling outdoor lighting is via the simple and
reliable method of timed on/off switching. An astronomical clock is often used,
since this takes account of the changing daylight period and time due to seasonal
variations.

Central management systems (CMS) have become increasingly popular in recent

years as the variety of systems has increased and their technical advantages have
become more apparent. There are two main types: mains-borne and radio. Certain
systems use one or the other but a few combine the two to increase flexibility. In
some cases this can eliminate the shortcomings of a single-source system.

The radio system uses line of sight to enable each luminaire to communicate
with its neighbour and then ultimately with a transmitter, which sends data to
the computer program for logging. As line of sight can be an issue in certain
environments, this limits the system’s flexibility, especially in built-up areas.
However, the more successful manufacturers of radio systems have overcome this
with additional equipment and sophisticated programming.

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 General design apects for exterior lighting 67

The mains-borne system works over the power line and uses its own section of
the line to transmit data. This works well on a new cable but, as cables age, they
can degrade and this causes transmission issues. This is referred to as a ‘dirty
mains’ and can mean that the communication distance to each luminaire from
the local collection point is reduced. When installing this type of system, this
aspect should be considered and allowances made so that during its installed life
the network is less likely to fail.

Note that mains-borne systems only work on private networks where there is a
dedicated mains cable feeding the luminaires.

Both types of control have their challenges but, on the whole, they are useful and
innovative tools for controlling and monitoring lighting. Dimming is possible
from the desk of the client, and emergency services can also influence the levels
should an incident occur that requires lighting to be lowered or, more likely,
raised to assist emergency services.

The British Standard for road lighting, BS 5489-1, encourages the designer and
client to use CMS. This is because it can aid the reduction of energy used for lighting
the streets and can allow complex variable lighting levels to ensure that the public
remains safe and areas are well lit without compromising the design integrity.

Other, simpler ways of controlling lighting are available; however, they do not
give the flexibility or long-term gains that a full CMS can offer. They are worth
considering when the budget does not allow for a CMS but some form of control
is still required.

Standalone dimming ballasts are pre-set and dim to a percentage of output at a

set time. This is useful where roads are mainly residential and therefore major
incidents are less likely to occur. It also means that residents are able to benefit
from reduced lighting levels at times when most people are at home and not
using the streets.

Note that these ballasts can also be used in conventional floodlights, although
they are normally considered a non-standard option.

Photocells are common in the UK and have been used to control lighting for
decades. They used to be switched on at 130 lux and off at 70 lux (a 2:1 ratio)
because low-pressure sodium (SOX) was the prevalent light source and needed
a long warm-up period to achieve full light output. New light sources, such as
LEDs, need very little time to stabilise and therefore can be switched very quickly.

Adjusting the lighting levels at which the photocell switches is known as

trimming and can lead to small, but quantifiable, savings.

Other methods of saving energy relate to vehicle and pedestrian traffic. These
can be based on PIR sensors or movement counters. The lighting can be dimmed
during quiet periods. It is preferable to dim to a low level; total switch-off is
not recommended since it can lead to feelings of insecurity and, in some
circumstances, can be dangerous.

The maximum distance between the signal transmitter and the receiver in the
luminaire varies with the signal protocol used. Digital signals will generally travel
further than analogue voltage systems. Checks should always be made with both the
signal equipment and the luminaire manufacturer to determine which cable to use.

Note that cable installations should be in accordance with local standards, such
as BS 7671.

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3 Lighting By their very nature, flags are located high up so it is unlikely that they will be lit
from above. The benefit of this positioning is that they are normally seen against
for specific a dark sky and, therefore, do not require high illuminance on them to make them
visible. Hence, ground-mounted or recessed luminaires are normally used. The
applications colours of the flag and how pale/dark they are will affect its visibility and contrast
against the background. Obviously, pale flags are more easily seen against a night
3.1 Flags and sky than darker ones.
statues
3.1.1 Flags Light sources with good colour rendering are essential.

Flags can be blown in any direction and are normally intended be seen from
all directions. For this reason, the lighting should illuminate the whole swept
area of the flag. Note that the beam only needs to illuminate the flag; anything
beyond this is wasted light (e.g. a large 2 m wide flag only requires enough light to
illuminate a 4 m diameter cylinder, the height of which is the same as the height
of the flag).

The illuminance on the flag is highly dependent on the luminance of the

background – most commonly, the sky. A trial is strongly recommended but, as a
starting point, consider sources that will produce 50 lux on the flag.

It is important that there is enough spill light to illuminate a significant portion

of the flagpole so that the flag itself does not appear to float in space.

Since the beam is narrow and only illuminates a small area, low wattage spotlights
with deep louvres for glare control are a common solution. An alternative to
louvres are prismatic covers, which can produce a fan-shaped beam in a vertical
(the usual orientation) or horizontal plane.

3.1.2 Statues Statues are often seen against the background of an illuminated building,
streetlighting or shop windows. Hence, the illuminance level required to make
the statue stand out is much higher than for flags in a similar location.

The luminance of the statue is greatly dependent on the material used. White
marble, limestone and stainless steel will reflect a lot of light and, hence, the
statue will easily be seen against a dark background (Figure 3.1). Conversely,
materials such as bronze and wrought iron can rarely be made bright enough to
stand out. In this case, it is better to highlight certain features or position the
floodlights so that shadows recreate the shape and form of the statue.

Care should be taken when uplighting figurative statues such as people and
animals so as to avoid unusual shadowing (e.g. dark areas above noses or bright
areas on the underside of the body). Abstract sculpture should be illuminated to
enhance its form.

It is generally better to light statues from above, such as from nearby buildings
or columns.
Figure 3.1 King Alfred statue, Wantage
(photograph courtesy of Floodlighting of statues is highly subjective and a trial using hand-held
Alan Tulla Lighting) equipment is advisable before the final installation.

3.2 Pedestrian This application epitomises what exterior lighting is for; these areas are only
used by people and cyclists and, as we do not have our own lighting, we rely
routes, heavily on what is provided for us. In these circumstances the designer needs to
cycleways and be particularly mindful of the user and how safe they will feel in the space and
subways also how it will be maintained and accessed over the life of the project. Vandal
resistance is a major consideration as sometimes these areas can be remote from
natural surveillance and are easy targets.

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 Lighting for specific applications 69

BS 5489-1:2013 is the key document when designing these areas. The ILP
document TR23: Lighting of cycle tracks gives some useful insight; however, it was
last published in 1998 and technology and design have progressed significantly
since then. The British Standard describes cycle tracks and footpaths in section
7.3 and P classes (formerly S classes) should be used when defining a lighting
class.

Section 7 of BS 5489-1 also has relevance as it refers to crime prevention and

detection, which must be a primary consideration in the design process for these
areas. Good colour rendering (CRI > 80) should be specified to give the best visual
clarity to users of the space.

Lighting installed in subways needs to be glare free and to give good uniform
lighting across not only the horizontal plane but also the walls and ceiling. This
makes the space feel less threatening and enables a clear field of vision through
the subway. Each end of the subway, outside its entrance and exit, also needs
sufficient lighting so the eye does not have to adapt from bright to dark on
emerging from the space. Light is needed within the threshold zones during
the daytime to aid safe transition from bright daylight into the relatively dark
subway. In addition, this provision means that a person passing through the
space can clearly see the exit and knows who or what is at the other end.

For longer cycle or pedestrian tunnels, low-maintenance lighting is needed along

the entire route – especially if the tunnel curves. Emergency lighting may be
required in longer tunnels where the exits are not clearly visible.

Vertical illuminance helps to give better visual appreciation to the user of all of
these areas, and facial recognition is a priority. If people are able to see another
person’s face and features and the colour of their clothing, it helps to give a feeling
of safety, and also provides better images for CCTV. White light is better for both
facial recognition and CCTV.

In BS 5489-1, Table 4 in section 7.4.7.1 gives illuminance levels for subways. The
values in this table are high compared to that of a standard P class route. This
should be considered in the calculations to ensure that column-mounted lanterns
on the exits are close to the subway and give the visibility required.

If pedestrian routes or cycleways are remote from roads and have their own
lighting, hazards need to be designed out. Trees can cause undesirable shadowing,
column access can be an issue and line of sight needs to be considered for the
user. Unlit bollards, to prevent motor vehicles entering the subway, can also be
a hazard. Bear in mind that the head height of a cyclist can be above that of
a person on foot and therefore both need to be considered during the design
process.

In cities, cycleways sometimes run alongside roads and if columns are installed
close to the kerb edge this can cause a hazard. If possible, site columns at the back
of a path so they are clear of the road and are at the furthest possible point from
the cyclist. This positioning also means they are less likely to be damaged in a
collision, diminishing the risk for drivers, pedestrians and cyclists.

Dimming may be considered in these areas, but only if the risk to the user is not
increased. After midnight, when foot traffic may be lower, consideration should
be given to reducing the level by a lighting class to reduce energy consumption
and to lower the impact on local wildlife. This is best controlled via a CMS so that,
in the event of an incident, the lighting can quickly be increased back to its full
output to aid assistance and the emergency services.

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Figure 3.2 Coloured fountain

lighting (photograph
courtesy of Ustigate Ltd)

3.3 Water features, Lighting water can be one of the most challenging but also the most rewarding
aspect of a lighting designer’s work. Still water will reflect nearby trees and
fountains buildings. It is possible to ‘light’ a pool or small lake by lighting the surroundings,
and pools which are reflected in the water, achieving twice the effect. Small waves and
ripples will produce even more interesting shapes and reflections.

As a general rule, cool light sources are preferred – 4000–5000 K would be a good
starting point. Water is also highly amenable to the use of dynamic coloured light.

Moving water, such as fountains and waterfalls, works best when the droplets can
‘catch’ the light. This is done by positioning the spotlights in the water (Figure 3.2).
A common technique is to locate the spotlights alongside the water jets, a process
which is normally undertaken by a specialist water-feature designer/manufacturer.

Pools often have high-power spotlights positioned in the sides. Narrow beam
spotlights can produce dramatic, contrasting effects. If the pools are used for
swimming, wider beam luminaires should be used. These should be positioned
0.5–1 m under the surface so that the swimmers are illuminated. There is normally
enough inter-reflection to light the sides and bottom of the pool.

A useful technique is to illuminate the border of the pool using a linear LED strip
or fibre optic ‘rope’, having verified whether the equipment is resistant to any
chemicals (such as chlorine) that may be used in the water. Some additives will
attack stainless steel.

All luminaires used underwater should be IPX8, but note that the rating should
be for the appropriate depth. Some IPX8 rated luminaires are only suitable for a
submersion depth of 1 m.

High-power luminaires containing parabolic aluminised reflector (PAR) lamps

are constructed so that they are cooled by water flowing around them. These are
sometimes referred to as wet niche units. It is essential to ensure that they are fitted
with a thermal cut-out so they will switch off if the water level drops.

3.4 Steps, stairs and In exterior lighting, changes of level are important considerations as they can
represent considerable hazards with possible injury if an accident occurs. The
changes of level client is responsible for providing a safe visual environment up to the boundary
of the client’s site within the public realm.

It is not always clear where this boundary is and guidance should be taken from
the client. If the boundary information is not available it can be obtained from
the Land Registry. If any public rights of way cross the client’s land, it would be

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 Lighting for specific applications 71

reasonable to expect the client to maintain lighting that complies with minimal
health and safety standards, as outlined in HSG38 Lighting at work at all times,
but preferably to the good practice standards outlined in BS EN 12464-2 and
BS 5489-1.

A typical example of a public right of way that continually crosses between private
and public land is the Thames Path when passing through Central London.

It should be noted that some client bodies (such as London Underground)

specify higher illuminance levels and uniformity ratios due to the large flow
of people and adaptation problems when moving from internal illuminance
levels to external illuminance levels during daylight hours. These problems
are also present at underground car parks and subways. Where sight adaptation
issues occur, it may be necessary to energise the lighting over external steps
and stairs during bright sunlight conditions. Automatic lighting controls
could be programmed to adjust threshold lighting, say with dual illuminance
photocell energising lighting, when external levels fall below 100 lux or rise
above 10 000 lux.

3.4.1 Lighting principles Shadowing of staircase treads is a major concern when considering the lighting
of steps and staircases. The spacing of luminaires should ensure that all treads
for staircases receive direct luminous flux. If luminaires are badly spaced the risers can cast
and steps shadows onto the next step, thus reducing contrast.

The emphasis should be on the first and last steps in any flight or the start and
end of any slope or ramp, with no intermediate steps or ramp areas receiving
less than 30% of this amount. Changes of direction should be clearly revealed.

Consideration always needs to be given to accessibility issues. The Equality Act

2010 makes the following recommendations for this type of exterior space:

—— Designated parking spaces and any access routes from such spaces
to the building entrance should be lit artificially to achieve a
minimum illuminance of 20 lux, but with an illuminance of 100 lux
on ramps or steps.
—— Care should be exercised in the location and orientation of a ramp to
avoid, where possible, glare and cross-shadows, which can prevent
blind and partially sighted people distinguishing changes in
gradient. Artificial lighting to a ramp should be evenly distributed,
with an illuminance at ramp and landing level of at least 100 lux.
—— Each flight and landing of a stepped access route should be well-
illuminated, providing a clear distinction between each step and
riser. The illuminance at tread level should be at least 100 lux.
Lighting that will cause glare (such as poorly located wall lights,
spotlights, floodlights or low-level light sources) should be avoided.

3.4.2 Siting of The positioning of luminaires is important on external staircases as there are
normally restricted mounting opportunities. Avoiding luminaires within the
luminaires visual field of people using the stairs is a primary consideration as this can
cause both discomfort and disability glare. Luminaires should either be above
or below the observers’ line of sight. Luminaires in the distance can drop into
the field of view depending on whether the observer is ascending or descending
the stairs.

Where luminaires are recessed into walls, their luminance should be controlled
either by limiting the power of the luminaires or by use of controlling shading
devices, such as louvres.

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Figure 3.3 Steps illuminated by

luminaire within the
handrail (photograph
courtesy of DW Windsor)

3.4.3 Choice of The choice of luminaires on stairs is important, especially with regard to the
intensity of the light source/reflector.
luminaires
A luminance ratio of no more than 15:1 (treads:luminaire luminance in line of
sight) is recommended. Optical devices, such as lenticular lenses and prismatic
controllers, can be used to increase luminaire spacing. Asymmetric distributions
can also be beneficial. Linear arrangements are preferable as the tread shadowing
can be reduced. Handrail luminaires are a typical solution (Figure 3.3). Surface-
mounted wall luminaires should not be sited in a manner that restricts access to
the full width of the stair or impedes people using handrails.

3.4.4 Emergency It is implied within BS 5266-1 that emergency lighting should be provided
through to the place of safety. This is normally interpreted to be the public
lighting realm or, in the case of large private sites, through to the muster/assembly points.
Where external lighting is provided from a secondary power source, this would
normally be deemed to provide the emergency lighting beyond the final exit doors
of the building. Where there is no secondary power supplied lighting, then the
See SLL Lighting Guide 12 for emergency lighting should extend to the place of safety and this would include
more information additional provisions for changes of direction and level. The emergency lighting
levels should be as recommended in SLL Lighting Guide 12: Emergency lighting.

It is always advisable to conduct a risk assessment of the illuminance required.

Exterior places of work can be illuminated to quite high levels (e.g. train and
vehicle maintenance yards). Similarly, if people have to move from a very bright
interior, such as a supermarket, to a dark exterior they may have problems
adapting to the much lower level of emergency illuminance.

As a general guide, the illuminance in the immediate vicinity and route to the
exterior muster point should be no less than 5% of the working/interior illuminance.

3.4.5 Open plaza steps It is important when the width of steps increases beyond 6 m that intermediate
luminaire positions are found or area floodlighting solutions are employed to
sufficiently illuminate the changes in level in open spaces. Stair-edge lighting
can be useful but care must be taken not to create contrast problems between the
luminaire luminance (in view) and the tread luminance. A contrast ratio of less
than 15:1 is recommended. LED lines incorporated into stair treads can also cause
problems to people who are visually impaired due to excessive contrast and glare.
Luminaires incorporated into risers should also be chosen with care due to their

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 Lighting for specific applications 73

close proximity to treads, to avoid creating a strong striped pattern on treads.

Using a greater number of lower output luminaires tends to give a better solution.

Heritage sites can pose particular problems as choice and positioning of

luminaires are likely to be restricted.

3.4.6 Recommended In the absence of other guidance, a minimum maintained horizontal illuminance
of 50 lux is recommended. The lighting level should be calculated on the leading
illuminance levels edge at the centre point of the width of a step. Where the step is wider than 1.2 m
the lighting level should be calculated 0.5 m from each edge. For steps over 2.4 m
the lighting level should be calculated 0.5 m in from each side and at not more
than 1 m intervals between. Intermediate steps should not receive less than 30%
of the average of the top and bottom steps.

For compliance checks the readings should be taken on the leading edge of a step
at the same points as used for the calculation. Note that, since most computer
software cannot calculate the horizontal illuminance on a series of steps, it is
easier to calculate the illuminance on a sloping plane representing the steps such
that the horizontal component is 50 lux.

3.5 Maintenance Designers should always consider how the lighting systems they are designing
are to be maintained. A good lighting design should look as good on the 3650th
of external day as it does on handover to the client. It is the application of a well-considered
lighting systems maintenance strategy that allows the design intent to continue through time
undiminished.

The designer needs to consider the following aspects in the maintenance strategy:

—— Can the system be maintained safely?

—— Who maintains the system?
—— How is the system maintained?
—— When is the system maintained?
—— How frequently is maintenance required?
—— How much does maintenance cost?
—— How does the design age between regular maintenance periods?

The designer will normally be required to provide information, either as a section

or a whole document, for the following:

—— access statement
—— designer’s risk assessments
—— Soft Landings document (required for publicly funded projects).

3.5.1 Health and safety Designers of external lighting systems have a legal responsibility to minimise
health and safety issues associated with their designs under the Construction
(Design and Management) (CDM) Regulations 2015. Risks to be assessed by
the designer include all activities associated with the location, specification,
installation, operation, maintenance and disposal of the lighting system.

The designer is obligated to provide a designer’s risk assessment that covers the
lighting installation design from a health and safety standpoint.

Risks need to be assessed in terms of likelihood and their severity and mitigation
measures analysed. Risk assessments must be agreed with the project principal

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designer to be included with the project health and safety file. Risk assessments
are required to be reviewed at concept scheme and detailed design stages.

Designers should remember that falls from heights below 3 m are the most
common accident at work.

3.5.2 Maintenance The designer should always talk to the client about the maintenance of the
lighting system and, having understood the client’s capabilities in terms of
methodology maintaining the system, recommend an appropriate maintenance strategy.
This is especially important if regular maintenance is critical to maintain the
design intent. The effect of failed lamps in an array of luminaires can be very
noticeable. Colour consistency can be a particular problem where large arrays of
high-intensity discharge (HID) sources, such as metal halide, are used. In some
cases, the designer will need to consider the effect of the failure of individual
luminaires on the functionality of their design. This may include health and
safety issues or commercial aspects. Solutions may include alternative electrical
supplies, additional luminaires or dual lamp sources.

3.5.3 Maintenance BS EN 12464-2 requires the designer to calculate the maintenance factor
according to CIE 154. The maintenance factor is made up of:
factor
—— lamp survival factor: the percentage of lamps that have failed
between bulk lamp replacements
—— lamp lumen maintenance factor:  the percentage deterioration of light
output between bulk lamp replacements
—— luminaire maintenance factor: the percentage deterioration of
photometric performance between luminaire cleanings.

All the above factors apply equally to LED sources as to conventional lamps.

External lighting maintenance differs from the maintenance of internal lighting

in that there are no defined criteria for the cleaning of surfaces. It should be
remembered that external surfaces age as well as becoming dirty. Aging of materials
may include changes in reflection or changes in colour. Some polycarbonates will
yellow from the UV in daylight and sunlight. The use of variable output light
sources, such as LED, should be considered as a means of maintaining a constant
building facade luminance over time.

3.5.4 Choice of The designer should recommend the lamp type to be used in the design. For
external lighting this is particularly important where lamp characteristics,
lamp type such as mortality, lumen depreciation and efficacy vary markedly between
manufacturers, lamp colours, lamp formats and operating positions. In the UK,
streetlighting installations may also require the S/P ratio of the light source to
be recorded.

The lighting designer should be involved in the specification of the contractor’s

obligations for the production of the operation and maintenance manuals for the
lighting system.

3.5.5 Lighting It should be noted that maintenance procedures for external lighting equipment
may be more involved than those for internal installations. The luminaires will
equipment be required to operate in a wide range of environmental/external conditions, such
maintenance as temperature, humidity, water ingress, dust, impact, wind, etc.
issues
External luminaires will normally be sealed according to BS EN 60598-1 (general
enclosures should conform to BS EN 60529). Simple operations, such as lamp
changing, may require particular procedures to be adopted, for example running

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 Lighting for specific applications 75

the lamp for a period of time before closing the luminaire to evaporate water
vapour before the luminaire is sealed. Adjustable components, such as swivel and
knuckle joints, may require re-greasing at regular intervals. Special consideration
will be required for underwater luminaires. Manufacturers’ recommendations
should always be sought at the design stage before finalising the choice of
luminaire. Captive, quick release and no-tool fixings are particularly useful when
working at height. Designs that utilise remote ballasts, low-level control boxes
and low-level electrical isolation are recommended for reducing health and safety
risks and maintenance costs and allowing ease of commissioning/reprogramming.

3.5.6 Soft Landings Soft Landings is an approach that allows clients to be educated in how to utilise
their building/system in line with the design intent of the design team. Soft
Landings applies equally to external lighting as to internal lighting. Further
information on Soft Landings is provided by the Usable Buildings Trust (UBT)
and the Building Services Research and Information Association (BSRIA). The
designer may be required to provide a presentation on the lighting systems
or produce easy-to-follow guides on the use and maintenance of the systems.

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Appendix 1: Table A1.1  Ingress protection (IP) ratings in accordance with BS EN 60529:1992+A2:2013
Level of protection against solid objects, Level of protection against water and
IP ratings materials or dust
0 No protection
other liquids
0 No protection
1 Protected against solid objects of 50 mm 1 Protection against vertically falling drops of
diameter and above water (e.g. condensation)
2 Protected against solid objects of 12.5 mm 2 Protection against vertically falling drops of
diameter and above water when enclosure tilted up to 15˚ from
vertical
3 Protected against solid objects of 2.5 mm 3 Protection against water sprayed at an angle
diameter and above up to 60˚ from vertical
4 Protected against solid objects of 1 mm 4 Protection against water splashed from all
diameter and above directions
5 Protected against dust, limited ingress 5 Protection against jets of water from any
(no harmful deposits) direction
6 Totally protected against dust 6 Protection against powerful jets of water
from any direction
7 Protected against the effect of temporary
immersion between 15 cm and 1 m
8 Protected against long periods of immersion
under pressure
9 Protection against powerful jets of high-
temperature water from any direction
Source: BS EN 60529:1992+A2:2013.

Appendix 2: Table A2.1  Degrees of protection provided by enclosures for electrical equipment against
external mechanical impacts in accordance with IEC 62262:2002 and BS EN 60068-2-75:2014

IK ratings IK code Protection against impacts

IK00 Not protected
IK01 Protected against 0.14 joules impact
Equivalent to impact of 0.25 kg mass dropped from 56 mm above impacted surface
IK02 Protected against 0.2 joules impact
Equivalent to impact of 0.25 kg mass dropped from 80 mm above impacted surface
IK03 Protected against 0.35 joules impact
Equivalent to impact of 0.25 kg mass dropped from 140 mm above impacted surface
IK04 Protected against 0.5 joules impact
Equivalent to impact of 0.25 kg mass dropped from 200 mm above impacted surface
IK05 Protected against 0.7 joules impact
Equivalent to impact of 0.25 kg mass dropped from 280 mm above impacted surface
IK06 Protected against 1 joules impact
Equivalent to impact of 0.25 kg mass dropped from 400 mm above impacted surface
IK07 Protected against 2 joules impact
Equivalent to impact of 0.5 kg mass dropped from 400 mm above impacted surface
IK08 Protected against 5 joules impact
Equivalent to impact of 1.7 kg mass dropped from 300 mm above impacted surface
IK09 Protected against 10 joules impact
Equivalent to impact of 5 kg mass dropped from 200 mm above impacted surface
IK10 Protected against 20 joules impact
Equivalent to impact of 5 kg mass dropped from 400 mm above impacted surface

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 Appendices 77

Appendix 3: The majority of exterior lighting installations, certainly for the floodlighting of
functional areas, succeed by satisfying the various lighting criteria, following a
Floodlighting design process normally consisting of three stages:

calculations 1 An assessment is made of where to locate the floodlights, the type of light
distribution required and the light source characteristics that suit the
particular application.

2 A lumen calculation is carried out to find the number and loading of the
lamps necessary to achieve the required average illuminance.

3 When necessary, point-by-point calculations are carried out to determine

the aiming pattern of the floodlights for the required uniformity.

The third stage may modify the earlier calculations, and is the stage when the use
of a computer becomes invaluable for a large and complex installation.

A3.1 Floodlighting There are several ways to present photometric data for floodlights. The simpler
methods are dealt with here. For preliminary design work, the beam data are
data for manual particularly useful. Table A3.1 shows an example for a wide-angle floodlight.
calculations
Table A3.1  Beam data
Peak intensity (I ) cd/klm 1110
Beam factor to 10% peak (I ) 0.74
Beam angle to 10% peak (I ) Horizontal 2 × 50°
Vertical 36°/66° I peak
Beam angle to 50% peak (I ) Horizontal 2 × 39°
Vertical 7°/13° 21°

Beam angle to 1% peak (I ) Horizontal 2 × 67°

Vertical 49°/89°

The peak intensity is in a direction 21° to the normal of the front glass of the
floodlight, expressed in candelas per kilolumen (cd/klm). To obtain the actual
intensity in cd, the value (in this case, 1110) must be multiplied by the bare lamp
lumens divided by 1000.

The beam factor (BF) to 10% peak is the fraction of the lamp flux in the beam
to where the intensity is 10% of the peak value. This can be thought of as the
amount of the total light from the lamp that goes into the beam.

The beam angle to percentage of peak is measured in a horizontal and vertical plane
with respect to the peak intensity (Figure A3.1) The horizontal angle is doubled
because the angle is either side of the central peak intensity. The first vertical angle
is above the peak intensity and the second vertical angle is below the peak intensity.

The beam angle to 10% peak indicates the angular spread of the useful beam.
The beam angle to 50% peak is useful for those occasions when beams from two

Figure A3.1 Beam angles Elevation (vertical) Plan (horizontal)

1 I
10 peak

I peak

1 I 1 I
1 I 10 peak 10 peak
10 peak

I peak

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 78 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

1200
cd/klm of the same type of floodlight overlap with the intention of giving an even wash
1000
of light. The beam angle to 1% peak is the boundary beyond which there is just
spill light that will make no useful contribution to the lighting scheme. In effect,
800 it is the cut-off angle.
Intensity

600
The intensity curves for a floodlight show the lighting performance graphically
400 (Figure A3.2) Most of the information given in the beam data can be read from
these curves. The solid line denotes the intensity in the horizontal plane. The
200
dashed line denotes the intensity in the vertical plane, positive angles are above
0 the peak intensity. All angles are measured with respect to the peak intensity,
–90 –60 –30 0 30 60 90
Angle from peak
which may, or may not, be normal to the front glass of the floodlight. It is
Horizontal
important to check where the peak intensity is emitted.
Vertical
Lamp: 250 W HPS-T(HO) The lighting performance of a floodlight can be evaluated by looking at an isolux
diagram, if available (Figure A3.3). The format is similar to that for amenity
Figure A3.2 Intensity curves
luminaires. For a specified mounting height, on a grid in metres, contours of
constant illuminance are shown in units of lux/klm. To obtain an actual value
of illuminance, simply multiply by the bare lamp lumens divided by 1000. The
24 m
lux /klm isolux diagram can be used to assess the illuminance created when the floodlight
0.5
0
is mounted at other mounting heights, by using the same conversion factors
16 m 1.0
0 given for amenity luminaires:
2.
3.000
0 —— Multiply contour values by:
8m

(stated mounting height in m) 2

0 (new mounting height in m) 2

8m —— Multiply grid distance by:

16 m 8 m 0m 8 m 16 m
Fixed attitude – top horizontal new mounting height in m
Mounting height 8 m
stated mounting height in m
Figure A3.3 Floodlight isolux diagram
The boundary of the area to be lit will not necessarily coincide with the area
covered by the floodlights as, in the case of a tall narrow building or one with a
complicated profile, a considerable amount of light may be wasted (Figure A3.4).

This is accounted for by the waste light factor (WLF). More light may be wasted
Waste on a tower or chimney than on a rectangular building or advertising hoarding.
The WLF is the fraction of light that falls onto the object being lit, not the fraction
of light that is wasted. Under favourable conditions, a WLF of 0.9 might be
assumed, but in difficult situations this may be reduced to 0.5 or lower. This
factor, when multiplied by the beam factor (BF) gives the utilisation factor (UF):

UF = WLF # BF

The lumen method of design can then be applied, as with interior lighting design:

N # F # UF # MF
E=
A

where: E is the average maintained illuminance, N is the number of luminaires,

F is initial bare lamp lumens per luminaire, UF is the utilisation factor, MF is the
maintenance factor and A is the area to be lit.

Even more simply, at the first stage of design calculations it is common practice
Figure A3.4 Wasted light in to use an estimated utilisation factor of 0.3. This figure is low for asymmetric and
floodlighting some symmetric projectors (which give precise light control) and too high for
wide-angle projectors (which will project light beyond the boundaries of the area
being considered).

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 Appendices 79

Appendix 4: Sources of ecological light pollution include sky glow, lit buildings and towers,
street lights, sports floodlighting, security measures, etc. It can also be caused
Artificial lighting by offshore fishing boats, bridges across rivers and estuaries and glare from oil
platforms.
and its effect
on animal and The effect of lighting on the natural environment can be difficult to quantify
but when there are habitats rich in wildlife near lighting installations there is a
plant ecology possibility that lighting will have adverse effects on insects, animals and plants
in the area.

A4.1 Sky luminance Direct upward light reacts with and is diffused through cloud, mist and airborne
particles (Figure A4.1). Note that these particles can often be natural in origin,
such as pollen, dust from fields, rain, mist, etc. The area affected and the
brightness are dependent on the presence and quantity of diffusing elements and
the level of light being distributed by the source (luminaire).

Figure A4.1 Sky glow above a

small city in Hampshire
(photograph courtesy of
Alan Tulla Lighting)

Light pollution is a global issue, with over 18% of the terrestrial surface of
the earth exposed to night sky brightness that is considered to be polluted by
astronomical standards.

A4.2 Lamp spectra It is common for ecologists to measure light in terms of lux, which is readily
understood by lighting designers and engineers. However, this ignores the
biologically important information relating to the light source. A high-pressure
sodium lamp may produce the same illuminance as a low-pressure sodium
source but the latter contains less UV, which has been shown to attract moths
and flying insects. As research continues in this field it will become essential to
show measurements of radiation and spectrum-based information relevant to the
organisms being discussed, in addition to the actual level of illumination. As a
general rule, white light disturbs creatures more than monochromatic or narrow
waveband sources.

A4.3 Effects on Ecological light pollution has been shown to adversely affect behaviour and
population of organisms in natural surroundings. These effects are shown in
behaviour and terms of changes in orientation, disorientation or mis-orientation, and attraction
population or repulsion from the altered lit environment, which may affect foraging,
reproduction, migration and communication.

Orientation and disorientation are responses to ambient illumination (the amount

of light incident on an object or building), whereas attraction or repulsion have
been demonstrated to occur as a response to the intensity of the light source.

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A4.4 Birds and flight Birds will often circle around towers at night, apparently trying to orient their
flight to the light, which they mistake for the moon or a star. It has been noted
that this disorientation is less prevalent when there is a full moon.

It has long been understood that some migratory birds navigate by detecting the
Earth’s magnetic field. It has been suggested that light-sensitive molecules called
cryptochromes could be the key to birds’ magnetic sense. Cryptochromes are
sensitive to blue and green light. A number of scientific experiments have been
carried out with regard to magnetic orientation of birds under blue and green
light and it has been shown that the wavelength and intensity of the light can
affect birds’ orientation.

Some birds rely on bioluminescent plankton to navigate by and are therefore

drawn to light. These birds are fatally attracted to lighthouses, lights from oil and
gas platforms and the high-intensity lights used on fishing boats (Figure A4.2).

Figure A4.2 Offshore oil and gas

platform (curraheeshutter/
Shutterstock.com)

A4.5 Mammals The behaviour of terrestrial nocturnal mammals is influenced by moonlight and
any artificial light intervention can result in disruption of circadian rhythm,
(excluding bats) foraging and predation. This is particularly true of smaller mammals, which rely
on darkness to avoid predators.

As mammals seek to avoid areas of increased light, this affects dispersal movement
and corridor use, which can lead to a decline in reproductive behaviour and hence
a shrinking population and, ultimately, a decrease in biodiversity.

Most nocturnal animals react to increasing moonlight by reducing their use of

open areas, foraging and movement, reducing total activity or concentrating it to
within the darkest parts of the night.

A4.6 Circadian The free running period of activity cycle for an animal (including humans) under
constant light and darkness ranges from 23 to 25 hours. For all vertebrates the
rhythms primary influence on their internal clock setting is the change of quantity and
spectral quality of light at dawn and dusk. A special photoreceptor, independent
of the rods and cones, entrains the biological clock of vertebrates. The light
regime and circadian clock also influence production of hormones, including
melatonin. In all species, whether nocturnal or diurnal, melatonin is produced at
night and suppressed during the daytime.

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 Appendices 81

A4.7 Circannual Mammals have an endogenous rhythm with a free running period of about a year.
The circannual clock influences body mass, hormone production, reproductive
rhythm status, hibernation and circadian pattern over the year.

A4.8 Bats All species of bat are protected by law in the UK. It is illegal to kill, injure,
capture or disturb bats, obstruct access to bat roosts or damage/destroy bat roosts.
A4.8.1 Legal protection Lighting in the vicinity of a bat roost causing disturbance could constitute an
of bats offence.

A4.8.1 Roosts Lighting bat roosts creates disturbance, which may cause the bats to desert the
roost. Light spill onto a roost access point will at least delay bats seeking to
emerge and this shortens the amount of time available to them for foraging. Bats
seek food soon after dusk; hence the presence of artificial light can result in a
reduction in available feeding time.

A4.8.1 Insects and The fact that certain types of lamps attract insects and the presence of lit conditions
can also affect the feeding behaviour of bats. Many night-flying species of insect
foraging are attracted to light, especially to those lamps that emit a UV component and
particularly if it is a single light source in a dark area. Moths and a range of other
insects can be attracted to light. Studies have shown that, although various bats
swarm around white mercury or metal halide street lights, feeding on the insects
attracted to the light, this behaviour is not true for all bat species. The slower
flying, broad winged species of bat generally avoid street lights.

Artificial lighting is thought to increase the chances of bats being preyed upon.
Many avian predators will hunt bats, which may be one reason why bats avoid
flying in the day.

Lighting can be particularly harmful if used along river corridors, near woodland
edges and near hedgerows used by bats. In mainland Europe, in areas where there
are foraging or ‘commuting’ bats, stretches of road are left unlit. Similarly, the
lighting is designed in such a way as to avoid isolation of bat colonies.

Artificial lighting disrupts the normal 24-hour pattern of light and dark, which is
likely to affect the behaviour of bats. Bright light may reduce social flight activity
and cause bats to move away from the lit area. Studies have shown that continuous
lighting along roads creates barriers that some bat species cannot cross.

A4.9 Mitigation
of lighting
impacts on bats
A4.9.1 Roosts Direct lighting of bat roosts and access points should be avoided. Where buildings
are to be lit in the neighbourhood of bat roosts, lighting should be positioned to
avoid sensitive areas.

A4.9.2 Type of lamp Low UV content sources with narrow wavebands, such as low-pressure sodium
lamps or LEDs, have least impact on bats. Where white light sources are used,
suitable UV filtration should be employed.

A4.9.3 Luminaire Lighting should be directed to where it is needed and light spill avoided.
This can be achieved by selecting a suitably designed luminaire and by using
and light spill accessories such as hoods, cowls, louvres and shields to direct the light to the
accessories intended area only.

A4.9.4 Lighting columns Lighting columns should be as short as is possible, since light at a low height
reduces the ecological impact. However, there are cases where a taller column
will enable light to be directed downwards at a more acute angle and thereby

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reduce horizontal spill. The acceptable level of lighting will vary, dependent on
the surroundings and on the species of bat affected.

Do not disturb dark flight corridors. Many insects and bats use these as routes
between the roost and feeding areas.

A4.10 Reptiles and Frogs and salamanders suffer from sudden exposure to light, which causes
nocturnal species to suspend normal feeding and to sit motionless even after the
amphibians light has been turned off. Salamanders cannot navigate under red or yellow light
and are particularly susceptible to sodium lighting.

Light pollution also endangers sea turtles. Bright lights nearby discourage
females from coming ashore to nest. Newly hatched turtles need a dark night
sky to orient themselves towards the sea, but artificial lights behind beaches lure
them away. Hatchlings are attracted to the artificial light and crawl inland, or
crawl aimlessly down the beach, sometimes until dawn, when terrestrial predators
or birds attack them.

Some tree frogs stop calling in brightly lit areas. If the males are not calling, they
are not reproducing, which has a major effect on population levels.

Light affects the physical development of frogs. Studies show that the amount of
light exposure affects hormone production. This regulates everything from how
much fat the frogs store for the winter to when they produce eggs. Frogs living
in constantly illuminated environments may not be getting the proper signals.

A4.11 Invertebrates Day length is used by a number of hibernating insects to regulate behaviour.
While the mechanism is not fully understood, insects are sensitive to ambient
light levels barely above those in full-moon conditions.

Increased or inappropriate lighting can have further effects on insect populations.

As an example, day-flying butterflies have larvae which feed at night. Artificial
light can inhibit this behaviour, leaving the larvae susceptible to predators.

A4.11.1 Attraction Insects can be affected in a number of ways by artificial light:

to light —— Fixation/captivity effect:  This occurs when insects are travelling and
either fly directly into the light source or orbit endlessly until they
are eaten by a predator or die of exhaustion. The insect can become
trapped in a lit zone which interferes with its navigation.
—— Attraction effect:  This occurs when an insect is attracted to a light
source and is drawn from its normal habitat. On a moonlit night the
zone of attraction is as little as 50 m, but on a dark night it can rise
to 500 m. This effect is a potential cause of reduction in diversity of
species.

Lamp type is particularly important in determining attraction to light. High-

pressure mercury vapour causes the strongest attraction, high-pressure sodium
is about half as attractive and sources with UV filtering are least attractive, with
low-pressure sodium attracting no insects.

A number of ecology experts recommend sodium lighting as a universal solution

to the problem of light affecting insect populations.

In summary, artificial lighting affects feeding patterns, dispersal and migration

and can influence circadian rhythm. So, to protect moths and other invertebrates,
lighting should be turned off, dimmed or, as a minimum measure, have the UV
content of lighting reduced.

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 Appendices 83

While light is an important factor in reduction of diversity of species, loss of

suitable habitat has caused more problems.

A4.11.2 Fireflies Fireflies are a special case as they also use bioluminescence as part of their
reproductive cycle, which is being affected by increased urban illumination.
Mating males attract females by blinking their lights. Fireflies typically will not
make an appearance when there are bright ambient lights, such as the time of the
full moon. If increased urban illumination interrupts fireflies’ ability to signal
each other, it could disrupt mating with consequent reduction of population
numbers.

A4.11.3 Amelioration Artificial light in sensitive ecological communities should be kept to a minimum.
It may not actually be necessary at all. Where possible, it should be avoided or
and good limited in its distribution and hours of use. This is not always practical in areas
practice of human activity.

Lighting designers need to think carefully about how they provide lighting in
areas which are shared with animals and plant life:

—— Use light only when and where it is needed, minimising it by the

use of lighting controls, timers and motion detectors. Turn off
lights when they are not required. Create a curfew period of nil/
reduced illuminance.
—— Use only as much as is needed. The use of excessive lighting levels
reduces the eye’s ability to see beyond the lit area. Always consider
whether glare and spill light can be totally eliminated.
—— Aim the lighting down (i.e. below horizontal). Well-designed
luminaires direct light where it is required and nowhere else. It
is important to select luminaires with good optical control and
shielding.
—— Consider the light source carefully. Direction, intensity, duration
and spectral distribution all need to be considered.

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 84 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

Glossary
This glossary contains definitions and explanations for the specification of
exterior lighting to facilitate an understanding of this guide. The definitions are
based upon:

—— BS EN 12665:2002 Lighting Applications – Basic Terms and Criteria for

Specifying Lighting Requirements; and

—— CIE17.4 International Lighting Vocabulary, fourth edition, joint

publication IEC/CIE:1987.

These documents should be consulted if more precise definitions are needed.

Adaptation A process which takes place as the visual system adjusts to the luminance and
colour of the visual field or the final state of this process.

Technically defined: The process by which the state of the visual system is
modified by previous and present exposure to stimuli that may have various
luminances, spectral distributions and angular subtenses.

Note 1: The terms light adaptation and dark adaptation are also used, the former
when the luminances of the stimuli are of at least several candelas per square
metre and the latter when the luminances are of less than some hundredths of a
candela per square metre.

Note 2: Adaptation to specific spatial frequencies, orientations, sizes etc. are

recognised as being included in this definition.

Adaptation level The state of adaptation of an individual at a particular time.

Aiming angle The angle from the downward vertical at which the luminaire is aimed. This
is normally the same point on the ground as the peak intensity but in some
luminaires the peak intensity is emitted at angles other than a normal to the
front glass.

Baffle Sheet(s) of material, usually metal, placed in front of the luminaire to limit light
spill. Also known as a visor. A louvre is similar but constructed of several slim
blades to block the light from particular viewing angles.

Ballast A device connected between the supply and one or more discharge lamps which
serves mainly to limit the current of the lamp(s) to the required value.

Note: A ballast may also include means of transforming the supply voltage,
correcting the power factor and, either alone or in combination with a starting
device, provide the necessary conditions for starting the lamp(s).

Beam angle The width of a beam measured in degrees. Normally taken to be the total
width, including both sides of the axis, where the intensity is 10% of maximum.
Sometimes 50% Ipeak is taken to be the beam width.

Brightness Attribute of the visual sensation associated with the amount of light emitted
from a given area. It is a subjective correlate of luminance.

Technically defined: brightness, luminosity (obsolete): Attribute of a visual

sensation according to which an area appears to emit more or less light.

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 Glossary 85

Central management This is mainly used in streetlighting or other large installations. The condition
system (CMS) of the luminaires, lamp failures and power consumption is monitored and the
data fed back to a central point. A CMS is usually linked to an inventory.

Close offset Used to describe the situation where a luminaire is relatively close to the building
or area it is lighting (e.g. where the height of the building is greater than five
times the offset distance). This is a similar concept to the depth to height ratio.

Colour appearance See correlated colour temperature.

Colour rendering (of Effect of a light source on the colour appearance of objects compared with their
a light source) colour appearance under a reference light source.

The definition is more formally expressed as: Effect of an illuminant on the

colour appearance of objects by conscious or subconscious comparison with their
colour appearance under a reference illuminant.

Colour temperature (Tc) The temperature of a Planckian (black body) radiator whose radiation has the
same chromaticity as that of a given stimulus.

Unit: kelvin (K)

Note: The reciprocal colour temperature is also used, unit K−1.

Contrast In the perceptual sense: Assessment of the difference in appearance of two or

more parts of a field seen simultaneously or successively (hence: brightness
contrast, lightness contrast, colour contrast, simultaneous contrast, successive
contrast etc).

In the physical sense: Quantity intended to correlate with the perceived

brightness contrast, usually defined by one of a number of formulae which
involve the luminances of the stimuli considered, for example: DL/L near the
luminance threshold, or L1/L2 for much higher luminances.

Correlated colour The temperature of the Planckian (black body) radiator whose perceived colour
temperature (Tc) most closely resembles that of a given stimulus at the same brightness and under
specified viewing conditions.

Unit: kelvin (K)

Note 1: The recommended method of calculating the correlated colour temperature

of a stimulus is to determine on a chromaticity diagram the temperature
corresponding to the point on the Planckian locus that is intersected by the
agreed iso-temperature line containing the point representing the stimulus.

Note 2: Reciprocal correlated colour temperature is used rather than reciprocal

colour temperature whenever correlated colour temperature is appropriate.

Cylindrical illuminance Total luminous flux falling on the curved surface of a very small cylinder located
(at a point) (Ez) at the specified point divided by the curved surface area of the cylinder. The axis
of the cylinder is taken to be vertical unless stated otherwise.

Unit: lux (lx) = lumens per square metre

Technically defined: Quantity defined by the formula:

1
Ez =
r
#4rsr L sin f dX

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 86 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

where dX is the solid angle of each elementary beam passing through the given
point; L is its luminance at that point; and f the angle between it and the given
direction.

Dark Sky Park A park or other public land possessing exceptional starry skies and natural
nocturnal habitat where light pollution is mitigated and natural darkness is
valuable as an important educational, cultural, scenic and natural resource.

Depth to height ratio (D/H) Used to describe how far a luminaire is aimed in relation to its mounting height.
This is a simpler and more easily understood value than the aiming angle (e.g. a
5:1 D/H is an aiming angle of 78.7°).

Diffused lighting Lighting in which the light on the working plane or on an object is not incident
predominantly from a particular direction.

Directional lighting Lighting in which the light on the working plane or on an object is incident
predominantly from a particular direction.

Disability glare Glare that impairs the vision of objects without necessarily causing discomfort.
Note: Disability glare may be produced directly or by reflection.

For specification: Disability glare may be expressed in a number of different

ways. If threshold increment is used the following values of TI should be used:

5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%.

If glare rating is used then the following values of GR should be used:

10, 20, 30, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 70, 80, 90.

Discomfort glare Glare that causes discomfort without necessarily impairing the vision of objects.
Note: Discomfort glare may be produced directly or by reflection.

For specification: If it is expressed using the unified glare rating the following
values of UGR should be used:

10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 28.

Diversity ratio This is the ratio of maximum to minimum illuminance. See also uniformity.

Emergency lighting Lighting provided for use when the supply to the normal lighting fails.

Escape lighting That part of the emergency lighting which is provided to ensure that the escape
route is illuminated at all material times.

Flicker Impression of unsteadiness of visual sensation induced by a light stimulus whose

luminance or spectral distribution fluctuates with time.

General lighting Substantially uniform lighting of an area without provision for special local
requirements.

Glare Condition of vision in which there is discomfort or a reduction in the ability to

see details or objects, caused by an unsuitable distribution or range of luminance,
or to extreme contrasts.

See also disability glare and discomfort glare.

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 Glossary 87

Illuminance (at a point Quotient of the luminous flux dUv, incident on an element of the surface
of a surface) (E) containing the point, by the area dA of that element.

Equivalent definition: Integral, taken over the hemisphere visible from the given
point, of the expression:

L cos i dX

(where L is the luminance at the given point in the various directions of the
incident elementary beams of solid angle dX; and i is the angle between any of
these beams and the normal to the surface at the given point).

Unit: lux (lx) = lumens per square metre

Note: The orientation of the surface may be defined, e.g. horizontal, vertical;
hence horizontal illuminance, vertical illuminance.

For specification: Illuminance should be specified as maintained illuminance

and should take one of the following values:

1.0 × 10N lux, 1.5 × 10N lux, 2.0 × 10N lux, 3.0 × 10N lux, 5.0 × 10N lux,
7.5 × 10N lux (where N is an integer).

The area over which the illuminance is to be calculated or measured shall be

specified.

Illumination Application of light to a scene or its surroundings so that they may be seen.

Illuminance gradient Percentage difference of illuminance between adjacent measuring points (FIFA).

Illuminance uniformity Ratio of minimum illuminance to average illuminance on a surface.

Note: Use is also made of the ratio of minimum illuminance to maximum

illuminance, in which case this should be specified explicitly.

In-fill lighting Used to soften deep shadows, especially when floodlighting buildings.

In-ground luminaire Also known as a ‘ground recessed’, ‘paver’ or ‘burial’ luminaire. This type of
luminaire is recessed into the ground so that the top is flush with the surface/
pavement.

Initial illuminance Average illuminance when the installation is new.

Unit: lux (lx) = lumens per square metre

Intensity (luminous) (of a point Luminous flux per unit solid angle in the direction in question, i.e. the luminous
source in a given direction) (I) flux on a small surface, divided by the solid angle that the surface subtends at the
source.

Unit: candela = lumen per steradian (lm/sr)

Technically defined: Quotient of the luminous flux (dU) leaving the source and
propagated in the element solid angle (dX) containing the given direction, by the
element solid angle:
dU
I=
dX

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Isolux curve (iso-illuminance curve) Locus of points on a surface where the illuminance has the same value.

Lamp Source made in order to produce an optical radiation, usually visible.

Note: This term is also sometimes used for certain types of luminaires.

Lamp cleaning interval The illuminance provided by a lighting installation will decrease as the lamps
age and dirt is deposited on the luminaire and room surfaces. The luminaire’s
luminous distribution will also be affected by dirt deposits. Planned maintenance
is therefore essential if the design parameters are to be met throughout the life of
an installation.

Depreciation can be kept within technically and economically acceptable limits

by ensuring: that luminaires are safe, reliable and constructed to relevant
international standards; that luminaires are selected to suit location conditions;
and that a programme of luminaire cleaning and lamp replacement is implemented.

Lamp lumen maintenance factor Ratio of the luminous flux of a lamp at a given time to the initial luminous flux.
(LLMF)

Lamp survival factor Fraction of the total number of lamps that continue to operate at a given time
under defined conditions and switching frequency.

Light output ratio (of a luminaire) Ratio of the total flux of the luminaire, measured under specified practical
conditions with its own lamps and equipment, to the sum of the individual
luminous fluxes of the same lamps when operated outside the luminaire with the
same equipment, under specified conditions.

Note: For luminaires using incandescent lamps only, the optical light output
ratio and the light output ratio are the same in practice.

Light pollution Non-preferred term, use obtrusive light

‘Obtrusive light’: That light which is projected in any combination of upward and
outward path beyond the boundaries of the site or object being illuminated, and
by reason of that projected light’s direction, magnitude, duration and presence
is contrary to the general environment and those interests of life and livelihood.

‘Light pollution’: an expression promoted by astronomers, relates to light

either into the night sky, resulting in ‘sky glow’, or light presence affecting the
performance of their instruments.

Light nuisance A legal definition under the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005. It is
taken to be artificial light from premises that is prejudicial to health or a ‘nuisance’.

Louvre See baffle.

Luminance (L) Luminous flux per unit solid angle transmitted by an elementary beam passing
through the given point and propagating in the given direction, divided by the
area of a section of that beam normal to the direction of the beam and containing
the given.

It can also be defined as: The luminous intensity of the light emitted or reflected
in a given direction from an element of the surface, divided by the area of the
element projected in the same direction.

Or: The illuminance produced by the beam on a surface normal to its direction,
divided by the solid angle of the source as seen from the illuminated surface.

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 Glossary 89

It is the physical measurement of the stimulus which produces the sensation of

brightness.

Unit: candela per square metre (cd/m2)

Technically defined: Quantity defined by the formula:

dU
L=
dA cos i dX
where dU is the luminous flux transmitted by an elementary beam passing
through the given point and propagating in the solid angle dX containing the
given direction; dA is the area of a section of that beam containing the given
point; and i is the angle between the normal to that section and the direction of
the beam.

For specification: Luminance should be specified as maintained luminance and

should take one of the following values:

1.0 × 10N cdm–2, 1.5 × 10N cdm–2, 2.0 × 10N cdm–2, 3.0 × 10N cdm–2, 5.0 × 10N

cdm–2, 7.5 × 10N cdm–2 (where N is an integer)

The area over which the luminance is to be calculated or measured shall be

specified.

Luminaire Apparatus which distributes, filters or transforms the light transmitted from
one or more lamps and which includes, except the lamps themselves, all the
parts necessary for fixing and protecting the lamps and, where necessary, circuit
auxiliaries together with the means for connecting them to the electricity supply.

Note: The term ‘lighting fitting’ is deprecated.

Luminous efficacy of a source (h) Quotient of the luminous flux emitted by the power consumed by the source.

Unit: lumens per watt (lm/W)

Note 1: It must be specified whether or not the power dissipated by auxiliary

equipment such as ballasts etc., if any, is included in the power consumed by the
source.

Note 2: If not otherwise specified, the measurement conditions should be the

reference conditions specified in the relevant IEC standard. See rated luminous
flux.

Luminous flux Quantity derived from radiant flux (radiant power) by evaluating the radiation
according to the spectral sensitivity of the human eye (as defined by the CIE
standard photometric observer). It is the light power emitted by a source or
received by a surface.

Unit: lumen (lm)

Note 1: In this definition, the values used for the spectral sensitivity of the CIE
standard photometric observer are those of the spectral luminous efficiency
function V(m).

Note 2: See IEC 50 (845)/CIE 17.4: 845-01-22 for the definition of spectral
luminous efficiency, 845-01-23 for the definition of the CIE standard photometric
observer and 845-01-56 for the definition of luminous efficacy of radiation (see
ISO/CIE 10527).

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Technically defined: Luminous flux U is given by:

U = Km #0 3 E dUf QmV/dm H V (m) dm

where dUf (m)/dm is the spectral distribution of radiant flux; and V(m) is the
spectral luminous efficiency.

Luminous intensity (of a point Luminous flux per unit solid angle in the direction in question, i.e. the luminous
source in a given direction) (I) flux on a small surface, divided by the solid angle that the surface subtends at the
source.

Unit: candela = lumen per steradian (lm/sr)

Technically defined: Quotient of the luminous flux (dU) leaving the source and
propagated in the element solid angle (dX) containing the given direction, by the
element solid angle:
dU
I=
dX
Maintained illuminance Value below which the average illuminance on the specified area should not fall.
It is the average illuminance at the time maintenance should be carried out.

Unit: lux (lx)

Maintenance factor Ratio of the average illuminance on the working plane after a certain period of
use of a lighting installation to the average illuminance obtained under the same
condition for the installation considered conventionally as new.

Note 1: The term ‘depreciation factor’ has been formerly used to designate the
reciprocal of the above ratio.

Note 2: Maintenance factor of an installation depends on lamp lumen maintenance

factor, lamp survival factor, luminaire maintenance factor and (for an interior
lighting installation) room surface maintenance factor.

Mesopic vision The viewing condition between full photopic and full scotopic vision. In mesopic
vision, both the cones and rods are active but the relative proportions of each
depend on the luminance of the visual field in view.

Mounting height Distance between the working plane and the plane of the luminaire.

Nightscape strategy A coordinated strategic plan for the night-time lighting of an urban area. This
would include a description of the lighting in various areas, such as traffic routes,
residential areas, ‘gateways’, etc.

Obtrusive light That light which is projected in any combination of upward and outward path
beyond the boundaries of the site or object being illuminated, and by reason of
that projected light’s direction, magnitude, duration and presence is contrary to
the general environment and those interests of life and livelihood.

Rated lamp life (ave) The lamp operating hours at the period of 50% failures for a batch of lamps.

Rated luminous flux (of a type of The value of the initial luminous flux of a given type of lamp declared by the
lamp) manufacturer or the responsible vendor, the lamp being operated under specified
conditions.

Unit: lumens (lm)

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 Glossary 91

Note 1: For most lamps, in reference conditions the lamp is usually operating at
am ambient temperature of 25 °C in air, freely suspended in a defined burning
position and with a reference ballast, but see the relevant IEC standard for the
particular lamp.

Note 2: The initial luminous flux is the luminous flux of a lamp after a short
ageing period as specified in the relevant lamp standard.

Note 3: The rated luminous flux is sometimes marked on the lamp.

Reflectance (r) Ratio of luminous flux reflected from a surface to the luminous flux incident on it.

Note: The reflectance generally depends on the spectral distribution and

polarisation of the incident light, the surface finish and the geometry of the
incident and reflected light relative to the surface.

Response time Time required for the change of detector output to reach, after a step variation of
a steady detector input, a given final percentage of its final value.

Safety lighting That part of emergency escape lighting that provides illumination for the safety
of people involved in a potentially dangerous process or situation and to enable
proper shut down procedures for the safety of the operator and other occupants
of the premises (known as ‘high-risk task area lighting’ in BS 5266-7/EN 1838).

Semi-cylindrical illuminance (at Total luminous flux falling on the curved surface of a very small semi-cylinder
a point) (Esz) located at the specified point, divided by the curved surface area of the semi-
cylinder. The axis of the semi-cylinder is taken to be vertical unless stated
otherwise. The direction of the curved surface should be specified.

Unit: lux (lx)

Spacing (in an installation) Distance between the light centres of adjacent luminaires of the installation.

Spacing-to-height ratio Ratio of spacing to the height of the geometric centres of the luminaires above
the reference plane.

Note: For indoor lighting the reference plane is usually the horizontal working
plane; for exterior lighting the reference plane is usually the ground.

Spherical illuminance (at a point) Total luminous flux falling onto the whole surface of a very small sphere located
(Eo) at the specified point divided by the total surface area of the sphere.

Unit: lux (lx)

Technically defined: Quantity defined by the formula

Eo = #4rsr L dX
where dX is the solid angle of each elementary beam passing through the given
point; and L is its luminance at that point.

Spill light This is light falling outside the area which it is designed to illuminate.

S/P ratio The ratio of the luminous output of a light source, evaluated according to the CIE
scotopic spectral luminous efficiency function, to the luminous output evaluated
according to the CIE photopic spectral luminous efficiency function.

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Standby lighting That part of the emergency lighting which may be provided to enable normal
activities to continue.

Stroboscopic effect Apparent change of motion and/or appearance of a moving object when the object
is illuminated by a light of varying intensity.

Note: To obtain apparent immobilisation or constant change of movement, it is

necessary that both the object movement and the light intensity variation are
periodic and that some specific relation between the object movement and light
variation frequencies exists. The effect is only observable if the amplitude of the
light variation is above certain limits. The motion of the object may be rotational
or translational.

Urban sky glow The brightening of the night sky over inhabited areas.

Upward light output ratio (of a Ratio of the upward flux of the luminaire, measured under specified practical
luminaire) conditions with its own lamps and equipment, to the sum of the individual
luminous fluxes of the same lamps when operated outside the luminaire with the
same equipment, under specified conditions.

Uniformity ratio (of illuminance Ratio of the minimum illuminance to the average illuminance on the plane.
on a given plane)

Utilisation factor Ratio of the luminous flux received by the reference surface to the sum of the
rated lamp luminous fluxes of the lamps in the installation.

Veiling reflections Specular reflections that appear on the object viewed and partially or wholly
obscure details by reducing contrast.

Visual acuity Capacity for seeing distinctly fine details that have a very small angular subtense
at the eye.

Note: Quantitatively, it can be expressed by the reciprocal of the angle, in minutes

of arc, subtended at the entrance pupil by the extremities of the detail separation
which is just visible.

Technically defined: Qualitatively – capacity for seeing distinctly fine details

that have very small angular separation. Quantitatively – any of a number of
measures of spatial discrimination such as the reciprocal of the value of the
angular separation in minutes of arc of two neighbouring objects (points or lines
or other specified stimuli) which the observer can just perceive to be separate.

Visor See baffle.

Visual field Area or extent of physical space visible to an eye at a given position and direction
of view.

Note: The visual field may be either monocular or binocular.

Visual performance Performance of the visual system as measured for instance by the speed and
accuracy with which a visual task is performed.

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 References 93

References Note that legislation and guidance is constantly being updated and reference
should be made to the latest issue of these documents.

Legislation relevant Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005

to lighting Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2015

Directive 2005/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council (Energy-

using Products Directive)

Directive 2009/125/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council (Ecodesign

Directive)

Environmental Protection Act 1990

Equality Act 2010

British Standards Available from British Standards Institution: http://shop.bsigroup.com

BS 5489-1:2013 Code of practice for the design of road lighting

BS 5266-1:2011 Emergency lighting. Code of practice for the emergency escape lighting
of premises

BS 7671:2008 Requirements for electrical Installations. IET Wiring Regulations

BS 8300:2009 Design of buildings and their approaches to meet the needs of disabled
people. Code of practice

BS EN 12464-2:2014 Light and lighting. Lighting of work places. Outdoor work places

BS EN 12899-1:2007 Fixed, vertical road traffic signs. Fixed signs

BS EN 13201-2:2003 Road lighting. Performance requirements

BS EN 55015:2006 Limits and methods of measurement of radio disturbance characteristics

of electrical lighting and similar equipment

BS EN 60068-2-68:1996, IEC 60068-2-68:1994 Environmental testing. Test methods.

Test L. Dust and sand

BS EN 60068-2-75:2014 Environmental testing. Tests. Test Eh: Hammer tests

BS EN 60529:1992+A2:2013 Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP code)

BS EN 60598-1:2015 Luminaires. General requirements and tests

BS EN 61547:2009 Equipment for general lighting purposes. EMC immunity requirements

BS EN 62262:2002 Degrees of protection provided by enclosures for electrical equipment

against external mechanical impacts (IK code)

BS EN ISO 9227:2012 Corrosion tests in artificial atmospheres. Salt spray tests

Other standards LM-79-08 IES Approved Method: Electrical and photometric measurements of solid-
state lighting products (Illuminating Engineering Society: New York)

LM-80-15 IES Approved Method: Measuring luminous flux and color maintenance of
LED packages, arrays and modules (Illuminating Engineering Society: New York)

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 94 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

RP-8-14 Roadway lighting (American National Standards Institute and

Illuminating Engineering Society: New York)

IEC 62262:2002 Degrees of protection provided by enclosures for electrical equipment

against external mechanical impacts (IK code) (International Electrotechnical
Commission: Geneva)

IEC 62717:2014 LED modules for general lighting - Performance requirements

(International Electrotechnical Commission: Geneva)

IEC 62722-1:2014 Luminaire performance – Part 1: General requirements

(International Electrotechnical Commission: Geneva)

IEC 62722-2-1:2014 Luminaire performance – Part 2-1: Particular requirements for

LED luminaires (International Electrotechnical Commission: Geneva)

CIBSE Publications Available from CIBSE: www.cibse.org

CIBSE (2000) Technical Memorandum 25 (TM25): Understanding building

integrated photovoltaics (CIBSE: London)

CIBSE (2010) Knowledge Series 15 (KS15): Capturing solar energy (CIBSE:

London)

SLL (2012) SLL Code for Lighting (CIBSE: London)

SLL (2011) Lighting FactFile 7: Design and assessment of exterior lighting schemes
(CIBSE: London)

SLL (2012) Guide to Limiting Obtrusive Light (CIBSE: London)

SLL (2012) Lighting Guide 1: The industrial environment (CIBSE: London)

SLL (2006) Lighting Guide 4: Sports lighting (CIBSE: London)

SLL (2015) Lighting Guide 12: Emergency lighting (CIBSE: London)

SLL (forthcoming) Lighting Guide 14: Transport lighting (CIBSE: London)

Other publications ASSIST (Alliance for Solid-State Illumination Systems and Technologies) (www.
lrc.edu. ASSIST was established by the Lighting Research Center (LRC)

Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) (2014) Secured by Design series

Bat Conservation Trust and Institution of Lighting Engineers (2000) Bats and
lighting in the UK (Bats and the Built Environment Series)

Building Services Research and Information Association (www.bsria.co.uk)

CIE (1997) CIE 126-1997 Guidelines for minimising sky glow (CIE: Vienna)

CIE (2003) CIE 150-2003 Guide on the limitation of the effects of obtrusive light from
outdoor lighting installations (CIE: Vienna)

CIE (2003) CIE 154-2003 The maintenance of outdoor lighting systems (CIE: Vienna)

DEFRA (2006) Statutory nuisance from insects and artificial light

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 References 95

Gardner, C. (2014) Lighting landscapes: A guide to implementing successful lighting

within the public realm (Institution of Lighting Professionals: Rugby)

Health and Safety Executive (1997) HSG38: Lighting at work (HSE Books:
Sudbury)

Illuminating Engineering Society (2011) TM-21-11: Projecting long term lumen

maintenance of LED light sources (IES: New York)

Institution of Lighting Professionals (1998) TR23: Lighting of cycle tracks (ILP:

Rugby)

Institution of Lighting Professionals (1999) GP05: Appraising the use of remote

monitoring and switching technology in street lighting services (ILP: Rugby)

Institution of Lighting Professionals (2011) GN01: Guidance notes for the reduction
of obtrusive light (ILP: Rugby)

Institution of Lighting Professionals (2013) PLG04: Guidance on undertaking

environmental lighting impact assessments (ILP: Rugby)

Institution of Lighting Professionals (2015) PLG05: The brightness of illuminated

advertisements (ILP: Rugby)

International Dark-Sky Association (www.darksky.org)

Landscape Institute (2013) Guidelines for Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment
(GLVIA3) (Landscape Institute: London)

Lighting Industry Association (2009) Lamp guide (LIA: Telford)

Lighting Industry Association (2013) Technical Statement 24 (TS24): SP ratios

and mesopic vision (LIA: Telford)

Lighting Industry Liaison Group (2012) A guide to the specification of LED lighting
products

Lighting Research and Technology Journal (LR&T) (Sage Publications)

Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (2011) Artificial light in the

environment (TSO: London)

Usable Buildings Trust (www.usablebuildings.co.uk)

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 96 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

Index circannual rhythm 81

circulation routes 3
drive-over uplights 62
dust protection 57–58, 60
see also pedestrian routes; road
Note: page numbers in italics refer to lighting ecological impacts 79–83
figures; page numbers in bold refer to client brief 13–15 efficiency see energy consumption;
tables close offset 24, 26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 85 luminous efficacy
cold environments 60–61 electromagnetic compatibility
accessibility 8, 15, 71 colour 4, 8, 22, 33, 39, 63 (EMC) 56
adaptation level 36, 38, 71, 84 colour appearance see correlated emergency lighting 66, 67, 69, 72, 86
AGi32 54 colour temperatures (CCT) energy consumption
aiming angles 10–12, 29, 84 colour mixing 46 luminaire utilisation factor 59
amenity lighting 12–15 colour rendering 4, 35, 37, 64, 65, 85 media facades 47–48
amphibians 82 colour temperature 85 off-grid systems 56
animation 49 see also correlated colour see also luminous efficacy
anti-slip coatings 61 temperatures (CCT) energy saving 66–67
architectural lighting 21, 24–27, 33 columned arcades 27 environmental impact assessments
area lighting 9–12 compact fluorescent lamps 65, 66 (EIA) 7–8
see also public open areas; security condensation 61, 75 Environmental Protection Act 1990 8
lighting conservation areas 23 environmental zones 6, 9
Areas of Outstanding Natural Construction (Design and Equality Act 2010 8, 71
Beauty 6 Management) Regulations escape lighting 66, 86
2015 73 see also emergency lighting
baffles 84 contemporary buildings 31–32 existing lighting schemes 15
see also louvres contrast 4, 85 extreme conditions 59–61
ballast 84 facade lighting 22, 25, 27, 34
basis of design (BoD) 13 media facades 44 facade lighting 20–35
bats 81–82 steps and stairs 71, 72 colour 33
batteries 55–56 control gear 55, 67 design considerations 21–23,
beam angle 77, 84 control systems 46–47, 66–67, 71 34–35
beam factor (BF) 77 see also dimming facade characteristics 24–27
biological impacts 79–83 correlated colour temperatures heritage lighting 32–33
birds 80 (CCT) 55, 65, 85 and mesopic vision 39
bollards 12, 15, 37, 59 crime prevention 37, 59, 67–69 modern buildings 31–32
brightness 6, 84 see also security lighting stained glass 29–30
see also illuminance levels; cycleways 68–69 streaming 39–49
luminance cylindrical illuminance 85–86 techniques 23–24
British Standards (BS) 94 windows 27–29
BS 5266-1:2011 72 dark adaptation see adaptation level feasibility 13
BS 5489-1:2013 37, 38, 39, 67, 69, Dark Sky Parks 6, 86 fences 36
71 data transfer protocols 46–47 fireflies 83
BS 8300:2009 8 depth to height ratio (D/H) 10–12, 86 flags 68
BS EN 12464-2:2014 8, 15, 71, 74 design appraisal 19 flicker 86
BS EN 12899-1: 2007 49 design briefs 13–15, 17–18 see also frame rates for signs;
BS EN 13201-2:2003 38 design drivers 13–14 moving images
BS EN 55015:2006 56 design presentation 50–54 floodlights
BS EN 60068-2-68:1996 60 design process 16–20 dimming ballasts 67
BS EN 60068-2-75:2014 58, 76 D/H ratio 10–12, 86 flat glass types 61
BS EN 60529:1992 74, 76 DIALux 52, 53, 54 layout and mounting height
BS EN 60598-1:2015 56, 74 diffused lighting 86 10–12
BS EN 61000 56 digital advertising signs 49–50 photometric calculations 77–78
BS EN 61547:2009 56 dimming 66 relamping 57, 62
BS EN 62262:2002 58 advertising signs 49 spacing 12
building sites 8, 9 ballasts 67 see also area lighting; facade
building-mounted luminaires 7, 9, 37 media facades 44 lighting
pedestrian routes 69 fluorescent lamps 45, 64, 65
cables 67 road lighting 67 restrike time 64, 66
car parks 8, 9, 10–11, 39, 71 security lighting 36 temperature characteristics 61, 63
CCTV 9, 37, 69 directional lighting 16, 24, 86 fountains 70
central management systems (CMS) disability glare 15, 36, 71, 86 frame rates for signs 44
66–67, 85 disabled access 8, 15, 71
CDM Regulations 73 discomfort glare 71, 86 gateway features 3
changes of level 70–73 diversity ratio 86 general lighting 86
circadian rhythms 80 drawings 50, 51 glare 10, 36, 62, 86

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 Index 97

see also disability glare, LEDs (light emitting diodes) 1, 45, 62 weather protection 57–58
discomfort glare architectural lighting 31 see also lighting columns
glare control 15, 36, 62, 71 characteristics 64, 65 luminance 88–89
glass surfaces 15, 61–62 directionality 62 advertising signs 49
glazing 28 efficiency and distribution 62–63 environmental zones 6
ground-mounted luminaires see lamp life 64, 65, 66 media facades 43–44
in-ground luminaires lamp replacement 46, 64–65 various sources 43
guidance 9 luminous efficacy 64, 65, 65 luminous contrast see contrast
replaceable modules and drivers luminous efficacy 64, 65, 65, 89
handrail luminaires 63, 72 63, 65 luminous flux 89–90
health and safety 73–74 temperature characteristics 60, luminous intensity 87–88, 90
disability glare 15, 36, 71, 86 61, 63
in-ground luminaires 15, 61–62 legislation 8–9, 23, 94 mains-borne control systems 67
maintenance tasks 75 light adaptation see adaptation level maintained illuminance 74, 90
moving images 49 light emitting diodes see LEDs (light maintenance 5, 57, 63, 73–75
heritage buildings 23 emitting diodes) maintenance access 9, 35, 46
heritage lighting 32–33 light nuisance 8, 88 maintenance factor 74, 90
high-pressure sodium lamps 64, 65, light output ratio (LOR) 59, 88 mammals 80
79 light pollution see obtrusive light; marine environments 60
historic sites 32–33 spill light masterplans 2, 15
hot environments 59–60 light sources 62–66 media architecture 39–41
hot surfaces 15, 61–62 characteristics 64, 65 media facades 40–49
choosing 63–65, 74 control systems 46
illuminance 87 efficiency and distribution 62–63 data transfer protocols 46–47
illuminance gradient 87 lamp spectra 79 energy and environmental
illuminance levels 15 low UV content 81 aspects 47–48
public open areas 15 media facades 45 light sources 45–46
steps and stairs 73 off-grid systems 55 product typologies and selection
subways 69 see also entries under lamp; LEDs 48–49
illuminance uniformity 73, 87 (light emitting diodes) mesopic vision 37, 38–39, 43, 90
illumination 87 lighting columns 5 metal halide lamps 56, 64, 65
impact assessment 7 environmental impact 7 colour consistency 74
see also risk assessment layout and mounting height lamp life 64, 65, 65–66
impact protection (IK) ratings 35, 76 10–12, 69, 81–82 reflectors (PAR lamps) 64
induction lamps 64 spacing 12 metal housings 60
industrial estates 37 lighting control see control systems modelling 52, 53
in-fill lighting 25, 26, 87 lighting hierarchy 4, 16 moisture protection 57–58, 60
ingress protection (IP) ratings lighting masterplans 2, 15 monuments 15, 33
57–58, 76 lighting palette 4 mounting height 10–12, 69, 81–82, 90
in-ground luminaires 15, 58–59, Lighting Reality PRO 54 moving images 44, 49
61–62, 68, 87 lighting visual impact assessment
initial illuminance 87 (LVIA) 7 nightscape strategy 2, 4, 16, 90
insects 81, 82 listed buildings 32–33 nocturnal mammals 80
integrated lighting 5, 18 louvres 50, 61, 68, 71 nodes of activity 4
invertebrates 82 low-pressure sodium lamps 56, 64,
isolux diagrams 78, 88 67, 79 obtrusive light 7–8, 8, 79, 88, 90
luminaires 56–62, 89 see also spill light
key performance indicators building-mounted 7, 9 off-grid systems 54–56
(KPIs) 15 cleaning 57, 74–75 open spaces see area lighting
kickabout areas 10 dust and moisture protection operational costs 56
57–58, 76 organic light emitting diodes
lamp cleaning 57, 74–75 efficiency and distribution 59 (OLEDs) 64
lamp cleaning interval 5, 88 for extreme conditions 59–61 outdoor workplaces 8, 9
lamp life 64, 65, 65–66 impact protection 35, 58, 76
lamp lumen maintenance factor in-ground 15, 58–59, 61–62, 68 PAR lamps 64
(LLMF) 74, 88, 90 integrated lighting 5 passive infrared (PIR) sensors 36
lamp replacement 5, 46, 57, 62, maintenance 74–75 pavers see in-ground luminaires
64–65, 74–75 mechanical considerations 57–59 pedestrian areas 12–15
lamp survival factor 74, 88 multiple distribution options 53 pedestrian routes 3, 68–69
lamps see light sources; luminaires steps and stairs 71–72 performance briefs 17–18
landmarks 3–4 testing 57–58 perimeter fences 36
landscape lighting 15–20 underwater 70 photocells 67
LED matrix systems 44, 45–46, 47, 48 vandal-resistant 35–36, 58–59 photometric calculations 52, 77–78

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 98 Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment

photopic vision 38, 43 Soft Landings 75 towers 33

Photoshop 50, 51, 53 software traffic signs 49
photovoltaics (PV) 54–55 design calculations and transport lighting 9
pixel mapping 46 modelling 52–54 tubular fluorescent lamps 65, 66
pixel pitch 45 presentation 50, 51, 52 tungsten halogen lamps 65
plasma screens 45 S/P ratio 37, 39, 63, 91
plastics 57, 59 spacing-to-height ratio (SHR) ultraviolet radiation 59, 74, 79, 81
plaza steps 72–73 12, 91 underwater luminaires 70
polycarbonate 58, 59, 74 spectral distribution 63 uniformity ratio 71, 92
pools 70 spherical illuminance 91–92 uplights, in-ground see in-ground
porticoes 27 spill light 7–8, 79, 91 luminaires
presence detectors 36 advertising signs 50 upward light output ratio (ULOR)
property ownership 13 avoidance 37, 61, 81 50, 92
public open areas 12–15 floodlights 12, 37, 61 urban screens 40
PV (photovoltaics) 54–55 media facades 48 urban sky glow 92
see also obtrusive light see also sky luminance
radio control systems 66–67 spires 33
ramps 71 sports lighting 9, 61 vandal-resistant luminaires 35–36,
rated lamp life 64, 65, 65–66, 90 spotlights 57, 68, 70 58–59
rated luminous flux 90 stained glass 29–30 vehicular routes 3
Ray-Trace 53 stair-edge lighting 72 see also road lighting
reflectance 35, 91 stairs 70–73 veiling reflections 92
Relux 54 stakeholders 13, 15, 16 video walls 39–49
reptiles 82 standards 94–95 viewpoints 4, 21–22
residential lighting 37, 67 see also British Standards (BS) vision, human 38–39, 43
response time 91 standby lighting 92 visors 84
restrike time 64, 66 see also emergency lighting vistas 4, 15
risk assessment 16, 38, 60, 72, 73–74 standby power 56 visual acuity 92
road lighting 37–38, 67, 74 statues 15, 68 visual clutter 6–7
run-up time 64, 66 statutory nuisance 8, 88 visual field 92
steps 70–73 visual hierarchy 4, 16
safety lighting 92 storage yards 8, 9 visual impact assessment (VIA) 7
see also emergency lighting streaming onto facades 39–49 visual markers 3–4
saturated coloured light 4 street furniture 5, 6–7, 15 visual performance 92
scheduled monuments 33 see also lighting columns visualisation 50–52, 53
scotopic vision 38, 43 streetlighting see road lighting
Secured by Design (SBD) 9 stroboscopic effect 92 wall-mounted luminaires 37, 59
security lighting 9, 35–37 subways 68–69, 71 waste light factor (WLF) 78
see also vandal-resistant luminaires surveys 16–17 water features 70
semi-cylindrical illuminance 91 swimming pools 70 weather protection 57–58
simulation 52, 53 SWOT analysis 14 wildlife impacts 79–83
sketches 50, 51 windows 27–29
SketchUp 52, 53 temperature characteristics 59–61 wind-powered luminaires 54–55
sky luminance 7, 79 third party schemes 15
see also spill light 3D modelling 52, 53

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