Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

3. Introductions
A straight line is the shortest distance between two points. Hence, the projections of a
straight line may be drawn by joining the respective projections of its ends which are
points. The position of a straight line may also be described with respect to the two
reference planes. It may be:
1. Parallel to one or both the planes.
2. Contained by one or both the planes.
3. Perpendicular to one of the planes.
4. Inclined to one plane and parallel to the other.
5. Inclined to both the planes.
6. Projections of lines inclined to both the planes.
7. Line contained by a plane perpendicular to both the reference planes.
8 Traces of a line.
3.1. Line parallel to one or both the planes

Figure l-1

(a) Line AB is parallel to the H.P.

a and b are the top views of the ends A and B respectively. It can be clearly seen
that the figure ABba is a rectangle. Hence, the top view ab is equal to AB. a'b' is the
front view of AB and is parallel to xy.
(b) Line CD is parallel to the V.P.

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

The line c'd' is the front view and is equal to CD; the top view cd is parallel to xy.
(c) Line EF is parallel to the H.P. and the V.P.
ef is the top view and e'f' is the front view; both are equal to EF and parallel to xy.
Hence, when a line is parallel to a plane, its projection on that plane is equal to its true
length; while its projection on the other plane is parallel to the reference line.
3.2 line Contained by one or both the planes

Figure l-2
Line AB is in the H.P. Its top view ab is equal to AB; its front view a' b' is in xy.
Line CD is in the V.P. Its front view c'd' is equal to CO; its top view cd is in xy.
Line EF is in both the planes. Its front view e' f' and the top view ef coincide with
each other in xy.
Hence, when a line is contained by a plane, its projection on that plane is equal to
its true length; while its projection on the other plane is in the reference line.
3.3 Line perpendicular to one of the planes.
When a line is perpendicular to one reference plane, it will be parallel to the other.
(a) Line AB is perpendicular to the H.P. The top views of its ends coincide in the
point a. Hence, the top view of the line AB is the point a. Its front view a' b' is
equal to AB and perpendicular to xy.
(b) Line CD is perpendicular to the V.P. The point d' is its front view and the line cd
is the top view. cd is equal to CD and perpendicular to xy. Hence, when a line is
perpendicular to a plane its projection on that plane is a point; while its projection

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

on the other plane is a line equal to its true length and perpendicular to the
reference line.

Figure l-3
In first-angle projection method, when top views of two or more points coincide, the
point which is comparatively farther away from xy in the front view will be visible;
and when their front views coincide, that which is farther away from xy in the top
view will be visible.
In third-angle projection method, it is just the reverse. When top views of two or
more points coincide the point which is comparatively nearer xy in the front view will
be visible; and when their front views coincide, the point which is nearer xy in the
top view will be visible.
3.4 Line inclined to one plane and parallel to the other.
The inclination of a line to a plane is the angle which the line makes with its
projection on that plane.
(a) Line PQ1 [fig. l-4(i)] is inclined at an angle θ to the H.P. and is parallel to the
V.P. The inclination is shown by the angle θ which PQ1 makes with its own
projection on the H.P., viz. the top view pq1. The projections [fig. l-4 (ii)] may be
drawn by first assuming the line to be parallel to both the H.P. and the V.P. Its
front view p'q' and the top view pq will both be parallel to xy and equal to the true
length. When the line is turned about the end P to the position PQ1 so that it makes
the angle θ with the H.P. while remaining parallel to the V.P. In the front view the
point q' will move along an arc drawn with p' as centre and p'q' as radius to a
point q'1 so that p'q'1 makes the angle θ with xy. In the top view, q will move
towards p along pq to a point q1 on the projector through q'1. p'q'1 and pq1 are the
front view and the top view respectively of the line PQ1.

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

Figure l-4
(b) Line RS1 [fig. l-5(i)] is inclined at an angle Ø to the V.P. and is parallel to the
H.P. The inclination is shown by the angle Ø which R51 makes with its projection on
the V.P., viz. the front view r's'1 . Assuming the line to beparallel to both the H.P.
and the V.P., its projections r's' and rs are drawn parallel to xy and equal to its
true length [fig. l-5 (ii)].

Figure l-5
When the line is turned about its end R to the position RS1 so that it makes the
angle Ø with the V.P. while remaining parallel to the H.P., inthe top view the point
s will move along an arc drawn with r as centre and rs as radius to a point s1 so
that rs1 makes the angle Ø with xy. In the front view, the point s' will move towards
r' along the line r's' to a point s'1 on the projector through s1. rs1 and r's'1 are the
projections of the line RS1.
Therefore, when the line is inclined to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P., its top view
is shorter than its true length, but parallel to xy; its front view is equal to its true
length and is inclined to xy at its true inclination with the H.P. And when the line is

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inclined to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P., its front view is shorter than its true
length but parallel to xy; its top view is equal to its true length and is inclined to xy
at its true inclination with the V.P.
Hence, when a line is inclined to one plane and parallel to the other, its projection
on the plane to which it is inclined, is a line shorter than its true length but parallel
to the reference line. Its projection on the plane to which it is parallel, is a line
equal to its true length and inclined to the reference line at its true inclination.
In other words, the inclination of a line with the H.P. is seen in the front view and
that with the V.P. is seen in the top view.
Problem l-1. (fig. l-6): A line PQ, 90 mm long, is in the H.P. and makes an angle of
30° with the V.P. Its end P is 25 mm in front of the V.P. Draw its projections.

Figure l-6
Problem l-2 . (fig. l-7): The length of the top view of a line parallel to the V.P. and
inclined at 45° to the H.P. is 50 mm. One end of the line is 12 mm above the H.P.
and 25 mm in front of the V.P. Draw the projections of the line and determine its
true length.

Figure l-7

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

Problem l-3. (fig. l-8): The front view of a 75 mm long line measures 55 mm. The line
is parallel to the H.P. and one of its ends is in the V.P. and 25 mm above the H.P.
Draw the projections of the line and determine its inclination with the V.P.

Figure l-8
3.5 Line inclined to both the planes.
(a) A line AB (fig. l-9) is inclined at θ to the H.P. and is parallel to the V.P. The
end A is in the H.P. AB is shown as the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle,
making the angle θ with the base.

Figure l-9
The top view ab is shorter than AB and parallel to xy. The front view a'b' is equal
to AB and makes the angle θ with xy. Keeping the end A fixed and the angle 0 with
the H.P. constant, if the end B is moved to any position, say B1, the line becomes
inclined to the V.P. also. In the top view, b will move along an arc, drawn with a as
centre and ab as radius, to a position b1. The new top view ab1 is equal to ab but

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shorter than AB. In the front view, b' will move to a point b'1 keeping its distance
from xy constant and equal to b'o; i.e. it will move along the line pq, drawn through
b' and parallel to xy. This line pq is the locus or path of the end B in the front
view. b'1 will lie on the projector through b1 . The new front view a'b'1 is shorter than
a'b' (i.e. AB) and makes an angle a with xy. α is greater than θ.
Thus, it can be seen that as long as the inclination θ of AB with the H.P. is constant,
even when it is inclined to the V.P.
(i) its length in the top view, viz. ab remains constant; and
(ii) the distance between the paths of its ends in the front view, viz. b’o remains
constant.

Figure l-10
(b) The same line AB (fig. l-10) is inclined at 0 to the V.P. and is parallel to the
H.P. Its end A is in the V.P. AB is shown as the hypotenuse of a right-angled
triangle making the angle Ø with the base.
The front view a'b'2 is shorter than AB and parallel to xy. The top view ab2 is equal
to AB and makes an angle 0 with xy. Keeping the end A fixed and the angle Ø with
the V.P. constant, if B is moved to any position, say B3, the line will become
inclined to the H.P. also. In the front view, b'2, will move along the arc, drawn with
a' as centre and a'b'2 as radius, to a position b'3. The new front view a'b'3 is equal
to a'b'2 but is shorter than AB.
In the top view, b2 will move to a point b3 along the line rs, drawn through b2

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

and parallel to xy, thus keeping its distance from the path of a, viz. b2o constant. rs
is the locus or path of the end B in the top view. The point b3 lies on the projector
through b'3. The new top view ab3 is shorter than ab2 (i.e. AB) and makes an angle
β with xy. β is greater than Ø. Here also we find that, as long as the inclination of
AB with the V.P. does not change, even when it becomes inclined to the H.P.
(i) its length in the front view, viz. a'b'2 remains constant; and
(ii) the distance between the paths of its ends in the top view, viz.b2o remains
constant.
Hence, when a line is inclined to both the planes, its projections are shorter
than the twe length and inclined to xy at angles greater than the true inclinations.
These angles viz. α and β are called apparent angles of inclination.
3.6. Projections of lines inclined to both the planes.
From Art. 3-5(a) above, we find that as long as the inclination of AB with the
H.P. is constant
(i) its length in the top view, viz. ab remains constant, and
(ii) in the front view, the distance between the loci of its ends, viz. b'o remains
constant.
In other words if
(i) its length in the top view is equal to ab, and
(ii) the distance between the paths of its ends in the front view is equal to b'o,
the inclination of AB with the H.P. will be equal to θ.
Similarly, from Art. 3-5(b) above, we find that as long as the inclination of
AB with the V.P. is constant
(i) its length in the front view, viz. a'b'2 remains constant, and
(ii) in the top view, the distance between the loci of its ends, viz. b2o remains
constant.
The reverse of this is also true, viz.
(i) if its length in the front view is equal to a'b'2, and
(ii) the distance between the paths of its ends in the top view is equal to b2o, the
inclination of AB with the V.P. will be equal to Ø.
Combining the above two findings, we conclude that when AB is inclined at e
to the H.P. and at Ø to the V.P.
(i) its lengths in the top view and the front view will be equal to ab2 and a'b'2

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respectively, and
(ii) the distances between the paths of its ends in the front view and the top view
will be equal to b'2o and b2o respectively.
The two lengths when arranged with their ends in their respective paths and
in projections with each other will be the projections of the line AB, as illustrated
in problem l-4.
Problem l-4. Given the line AB, its inclinations θ with the H.P. and Ø with the V.P.
and the position of one end A. To draw its projections.

Figure l-11
Mark the front view a' and the top view a according to the given position of A (fig. l-12).
Let us first determine the lengths of AB in the top view and the front view and
the paths of its ends in the front view and the top view.
(1) Assume AB to be parallel to the V.P. and inclined at θ to the H.P. AB is shown in
the pictorial view as a side of the trapezoid ABba [fig. l-11(i)]. Draw the front view a'b'
equal to AB [fig. l-12(i)] and inclined at θ to xy. Project the top view ab parallel to xy.
Through a' and b', draw lines cd and pq respectively parallel to xy. ab is the length
of AB in the top view and, cd and pq are the paths of A and B respectively in
the front view.

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(2) Again, assume AB1 (equal to AB) to be parallel to the H.P. and inclined at Ø to
the V.P. In the pictorial view[fig. l-11 (ii)], AB1 is shown as aside of the trapezoid
AB1b'1a'. Draw the top view ab1 equal to AB[fig. l-12 (ii)] and inclined at θ to
xy. Project the front view a'b'1 parallel to xy. Through a and b1, draw lines ef and rs
respectively parallel to xy. a'b'1 is the length of AB in the front view and, ef and rs
are the paths of A and B respectively in the top view.

Figure l-12
We may now arrange
(i) ab (the length in the top view) between its paths ef and rs, and
(ii) a'b'1 (the length in the front view) between the paths cd and pq, keeping them in
projection with each other, in one of the following two ways:
(a) In case (1) [fig. l-11 (i)], if the side Bb is turned about Aa, so that b comes on
the path rs, the line AB will become inclined at Ø to the V.P. Therefore, with a as
centre [fig. l-12(i)] and radius equal to ab, draw an arc cutting rs at a point b2.
Project b2 to b'2 on the path pq.
Draw lines joining a with b2, and a' with b'2 .ab2 and a'b'2 are the required
projections. Check that a'b'2 = a'b'1 .
(b) Similarly, in case (2) [fig. l-11 (ii)], if the side B1b'1is turned about Aa' till b1 ' is
on the path pq, the line AB1 will become inclined at θ to the H.P. Hence, with a' as
centre [fig. l-12 (ii)] and radius equal to a'b' 1, draw an arc cutting pq at a point b'

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

2. Project b'2 to b2 in the top view on the path rs.

Draw lines joining a with b2, and a' with b'2 . ab2 and a'b'2 are the required
projections. Check that ab2 = ab.
Fig. l-13 shows (in pictorial and orthographic views) the projections obtained with
both the above steps combined in one figure and as described below.
First, determine
(i) the length ab in the top view and the path pq in the front view and
(ii) the length a'b'1

Figure l-13
in the front view and the path rs in the top view. Then, with a as centre and radius
equal to ab, draw an arc cutting rs at a point b2, With a' as centre and radius
equal to a'b' 1, draw an arc cutting pq at a point b'2. Draw lines joining a with b2
and a' with b'2 . ab2 and a'b'2 are the required projections. Check that b2and b'
2 lie on the same projector.
It is quite evident from the figure that the apparent angles of inclination a and ~
are greater than the true inclinations α and Ø respectively.
3.7 Line contained by a plane perpendicular to both the reference
planes.
As the two reference planes are at right angles to each other, the sum total of the
inclinations of a line with the two planes, viz. Ø and θ can never be more than

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

90°. When Ø + θ = 90°, the line will be contained by a third plane called the
profile plane, perpendicular to both the H.P. and the V.P.

Figure l-14
A line EF (fig. l-14), is inclined at θ to the H.P. and at Ø [equal to (90° - θ)] to the
V.P. The line is thus contained by the profile plane marked P.P. The front view e’f’ and the
top view ef are both perpendicular to xy and shorter than ff. Therefore, when a line is
inclined to both the reference planes and contained by a plane perpendicular to them,
i.e. when the sum of its inclinations with the H.P. and the V.P. is 90°, its projections
are perpendicular to xy and shorter than the true length.
3.8. Traces of a line.
When a line is inclined to a plane, it will meet that plane, produced if necessary.
The point in which the line or line-produced meets the plane is called its trace.
The point of intersection of the line with the H.P. is called the horizontal trace,
usually denoted as H.T. and that with the V.P. is called the vertical trace or V.T.
Refer to fig. l-15
(i) A line AB is parallel to the H.P. and the V.P. It has no trace.
(ii) A line CD is inclined to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P. It has only the
H.T. but no V.T.
(iii) A line ef is inclined to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P. It has only the
V.T. but no H.T.

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Thus, when a line is parallel to a plane it has no trace upon that plane Refer to fig.
l-16.

Figure l-15 Figure l-16

(i) A line PQ is perpendicular to the H.P. Its H.T. coincides with its top view
which is a point. It has no V.T.
(ii) A line RS is perpendicular to the V.P. Its V.T. coincides with its front view
which is a point. It has no H.T.
Hence, when a line is perpendicular to a plane, its trace on that plane coincides
with its projection on that plane. It has no trace on the other plane. Refer to fig. l-17

Figure 1.17
(i) A line AB has its end A in the H.P. and the end B in the V.P. Its H.T. coincides
with a the top view of A and the V.T. coincides with b' the front view of B.

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

(ii) A line CD has its end C in both the H.P. and the V.P. Its H.T. and V.T.
coincide with c and c' (the projections of C) in xy.
Hence, when a line has an end in a plane, its trace upon that plane coincides
with the projection of that end on that plane..
Problem l-4(l-18 ): A line AB 50 mm long, has its end A in both the H..P. and the
V.P. It is inclined at 30° to the H.P. and at 45° to the V.P. Draw its projections.

Figure l-18
Problem l-5. (fig. l-19): A fine PQ 100 mm long, is inclined at 30° to the H.P. and at
45° to the V.P. Its mid-point is in the V.P. and 20 mm above the H.P. Draw its
projections, if its end P is in the third quadrant and Q in the first quadrant.

Figure l-20
Problem l-6 (fig. l-20): The top view of a 75 mm long line AB measures 65 mm, while
the length of its front view is 50 mm. It’s one end A is in the H.P. and 12 mm in front

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

of the V.P. Draw the projections of AB and determine its inclinations with the H.P.
and the V.P.

Figure l-21

Problem l-6 (fig. l-22): A line AB, 65 mm long, has its end A 20 mm above the H.P.
and 25 mm in front of the V.P. The end B is 40 mm above the H.P. and 65 mm in
front of the V.P. Draw the projections of AB and show its inclinations with the H.P. and
the V.P.

Figure l-22

Problem l-7. (fig. l-23): The projectors of the ends of a line AB are 50 mm apart. The end
A is 20 mm above the H.P. and 30 mm in front of the V.P. The end B is 70 mm

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

below the H.P. and 40 mm behind the V.P. Determine the true length and traces of
AB, and its inclinations with the two planes.

Figure l-23
Problem l-8. (fig. l-24): A line AB, 90 mm long, is inclined at 45° to the H.P. and
its top view makes an angle of 60° with the V.P. The end A is in the H.P and 12
mm in front of the V.P. Draw its front view and find its true inclination with the V.P.

Figure l-24

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

Problem l-9 (fig. l-25,): Incomplete projections a line PQ, inclined at 30° to the H.P.
are given in fig. l-25(i). complete the projections and determine the true length of PQ
and its inclination with the V.P.

Figure l-25
Problem l-10 (fig. l-26): A line AB, 90 mm long is inclined at 30° to the H.P. Its end
A is 12 mm above the H.P. and 20 mm in front of the V.P. Its front view measures 65
mm. Draw the top view of AB and determine its inclination with the V.P.

Figure l-26
Problem l-11. (fig. l-27): A line AB, inclined at 40° to the V.P., has its ends 50 mm
and 20 mm above the H.P. The length of its front view is 65 mm and its V.T. is rn

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mm above the H.P. Determine the true length of AB, its inclination with the H.P. and
its H. T.

Figure l-27

Problem l-12. (fig. l-27): The front view a'b' and the H.T. of a line AB, inclined at 23° to
the H.P. are given in fig. l-27(i). Determine the true length of AB, its inclination with
the V.P. and its V. T

Figure l-27

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Exercise on projection of line

1. A line AB, 75 mm long, is inclined at 45° to the H.P. and 30° to the V.P.
Its end B is in the H.P. and 40 mm in front of the V.P. Draw its projections
and determine its traces.
2. Draw the projections of a line AB, 90 mm long, its mid-point M being 50 mm
above the H.P. and 40 mm in front of the V.P. The end A is 20 mm above the
H.P. and 10 mm in front of the V.P. Show the traces and the inclinations of
the line with the H.P. and the V.P.
3. The front view of a 125 mm long line PQ measures 75 mm and its top view
measures 100 mm. Its end Q and the mid-point M are in the first quadrant, M
being 20 mm from both the planes. Draw the projections of the line PQ.
4. A line AB, 75 mm long is in the second quadrant with the end A in the H.P.
and the end B in the V.P. The line is inclined at 30° to the H.P. and at 45° to
the V.P. Draw the projections of AB and determine its traces.
5. The end A of a line AB is in the H.P. and 25 mm behind the V.P. The end B
is in the V.P. and 50 mm above the H.P. The distance between the end
projectors is 75 mm. Draw the projections of AB and determine its true length,
traces and inclinations with the two planes.
6. The top view of a 75 mm long line CD measures 50 mm. C is 50 mm in
front of the V.P. and 15 mm below the H.P. D is 15 mm in front of the V.P.
and is above the H.P. Draw the front view of CO and find its inclinations
with the H.P. and the V.P. Show also its traces.
7. A line PQ, 100 mm long, is inclined at 45° to the H.P. and at 30° to the
V.P. Its end P is in the second quadrant and Q is in the fourth quadrant. A
point R on PQ, 40 mm from P is in both the planes. Draw the projections of
PQ.
8. A line AB, 65 mm long, has its end A in the H.P. and 15 mm in front of the
V.P. The end B is in the third quadrant. The line is inclined at 30° to the
H.P. and at 60° to the V.P. Draw its projections.

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

Projections of planes
1. Introduction of Projections of planes
Plane figures or surfaces have only two dimensions, viz. length and breadth. They do not
have thickness. A plane figure may be assumed to be contained by a plane and its
projections can be drawn, if the position of that plane with respect to the principal
planes of projection is known.
In this unit, we shall discuss the following topics:
1. Types of planes and their projections.
2. Traces of planes.
2. Types of planes
Planes may be divided into two main types:
(1) Perpendicular planes.
(2) Oblique planes.
(1) Perpendicular planes: These planes can be divided into the following sub-types:
(i) Perpendicular to both the reference planes.
(ii) Perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the other.
(iii) Perpendicular to one plane and inclined to the other.

(i) Perpendicular to both the reference planes. (fig. pl-1 ): A square ABCD both the
planes. Its H.T. and V.T. are in a straight line is perpendicular to perpendicular to
xy. The front view b'c' and the top view ab of the square are both lines coinciding with the
V.T. and the H.T. respectively.

Figure pl-1

(ii) perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the other plane:

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(a) Plane, perpendicular to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P. [fig. Pl-2(i)]. A triangle
PQR is perpendicular to the H.P. and is parallel to the V.P. It’s H.T. is parallel to
xy. It has no V.T. The front view p'q'r' shows the exact shape and size of the triangle.
The top view pqr is a line parallel to xy. It coincides with the H.T.
(b) Plane, perpendicular to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P. [fig. pl-2(ii)]. A square
ABCD is perpendicular to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P. Its V.T. is parallel to xy.
It has no H.T.
The top view abed shows the true shape and true size of the square. The front view
a'b' is a line, parallel to xy. It coincides with the V.T.

Figure pl-2

(ii) perpendicular to one to one and inclined to the other plane:

(a) Plane, perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined to the V.P. (fig. pl-3). A square
ABCD is perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined at an angle 0 tothe V.P. Its
V.T. is perpendicular to xy. Its H.T. is inclined at 0 to xy. Its top view ab is a
line !inclined at 0 to xy. The front view a'b'c'd' is smaller than ABCD.

Figure pl-3

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

(b) Plane, perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined to the H.P. (fig. pl-4). A square
ABCD is perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined at an angle e to the H.P. Its
H.T. is perpendicular to xy. Its V.T. makes the angle e with xy. Its front view
a'b' is a line inclined at e to xy. The top view abed is a rectangle which is
smaller than the square ABCD.

Figure pl-4

Figure pl-5
Fig. pl-5 shows the projections and the traces of all these perpendicular planes
by third-angle projection method.
(2) Planes which are inclined to both the reference planes are called oblique
planes.
3. Traces of planes
A plane, extended if necessary, will meet the reference planes in lines, unless it is
parallel to any one of them.

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

These lines are called the traces of the plane. The line in which the plane meets
the H.P. is called the horizontal trace or the H.T. of the plane. The line in which
it meets the V.P. is called its vertical trace or the V.T. A plane is usually represented
by its traces.
4. Projections of planes parallel one of the reference planes.
(1) When the plane is parallel to H.P.: The top view should be drawn first and the
front view projected from it.
Problem pl-1. (fig. pl-6): An equilateral triangle of 50 mm side has its V.T. parallel
to and 25 rnm above xy. It has no H. T. Draw its projections when one of iis sides is
inclined at 45° to the V.P.

Figure pl-6
(2) When the plane is parallel to the V.P.: Beginning should be made with the front
view and the top view projected from it.
Problem pl-2. (fig. pl-7): A square ABCD of 40 mm side has a corner on the H.P.
and 20 mm in front of the V.P. All the sides of the square are equally inclined to the
H.P. and parallel to the V.P. Draw its projections and show its traces.

Figure pl-7

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

5. Projections of planes inclined to one reference planes and perpendicular

other planes.
When a plane is inclined to a reference plane, its projections may be obtained in
two stages. In the initial stage, the plane is assumed to be parallel to that reference
plane to which it has to be made inclined. It is then tilted to the required inclination
in the second stage.
(1) Plane inclined to H.P. and parallel to the V.P.: When the plane is inclined to the
H.P. and perpendicular to the V.P., in the initial stage, it is assumed to be parallel
to the H.P. Its top view will show the true shape. The front view will be a line parallel
to xy. The plane is then tilted so that it is inclined to the H.P. The new front view
will be inclined to xy at the true inclination. In the top view the corners will move
along their respective paths (parallel to xy).

Problem pl-3. (fig. pl-8): A regular pentagon of 25 mm side has one side on the
ground. Its plane is inclined at 45° to the H.P and perpendicular to the V.P.
Draw its projections and show its traces.

Figure pl-8
(2) Plane, inclined to the V.P. and perpendicular to the H.P.: In the initial stage,
the plane may be assumed to be parallel to the V.P. and then tilted to the required
position in the next stage. The projections are drawn as illustrated in the next problem.

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

Problem pl-3. (fig. pl-9): Draw the projections of a circle of 50 mm diameter having
its plane vertical and inclined at 30° to the V.P. Its center is 30 mm above the H.P.
and 20 mm in front of the V.P. Show also its traces.

Figure pl-9
Problem pl-4. (fig. pl-10): A square ABCO of 50 mm side has its corner A in the
H.P., its diagonal AC inclined at 30° to the H.P. and the diagonal BD inclined at
45° to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P. Draw its projections.

Figure pl-10
Problem pl-5. (fig. pl-11): A rectangular plane surface of size L x W is positioned in the
first quadrant and is inclined at an angle of 60° with the H.P. and 30° with the V.P.
Draw its projections

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

Figure pl-11
Problem pl-6. (fig. pl-12) Draw the projections of a regular hexagon of 25 mm side,
having one of its sides in the H.P. and inclined at 60° to the V.P.,and its surface
making an angle of 45° with the H.P.

Figure pl-12

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

Problem pl-7. (fig. pl-13) Draw the projections of a circle of 50 mm diameter resting in
the H.P. on a point A on the circumference, its plane inclined at 45° to the H.P. and
(a) the top view of the diameter AB making 30° angle with the V.P.;
(b) the diameter AB making 30° angle with the V. P.

Figure pl-13
Problem pl-8. (fig. pl-14) A thin 30°-60° set-square has its longest edge in the V.P.
and inclined at 30° to the H.P. Its surface makes an angle of 45° vvith the V.P.
Draw its projections.

Figure pl-14
Problem pl-9. (fig. pl-15) A thin rectangular plate of sides 60 mm x 30 mm has its
shorter side in the V.P. and inclined at 30° to the H.P. Project its top view if its
front view is a square of 30 mm long sides.

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

Figure pl-15
Problem pl-10. (fig. pl-16) A circular plate of negligible thickness and 50 mm diameter
appears as an ellipse in the front view, having its major axis 50 mm long and minor axis
30 mm long. Draw its top view when the major axis of the ellipse is horizontal.

Figure pl-16

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

Problem pl-10. (Fig. pl-17) shows a thin plate of negligible thickness. It rests on its PQ
edge with its plane perpendicular to V.P. and inclined 40° to the H.P. Draw its
projections.

Figure pl-17
Problem pl-11. (Fig. pl-18) A pentagonal plate of 45 mm side has a circular hole of 40
mm diameter in its center. The plane stands on one of its sides on the H.P. with its
plane perpendicular to V.P. and 45° inclined to the H.P. Draw the projections.

Figure pl-18

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

Problem pl-12. (fig. pl-19 ): A thin circular plate of 70 mm diameter is resting on its
circumference such that its plane is inclined 60° to the H.P. and 30° to the V.P. Draw
the projections of the plate.

Figure pl-19
Problem pl-13. (fig. pl-20 ): PQRS is a rhombus having diagonal PR = 60 mm and
QS = 40 mm and they are perpendicular to each other. The plane of the rhombus is
inclined with H.P. such that its top view appears to be square. The top view of PR
makes 30° with the V.P. Draw its projections and determine inclination of the plane
with the H.P.

Figure pl-20

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

Exercise on projection of line

1. Draw an equilateral triangle of 75 mm side and inscribe a circle in it. Draw
the projections of the figure, when its plane is vertical and inclined at 30° to
the V.P. and one of the sides of the triangle is inclined at 45° to the H.P.
2. A regular hexagon of 40 mm side has a corner in the H.P. Its surface is
inclined at 45° to the H.P. and the top view of the diagonal through the
corner which is in the H.P. makes an angle of 60° with the V.P. Draw its
projections.
3. Draw the projections of a regular pentagon of 40 mm side, having its surface
inclined at 30° to the H.P. and a side parallel to the H.P. and inclined at an
angle of 60° to the V.P.
4. Draw the projections of a rhombus having diagonals 125 mm and 50 mm long,
the smaller diagonal of which is parallel to both the principal planes, while
the other is inclined at 30° to the H.P.
5. Draw a regular hexagon of 40 mm side, with its two sides vertical. Draw a
circle of 40 mm diameter in its center. The figure represents a hexagonal plate
with a hole in it and having its surface parallel to the V.P. Draw its
projections when the surface is vertical and inclined at 30° to the V.P.
Assume the thickness of the plate to be equal to that of a line.
6. Draw the projections of a circle of 75 mm diameter having the end A of the
diameter AB in the H.P., the end B in the V.P., and the surface inclined at
30° to the H.P. and at 60° to the V.P.
7. A semi-circular plate of 80 mm diameter has its straight edge in the V.P. and
inclined at 45° to the H.P. The surface of the plate makes an angle of 30°
with the V.P. Draw its projections.
8. The top view of a plate, the surface of which is perpendicular to the V.P. and
inclined at 60° to the H.P. is a circle of 60 mm diameter. Draw its three
views.
9. A plate having shape of an isosceles triangle has base 50 mm long and
altitude 70 mm. It is so placed that in the front view it is seen as an
equilateral triangle of 50 mm sides and one side inclined at 45° to xy. Draw
its top view.
10. Draw a rhombus of diagonals 100 mm and 60 mm long, with the longer
diagonal horizontal. The figure is the top view of a square of 100 mm long

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Unit 3: Projections of Straight Lines and Planes and their Traces

diagonals, with a corner on the ground. Draw its front view and determine the
angle which its surface makes with the ground.
11. A composite plate of negligible thickness is made-up of a rectangle 60 mm x
40 mm, and a semi-circle on its longer side. Draw its projections when the
longer side is parallel to the H.P. and inclined at 45° to the V.P., the surface
of the plate making 30° angle with the H.P.
12. A 60° set-square of 125 mm longest side is so kept that the longest side is in
the H.P. making an angle of 30° with the V.P. and the set-square itself
inclined at 45° to the H.P. Draw the projections of the set-square.
13. A plane figure is composed of an equilateral triangle ABC and a semi-circle on
AC as diameter. The length of the side AB is 50 mm and is parallel to the
V.P. The corner B is 20 mm behind the V.P. and 15 mm below the H.P. The
plane of the figure is inclined at 45° to the H.P. Draw the projections of the
plane figure.
14. An equilateral triangle ABC having side length as 50 mm is suspended from
a point O on the side AB 15 mm from A in such a way that the plane of the
triangle makes an angle of 60° with the V.P. The point O is 20 mm below the
H.P. and 40 mm behind the V.P. Draw the projections of the triangle.
15. PQRS and ABCD are two square thin plates with their diagonals measuring 30
mm and 60 mm. They are touching the H.P. with their corners P and A
respectively, and touching each other with their corresponding opposite corners
R and C. If the plates are perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to
V.P. also, draw their projections and determine the length of their sides.

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