t h e f l S ~ e o 5 e > H o -

tribes and castes

B O M B A /" mi A

R. E. ENTHOVEN
Cm, 3nnton o f the. Order o f the Indian Empire., Commander of the Order o f Leopold I f ,
Indian Civil Service, Superintendent o f Ethnography, Bombay Preeideney

"d under the orders of the Government of Bombay

VOL UM E I I

BOMBAY
P RI NT E D AT T HE GOVERNMENT CE NT RAL TRESS
1922
lPrice— Rs. 6-1-0]
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TRIBES AND CASTES OF BOMBAY.

GHANCHIS or oilmen, from ghaut an oil-press, numbering 3*5,828 *;?“ « and

i901), including 21,220 males and 14,608 females, are found all o v e r ° llgU‘
utijar&fc, chiefly in large towns and villages. Though they have Rajput
tribal surnames, such asG ohil, Jhila, Padhiar, Parm&r, Solanki, etc.,
they claim descent from the Vanias of Modhera in North Gujarat, but
no evidence is forthcoming in favour of this claim. They appear to
be an occupational caste recruited from Vanias and Kanbis. members
of which castes are still admitted by the Ghanchis.

Ghanchis are fair, their women being strong and occasionally

handsome. E xcept that the clothes of those who deal in oil are dirty
and spotted with oil, in their dress Ghanchis closely resemble Vanias
and Kanbis.
Ghanchis have nine endogamous divisions of a territorial type. Divisions.

They are *—
1. Ahmedabadi. 4. Kambhati. 7. Patni.
2. Bharuchi. 5. Modh. 8. Sidhpuria.
3. Champdneri. 6. Pancholi. 9. Surti.
They all call themselves Modh Ghanchis, and were probably
originally one group. But. as usual in Gujarat, the Modh Ghanchis of
Sidhpur who settle in Surat become ‘ Sidhpuria ’ Modh Ghanchis and
intermarriage ceases in consequence. Of the above divisions. Modhs
and Sidhpurias rank highest, the other divisions eating food cooked by
them, while the former d o not eat food cooked by the other six.
None of the nine divisions intermarry.

Marriages are prohibited between near relations and within seven

degrees of relationship. Marriage with a wife’s sister is allowed after
the death of the wife. Marriage is generally infant. Polygamy is
permissible after making provision for the maintenance of the first, wife.
Polyandry is unknown. W idows are allowed to remarry. A widow may
marry a younger brother of her deceased husband, but never the elder,
fivorce, though rare, is allowed with the sanction of the caste punch.
Divorced wives are allowed to marry again by the widow remarriage
form.

Except that in South Gujarat the bridegroom goes to the bride’s Marriage
house hid in a flower veil and that the bride and bridegroom worship
j» a HQ®—l
fll|
v; Ghanchi] 2
*SL
Hanum&n immediately after they are mar ried, GMtrehi marriage cere­
monies do not differ from those performed b y Kanbis. The widow
remarriage ceremony is very simple. The widow and her new
intended husband are seated facing each other on two low wooden stools,
and the ends of their garments are tied into a knot by a priest who is an
Audich Brahman. Next, Ganpati is worshipped and a remarried widow
throws grains of rice over them and brings their heads into close contact,
thus completing the ceremony.
Religion, Ghanehis follow the Hindu Law of inheritance, sometimes excluding
daughters. They belong to many sects, Eabirpanthi, Raxndnandi,
Ramsuehi, Shaiva, Swarninardyan, Vallabhacharya, and worshippers of
Bwhucharaji. Their family goddess is at Modhera, where many go on
pilgrimage. They observe the regular Hindu fasts and feasts, believe
in exorcism, witchcraft and omens, and visit all popular places of Hindu
pilgrimage. Their priests are Brahmans.
They burn their dead except children under eighteen months old,
who are buried. Their birth and death ceremonies are similar to those
of Kanbis.
GM nelus mostly keep to their hereditary occupation of pressing
and selling sesame, cocoanut, castor and linseed oil. Some earn a living
by lending money, b y selling grain, fruit, vegetables and sweetmeats,
b y selling milk and clarified butter, by tillage, b y labour, and in Cutch
by making bam boo baskets.

Food. Except Modhs and Sidhpurias, they eat the flesh o f goats, sheep,
fowls and fish, and drink liquor. Socially they rank almost equal to
Sutdrs and calico-printers, though Goia-GM nchi is a com m on synonym
in Surat for low caste groups in contradistinction to the Brdkwan Vania
classes.
GHANTECHOR.—A sub-division of Koravas.
GHANTICHOR.— A synonym for Bhamta.
GHARDHERA.—A synonym for Bdbria.
GHATI.— A sub-division of Nkavis, Chambhars and Kumbk&rs ;
a local name applied in B om bay to all labourers from the Deccan
as distinguished from Konkani, and. in Gujardt to all domestic
servants from the Deccan.

GHATKAMBLE.— A sub-division of MaMrs.

GHATOLE.— A synonym for Nemddi B aris; a sub-division o f
Khdndesh Kunbis.
GHERMEHDI.—See under Minor Musalman castes.
 3 [Ghisadi

GHISADiS or tinkers, also called Bailne Kumbars or outside Name and

ironsmiths in Belgaum, numbering (1901) 3,255, including 1,640 or»8in-
males and 1,615 females, are found scattered in small numbers through­
out the Deccan, Konkan and the Karnatak. The name Ghisadi
seems to come from the Mar&thi ghisne, i.e., to rub. According
to their own story they are called after a certain Ghisadi who over­
came and killed a famous gymnast. They have no memory of any
earlier home, but their home tongue, which is a corrupt Gujarati
suggests that they were formerly settled in Gujarat. They now
wander from place to place during the fair weather, living in tem­
porary sheds called pals formed b y fixing two forked poles in the
ground, laying a third pole in the forks of the tw o uprights, and
stretching a cloth or large blanket ov§r the horizontal pole so as to
form a tent with sloping sides and open ends.
There are no endogamous divisions of the caste, nor do there Division«
appear to be any exogamous sub-divisions above families having
the same surname. The commonest surnames are Chavdn, Charvdse,
Katkar, Padvalk&r, Powar, Salunke, Selar, Shinde, Suryavanshi
and Khetri.
Marriages are prohibited within four degrees of relationship
on the b o y ’ s side and three degrees on the girl’s side. A member of
the caste can marry his father’s sister’s or mother’s brother’s daughter.
H e cannot marry his mother’ s sister’s daughter. A man may marry
two sisters, and two brothers may marry two sisters. Marriage
is infant as well as adult. Baby-girls are sometimes married by
tying the marriage garland to the cradle. W om en occasionally
remain unmarried till they are thirty. If a girl is guilty of sexual
indiscretions with a easteman, the latter is compelled to marry her,
and the parents of both the parties are either fined or made to give
a feast to the caste people. I f the offence is com mitted with a man
of a lower caste, the offender is turned out of the caste. Polygamy
is allowed and practised, but polyandry is unknown.
The offer of marriage is made b y the b oy ’s father, who has Marriage
to pay to the girl’ s father a sum known as dej, varying from Rs. 25 oe™'ieg
to Rs. 100. The betrothal takes place either a day or even a year or
two before the marriage, when the b oy’ s father presents the girl with
a robe and a bodice-cloth and feasts the caste people. On the day
before the marriage the devak or marriage guardian is installed at
the houses of both the parties. It consists of pdnchpdhi, i.e., leaves
of five kinds of trees, viz., mango, umbar (Ficus glomerata), jambhul
(Syzigium jambolanum), shami (Prosopis spieigera), and m i
I
fit Ghisadi]
|||p .j/
4
4
(Calotropis gigantea). The devak is placed on a dish with a dhdn* or
<SL
shovel and taken to the temple of M&ruti with music b y a band of
friends accompanied by two married couples, one from the bride’ s and
the other from the bridegroom’s house, whose skirts are tied together.
There the devak and M&ruti are worshipped, a betelnut and a pice are
placed before the image of the god, and the devak is brought back and
placed before the household gods until the ceremony is ended. The
family gods are worshipped, a goat is slain in their name and the caste
people are feasted. In Belgauin and Bijapur the custom of installing
the devak appears to have died o u t ; in its place a goundhal dance is
performed to propitiate the gods. The marriage ceremonies are
( 1 ) rubbing the bride and the bridegroom with oil, (2) halad or
applying turmeric paste to the boy and the girl, (3) dmdnt-pujan or
reception of the bridegroom by the bride’ s father at the village gate,
( 4) varadhawa or going of the bridegroom in procession to the girl’ s
house for the marriage, (5) hanyaddn or making a gift of the bride to
the bridegroom, ( 6) rukhawat or sending sweetmeats to the bridegroom
by the bride’ s father, ( 7) the marriage sacrifice, and ( 8) varat or taking
the bride to the bridegroom’s house in procession after the marriage
is over. The essential and binding portion consists in the bride and
the bridegroom walking round the sacrificial fire.
The re-marriage of widows is permitted. A widow cannot marry
her mother’s sister’s, father’s sister’s or maternal uncle’s son, or a
member of her late husband’s section. A widow’s marriage can be
celebrated on the dark nights of any month except Chaiira, Ashvin
and Bhddrapad. The ceremony consists in worshipping Ganpati and
Varuna, applying red powder to the widow’ s forehead., the filling of her
lap by a Brahman priest, and the mutual utterance of each other’ s
name by the couple. A bachelor is not allowed to marry a
widow. Divorce is not allowed. The caste follow the Hindu law
of inheritance.
Belipion Ghisadis are Hindus and chiefly belong to the Varkari and Kabir
sect. Their family deities are Bahiri, Balaji of Giri in the Madras
Presidency, Bhawani, Khandoba, Satv&i, Yamai, Kalamma, Ambabdi
and Yellamma, and they also worship the village gods and gods of the
boundary. The tulas or sweet basil plant, the banyan tree and utrAar
(Ficus glomerata), weapons, sacred books and account books are wor­
shipped. Offerings of goats and fowls are made to Khandoba on
Sundays and to JanSi or JokM i on Tuesdays, Fridays or Sundays.

* Before the passing of tl Arms Aot a sword was used in the place of a dhdn.

I
^•Z p ‘ "> v , ■ __

I t 1 ' 6 [Ghisadi
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#; When cholera or small-pox breaks out Mariai and Shitalndevi are
^ propitiated by offerings of goats and cooked food. GhisM is make
pilgrimages to Alandi, Dehu, Jejuri, Pandharpur and Tuljapur.
They observe all the Hindu holidays. They are great believers
in soothsaying and witchcraft. Their priests are the ordinary local
Brahmans.
The married dead are burnt, the unmarried being buried with Death,
head to the north. The ordinary funeral rites are observed ; but in
the case of violent death, if the corpse is not found, an image of
wheat flour is made in the name of the dead and the funeral rites
are performed over it. Tho ceremony of shrdddka is in use.
The principal occupation of the Ghisadis is working in iron.
They are wandering tinker.0, and make horse-shoes, iron spoons,
sickles, reaping hooks and other field tools including cart axles and
wheels. In the Belgaum district they are at times of assistance to
robbers, supplying them with spear-heads, and other weapons.
I..$
They eat goats, sheep, deer, hare, poultry and fish, .and drink Food,
f;. .f liquor.
GHODA.— A synonym for Gauda.
GHOGARI.—A sub-division of Brahmans and Dasa Deswal
Vanias.
GHOGATTUNYA.— A sub-division of Dhangars.
GHOGHVA.—A sub-division of Modh Vanias.
GHOSI.— A sub-division of Ahirs.
GIDBIDKI JOSHI.--:A synonym for Joshi.
GIJGE.— A sub-division of Holayas.
GIB ASIA.— A title applied to R ajpu t landlords.
GIRNARA.— A sub-division of Brahmans.
GOALBAN.— A sub-division of Ahirs.
GODE BHOI.— A sub-division of Bhois.
GODHWAL.— A sub-division of Brahmans.
GODMALVI.— A sub-division of Brahmans.
GODVAN.— A sub-division of Mahars.
GOJRA.— A sub-division of Meghvdls.
GOL —A synonym for Golla.
|| GOLA.— A synonym for Khavas. J| ^
 Gola]
M *4
6
/!» §L —A

Name .md GOLAS, also known as R inas or R ice pounders, numbering

origin. including 8 ,4 4 2 males and 8 ,7 2 5 females, are found all
1 6 ,1 6 7 ( 1 9 0 1 ) ,
over Gujarat and Kathiawar. According to their story, they were
originally Rajputs of Chitor in Mewar who called themselves slaves
or golas to protect themselves from the persecution of Parashurim.
In token of a R ajput strain the word Rana is always added to the
name G ola, and in some places the caste is known by the name Rana
only. The fact seems to be that they were domestic slaves of
R ajput families and are of mixed descent in consequence.

According to another story, when pursued by Parashurim, they

hid themselves in a temple of Mahadev. As they were long without
food, Parvati, Shiva’ s consort, took pity on them and brought them
earthen pots or goras filled with curds. In their hungry scramble, the
pots fell to the ground and were broken to pieces. After eating as
much of the curds as they could pick up, they went to Shiva to ask his
advice. To make some provision for the refugees, Shiva changed his
discus into a mill, his arrow's into pestles, his ash-balls into mortars,
his rosary beads into a sieve, and bis shield into a winnowing fan.
He then ordered them to make their living by pounding rice.
According to this story, Gola is a corruption of gora an earthen pot.
Clearly the tradition is a mere play on words.

Divisions. The Golas are variously described as belonging to the Kashyap or

Vijasani gotra. They are named after the places in which they reside,
s.g., Dabboia (those residing in Dabhoi), Vadodaria (those living in
Baroda), Padaria, K ham biti, Bharucbi, Surti, Jambusaria, etc.
The tribal surnames are as follow s:—
Agasia Jadhav Sitpuria
Andharia Katakia Solanki
Chavda Manhora Takoria
Chodkavala Nagaretha Tunvar
Chohan Panchshadia Vaghela
Daladia Bat Vighmar
Divadia Parmar V&rsadia
Gohil Pasia Vehirjia
Hirvania Samalia
Marriages are prohibited between persons bearing the same sur­
name, and within five to seven degrees of relationship. A Gola cannot Jf
marry a girl from a family to which a girl is given from his own.
Marriage with a father’ s sister’ s, mother’ s sister’ s or mother s bro­
ther’ s daughter is not allowed. Two brothers are allowed to marry
111 . W. <SL
two sisters, the younger sister being married to the younger brother.
Girls are married from five to seven, boys up to twelve. Polygamy .-
is allowed if the first wife has no issue, her children are short
lived, or she has some physical defect. Divorce is not allowed.
Marriage with a second wife can be effected after paying a penalty
of Rs. 1,000 to the castemen and after providing for the maintenance
of the first wife. If a wife becomes deformed at a very early age, the
penalty is only Rs. 100. Polyandry is unknown.

Marriage negotiations are commenced b y the girl’s father through Marriage

the family priest. Betrothals take place sometimes immediately, °ere-
and sometimes years, before marriage. A betrothal is seldom broken. m “ ea'
The dowry settled on the girl varies from Rs. 25 to Rs. 100 according
to the means of the b oy ’s parents. It is paid in the form of ornaments
and articles of dress. The bridegroom’s parents are not allowed to
receive a dowry. If they are discovered receiving it secretly, they
are forced by the castemen to pay it back to the parents of the bride,
and in addition to pay a fine of Rs. 51 to the caste. Except that they
are less detailed, the marriage ceremonies of Golds do not differ from
those performed by Kanbis.
Widow remarriage is allowed. The levirate is permitted, but is
not compulsory. The permission of the caste panch is required for
the marriage of a widow, which is obtained after the payment of a
fine of Rs. 25. In some places, the fine ranges from Rs. 4-4-0 to
Rs. 8-4-0. A widow remarriage can be celebrated on a Sunday,
Tuesday or Thursday after night-fall. It cannot take place on a new-
moon day or the day previous. The ceremony takes place at the
widow’ s father’s house in the verandah or courtyard. The bride
and bridegroom are seated on low wooden stools, and an image of
Ganpati made of wheat flour is worshipped, a Brahman priest officiat­
ing. A flower garland is put on the wrist of the bride and on the
neck of the bridegroom. A bunch of flowers is fixed in the bride­
groom’s turban, and a marriage garland made of red thread is worn
by both. Next, a wheat flour lamp with seven wicks fed with ghi
is lighted and the couple are made to bow to the lamp. The priest
then puts the lamp in an earthen p ot and covers it with a sieve.
Until this is done, nobody is allowed to be present at the ceremony,
as it is a belief that if an unwidowed woman were to see the lamp
she would become a widow. Next, five, seven or nine unwidowed
women, one by one, daub the brows of the bride and bridegroom with
red powder and throw grains of rice over their heads, which concludes
the ceremony. On the day following, the bridegroom returns to his
 house with his bride after nightfall. Should a bachelor desire to
marry a widow, he is first married to a shrimi bush. Divorce is not
allowed. The caste follow the Hindu law of inheritance.
Religion. The Golds were originally Shaivas, their chief god being Mahadev.
They are now Bijpanthis, Kabirpanthis, Rdmanandis, Shaivas,
Svaminardyans, Satrams, and Udasis. In Kaira, like Matia Kanbis,
they belong to the Pordna sect. Except the Poraua Golas, who wor­
ship their saints’ tombs and a heap of flowers, they respect all Hindu
gods, but keep no idols in their houses. The minor deity specially
worshipped is the goddess Khodiar mata■ They believe in witchcraft,
exorcism, the regular Hindu omens and the influence of the evil eye.
They are careful to observe the regular Hindu fasts and feasts.
During the whole of the adhilca or intercalary month, bands of as
many as fifty men and boys go to the river to bathe every morning,
singing hymns and songs. They have their religious heads who
occasionally visit them, and are paid about a rupee by each family.
The animals they worship are the cow on Sankrdnt day and the donkey
on New Year’s day. A redpowder mark is made on the donkey's
forehead, a flower wreath is thrown round its neck, and a cocoanut
is offered to it and the kernel distributed to caste-people. They
visit the ordinary places of Hindu pilgrimage. Their priests are
chiefly Audich, Rayakval, Mev&da and Shrimali Brahmans. They
do not wear the sacred thread, but at the time of performing death
ceremonies, some hang a cotton thread across their shoulders.
Death The dead are burnt. Children under eighteen months old are
monies, buried. The death ceremonies are of the standard type. The caste-
men are feasted for one to four days. The shr&ddha and mdh&laya
are performed for the propitiation of the deceased. If a person
meets a violent death and the corpse is n ot found, an idol is made in
his name and burnt with the same details as in the ease of ordinary
death.
The Gola is held in little respect; a slovenly Vania is called a
Gola in contempt. The Golds and Ghdnchis are the first on the lower
3ide of the boundary line between high and low caste Hindus.
Though Golds rank among the first of lower class Hindus, a certain
contempt attaches to them, partly owing to their unskilled profession,
their love of drink and their poverty, and partly owing to their
fondness for riding donkeys. In Central Gujarat, a Gola ordinarily
rides on a d on k ey ; and in South Gujarat, on the lioli festival he
is specially hired and grotesquely dressed and paraded on a donkey’s
back, with the beating of drums.

*
|lfi) D
' %|
[Golla k *
Though some profess to be vegetarians, even scrupling to eat Food
snake gourds, pumpkins and carrots, the Golds eat, besides coarse
food-grains, fish, fowl and the flesh of the goat, deer, hare and antelope.
They drink liquor to excess.
GOLAK.— A sub-division of Brdhmans.
GOLALARE.—A synonym for Alkari.
GOLLA.— A sub-division of Gavlis.
GOLLAS or Gols, also known as Gopdls in the Belgaum district, Name aw
are a tribe o f wandering cowherds and medicine-sellers. A t the Census oriRin-
of 1901 they numbered approximately 7,214 including 3,629 males and
3,585 females. The largest number was recorded in Dharwdr, and they
were also found in small numbers in Belgaum, Bijapur, Kanara, the
Southern Mardtha Country and Ratnagiri. The Golla cowherds and the
Golla medicine-sellers, though originally one and the same tribe, are now
tw o distinct communities, the former being found only in Kanara. They
are described below separately. The original home of the tribe appears |
to be Telangan, and most of them speak Telugu at home. It is said that
about a hundred years ago during a great famine in Telangan, many o f ||
the tribe migrated northwards in search of food, some of them taking to 12
3
the profession o f administering medicines, and thus forming a separate I
caste. A t the Census of 1901 the Gollds numbered 855,221 in Madras,
281,714 in Hyderabad, and 143,249 in Mysore. All Gollds claim Krishna
as a casteman, which suggests their connection with the Gollds and
Gaulis of the north ; and it is possible that, in their wanderings, some of
the northern Gollds may have settled in the south. There is now, how­
ever, nothing in common between the northern Gollds and Gaulis and
the southern Gollds except their ,occupation and the similarity between
their names.

The Gollds who are medicine-sellers appear to be recruited from Endo

many castes such as Mardthds, Vaidus, etc. ' In Dharwdr and Belgaum
they have com e under the influence of Lingayatiam. They have six mS'°
endogamous divisions, which neither eat together nor intermarry.
They are as follows :—

1. A dvi or Telugu Gollds. 4. Kenguri Gollas.

2. Hanam Gollds or Bhingis. 5. Pdknak Gollds.
3. Krishna Gollds or Yadavs. 6. Shastra Gollas.

Of these the Advi Gollds are most numerous. The Pakndk Gollas
have a tradition that they were brought into the Badami sub-division
of Bijapur from the Advani or Adoni country as shepherds when that
n a 1109—2
 GolaJ 10 *SL
sub-division was thinly populated. The Kenguri Gollas rear white
sheep and are found mostly in the Nizam’s territory.
Exo- The Gollas o f the Dharwar district have five exogamous divisions as
f amous c 11
ivisions. follows :

1. A m bir Vandlu. 4. Galla Vandlu.

2. B indu Vandlu. 5. Gobbar Vandlu.
| 3. Chesru Vandlu.
j; •.
The exogamous divisions o f the Bijapur Gollas are identical with
surnames. They are More, Pavar, Shinde and Y adav. These surnames
and the fact that their ceremonies and customs also are like those of
Mar&tMs suggest that there is a strong infusion o f Maratha blood among
the Gollds of Bijdpur. Marriage is infant as well as adult. Polygamy,
w idow marriage and divorce are allowed and practised but polyandry
is unknown. The Golla women of Dharwar are said very rarely to commit
adultery, and even for adultery a man may n ot divorce his wife. If
a woman is taken in adultery, a hole about tw o feet deep is dug in the
ground, and the adulteress is m ade to stand in the hole. Thorns are
j?' spread round the edge of the hole, and the woman is made to sit on the
thorns with her feet in the hole, as if on a chair. A grindstone is set on
her head, and she is made to drink three small teaspoonfuls o f cowdung
m ixed with water. The people o f the caste lecture h e r ; .she is considered
| to be purified, and her husband continues to live with her.
'Marriage The marriage and other ceremonies of the Bijapur Gollas are the
Inonios same as t*10se of Marathas. The only difference is that the bride’s father
gets Es. 26 as th e price of his daughter and in return gives four feasts.
f| The marriage ceremonies of the Dharwar Gollas are as fo llo w s:—
When a marriage is settled, a shed with twelve posts is built in front
o f the bride’s h u t and twelve earthen pots filled with water are kept
a t the posts, worshipped, and allowed to remain there five days. On
f| th e first day friends and relations are feasted on animal food in honour
o f their gods. On the second d ay the bride and bridegroom are rubbed
with turmeric and bath ed; on the third day a feast of sweet cakes and
animal food is g iv e n ; and on the fourth day the maternal uncles of both
I the bride and bridegroom tie yellow wristlets or lcankans to th e couple’s
right wrists, their brows are marked with turmeric powder, and marriage
coronets of oleander or bangot leaves are fastened round their heads.
The bridegroom ties the lucky thread round the bride’s neck, betelnuts
and leaves are served to t he guests, and five married unwidowed women
sing songs and call with a loud voice Jai bhagiams, that is, m ay the bride
and bridegroom prosper. On the fifth day caste people are feasted on
S i\ /'■''I

) 11 r64 SL
flesh and liquor, and five married unwidowed women take the bride and
bridegroom into the bridal, chamber, from which time th ey live together
as husband and wife. W hen he sends the bride to her husband’s house,
her father presents his son-in-lawr with a dog. Should the bride after­
wards wish to visit her parents she is n ot allowed to go alone or even with
a member of the bridegroom’s family. The husband himself must g o
with her, stay for three days, and return with her. W hen a girl arrives
at puberty a branch of the lakki tree is fixed in the floor of one of the
rooms in the house, and the girl is made to sit under the branch for three
days, and on the fourth day she is bathed and is pure. No future
monthly sickness is held t o make a woman impure.
The Dh&rwdr Goll&s worship Hanuman, Hulgeva, and Yellamma. Religion,
On some Tuesday or Friday, at any tim e during the year, they wash
the images of TTarmnmn and Yellamma and burn incense before them.
To Hanuman they offer flowers, sandal paste, plantains and cocoanuts,
and to the goddess Y ellam m a they offer a goat which is partaken o f
by themselves. They have no spiritual teacher. Th ey believe in
sorcery, witchcraft and soothsaying. T h ey do not respect Brdhmans
or call them to their ceremonies. The Belgaum G o M s worship th e
ordinary Brdhman gods and have the greatest respect for Maruti,
whose image, along with those of V enkoba, Narsoba, and Y ellam m a
they keep in their houses. They respect Brahmans and call them to
their marriages. Both th e DMrw&r and Belgaum Gollds em ploy
Jangams to conduct the death ceremonies. The fam ily gods of th e
Bijdpur Gollas are V enkoba, Tulja-Bhawani, Margai, Yellamma o f
Saundatti in Parasgad, and Mira Saheb of Miraj. Th ey offer goats
to .Tulja-Bhawani and feast on the flesh. On Tuesdays and Fridays
in the m onth of Shravan they take on ly one meal in the evening.
They keep the leading H indu holidays. They worship village and
local deities, but profess n ot to believe in witchcraft or soothsaying.
They have n o priests, but th ey call Brahmans to con du ct their m am a* •
ges. The Hanarn Gollas are married b y a guru or religious teacher o f
their own caste. Their chief house g o d is Somnath. The religions
teacher o f the Krishna Gollas is also a m an of their ow n caste and is |
called Ushtum. Both he and a Brahman attend their marriages. j
Their great god is Krishna.

The Gollas of Dh&rwar and Belgaum bury their d e a d ; in other

places the dead are either burnt or buried. In Dharwdr, on the third
day after death, a Lingayat priest is called, his feet are washed, three
copper coins are placed on his right fo o t and two on his left, incense is
burnt before them, and a few drops of th e water in w hich the feet have

v' h»* SaSSJsl

R lla] 12

sn washed are sipped by the members of the fam ily. The priest
gives them white ashes, which they rub over their b od y and are purified.
§ The Gollas of the Belgaum district m ourn for five weeks, when they
% call a Jangam, who makes them pure b y ringing a bell and blowing
|i>s f a conch-shell.

ihvupa- The Gollas are hereditary medicine-sellers and beggars. Besides

on- drug-selling, they draw out guinea worms with a pin, and bleed with
the help of a copper cup. After the end of October, when the rainy
season is over, they spend about three months in th e woodlands and
wastes looking for roots, herbs, fruits, and bulbs. They carry these
herbs and other cures and oxydes of metals and minerals in two bags
formed b y tying together the four ends of a square ochre-coloured
cloth, and fastened one at each end o f a stick which they carry on
their shoulder. They hawk their drugs, calling as th ey go, £ A d octor
to cure w in d ; doctor to draw out guineaworm ’. T h ey cure liver and
spleen diseases by branding with a red-hot iron. Before prescribing
a medicine they go through the form o f feeling the pulse. In addition
to housework their women plait mats o f wild date ichalu (K.) shindi
(M.) leaves Phoenix sylvestris, and help the men when they are at
| work in the fields. ' « v

s’ood. T h ey eat the flesh of goats, sheep, the hare, dom estic fowls and
wild game, and drink liquor. They eat from Brahinans, Lingayats,
| Rajputs, MaratMs and Son&rs, but not from , ©hangars, Vaddas,
. Kolhatis, Koravas and Jingars.
K A N A R E S E GOLLAS, who are cowherds, are, according to
I Buchanan 1 partly of Telugu and partly of Karnatak descent. T h ey
are divided into Gollas proper, Hal-Gollas, Hav-Gollas, Kad-Gollas
Kemper-Gollas and Ur-Gollas, who neither eat together nor intermarry.
I Marriages are prohibited between persons of the same stock. Girls
are married between nine and twelve, and even after attaining puberty;
boys between fifteen and twenty. Polygam y and widow marriage
are allowed and practised. Their chief gods are Krishna, Shiva
j under the terrible form of Kalbhairav, and P&rvati. They worship
the ordinary Hindu gods and goddesses, offering b lood sacrifices to
mothers or female powers, and em ploying Shrivaishnav Brahmans
whom they greatly respect. They believe that after death good men
become gods, and bad men devils. They know nothing of the trans­
migration of the soul. Though none of them wear the linga, their
spiritual guide is a Lingayat and lives at Mapkali about fourteen

(1) Mysore, 1. 347; 11. 8.

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miles North of;W odda-B alldpur in Mysore. They b ury their dea<L
Their funeral and other ceremonies do n ot differ from those of the
Lingdyats. They were form erly noted for their honesty in carrying
Government treasure. They are now chiefly husbandmen and milk
and butter sellers. Th ey eat fish, fowls, sheep and deer and drink
.liquor. They rank next to the cultivating classes.
GOMBIADISO.— A sub-division of Kilikets.
GOMITRA.—-A sub-division of Brdhmans.
GOMTXWAL.— A sub-division of Brahmans.
GONDS, numbering 542 (1901), including 270 males and 272 j|
females, are chiefly found «*, Surat and Ndsik. Th ey are immigrants |
from the Central Provinces, where they are foun d in large numbers .n>
GONDHALIS, numbering 11,682 (1901), including 5,803 males and Name ui
5,819 females, are found all over the Presidency except Gujarat. ,,rig'u’
The largest number are found in the Kolaba, Sdtara, and Khdndesh
districts and in the Kolhapur State. They take their name from the
word gondhal meaning a confused dance. They are a class of religious
minstrels recruited from many castes, and, like the V&ghes and Murlis, a, *
are generally children offered to gods in fulfilment o f vows. They
state that the founders of their caste were the sage Jamadagui and
his spouse Renuka, and that they came into the Deccan tw o or three
hiundred years ago from Mahur and Tuljapur in the Nizam’s Territory,
which are their original places o f residence. They call themselves the
sons or devotees of the goddess Bhavani, and wear round their neck a
garland of yellow shells called the Bhavani cowris. Being the devotees
o f the goddess Bhavani they enjoy the same semi-sacred jwsition among
the lower class Hindus of the Deccan as the Brahmans enjoy among the
higher classes,
Tn the beginning o f the seventeenth century when the worship of
the goddess Am ba Blmv&ni of Tuljapur had spread far and wide in the
Deccan and when every Mar&tha house re-echoed her praises, the Gon-
dhalis were held in great esteem and their songs were much in favour.
I t was a time of religious and political activity. The people had suffered
much from the oppression of the Musalmans and were eagerly looking for
something divine to free them from the yoke of their foreign oppressors.
As the Hindu gods are supposed to be n ot so easily won b y prayers and
offerings as the goddesses and especially as the latter are supposed to
enjoy greater power for good or for evil in this age of K ali, the goddesses
were appealed to for help, and A m ba B havani o f Tuljapur was the fore-
most among them to respond readily t o th e prayers of her devotees.
G) Census of Iadia/TaiT, Vol. X; Fare!, page 218,~
• ;,^ G ^ id h a li] 14 .

She appeared to many ill dreams, helped others in their difficulties^and

\ showed hidden treasures t o a favoured few. B u t in the case of the
Gondhalis the goddess did m ore than that, She appeared in the b ody of
some one or other of the Gondhalis in their gondhal dances and enabled
them to foretell past and future events and to perform many other
miracles It was at this time that some of the great Maratha poets,
like W aman Pandit, Shridhar, and Ramdds, flourished. The writings of
these men, especially of W aman and Pinedas, though full of pious and
philosophical sentiments and free from vulgar and ungrammatical ex­
pressions, were read by very few and understood by a still smaller m ' Vr.
Such was n ot the case with the songs of % e Gondhalis. The jxnvddas
of the Gondhalis, being composed in a rude, simple, home language o f
of the Marathds, were understood b y the masses and admired. Conse­
quently, the sentiments the songs of the Gondhalis embodied did not fail
| to make a permanent impression on the mind of the audience. If,
| on the one hand, the religious and political writings and teachings of
the poet Ramdds, the spiritual guide of Shivdji, enlightened and enlivened
the minds o f the few who could read and write, and impressed them with
ideas of freedom and patriotism, on the other hand, the simple songs
of the Gondhalis tickled the fancy, gratified the pride, and roused the
patriotism of the unlettered mountaineers of the Western Ghats,-and
j£ made a deeper impression on their minds. In those days certain plays,
: called iamdshds and lalitus, were a favourite form of amusement
with the masses, and in these plays the Gondhalis played no unimportant
| part. The songs which the Gondhalis sang in.these plays, and which
related the exploits of the heroes of the Ramayana and Mahdbhdrata, or
the lights o f A m ba Bhavani, Malhdri, or other gods, with the rdhhasas, or
I1 demons, were attentively listened to by thousands, admired by hundreds,
and learnt by not a few. The Gondhalis used also to sing the praises
of the living, and he whose praises were sung by them, and in whose
name the danka, or sacred drum was beaten, was considered to be hig 1 y
honoured.
ulo- pijo Gondhalis are divided into eight endogamoua divisions, viz.,
SSSU(1) Brahman, (2) Dhaognr, (S) Maritha, (4) Kumbhar (5) Kadamrai,
( 6) Renukrai or Pichati, (7) Mali, (8) Akaramdse, who neither eat together
nor intermarry. All these divisions except the last perform the dance as
described below. The Brdhman Gondhalis perform the dance with a
bhaden or the lower half o f an earthen p ot filled with combustible
materials set on fire, corresponding to the dimti of the other Gondhal^-
Th e K adam rai and R enukrai Gondhalis maintain th at they are o
only hereditary G ondhalis, the other branches being mere musicians
I belonging t o other castes. Kadam rais are socially the superiors ot
the Renukrais. »
jjr: *
f(l)? m i
lo [Gondhah

Tho exogamous sub-divisions of the caste are identical with sur- Rxo- j
names. The surnames and names of males and females of the Maratha
Gondhalis are the same as among the Maratha Kunbis. The surnames
of the Kumbhar Gondhalis are Badge, Dhembe, Gangavan, Garud, i
Jugle, Jadhav, PancMngi, Thite, Yaid and Varade. Those of the
Renukrai and Kadamrai Gondhalis are Bekre, Bhandare, Dhamal
Dungu, G&ikwad, Ghatekar, Guradkar, Jadhav, Jagtap, Kale, KoiM t-
kar, Marathe, Malierkar, Palaskar, Renke, Shinde, Supalkar, Tarte,
Thite, Tipke, and Rble. In Dharw&r, they have the surnames Garod,
Gume, Panchungi, and Wugde. Persons bearing the same surname
cannot intermarry. Sameness of devah is also a bar to intermarriage.
The devaks of Gondhalis are the same as those of the M aratM s; but the
•panchpalvi or leaves of five trees, the mango, the shami (Prosopis
spicigera), the pcdas (Butea fxondosa), the umbar (Ficus glomerate),
and the rui (Calotropis gigantea) are the most common.

Marriages are also prohibited between persons between whom a

former connection cannot be traced. Girls are married before they
attain puberty, boys up to 20 or 25 years. If a man is well-to-do and
his children die in infancy, he marries his infant son, while in the cradle,
with a girl of similar age. Polygamy and widow remarriage are allowed
and practised, but polyandry is unknown. Divorce is allowed. A
divorced woman is not allowed to marry again during the life-time of
her husband. The caste follow the Hindu law of inheritance.

Gondhalis belong to the Hindu religion. They worship all Hindu Religion
gods and goddesses, but the chief objects of their worship a,re Bbavani
of Tuljapur, Arnbabai of Kolhapur, Yellamma of Belgaum, Renuka
of Mahurgad in the Nizam’s Territory, Jokhai of Kolhapur, Janai at
Karhad, Tukai at Kondanpur, Khandoba, and Auras or the river or
water nymphs. They make pilgrimages to the shrines of these deities.
They are their votaries and beg and perform the gondhd dance in
their name. They observe all the Hindu fasts and feasts and also
the Musalman Moharrum. The nine nights in Navaratra which
end in Lasara day is their biggest festival. On Tuesdays and Fridays
they eat only once, these days being sacred to their goddesses. B e­
cause their family goddess at Mahurgad sleeps on a cot, they do not
allow their women in child-bed to lie on a cot but on the ground.
‘ They have no spiritual teacher. Their priests are the local Brahmans.

They resemble the Maratha Kunbis in their ceremonies and cus- Marriage
toms. But in their marriage ceremony, in addition to the devak, venture. 1
they also tie to the chief post of the marriage booth a drum or sambal3

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a chavdk or one-stringed fiddle, a garland o f cowrie shells, and their

begging bag. v The cerem ony o f investing their boys with a garland of
sacred shells is peculiar to the caste. This ceremony is performed
when the b oy is about ten or tw elve years o f age. On a lucky day
relations and caste-m en are invited to dine. W h en they have
com e, the head-man o f the Gondhalis or some other elderly member
o f the caste spreads rice on a low wooden stool, puts a p o t filled with
water on it, tells the b oy’s father to p ut a rupee and a quarter or
other silver coins in the pot, and closes its m outh with mango leaves
and a cocoanut. H e then tells the b oy to worship the p ot (which
is supposed to represent A m ba B havani) with flowers, sandal-paste,
and incense. The Gondhali then ties a garland o f yellow shells round
the b o y ’s neck, and. repeats in his ear the name of the goddess Bhavani
and some other m ystic words. The guests are then feasted and the
cerem ony com es to an end.
TheGond Gondhalis make their living chiefly b y perform ing the gondhal
h.d dance. (jance_ They also beg in the name o f the goddess Bhavani, and sing
songs religious, historical, and amorous. A m ongst th e Marathas,
Shimpis, Sonars, Deshasth Brahmans, and some other castes of the
D eccan it is custom ary to perform a gondhal
dance on th e occasion o f a
thread-girding and marriage cerem ony. The dance m ay be briefly
described as follows-.
A few days before the cerem ony the Gondhalis are invited t o dine
and are sum ptuously fed. In the evening friends and relations are
invited to witness the dance. In the centre o f the hall, o n a low wooden
stool, the head o f the Gondhalis spreads a b odice-cloth and on it som e
handfulls of rice. On the rice is placed a p ot filled with water, and on
the m outh of the p o t are placed some m ango leaves. On the p o t is
placed a tray filled with rice, and in it a tdk
or im age of the goddess
B havani. The owner o f the house then worships th e im age w ith
sandal-paste, redlead, turm eric and flowers, burns incense before it,
offers it fruit and m oney, and then bows down before it. The head
o f the Gondhalis n ow stands in front of the goddess, and on his right
hand stands one o f his com rades holding a lighted torch in his hand.
Other com panions gf the head Gondhali stand behind him, one of
them playing on a double drum called sambal, another on a stringed
instrument called tuntune, and the third striking tw o metal cups
one against the other. The head Gondhali now worships the diva or
lighted torch with sandal-paste, turmeric, and flowers, and bows to
it, and says, “ 0 goddess B havani, of Tuljapur, com e t o witness the
gondhal dance. ” In this way he repeats the names o f several gods
lip 17 [Gopal
%L
and goddesses, and invites them to witness the performance. H e
then sings a song relating to the deeds of Bhavani, Malhari, Kama,
nr some other hero, walking to and fro, and his comrades play on their
instruments. After a few minutes he stops and explains to the audi­
ence the meaning of his song. H e again repeats another song, walks
to and fro again, and stops to explain the meaning. In this way he
continues his story till daybreak. After the narrative is over, the head
Gondhali, if desired by the audience, sings songs describing the exploits
of Shivaji, or some other Maratha hero, and if he be a clever man, he
amuses the audience b y singing some new ballads composed b y him­
self or some other Gondhali. Occasionally one of the Gondhalis
becomes possessed and pretends to foretell future events. A t about
daybreak a lighted lamp or camphor is waved round the goddess, the
divti or sacred torch is extinguished in milk or clarified butter, and
the ceremony comes to an end.
The dead are either burnt or buried.
In food they resemble the Maratha Kunbis. In the social scale Food,
they stand lower than the Marathas, who will not eat food cooked
by them.
GONDVAN.— A synonym for Godvan Mahar.
GONGADIKARS (also known as Gonigas), numbering 69 (1901),
including 62 males and 7 females, are found only in the Kanara
district. They are immigrants from Mysore and are cultivators b y
occupation.*1*
GONIGA.—A synonym for Gongadikar.
GOPAL,— A synonym for G olla; a sub-division of Mahars.
GOPALS are a wandering tribe of cattle owners, tumblers and Name and
beggars who appear to have originated in children offered to the gods, oriSin-
re-inf orced by refugees, from several castes. They have apparently
been recruited from Maratha Kunbis, Dhangars, Kasars, Sonars,
S&lis, Vanjaris, and even Mahars. The caste numbers (1901) 3,504
including 1,814 males and 1,690 females. Of these the greater number
(2,385) are found in Khandesh whence they wander in the fair season
with their cattle over the neighbouring district of Nasik and the
Ber&rs. It is admitted that they still accept recruits from the Kunbis.
The name Gopal is derived from go a cow and pal protector. Their
touch is impure, and they are socially degraded, some of them eating
flesh.

(1) Census of India, I9U, Vol, XXI, Fart I, j;. 167.

V a 1109—3
 | §L
F:'/p- ■

1
$ F ^ Gopal] 18

Endo- The endogamous divisions of the caste are :—

gam ous
divisions. Bhil. Maratha.
Gujar&ti. Vir.

The hulk of them appear to be Mar&tha Gopals. The Virs are

named after Virbhadra whom they worship.

Exo- The exogamous divisions are of special interest as they indicate

gamous sourCes of recruitment. The chief kids are :—
divisions.
1 Bhingal. 8 Gire. 15 Kakapath. 22 Pavar.
2 Chav4n. 9 Gurav. 16 K4nade. 23 Sali.
3 Dadiv. 10 Hanbar. 17 Kasar. 24 Sonar.
4 Dhangar. 11 Hatkar. 18 Koli. 25 Vanjari.
5 Dhogade. 12 Jadhav. 19 Lonare.
6 G4ikwad. 13 Jangam. 20 Magar.
7 Gajakos. 14 Kadam. 21 Nikam.
Marriages are prohibited between members o f the same kul.
Sameness of devak is no bar to intermarriage, the whole tribe having the
same devak, viz., the pdnchpdlvi. A member of the tribe cannot
marry his father’ s sister’s or m other’ s sister’s daughter. H e may
marry Ms mother’ s brother's daughter. A man may marry two sisters
and tw o brothers m ay marry tw o sisters. Polygam y is allowed and
practised, but polyandry is unknown.

B oys are generally married up to the age of twenty-five, girls before

they com e ox age. If a girl remains unmarried till after puberty, her
parents have to pay a fine of Rs. 15 to the tribesmen. If a girl com ­
mits sexual indiscretions before marriage, she is allowed to remain
in the tribe on her father’ s paying a fine or giving a dinner to the
tribesmen.

Marriage The offer of marriage comes from the boy’s father, who has to pay
cere- " a bride-price of from Its. 10 to Rs. 150 to the girl’s father. The day
mom**. fche marriage is fixed by a Brahman who conducts the service.
The marriage ceremonies ■of Gopals resemble those of the Kunbis.

The remarriage of widows is permitted. A widow cannot marry

her father’s sisters’ or mother’s sister’ s son or a member of her late
husband’s section. The widow’s intended husband has to pay a
fine of Rs. 10 to the tribesmen. A widow remarriage is celebrated
during the dark fortnight of any month. The ceremony consists in
pouring water on the feet of the couple and tying into a knot the
ends of theit garments. The faces of the remarried pair are not

%
/Q& ' ’ ' -

mm- (St
19 [Gopal k- J

seen for three days after the marriage. A feast is given to the tribes­
men on the fourth day after the marriage. Should a bachelor desire
to marry a widow, he is first married to a rui
bush (Calotropis gigantea).
The marriage tie is n ot a very binding link.
Di vorce is allowed with the sanction of the headmen of the tribe if
the husband and wife do not agree, the husband is impotent, or the
wife’s conduct is bad. The man who wants a divorce has to pay a
fine of Rs. 3-8 to the tribe. If a woman wants to marry another
man, she can obtain a divorce from her husband b y repaying the
marriage expenses incurred by him. A woman divorced on account
of adultery can remain in the tribe by paying a fine of Rs. 3-8 to the
tribesmen, and can remarry by the widow remarriage form. If
she repeats the offence, she is excommunicated. The Hindu law of
inheritance is followed.
Gop&ls belong to the Hindu religion. The special object of their Religion,
worship is Khandoba of Madhi in Gamthadi, where a fair is held on the
full-moon day of Magh, when the first flag is set up b y this tribe.
Their family deities are the Devi of Tuljapur in the Nizam’ s territory.
Khandoba of Jejuri in Poona, Mari&i and Mhasoba. Every family
among them offers a she-buffalo to Khandoba, calls her Jdni, rears her
with care, and does not load her or sell her milk and butter, but pre­
sents her to Brahmans. They worship all local gods and observe all
the Hindu holidays. The Musalm&n saints are venerated. When an
epidemic breaks out, goats and fowls are offered to Mari&i. They
believe in soothsaying, witchcraft and evil spirits. Their marriages
are conducted by Deshasth Brahmans, the other ceremonies b y
the caste elders.
The dead are buried in a sitting position with face to the east. Death.
The tribesmen are feasted on any day between the third and thir­
teenth and once at the end of the sixth month, and again at the end
of the year. For the propitiation of the deceased ancestors the Maha-
laya is performed either in the MaMlaya paJcsha or A ll Souls Fort­
night in Bhddrapad or during the Diwdli holidays.

The Gopals are reported to have once earned a living by weaving

mats. They are now cowherds, and some of them cultivate small
holdings. B ut the bulk of the tribe earn their living b y acrobatic
feats with bamboos and b y begging. Many are day labourers.

They eat flesh except beef and pork, and drink liquor. They have Food,
no objection to eat the leavings of the higher castes.
iK f Gudigar]
> 20 <SL
GOPALGANI.— A sub-division of Kolh&tis.
GOPAL KALI.—A synonym for Itangari Shimpi.
GORE.— A sub-division of Bene Israels.
GORE MARATHA.— A sub-division of Kumbhhrs.
GQRKHODIA.—See under Minor Musalman Castes.
GORWAL.— A synonym for Godhwal.
GOTRANG.— A sub-division of Holayas.
GOVALVAL.— A sub-division of V&ni&s.
GOVARDHAN.—A synonym for Golak.
GOYALVAL.— A synonym for Govalval.
Name and GUDIGARS or sandalwood carvers, also called Gaudchitrakas,
origin. numbering 359 (1901), including 154 males and 205 famales, are found
in small numbers in Sirsi, Siddapur, Hon&va.r, Ankola and Kumta lalukds
of the Kanara district. Twenty-three were returned in the Dharwar
district at the time of the 1901 census. They style themselves Chi-
t&rs or Chitrakas, the name given b y Manu to artisans, and claim to
be Kshatriyas. They came to Kanara from G oa after the establish­
ment of Portuguese rule, and have substituted Kanarese for Konkani
except on the coast, where Konkani is still spoken by them. They
claim to belong to the Kashyap, Kaundanya, Vasishtha, Vatsa,
Gautam and Bharadwaja gotras; but their claim is not admitted by
the Brahmans, who consider them Shudras.
Marriage Marriages are prohibited between members o f the same gotra.
core-. A member of the caste may marry his father’ s sister’ s or mother’ s
monies. brother’ s daughter. H e cannot marry his mother’ s sister’ s daughter.
A man may marry tw o sisters and two brothers m ay marry tw o sisters.
Polygam y is allowed and practised, but polyandry is unknown. Girls
are married between nine and twelve, boys between sixteen and
twenty.
B oys are girt with the sacred thread before marriage, which
consists of the following cerem onies:—

Vagnischaya or the settlement of the marriage. This takes place

in the presence of castemen, when sugar and betelnuts are distributed.
Simantpujan.— In this the bridegroom is received on the border of
the bride’ s village b y her father and presented with articles of dress.
Phule Khovane or decking the hair with flowers, is performed a
few days before the Simantpujan, In this the boy’ s mother goes
,/ V. ':
1^ % (CT
fi 1
21 [Gudigar CI.A_J
with some unwidowed women to the girl’ s house, presents her with an
ornament, decks her hair with flowers, and fills her lap to the
accompaniment o f music. The marriage service is conducted after
the fashion of Brahmans.
The essential portions are Phule Khovane and the Kanyadan.
The remarriage of widows is not permitted. A husband can divorce
a wife on the ground of her misconduct. A wom an who misconducts
herself is excommunicated.
The caste follow the Hindu law o f inherintance and belong to the Religion.
Hindu religion. Their family gods are Nagesh, Rauluath, Lakshmi-
Ndr&yan, Mhalsa, Sliantadurga, K dveri and Kamdkshi, whose shrmes
are in Goa. They worship all local and village gods and observe
all the H indu holidays. They make pilgrimages to Tirupati, Dliarmas-
thal, Gokarn and Rameshwar. Their spiritual guides are the Smart
head of the Shringeri monastery in Mysore and the head of the
R&mchandrapur matha. They reverence Musalman saints. W hen an
epidemic breaks out goats and fow ls are offered to the Mareyamma
goddess of Sirsi. Their priests are H avik Brahmans.

The dead are burnt. Their death ceremonies resemble those of the Death,
local Vhnis.
The hereditary, occupation of the caste is carving, inlaying and
painting. They paint boards for various purposes and do all sorts of
turning work. They carve sandalwood, ivory and ebony with great
skill. They also work on the lathe in wood, making beautiful lac­
quered articles. It is usual for them to work only to order, and the
finest specimens of their skill can on ly be procured in this way. A few
own land under the R ayatvari system.
They eat the flesh o f goats, fowls and fish and drink liquor. Th ey Food,
rank next to Vanis and eat at the hands of the H avik Brahmans only.
GUGLI.— A sub-division of Brahams.
GUJAR.— A sub-division of Ahirs, Lads, Dhedas, Charans,
Darjis, Kumbhars, Telis, Kunbis, Sonis, S utars; also a synonym for
Gurjar. A term applied to all Gujaratis in the D eccan and K onkan.
GUJARATI.— A sub-division o f K o M t is , Gopals, Sugars, Gavan-
dis, Bhadbhunjas, R abaris, Vanjaris, Ods, Bhavsars, Malis, Khatris,
Lohars.
GUJAR-GUPI.— A sub-division o f Khojahs.
GULIK.—A sub-division of Holayas.
III
V; Gurav] 22
<SL
Nam» and GURAVS, numbering 108,887 (1901), including 54,818 males
origin- aQ(j 54^069 females, are found all over the Presidency except in Gujarat.
They are a class of temple ministrants, and consist of the following
endogenous divisions or sub-castes :—
(1) Shaiva Gurav, or Nagari, Nilkanth, Svayambhu Gurav.
(2) Kadu Gurav, or Junari, Kotsane, Gasrat Gurav.
(3) Hugar, Jeer, or Malgar, who are mostly Lingayats.!
(4) Jain Gurav.
(5) Konkani Gurav or Bhavik.
None of these divisions intermarry with the others. The common
bond is their occupation as temple servants. The Sugars or Jeers are
of particular interest, inasmuch, as they contain three religious groups,
the Lingayats or lingo, wearers, the Hindus who wear the sacred
thread, and a mixed group wearing both the sacred thread and the
lingo (see L ingayat ).
These various divisions are generally styled indifferently Gurav.
The K adu Guravs rank below the Shaiva group. From their names
Nagari and Junari it seems possible that the division occurred when
the Ahrnednagar and Bij&pur (Junnar) kingdoms formed separate
political entities, and that the division is an instance of the influence
of political boundaries on caste fission. The example of Gujarat tends
to show that different political control fosters differences in social
practices, which are commonly the origin of new castes.
The Jain Guravs are found only in the Malvan tdluka of the
Ratnagiri district. It is not clear why they are called Jain. In the
accounts received regarding them there is no trace o f any respect paid
by them to Jain Tirthankars. There is a Shaiva temple at Vamgani,
a village in the Malvan tdluka, which is called the Jain Rameshwar
temple, probably after the Jain builder, and it m ay be that the present
Jain Guravs are the descendants o f Jains who had taken to the
worship of Shiva under the influence of Lingayatism.
The Koli and Maratha ministrants at the temples of Shiva and
other deities often describe themselves as Guravs, but they have not
formed themselves into separate castes, and are members of the general
Koli or Maratha community. They cease to call themselves Guravs
when th ey cease to minister at temples.

So far as the Deccan is concerned, the Shaiva Guravs are considered

superior to the other Gurav castes. They are invested with the sacred
thread, and. abstain from flesh and liquor, and their observances and
I fl 23
(St
[GuraV^1 J
Ceremonies approach those followed b y the Deshasth Brahmans. 1 he
following particulars apply to them.
a w ATV A GU RAVS are also called Pujdri and Devalak, hut they
are generally known b y the name Gurav only. The word Pujdri,
meaning worshipper, is often used b y devotees for ministrants at the
temples of Shiva and of other deities. The word Devalak is used in
the Sanskrit account of the caste.
The origin of the caste is thus related in the 43rd chapter of the
Shiva P u ra n :—
The Br&hman sage Dadhichi, devoted to the worship of Shiva,
had to proceed on a journey to attend a council of Brdhmans.
Before his departure he initiated his son Sudarshana into the secrets
of the worship of Shiva, and entrusted his duties to him during his
absence. After some days Mahdshivardtra or Shiva’s night arrived.
On this day all people fasted and attended Shiva’s temple, but Sudar­
shana, who, in the evil association of his wife Dushkala (ill-beliaved),
had allowed himself to go astray, instead of fasting and passing his
time in the worship of Shiva, returned to his house after the morning
worship and slept with his wife. N ext day he went to Shiva’s temple
without bathing. All this enraged Shiva, who cursed him so that his
wife died o f the effect of the curse.

When the sage Dadhichi learnt his son’s misfortune, he returned

home, prayed to Shiva, and through the intercession of Parvavi
secured a boon which conferred upon Sudarshana and his descendants
the privilege of workshipping Shiva before all and the right to all
offerings made at his temples.

It is therefore enjoined that a Gurav must be feasted with Brah­

mans at the completion of the worship of Shiva, and that a Gurav
should worship Parvati first. Sudarshana and his descendants lost
their Brahmanhood. Sudarshana’s four sons were appointed b y
Shiva himself as chief ministrants to the four quarters of the
earth. All Shaiva Guravs claim descent from these four sons of
Sudarshana.

Shaiva Guravs have both the Brahmanieal system of gotras and

the surname groups of the lower castes. The restrictions upon inter­
marriage are regulated mainly by surnames, as many families do not
knowr their golras, a fact which tends to show that the Brahmanieal
system must have been adopted by the caste at a later stage with a
®
V;
t,
Guravl 24
<SL
view to raise themselves into the social scale. The surnames and
gotras known so far are as follows :—
Surname. Cotra.

Bendre .. Sliandilya.
Upadhye .. Do.
Kale .. Do. Vasishtha, Vatsa.
Aglave .. Nityandan.
Thor.it .. Gargya.
Jam dir •• i
Kshirasagar .. j
Silunke . . V Have no goiras.
Bhagw in .. I
Gaikwad .. J
Marriages are prohibited between members having the same
surname or gotra. A. member of the caste may marry his mother’ s
brother’s daughter, but not his father’s sister’ s or mother’s sister’ s
daughter. A man may marry two sisters, and two brothers may
marry two sisters. Girls are married between five and thirteen, as a
rule before they come of a g e ; boys between twelve and twenty-five.
Polygamy is allowed and practised if the first wife is barren, ill-behaved,
or subject to some incurable disease. There is no limit to the plura
lity of wives. (A Gurav of Hadapsar, a village near Poona, has more
than five wives). Polyandry is unknown.
Boys are girt with the sacred thread between seven and eleven.
The ceremony is performed with the same details as amongst the
Brahmans, but purdnokta mantras are used instead of the vedokta
which are used by the latter.
Marriage The offer of marriage comes from either side, more generally
ceromo- from the girl’ s father. B oth dowry and bride-price are allowed,
the amounts varying according to the means of the parties, but never
exceeding Bs. 100. The day for the marriage is fixed by an astrologer.
The service is conducted b y a priest who is a caste-man, or, in his
absence, by a Brahman. W hen the wedding day is fixed, invitations
are sent round beginning with the house gods, for whom written cards
are placed in the household shrine. The marriage consists of the
following cerem onies:—
Akshad.— On a lucky day the. relatives o f the bride and bridegroom
go together in procession to the temples o f Ganpati and D evi to invite
the god and goddess and offer them cocoa-nuts, betel-leaves, betel-
nuts, copper coins, and a pinch of rice grains coloured red with kunku
 / > “ ■ ' Cl* V \

■ ('W ff, Gi
25 [Curav !'' J
(red powder). Tbe priest accompanying the procession invokes the
god and the goddess to be present at the wedding and ward off all
evil. Next, a married pair from each party go round inviting friends
and relations.
Siwanl-pujan.— In the evening previous to the marriage da}*- the
ceremony of simant-pujan, or worship at the boundary, takes place.
In this ceremony the parents of the girl with their relatives go to the
bridegroom’ s house with the following articles : uncooked rice, wheat,
cocoanuts, betel-nuts, betel-leaves, red powder, turmeric powder,
turmeric roots, garlands, flowers, milk, sugar, sweetmeats, and articles
of dress such as a turban, a coat, a pair of waist-cloths and bodice-
cloths. There they first worship Ganpati (represented b y a betel-nut),
Varuna (represented by a water-pot), a lamp, and the earth ; and then
wash the feet of the bridegroom and offer him a dress. Next, the
bride’ s mother washes the feet of the bridegroom ’ s m other and fills
her and her female relations’ laps with wheat, and pieces o f dry cocoa-
nut kernel. The guests assembled are presented with betel-leaves
and betel-nuts, and Brahmans with money gifts.

Vagnischaya or the ceremony of oral promise, takes place at

night. In this ceremony the bridegroom’ s parents with their relations
go to the bride’ s house with a dress and ornaments for the bride.
First, the fathers of the bride and bridegroom present each other
with a cocoa-nut and embrace each other. N ext, they seat themselves
on a carpet facing each other, and the bride is brought and made to
sit in front of her father facing the bridegroom ’ s father, who presents
her with the ornaments and dress brought for her. After presenting
betel-leaves and betel-nuts to the guests and distributing money to
the Brahmans the party returns to the bridegroom’ s house.

Turmeric ceremony.— In the morning of the wedding day the

girl is rubbed with turmeric paste at her house by some unwidowed
women of both sides, the remaining portion of which is taken to the
b oy’ s house, where he is rubbed with it similarly.

Dev-pratishta or God-inslalling.— Before the ceremony begins,

the bride with her parents is bathed in hot water by some unwidowed
women. After changing clothes and bowing to the house gods and
the elders, the bride’s parents with the bride begin the ceremony,
which consists of the worship of planets (represented b y betel-nuts),
Ganpati, Varuna, and avighna kalasha. The avighna kalasha is an
earthen jar, daubed with white and red colours. I t contains
turmeric roots, betel-nuts, a copper coin, and sweetmeats, and its
N h 1109—4
I llGuravJ 26
<SL
mouth is covered with an earthen lid tied to it with a piece of
cotton thread passed round several times. It is prayed to ward off
all evil. This ceremony takes place at the bridegroom’ s house also.

Gauri-pujan.— This is performed only by the bride. The bride,

with some of her female friends, worships in the house the goddess
Parvati or Gauri, and sits there till the wedding tim e, repeating the
word “ Gauri ” .

IiuJdawat.— When the time for the wedding draws near, a party
from the bride’s house takes several dishes of sweetmeats to the
bridegroom’s house and serves them to the bridegroom and his
relations. Then the bridegroom, is worshipped, garlanded, and is
presented with articles of dress b y the bride’ s father (a turban, a coat,
a waist-cloth, and a shoulder-cloth). The priest then asks the bride­
groom to bow to the house gods and the elders. The bridegroom,
garlanded, dressed in new clothes, with a finger-mark of lamp-black
on his either cheek, and his forehead daubed with redpowder, is taken
in procession on a horse to the bride’ s house, the females walking
just behind him and the males behind the females.

W hen the procession reaches the bride’ s house, cooked rice m ixed
with curds is waved in the bridegroom’ s face. In the meanwhile
the bride’ s mother washes the feet of the bridegroom’ s mother, who
returns to her place, as she has not to hear the marriage verses. N ext,
the bridegroom is taken off the horse and is led to the marriage b o o th ,
where the priests set tw o low wooden stools and make the bride and
bridegroom stand on them facing each other. They hold a silk cloth
between them that they may not see each other, and ask the bridegroom
to bring before bis m ind’s eye the image of his fam ily god. They
repeat marriage verses, and they and the assembled guests and rela­
tives throw reddened rice grains over the pair. W hen the verses
end, the screen is rem oved with a noise of clapping and drums and
pipes. Guests, relations, and friends resume their seats, and are
presented with betel-leaves, betel-nuts, flowers, sw'eet scents, etc.
Money is also distributed amongst Br&hmans.

Madimparka— The bride’ s parents wash the bridegroom’s feet,

Worship him, and give him a mixture of honey, milk, curds, sugar
ghi, etc., to drink, and .present him with a cow, bull, or cash, etc. N ext,
the bride and bridegroom garland each other. The priest passes co tto n
thread round the pair twelve times, which is then taken off and
divided into two parts. The pair are made to fasten these on each
other’ s wrists.
fBl • 27 [Gura/7§L
Kanydddn.— In this the parents of the bride hand her over to the
bridegroom’ s care and request him to treat her well during her
life-time.
Marriage sacrifice, or Ldjdkoma.— The pair are led to the altar
where fire is kindled. The priest asks them to worship the fire and
throw parched rice and ghi into it. Next, he asks them to take mutual
oaths that they will be each other’ s partners during their life-time for
weal or woe. These oaths are taken in the presence of the fire, the
earth, the priest, and gods.
Saptapadi.— Seven small heaps of rice are made on the altar and
a betel-nut is placed on each of them. The priest recites mantras and
the bridegroom lifts the bride’ s right foot and places it on the heaps
in succession. W hen the seventh heap is crossed the marriage is
complete.
Sun-mulch.— The bridegroom’ s mother puts on the bride all the
ornaments made for her and looks at her face.
Side, or Robe ceremony.— The bride is presented with a robe and
bodice, and her lap is filled with wheat, a cocoa-nut, and Some fruits,
by the priest and some unwidowed women.

Bride-giving,— The parents o f the bride sit in front of the newly

married pair. After worshipping the bridegroom they say to him,
“ we here give you this good-natured daughter, well-nourished and
healthy, and request you to treat her kindly ” . The pair are then
made to sit on the laps of the nearest relations while the priest repeats
the above words.
Varat.— The procession, both o f the bride and bridegroom. The I
bridegroom then takes the bride to his house in a palanquin or carriage
with music, and accompanied b y males and females on both sides.
Lakshmi pujan.— The goddess o f wealth is worshipped b y the pair
at the bridegroom’ s house.
Naming.— The maiden name o f the bride is changed and she is
given a new name b y which she is known afterwards in her husband’ s
family. Betel packets and sugar are distributed to the party assem­
bled and money to Brdlimans.
Exchange of feasts ends the ceremony.

W idow remarriage is allowed in the case of childless widows, but

till recently it was n ot looked on with favour. A widow must marry
either a widower or a married man. She cannot marry a member of
the gotra of her father or of her deceased husband. A widow
K ; %
^ g ^ G u ra v ] 28

KA remarriage can take place on any auspicious day of the year during
any month except Ashddha, Bhddrapad, and Pausha. It is always
performed at night when the moon has set or not risen. A priest
(member of the caste, or in his absence a Brahman) and one or two
widows are present on the occasion. The widow and her new husband
are seated together on low wooden stools in a separate room (all rela­
tions sitting out of the room). They put on ornaments and new
clothes, the priest makes them worship Ganapati, Varuna, a lamp,
and the earth, and applies turmeric and red powder to the widow’ s
forehead, fills her lap with wheat, a cocoa-nut, and some fruits, and
asks the pair to garland each other. The skirts of their garments are
tied together and they are told to bow to the house gods and the
elders, which completes the union. A feast and presentation of
betel packets end the ceremony.

Divorce is allowed in the case of infidelity on the part of the

wife, with the sanction of the caste paneh. It is effected by passing a
deed in writing on a stamped paper to the effect that the husband no
longer wants the wife and that there is no objection to her marrying
whomsoever she likes. The document is signed by the husband and
attested by the paneh. But divorces are rare. A divorced woman
can m any again after the widow re-marriage system.

Religion. The caste follow the Hindu law of inheritance and belong to the
Hindu religion. They are followers of the Shaiva sect and worship
chiefly Shiva and his incarnations. They have the privilege of wor­
shipping these gods (morning and evening) before any other castes
(including Brahmans). Hence worship performed before a Gurav has
done his is considered to be in bad form. Minor gods, such as Khan-
doba, Bhairav, Ambabai and Satvai; the cow, the bull, the cobra, the
horse ; and the banyan, pipal (Ficus religiosa), unbar (Ficus glomerata),
and the sweet basil plant are also worshipped. Musical instruments
(such as the double drum and stringed instruments), weapons (such as
sword, mace, trident), and sacred books also form the objects of their
worship. Khandoba and Bahiroba are worshipped generally daily (by
village Guravs), but especially on Sundays. Ambabai or Parvati is
worshipped daily. When an epidemic like cholera or small-pox breaks
out they propitiate Ambabai b y worshipping her and by pouring water
over her idol continuously. The goddess Satvai is twice worshipped—
on the fifth day after a child-birth, and on the twelfth if the child is a
girl, and on the thirteenth if it is a boy. As amongst other Hindus,
the sweet basil, banyan, and the pipal trees are the special objects
of worship of the female sex. They observe all the Hindu holidays
ID! 29 . <sl
[Gurav
and go on pilgrimage to Benares, Rameshwar, Gaya, Pandharpur, and
other important and holy places of the Hindus, giving preference to
those of Shiva. Their spiritual guide is Sliankaraeharya. Their
priests are men of their own caste. In their absence Br&hmans are
employed, w ho are received on terms of equality b y other Brdhmans.

The dead are burnt. Infants who have not cut their teeth are Dcatb
buried. W hen a person is on the point of death, m oney is distributed ™™;es
among Brahmans according to the means of the fam ily. After death
the body is placed on a white blanket with its feet to th e south. The
corpse is then taken out of the house, placed in a sitting position on a
low wooden stool, the crown of the head is rubbed w ith ghi, the b od y
is bathed in h ot water, and it is dressed in a loin cloth if a male, and
in a robe and a bodice if a female. It is then laid on a bam boo bier
with the head either to the south or to the east and a string is passed
over it. I f the deceased has no issue, the face is covered with a piece
of cloth. A small piece of gold, tw o or three small pearls, and some
basil leaves are put into the mouth, and flowers, red powder, and betel
leaves are spread over th e body. The son or male heir of the deceased
walks in front carrying fire in an earthen pot, which is placed on a
triangular bam boo frame suspended b y means of strings attached to
each of the corners of the frame. The bier is carried b y four m en
(or more if necessary) who walk behind. A t a small distance from
the burning ground the bier is placed on the ground and the bearers
change sides. The son or male heir picks up a stone (called the
life-stone or ashma) and places a few grains of rice and a copper coin
on the spot. When the party reaches the burning ground they put
down the bier, untie the corpse, and place it on a p yre of wood o r
cow-dung cakes. The son or male heir dips the ends of his garments
into water and wrings it into the m outh of the deceased. The priest
then repeats mantras and the pyre is kindled. W hen the skull is
broken the son or male heir bathes in the river, and taking on his
shoulder an earthen ja r filled with water, walks thrice round the
funeral pyre. A t the end of each round one of the party breaks a
hole in the p ot by the life-stone. W hen the rounds are com plete
the son drops the earthen pot and beats his mouth writh his hand.
The party then bathe and return to the house of the deceased to see
the lamp lighted on the spot where the dead person breathed his last.

A male is burnt n a k e d ; a female in a robe and bodice.

On the second or third day after death the ashes are thrown into
water.
 <SL
; $ ' , 4®* ' . •* r ’ i 4 f efi ” m * ' ** £
n

rav] 30
*
If a woman dies within ten days after delivery, nails are driven
into the thresholds of the house and rdla (Italian millet) seeds are
strewn behind the corpse from the house to the burning ground. Her
remains are generally thrown into water the same day.
On the tenth day the son or the male heir goes to the river with a
priest, makes a small triangular mound of earth, and spreads darbha
grass over it after it is sprinkled with cow-dung and cow-urine. On
this heap of earth he places five small earthen pots filled with water
and throws in each of them a few barley and sesamum seeds. He
closes the mouths of these pots with small but thick wheat cakes and
places over each a ball of cooked rice. A small red flag is erected
near each pot. On the heap in the middle he places the life-stone,
which is worshipped with water, white clay, sesamum and barley grains,
flowers, frankincense, etc., and is prayed to accept the offering. I f
crows eat the balls, especially the one to the right hand side, it is
believed that the deceased has left behind no wish unfulfilled. Next,
each mourner pours over the life-stone a handful of water with a
few grains of sesamum and barley, and the son or the heir throws the
life-stone into the river.
On the eleventh day the son and the priest go to the river. The
son bathes in the river, makes sixteen balls of wheat flour and one
of cooked rice, places them in a line from left to right on a piece of
darbha grass, and worships them with sandal-wood paste, sesamum
and barley seeds, flowers, and basil leaves, etc. Next, a sacrificial fire
is kindled, in which a mixture of cooked rice, ghi, and a few seeds of
sesamum and barely is thrown thirty-two times. The chief mourner
then returns home and presents to Brahmans water-pots, a pair
o f shoes, an umbrella, a lamp, a bedding, a pair of waist cloths, rice,
wheat, pulses, and a cow.
In some families eleven balls of earth and eleven balls of cooked
rice are made. Earthen balls are first placed in a line from left to
right on pieces of darbha grass and then rice balls in the same way.
They are worshipped with, an offering of cooked food.
On the twelfth day the sapindi shrdddha is performed in a dharma-
shala or on the river-side. The chief mourner cleanses the place with
cow-dung and cow-urine. H e places three pieces of plantain leaf on
pieces of darbha in a line facing north, one for his grandfather, one
for his great-grandfather and the third for his grandfather’s grand­
father ; two pieces facing east, one for Kam dev and one for Kuldev ;
and one for the deceased facing north-east. The images of all (except­
ing the deceased) are represented by pieces of darbha. They are
. a!?; (St
3.1 [Gurav ‘ '1 J
worshipped with water, sandal-wood paste, rice grains, sesamum
and barley seeds, flowers, basil leaves, frankincense, etc., and are offered
cooked food, such as rice, sugar, vegetables, ghi, lemon, and ginger, and
are asked whether they are satisfied. W hat remains of the cooked
rice is made into four balls— three small and one large—which are
placed on darbha grass and worshipped. The large ball is divided
into three equal parts by a blade of darbha grass. The three small
balls (representing grandfather, great-grandfather, and grandfather’s
grandfather) are mixed up with the three parts of the large ball one
by one. They are then placed in a vertical line and worshipped, the
chief mourner saying, “ I have united m y dead father with the pitras
or ancestors. ” The party then return home and uncooked articles of
food are given to Brahmans.
On the thirteenth day a ceremony is performed at the house of
the deceased in which forty-five balls of rice are placed on darbha
grass and worshipped, and the corpse-bearers and other caste-men are
feasted.
On the fourteenth day a betel-nut representing Ganpati is worship­
ped, and prayers are made that no sort of trouble may befall the family.
Next, an earthen jar filled with water is placed on a piece of darbha
grass, sesamum and barley seeds, and a copper coin are put into it,
and its mouth is covered with mango leaves and pieces of darbha
grass. This is called shdnli kalash. It is worshipped and the water
contained in it is sprinkled over the members of the deceased’s family.
Money and uncooked articles of food are given to Brahmans and caste-
men are feasted. This brings the death ceremonies to an end.
In the case of violent death, if the corpse is not found, the funeral
rites are performed by pdl&sh vidhi. In the case of childless ancestors
an adopted son or the heir of the deceased performs the ceremonies.
For the propitiation of deceased ancestors a member o f the caste
is fed every month during the first year. The shrdddha is performed
annually on the anniversary of the deceased, and the palcsha on that
day of the latter half of BMdrapad which corresponds to the day of
death.
The hereditary occupation of the caste is temple service. They Oecupa-
dine on the offerings made to gods. They also make and sell le a ftion'
plates and cups, and in villages furnish flowers and leaf plates to the
villagers, for which they receive grain allowances or balutds. They
are good musicians and play on the. double drum, stringed instruments,
and harmonium. Some of them are pdtils and kulkarnis. Some are
in private service. Very few are petty Government servants. Some
 32
hold inam lands in the name of the gods they worship, A.
few hold
service inams (mokasa, p&tillci, and kulkarniki). Some take lands on
lease which they cultivate themselves.
They eschew flesh, fish, and liquor. They take food only from
Brahmans who smoke with them.
JU N ARI or K A D U GURAVS differ from the Shaiva Guravs in
eating flesh and drinking liquor and in performing their ceremonies
after the fashion of the Kunbis. Their devak or marriage guardian
consists of the leaves of the vad or banyan tree, which they tie to a post
of the marriage booth and worship. They dine with the Kunbis.
KON KAN I GURAVS are also known as Bhavik Guravs. They
resemble the Konkani Marathas in their customs and ceremonies, but
they do not perform the hom or marriage sacrifice, the binding portion
of the marriage ceremony consisting in putting garlands by the pair
round each other’ s neck. Their devak consists of a twig of kulamb
(Anthocephalus cadumba) which they will not cut either for building
purposes or for fuel. Their priests are the local Brahmans. They
either bum or bury the dead. Besides ministering at temples, they
also slaughter animals offered to the gods and play on the clarion
or sanai at marriages. They eat the flesh of goats, sheep, fowls,
deer, hares, pigs, and fish. They are much respected by the lower
castes as they are believed to have influence over the gods whose
worshippers they are.
LIN G AYAT GURAVS have three endogamoua divisions : those
who wear the linga, those who wear the sacred thread, and those who
wear both the sacred thread and the linga. They are the ministrants
of Maruti or Hanuman, the monkey god and village guardian, who
wears both the sacred thread and the linga, and is worshipped both
b y Brahmanic Hindus and Lingayats. Their chief family stocks are
Isbvar and Kashyap. Members o f the same stock may not inter-
mainy. Their priests, who are members of the caste, marry the
daughters of ordinary Guravs after initiation, b u t will not give them
their daughters in marriage. Girls are married from four to twelve
before attaining p u b erty ; boys from six to twenty. Polygamy is
allowed and practised, but polyandry is .unknown. The offer of
marriage comes from either side. The boy’s father has to pay a tem
or bride-price to the girl’s father, which the latter should not accept
if he is well off. The day for the marriage is fixed by the family
priest who conducts the service. The Bdshtagi or the betrothal
ceremony first takes place, in which the boy’ s father with relations
and friends goes to the girl’ s house and presents her with ornament^
flip
\p p g p
• 33 jGurav
(§L
and articles of dress. The marriage booth is then erected, and the
boy and the girl are rubbed with turmeric paste and oil by five
unwidowed women- On the following day the devaMrya is per­
formed and five to twenty-five unwidowed women are feasted. Next,
the airani is installed, i.e., four earthen jars are placed at the four
corners of a square, a fifth is set in the middle, and a cotton thread
passed round the necks of the jars is cut and fastened to the wrists of
the boy and the girl. The boy and the girl are rubbed with oil and
seated near the jars with some of their relations and bathed with the
water in the jars. Marriage verses are then repeated and sacred grains
of rice are thrown over the heads o f the pair. This is the binding
portion of the ceremony. The remarriage of widows is permitted.
Divorce is allowed. A divorced woman is permitted to remarry if the
cause of divorce be n ot adultery, in which case she is excoftimunicated.
The caste follow the Hindu law of inheritance.
Guravs are non-Panchamssili Lingayats entitled to ashtavarna
rites (see LIN G A YA T). The chief deities of their worship are Shiva,
Maruti, Sarasvati, Rdmeshvar, and family ghosts who are deified to
prevent them from bringing sickness into the house. Their priests
are men of their own caste. Their religious teacher is also a man of
their caste. Those who wear the lingo, bury and the rest burn their
dead.
Besides niinistejing at temples some are astrologers and fortune­
tellers and others are husbandmen. Some are musicians who beat
the sambal or tabor at Brahman, Sonar, and Lingayat weddings,
accompanied by K orvis who blow the sanai or clarion. They also
make the brow-horn or basiling of flowers which the bridegroom wears.
They sometimes, but seldom, as it is against their religion, play the
drum or fiddle for their spiritual followers, the dancing girls, or
Kalavants. They also sell bel (/E gle marmelos) leaves and flowers
and flower garlands, which has led them to be called Hugars, hu
in Kanarese meaning a flower. Th ey do not use flesh or liquor.
JA IN GURAVS resemble local Brahmans in matters of religion
and custom, though they have a system of divisions by devaks. Their
devaks consist of the Jcalamb (Anthocephalus cadum ba) and the au-
dumbar (Ficus glomerata), both of which are m ost common in the
southern part of the Ratnagiri district. They abstain from flesh and
liquor and do not take food and water from any H indu caste, even from
Br&hmans. They are mainly servants in village temples which,
though dedicated to Brahmanic gods, have still b y their sides .broken
remains of Jain images. This, and the fact that most- of the temple
NHllOf*—5
H p • % L
Halepaik] 34

land grants date from a time when Jainism was the State religion,
support the theory that the Jain Guravs are probably Jain temple
servants who have come under the influence partly of Lingayatism
and partly of Brahmanism. A curious survival of their Jainism
occurs at Dasara, Shimga, and other leading festivals, when the village
deity is taken out of the temple and carried in procession. On these
occasions, in front of the village god’ s palanquim, three, five, or seven
of the villagers, among whom the Gurav is always the leader, carry
each a long, gaily-painted wooden pole resting against their right
shoulder. A t the top of the pole is fastened a silver mask or hand,
and round it is draped a rich silk robe. Of these poles, the chief one,
carried by the Gurav, is called the Jain’ s pillar, Jainacha khdmb
(Bom. Gazetteer, Vol. X . p. 119).
GURJAR.—A sub-division of Brahmans and Vdnias.
GURU—A sub-division of Br&hmans.
GURUSTHAL—A sub-division of Jangams.
HABBU.—A sub-division of Brahmans.
HABSHI.— A synonym for Sidi.
HADIA.— A sub-division of Dhedas.
HAIG.— A sub-division of Kabbaligars.
HAIGA.— A synonym for Havik.
HAJAM.—See Nahvi or Haja m ; a sub-division of Vanjaris.
HAJURI.— A synonym for Khav&s.
HAKIM.—See under Minor Musalm&n Castes.
HALABE.—A sub-division of Dev&ngs.
HALAI—A sub-division of Memans.
HALALKHOR—A synonym for Bhangi.
HALDE.—A sub-division of M&lis.
HALE.—-A sub-division of Hanbars.
Narn- and HALEPAIK, * a caste of Toddy-drawers numbering (1901) 51,930,
origin. including 26,805 males and 25,125 females, residing, with the exception
of a few emigrants, entirely in the district of Kanara. They would
seem to be connected with the Billavas or Divars of South Kanara,
and perhaps with the Tiyans of Malabar, who are also toddy-drawers
b y profession. Little is known for certain regarding the original
home of this ca s te ; but from the fact that the swdmi or high priest
* The materials for this article were supplied by Mr. J. A. Saldanha,
IP
' 35 ' [Halepaik
<SL
of one division lives at Anegundi {Vijayanagar) and that the caste
tradition connects them with the kingdom of Vijayanagar it would
seem probable that they were at one time very largely employed in
the service of the Vijayanagar kings, and formed an important ele­
ment in the fighting forces of the Hindu kingdom of the south. At
the present day they are mostly found on the coast, in the tdlukds
of Ankola, Kumta, and Hondvar, and are only met with in any num­
bers above the Ghdts in the taluMs of Sirsi and Sidddpur. Apart
from the mystery concerning their origin, the Halepaiks are interesting
on account of their totemistic organization, which is described below.

The caste consists of tw o endogamous divisions:— Endo-

gamous
1. Tengina Divar or Tengina Makkalu. divisions.
2. Bainu Divar or Kdn Divar.

The Tengina Makkalu, or “ Children of the Cocoanut tree,” live

on the coast. They also style themselves Namdhar and Trindmdliar
Paiks. The Bainu Halepaiks take their name from bainu, the sago-
palm, and reside above Ghdts. The bar against intermarriage seems to
be in origin geographical, and is similar to the barrier that exists
between the Konkani and Deshasth Mardthds, who are also separated
b y the wall of the Western Ghdts, once a formidable obstacle to social
intercourse. The natural consequence of the bulk of the caste residing
in the more civilized regions of the coast has been to engender a certain
contempt for their less cultivated fellow caste-men living in the above-
ghdt jungles. This feeling manifests itself in the practice which is
rapidly gaining in popularity among the former, of styling themselves
Ndmdharis and Trindmdharis, and a feeling o f superiority over the
latter that has worked powerfully towards producing the present
completely endogamous sections. The Ndmdharis and Trindmdharis
beat the marks of the Ramdnuja sect, the Trindmdharis being the
social superiors of the Ndmdharis. Many Halepaiks returned them­
selves as Ndmdharis at the census of 1901. I t is usual to derive the
name Halepaik from hale old, and paik a soldier. Taken in connection
with the name Komdrpaik, another Kanarese caste, the derivation
is not improbable ; and it gains in probability from the fact that
both the Halepaiks and Komarpaiks, ? , the advent of British rule,
were notorious as a troublesome tribe of banditti who appeared to be
warriors by profession. They would seem to have been at one time
a favourable recruiting ground for the kings of Vijayanagar and the
poligars or petty chiefs of Kanara. Some further light is thrown on
the origin of the caste by the synonym of “ Divar ” which would appear
B
a

Halepaik] 36
<SL
kJJLJ

to be another form of “ Tivar ” an Islander. The Tiyans of Malabar

are Tiyars, and their name also takes the form of Iravar, Illavar, and
Billavar. A tradition in Malabar relates how certain Dravidian tribes
in Malabar migrated to Ceylon, whence they returned to Travancore
to spread northwards along the coast. Hence the term Islanders.
Anthropometrical examination of the Halepaiks and Tiyans would
probably throw much light on the supposed identity of thcije castes.
The Halepaiks speak Kanarese. Those on the coast are fluent in
Konkani also. The names in common use are— Maria, Timma. Ira,
Hanama, Venka, Gidda, Shiva, Krishna. Females bear the same
names with the termination i. The males suffix “ Naik, ” i.e. “ Chief” ,
to their names, corresponding to the Maratha “ K a o ” and “ Desai.”
Exo- The Halepaiks have a totemistic social organization. Each exo-
Kamous gamous section known as a £bali ’ (lit. a creeper) is named after some
division'!. 0 . x
animal or tree which is held sacred b y the members of the same. This
animal, tree or flower, etc., seems to have been once considered the
common ancestor of the members of the bali and to the present day
it is both worshipped by them, and held sacred in the sense that they
will not inj ure it. Thus the members of the Nagbali, named apparent­
ly after the Nagchampa flower, will not wear this flower in their hair,
as this would involve injury to the plant. The Kadavebali will not
kill the elk (Kanarese Kadave) from which they take their name.
The balis are very numerous. The names and origins of some o f the
most important are given below. The existence of these totem
divisions seems to establish the Dravidian origin of the caste.
Tengina D ivars:—
t
Name. Derivation.

I. Shetti bali . . Shetli or Shetti — a fish.

2. Honne bali . . Honne - = a tree (Pterocarpus marsupium).
3. Chendi bali . . Chendi = a tree (Cerbera odMum).
A. Tolana bali . . Tola — a wolf.
5. Devana bali .. Devana = a tree (Artemesia phalleris).
6. Hole bali .. Hole =» a tree (Terminalia arjuna).
7. Bhairana bali .. Bhairana — a bird.
8. Kendi bali •. Kandi = a tree (Prosopis spicigera).
9. Handi bali . Handi — a pig.
10. Ndg bali •• Nagchampa = a tree (Mesua ferrea).
11 . Vali bali , . Vali = a creeper.
if f 37 [Halepaik
<SL
Name. Derivation.

12. Shign bali .. Shige = soap-nut (Acacia concinna).

13. A jjane bali .. Ajja = a tree (Antiaris toxicaria).
14. "Kanne bali .. Kanna — a tree.
15. Shivana bali .. Shivani — a tree (Gmelina arborea).
16. Ganga bali .. Ganga — the river Gangavali.
17. Salyan bali .. Saler = a porcupine.
18. Manal bali Manal = a tree (PUhocolobium dulce).
19. Shire bali .. Shire = a tree (Gymn dropsis pentapkyUa),
20. Arashina bali .. Arasina = turmeric (Curcuma longa).
Bainu Divars—
1. Mahar bali .. Mahar = a low caste, or Mhad— the
palm tree.
2. Bangar bali .. Bang&r = gold.
3. Kadave bali .. Kadave = the elk.
4. Sarpana bali .. Sarpa == a snake.
and several of the balis already given, i.e., Nos. 1 to 6 inclusive.

The Holebali and Maharbali are held to be socially inferior and the
girls of these sections alone may be married to members of the other
balis. A special feature of these balls is that they are traced through
females,' not through males. This practice suggests the former
prevalance of polyandry, and serves to confirm the opinion that the
original home of the caste was in Southern India. Balis of the same
kind are found among many castes in North Kanara, notably the
four Vakkal castes, i.e., Halvakki, Gam, K ot and Kare and the
following others:—

Ager Haslar Mukri.

Ambig Kumbh&r Suppalig
Harakantra Moger Uppar.

Many of these also reckon descent through females.

. Comparing the Halepaiks with the Tiyans of Madras, it will be

noted that, in addition to the com m on appellation of ‘ Divar, ’ the
castes resemble each other in being divided into balis, in tracing
descent through females, and in their occupation of toddy-drawers.
In appearance they are not dissimilar. The Tivans practise
polyandry to the present day in South Malabar. TheV are supposed

i 1| f »
{ i jl) ‘ : ^ f Ci
Wl r g «■ r i.p a ik ] 38
* to have imported the cocoa-palm into India between the 1st and
,, " 5th century a .d .
The coast and above-ghat Halepaiks do not intermarry nor do
they dine together. It has been seen that the former are further
divided into the Namdhari and Trinamdhari, who will intermarry,
with the reservation that, when a member of the Trinamdhari division
wishes to marry a girl of the Namdhari group, both the bride and
bridegroom have necessarily to receive mudrddhdram branding
with the metal stamps of Shankha and Chakra, which are the marks of
the followers of Vishnu) for their purification. Mudradharana is
not necessary when a Trinamdhari marries a Trinamdhari girl or when
a Namdhari marries a Trinamdhari girl, though there is no objection to
any person undergoing it at any time for bodily purification. The
Namdharis are not allowed to bear on their foreheads the three vertical
marks of the Trinamdharis, and it appears that the Trinamdharis
occupy a comparatively superior position in the caste. B ut the Nam­
dharis of Konalli maintain that there is no distinction between the two
divisions in any respect, and that the two divisions intermarry freely
without any distinction whatever and are on a footing of equality.
The members of the same ball cannot intermarry, nor are
marriages allowed between paternal cousins even, though they belong
to different balls. But a man may marry his maternal uncle’ s
daughter; also a deceased wife’ s sister.
Origin of The origin of the caste is still a subject of speculation. Accord-
the Caste. j n g acCount given by the leaders of the caste, which has been
obtained from the religious head of the caste, viz., Lokachariya of
Sagar in Mysore, the origin of the Halepaiks is as u n der:—
“ During the reign of Vijaya Ramablmpala of Vijayanagar,
Bhamini, the wife of one of the king’ s servants Ranganaika, b y the
blessing of the goddess Laxmi, bore a son, who was born at Kumarak-
shetra in the kingdom of Vijayanagar on Friday, the 7th of the bright
half of Kartika in the year Sadharana, 1143, of the Shaka era. The
b oy was named Narayan. One day the boy was playing in the street,
when Gopala Krishna Raja, the son of Vijaya R&ma Bhup&la, happened
to pass by in a chariot. Attracted b y the royal bearing of the child, he
placed him in his chariot and took him with him to his palace. A t
16 years the boy, who had been educated as a prince of the royal family,
managed important affairs of State, distinguished himself as a comman­
der of the Vijavnagar army and conquered many new territories. The
king, admiring his valour, made him the ruler o f a State, gave him a
large retinue, and invested him with all the marks of royalty. In
 39 [Halepalljfc j ,

course of time, however, Narayan m et his father Kanganaika, w h o h ad

grown old since the loss o f his son, and came to know that he was the
lost son o f the man Ranganaika and Bham ini. W hen the king G opala
Krishna discovered N&rayan’ s hum ble origin, he placed him in charge
of the m int, and gave him the village of H alepaikas, a jaghir, to be
enjoyed b y him and his descendants. In course o f tim e som e o f his
descendants started on a pilgrimage. They w ent to Ramesliwar,
K ashi, Tirupati, Shriranga, and thence to U d a p i and Gokarn, and
visited the then ruling sovereigns o f this part o f th e country, nam ely,
Venkatappa Naik o f Ikkeri and Sankanna Nailc o f K eladi. Th ey were
appointed to honourable posts under the A negundi and Chandavar
sovereigns and thus cam e to reside in Chandavar, in K um ta taluka. ’

I t is unfortunate th at this story o f the origin o f the caste seems to

have n o foundation in the history o f Vijayanagav ; nor have the places
Kumarkshetra and H alepaik been identified. T h e story refers to
Shaka 1143, *.<?., A . I ). 1 22 1; but th e kingdom o f Vijaynagar was n ot
founded till about th e year A. D . 1336.

The habits of the caste are settled. The H alepaiks in K anara

district are well organised com m unities and are distributed over tw elve
shimes, or territorial divisions, n a m e ly :—
A m on g Coast H a le p a ik s:—

1. Chandavar. 3. Gersappa.
2. M irjan. 4. A nkola.

Of these four divisions, the Chandavar shime occupies the first

place and Konalli near Chandavar is the recognized head-quarters of
the caste, being known as the Tai-sthala or m other-place. There is no
peculiarity in regard t o th e shape or material o f their dwellings.

A m on g H ighland Halepaiks
1. Yellapur. 5. Helur.
2. Sonda. 6. Banavasi.
3. Karur. 7. Islur.
4. Sirsi. 8. Bilgi.

Of these 8 shimes, th e B ilgi shime occupies the highest place, th e

head quarters of which is a t Bellhali, where is a math presided over b y a
guru w ho is a Trin&mdhari. Bach shime consists of a number of village
settlements presided over b y a hereditary headm an, called Buddhivant,
who presides at meetings o f the castem en settling disputes, or referring
them to th e yajaman. A yajamdn is th e head of several shimes and is
 r
l ’ ttalepaik) 40 A

entitled to collect dues from those within his jurisdiction. The Hale*
paiks do not admit outsiders into the caste.

Marriage The girls among coast Halepaiks, are married before they attain
monies, puberty, i.e., when they are 5 to 12 years of a g e ; there is no restriction,
of age with regard to males. Sexual license before marriage is not
recognized nor tolerated. Among highland Halepaiks girls are mar­
ried even at the age of 16. Polygamy is permitted, but polyandry is
not. A man may marry any number of wives. A married woman
cannot marry again during the lifetime of her husband, after she has
been divorced.

When a match is approved of by the parents o f the bride and bride­

groom, they cast the horoscopes of the boy and girl to be married, and
consult the local deity. This is done in the same way as receiving
prasad, i.e., the fall of a flower from the body of the deity is taken as an
indication of its approval. If the horoscopes agree and the deity
approve of the settlement, the father of the would-be bridegroom,
accompanied by friends and relations, takes flowers in a plate to the
house of the bride. These flowers are put on the body of the bride, and
the parents of the bride fill the plates with betel-nut and betel-leaves,
and offer them to the parents of the bridegroom. On the next day,
or on any subsequent (lay fixed, the bridegroom takes in his hand a
cocoanut, betelnut, betel-leaves, and a small knife, enveloped in a piece
of red cloth, which are to be placed before the tulsi or sacred basil plant.
He is taken to the bride’s house in procession, where he and his would-
be bride are made to stand before the tulsi, and the wedding ceremony
takes place. The principal ceremonies are :—
(1) The joining of the hands of the bride and bridegroom and
pouring a pot of milk over them by their parents. This is known
as the (Wire ceremony.
(2) The tying ,of ends of their garments b y the maternal uncle
of the bride.
(3) The throwing of rice b y the priest and elders.
(4) The garlanding of the bride and bridegroom by each
other.

After garlanding, the marriage cannot be dissolved, though the

marriage settlement may be broken at any time before it. The
marriage feasting continues for tw o days more, and on the fourth day
the hashing, or ornamental head— dress of the bridegroom, is tied to
tbe principal post inside the house and the ceremony is over. The

♦
 <SL
.. *• '*■ • .'i-yvM.-'s • -mii .■ ■
f i •v

41 [Halepaik

bridegroom has to pay the bride’s parents the tern as bride-price,

which varies from Rs. 20 to Rs. 100. In order to save this payment,
double marriages are sometimes arranged. Thus, when a girl is taken
from a family, another girl who is a near relation of the bridegroom
is also married to a member of the bride’s family. If this mutual
exchange is not feasible, the bridegroom is sometimes adopted b y the
parents of the bride as a domestic son-in-law (mane-alaya). In this
case the bridegroom has not to pay the bride-price, but there is a
mutual agreement that the son-in-law should stay and work at the
bride’s house, receiving some of the profits of her parents.
Remarriage of widows is permitted but is looked upon with dis­
favour b y the community. A widow cannot marry her husband’s
younger or elder brothers. She m ay marry any other person who is
not of her bali.
A man who is to marry a widow must be a married man, whether
the first wife or wives may or may not be alive when he marries the
widow. The man who intends to marry a widow must obtain the
permission of his community by a payment of Rs. 12 to the leaders
of the caste. The marriage must take place at midnight. The
persons to be married should sit on a mat of cocoa-palm leaves behind
the tuki-kaltn,. Four or five widows then give the widow bangles, a
mugaii or nose-ring, and a shire or loin cloth, which are all brought
by the husband for the occasion. The widow puts these on and the
marriage is complete. The married pair must go to their house before
daybreak. The married widow must herself mark her forehead with
a red paint, which is the usual mark of a married woman. The married
couple are regarded as socially degraded and the husband is not allowed
to take part in caste meetings, nor may the pair take a leading
part at any auspicious ceremony. A. man married to a widow may
not perform the marriage of his children. There is no intercourse
in respect of food or marriage between the pair and the relations of the
former husband of the widow. This is the opinion of the Mirjan
shime. There are several instances of widow marriages at Mirjdn,
Kodkani, Hiregutti, Bargi, Sanekatta, and Hanehalli. But the
Halepaiks of the Chandavar shime say that widow marriage is not
permitted among them, and that those who have married widows
are regarded as outcaste. In the Bilgi shime the widows who are
detected having gone astray are taken to the math at Bellhalli near
Sidddpur, and are disposed of for a price to any man in need of a
wife, provided he is already a married man. This is regarded as a
marriage. The practice appears to be confined to the Bilgi shime.
s h 1109—6

r
' 'Halepaik] 42 □ lj
Divorce depends upon the pleasure of the husband, and there is no
particular form by which it is effected. A divorced wife may remain
in the caste so long as she follows the caste rules. She is not permitted
to remarry during the lifetime of her husband.

The members of the caste in North Kanara follow the Hindu law
of inheritance, but in South Kanara the Halepaiks follow the Aliya
Santan law of descent through females.
Religion. They belong to the Hindu religion and are followers of Ramanuja.
Venkatardma of Tirupati with his servant Hanuman are their deities
of special worship. There appear to be no particular reasons for this
preference beyond the fact that they are the followers of Ramanuja,
and that almost all the Shudra castes in North Kanara worship the
same deities. Their worship and Ramanuja’s Vaishnavism appear
to have been imported into Kanara, rather than brought this side
by the Halepaiks or other low castes. Tdtdchdri, residing at Tirupati,
is the Guru of the Namdharis and Lokachari, who resides at Tirukolam
in the Sagar district of the Mysore territory, is the Guru of the Tri-
namdharis. But both the sub-divisions also respect the Gurus of
each other. A Namdhari can become a Trindmdhari by having
mudrddhdrana and sprinkling of holy water from the Ayyas of Hospet.
The Guru of the highland Halepaiks resides at Anegundi. He occa­
sionally (once in four or five years) visits the district, and sells the
powder or material for imprinting the name or mark on their foreheads.
In Kanara general control over the highland Halepaiks is exercised
by a Trindmdhari Halepaik of the Bellhalli Math near Siddapur,
whom they term Guru or Swdmi, but he is subordinate to the Swdmis
of Anegundi.
They pay respect also to other Hindu gods and worship the local
minor deities, such as Grdma-Devati, Masti, Jataga, etc., like other
Shudras, but have no special minor gods and patron saints. They
keep the Hindu festivals of Divali, Dasara, and Ghauti.
They employ Trindmdhari Vaishnava Brdhmans from Sagar dis­
trict for their religious purposes. These Brahmans are not respected
as Brdhmans in Kanara. They are called Tirlha givers or Ayyas. Of
the local Brahmans, none but Saklapuri and Karndtak Brdhmans
act as priests to them. Havik and other Brdhmans are not allowed
to officiate as priests to the caste, on pain of being put out of caste.
I)eaf( They commonly burn their dead, except in the case of those who
oeremo- die of smail-pox, who are buried, as is also customary among all other
nies‘ Hindu castes oil this part of the country. In both cases the dead
\%\ 43 [Halepaik
<SL
body is laid on its back. The ashes are collected on the ground on
the third day and thrown into a river.
Of the tw o sub-divisions of the coast Halepaiks, viz., Trinamdhari
and Namdhari, the first (Trinamdhari) perform shrdddha for propi­
tiation of their ancestors on the date of death, and mahalaya in the
latter half of Bh&drapada for the propitiation of ancestors in general.
The Ndmdharis perform the mahalaya only. There are no special
forms of these ceremonies for childless ancestors and men who have
died a violent death. This at least is the practice followed by the
Halepaiks of the Mirjan shime. Those of Konalli in Chandavar
shime, who are more disposed to imitate Brahman ical ritual, say that
skrdddhas and malialayas are performed by both the sects according to
the form in which these ceremonies are performed by Brahmans. The
highland Halepaiks perform only mahdlayas.
They believe their original occupation to have always been agricul- occupa
ture. Their hereditary profession was mainly that of toddy-drawers tion-
until recently. The rest rictions of the Forest and Abkari Departments
have driven the Halepaiks on the Ghats to other occupations. The
coast Halepaiks too do not find toddy-drawing as lucrative an occu­
pation as before. Their present occupations are agriculture, toddy­
tapping, quarrying and stone-cutting, carpentry, smithy, trade, cart­
driving, and Government service as village servants.
Some of them are tenure-holders of Government lands, occupancy
and non-occupancy ryots without any special privileges in respect of
rent. Several of them are landless day-labourers. None of them
are nomadic cultivators.
As artizans they work in wood and metal and any other material
except leather. They are not hunters b y profession, but they hunt a
hog, a stag, a hare, etc., for their own food. The Halepaiks of
Konalli however do not hunt any animal.
There is no special implement or m ode of working of the caste,
nor is there any particular occupation which raises any of them
above the others.
They do not habitually prostitute either their married or un­
married women.
They eat the following :— Flesh of fow l, pigeon, and sheep, pork Food,
from wild hog, fish (of the varieties known as Bangdi, Tori, Shetti,
Tora, Madjali, etc.), white rats, rabbits, tortoises, stag and deer.
There is n o special article of food the abstaining from which may
raise them above other castes. But they are prohibited from eating
»v Halleer!
, „
44
«L
monkeys, cow’ s flesh, crocodiles, snakes, lizards, jackals, house rate,
and insects. The coast, Halepaiks also do not drink wine or liquor.
But this restriction does not obtain among the highlanders.
They eat paJcki and Jcachchi from the hands of all Brahman castes
and from Nadors, Vanis, Halvakki Vakkals and Marathafi, and not
from the hands of any other castes.
The only Hindu castes which eat paJcki or Jcachchi or drink and
smoke with them are Agers, Mukris and Chainars. A t their marriage
and other ceremonies the Suppalig and Bhandari musicians may not
play music, on pain of being put out of caste. The Halepaiks employ
only the Halleer and Ager musical bands for this purpose. They
rank higher than the Agers, Mukris and Chamars, and are at the top
of the Asprishya Shudras. All castes of Brahmans, and NMors who
are Sat-Shudras, regard them as such.

The pretensions of the highland Halepaiks, on the other hand, do

not reach so high as those of the coast sub-caste. They do not appear
as sophisticated by contact with civilization as their brethern on the
coast. They admit that they eat Jcachchi at the house of Halvakki
and K ot Vakkals, while none of the Vakkal castes would eat Jcachchi
from the hands of the Halepaiks. In the estimation of all, except
the coast Halepaiks themselves, all. classes of Halepaiks are regarded
as impure, standing below the Vakkals, who correspond to the Kunbis
of the Deccan.
HALGE.—A sub-division of B erads; a synonym for Bile.

Name and HALLEERS, numbering 2,079 (1901), including 1,078 males and
origin. females, are found entirely in the Kanara district. According
1 ,0 0 1
to local tradition, when the Sonda chiefs were reigning at Panjim in „
Goa, the Halleers were their musicians and lived in the village of
Kuppali. Originally they are believed to have emigrated from Tirupati
in North Arcot. They came to Kanara about eight or ten generations
ago, and settled at Majali and Bad near Karwar, gradually spreading
southwards as far as Honavar. The Halleers in Karwar style them­
selves Vajantris, the general term for musicians, and refuse to have
any connection with their brethren in Gokarn, Hiregutti, and Hegde.
These so-called Vajantris declare that the rest of the Halleers rank
with the impure castes, and are not allowed to play at temples and at
the thread or marriage ceremonies of Brahmans, being employed only
by the lower castes. According to the Bombay Gazetteer, all Halleers
are held to be impure, and it is probable that the Karwar Halleers
are now endeavouring to raise themselves to a level with other
 —-<V\
f ( f S/ 45 „ V^T
)Halleer
musicians not considered impure, b y imitating their manners and cus­
toms, and disclaiming connection with their brethren in the south. The
latter apparently have not yet adopted the visages of the higher castes.
There are neither endogamous nor exogamous sub-divisions of
the caste.
Intermarriages can take place between those families only
with whom a former connection can be traced. A member of the caste
may marry his father’ s sister’ s or mother’ s brother’s daughter.
He cannot marry his mother’ s sister’ s daughter. A man may marry
his deceased wife’ s sister. Two brothers may marry two sisters.
Polygamy is allowed and practised, the number of wives a man
can have at a time being limited to four. Polyandry is unknown.
Boys are generally married between fifteen and tw enty-five; girls
between eight and thirteen, as a rule before coming of age. If a girl
remains unmarried till after she attains puberty, her parents have to
pay a fine to the caste punch. Misconduct on the part of an
unmarried girl is generally connived a t ; but if the man involved be
a Christian or a Musalmiin, she is turned out of the caste.
The offer of marriage comes from the b oy’ s father, who has to pay Marriage
a sum of Rs. 5 to the girl’s mother. The day for the marriage jg cere-
fixed by the village astrologer. The ceremony is con d u cted monius'
either by a Karnatak Brahman or by an elderly member of the
caste. About eight or ten days before the marriage takes place the
betrothal ceremony, which is known as phde khovane, is performed,
in which the girl is dressed in a new robe and her hair decked with
flowers. On the marriage day the b oy and the girl are rubbed with
turmeric paste and oil, a marriage coronet is put on the b oy’ s head,
and he is taken in procession to the girl’ s house. When he is seated,
rice grains, a cocoanut, and five plantains are offered to each of the
village gods and to the family gods of the parties. The boy’s father
then presents the girl with some articles of dress and ornaments, which
she puts on and seats herself next to the bridegroom. The pair then
put garlands round one another’ s necks. The essential portion of
the ceremony consists in the decking of the girl’ s hair with flowers.
The remarriage of widows is permitted. The widow has to return
to the relations of her deceased husband the clothes and ornaments
received from him. The widow bathes and puts on a new robe pre­
sented to her by her new husband. She is then seated by his side,
redpowder is applied to her forehead, and a lucky necklace is tied
round her neck, this completing the ceremony. A bachelor is not
allowed to marry a widow.
 n

Jalleer] 46
<SL
A husband can divorce a wife on the ground of her misconduct.
A divorced woman can marry again after the fashion of the widow
remarriage ceremony.

Religion. The caste follow the Hindu law of inheritance and belong to the
W: Hindu religion. They chiefly worship village gods, such as Vetfil,
Ddd, Beer, and Mhasti, the special object of their devotion being
Mamai or Mahamdi, whose fane is at Ohitakule near Sadashivgad to the
north of Karwdr. Their family gods are Mahadev of Bdd in Karwiir,
Venkatesh of Ankola, and Sailkardev of Majali, nine miles north of
Karwdr. They worship their musical instruments on the Dasara
day. Goats and fowls are offered to the village gods, of which the
heads are received by the worshippers at the temples, and the bodies
by those who make the offerings. They make pilgrimages to Tirupati
and Pandharpur, and observe all the Hindu holidays. They have
great faith in soothsaying, witchcraft, and evil spirits. Sickness of
all kinds is believed to be the work of spirits. Ghadi and Komarpaik
magicians are consulted to devise a cure. Their spiritual guide is the
head of the Shringeri monastery in Mysore. Their ceremonies are
usually conducted by members of the caste. Occasionally Karnatak
Brdhmans are employed to conduct marriages, and they are considered
degraded on this account. They are readmitted into their caste
only after performing a penance.

Death. The dead are either burnt or buried. On the tenth day after
death a sweet basil plant is planted on the spot where the corpse
was burnt or b u ried ; and a tender cocoanut, a lamp, and a flag of
cotton-rag are placed by its side. On the eleventh day a feast is given
to relations. The shrdddha is not performed.

Oocupa- Halleers are hereditary musicians. They are employed b y many

tion- classes of Hindus at marriage and other ceremonies. The Halleers
near Gokarn appear to be employed chiefly by the lower castes. They
have an hereditary right to perform at the village temples. Their
instruments are the drum or dhol, double drum or sammel, the timbrel
or kansal, the clarionet or sanai, the brass horn or shriti, the cornet
or kahalo, and the horn or shing. A few of them are carpenters.
They catch fish for their own use. They do not catch crocodiles or
tortoises.
Food They eat the flesh of goats, sheep, hares, fowls, and fish, and
drink liquor. They eat the leavings of Brahmans. They consider
themselves superior to those who eat certain kinds of flesh from
which they abstain.
(*( ^ 47 [Halvakki Vakkal
(fiT :|
----- . , A
HALMANE.— A sub-division of Holayas.
HALVAI.—A functional group of confectioners.
HALVAKKI VAKKALS, numbering between 20,000 and 30,000, and
also known as Gavdas, are found only in the Kanara district. In 1881
the number was returned as 26,395; but at the subsequent census
enumerations no reliable figures were obtained owing to the caste being
confused with other cultivating castes, such as the Kunbis, the word
Kunbi being the Marathi equivalent of the Kanarese Vakkal. Vakkal
or Vakkalig in Kanarese signifies cultivator, and the term Vakkal is
not therefore a caste name, but a profession. In the Bom bay Presi­
dency and Mysore the Vakkals are the Kanarese cultivating castes.
The Mysore Gazetteer (Vol. I, p. 229) includes Reddis, Nonabas, and
even Ilalopaiks under the name of Vakkalig.
In Kanara the caste is chiefly found in the tdlukas of Kirwar,
Ankola, Kumta, and Honavar, where they have numerous centres.
The name of the caste is commonly said to be derived from the Kana­
rese hdlu (milk-white) and akki (rice), probably because the Halvakki
Vakkals are the chief growers of the better kind of rice (halakki in
Kanarese meaning table rice). The caste is also found in Mysore. They
seem to be among the earliest settlers on the coast. They have now
lost all tradition of connection with Mysore, but a trace perhaps
remains in their worship of Venkatar&ma of Tirupati in North Arcot.

The caste seems once to have been the great landlord caste of
Kanara, and subsequently to have given place to Haviks, Gaud Saras-
vats, and Lingdyats. It is still a common tradition that their women
intermarried with the early Havik settlers, and evidence is forthcoming
to render this tradition not improbable.

The names in common use among men are Bira, Naga, Goli,
Timma, Kuppa, G oinda; and among women, Tulsi, Karijadevi,
Shivi, Gangi, Nagi, Timmi, and Putti. The men add gavda. literally a
headman, to their names, some interposing the honorific apjoa or anna,
as Birappagavda or Venkannagavda. Female names are generally
formed by substituting “ i ” for “ a, ” “ u, ” or “ o ' ’ at the end of
the names of the males.
There are no endogamous divisions of the caste, which is divided Divisions;
into balis or exogamous sections, of which the following are the most
im portant:—
1. Baler bali .. Balai = plantain tree.
2. Balina bali ,. Bali — a sea fish (Trichnirm lapturus).

# ' 1
■’ ^
fell
^Si-^H alvakki Vakkar|
HI ra n I , <> §
48
, (
<SL
’
3. Bsrgal bali .. Barga = hog deer.
4. Bhairan bali . . Bhairana — a bird.
5. Devi bali . . Devi = goddess.
6. Dy&vana bali . . Dyava = the tortoise.
7 . Gurvina bali . . Gurani — prickly plant (Ichnocarpus).
8. H ole bali . . H ole — a tree (:Terminalia arjuna).
9. Kadsan bali . . Kadachi — a shrub.
10. Kadvin bali .. Kadave =- the elk.
11. Kodkal bali .. Kodkal — a monkey.
12. Kunte bali .. Kunti = a tree (Murraya exotica).
13. Kedagi bali .. Kedagi = fragnant screw-pine (Pandanus
odoratissimus).
14. Machhoii bali .. Maohchu or Machchi = an axe used for
cutting trees.
15. Majkal bali .. (Unknown).
16. Manal bali .. Manal ~= a, tree (Pilhocolobinm dulce).
1 17. Manjal bali .. Manjala = saffron.
18. Muskinbali .. Muskin = a river fish.
19. Nag bali . . Nag champa ( Mesmferrea).
20. Shirin bali .. Shirkal-— a tree (Oynandropsis fentuphylhi).

The enquiries conducted into the significance of these balis seem to

show that they are true totemistic divisions though tending to lose
their original character as the sections of the caste advance in the
social scale. Thus the kedagi is the screw-pine commonly found in
the streamlets and rivers of Kanara. The members of the Kedagi
ball will neither cut the tree nor pluck its flowers. Those of the
Bargal bali will not kill or eat the barga or mouse-deer. The followers
of the Shirin bali, named after the shirkal tree will not sit in the shade
of the tree, and refrain from injuring it in any way. Descent in re­
ference to balis is traced through males, the caste in this point differing
from the majority, who either trace their bali through females or
through both sexes,' the latter presumably being the intermediate
stage betweem the older fashion and the modern system.
Persons of the same bali cannot intermarry. A b oy cannot marry
a paternal uncle’s daughter but he may marry his father’ s sister’s
daughter. He cannot marry his maternal aunt’s daughter, but he
(if W )V - VflT
49 [Haivakki Vakkal ^
may marry bis mother’s brother’s daughter. There are no other
prohibitions on intermarriage. A man may marry his deceased wife’ s
sister.
Haivakki Vakkals live in isolated villages peopled by families o f
their caste, with a strong and elaborate social organization to preserve
purity of morals, simplicity of maimers, and strict adherence to the
customs handed down from their forefathers. Their settlements lie
between the western slopes of the Sahyadris and the sea. They
stretch from the KAlinadi near Karwar on the north to the Shiravati
near Honavar on the south. This tract is divided into five social
groups or circles known as shinies : Hebbankeri or Hon&var, Chandivar
or Kumta, Gokarn or Katgal, Ankola, and Nddgeri or Karwar. Each
of these village groups has a ahime-gauda or group-headman, and
each village or hamlet in the group has its village-headman or
urgauda. The five group-heads or shime-gaudas are under a chief or
arns gauda who has a minister or pradhan-gauda. The civil head or
ards-gauda has as colleague a religious head or guru-gauda, who holds
the rank of a swdmi and helps the civil head to enforce discipline.
The religious head is a layman of the caste who marries in the caste
and eats with the members. His office is hereditary and his duty is
to fix the expiation of any offence proved against a member of the
caste. He does not join in the ordinary meetings of the caste, b u t
when an offence is proved before the civil head, the civil head fixes the
fine and refers the matter to the religious head, who names the expia­
tion suitable to the offence. The religious head is treated with much
respect by the people, even by the civil head. The headquarters of
the civil head are at Ilegde, four miles east of Kumta, those of the min­
ister at Valgalli three miles, and those of the religious head at Talgod
five miles from Kumta. The offices of all the headmen, including the
civil head, the minister, aud the religious head, even that of the
Icolkdr or beadle, are hereditary. The functions of the village heads
are to call meetings to enquire into ordinary breaches of social rules ;
to dispose of minor offences against time-honoured customs by fines
up to Rs. 5 ; and to report to the group-head or shime-gauda serious
matters in which a heavier punishment is deemed necessary. The
group-head or shime-gauda hears complaints against the decisions
of the heads of the villages in his group and has power to put out of
caste or to levy an unlimited fine. The village head is treated with
much respect by the villagers, who offer him betel leaves and nut
and give him the highest place at any village meeting. The village
groups in turn show a like respect to the group-head and the group­
ie w U0S>—7
ip;, Halvakki VakkalJ 50 %
v lJJA
head to the civil head. Each village-head has a beadle or kolkar
who carries messages from the village-heads to the people and to the
group-heads. A t certain intervals the civil head and the religious
head, with the help of the minister or pmdhan, call a general caste
council to settle social disputes, punish the refractory, or re-admit,
the penitent. A penitent is allowed back to caste on paying a fine
varying from Rs. 16 to Rs. 100. The general caste meetings ancl
councils are held at uncertain intervals, generally once in three or ten
years, at any convenient place fixed by the civil and the religious
heads. The council lasts seven to twenty days and sometimes a month,
during which the members are fed and other expenses met b y contri­
butions of food or of cash. The ordinary charges vary from Rs. 100
to 300, besides the materials ancl labour supplied by the people in
making the council hall. The right of being members of caste com­
mittees, jali-budvanlike, and of receiving certain complimentary
offerings, called mdnmarydde, are jealously guarded by some of the
richer families. The peculiar and apparently very ancient organi­
zation of this caste shows no sign of decay.
Girls are married from the age of eight to sixteen, there being no
rule that they should be married before the age of puberty. Boys
are married between twelve and eighteen. Sexual license before mar­
riage with a member of the caste is tolerated, though nominally
condemned. Polygamy is permitted, but polyandry is unknown.

Marriage The offer of betrothal generally comes from the boy’ s family.
moniea W hen a match is proposed the eldest male member of the boy’s
family asks a H avig priest whether the marriage will be prosperous,
and with some of the people of the family, goes to the girl’s house,
where he is treated to rice, curry, and paisa, that is, rice, molasses,
and cocoanut milk cooked together. After the meal the elder walks
up to the mother or any other near kinswoman of the girl, drops into
her hand a couple of betel leaves and nuts with a two or four anna
silver coin, and asks the girl’s name. The woman tells the girl’s
name, and all the people present chew betel leaves and nuts, when the
b o y ’s party return home. Before the marriage, at both the bride’s
and bridegroom’s, a shed of bamboo and cocoa-palm leaves is raised
for the guests. The shed is plain and has no marriage altar as in
the guest-sheds made by high class Hindus. T o the post of the shed,
which is first fixed in the ground, they tie mango sprays, and call the
post muhxirtmed or auspicious post. No other ceremony is observed
in connection with this post. They do not bring new pots from the
potter, nor do they in any way require the potter’s help in their
®
\Y* *'■?, » * a~' 1* f' *, rS M
51 [Halvakki Vakkal
' ?•'•'/■'<-‘'-I-'"iV' •/' ‘ '.'t''
<SL
' '■’(• '■ 'S' •/;'
marriage service. A day or two before the wedding the b oy’ s father
again goes to a H avig priest, asks him to name a lucky hour for holding
the wedding, and pays him four annas for his services, together with
two pounds of rice, a cocoanut, and betelnuts, and leaves. On the
evening before the wedding day all caste people are invited. N ext
day they come, each with a cocoanut or a pound of rice, which, they
present to the b oy’s mother, and sit on mats spread in the marriage
hall. Early on the wedding morning his mother rubs the bridegroom
with turmeric paste and bathes him with water ou t of the ordinary
bathing pot. They then lead him to the wedding hall and seating
him by an arch of atti (Ficus glomerata) branches, sing Kanarese
songs, and bathe him with water from two new earthen pots called
kumbhas, using five smaller pots called gadiges. A t the same time
the bride is bathed by five women at her house. When the bathing
is over, the bridegroom is dressed, in a waist-cloth, a long white coat
falling to his ankle, and a head-scarf. The bridegroom and bride
and their parents fast during the whole day. A metal pot called
lalige, filled with water, and with mango leaves and a cocoanut in
its mouth, is set on a metal tray with a small quantity of rice. The
bridegroom, wearing the marriage coronet, walks to the sweet basil
plant, and bowing before it and the image of the patron god which is
under it, sets a cocoanut before them. A dinner is served to all
except the bridegroom and his parents, and a dinner is also
given in the bride’s ■house. The bridegroom then enters the house
and hows to the ground before the cocoanut god and offers a cocoanut
to it, and holding a few betelnuts, aud leaves and a cocoanut in his
hands, leaves his house for the bride’ s, generally between nine and
eleven at night. He is accompanied b y his house people and guests
and by a Bhoi fisherman who leads the procession carrying a lighted
torch. Close behind the bridegroom walks his best-man, who is his
brother-in-law, cousin, or other near relative. The best-man is
called chanchi-husa or box-carrier because he bears on his head a
rattan box called chanehi containing betelnuts and leaves, tobacco,
three robes, a wooden comb, and a small metal vial with eye-salve
and another with vermilion paste. The box also contains flowers,
the lucky necklace, aud some, gold and silver ornaments worth R s. 10
to Rs. 20. The bridegroom’s sister walks by his side with a tray
containing the water-pot or lalige. When the procession has started
the women sing Kanarese songs, tw o of them leading the chorus
with shouts of save, from shvbh happy or prosperous. When the
bridegroom draws near the bride’s house, her father comes out with
a small metal pot called chambu full of water, washes the bridegroom’ s
W l (t,
Halvakki Vakkal] 52 k1 1 J
'
feet, and leads him to the sweet basil plant, near which is an arch of
atti (Ficus glomerata). In front of the basil plant the washerman
spreads a clean white cloth for the bridegroom to walk on, and receives
eight annas, one or two pounds of rice, and a cocoanut. When in
front of the basil plant the bridegroom bows to it, while the women
of the bride’ s house wave lighted lamps before his face. He then
enters the house and presents the bride with one of the three roben
worth about R s. 4 which were brought in the cane-box, and in this
she dresses herself as soon as the bridegroom has gone back to the
marriage ball. On his return to the marriage hall, the bridegroom
is seated on one of two low wooden stools, which are placed close
to the sides of the arch, and soon after the bride is brought by her
parents and seated on the empty seat beside the bridegroom. Married
women then rub one of the bride’s and bridegroom’s arms with
turmeric paste and wash it off with water taken from the water-pots
or kumbhas. Then the bridegroom presents the girl’s mother with
a robe worth Rs. 2, one of the three robes brought in the best-man’s
box'. The couple then rise, pass through the arch, walk three times
round it, and move to a wooden seat or mancha, in front of which
they stand face to face separated by a curtain held by two young men,
relations of the bride. The parents of the bride then join the right
hands of the bride and bridegroom, and pour milk on them from a
small metal pot. This is known as the dhdre ceremony and is the
binding portion of the marriage service. When the milk pot is
emptied, the curtain is drawn to one side and the pair sit together
on the bench, while the guests throw rice on their brows, wishing
them good luck, and the women wave lighted lamps before their faces,
sprinkling grains of rice on their brows and singing Kanarese songs.
When this is over the bridegroom gives the bride a second robe, worth
Rs. 2, the last of the three brought in the best-man’ s box, and the
maternal uncle of the bride makes them rise from the seat, and tying
the ends of their garments, leads them into the house, where they bow
to the cocoanut-god, break a cocoauut before it, and sit on a mat spread
in the ante-chamber, and are given refreshments in separate dishes.
The bridegroom, for fear of being considered a glutton, eats nothing
and, when pressed, feigns want, of appetite; but he eats to his heart’s
content when all the guests have gone. On ordinary days the wife
eats in her husband’s dish without washing it, after he has eaten;
but during the marriage ceremonies she eats from a separate dish in
company with other women. Next evening the married couple with
their guests return to the bridegroom’s house, how before the basil
plant and Vcnkatarama, and break the cocoanut which was offered to
m
53 [Halvakki Vakkal
§l
tliem. and then bow to the ancestral cocoanut and break the cocoanut
that was offered to it. The marriage coronet is then taken from the
bridegroom’s head and next day is fastened to the chief post of the
house. The ceremony ends with a dinner. A t none of their marriage
ceremonies or processions is there any instrumental m u sic; the only
music is the women’ s songs. A marriage costs the girl s father
about Rs. 60 and the boy’s father about Rs. 100. The b o y ’ s father
has to pay to the girl’ s father /era, or bride-price, varying from Rs. 20
to Rs. 64. In order to save this payment, double marriages are
sometimes arranged; but if this is not feasible, the bridegroom is
sometimes adopted by the parents of the bride as a domestic son-in-
law ( mam-alaya), in which case the bridegroom has not to pay the
bride-price, but there is a mutual agreement that the son-in-law should
stay and work at the bride’s house, receiving some of th e profits
of her parents.
The marriage of widows is allowed and practised. The widow’s
new husband should, if possible, be a widower, and in any case be
must be a married man. No special ceremonies attend a widow’ s
marriage, except that her new husband gives her a fresh robe and that
she leaves her parents ’ house b y the back door. W idow marriage
is regarded with disfavour.
A husband is allowed to divorce a wife. A divorced w ife cannot
remarry during the life-time of her husband.
Like most other Kanara castes, the H alvakki Yakkals have come
under the influence of the Yaishnavism of R&m&nuja. Their family
g od is an unhusked cocoanut, which is kept in a shed near the sweet
basil plant and worshipped daily, and their patron deity is Yenkat-
rama of Tirupati and his attendant Hanuman. One of their favourite
places of worship is a temple of Hanuman at Chanddvar in Kumta.
The ministrant is a Havig Brahman, but the Halvakkis have the
right to receive the prasdd or flowers used in adorning the god.
They also worship the village gods and goddesses by sacrificing
goats and fowls before their idols, and the unhusked cocoanut,
which represents the head of their family. Whenever they can
afford the Rs. 5 to Rs. 10 which the journey costs, they go on
fo o t to Tirupati. On their return, during the rest of their life,
they keep Saturday as a fast and abstain from animal food
till they propitiate the god and feast the community. On
the first fair day after the feast the pilgrims, with a band of their
easte fellows, hunt in the woods, and feed on any deer or hog th ey may
kill. Every year, a few days after Ydgadi or N ew Year’s D ay, that is,
V (fiT
/Halvakki VakkaJj S4
near the end of April, they celebrate the day of Venkatarama, calling it
Earidina or Harisheve, that is, Hari’s Day or Hari’ s Propitiation.
Eight days before the Earidina, metal vessels are cleaned and earthen
cooking vessels are broken and new ones brought from the potter. The
houses and yards and the sweet basil altar are smeared with cowdung.
On Hari’s Day the basil plant is ornamented with sugarcane and
festoons of flowers and mango twigs, and the image of Venkatarama
is worshipped by one of the caste people, who, by several pilgrimages to
Tirupati, has earned the title of Das or servant of the god. The worship
begins about one in the afternoon and lasts for three hours. The priest
or das repeats Kanarese hymns in honour of Hari, and offers fruits,
flowers and betel leaves and nuts, burning frankincense and waving a
lighted lamp. The guests, at the end of every hymn, shout Govind !
The men, women, and children who have been asked to the feast
have to fast from sunrise till four in the afternoon, when a dinner is
given of rice, vegetables, fried rice, pulse, cakes called vadds, and paisa.
The basil worship is repeated on the next day and a small dinner is
given to relations and friends, the cost of the whole varying from Rs. 20
to Rs. 100 according to the means of the family. This entertainment
marks the beginning of the agricultural year. The four months
before it (December— March) are a time of comparative leisure, during
which the Halvakki Vakkals attend car festivals and other yearly fairs.
They also, at a cost of Rs. 10 to Rs. 40, hold a social feast called hagna,
from hagran fight, which lasts six days, during which, every morning
and evening, the house gods are worshipped and neighbours and
kinsmen are feasted. In the evening the women sing songs while
the men play on globe-shaped earthen drums or ghumtas with one end
open and the other covered with a lizard skin. This drum forms an
excellent accompaniment to the women’s voice. To the singing
and playing they sometimes add a masquerade dance, differing little
from the round Shimga or Eoli dance. In this, men alone take
part dressed like Europeans, Brahmans, soldiers, constables, and
messengers.

In the houses of those whose ancestors have visited Tirupati is

kept an image of Venkatarama, a miniature human figure about six
inches high carved in red sandalwood and covered with gold leaf.
The image is set in the vrinddvan or basil altar. Part of their earnings
is set aside as an offering to Venkatarama. It is laid beneath the sweet
ba sil plant at the time of worship and is then removed and dropped
into a hollow bamboo through a small slit at the upper end of one of its
joints. The head of the family every now and again adds a coin to
fi%
'•V <S3 / •/
55 [Halvakki Vakkal
(St I

this store. When the bam boo is full the contents are taken out and
sent to Tirupati to be presented to the god. This practice of setting
apart savings for the god is called chakra kattuvadu, that is, the
tying of four-anna pieces. The savings are considered sacred, and
even in times of necessity are carefully kept for the god.
Their other holidays are full and new moons, the eclipses, the
Sankrdnt in January, Holi in March-April, Yugadi in April, Divdli
in October-November, Aliyan Amvdse or son-in-law’s new moon in
October-November, and the hook-swinging or hhdnd festival.
They believe in soothsaying, witchcraft, and the power of spirits,
exorcising them when there is sickness by the help of Ghadi and
Kom&rpaik soothsayers. They observe birth, naming, marriage and
death ceremonies. They also believe in ceremonial impurity, holding
a family to be impure for three days after a birth or after a death,
and women for four days once a month.
They respect and consult Brahmans, but do not em ploy them to
perform any ceremonies.
The bodies of deceased persons are usually burnt except Death
those dying of small-pox or cholera, women dying in ch ild -cere".
birth, and children under seven years of age, which are buried.
When sickness takes a fatal turn the nearest relation of the dying
man feeds him with gruel from a shell spoon, resting his head on his lap.
When signs of death appear, the Das or some elderly member of the
family calls out the name of Hari and Govinda. When the man is
dead the body is brought out, washed, covered with a new shroud,
and laid on a bier. As they draw near the burning-ground, the bearers
set down the bier, pick a small stone and lay it by the side of the corpse.
They address it as the spirit of the dead and promise it a resting place
and food till the spirit has been formally called back to join its ancestors
in the family cocoanut. The bier is then lifted and taken to the burn-
ing-ground, where the body is burnt without further ceremony. Before
the party return home, the chief mourner offers cooked rice and a
young cocoanut to the life-stone and repeats the offerings on the
second and third days. On the third day the chief mourner goes to
the burial-ground, and gathering the ashes in a conical mound, offers
the dead a fresh cocoanut and rice cooked without salt. On their return,
the faces and the heads, except the top-knot, of the male mourners, are
shaved, the house is cleaned by a fresh coating of cowdung, and the .
washerman sprinkles water over the people and over the house. After
the house has been cleaned and the people purified by the washerman,
the chief mourner goes to the family cocoanut, worships it, and asks
 ’ G°^v\

tilt Hanbar] M
§l
the spirit of the latest deceased to join its ancestors in the cocoanut.
In the evening dinner is given to a few of the castemen. On the
twelfth day a feast is given to the whole community, when a person
of the age and sex of the deceased is fed and presented with betelnuts
and leaves, tobacco, and a new robe of small value. Every year a
feast is held in honour of the deceased ancestors when caste people
are feasted and offerings are made to the ancestors.
Occupa- The Halvakki Vakkals are now chiefly husbandmen, but they hire
tlun- themselves as labourers when their services are not required at home.
Their daily wages are four annas for a man and two annas for a woman.
The women and children never work, except in the fields, being paid in
grain worth 11, to 2 annas. They have the monopoly of making roofs
of bamboos and coir rope and also of building the tops of the great
temple-cars or raths. Some of them are good physicians, using roots
and barks to cure fever, carbuncles, inflammation of the lungs, and liver
diseases. They are paid only their boarding, with in some cases the
present of a blanket worth Re. 1 to Rs. 3. Besides house work the
women help the men in the fields and also plait mats of grass or sedge
called lava, worth 3 annas to Re. 1 according to size and quality.
They are successful cultivators, but their custom of spending as much
as Rs. 40 to Rs. 100 on their marriages often forces them to borrow
money at twelve to twenty-four per cent. In many cases the principal
remains unpaid for generations, the interest being regularly paid and
the bonds on which the money is lent being renewed by the borrower
or his heirs. A Hdlvakki Vakkal seldom begs, the old and infirm
being supported by their neighbours in return for such light work as
they cau do.
Food. Their staple food is rice and rdgi. They are very fond of molasses
and paisa. They eat tame animals like fowls and goats sacrificed to
the village deities, as also fish and wild animals killed in hunting, such
as hogs, rabbits, and deer, provided they are not sacred to the bah’ to
which the eater belongs. They do not eat bison, crocodiles, snakes,
lizards, jackals, and insects. They never touch liquor, and carry their
dislike of it so far that they never stand under a cocoanut tree
while it is being tapped.
HALVEKARI.— A sub-division of Ldds.
HANAM.— A sub-division of Gollas.
Name and HANBARS, also known as Krishna Gollas, numbering 23,917 (1901),
origin. including 11,951 males and 11,966 females, are found chiefly in Bel-
gaum, Bijapur and the Southern Maratha Country. The name Han-
bar means a possessor of cattle with upright horns. According to
iffo )
V-; i ":- ' 57 [Hanbar
(at
their caste rules they ought to live in forests, keep herds of cattle, and
sell milk and clarified butter, eat only once a day, wearing a wet cloth,
and never look at a lamp or engage in tillage. N ow a-d ays they do
not adhere to these rules; many of them till land, and a few serve
as messengers and labourers or field workers.
Hanbars consist of the following endogamous divisions:— Divisions.

(1) Hosa or New Hanbars.

(2) Hale or Old Hanbars.
(3) Bile Shriyas.
(4) Bannad Shriyas.

In Belgaum the Hosa or New Hanbars and Hale or Old Hanbars

eat together and intermarry, but in Kanara neither interdining nor
intermarriage is allowed. Bile Shriyas and Bannad Shriyas do not
eat together or intermarry. All Bijapur Hanbars are Bile Shriyas;
the Bannad Shriyas are found only in the hilly country. The Hanbars
of Kanara are said to have come from Kal van in the Nizam’s Dom i­
nions ; but all communication with their Kalyan caste-fellows has
ceased. The surnames among the Hanbars of Bijapur district are,
Boluya, Hosurya, Kiriya and Kuriya.

The bedagus or exogamous divisions are as follow s:—

1. Annil. . 5. Gudael. 9. Nandana.
2. Bannada. 6. Gundva. 10. Sindaga.
3. Chandana. 7. Houma Kas- 11. Tambilta.
turi.
4. Chuncha. 8. Hounana. 12. Tragari.

Sameness of bedagu but not merely sameness of surname is a bar to

intermarriage. In Belgaum district among the Hanbars the sameness
of devak is a bar to intermarriage. In Kanara they have no devaks.
Families who have the same gods are considered to belong to one stock
and therefore to be too closely related to allow of intermarriage. A
man may marry his father’s sister’ s or mother’s brother’s daughter.
H e cannot marry his mother’ s sister’s daughter. A man may marry
tw o sisters, and two brothers may m an y tw o sisters. They do not
admit outsiders into their caste.
Boys are married at any age. Girls must be married before the
age of puberty. Girls guilty of sexual indiscretions before marriage
are turned ou t of the caste. Polygamy is permitted but polyandry is
unknown.
n h 1109— 8
 /-->■ ■'-ric.. ■ 'l*W-
■ p

l ^ ^ i ’ H a n b a r] 58 ^

Marriage The offer of marriage comas from the boy’s father. The auspi-
eere- cious day for marriage is fixed by a Deshasth Brahman, who also con-
mcml0S' ducts the marriage service. The boy’s father pays money to the
girl’s father. The betrothal known as hashtagi is performed in the
presence of the eastemen. Then comes devakarya, which consists in
holding a dinner for the propitiation of the marriage guardian deity.
The bride and bridegroom are then rubbed with turmeric paste, and the
ceremony is known as Arishina (i.e. turmeric). When the marriage
is celebrated, grains of rice are tied to the ends of the bride’s and bride­
groom’s garments and are also thrown over the heads of the couple
by the assembly. The bride and bridegroom are then taken on a
horse or a bullock to the temple. This is known as Eterisuvadu.
The marriage ceremony ends with the performance of the Nagmli
ceremony, a feast of rice and millet.
Widow remarriage is allowed. A widow may marry her father’ s
sister’s or mother’s brother’ s son. A widow remarriage can be cele­
brated on an auspicious day in any month except Pamh. Divorce
is allowed. A woman convicted of adultery is turned out of her
caste.
Religion. They follow the Hindu law of inheritance. They say that they
do not believe in witchcraft or sorcery, but have faith in soothsaying.
When a soothsayer is consulted, a packet of betelnut and leaves and a
copper coin or two are laid before him, when he opens his book and,
after reflection, gives an answer therefrom.
Hanbars are Hindus by religion and worship Shiva, Maruti,
Yellamma, etc. Their family god is Alamprabhu, whose shrine is
at Alatgi in Kolhapur State.- They worship minor deities, such as
Khandoba. Animals and trees sacred to the Hindu religion are
revered by them. Sacrifices of goats and fowls are made to their gods
and are partaken of by the offerers. They worship the images of their
dead ancestors amd make offerings of cooked food. They fast on
Fridays and keep the usual Hindu holidays. When an epidemic
breaks out they prepare wooden images of Durgavva and Murgavva
and worship them. Their family priests are Deshasth Brahmans, who
officiate at their marriages, and are consulted regarding lucky days
and names for their children.
Death. - They bury or burn their dead. The bones and ashes of the dead
when burnt a.re thrown into a river or a pond. Caste-men are feasted
on the eleventh day after death. Every year in the month of Bha-
drapad Brahmans are worshipped, water in which their feet have been
washed is drunk, arid presents are made to them. No ceremonies are
m 59
Mit
[Hanbar J A J
performed for the propitiation of childless ancestors and persons who
have died a violent death.
The Hanbars are frequently husbandmen. They grow both Occupa-
watered and dry crops. They are skilful husbandmen, being helped 0 ‘
by their women and children. Some of them are field labourers.
Their busy season is from June to December and their slack season
from January to M ay.

They eat the flesh of goats, sheep, fowls and fish. They drink Food,
liquor.

The following customs are peculiar to the Hanbars of Bij&pur

d istrict:—

In settling marriages, the b oy’s father visits the girl’s house Bij4puil.
and presents her with fifty betelnuts and fifty leaves and four pounds Hanbars.
of sugar. Caste-people are asked to attend, and sugar is put into the
girl’s mouth in the presence of all. The b oy’ s father pays the girl’s
mother one to five rupees, betel and sugar are served, and the caste-
people withdraw. The boy’s father is treated to a dinner of rice,
pulse and stuffed cakes. For the betrothal or bdshtagi, the b o y ’s father
again calls at the girl’s house with a present of four pounds of dry dates,
four pounds of betelnut, fifty leaves, twelve pounds of sugar, two
pounds of cocoa-kernel, a piece of bodice-cloth and five turmeric roots.
The girl is seated on a blanket, her lap is filled with rice and five kinds
of fruit, and her mother is paid ten rupees in the presence of the caste-
people met at the house. The guests are feasted on sugar rolly-
polies, rice and clarified butter, and a day is fixed for the marriage by
the village joshi or astrologer. On the happy day the bride’s party
lead the bride to the bridegroom’s and they remain there till the
marriage is over. In the evening the couple are rubbed with turmeric
paste and on the next day the gods are propitiated. On the third day
the couple are bathed, dressed in white, and taken to bow in Maruti’s
temple. On their return to the bridegroom’s they stand face to face
in the yard before the house, separated by a turmeric cross or nandi
marked cloth held between them by the maternal uncle of the bride.
A thread wristlet to which a piece of turmeric is tied is bound round the
right wrist of each of the couple and they are blessed and rice is thrown
over them. Then comes the dhuru or earth-offering, in which rice and
cakes are set in a dish, which the couple are made to worship, and they
are feasted on the rice and cakes in company with five married women.
The other guests and caste-people are feasted and in the evening
the couple are made to visit the temple of Maruti, where they place
(f( 2 /L
Hanbar j 60 (fiT J
a lighted lamp before the god, bow to him and return home. Then
they bow before their family gods, and in the presence of caste-people
the parents of the girl formally make her over to the bridegroom’s
mother. The party of the bride are feasted on nagrnli, a dish of rice
ana millet boiled together and mixed with clarified butter and molasses,
cakes, rice and pulse.
The patron deities of ITanbars of Bijapur are Maruti, Mangalavva
and Yellamma. They bathe once a week and visit the temple of Maruti
and bow before the image. On other days they perform no worship
before their morning meal and none of them have images of their gods
in their houses. They visit the shrines of Mangalavva at Mangalgad
in Bagevsldi and of Yellamma at Parasgad in Belgaum. Once a year
they sacrifice a goat to the god or goddess, who guards their fields and
to Mangalavva or mother luck at the end of the festival held in her
honour. They keep no Hindu holidays except the Cobra’s Fifth or
Ndgpanchmi in Skravcm or July-August, and the Mdgh full moon or
MdgJii Pournima in February. They never fast. They have a teacher
of their own caste, whose office is hereditary. They pay no respects
to Brahmans and do not ask them to their ceremonies. Their priests
belong to their own caste. They perform both marriage and death
ceremonies.

When a person dies, a peg is driven into the wall and the body
is bound to the peg in a sitting posture. If the deceased is a man he
is dressed in a waistcloth and headscarf, and, if she is a woman, in
a robe and bodice. The body is laid in a blanket or coarse cotton
cloth and carried to the burying ground and buried. A stone is laid
on the grave. Some burn their dead. On the third day they visit
the place, worship the stone that was laid on the grave, and leave an
earthen pot or moga, Indian millet flour boiled in water, and a second
earthen pot full of water. They wait for a time to see whether a crow
touches them, and return home. On the fourth, fifth, or sixth day the
house is cow dunged; the chief mourner with the four corpse-bearers
have their heads shaved and this purifies them. They then dine at
the house of the dead. Within a month after the death a waist-
cloth or robe is left in the place where the death occurred, and the
caste-people are feasted. They perform no memorial or shraddha
ceremonies.
HANDE GURUBA,— A sub-division of Handevants.
HANDE KURUBA.— A synonym for Lingayat Kuruba.
HANDERAUT.— A sub-division of Handevants.
(« f 1 • 61 [Harakantra
1S T
-■J L-J
j

HANDEVANT.— A sub-division of Lingayats.

HANDEVAZIR.— A sub-division of Handevants ; a synonym for
Ling&yat Kuruba.
HANDEYAWA.— A sub-division of Handevants.
HANSA.— A synonym for Mdnbhdv.
HANSOTI.— A sub-division of
Gandharids and Kbdrvas.
$ . ,y >
HARALI.—A sub-division of Chainbbars.
HARAN PARDHI.— A sub-division of Pdrdbis.
HARIDASAS are a small tribe of cattle breeders, found chiefly
in Blast Khdndesh.
H ARKA.— A sub-division of Kolhdtis.
HARAKANTRAS, * a class of fishermen, numbering 6,092 (1901), Name and
including 2,904 males and 3,188 females, are found entirely in the ongw‘
Kanara district on the sea-coast towns and villages from Kunvar
to Honavar. According to some, the name Harkantra is derived
from Harikaria a maker of cocoa fibre ropes. This derivation does not
seem to be correct as none of the Harkantras make ropes. According
to others, the caste is named after Harikantra, their supposed common
ancestor. This statement also seems to lack foundation in fact. The
most probable derivation of the term Harkantra appears to be harkat
meaning obstruction. In this connection a story is told that formerly
the Ambigs, Harakantras and Bhois were one and the same caste.
On one.occasion three brothers of the caste went fishing and caught
a large number of fish. A t the time of distributing the fish a quar­
rel arose between the brothers, and in the struggle that ensued, the
fishing net was torn in pieces. One of the brothers took away a
piece of the net and began to catch fish with this piece. .For so doing
he was outcasted, and his offspring were called Harkantras. The
second brother took another piece of the torn net and used it after
mending. His descendants were called Ambigs. The third brother
carried away in a basket the fish caught by the three and sold it.
He was the founder of the Bhois. Outsiders often mistake the Hara­
kantras, Bhois and Ambigs for each other, as they all follow the same
occupation and their features show a strong resemblance. It is pos­
sible that in their origin they were more closely connected than at
present. But the castes can be distinguished from one another by
the way in which they throw the fishing net and carry fish to the
market for sale. The Harakantras throw the hand-net from the

* The materials for this article were supplied by Mr. V. L, Ugrankar,

i t ) iHarakantra] 62
(s;t..j
level of the elbow, jerking it sideways from the left to the right. The
Ambigs throw it just in front from the level of the head. The Bhois
toss it round the waist. The Harakantra women carry fish to the
market on their shoulders in bamboo or wicker baskets, the Ambigs
on the head in the same kind of baskets, while the Bhois carry it in
bags of cadjan leaves.
Haralcantras speak Kanarese like the other lower castes of Kanara.
Some know Konkani and Hindustani. The names in common use
among men are Pursu., Kama, Goida, Jaju, Mailya, Gutti, Pokka,
Dongya, Bhika, Bhiva, Lingu, Tippa, Hanma, Cbikka; and among
women, Pursi, Jiri, Devi, Bhimi, Jethu, Tippi, Sukri, Nagi, Pntti,
Demi, Chikkai, Iru, Kali and Honma.
Harakantras are a well-organized community. A group of four
or more villages has a headman called budvant, a secretary called
uhaulgo, and a messenger known as Tcollcar. These with the adult
male members of the community form a committee who have power
to decide caste disputes and the punishment for breaches of caste
rules. The principal committees of the caste are at Karwar and
Mirjan. An appeal against the decision of the committee lies to a
special committee convened for the purpose, consisting of the Karwdr
and Mirjan budvants as presidents and the representatives of the caste
from all other villages as members. A. second appeal lies with the
agent of the Shankar&eMrya of the Shringeri monastery who resides
at Gokarn. Petty offences are punished with fines varying from
annas two to rupees ten, grievous offences such as adultery and
eating with members of lower castes, with excommunication. The
offices of the budvant, chaulgo and kolkdr are hereditary. In ease the
rightful incumbent is too young or otherwise incompetent, the next-of-
kin officiates or another efficient and elderly member of the com­
munity is elected as a substitute.
Exo- Harakantras have numerous exogamous divisions of a totemistic
gammis nature known as balis, in common with most other castes in Kanara
divisions. a 8jm jiar social standing. Instances of these balis are—

1. Chandi bali. 9. Kayanmane bali.

2. Devan bali. 10. Kimane bali.
3. Galtan bali. 11. Kusale bali.
1. H ole bali. 12. Sherogaran bali.
5. Irdnaikau b a li. 13. Sukri bali.
6. Malgijetti bali. 14. Timman bali.
7. KAgaljetti bali. lfi, Tolana bali,
8. Kanne bali.
i.M;?:
x**, 08 [Harakantra <SL
No member of the section will injure in any way the tree, animal
or other object giving its name to the bali to which he belongs.
A member of the caste may marry his daughter to his sister’s son.
Sisters’ children cannot intermarry. A man may marry his deceased
wife’s sister. He cannot marry his brother’s wife’s sister during the
wife’s lifetime. Polygamy is allowed and practised, the number of
wives a man may have at a time being usually restricted, to two.
Polyandry is unknown. Girls are generally married from ten to
twelve, always before attaining puberty ; boys from fifteen to twenty-
five.
The negotiations for marriage begin with the b o y ’s father, who has Marriage
to pay a lent or bride-price of from Rs. 8 'to Rs. 32 to the girl’s father. cer°-. _
The betrothal takes place about ten days before marriage, when a ’ 8
feast is given to the boy’ s party by the girl’s father. A match cannot
be broken off after the betrothal ceremony has been performed.
About three days before the marriage the b oy’s party go to the
girl’s house, and present her with flowers and a gold or silver ornament.
The girl is decked in these, and the b oy ’s party is treated to a dinner
by her father. This is' known as the Oppali ceremony.
On the next day, a lucky day for the marriage is fixed by a Havik
priest, and invitations for the marriage are sent round. On the same
day marriage booths are erected at the houses of both the boy and the
girl. The muhurla medha or auspicious post o f the marriage booth
at the boy’s bouse is made of the jdmba (Xylia dolabri form is) and at
the girl’s house of the kindal (Terminalia paniculata) tree. Outside
the marriage booth, at both the houses, is raised a small arch or canopy
of Indian fig leaves, which are brought by a boy dressed in holy clothes,
after offering a cocoanut to the tree The bali or marriage guardian,
which consists of rice grains, a cocoanut, betel leaves and nuts placed
on a piece of new cloth in a winnowing fan, is then worshipped, and a
feast called chhaprade uta (booth-dinner) is given to the caste people.

Early next day the bridegroom, dressed in marriage attire with a

marriage coronet fixed on his head and a cocoanut and a couple of
betel leaves in his bands, starts in procession for the girl’s house.
W hen they near the girl’s house the procession stops, and some of the
party go to the girl’s house and present her with betel leaves and nuts
and flowers and a robe. This part of the ceremony is called Jcai-yek.
The girl puts on the robe and the wedding chaplet. In the meantime
the main body of the procession arrives, and is received at the entrance
of the marriage booth by the girl’s father. The bridegroom is received
'W M ^
if 1
:
)«Harakantra]
: 64
IfiT
<JLj

by the girl’s mother, who waves round his face a plate containing
lighted, lamps and turmeric water. The bridegroom puts annas four
into the plate. H e is then led to the marriage altar, the bride is
brought and made to stand facing him, a cloth is held between them
and they are made to throw flower garlands round each other’s necks.
Next, the bride’ s parents join the right hands of the bride and bride­
groom and pour over them milk or water (dhare ceremony), which is
the binding portion of the marriage ceremony. Five unwidowed
women wave lighted lamps round the faces of the pair and throw
grains of rice over their heads. The bride’s father makes presents of
clothes, etc., to the bridegroom, leads the pair into the house, seats
them near the ball, and gives them some molasses to eat. A feast
to the caste people ends the day’s proceedings.
N ext morning the bride and bridegroom are rubbed with turmeric
paste, and seated under the canopy of Indian fig leaves, where are
placed two big earthen jars filled with water and five smaller jars
empty. The bride’s mother holds a tray containing a coeoanut, rice
grains, betel leaves, etc., over their heads, and her father pours water
into the tray five times from the earthen jars. A t each time both of
'* them throw grains of rice over the couple’s heads. This ceremony is
performed by all the guests in order of their social rank. N ext, the
-pair are taken into the house and made to play a game with a ring,
after which they are led into the marriage booth. In the afternoon a
feast is given to the caste people b y the girl’s father. This fourth day
ceremony is called Muyyi, and the feast Muyyi uta.
On the fifth day, at high tide as a rule, the bridegroom returns to
his house with his bride. On their arrival, the Muyyi ceremony is
again performed, and the bride and bridegroom are led into the house
over grains of rice strewn on their path, the former holding a lighted
lamp into her right hand. Near the devak the bridegroom s father
takes the couple into his lap and gives them molasses to eat, the bride s
maiden name is changed, and she is give a new name. This ceremony
is known as Gharabharan. When it is over, a dinner is given to the
caste people by the b oy’s father. The same afternoon the marriage
coronet is taken off the bridegroom’s head and the chaplet off the
bride’ s head, and the parties on both sides are free to enjoy their
favourite palm-juice drink, from which they have been abstaining from
the commencement of the marriage.
On the next d ay the newly married pair go in procession to the
temple of their family deity to bow to the god, and thence to the
caste headman and other leading members of the caste. N ext the
ffl 65 IHarakantra ‘
(si
bridegroom goes to his father-in-iaw’s house with his bride to stay
there for five days, which is called punch parldvan. This ends the
marriage ceremonies.
The remarriage o f widows is permitted with the sanction o f the
caste committee. A widow cannot marry a member of her deceased
husband’s bali. She may marry her mother’s brother’s son, but not
her mother’s sister’s son. Before the marriage takes place, she has to
return to the relations of her deceased husband the ornaments, etc.,
received from him. A widow remarriage is celebrated at a late hour
at night on any day during the year. N o priest attends. Only a few
widows and male relations of the parties are present. The widow
bathes, breaks the bangles on her wrists, and puts on a robe and new
bangles presented by her intended husband. The pair are then seated
side b y side and ukda rice (rice prepared after boiling the paddy) is
waved over their faces by the widows present, which completes the
ceremony. Neither a remarried widow nor her husband are allowed
to take part in any religious or social ceremony. A bachelor is not
allowed to marry a widow. Adultery on the part o f women
is punished with excommunication. The caste follow the Hindu law
of inheritance with this peculiarity that even self-acquired property
is subject to partition at the time o f a division.

Harakantrhs belong to the H indu religion. They worship all Religion.

Hindu gods and goddesses and all plants and animals held sacred by
the Hindus. The special deities of their veneration are Kodibira
(Kadi cruel and him a hero), Balebira {bale net and him a hero) and
Belebanta (bele seashore and banta a soldier), whom they consider
their guardian deities, and who are propitiated whenever an epidemic
breaks out, or there is a storm in the sea, or there is a scarcity of fish.
Of the minor gods th ey worship b y preference Somanath, Mariamma,
Hulidevata (the god who has power to prevent tigers from doing harm
to the people), Vanadevate (the forest-goddess), Birs, Jatgas and Vet&l
(the chief of ghosts). They hold the whale (Kan. tiva M. devamdsa) in
great awe as they consider it a dangerous fish, and whenever they
chance to come across it in the seas, propitiate it by vows t o feed
maidens with presents of bodice cloths, bangles, etc., immediately on
reaching land. The Musalman saints are venerated. They observe
almost all the Hindu holidays and make pilgrimages to Tirupati,
( okarn, ^km nasthal and Pandharpur. They have great faith in
omens, sorcery, soothsaying, and lucky and unlucky days. T o meet a
fisherman or fisherwoman carrying fish the first thing on starting on
business or on a journey is considered a lucky omen. In other
a a 1109—9
 V\ »
, 1 / •Harakantra]
XC: 66

respects on this point they resemble the other Hindus. They believe
in evil spirits and have so ranch faith in their power to do good or
evil that all calamities are attributed to their working, and conse­
quently they are propitiated in various ways. Their priests are the
Havik or Karnatak Brahmans.
Death The dead are generally buried in a lying position with head to the
monies, north. Those who cun afford the expenses burn their dead. Persons
who have made pilgrimages to Tirupati and other sacred places must
be buried in 'a sitting position. The standard funeral rites in use
among the lower castes are observed. Even in the case of burial,
fire is carried with the corpse to the burning ground and is enkindled on
the grave after the corpse has been buried. The bones and ashes are
collected on any odd day between the third and eleventh day after
death, and thrown into a stream or the sea. On this occasion an
offering of cooked rice, cakes, fish curry and a cocoanut is made to the
deceased near the grave, and the chief mourner gets his head and
moustaches shaved. The mourning ends on the eleventh day, when
all the male members of the family who are fatherless have their
heads and moustaches shaved. The house is purified by sprinkling
all over it soda and ashes brought from a washerman, and all members
of the deceased’s family sip pauehagavia (five products of the cow)
brought b y the family priest. On the twelfth day a casteman having
no father is invited to dinner and is presented with articles of dress,
five pice, a metal plate and a metal drinking pot.

For the propitiation of the deceased ancestors cows are fed on

the new-moon day o f every month, and every year on the new-moon
day of Bhddrapad crows are fed and castemen are feasted. Persons
meeting a violent death are considered to become violent spirits,
and in order to prevent disturbance from them, they are consulted
through mediums and their desires fulfilled.

Oocupa- The hereditary occupation of the caste is catching and selling fish,
tlon- and bearing palanquins and litters. They do all kind of work con­
nected with fishing. They own small boats and use about fifteen
kinds o f nets, which are known also to the other fishing castes of Kanara.
They d o not catch crocodiles or tortoises. A new boat is launched
into the sea on a lucky day, decorated with garlands and flowers.
The guardian deities and spirits are worshipped on the occasion, and
molasses and cocoa-kernel are distributed. Those who can afford
it give a dinner to the caste people. They decorate their boats with
garlands and flowers also on the JJamra and Cocoanut holidays.

i,
B 67
' [Haslar
(si.
Some of the Harakantras are sea farers. But they are not skilled
sailors. A sailor is given annas 3 a day with food. Some are unskilled
carpenters and earn 3 to 6 annas a d ay in villages below the Ghats and
5 to 8 annas a day in villages above the Ghats. A few are office peons
and messengers. W hen the sea is stormy or they cannot put to sea,
they work as day labourers, or spin hemp yam or weave nets.

Harakantras eat the flesh of goats, sheep, stags, deer, hares, Food,
boars, wild and domestic fowl, fish and all sort of wild game. They
drink liquor, but have a special liking for palm-juice, which is drunk
by men, women and children almost every day.

They eat food cooked by all higher castes except Sonars, whom
they hate so much that they will not carry their palanquins or even
stay under their roof after sunset. They eat kacchi also with lower
castes except the Halepaiks, Bhandaris, Komarpaiks, Maratha
Kunbis, all the fishing castes of Kanara except their own, and the
degraded classes. Only the depressed classes eat food cooked by the
Harakantras.
HARSOLA.— A sub-division of Vanias ; a synonym for Harsolia.
HARSOLIA.— A sub-division of Brahmans.
HARSORA.— A synonym for Harsola.
HARVAVIA.—A sub-division of Dublas.
HASLARS or Hulsavars, numbering 2,277 (1901), including Name anI
1,2G9 males and 1,008 females, are found in isolated settlements or,'m-
in the Sirsi and Honavar tdlukas of the Kanara district. They rank
amongst the impure classes, and live on the outskirts of towns and
villages like Mahars and Chambhars. They seem to have com e
from Shimoga in north-west Mysore, where the caste is found in large
numbers, speaking the same language and following the same cus­
toms as Kanara Haslars.
There are two endogamous divisions of the caste, (1) Haslar and Division!.
(2) Bant Haslar, who neither eat together nor intermarry. Their
exogamous divisions known as balis are as follo w s:—
1. Ane bali .. Ane — elephant.
2. Betta bali .. Betta — the cane.
3. Kanne bali .. Kanric = a virgin.
4. Shendi bali .. Shendi — the tod d y tree.
5. Shetti bali .. . Sfietli — a fish.
6. Shirin bali . . Shire or Shirkal = a tree (Gynandropsis
pmtaphylla).
* "•v'$;■'
| fp
■. *'—'..
(St
k jl. j
Hati] 68
. " /•■;v'
These M is are totemistic. Members belonging to the same M i
cannot intermarry.
A Haslar may marry his father’ s sister’s or mother’s brother’ s
daughter. He cannot marry his mother’ s sister’s daughter. Marriage
with a deceased wife’s sister is allowed, and brothers are allowed to
marry sisters. Polygamy and widow remarriage are allowed, and
practised, but polyandry is unknown.
Marriage The offer of marriage comes from the boy’s father, who has to
moDies. pay a sum o f Es, 10 to the girl’s father. The marriage and other
ceremonies of Haslars do not differ from those of Mukris. They
follow the Hindu law of inheritance, and though they profess Hinduism,
they do not worship any of the regular Hindu gods. The chief objects
of their worship are the Jatgas and Mhastis, and Hathgudi and other
minor gods. They do not make pilgrimages. They observe only
the Dasara, Ydgudi, and Holi holidays. They are much afraid of
the spirits of the dead, whom they believe to have the power of
harming them. They offer them cocks, sheep and fruit, and have
much faith in sooth-saying and witchcraft. They trace all disease to
the working of unfriendly spirits, against whom they employ Ghadis or
exorcists. The dead are either burnt or buried. All their ceremonies
are conducted by biidvants or headmen of the caste.

Haslars make their living by working a3 labourers in fields and

gardens. They are paid both in cash and in grain. Some of them
take land on lease from superior holders.
Food. They eat the flesh of goats, sheep, fowls, wild pigs and venison,
and drink liquor. They rank with Mukris above Mahars and below
Halepaiks.
HATGHADE.— A sub-division of Kumbhars.
Name and HATIS, * numbering 2,231 (1901), including 1,118 males and 1,113
origin. females, are found mostly in the Sorath division of Kathiawar. They
are residents of the historic district of Malia Hatma under Junagad
State. Aecoring to the Hatis they are descendants from the Sisodia
Eajputs of Chitor, Hathising being the common ancestor. Those
who reside out of Malia Hatma are nicknamed Jiida (thick or large)
and those who live in Hatma Malia permanently are nicknamed
Patala (thin ox small), though the Patalas are the more numerous of
the two. Some Hfitis are known as Jogia Khumaos, and are supposed
to have descended from Jogaji (brother of Hathising) who ruled at

♦The materials for this article were supplied by Mr. K. 6. Pandit, B.A., Lh.B,
iffp) : ?■ ' 69
(ct
[Hat! t j l j

Ranpur Bheean. The Jogias and Hatis being descended from a com­
mon ancestor cannot intermarry.
The Hatis have two exogamous divisions, Sakhavat and Avartia, Divisions,
closely corresponding with the divisions bearing the same name among
the Kathis. The names in common use are, Bhojo, Desur, Devo,
Hathising, Joga, Khimo, Matra, Pithait, etc. Some of the surnames
can be traced to some brave ancestor, c .<)., Lakhani (from Lakho),
Bhojag (from Bhojo), Fakirani (from Fakiro), Bhurani (from B h u ro);
while one to a village, viz., Keshoja (from the village Keshod). These
five are the principal kulu (family stocks) of the Sakkayat Hatis. The
Sakhayat Hatis intermarry with the Avartia Hatis and also with the
Avartia Kathis, but not with the Sakhdyat Kathis. A t times they
intermarry with the Ahirs also. Subject to these rules, a H ati may
marry his father's sister’s or his mother s brother s daughter, but not
his mother’s sister’s daughter. Two sisters can be married simulta­
neously, or a younger sister may be married on the death of the elder
sister. Two brothers may marry two sisters.
Girls are generally married at the age of ten and m ay remain
unmarried till after they com e of age. B oys are married at about
twenty. A girl committing sexual indiscretions can remain in the tribe
b y paying a fine to the tribesmen. Polygam y is allowed though not
common. Incompatibility of temper, failure of issue, and misconduct
o f the wife justify the husband in taking to a second wife. Polyandry
is unknown.
The ofEar of marriage comes from the boy’ s father. A Rajgor Marriage
Brahman acts as a mediator between the parties and is paid as remune- ™^ica
ration sums varying from As. 8 to Rs. 5. These negotiations are
called Sagdi. The boy’s father has to pay the girl’s father a sum of
money known as des. In exchange for the des, clothes and ornaments
are sometimes presented to the g ir l: this ceremony is called Sayuriun.
The day for the marriage is fixed by a Brahman, a note stating the
day being written and carried to the b o y ’s father b y the fam ily priest.
This is known as lagna molcalvun (the sending of the marriage note).
The girl’s father takes the note, seats the priest on a wooden cot,
makes a chdndlo (a mark with red powder) on his forehead, and pre­
sents him with a coeoanut and a silver coin. This is called lagna
vadhdvavun (welcoming the marriage). Tw o days before the marriage,
booths are put up at the houses of both the bride and bridegroom.
On the day previous to the marriage day a fruit bhindol is tied to the
wrist of both the bride and the bridegroom, saffron or turmeric powder
mixed with water is applied to their cheeks and foreheads; Ganpati
 ttatij 70
<SL
is also worshipped. On the night of the marriage day the bride­
groom goes in procession through the Village and is welcomed by the
villagers with presents of dry dates. This is known as Kulekun. The
procession moves on to the residence o f the bride, where they are re­
c e i v e d by the bride’s party. The bridegroom is taken into the mar­
riage booth and welcomed by the bride’s mother (PomMavu). The
bride and bridegroom are garlanded with one garland for the two.
Next, the family priest comes with the bride’s father and reads the
marriage bans, which are then placed between the hands of the couple.
Marriage hymns are chanted and the bride handed over (Kanydddn).
The bride and bridegroom are then made to walk four times round the
marriage altar, which is the binding portion of the marriage service.
A dinner is held and the ceremony concludes.
The remarriage of widows is permitted. A widow is permitted,
if she so choose, to cohabit with her late husband’s younger brother.
If she wishes to remarry outside her husband’ s family, she must
first get a deed of separation (with or without paying a fine, as the caste
allow). She may marry her mother’s brother’s or father’ s sister’ s son,
but not her mother’ s sister’ s son. A widow remarriage is celebrated
on any auspicious day. Three or four respectable relatives from
either side, as also three or lour near relatives of the intended husband,
are called as witnesses. Cash and ornaments as agreed upon are
presented to the widow by her intended husband through her father.
The widow is then dressed and decked with ornaments. The mother
of the intended husband, or, in her absence, some other woman of the
caste, applies red powder to the foreheads of the pair, a present of five
coins is made to the widow’s mother, molasses or sugar is distributed
among all present, and the ceremony is over. N o additional ceremo­
nies are performed in the case of a bachelor marrying a widow.
Divorce is allowed. Suspicion as to the wife s chastity or actual
misconduct on her part Or discord between the husband and wife are
sufficient reason for obtaining a divorce. Either party has the right
of seeking a divorce. But to justify a divorce ou the part of the wife,
the husband must either have turned a recluse, contracted a loath­
some disease, or shown signs of impotence. A divorced wife can marry
again by the widow remarriage form. Calling the wife sister or mother
simultaneously with the tearing off of a piece of her head-dress is a
sufficient ceremony for a divorce. Forbidding a wife to enter her
husband's house is also thought sufficient proof of a divorce.

• Sons cannot claim partition during the father’s life-time, but can
claim maintenance. Daughters cannot claim the mother’3 Stndhan
'■ :'i ■ k v
71 [Hati

unless it has been given away by the latter during her life-time. W ith
such limitations, the community is governed b y H indu law.

The tribe is Hindu in religion. They belong to the Swaminarayan Religion,

and Ramdasi sect. Shankar and Vislinu are worshipped. Their
family deities are Naga and Chamunda. The cow is worshipped in
the month of Bhddrapad on the Ganesh Chaturthi day. Offerings are
made to deities in times of epidemic diseases. Their priests arc
Brahmans.

The dead are burnt. Infants and children under two years and a Death
half are buried as well as persons suffering from leprosv, the belief cere'.
being that leprosy is a disease which burns the body and that another
burning is not necessary. Both at burning and burial the corpse
is b id with head to the north. The bones and ashes of the deceased
are kept in an earthern p ot and thrown into the Dama-kund (pool) in
the Girnar hills near Junagadh.
To pacify a deceased ancestor, an annual shraddha is held. If a
man dies leaving no issue, as a form ality, a male calf is married to a
female calf, and this m ock marriage is called lila parandvi. If a person
meets a violent death, a stone idol made in his name or stones re­
sembling his feet are kept near the house gods on the ninth day of the
dark half of Bhddrapad.
The Hatis believe themselves to have once been a warrior class
and history supports this belief. V ery often the Malia Hatis have
fought with Junagacl and kept that State at bay, and their belief is
that had Pithait H ati n ot been treacherously seized, they would
have this day remained masters of 124 villages. Even now they
occupy m any villages, viz., Malia, Khorasa, Lathodra, Kosod, Pankhan,
Eklera, Shimoroti, Shilodhar, Vadala, D h a n ej; but very few of them
are landed proprietors. Many are small Vatandars, some cultivate the
soil as day labourers, and others serve as Pasaitas (village policemen).
They eat the flesh o f goats, sheep, scaly and scaleless fish, and Food,
drink liquor. They would eat with Ahirs, Rabaris, Bharvads, Kum*
bMrs and Mahias. The Kathis, Rajputs, Babrias and Charans would
eat with them.
HATKAR.— See Devang, Hatkar, Jad, Koshti or Sali. A sub­
division of Dhangars.
HATODE.—A sub-division of Kumbkars.
HATTIKANKAN.— A sub-division of Kurubas.
HAVIG.— A synonym for Havilc.
P BV j m m g|

(St

Helav] 72 ^ J
HAVIK.— A sub-division of Brahmans.
HEBBE GAUDA.— A synonym for Mukri.
HEDSHI.— A sub-division of Mahars.
H E L A —-A sub-division of Bhangis.

Name and HELAVS, literally cripples, numbering (1901) 1 ,0 8 8 including 557

origin. men an(j 53i vvomen, are a class of religious beggars found in Belgaum,
Bij&pur, DhArwar and the Kanara districts. In some respects they
resemble the Panguls, a Hindu begging caste, but differ from them in
being Lingayats. The caste is said to have come from the territory
about Kalyan in the Nizam’s dominion. The tradition regarding
its origin is, that in the twelfth century when Jainism was predominant
and Lingayatism was declining, the god Shiva ordered his pramdths,
or attendants, to visit the earth and revive Lingayatism. The Heiavs
claim to he descended from one of these pramaths or attendants named
Vakkalabhringi (i.e., one-legged Bhringi) who, on coming down to
the earth, wore ochre-coloured clothes, sat on a bullock, and went
from house to house singing the praises of the god Shiva. In imitation
of him, the Heiavs, when going begging, hide one of their legs in a
blanket even at the present day.
Divisions'. There are no endogamous divisions of the caste. There are ten
exogamous sub-divisions known as Yarasanava, Bommalinganava,
Andhakanava, Somadevanava, Kunchayanava, Tankanava, Bandi-
yava, Immadiyava, Bhimashettiyava, Yakapattinava. The Bombay
Gazetteer mentions the sub-divisions Parsabdtenava, Sadrinava,
Pankranava and Vanmanava.
A member of the caste is prohibited from marrying his brother’s
paternal uncle’s, or maternal aunt’s daughter; but he may marry his
elder sister’s, paternal aunt’s, or maternal uncle’s daughter. He is not
allowed to marry two sisters. Marriage is generally infant. Polygamy
is permitted, but a man marries a second wife only when he has no
issue b y the first wife or in case of her misconduct.
Marriage The b o y ’s father generally commences negotiations for a marriage,
monies, the day for which is fixed by a Jangam or a Joshi. The ceremony
is conducted by an elderly member of the caste, who is called for the
time being Kattemanevava or headman and is paid Rs. 5 by the
boy’s father. The b oy’s father has to pay Rs. 30 to the girl’s father
as brideprice. The boy and the girl are rubbed with turmeric on a
Monday or Thursday and the marriage takes place on the next day.
The essential portion consists in throwing sacred grains of coloured
rice op the bride and bridegroom, who are made to sit opposite each
 n
I Jf s TS
vfiT
[Helav j l j
other on low stools with a curtain bearing a turmeric cross between
them until the critical moment. The lucky thread or mangaisutra
is then fastened on the bride’s neck b y a married woman. In the
evening M&ruti is worshipped, and the priest of Marat i places half a
cocoanut, filled with ashes, in the bride’s lap.

The remarriage of widows is permitted. The widow cannot

marry her husband’s elder or younger brother or a man of the sub­
division to which her husband belonged. The marriage takes place
at night. Castemen are present, but they do not witness the ceremony.
Unwidowed women are not allowed to be present on the occasion.
The ceremony consists in taking the widow and her new husband
into a room , seating them side by side, and the tying round the widow’s
neck of a marriage badge by another widow. On the next day a
dinner is given to the caste people.

D ivorce is not known although a husband m ay abandon his wife

owing to her infidelity or on account of her quarrelsome disposition.
The caste follows the Hindu law o f inheritance.

In religion they appear to be Lingdyats of the third class, without Religion.

ashtavarna rites [see L1NGAYATS]. They wear the linga or phallic
emblem characteristic of all Lingayat castes. They worship b y
preference Basava as they believe that the founder of their caste
came down to the earth with him to propagate the Lingayat religion.
An alternative belief is that Basava, the founder of Lingdyatism,
took a pdngul or lame beggar under his protection and from this con ­
vert the Lingdyat Ilelavs are descended. The B om bay Gazetteer
states that their fam ily deities are Revaneshwar and Yellamma,
and that they make images and worship their dead ancestors to
prevent them from bringing sickness into the family. On Skrdvan
or July-August Mondays they take only one meal in the evening,
and keep Shivrdtra in January-February as a total fast. They believe
in soothsaying and witchcraft. They do not beg on Hindu holidays.
They have neither priests, nor a guru or religious teacher. Their
religious ceremonies are either conducted by experienced men of the
caste or b y Jangams. The dead are buried, the married in a sitting
posture with the legs crossed and face to the east or north, the
unmarried in a lying position with the head to the west or south.
For the propitiation o f ancestors, a ceremony is performed on the
full moon day of Jyeshtha or the 10th day of the bright half of AsJivin
when new clothes and cooked food are offered to their silver images.
No special rites are performed for the propitiation of childless
H u 1109—10
 n
■
(fiT
[olaya] 74
ancestors or men who have died a violent death. The ceremony of
Shrdddha is not performed.
They are hereditary beggars. When they go begging they sit
on a bullock and wrap the body from the neck down in a quilt or white
sheet to prevent people seeing their feet, which are tied to their thighs.
They alone have the privilege of passing through the village gate
without alighting from their bullock. They say that originally they
were genealogists and lived upon the charity of their patron families,
whose houses they visited and sung praises of their ancestors. They
are now mostly husbandmen and day-labourers.
They habitually prostitute their unmarried women. When a
girl is grown up she is made to undergo all the forms of a marriage
without a bridegroom and is dedicated to Maruti, in whose name she
carries on prostitution. She does not lose caste on this account.
rood. According to one account they abstain from eating flesh and drink­
ing liquor. According to the Bombay Gazetteer they eat goats,
hares, fowls and fish, and they drink liquor.
HELMAR.—A sub-division of Kolis.
HESI.— A sub-division of Berads.
HIJDA.— A synonym for Pavaya.
HINDUSTANI.— A sub-division of Dhors.
HIRE KURVINS.— A sub-division of Devfings,
HIR PANJNIGAR. — A sub-division of Panjnigars.
HOLAR.— A sub-division of Mahars; A synonym for Holaya.
HOLAYAS, known also as Holfirs or Valers in the Deccan and as
Jambus elsewhere, number 106,465 (1901), including 51,705 males and
54,760 females, and are found all over the Karnatak and above the
Sahyadris in Kanara, in parts of the Southern Mar&tha Country, and in
Poona, Satara and Shol&pur. Of this number, 884 were shown as
Lingavats at the Census of 1901. According to some, the term Holaya
is derived from the Kanarese hola a field, the word Holaya meaning
a field-labourer. According to others, it comes from hole meaning
dirty. The latter derivation is rendered probable b y the fact that
Holayas are an impure tribe, whose touch is defiling.
The tribe is represented in large numbers in Mysore and Madras.
In South Kanara, they are also called Raneru or kings. Sir W. Elliot{1)
is inclined to make the H olaya a Whaliar, which in early Kanarese
(l) 1869, J. Eth. Soc. Lond. I. 103.
 . ■ p

75 , [Holaya^*- ■<

is written Poliyar ; and the Tamil Polaiyar is the same word. A ccord­
ing to tradition, Parashuram’s Brahmans were driven out by low class
chiefs, one a Moger or fisher, the other a Holaya. In later times,
though the two stories perhaps belong to the same event, the Ivadamba
or Mayurvarma Brahmans about A. D. 700 were driven out b y a
Holayar chief named Nanda and were brought back by Nauda’ s
son.'1’ According to another tradition'2’ the Kadambas of Banavasi
destroyed Hubasiga, the king of the mountain Chandals, and annexed
his dominions.

The Holayas of Dharwar assert that the first H olaya was named
Jambu. A t that time, men were miserable and unsafe, living on an
earth that swayed, on the face of the waters. Jam bu made its found­
ation sure by burning his son alive. In reward for this sacrifice the
earth was called Jambudvipa or Jam bu’ s land.
According to Sir W . Elliot the Holayas are the remains of the
early race to w lom the Deccan impure classes and the Konds and
Gonds belong, in proof of the fact that in Mysore the Holayas are
sons of soil, that is, are the earliest remaining race, Captain Macken­
zie notices'3’ that the village watchman, who is a Holaya by caste,
settles boundary disputes and receives a burial-fee. In the Deccan
and Konkan, this function is still performed b y the impure Mahar,
who also is known as son of the soil ( Bhumiputra).

The Holayas are one of the aboriginal tribes of Southern India.

In Mysore, where they number about five and a half-lakhs, they have
still totemistic social divisions. This, and the facts that they feed
on carrion, that they have no Brahman priests, and that they are held
impure, are indications of their primitive origin.
Holayas are dark, middle-sized, muscular with fairly regular
features. In their dress and ornaments they resemble the Mahans.
Those of their women who are Basavis or prostitutes, unlike married
women, wear rings on theix great toes.
The home tongue of th« Holayas in the south of the Presidency is
Kanarese, and of those living in the Deccan, Marathi. The names in
common use among men are Basappa, Hanma, Mallappa, Ninga,
Ranmppa. Rudra, Vithu and Y e lla ; and among women, B asa w a,
Gangavva, Hanmavva, Titljawa and Udchavva.
Holayas a,re bound together b y a strong caste feeling. In the
Karnatak, their social disputes are settled by their headman, the
(1) Buchanan’s Mysore, HI. 163. (2) Rice’s Mysore, I. 104.
(3) 1173, Ind. Ant. II. 65.

V
P
Holaya] 76 ^
Tbalvadi, and some leading men of the caste, and any one who disobeys
their decision is driven out. In Kanara, they have a hereditary head­
man called Gataga, who performs their ceremonies and settles their
disputes. Offences against the community, such as eating with lower
castes, are punished by fines. When a married woman commits
adultery, both the guilty parties are put out of caste, and are not re­
admitted until their heads have been shaved and their tongues branded.
Endo- The Holars of the Karnatak have two divisions, Proper and
division P °traj as> who ueither eat together nor intermarry. The endogamous
divisions found amongst the Deccan Holars are as follows
Ayavle Gotrang Halmane
Birlinge (M ik Manvat
Dhauvat Javir Namdase
Garode Kamfe Parslia
Gijge Karde Vagar.
These divisions eat together but do not intermarry.
Exo- The exogamous divisions of the Deccan H olavis are known as
divisions, bhavkis in Sholdpur and as M s in other places. They are as follows •
Ail Hathikat Mhatre
Badanvar Hedge Ndmdas
Devak Honmare Navir
Dhoble J iv e Paras
Edve Kamble Parse
Elve Kengar Povar
Govare Khandekar Lonvane
Gorve Longar Tormal
Gulve Mane Tome.
Marriages are prohibited between members belonging to the same kul.
Sameness of devak is also a bar. to intermarriage. Every kul has a
separate devak. These devaks include an axe ( kurhdd), the whirler
of a spinning wheel (chat), leaves of five trees ( panchpalvi) and the
sun-flower.
A Holaya can marry his mother’s brother’s daughter. He cannot
marry his father’s sister’s or mother’s sister’s daughter. Marriage
with a wife’s sister is allowed. Tw o brothers are allowed to marry
two sisters. Polygamy is allowed and practised, but polyandry is
unknown. A. husband can divorce his wife with the sanction of the
caste panch if she is unchaste. The ceremony prescribed for divorce
is the performance of funeral rites in the name of the divorced wife,
who can then marry again by the widow lemarriage form. Girls are
 77 [H o la y a ^ L
generally married between five and fifteen, boys between twel ve and
twenty. Sexual intercourse before marriage is generally allowed, but
if a girl becomes pregnant, the offence has to be condoned by the
payment of a fine and giving a dinner. If the man involved belong
to another caste, the girl is said to be excom m unicated; though this
appears doubtful.

When a child is born, its navel-cord is cut and buried in the front Birth
yard of the house. A stone is laid over it, and the mother and child “ ” 'ie8,
are bathed upon the stone. On the fifth day, Indian millet is cooked
into thick gruel, a small stone is kept in the lying-in room, and jive
lumps of Indian millet gruel are set round the stone on a piece of cloth
which has been dipped in turmeric powder and water. The five
lumps of porridge and a little coarse sugar are served in five dishes,
and jive married unwidowed women are asked to eat the food. On
the ninth day ,five sorts of grain, Indian millet, togari (Cajanus indicus),
besru (Phaseolus mungo), wheat and madki (Phaseolus aconotifolius)
are boiled together and seasoned in a little oil, and five vmwidowed
women are called and fed with Indian millet gruel and coarse sugar.
The women lay the child in a cradle and sing. On the twenty-ninth
day the child is taken to the temple of their goddess Adohava, and is
laid before the idol. The pujdri or ministrant cuts a betel leaf in the
shape of a pair of scissors, and with them goes through the form of
cutting the child’s hair, whether it is a boy or a girl. They ask the
ministrant to find from the goddess what name should be given to
the child. The ministrant consults the goddess, and remains for a
while in silent study. He then suddenly utters a name, and that name
is given to the child. Flowers, turmeric and red powder are laid before
the goddess, and all go home. N ext day, or on some future day, the .
hair of the child’s head is cut.

Amongst the Deccan Holars, on the fifth day, two figures are
traced in charcoal on the door of the lying-in room, and an elderly
woman worships them as the goddess Satvdi. The figures of the
goddess are offered wheat, bread and rice, and the mother brings her
child and bows before them, and the ceremony is over. On the
twelfth day, the mother w o r s h i p s ^ pebbles ou t of doors and offers
them bread and rice. A child is named when it is a month old, the
name being given b y a Br&hman priest. Their children’s hair is
clipped any day between four months and four to eight years after
birth. Five pebbles are worshipped at some distance from the house
pr in the bush, a goat is offered, and they return and feast,
 Holaya] 78
Marriago The offer of marriage comes from the boy’s father, who has to pay
monies. a b rid e Price of from Rs. 2 0 to Rs. 1 0 0 to the girl’s father. The day
for the marriage is fixed in some places by a Brahman astrologer ;
in others by a Jangarn. The ceremony is conducted either by an
elderly castemen or by a Lingayat Chalvadi. In the Bashtagi or betro­
thal the b oy’s father places a cocoanut and anna3 1| before the girl’s
house gods, seats the girl on a blanket, marks her brow with vermilion,
presents her with a robe and a bodicecloth, and gives a bodicecloth to
her mother. Sugar is handed to the guests. The girl’ s father treats
the boy’ s father to a feast of boiled rice, wheat flour balls and molasses
water. On the wedding day the bride’s party go to the bridegroom’s.
If the bride is of age, she walks ; if not, she is taken on a bullock.
As they draw near the boundary of the bridegroom’ s village, his
party go and meet them with two plates, one with lighted lamps and
the other with burning incense. Both plates are waved round the
bride and her party. The bride’s party also wave lamps and incense
round the bridegroom’s party and they com e together to the bride­
groom’s. Next day the boy and girl are rubbed with turmeric paste and
bathed in a stirgi or square with a drinking pot at each corner, a cotton
thread being passed several times round the necks of all the vessels.
A married woman waves a lamp before the boy and girl, the boy is
dressed in new clothes, and the girl in a white robe and yellow bodice.
The girl stands on a low stool or on a stone slab, and opposite her the
boy stands in a basket containing rice, bits of a leather strap, aud a
whip. The boy fastens the Mangel Sulra or lucky string on the girl’ s
neck, and an elderly Holaya recites a verse or two out of the marriago
service and drops rice on the pair. Other guests join him in throwing
rice, and the ceremony ends with a caste feast. In some places, the
bride and bridegroom are seated on a blanket, and the lucky thread
is fastened by the officiating priest. N ext day, the b oy’s father
presents the girl with a robe and bodicecloth, and her mother with two
robes. The heads of the b oy and girl are decked with marriage
coronets and they are seated on a bullock, the girl sitting in front of
the boy. The procession is headed by some men beating fialkis or
bell-less tambourines. The procession halts at the temple of the
village Maruti, where the pair give a cocoanut to the miuistrant, who
breaks it before the god and returns half of it to the pair, with ashes
from the god’ s censer. After bowing before the god the party return
in procession to the boy’s. Next day the girl is taken to her village.
After some days the Gharbharni or housefilling takes place, in which the
girl is taken to the boy’s house aud is gi ven a robe and bodice. When
a girl comes of age, she is made to sit by herself for three days, and is
ffW l (CT '
: 79 [Holaya 1
fed on boiled rice mixed with cocoa-kernel scraping and coarse sugar.
On the fourth day she is taken to a bdbhul tree and made to touch it
with her right hand. She then comes home, bathes and is purified.
The marriage Ceremonies of the Deccan Holayas resemble those
of the Mah&rs, the essential portion being the pouring of water over the
joined hands of the bride and bridegroom (dhdre).
The remarriage of widows is permitted. A widow cannot marry
her mother’s brother’s or mother’s sister’s son, or a member of her
deceased husband’s Inti. She may marry her father’ s sister’s son.
A widow remarriage is celebrated on a dark night or on a new-moon
day. Kinsfolk on both the sides attend the ceremony. The widow
and her intended husband are seated on low wooden stools or on a
bullock’s packsaddle, the widow’s lap is filled, and her brow is marked
with red powder. A feast is then held, which completes the ceremony.
It is considered unlucky to see the faces of the remarried pair for three
days after the marriage. A bachelor is allowed to m a n y a widow
after he has been married to a sharni tree (Prosopis spicigera).
Holayas follow the Hindu law of inheritance and profess Hindu- Religion,
ism. Most of them neither worship Br&hman gods nor call Brahmans
to conduct their ceremonies. The fam ily deities of the Karnatak
H o la y a s are Dy&inawa, Durgavva, A dch aw a , Y ellaw a, M argawa,
Hirodya, mA Shaktivva. The chief ob ject of worship of the Kanara
Holayas is Vefikatanfma. The ministrants of Durgavva, M argawa
aDd Shaktivva are Ik'layas. Holayas keep the holidays of Eolihunmi,
TJgddi, Ndgpanchami, ])asara and Divdli. They make pilgrimages
to Parasgad in Belgaum, TuljApur, Shingnapur, Pandharpur, Jejuri,
and to the shrine of Jotiba in Bafnagiri. Goats and he-buffaloes are
offered to Murgavva and A inhabit,. an<I Khandoba. Parts of the
offerings are given to the servants of the deities, and parts are partaken
of by the offerers themselves. M usalm in saints are venerated.
Sometimes both men and women vow to ruP themselves with huttegi
or sandal paste in the name of Yellamma. 'The devotee strips her
clothes off, rubs her body with oil, bathes, smea.-s tilu whole body with
sandal paste, and covers it with niwb leaves fro ^ head to foot. The
devotee then goes to a temple of Yellamma, bovvs before the goddess,
offers her dressed food, and returns home. O r1 *he way to and from
the temple the devotee shouts aloud Udho, pdho, that is Victory,
Victory. The spiritual teacher of the Karnat^b Holayas is a man of
their own caste who lives in Bellary, and the teAclier of those in Kanara
lives in Tirupati. They are great believers sorcery, witchcraft and

v ' .v
soothsaying.

' \ , *?,
(f(f i t ; vCT
' ’ H ola y a ] 80

When a Holaya has all daughters and no son, he makes one of his
daughters a Basavi and keeps her in his house to look after him. To
make a Holaya girl a Basavi, on a lucky day the girl is taken to a
temple of the goddess Adehavva with flowers, coeoanuts, and betel-
nuts and leaves. The pujdri or ministrant of the goddess worships the
iddl, ties a lucky thread of gold and glass beads round the girl’s neck,
rubs her brow with white cowdung ashes, and tells her that she has
been made a Basavi, and from that day is free to act as courtezan.
From that, day she maintains her parents and attends on the idol
on great days, driving off the flies from the idol with a fan. After the
death of her parents she inherits their property as a son would, and
. her daughters are freely taken in marriage.

Death The dead are buried. The married dead are carried to the burial
cere ground seated in a cloth or blanket, the unmarried in a lying position.
A Lingavat Chalvadi washes the face of the corpse, rubs it with white
ashes, puts a small piece of gold into its mouth, and fills the pit
with salt. The body of a Basavi or female devotee is buried with the
same rites as the body of a married woman. The unmarried dead
are buried without washing the face, applying white ashes, or putt/cg
a piece of gold in the mouth. On the fifth day the deceased’s house is
cowdunged and the deceased’s clothes are washed, incen?M with
frankincense, and presented with a sweet dish. Holayas observe
mourning for ten days, during which they consider themselves impure.
They do not perform the shrdddha.

Occupa- The main occupation of the Kanarese Holayas is removing dead

animals, making sandals, and ordinaryJield. work, especially at harvest
time. They skin dead cattle anrj sell the hides and horns. They
sweep the village ckavdi and re- aove dea<j cattle, for which the husband­
men pay them in grain at harvest time. Some are village watchmen
and some are in charge o{ village ponds. Under former Governments
they had to carry the baggage of Government officials from village to
village without pay.
The Holayas of t'ae Deccan maintain themselves chiefly as musi­
cians and songsters, ^hey are engaged at the marriages of Kunbis
and other castes of s ii^ a r standing. They also work in leather like
their Kanarese brethr> .u_
Food. The staple food oh Holayas is Indian millet bread, pulse, chillies
and vegetables. In Kamara> riee forms the principal article of their
food. They eat carrion COWS) sheep, pig, jackals, fowls and game,
and drink liquor. Some h o la y a s do not eat from Dhors, Mings and

; •. ^/k>;
|| • _ ' , . ' ;■:> ... f ■
. 81 [Holaya<§L
Samgdra or even from N M via and Parits. In the social scale they
occupy the same place as the Mahars of the Marathi-speaking districts
and the Dhedas of Gujarat.. Like the Mahdrs, their touch, even contact
with their shadow, is considered to defile.

PO TRAJAS or Buffalo kings differ in some respects from the Hola-

yas proper. The story of the origin of their name is that their ances­
tor became the husband of Dydmavva, an incarnation of the great god­
dess Lakshmi. They lived together for several years and had children.
A t Dyamavva’s request the Holaya brought his mother to their house.
As they were eating some of D ydm a w a ’s sweetmeats the mother said
to the son, “ H ow like this is to a roasted buffalo tongue.” Dyama-
w a , finding how she had been deceived and degraded, burnt her house,
slew her children, and, pursuing her husband who had taken the form
of a buffalo, killed him. The descendants of the husband are called
Potrajas, that is Buffalo kings. They are a small body and are found
in only a few villages of the Dharwiir district. On Dyam avva’s fairs,
which last for eight days, several male buffaloes representing the
Holaya who married Dyamavva and a number of sheep representing his
children are slaughtered bgfore the deity. The officiating Potraja tears
open the throat o f a lamb with his teeth, and drinks its blood.
On the last day of the fair, in a state of stark nakedness, he carries
cooked rice on his head all round the village, throwing away a little,
and slaughtering a sheep at each of its corners. On his return he
receives a large share of the slaughtered buffaloes and sheep. In other
respects Potrajas do not differ from Holayas.

HOLGE.— A sub-division of Mangs.

HOLIA.— A sub-division of K o M tis .
HOLIACHIBALKI.— A synonym for Athnikar.
BOLKAR.— A sub-division of Dhangars.
HONA.— A subdivision of Rabdris.
HOSA.— A sub-division of Hanbars.
HUGAR.— A sub-division of Lingayats.
HULSAVA.—A synonym for Mahdr.
HULSAVAR.— A synonym for Haslar.
HUMAB.— A synonym for Ummad.
HUMBAD.— A synonym for Ummad.
HUSSAINI BRAHMAN.—See under minor Musalman Castes;
a synonym for Sahadev Joshi.
H H XlOd—11
 HUVALE.—A synonym for HolAr MahAr.
IDHVAL.— A synonym for IndhvAl.
ILGARS or palm-tappers, also called Kalals and ShindigArs, are
found chiefly in DhArwar, BijApur and Belgaum. Their main calling
is that of tapping palms. They have four divisions, (1) Kaudanya,
(2) Karunya, (3) KAtunya and (4) VAschalya. The first tw o eat
together and intermarry, but do not eat or marry with the third or
fourth. They have several family stocks which are exogamous. Their
family deities are Basava, Tulja-Bhavani, Hanuman Yellamma and
Ratnaray. They show great respect for the linga. Their spiritual
teacher is a Lingayat priest named Ajayya. They employ both
BrAhrnan and Lingayat priests. They bury their dead in LingAyat
fashion. Their other ceremonies resemble those of Kabbaligars.
They eat fish and the flesh of goats, sheep, deer, hare and domestic
fowls. Except in Bijapur, they do not drink liquor ; and they n o ­
where drink palm juice, which they explain by saying that the wild
date palm is their sister.
INDHVAL.— A sub-division of BrAhmans.
INDORIA.— A sub-division of Kolis.
ISRIA.— A sub-division of Dubl&s.
ISTARI.— A sub-division of Khatris.
JAAFARL— A sub-division of BohorAs.
JAD.—See Dev&ng, Hatkar, Jad, Koshti or Sali.
JAILVAL.—A synonym for JelvAl.
Distribu- JAINS numbering 536,116 (1901), including 297,672 males and
tiou. 256,444 females, are chiefly found in the Gujarat districts and States,
Cutch and Kathiawar and in the southern part of the Deccan,
the Karnatak and the States of the Southern MarAtha Country.
They are divided into two territorial groups, (1) the Jains of GujarAt
and (2) the Jains of the Deccan, who neither eat together nor intermarry
and differ considerably in ceremonies and customs, though the. main
principles of their religion are the same.
Divisions. The Jain religion is not opposed to the observance of caste, with
!V1W°nS the result that Jain divisions are found in many castes of the Presi­
dency. No intermarriage between the Hindu and Jain division of
a caste is recognized.
The following are the chief castes divisions in which Jains are
recorded:—
A. (Gujarat.)
(1) AgarwAl VAni (3) BhAtia
(2) BhavsAr or Chippa (4) Bhojak
(!(H I (fiT
83 [Jam

(5) Chaturtha (18) Ldd Vani

(6) Chhatri or Khatri (19) Loh&na
(7) Deshawal Vani (20) Marwadi or Osval Vdni
(8) Gandhi (21) Mewada Vani
(9) Gurjar V&ni (22) Modha Vani
(10) Halvai or Kandoi (23) Narsingpuri V&ni
(11) Hardas. (21) Nirna or Nema Vani
(12) Humbad or Umbad (25) Pdnchal
Vdni (26) Porwad or Porwal V4ni
(13) Jat or Jati (27) Sevak
(14) Kdsar, Kansar, Bogar (28) Shctwdl
or Baligar (29) Shrimali Vani
(15) Khaddyata Vdni (30) Soni or Sonar
(16) Kumbhar (31) Sorthia Vani
(17) Kunbi

B. (Deccan).

(1) Charutha orChaturtha (3) Pancham

(2) Kasdr, Bogar or (4) Shetwal
Baligar (5) Upadhya

The Gujarat castes will be found for the most part described under
VANI. Of the Deccan divisions the Upadhyas are the priests, who
will take daughters in marriage but will not give their daughters to
the other divisions. Chaxuthas or “ fourths ” are Shudras or husband­
men. It is said that these are the original “ Charodas ” of the Goanese
Native Christians, who have three caste divisions. Panchams or
“ fifths ” are traders and are said* to be Jains who allow widow
re-marriage. The name and the practice would seem to suggest some
connection with Lingayat Panchams&lis (see LIN G A Y AT). Owing,
to this practice the other Deccan Jain castes stand aloof from them,
and will not intermarry. Where a caste has a Hindu and a Jain sub­
division it is usual to describe the former as ‘ Meshri ’ and the latter
as ‘ Shravak
Jains take their name from the fact that they are followers of the
24 Jins or conquerors, commencing with Rishabh or Adinabh and
ending with Mahavir or Vardhman. (See page 133 infra).
Parasnath or Parshavanath, literally the ndth or lord, who comes
next to the last Jin Vardhmdn is said to have been the son of king
Ashvasen by his wife Vama or Bama Devi of the race of Ikshv&ku.

* Bombay GazefteCr, Volume XXII, p. 117.

 ^
Jain] 84
He is said to have been born at Benares, to have married Prabhdvati,
the daughter of kind Prasen Jit, to have adopted an ascetic life at the
age of thirty, and to have practised austerities for eighty days, when he
gained perfect wisdom. Once while engaged in devotion his enemy
Kamath caused a great rain to fall on him. But the serpent Dharani-
dhar or the Nag king Dharan shaded Parasriath’s head with his hood
spread like an umbrella or chhatra, whence the place waB called Ahi-
chhatra or the snake umbrella/11 Parasndth is said to have worn only
one garment. H e had a number of followers of both sexes, and died
performing a fast at the age of 100 on the top of Samet Shikhar in
HazAribagh in W est Bengal. His death occurred 250 years before
that of the last or twenty-fourth Jin Mahavir. Mahavir or Vardhman,
who was also of the Ikshvaku race, is said to have been the son of
SiddhArtli prince of Pavan by Trisala and to have been born at Chitra-
kut or Kundgram perhaps the modern Chitarkot a great place of
pilgrimage seventy-one miles west of Allahabad. H e is said to have
married Yashoda, the daughter of prince Samarvir, and to have by
her a daughter named Priyadarshana, who became the wife of Jamali,
a nephew of Mahavir’s and one of his pupils who founded a separate
sect. Mahavir’s father and mother died when he was twenty-eight, and
two years later he devoted himself to austerities which he continued
for twelve and a half years, nearly eleven of which were spent in fasts.
As a Digambar or sky clad ascetic he went robeless and had no vessel
but his hand. A t last the bonds of action were snapped like an old
rope and he gained keml or absolute unity of spirit and became an
Arhat, that is, worthy or Jin, that is, conqueror. H e went to Papapuri
or Apapuri in Bihar and taught his doctrine. Of several eminent
BrAhmans who became converts and founded schools or gams, the
chief was Indrabhuti or Gautama, who preached his doctrines at the
cities of Kaushambi and Rajgrih and died at the age of sevent-two
at Apapuri in South BibAr between B.O. 663 and 526.(2)
Like the Buddhists, the Jains reject the Vedas, which they pro­
nounce apochryphal and corrupt and to which they oppose their own
scriptures or Angns. As among Buddhists confession is practised
among Jains. Great importance is attached to pilgrimage, and four
months or the chaturmds, that is, four months from the eleventh of
Ashddh or July-August to the eleventh of Kartik or October-November,
in tbe year are given to fasting, the reading of sacred books, and

(1) General Cunningham haB identified the ancient Ahichhatra with the present
RAman&gar in Rohilkhand in Upper India. Cunningham’s Ancient Geography, I.
389.
(2) Rice’s Mysore and Coorg, 1, 374, 375. *
 85 [Jain
meditation. They attach no religious importance to caste. Jains
like Buddhists are of two classes, yatis or ascetics and shrdvaks or
hearers. Jains like Buddhists admit no creator. According to them
the world is eternal, and they deny that any being can, have been always
p erfect; the Jin became perfect but he was not perfect at first. Both
Buddhists and Jains worship, though under different names, twenty-
four lords each with his sign and his attendant goddess or shdsan
devi:—
Jain SaintsS1*

Shasandevi Shdsandevi.
Name. Sign. or Attendant Name. Sign. or Attendant
Goddess. Goddess.

Risbabh or Bull. Chakreshvari. VimalnAth. Boar. Vidita.

A'dinath. AnantnAth. Falcon. Ankusha.
AjitnAth. Elephant Ajitbala. Dharmanath. Thunder-bolt. Bandana.
ShAmbhav. Horse. DuritAri, ShantinAth. Antelope. Nirvani.
Abhinandan. Monkey. KAlika. KunthnnAth. Goat. Bala.
Sumati. Curlew. MahAkali. ArnAth. N an d ydv a r t DhArini.
or pleasing.
Padmsprabb. Lotus. ShyAma. MallinAth. Water jar. Dharanpriya
SupArshv. Lucky Cross ShAnta. Muni Suyrat. Tortoise. Naradatta.
or Svantik.
C h a n d r a- Moon. Bhrikuti. NiminAth. Blue Water GbAndAri.
prabh. Lily.
Pushpadant. Crocodile. Sutaraka. NeminAth. Conob Shell. Ambika.
Shital. C r u c i f orm Ashoka. PArshvnAth. Cobra. PadmArati.
symbol or
Shrivats.
SbreyAnsh Rhinoceros. Manavi. VardhmAn or Lion. Siddhayika.
Mahavir.
VAsupujya. Buffalo. Chanda.

On the whole Jainism is less opposed to Brahmanism than B ud­

dhism is, and admits some of the Br&hman deities, though it holds
them inferior to their chovishi or twenty-four saints. Jainism, of which
there are traces in South India as early as the second century before
Christ and to which the great stone figure of Gomateshvar at Shr&van
Belgola in Mysore is believed to belong, was a ruling religion in the
Deccan at least as early as the fourth or fifth century.(2)
In Guj arat Jains speak Guj arati. Deccan Jains speak Kanarese Language,
at home and Mar&thi abroad, which they call Ar6 Matu or the language
of the Ar6s, a name b y which the Mar&th&s are known in the extreme
south of the Presidency. In their Kanarese the last syllable is always
(1) Rice’s Mysore and Coorg, I, 374.
(2) Bombay Gazetteer, Volume XXIV, pages 133-34.
W ..: ■-' ■
Jain] 86
<SL
very indistinct. They name their children after the arhats or worthies
of the present, past and future ages, after the parents o f the arhats, after
the pious and great man and after Br&hmanic gods and local deities.
Like Br&hmanic Hindus, Deccan Jain parents sometimes give their
children mean names to avert early death as Kallappa from Kallu
(K ) stone, KAdappa from kdd (K ) forest, Dhondu from dhonda (M) stone.
Cere- Of the sixteen sacraments or sanslcdrs, which are nearly the same
monies. as the sixteen Brdhman sacraments, Jains perform thread-girding
marriage, puberty, and death. Except that the texts are not Vedic the
rites do not differ from those performed by Brahmans. Their birth
ceremonies are the same as those of Brahmans like whom on the
fifth day they worship the goddess Satvai.

Thread Boys are girt with the sacred thread between eight and sixteen.
girding. ^ boy must not be girt until he is eight. If, for any reason, it suits
the parents to hold the thread-girding before the boy is eight, they
add to his age the nine months he passed in the womb. A Jain astro­
loger names a lucky day for the thread-girding, a booth is raised
before the house and an earth altar or bahule a foot and a half square
is built in the booth, and plantain trees are set at its corners. Pots
are brought from the potter’s and piled in each comer of the altar, and
a yellow cotton thread is passed round their necks. Over the altar is
a canopy and in front is a small entrance hung with evergreens.
Invitation cards are sent to distant friends and kinsfolk. A day or
two before the thread-girding the invitation procession consisting of
men and women of the b oy’s house with music and friends starts from
the b oy’s. They first go to the Jain temple, and the father or some
other relation with the family priest lays a cocoanut before the god,
bows before him, and asks him to the ceremony. They visit the
houses of their friends and relations and ask them to attend the cere­
mony. The Jains have no devak or family guardian worship. The
boy and his parents go through the preliminary ceremonies as at a
Brdhman thread-girding. The b oy’s head is shaved and he is bathed
and rubbed with turmeric. The astrologer marks the lucky moment
by means of his water-clock or ghatka, and as it draws near, music plays
and guns are fired. The priest repeats the lucky verses and throws
red rice over the boy. The boy is seated on his father’s or, if the
father is dead, on some other kinsman’s knee on a low stool. The
knot of his hair is tied and he is girt with a sacred thread or game and
a string of hush grass is tied round his waist. The priest kindles the
sacred fire, betel is served to the guests, and money gifts are distri­
buted among priests and beggars. The boy has to go and beg at five
m gt
87 [Jain ' L J
Jain houses. He stands at the door of each house and asks the mis­
tress of the house to give him alms saying, “ Oh lady be pleased to give
alms.”(1) The alms usually consists of a waistcloth, rice, or cash.
Great merit is gained by giving alms to a newly girded boy, and many
women visit the boy’s house for three or four days to present him with
silver or clothes. After begging at five houses the boy returns home,
and a feast to friends and kinsfolk ends the first day. The sodmunj
or grass-cord loosening is performed usually after a week and some­
times between a week from the thread-girding and the marriage day.
The loosening is generally performed near a piped (Ficus religiosa)
tree. The boy is bathed, the rite of holiday calling or punydhavachan
is gone through as on the first day, music plays, and flowers, sandal
paste, burnt frankincense, and sweetmeat are offered to the pipal
tree. The boy bows before the tree and the priest unties the cord,
from round his waist. The boy is dressed in a full suit of clothes,
declares that he means to go to Benares and spend the rest of his life
in study and worship, and sets out on his journey. Before he has
gone many yards, his maternal uncle meets him, promises him his
daughter’s hand in marriage, and asks him to return home and live
among them as a householder or grihasth. The boy is escorted home
with music and a band of friends and a small feast to friends and kins­
folk ends the ceremony.
Boys are married between fifteen and twenty-five and girls before Marriage,
they come of age. As a rule the boy’s father proposes the match to
the girl’s father, and when they agree, an astrologer is consulted,
who compares the birth papers of the boy and the girl and approves
the match if he thinks the result will be lucky and if the family stocks
and branches or sheikhas of the boy and the girl are different. Then on
a lucky day the boy’s father visits the girl’s house with a few friends,
including five kinswomen, and are received by the girl’s father and
mother. The girl is seated on a low stool in front of the house gods,
and the boy’s father presents her with a robe and bodice and a pair
of silver chains or sdnihlia and anklets or voids. Her brow is marked
with vermilion and decked with a network of flowers. The women
of the boy’s house dress the girl in the clothes and ornaments brought
by the boy’s father and the boy’s father puts a little sugar in her
mouth. Packets of sugar and betel are handed among the guests and
the asking or mdgni ends in a feast to the guests. As a rule marriage
takes place two or three years after betrothal. Every year the boy’s
parents have to send a present of a string of cocoa-kernel and some
(1 ) The Sanskrit runs : b h a va ti khikehdm dehi.
i,MA *SL
Jain] 88
fried rice on the Cobra’s Fifth or Ndgpnnchmi in July-August and
this they have to continue to do till the girl comes of age. When the
boy is fifteen or sixteen and the girl is ten or eleven the parents think
it is time they were married, and send for and consult an astrologer.
H e compares their horoscopes, consults his almanac, and names a
lucky day for the marriage. The ceremony as a rule lasts five days.
On the first day two married girls in the bride’ s house bathe early in
the morning, wear a ceremonial dress, and with music and a band of
friends go to a pond or a river with copper pots on their heads, lay
sandal-paste, flowers, rice, vermilion, burnt frankincense, and sweet­
meats on the bank in the name of the water goddess, fill the pots with
water, and mark them with vermilion, set a cocoanut and betel leaves
fti the mouth of each, cover them with bodice-cloths, and deck them
with gold necklaces. They then set the waterpots on their heads,
return home, and lay them on the earthen altars. Flowers, vermilion,
burnt frankincesnse and sweetmeat are offered to the pots and five
dishes filled with earth are set before them sprinkled with water from
the waterpots, and m ixed seed grain is sown in the earth. Friends and
kinsfolk are asked to dine at the house and the sproutoffering or
ankurdrjtan is over. The bridegroom is bathed at his house aud lights a
sacred fire or kom, puts on a rich dress, and goes on horseback with
music and friends carrying clothes, ornaments, sugar, and betel packets
to the bride’s house. The bride’s party meet him on the way and the
bridegroom is taken to the bride’ s house and seated outside of the
house on a seat of audumbar or umbar (Ficus glomerata.) The bride’s
parents come out with a vessel full of water, the father washes his
future son-in-law’ s feet and the mother pours water over them. The
bridegroom is then taken to a raised seat in the house, seated on it,
and presented with clothes, a gold ring, aDd a necklace. The bride­
groom’s parents present the ornaments and clothes they have brought
for the bride, packets of betel and sugar are handed among friends and
kinspeople, and the first day ends with a feast to the bridegroom’ s
party. The bridegroom returns home with his party, is rubbed with
turmeric and clarified butter, and bathed by five married women
seated in a square with an earthen pot at each com er and a yellow
thread passed five times round their necks. The bride is bathed in a
similar square at her house. On the third day the bride and bride­
groom bathe, dress in newly washed clothes, and starting from their
homes meet at the Jain temple. The priest attends them, and the pair
bow before the idol. The priest makes them repeat the five-salutation
hymn which every Jain ought to know and warns them to keep the
Jain vow or Jain vrat o f not-killing or ahinsa and o ! leading a pure
71 89 [Jain
§L
moral life. The pair are treated to sweetmeats, each by their own
people, and the family gods and the eork marriage coronet or bashing
are worshipped at both houses. Men and women from both houses
go with music and ask their friends and kinspeople. In the after­
noon, when all meet, the women take their seats in the booth and the
men inside of the house, and all eat at the same time. On the fourth
day the actual marriage ceremony begins. Friends and relations are
asked to both houses. The bridegroom is nibbed with fragrant oil, and
with about fifteen of his relations again kindles the sacred fire, dresses
in rich clothes, and goes to the bride’s house on horseback with music
and friends. On the way he is met by the bride’s party and taken to
a raised umbar (Ficus glomerata) seat. W hile he is seated on the
urnbar seat a couple from the bride’ s house, generally the bride’ s
parents, com e and wash his feet. The bridegroom thrice sips water,
puts on the new sacred thread offered him by the bride’ s priest, and
swallows curds mixed with sugar which the couple have poured over
his hands. The father-in-law leads the bridegroom b y the hand to a
ready-made seat in the house. Before the seat a curtain is held, and
tw o heaps of rice, one on each side of the curtain, marked with the lucky
cross or svdstiJc and crowned with the sacred hush grass. A short time
before the lucky moment the bride is let out by her friends and made to
stand on the rice heap behind the curtain, the bridegroom standing on
the rice heap on the other side. The guests stand around and the
priests recite the nine-planet lucky verses or navgrdk maugaUsktaks.
The astrologer marks the lucky moment b y clapping his hands, the
musicians redouble their noise, the priests draw aside the curtain, and
the pair look at each other and are husband and wife. The bridegroom
marks the bride’s brow with vermilion and she throws a flower
garland round his neck. They fold their hands together and the bride’s
father pours water over their hands. They then throw rice over each
other’s head, and the priests and guests throw rice at the pair. The
priests tie the marriage wristlets on the hands of the pair. The bride­
groom then sits on a low stool facing east, and the bride on another
stool to Iiis left. The priest kindles the sacred or horn fire and the
bridegroom feeds the fire with offerings of parched rice held in a dish
before him by the bride. Then the pTiest lavs seven small heaps of
rice each with a small stone at the top in one row. The bridegroom,
holding the bride by the hand, touches the rice and the stone on each
heap with his right toe, moves five times round the heaps, the priest
shows the pair the Polar star or dhmv, and the payment of a money
gift to the priest completes the day’s ceremonies. The hems of the
pair’s garments are knotted together and they walk into the house
H h 1109—12

‘ l '" . . V; ' *; < ; ' * ' :< - ■

• . . Pt
 ain] 90
*SL
n

and bow before tbe waterpots which are arranged on the first day,
and are fed with a dish of milk and clarified butter. Next day the
bride’s parents give a feast to the bridegroom’s party and to their
own kinspeople. In the morning the pair are seated in the booth
and young girls on both sides join them. The pair first play betel-
nuts for a time and the bridegroom takes some wet turmeric powder
and rubs it five times on the bride’s face, who gathers it and rubs it on
the bridegroom ’3 face. The bridegroom is given a betel packet to
chew, chews half of it and hands the rest to the bride. Thus he chews
the five betel packets, and the bride in her turn chews another five,
each time handing half of the betel packets to tbe bridegroom to chew.
N ext morning the sacred fire is again kindled and the serpent is wor­
shipped. The pair then dine at the bride’s and play with, betelnuts.
The pair arc seated on horseback, the bride before the bridegroom, and
taken to the Jain temple, where they walk round the god, bow before
him, and ask his blessing. They then walk to the bridegroom’s with
music and friends.
Before they reach it every part of the house is lighted and a long
white sheet is spread on the ground from the booth door to the god-
room. When the pair attempt to cross the threshold the bridegroom’s
sister blocks the door and does not allow them to enter. The bride­
groom asks her why she blocks tbe door. She says, Will you give your
daughter in marriage to my son ? He answers, Ask my wife. The
sister asks the wife and she says, I will give one of my three pearls
in marriage to your son. Then she leaves the door, the pair walk into
the house, bow before the house gods, and a feast of uncooked pro­
visions to those that do not eat from them and of cooked food to friends
of their own caste and to kinspeople ends the ceremony.
Though forbidden by their sacred book, all Jains except Upadhyds
or priests allow widow marriage. They say the practice came into
use about 200 years ago. If a woman does not get on well with her
husband, she may live separate from him but cannot marry during
her husband’s lifetime. When a girl comes of age she sits apart for
three days. On the fourth she is bathed and her lap is filled with
rice and a cocoanut and the rest of the age-coming does not differ from
a Brdhman age-eoming.(1)
Religion. The religion of the Jains may be treated under five h ead s: the
temple worship of the twenty-four saints and their attendant goddesses;
holy places and holy d a y s ; the worship of house g o d s ; the worship

(1) Bombay Gasetteer. Volume X XIV , pages 140— 144.

(1 (g )!) ' (C T
' 91 [Jain

of field guardians; and the irregular worship o f evil disease-causing

spirits. The chief Jain doctrine is that to take life is sin. Like
Buddhists they believe that certain conduct has raised men above
the gods. Twenty-four saints have gained perfection. To each of
these a sign and an attendant goddess have been allotted, and these
form the regular objects of Jain temple worship. The Jains belong to
two main sects, the shvetdmbars or white-robed and digambars or sky-
clad, that is, the naked saint worshippers. The bulk of the Deccan
Jains are Digambars. Temple worship is the chief part of the Jain’ s
religious duties. Their temples are called bastis or dwellings, but can
easily be known from ordinary dwellings by their high plinths.
The temple consists of an outer hall and a shrine. The walls of
the outer hall are filled with niches of the different Brdhmanic deities
and attendant goddesses. In the shrine is an image, generally of the
twenty-third saint Pdrasndth, which is generally naked. The images
in most cases are of black polished stone two feet to three feet high,
either standing with the hands stretched down the sides or in the
seated cross-legged position. Temple worship is of four kinds, daily
worship, eight-day or ashtdnhiki worship, wish-filling or Icalp worship,
and the five blessing or panch kalydni worship. In the daily temple
worship the image of the saint is bathed by the temple ministrant
in milk and on special days in the five nectars or panchdmrits water,
tree sap or vriksh ras, that is sugar, plantains, clarified butter, milk
and curds. The priest repeats sacred verses, sandal paste is laid on
the image, aud it is decked with flowers.

Jains perform the ashtdnhiki or eight-day worship three times

in a year from the bright eighth to the full-moon of Shrdvan or July
August, in Kdrtik or October-November, and in Phdlgun or February-
March. Only the rich perform the wish filling or kalp worship as
the worshipper has to give the priest whatever he asks. Except the
goat-killing the five-blessing or pdnch kalydni worship is the same
as the Brahmanical sacrifice. According to the Jain doctrine bathing
in holy places does not cleanse from sin. Jains make pilgrimages
to Jain holy places, Urn Jayantgiri or Gimdr in South Kdthidwar
sacred to Nemishvar or Nemin&th, Pavapur near It&jagriha or R&jgir
about fifty miles south of Pdtna sacred to Vardhman Svdmi, Sammedh-
giri properly Samet Shikhar or Pdrasndth hill in Hazdribagh in
W est Bengal sacred to Pdrasndth where are feet symbols or pddakds
of the twenty-four Jain arhats or worthies, and in the south, the stone
figure of Gomateshvar in Shrdvan Belgola in Mysore, and Mudbidri
in South Kanara. They make pilgrimages to Benares, which they say
 'ST k^/JL_Jik
ain] 92
1
is the birthplace of P&rasn&th who was the son of Vishveshvar, the chief
Brahman deity of the place. The leading religious seats of the Jains
are Delhi, Dinkanehi in Madras, Vingundi in South Kanara, and
Kolh&pur. A n y poor Jain may visit these places and is fed for any
number of days, but on pain of loss of caste he must beg from no one
who is not a Jain.

Jain ascetics keep ten fasts in every lunar month, the fourths,
the eighths, the elevenths, the fourteenths, and the full-moon and
no-m oon. They keep all Brahmanie holidays, and in addition
the week beginning from the lunar eighth of Ashadh or June-July,
oi Kartik or October-November, and of Phalgun or February-March,
and they hold a special feast on Shrut Panchmi or Learning’s Fifth
on the bright fifth of Jyeshih or May-June. Of the twenty-four
minor goddesses who attend on th e twenty-four saints the chief are
Kalika and Jvdlam&lini and Padmavati, who probably are the same
as the two popular Brahman goddesses Bhavani and Lakshmi. .

Besides the twenty-four attendant goddesses, Jains believe

in all Brahnlanic deities, placing them below their saints or
tirthankars. They pay special respect to the Brahman goddess
Sarasvati who is represented b y a sacred book resting on a brazen
chair called shrut skandh or learning’s prop and in whose honour in
all Jain temples a festival is held on the bright fifth of Jyeshih or
May-June. To these guardian goddesses and saints two beings are
added, Bhujval or Goval ofShravan Belgola in Mysore, distinguished
b y the creepers twining round his arms, and Nandishrami, a small
temple like a brass frame. Besides these they worship a brass wheel
of law or dharm-chakra which is said to represent five classes of great
deities or Parameshthis, a verbal salutation to the whole of whom
forms the Jain’s daily prayer. The Jains think their book and temple
gods the arhats or worthies, the siddhs or perfect beings, the dchdryas
or godfathers, the wpadhyas or priests, and the sddhus or saints are
too austere and ascetic to take an interest m every-day life or to be
worshipped as house guardians. For this reason their house deities
are either Brahmanie or Lingayat gods.

As among Brahmanie Hindus the house deities are kept in a

separate room, generally next to the cooking room in a devara or
shrine of carved wood. The images are generally of metal three
to four inches high. Among the images is not unusually the mask or
bust of some deceased female member of the family who has afflicted
the family with sickness and to please her had her image placed and
!® 93 [Jain %L
worshipped among the honse gods. Besides the usual Br&bmanic
or Ling&yat house deities several families have a house image of Paras-
nath, but the worship of Pdrasnath as a house image is not usual.
As among Br&hmanie Hindus, the daily worship of the house gods is
simple chiefly consisting in a hurried decking with flowers. On holi­
days the images are bathed in milk, and flowers, sandal-paste, rice,
burnt frankincense, and camphor and cooked food are laid before
them. W omen arc not allowed to touch the house gods. During the
absence of the men of the house the temple priest is asked to conduct
the daily worship. Another class of Jain deities are the kshelrapals
or field guardians, the chief of whom are Bhairav and Brahma. In
theory Jains do not believe in spirits. The learned are particularly
careful to disavow a belief in spirits and even ordinary Jains dislike to
adm it the existence of such a belief. Still, enquiry shows that a belief
in spirits is little less general than among the corresponding Brahnmnic
classes. They believe in spirit-possession and call their family spirits
pitrad or fathers. Though they profess not to believe that infants
are attacked b y spirits, they perform the ceremonies observed by Brah-
manic Hindus in honour of Mothers F ifth and Sixth, which seem to form
a part of the early rites on which the customs of all H indu sects are bas­
ed. Besides the spirit attacks to which children are specially liable on
the fifth and sixth days after birth, Jain children are liable to child
seizures or bdl grahas, probably a form of convulsions, which Jain women
say is the work of spirits. Educated and religious Jains who object
to the early or direct form of spirit action believe in the more refined
drisht or evil eye as a cause of sickness. According to the popular
Jain belief all eyes have not the blasting power of the evil eye. Care
must be taken in cutting the child’s navel, for if any of the blood enters
its eyes their glance is sure to have a blasting or evil power. Unlike
most BrAhmanic Hindus, Jains do not believe that a woman in her
monthly sickness is specially liable to spirit attacks. In their opinion
a woman runs most risk of being possessed when she has just bathed
and her colour is heightened by turmeric, when her hair is loose, and
when she is gaily dressed, and happens to go to a lonely well or river
bank at noon or sunset. Boy3 also are apt to be possessed when they
are well dressed or fine-looking or when they are unusually sharp
and clever. Jains profess not to hold the ordinary Brahmanic belief
that the first wife comes back and plagues the second wife. Still
they bold in great terror Jakhins, that is, the ghosts of women who
die with unfulfilled wishes. Among Jains as among other Hindus,
Jakhins plague the living b y attacking children with lingering diseases.
W hen a child is wasting away, Jain parents make the Jakliin a vow that
111
J
(fiT
Vyjr„*ini A
Jain] 94
if the child recovers the Jabhin’s image shall be placed with their family
gods. If the child begins to recover as soon as the vow is made the
house people buy a silver or gold mask or tdk of Jakhin, lay sandal-
paste and flowers on, and sweetmeats before, it, and set it in the god
room with the other house gods. Five married women, who are asked
to dine at the house are presented each with turmeric, vermilion, betel,
and wet gram, and a special offering or vayan consisting of five wheat
cakes stuffed with sugar clarified butter and molasses is made in the
name of the dead woman who is believed to have turned Jakhin and
possessed the child. The women and men guests dine with the family
and take the special offering or vayan home. The image is daily
worshipped with the house gods with great reverence as it generally
represents the mother or some near relation of the worshipper. This
Jakhin worship is com mon among Jains. Jains have no professional
exorcists or charmers chiefly becuase their place is filled by the Jain
priests. When sickness is believed to be caused by spirit-possession
the priest is consulted. He worships the goddess Padmavati or
Lakshmi and gives the sick holy water or tirlh in which the goddess ’
feet have been washed. If the holy water fails to cure, the priest
consults his book of omens or shakunmnti, adds together certain
figures in the book and divides the total by a certain figure in the
tables of the book, and by referring to the book finds what dead relation
of the sick person the quotient stands for If it is a woman she has
become a Jakhin and should be worshipped along with the family gods.
The priest then mutters a verse over a pinch of frankincense ashes or
angara burnt before the gods and hands it to the sick man to be rubbed
on bis brow. If the ash-rubbing and the Jakhin worship fail to cure
the sick man the priest prepares a paper or bhoj or birch leaf called a
yantra or device marked with mystic figures or letters and ties it in a
silk cloth or puts it in a small casket or tail, mutters verses over it, burns
frankincense, and ties it round the possessed person’ s arm or neck. If
the amulet is of no avail the priest advises an anmWidn or god-pleasing.
The head of the house asks the priest to read a sacred book before the
temple image of one of the saints or to repeat a text or mantra or a
sacr ed hymn or slotra some thousand times in honour of one of the saints.
The priest is paid for his trouble, and when the sick man is cured the
god-pleasing ends with a feast to priests and friends. If even the
god-pleasing fails, the sick man, if he is an orthodox and particular J am,
resigns himself to his fate or seeks the aid of a physician. Unlike the
men, Jain women are n ot satisfied without consulting exorcists and
trying their cures. Exorcis ts are shunned by men Jains because part of
the exorcists’ cure is almost always the offering of a goat or of a cock. A
 n

1S ; vCT
, 95 [Jain ’ ‘
Jain man will seldom agree to such a breach of the chief law of bis
faith, but Jain women secretly go to the exorcists and do as they are
advised. “When all remedies are of no avail Jains sometimes take the
sickman to a holy place called Tavnidhi fifteen miles south-west of Chi-
kodi, and he or some relation on his behalf worships the spirit-scaring
Brahmanidhi until the patient is cured. The Jains profess to have no
sacred pools, animals, or trees that have a spirit-scaring power. W hen
an epidemic rages a special worship of Jindev is perform ed/1*
To every Jain temple one or more priests or Upadhy&s are attached.
They belong to the Chaturth or the Pancham division and are sup­
ported b y the Jain community, taking the food offerings, cloth and
money presents which are made to the gods and goddesses. Besides
temple priests, every village which has a considerable number of Jains
has an hereditary village priest called gr&mvp&dhya who conducts their
ceremonies and is paid either in cash or in grain. The village priests,
who are married and in whose families the office of priests is heredi­
tary, are under a high priest called dharmddhikdri or religious head, a
celibate or ascetic by whom they are appointed and who has power to
turn out any priest who breaks religious rules or caste customs. The
village priest keeps a register of all marriages and thread-girdings in
the village, and the high priest, whose authority extends over all Jains
under his jurisdiction, makes a yearly circuit gathering contributions or
sends an agent to collect subscriptions, from the persons named in the
village priests’ lists. The office of high priest is elective. The high
priest chooses liis sucessor from among his favourite disciples/2*
When a Jain is on the point of death a priest is called in to repeat Death,
verses to cleanse the sick person’s ears, to quiet his soul, and if possible
to drive away his disease. When recovery is hopeless a ceremony
called salkkhan vidhi or tearing rite is performed to sever the sick person
from wordly pleasures and to make him fit for the life he is about to
enter. Sometimes the sick man is made to pass through the ceremony
called sannyds grahan or ascetic vow-taking with the same rites as
among Br&hmans. When these rites are over and death is near
the dying man is made, to lie on a line o f three to four wooden stools
and the names of gods and sacred hymns are loudly repeated. After
death the body is taken outside of the house, bathed in warnv water,
dressed in a waist and a shoulder cloth, and seated cross-legged on a
low stool leaning against the wall. A Her is made, the deceased is
laid on it, and the whole body including the face is covered with a
(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Volume XXIV, pages 137—140.
(2) Bombay Gazetteer, Volume XXIV, page 136.
Iff? : <s l
Jain] 96

white sheet. Jewels are put into the dead mouth and fastened over
the eyes. Four kinsmen lift the bier and, followed b y a party of
friends, walk after the chief mourner, who carries a firepot slung from
his hand. To perform Jain funeral rites, from the first to the
thirteenth day, six men are required, the chief mourner who carries
fire, four corpse-bearers, and a body-dresser. Music is played at some
funerals, but on the way no coins or grain are thrown to spirits and no
words uttered. The party moves silently to the burning ground and
the chief mourner is not allowed to look behind. A bout half-way
the bier is laid on the ground and the cloth is removed from the dead
face, apparently to make sure that there are no signs of life. They
go on to the burning ground and set down the bier. One of the party
cleans the spot where the pyre is to be prepared and they build the
pyre. When it is ready the bearers lay the body on the pile and the
chief mourner lights it. When the body is half consumed the chief
mourner bathes, carries an earthen pot filled with water on his shoulder,
and walks three times round the pile. Another man walks with him
and at each turn makes a hole in the pot with a stone called ashma
or the life-stone. When three rounds and three holes are made,
the chief mourner throws the p ot over his back and beats his mouth
with the open palm of his right hand. The ashma or life-stone is
kept ten days and each day a rice ball is offered to it. As a'rule the
funeral party stops at the burning ground till the skull bursts. If
they choose, some of the party may go home, but as a rule the six
mourners must remain there till the body is consumed, when each
offers a flour-ball and a handful of water to the life-stone and returns
home. A lamp is set on the spot where the dead breathed his last,
and kept there burning for at least twenty-four hours. On the second
day the six chief mourners go to the burning ground and in the house
put out the fire with offerings of milk sugar and water. On the third
day they gather the deceased’s bones and bury them somewhere among
the neighbouring hills. E xcept offering a rice ball to the life-stone
from the first to the tenth day, nothing special is performed from the
fourth to the ninth day. The family are held impure for ten days.
On the tenth the house is cowdunged and all members of the family
bathe and each offer a handful of water called lilodak or sesame water
to the dead. The house is purified by sprinkling holy water and the
sacred or horn fire is lit by the priest. On the twelfth the clothes of
the deceased are given to the poor, and rice balls in the name of the
deceased and his ancestors are made and sandal-paste, flowers, ver­
milion, frankincense, and sweetmeat are offered them. The temple
gods are worshipped and a feast to the corpse-bearers and dresser
f f l (qt
■,,<*2. ■ 97 [ J o i n 'a L

ends the twelfth day ceremony. On the thirteenth the shrdddha or

mind-rite is performed and a few friends and relations are asked to dine.
A fortnightly and monthly ceremony is performed every m onth for one
year and a feast is held every year for twelve years. A ccording to rule
the widow’s head should be shaved on the tenth, but the practice is be­
coming rare; still, her lucky thread and toe ornaments are taken away
and she is not allowed to wear a black bodice or robe. W hen a sanydsi
or ascetic dies his body is carried in a canopied chair instead of an
ordinary bier. The body is laid on the pyre and bathed in the five
nectars or panch&mrits milk, curds, clarified butter, plaintain, and
sugar. Camphor is lighted on the head and the pile is lit. A t a
sanyasi's funeral only five men are required. A fire-carrier is not
wanted as fire can be taken from any neighbouring house to light the
pile. The family of the dead are impure for only three days, and no
balls are offered to the dead. When an infant dies before teething
it, is buried, and boys who die before their thread-girding are not
honoured with the rice-ball offering. N o special rites are performed
in the case of a married woman, a widow, or a woman who dies in child­
bed. No evil attaches to a death which happens during an eclipse
of the sun or the moon. In the case of a person who dies at an un.
lucky moment, Jains perform the same rites as Brdhmanic Hindus.U)

In spite o f political changes many Jains are hereditary village

and district officers. Strict Jains object to tillage because o f the loss
o f life which it cannot help causing. Still they do not carry their
objection- to the length of refusing to dine with Jain husbandmen.
Am ong Deccan Jains the husbandmen are the largest and most
important class, with a h ea d priest of their own who lives at Nandni
about eighteen miles east of Kolhapur. E xcept some of the larger
landholders, who keep farm servants, the Jain landholders, with the
help of their women, do all parts of field work with their own hands.
T h ey are the hardest working husbandmen, making uae of every
advantage of soil and situation. In large towns like Kolhapur and
Miraj Jains are merchants, traders, and shopkeepers dealing chiefly
in jewellery, cotton, cloth, and grain. Most Kasars deal in bangles
or work as coppersmiths, and others weave and press oil. Some Jains
live by begging, but any one who asks alms from a man who is not a
Jain is put out of caste.(2)
Jains are strict vegetarians and do not use animal food on loss of Food*
caste. Every Jain filters the water he uses in drinking or cooking for
(1) Bombay Gazetter, Volume XXIV, pages 144—146.
(2) Bombay Gazetter, Volume XXIV, pages 135—136.
s h 1109—13
■V5*4, __

, (nr
• <S •’/ * 'S I ,
98

fear of killing insect life. H e also takes his food before sunset in
case of destroying any animal life by eating in the dark. N o Jain
tastes honey or drinks liquor, and monks and religious Jains abstain
from fresh vegetables.
JAIN GURAV.— A sub-division of Guravs.
JALGAR.— A synonym for Zarekari.
JAMBU.— A sub-division of Brahmans; a synonym for Holaya.
JAMBUVANT.— A synonym for Jambu.
JAMPHODA.— A synonym for Bhangi.
JANAV DEVANG.— A synonym for Kulacharadavaru.
JANDE.— A sub-division of Rurubas.
JANGDE.— A sub-division of Rattais.
JANTI OD.— A synonym for Gada Od.
JARIA.— A sub-division of Lodhas.
J A S .--A sub-division of Berads.
JAS AGRI.— A synonym for Sudh Agri.
JATS(1) numbering 2,230 (1901), including 1,542 males and 728
females, are immigrants from the Punjab. They are found in the
City of Bom bay and scattered in small numbers all over the Deccan
and Gujarat.
JATI.—A class of Jain mendicant devotees.
JAT L 0 G .--A sub-division of Kanjaris.
JAT OD.—A synonym for Gada Od.
JATW E.— A sub division of Rattais.
JAVAL.— A sub-division of Brahmans.
JAVERI.—A synonym for Johari.
JAV IR .— A sub-division of Holayas.
JAY AKRISHNIY A.— A synonym for Manbbav.
JEER.— A synonym for Hngar.
JELVAL.— A sub-division of Vanias.
JETH IM AL— A sub-division of Modh Brahmans.
JHADE.— A sub-division of Mahars.
JHAROLA.— A sub-division of Br&hmans and Vani&s.
JHARORA.— A synonym for Jharola.
(1) Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, Volume III;
pp. 26—*0.

V/&V' - '' Vv. ; . W:::> •• .

 n
.'r w f x i ' ( c t
v K litv " [Jjngar D l i

JHILKA.—A sub-division of DobArs.

JHOLIWALA.—A sub-division of Vaidus.
JINGAR.- -A sub-division of Mochis and Mangs.
JINGARS, known also as Dalsingars, Digwans and Karanjkars, Name and
numbering 3,077 (1901), including 1,541 males and 1,536 females, are™ ?in-
found in small numbers scattered over the Deccan, Konkan and the
Southern Maratha Country,, as well as in Khandesh andKanara. The
word Jingar is derived from the Persian jin a saddle, and the tradi­
tional occupation of the caste is saddle-making. It is to be noted that
the manufacture of native saddlery, which formerly contained no leather
but was made with cloth, felt, cotton rope, metal work, embellished
with embroidery and ornamental metal bosses, involves a knowledge of
handicrafts generally confined to separate castes, and thus the Jingars
are also known as Jadas (weavers), Lob&rs (blacksmiths), Ot&ris
(metal-casters), Sonars (goldsmiths), Tarkars (wire-makers), Chitaris
(painters), etc.; but within the three divisions mentioned below, they
all dine and intermarry freely, showing that they are distinct from
the castes hearing these occupational names. The term K&ranjkar
means fountain makers, and it seems that in the days when it wus
the fashion to lav out gardens, probably during the period of Musal-
w o i ruk in the Deccan, the caste was employed to construct the
fountains of which traces remain at such centres as Bijapur and Ahmed-
nagar. The casv> prefers to style itself Arya Somavanshi Kshatriya,
or Aryan K shatriya of the Moon division. In appearance they
would seem to belong u-> a higher social position than is usually allotted
to them, and it is a fair inference that they attained great importance
in the days when the annual equipment of large military forces led
to an extensive demand for saddlery. W ith the decay of this occupa
tiou they have been forced to take to making wooden toys, decorating
houses and pursuing other allied occupations, and have sunk consider­
ably in the social scale owing to tftwr gradual impoverishment.
The local barbers nOw refuse to shave1them on the ground that they
are impure, and they are therefore obliged tc employ Pardeshi barbers.
Some years ago an action for libel was brought against the barbers
b y the Poona Jingars, but the charge was thrown out.
The reason for considering the JifjgarB impure is possibly their
working in leather, wdiich they have Bs»w-a-days to use in making
saddles--the occupation of l e a t h e r - i g and the castes who follow
it being considered impure all OVfjt ‘’ a Presidency. Against this
theory, however, it must oe noted that, their impurity was maintained
b y the Brahmans in the days of the Pe&hw&s, and the charge may
(fffl; ' Jingai] 100
• (OT
bare been an attempt of the Brahmans to dispose ol the Jingar claim
to Kshatriya rank.
In support of their claim to Kshatriya origin the castemen relate
the following story, which, they state, is given in the Brakmdnd pardn.
The gods and sages were once engaged in performing a sacrifice in
Brihadaranva, when Janumandal, a giant, the grandson of Vritrasur,
endowed with Brahmadev’s biassing and made invincible, appeared
with the object of obstructing the sacrifice. The gods and sages
fled to Shiva. In Shiva’ s rage a drop of sweat fell from his brow into
his mouth. It assumed human form and was called Mauktik or
Muktadev. Muktadev fought with Janumandal and defeated him.
The gods and sages, pleased with his prowess, enthroned him as their
king and went to the forests. Muktadev married Prabhavati, the
daughter of the sage Durvas, by whom he had eight sons, who married
the daughters of eight other Rishis. H e left the charge of his king­
dom to his sons and with his wife withdrew to the forest to do penance.
In the height of their power the sons one day slighted the sage Loma-
harshan, who cursed them, saying that they would lose their royal
power and their right to perform Vedic ceremonies, and would wander
in misery. Muktadev, on coming to know of the curse, implored
Shiva to haye mercy on his sons. Shiva could not recall '•be sago's
curse, but to lessen its severity added that Muktddev^ sous might
perform the Vedic rights stealthily, that they wouW be known from
that day forward as Aryaskhatris, and vTould follow eight callings
chitragdrs or painters, pwarnagdrs or goldsmiths shilpakars or artists,
patakars or weavers, reshim karmi and patvekdrs or silk-workers, luhdrs
or ironsmiths, and mritikdkars and dhdt*xmritikdkars or potters and
metal and earth-workers.
Division*. There are three divisions of the caste, Jiugars and ChitArs who
eat together and intermarry, and a third division known as Kadus,
i.e., those who have violated the caste rules, with whom no member
oftfae above divisions interdmer . They have ten gotras, Bharadwaja,
Vasishtha, Gautain, Apgira, Aanva, Gargya, Jamadagnya, Kaund-
anya, Kashyap, Atri, Jumbalya and Sankhyayan; and five pravars,
Garga, Shandilya, Kapil, Gokarn and Kanva. B ut it seems that
they have adopted this Rra}imauical system at a recent date with
the object of confirming their assumed Kshatriya origin, as in regulat­
ing marriages attention is n * inly paid to surnames, which are exoga-
moua. The fact that their ~$:cl*devak or marriage guardian is the
panchpdlvi and that every section ha? ^ separate devak also points to
their being of the same origin as most of tine idW$£ castes in the

/
 • . p l. -

1 If 101 [Jingar

Decccan. Their commonest surnames are, Ghodake, Chav&n, Jddhav,

More, Korade, Yande, Bhagat, Surve, Dukare, Bhdlerao, Jondhale,
Ambale, Avate, Shinde, Ndgare, Kadam, Pimpale, etc.

A member of the caste cannot marry his father’s sister’s or

mother’s sister’s daughter. He may marry his mother’s brother’s
daughter. Marriage with a wife’s sister is aliowed even during her
Tife-time. Two brothers are allowed to marry two sisters. Girls are
generally married before the age of twelve, boys before they are
th irty : sometimes girls remain unmarried even till they attain
puberty. Sexual license before marriage is not tolerated. A girl
guilty of misconduct is relegated to the Kadu division of the caste.
Polygamy is allowed and practised, but polyandry is unknown.

The offer of marriage comes from the b oy’s father, who has to pay Marriage
a sum of money to the girl’s parents if they are poor. If the girl’s demies,
parents are well-to-do, they pay a dowTry of from Rs: 10 to Rs. 100
to the boy. The day for the marriage is fixed by a Brahman who
conducts the service. The principal ceremonies are hunku lavane, that
is .the betrothal, Flalad or rubbing the bride and bridegroom with
turmeric paste, Punyahavachan or the Holy-dav-blessing, the installa­
tion of the devak which consists of the p&mhpdlvi, a hammer, a stuffed
cake, etc., Simdntyitjan or the reception of the bridegroom by the
bride’s father, Lagna the marriage proper, and Yardl or the returning
of the bridegroom in procession to liis house with his bride. The
essential portion consists in throwing sacred grains of rice over the
bride and tridegroom.

The remarriage of widows is permitted amongst the Jingars of the

Deccan, but it is strictly forbidden amongst the Kamatak and Kanara
Jingars. A widow is not allowed to marry her father’s sister’s, mother’s
sister’s, or mother’s brother’s son, or a relation of her deceasad
husband. The ceremony takes place at night on the new-moon day
during any month except Ashddh. The heads of the caste Panchayal
are present on the occasion. Unwidowed women are not allowed to
attend the ceremony. A Brahman priest makes the pair worship
Varuna, which is represented by a water-pot, and brings the pot in
close contact with the heads of the pair, which completes the union.
They are then locked in a room for the night and the rest of the party
retires. Early in the following morning the pair go to a temple of
M&ruti as it is considered unlucky to see their faces before they have
done so. Should a bachelor desire to marry a widow he is first
married to a shami bush (Prosopis spicigera).
;l * W Q t
BM ..- Jingarl 102 '^ L

A husband can divorce a wife on the ground o f her misconduct or

incompatibility of temper. In the former case the woman is turned
out of the caste, aud generally becomes a prostitute. In the latter,
she is allowed to remarry after the widow remarriage ceremony.

Religion. The caste follow the Hindu law o f inheritance and belong to the
Hindu religion. Most of them are followers of the V&rkari sect.
They worship all Brahmanic and local gods, observe all the Hindu
fasts and feasts, and make pilgrimages to all the sacred places of the
Hindus, but particularly to Shiva Kanchi or the modern Conjeveram
in Madras, where there is a shrine of Muktadev) the supposed founder
of the caste. All the plants and animals held7sacred by the Hindus
are worshipped. The family deities of the Deccan Jingars are Klian-
doba, Bahiroba, Narsoba and the goddess Bhavani of Tuljapur and
K o lM p u r ; of those residing in Kanara, Venkatarama nd Mailar-
lin g ; and of the Karnatak Jingars, Malaya. Goats and fowls are
offered to the goddess Mhalsa on the full-moon days of all months
except Skrdvan. These offerings are received b y the officiating
priests. When an epidemic breaks out, a cart filled with cooked rice
sprinkled over with red powder and a he-buffalo are moved in proces­
sion through all the streets of the village, and the cart is left beyond
the village boundary, the buffalo being set at liberty. This ceremony
is known as Bali hadhane or the procession of the offering. The
spiritual guide of the Deccan Jingars is the Shankarachdrya of Shrin-
geri, of the Karnatak Jingars, Shankar Bharati. I t is said that the
Jingars keep the sixteen Brahmanic Samkars or sacraments, but
enquiries show that this is not the case, the caste members being not
even aware of the names of most of the Sara/cars. There appear to be
only tw o such SansJcdrs observed by the Jingars as are not observed
by the lower castes. They are the Chaul, that is the hairclipping
ceremony, and Upanayan or the thread-girding. The latter cere­
m ony is not performed after the Brahmanical ritual, but the b oy is
invested with the sacred thread when the other members of the caste
renew theirs in the m onth of Shrdvan. The priests of the D eccan
Jingars are the Y ajurvedi Deshasth Brahmans, those of the Karndtak
and Kanara Jingars are either Deshasth, Konkanasth or H avik
Brahmans.

Death. The dead are burnt. Children who have not cut their teeth are
buried. The ordinary funeral rites are observed. The bones and
ashes are consigned to water. For the propitiation of the deceased
ancestors the Shrdddha and Mahdlaya are performed every year.
 ■n\\ p

■•■S'): < S L
^5*ggy 103 [Jogi .........

The hereditary occupation of the caste is said to be saddle-making, occnpa-

occupation but most of them have given up this occupation. They tion-
now follow a variety of callings such as casting metal, carving stones,
painting, making toys and figures of clay and cloth, carving wood, and
repairing boxes, padlocks and watches. They also make vinas or lyres,
sdrangis or fiddles and other musical instruments. The Jingars of Gokdk
in the talulca of that name, and of Deshmur in the Sampgaon iMuha
of the Belgaum district are famous for their wooden toys and for
life-like imitations of fruit and figures of men and animals. Their
skill as craftsmen was rewarded by the Peshwds by gifts of lands and
houses. A few of them hold land under the Rayatwdri system.

They eat the flesh of goats, sheep, fowls, hares, deer and fish, and Food-
drink liquor. They eat at the hands of Brdhmahs only and drink and
smoke with the Mardthds. No caste, however low, eats food prepared
by them, a proof of the degradation attached to them, the cause of
which is doubtless to be found in their working in leather.

JXRAIT.— A sub-division of Mdngs.

JIRE.— A sub-division of Malis.
JOGAH.— A sub-division of Jogis.
JGGI.— A sub-division of Vanjdris.
JOGIS numbering 10,974 (1901), including 5,760 males and 5,214 Name and
females, are found scattered in small numbers all over the Presidency.ongm*
The term Jogi is derived from the Sanskrit yoga, union, and means a
follower of the Yoga of Pdtanjal school of philosophy. It is popularly
applied to all who lead a life of asceticism. The Jogis form a religious
brotherhood founded by the saint Gorakhndth. They are nicknamed
K&nphdte or slit-eared, because they make big holes to the lobes of
their ears, in which they wear large thick ivory, clay, bone, or fish scale
ear-rings. They are also called Nfiths after their founder Gorakhndth.
They have two divisions of a territorial type, (1) Gujardt Jogis Divisions,
a n d (2) Mar4tha Jogis, who include the Kam&tak and Kanara Jogis.
The former are pure ascetics. The latter have two divisions, regular
and secular. The regular Jogis live b y begging, the secular Jogis in
addition to begging also work as husbandmen and labourers. Some
breed buffaloes and dogs, and some make and sell smooth black stone
vessels. They have twelve endogamous divisions : (1) Are, (2) Balgdr,
( 3) Berak, (4) Bhorpi, (5) Dombdri, ( 6) Davarji, (7) Jogdr, ( 8) Ker,
(9) Kindri, (10) Kurub, (11) Mendar, and (12) Murdd. They have
twelve flUns, each of which belongs to one of the twelve orders said
ffJPl'Johan] 104
; (C
^
T
to have been founded b y twelve disciples of Gorakhn4th. Marriages
are prohibited between members of the same clan or order.

The restrictions upon intermarriage are the same as those among

Marathds. W idow marriage is allowed. They eat goats, sheep,
hares, deer, wild pigs and fowls, and drink liquor. E xcept that they
initiate their boys in their order at the age of twelve, and that they
bury their dead, their ceremonies do not differ much from those of the
surrounding cultivating castes.

JOGIA KHUMAO.— A synonym for H&ti.

JOGTI.— A sub-division of Mah&rs; a synonym for Jogtin.

JOGTINS, numbering 23 (1901), including 9 males and 14 females,

are found chiefly in Poona and S&tara. They are a religious order
recruited from all castes of Hindus. The order is kept up b y children
dedicated to the goddess Yellamma. The boys thus dedicated are
known as Jogtis. They marry girls of-the castes to which they belong,
and observe their respective caste rules. Jogtins are not allowed to
marry. They make their living b y begging in the name of the god­
dess.

JOHARIS or Javeris, numbering 846 (1901), including 448 men and

398 women, are chiefly found in Khandesh, Sholapur, Ahmednagar,
Nasik and Poona. Their occupation is dealing in jewelry, the name
joh&ri being derived from javdhir (jewelry).

N am e and The caste is believed to have com e from Northern India during
crigin. tjje tjme 0f the Peshwds for purposes of trade, but it no longer
inter-marries with the parent stock. It is said that the caste is formed
of children o f a Shudra father b y a Vaishya mother. The fact of each
of the sub-divisions having a separate ilevah or god of the exogamous
section suggests an original totemistic organization. As a rule out­
siders are not admitted into the caste, but sometimes young boys of
other castes are admitted without performing any ceremony, when
they becom e dahdmdses of the ardhaduba section.

Endo- There are three endogamous divisions of the caste B&ram&se,

gamons Akaramfise, and Dahdmdse, the first being superior to the other
divisions. aQ(j gecon(j being superior to the third. The names Akara-
mAsg and Dah&mase probably mean eleven and ten mAsds,w that is
one and two masas short o f the full tola, as these tw o divisions are

( 1 ) A mdsa is a measure of weight among goldsmiths amounting to nearly

6J grains and being one-twelfth of a tola, the goldsmiths’ common measure.
H
X ; li
> ..
105 _,.@l
[Johari
formed of the illegitimate children of the members o f the caste and
the outsiders admitted into the caste.
There are 22 J exogamous sub-divisions of the caste, known as Exog»-
Gaud, Gujar, Lava, Rathod, Bhatti, Bhais, Agdode, Sony&r&thod, 3}°]jjj|onfc
Badgujar, B<im, Dasavantas, Shishode, Digoa, Kapasha, Nathiy&n,
T hik, Sonyaphadya, Kativale, Suni, Sarvativ&le, Pat.hivan, Gadria,
and Ardhaduba, the last being the half sub-division. The full sub-divi­
sions are found only among the B&ram&ses, the half sub-division
being formed from the other two divisions.. Marriages cannot take
place in the same sub-division. Sameness oi devak is a bar to inter­
marriage.
Marriages are prohibited between descendants on the paternal
uncle and maternal aunt’s side. A member of the caste may marry
his father’s sister’s or maternal uncle’s daughter. H e is allowed to
marry two sisters, and brothers may marry sisters.

Boys are generally married from the age of ten to twenty, and
girls even after they attain puberty. Sexual license before marrigae
is not tolerated. If a girl commits sexual indiscretions she is turned
out of the caste unless the man involved is a casteman, when she is
allowed to remain in the caste as his mistress, and her children by
him are admitted to the ardhaduba exogamous section. Polygamy is
allowed and practised. In theory a man can marry any. number of
wives, but in actual life no instance is found of a man having more
than three. Polyandry is unknown.

The offer of marriage is made by the boy’s father. The settle- Marria8e
ment of the marriage day and the ceremony itself are entrusted to monies,
the caste priest. The most important of the marriage ceremonies
are Vagnischaya, Simantpujan, Layna, Bhovari-phirane, and Kan-
ydddn. The first three appear to be copied from the Deshasth Brah­
mans. The Bhovari-phirane, i.e., walking round the sacred fire,
corresponds to the Brahmanic Saptapadi and is the binding portion
of the ceremony. Kanyaddn, i.e., giving away of the bride, consists
in tying together both the hands of the bride and bridegroom separate­
ly with a cotton thread and placing thereon copper coins and pouring
water on them by all present. It is believed that by performing this
ceremony the whole caste get the punya (merit) of making a gift of a
daughter. In Nasik their marriages are always celebrated at night
after nine o’ clock, the bridegroom wearing a yellow or red robe reaching
to the feet. The devaks or marriage guardians of the caste consist of
the panchpalvi., i.e., leaves of five kinds of trees, which are tied to a post
h h 1109—14
 (St
Johan] 106 k

of the marriage booth, every exogamous section having a separate

devak.
Remarriage of widows is allowed, but it is not much in vogue. A
widow is not allowed to marry her mother’s sister’s son or a relation
of her deceased husband. A widow’s marriage is always celebrated on
a dark night, but especially on the last day of the month. N o woman
is allowed to be present on the occasion. Only a priest and a male mem­
ber of the caste are present. The widow and her new husband are seated
on a bullock’s packsaddle and made to worship Ganpati. The priest
then fills the widow’s lap and makes the couple drink milk from the same
cup, this being the essential portion of the ceremony. I t is considered
unlucky for unwidowed women to see the widow’s face three days
before or after the marriage takes place. A bachelor is not allowed to
marry a widow. Divorce is allowed. A divorced woman can remarry
according to the pat (widow remarriage) ceremony. The caste follow
the Hindu law of inheritance.
Religion. They are Hindus and belong to the NAnak sect. They worship
all the Hindu deities and the tulas or sweet basil plant. The Joharis
of Poona seem to specially reverence Ram, the seventh incarnation
of Vishnu, and the hero of the RAmAyan. They observe all the Hindu
holidays, their chief holidays being Rdmmvami, Gokuldshtami, and
Navardtra. They make pilgrimages to Oudh, Gokarn, Gokul VrindAvan,
Tuljapur, Pandharpur and other places. Pearls and precious stones
are worshipped on the Dasara and the Rdkhi Paurnirm day. Images
o f dead ancestors are installed among the house gods, and worshipped
daily along with them. The offerings consist of articles of daily food.
If cocoanuts are offered they are taken by the officiating priests. Vows
are sometimes made to MusalmAn Pirs, and if they are successful, the
things promised are offered to them. When cholera breaks out, the
goddess supposed to preside over the disease is propitiated by offerings of
water. The religious teachers of the caste are Udasis, a sect of GosAvis
from the Punjab, who are NAnakpanthis in belief and have a monastery,
akitdda or math, at Trimbak. JohAris profess not to believe in witchcraft
or in evil spirits. The priests of the caste are, as a rule, Kanojia
BrAhmans, but in their absence Deshasth BrAhmans are employed.
Death. They either bum or bury the dead, burning being more common.
A t burial the corpse is laid with the head turned to the south. The
ordinary funeral rites are performed, and a feast is given to the caste
people on the twelfth day. Those who have not the means to give this
feast are not allowed to perform the obsequies till they are in a position
to give the feast. They perform the shraddha,
 <SL
---- \
: 8°C\

107 [Joshi
The occupation of the caste is dealing in pearls, corals, diamonds Oceupa-
occupation and other precious stones, and in glass beads. They b u y tion-
old gold and silver lace, and embroidered clothes, bum them and extract
the gold and sil ver. Their women keep small haberdashery shops, selling
wooden and tin boxes, combs, marbles, looking glasses, tops, whistles,
dolls, and small brass cups and dishes. The Poona Johiris appear to be
hereditary beggars, dealing in old lace and ribands, and professing a
knowledge of phy sic.
The Bombay Gazetteer states that the Joharis of Poona and Food
Sholapur are vegetarians and take no liquor, but a more correct view
seems to be that they eat goats, domestic fowls and fish and that
they drink liquor.

JOSHIS, also known as Budbudki, Gibidld or Chudbudki Joshis, Name and

Davaris, or Pingles, numbering 34,716 (1901), including 17,472 males ongin'
and 17,244 females, are found scattered all over the Presidency, but
especially in the Deccan, Konkan and the Karnatak. They are a caste
of wandering beggars and fortune-tellers recruited from numerous
sources. The term Joshi means an astrologer. It is a corruption of
the word Jyotishi, which means an astronomer or astrologer. The terms
BudJtmdki, Gidindki, and Chudlmdki are onomatopoeic names for a small
hour-glass shaped drum, three or four inches in diameter, which the
Joshis play as an accompaniment to the songs which they sing as they
walk begging from door to door. Another name for the drum is daur,
which has given rise to the caste synonym of Davari. The name Pingle
has its origin in their practice followed by these astrologers of consulting
the pingula or spotted owlet, Carine brahma, before starting on then-
begging rounds in the early morning. The Joshis appear to be recruited
from Marathds, Dhangars, Malis and other castes of Mardtha origin.
They have two endogamous divisions, i.e., Proper and Akarmdshe Divisions,
or bastard, who eat together but do not intermarry. Their exogamous
sub-divisions known as kills are, Bhise, Bhosale, Chavan, Gaikwdd,
Garud, Gh&ti, Jadhav, Kadam, Mane, Naikal, Pov&r, Shingan, and
Shinde—all common kul names among Marathds and kindred castes.
The restrictions on intermarriage are the same as amongst Maratha
Kunbis. Polygamy, widow marriage and divorce are allowed and
practised, but polyandry in unknown. Boys are married between ten
and twenty-five, girls before they come of age.
The marriage is preceded by betrothal, when the girl is presented Marriage
with a robe and bodice. Her brow is marked with red powder and monies,
feasts are given. On the marriage day, the guardian or devak, consisting

I |S|
 Joshi] 108 S L
of the leaves of five trees or pdnchpdlvis, is tied to a post of the
booth with a hatchet, two wheaten cakes, and a lighted earthen lamp.
A sheep is offered to the guardian, and the caste is feasted. The b oy and
girl are rubbed with turmeric at their homes. The boy then proceeds
on horse-back to the girl’s house, where both the b oy and girl are made to
stand in bamboo baskets half full of rice, with a curtain held between
them. Marriage verses are then repeated, and rice grains thrown over
the couple by all assembled, and the ceremony is complete.
The marriage ceremony of the Bij&pur Joshis differs somewhat
from the above. Tw o water pots are placed in the marriage booth, one
for the bride and the other for the bridegroom, with five copper coins
and five betelnuts in each, and a string is wound round their necks.
W hen a Brahman ia present at the wedding he ties a piece of turmeric
root to each string, and binds one on the bride’s wrist and one on the
bridegroom’s. He also ties the mangcdsutm or lucky thread round the
girl’s neck. In Belgaum, the caste meet, and the Bhats throw rice on
the b o y ’s and girl’ s heads, the ceremony ending with a dinner.
Religion. Joshis belong to the Hindu religion. Their fam ily gods are
Keddreshvar, Shidoba, Bhavdni, Yellamma, Khandoba, Bahiroba
and Mariai. Another god specially worshipped is the Vithoba of
Pandharpur, whose shrine they occasionally visit. They do not make
pilgrimage to any other place. They observe the leading Hindu
holidays. During Skrdvan they take food from no one and eat only
one meal a day. On the Dasara day they offer goats and sheep t o
Bhavdni, the flesh of which is eaten by themselves. Goats are also
offered to Musalman saints. Some of the Bijapur Joshis grow the
beard in honour of a Musalman saint called Yemana Sdheb. They
believe in divination and soothsaying. They are said not to practise
witchcraft and to have no faith in the evil eye. They believe Tuesday
and Friday are lucky days and the rest unlucky. Their spiritual
guide lives at Chitgupa in the Nizam’s country, and is named Shidoba.
In Belgaum, their priests are Bhats. In Bijapur, Brahmans are
sometimes employed to conduct marriages. In Dhdrwdr, marriages
arc conducted b y Brahmans and the other ceremonies b y priests of
their own caste who are called Gandchdris. In Kanara, the Chitpavan
or K arM da Brahmans officiate at their ceremonies.
The dead are buried, except lepers, who are burnt. A t burial
°ftt ’ the corpse is placed in a sitting position. The body is slung from a
pole and carried to the burial ground on the shoulders of two men.
On the third day wheat bread, rice and milk are laid on the spot where
the dead was buried. In some places, a goat is killed and flesh and
ffg ffl' (cr
109 [Josh! 8 ;
bread are taken to the grave. Mourning is observed ten days and
caste-fellows are feasted on the twelfth. A shrdddha is performed on the
death day of the deceased.

The main occupation of Joshis is to wander from house to house Occupa-

and village to village telling fortunes and begging. A Joshi tion‘
g o t up for a begging tour is a quaint figure. He is dressed in a large
dirty white turban with a red cloth turned over it, a long white coat
reaching below his knees, and a tattered silk-bordered shoulder-cloth.
In one hand is a staff and in the other the eponymous drum. A knotted
cord is fastened to the drum, and when the drum is shaken the knot
strikes against the membrane of the drum and makes a tinkling sound.
Some Joshis ca n y in one hand a book or almanac, by referring to
which they pretend to foretell fortunes. Some have a bag by their side
containing ckintdmani, a collection of pictures on small pieces of
cardboard. These pictures are used as guides in fortune telling.
It is a common practice of the Joshis to rise at three in the morning,
and go to some ruined buildings or large trees outside of the village,
where they consult the spotted owlet or -pingala, whose notes they
profess to understand. About four or five o ’clock they come back
into the village, and, standing at the door of each house and sounding
their drum, awaken the people and tell their fortunes. Their forecast
sometimes includes one or two not unlikely misfortunes, and this fact
induces the inmates, growing uneasy, to come out and ask the Joshi
how the misfortune can be avoided. He tells them what to do, receives
a fee as a reward, and wanders on from house to house till nine in the
morning. The occupation is declining in popularity as few believe
in the prophecies. In the Bijapur district some of the caste hold
gram Joshi or village astrologer’s rent-free lands.
Joshis eat fish and flesh, and drink liquor. It is said that they Fao<1
eat the leavings from Brdhmans, leaf plates. They rank themselves
with MaratMs, but Marathas will not eat with them because they take
alms from Makars and Mangs and receive cooked food from persons
with whom Marathas do not eat.
JUNA.— A sub-division of Shrigaud Brdhmans.
JUNAGADHI.— A sub-division of Lodhds.
JUNARE.— A sub-division of Devangs. *
JONARI.— A sub-division of Guravs and Nhavis.
JUNNARE.— A sub-division of Mahars,
JYAPHOLONDI.—-A sub-division of Alkaris.

I ■' H | , \ - K iU M
(@ | ' ’ ' <§l
K a b b a lig a r ] 110

Name and KABBALIGARS numbering 75,753 (1901), including 38,796 males

ons'" ' and 36,957 females, are found all over the Karnatalc, chiefly along
the banks of the Bhima and Krishna, and in Kanara on the banks of
the Gangavali river. Of this number 2,845 returned themselves as
Lingdyats at the census of 1901. They are also known by the
following n am es:—
1. Ambi, A m big or Ambekar. 5. Gangimakkalu.
2. Bdrkar or Barekari. 6. Jad.
3. Bhillakabberu. 7. Sungar or Sunnakallu
4. Kabber or Kabher. Bestha.
A t the 1901 census 15 o f them returned themselves as Durga Murgis,
on account of their practice of carrying an image of Durga Murgavva
when begging, as do also the Berads.
The name Ambi or Ambig is derived from the Sanskrit ambu
water, and is chiefly in use in Kanara. The term Gangimakkalu
means river-children, and is equivalent to the English term fisherman,
being applied to many castes who fish in rivers, but the caste members
endeavour to connect it with the sacred Ganges in order to raise them ­
selves in the public estimation. The terms Sungar and Jad are occa­
sionally applied to Kabbaligars who have taken to the occupation of
these tw o castes, viz., lime-burning and weaving. The origin of the
other names has not been traced.

The Kabbaligars are largely represented in Mysore by the Bosthas,

for whom the synonyms Kabber, Kabbaligar, A m big, Gangimakkalu
and Sungar are also in use. The first tw o names are in use in Shimoga,
and the term Ambig in the south-western portions of the state bordering
on British territory. Another synonym for Sungar or lime-burning
Kabbaligars is Sunnakallu Bestha.

It is alleged that the original home of the Kabbaligars was in the

Bellary District of Madras. Telugu is the home speech of one of their
divisions. This and the fact that the kalagamb and dhdre ceremonies
are performed amongst them at the tim e of marriage support the theory
o f a southern origin. The survival of a totemistic organization amongst
the division of the caste living in Kanara seems to point to the same
conclusion. All traces of totemism have disappeared from among
the Karndtak Kabbaligars, who have adopted a system of bedagus
or family stocks. The caste in places is adopting Brahmanical gotras ;
and they have hit upon a somewhat singularly sounding Garuda
Gandharva gotra instead of the usual Kashyap. The caste is loosely
organised. Many girls remain unmarried and follow prostitution as a
■ p m n ■ '
& ?. 111 [Kabbaligar
(ci
calling, and this, in the case of most of their divorced women, is the
chief means of livelihood. Members of higher castes such as the better
classes of Lingayats, Jains, MarathaR, Raddis, etc., may be admitted
into the caste. The new comer is shaved, the tip of his tongue is
branded with burning cotton, and he is then called upon to give a
dinner to the caste people.

The Kabbaligars are a powerful and fine-looking class of men,

rather dark, with regular features. They and the Kurubas are the
sturdiest class in the Karnatak. In the Karnatak, their dress is a head­
scarf and a pair of knee-breeches; and a shoulder-cloth thrown over
the shoulders. The women wear the ordinary robe and bodice with­
out passing the lower end of the robe between the legs. Both men and
women wear a fewr ornaments of brass and silver. The dress of the
Kanara Kabbaligar men is much the same as that of their Karnatak
brethren. The women wear the robe, drawing the upper end over the
left shoulder and then throwing it back over the right shoulder. They
wear no b od ice; but adorn their hair with the white flowers of the
betel-palm, the leaves of the pdchche plant, and aboli flowers. Both
men and women rub their brows with cowdung ashes.

The Kabbaligars speak Kanarase. The division who beg from

door to door speak Telugu amongst themselves and Kanarese with
others. The names in common use among men of the Karnatak
Kabbaligars are, Basappa, Bhi kappa, Bhimappa, Kallappa, Mallappa,
Ningappa, Rayappa, Siddappa and Sadrappa; and among
women, Bhimavva, Gangavva, Lakshmavva, Mallavva, Nagavva,
Sangavva, Sedavva, Sindhavva and Sornavva. The names of male
Kabbaligars in Kanara are, Badka, Basva, Dema, Durgu, Govind, Iva,
Jetti.Kitna, Manju, MMsti, Rama, Timma and Venka; and of women,
Basoi, Bhimi, Devi, Gangi, Gauri, Gutti, Jetti, Mhasti, Putti, Sukri,
Sutti and Tulsi. The Karnatak Kabbaligars have an hereditary
headman known as Kattimani who settles social disputes at meetings ,
of the caste men. He has the power to excommunicate and readmit
members of the caste. The headmen of the Kanara Kabbaligars are
known as Budvants.
The endogamous divisions of the Karnatak Kabbaligars are as Endo-
f o l l o w s f mous
divisions.
1. Ambig. 5. Bovar. 9. Lingayat.
2. Bailgammar. 6. Durga Murgi, 10. Lohagar.
3. Bailugar. 7. Haig. 11. Mosalegar.
4. Bhoi. 8. Kabber.
f{Wm
^ Kabbaligar] 112
(ct
u L j

Each of the above divisions except the Ling&yat is again split up

into three kuh, viz., Hanjukul, Jokumdrkul, and Navilkul, which
are endogamous. All divisions eat from the Lingayats, but they
neither eat nor intermarry with one another. The Kabbers marry
girls from the Ambigs but d o n ot give their daughters in marriage to
them, as the latter prostitute their women and are hence considered
to be lower in status.

Tiie Kanara Kabbaligars have four endogamous divisions as

follows :—

1 . Gauda or Handmaid. 3. K oli or Boatman.

2 . Mashal or Torchman. 4. Patrachandri or Singer.

Those women of the last division who are favoured with good looks
d o not marry, but earn their living by singing and prostitution.

Eso The K am atak Kabbaligars have 101 exogamous sub-divisions

gamous known as bedagus, the chief of which are as follows :—
1. Aggadava. 12. Chatak. 23. Mavlig.
2. Alagasandhi. 13. Haggadava, 24. Nadgaddeyava.
3. Ambisani. 14. Halasig. 25. Natgar.
4. Anigundiyava. 15. Halmaneyava. 26. Patigar.
5. Antyagar. 16. Harigar. 27. Sarvandig.
6. Axelladava. 17. Jalgar. 28. Sunagar.
7. Bellannava. 18. Kallusagat. 29. Talvar.
8. Benneyava. 19. Kundang&r. 30. Tapadava.
9. Bhandardava. 20. Lakshmisagat. 31. Teppagar.
10. Bhilluger. 21. Mallashetti. 32. Tolanbandi.
11. Byatigar. 22. Masai. 33. Vagir.
34. Yaluk.

The Kanara Kabbaligars are split up into exogamous sub-divi­

sions known as baits, of which the following have been recorded

1. Ancbali (ane elephant). 2. Gangabali ( Ganga the river

GangdvaM).
It is com monly alleged that the members of the Anebali will not
allow their women to wear ornaments of ivory, and that they wor­
ship the elephant. The Gangabali are accustomed to make offerings
to the river Gangdvali. Members of the Anebali must marry outside
that sub-division, and similarly, in the case of members of the Gangd-
baii, marriage must be with members of some other M i. These balis
are therefore truly exogamous.
 , '

113 [Kabbaligar

A Kabbaligar may marry his sister’s, father’s sister’s or mother’s

brother’s daughter. According to some, marriage with a mother’s
sister’s daughter is also allowed. Two sisters can be married simul­
taneously, and brothers are allowed to marry sisters. Polygamy is
allowed and practised, but polyandry is unknown. Girls are married
either before or after they come of age. In Kanara, it is a rule that
girls must be married before they attain puberty. If a maiden indul­
ges in sexual intercourse with a fellow casteman, she is either married
to him or is fined and made to give a dinner to the caste people.
If she is guilty of misconduct with a member of a higher caste, the
penalty is a fine and a dinner to the caste people. But if her mis­
conduct results in pregnancy, in addition to the above punishment* she
loses the privilege of marrying according to the first marriage form,
though she is free to marry after the widow marriage ritual. Many
of the girls who become pregnant remain unmarried and follow pros­
titution. This does not involve loss of caste, hut marriage connections
with the children of such women are not allowed in the case of the
offspring of married couples. Girls committing adultery with mem­
bers of lower castes are said to be excommunicated. Polygamy is
allowed and practised but polyandry is unknown.

The offer of marriage comes from the b oy’s father, who has to Marriage
pay
* »
a teru or bride-price
^ ^
of from Rs. 12 to Rs. 100 to the ugirl’s father.cere'.
monies
The day for the marriage is fixed b y a Brahman priest, who conducts
the service. - The principal ceremonies are as follows :—

1 . Sakheri.— The b oy’s parents with friends and relations go

with sugar, cocoanuts and betel leaves to the girl’s home and lay the
articles before the house gods. They ask some people to attend,
put a little sugar in the girl’ s mouth, and hand betel to the guests.
A feast of rice and curry and vermicelli is served, and the b oy’s
party and guests withdraw.

2. Bdshtagi, Hamruville, or ViMe.— A few days after, the bride­

groom’s party go to the bride’s with a robe, four pieces of bodice cloth,
five halves of dry cocoa-kernel, five pieces of turmeric, five pieces of
molasses, two hundred betel leaves, and gold and silver ornaments ;
and dress the bride in the robe, make her sit before the god, and lay in
her lap rice, cocoa-kernels, ornament s and betel leaves. The girl’s
mother is presented w ith a robe and a bodice cloth. The boy’s party
are then feasted with sweet rice gruel, and next day with bread and
sweetmeats, and they return home.
nr h 1109—15
 vfiT
Kabbaligar] 1H
p , '
3. Arashina or turmeric rubbing.— On an appointed day the
bride’s party take the bride to the bridegroom’s, and both the bride
and bridegroom are rubbed with turmeric paete.
4. Devakdrya.— N ext day the Devakdrya or god-pleasing
ceremony is performed. A log of wood of the umbar (Ficus glomerata)
is thrown in to a pond or well, and then brought home in procession
after sunset b y unwidowed women, one o f whom brings a jar filled
with the water of the pond or well. The jar is supposed to represent
the deceased ancestors. It is covered with a piece of new cloth,
placed near the household gods, and worshipped with offerings o f
sweet dishes. The log o f the umbar wood is cut into two parts.
One is called the halagamb or milkpost and the other hmdargamb or
marriage-booth post. The posts are planted and worshipped and the
marriage booth is then erected. The devak or marriage guardian is
then installed. Two men, one from the boy’s house and the other
from the girl’s, cut tw o twigs of an Ingli tree and keep them in a
temple. Next, a party goes in procession to the temple, women wave
lamps before the twigs, and the twigs are brought home and tied to the
handargamb. To the end of the twigs is tied a bundle containing five
betelnuts, five betel leaves, five pice, a turmeric root, and one half
of a dry cocoa-kernel. The twigs are then worshipped and a dinner
is given to the caste people.
5. Aimnikelu.— In the evening, the party go to a potter’s with
ten pounds of millet, ten quarter-anna pieces, and food enough for a
holiday meal. They bring from the potter’s four small pots or mogds, two
middle sized pots or gddgas, a large pot or ghagar, and two pot-covers,
and lay them before the house gods. A suragi or square is formed
with the mogds in the marriage booth and the gMgar is placed in the
middle o f the square. The mogds are filled with coloured water, a
pice is dropped into each, and the mouths of the mogds are covered with
mango-leaves. Five cotton threads are passed round the mogds and the
boy and some of his near relations are seated near the ghagar in the
middle of the square, and bathed with the water contained in the rrwgds
to the accompaniment of music. The girl is bathed similarly at her
house.
6. Lagna or the marriage proper.— On the third day the bride and
bridegroom and their mothers sit together, bathe and dress in new
clothes. Next, a marriage coronet is put on the b o y ’s head and he is
given milk to drink. The b oy is then taken on a bullock’s back to
a temple, breaks a cocoanut before the image of the god in the temple,
and offers him the marriage coronet intended for the girl. Next he
Km
A^iisA
\ \ .~‘y \,
i -r

7
/ ■ 115
■ ' <sl
[Kabbaligar
Ik. Jk^~Jk .

takes back the coronet and the party return home. The boy and the
girl are then made to stand face to face, a cloth is held between them,
marriage verses are repeated, and grains of rice coloured red are thrown
over the bridal pair by the guests. The pair also throw rice grains on
each other’s heads. A lucky necklace is then placed on the girl’s neck,
kankans or marriage wristlets are tied round the wrists of both, and the
ends of their garments are tied into a knot (brahmagantu). The girl’s
maternal uncle joins the hands of the couple and pours water over them
( DMre), which is the binding portion of the service.
7. Meramnige.— On the night of the fourth day, marriage coronets
are put on the heads of the boy and girl, and they are taken in procession
on a bullock’s back to a temple. After returning home, they are bathed
and made to play with water dyed with turmeric paste, and a feast is
held. Next, the marriage coronets are taken off the heads of the pair,
and they are taken to the girl’s father’s house, where the boy is
presented with brass and copper vessels. The boy then returns home
with his bride, which ends the marriage.
Among the Kabbaligars of Kanara, animal food is not used either
at the boy’s or the girl’s house from the commencement to the end of
the marriage ceremonies.
The remarriage of widows is permitted. A widow can marry her
father’s sister’s son or mother’s brother’s son, but not her mother’s
sister’s son. She cannot marry a member belonging to her late husband’s
or father’s bedagu. A widow remarriage can be celebrated on any dark
night except a new-moon day, in any month except Ashadh and Paush.
A few leading castemen and widows only attend the ceremony. The
widow is made to wear an old robe, she is taken into a dark room, and a
lucky necklace is placed on her neck by another widow, which completes
the ceremony. In some places the ceremony consists in the widow’s
putting on the dress presented by her intended husband and in tying
into a knot the ends of the pair’s garments; while in others, the locking
up of the widow and her intended husband in a room for the night is the
only ceremony. On the following morning the face of the widow is not
seen until she has bathed. A dinner is then given to the caste people.
A bachelor desirous of marrying a widow is first married to a rut bush
(Oalotropis gigantea). Divorce is allowed if there is disagreement
between husband and wife, or the wife is found to be unchaste. Divor­
ced women can marry again b y the widow remarriage form, or take to
a life of prostitution. The caste follow the Hindu law of inheritance.
Like most castes of the Karnatak, the Kabbaligars have not Religion,
escaped the influence of Lingayatism. Just as a Kuruba or shepherd,
■fAf "'V (CT
■, Kabbaligar] 116

if he rises to the position of a village headman, generally puts on the

linga and calls himself a Hande Vazir, so the Kabbaligar pdtil as at
Akalvadi in Bijapur, and the Kabbaligar kolkar or patil’s servant as
at Bagevadi and Mungoli in Bijapur, are occasionally Lingayats.
Such cases axe rare, because few Kabbaligars have risen to high posi­
tion. The family gods of the Karnatak Kabbaligars are Bharmappa,
Opliparmanand, Mailarling, Basavanna and Yirbhadra; and their
family goddesses are Dyamavva, Durgavva, Gangavva, H u lga w a
and Bhavani. These and the god Marati are the chief objects of their
worship. Goats and fowls are offered to the goddesses on Tuesdays
and the Dasara day and whenever they are worshipped. The Karnatak
Kabbaligars make pilgrimages to Hampi, Gokarn and to the shrine
of Yellamma. They keep all Hindu holidays, especially Gudipadva
or New Y ear’s day, Vatapaurnima, NdgpancJiami, Dasara and Divdli.
They never fast, and have no spiritual teacher. W hen cholera or
small-pox breaks out, they do not work on Tuesdays and Fridays,
and the village goddess is propitiated with offerings of water, food
and articles of dress. The lap of the goddess’ idol is filled, it is carried
in a chariot in procession, a fair is held, and he-buffaloes and fowls are
sacrificed. The Kabbaligars believe in soothsaying, spirits and
ghosts, but some profess to have no faith in witchcraft. The well-
to-do amongst them instal images of their deceased ancestors amongst
their household gods, and worship them with offerings of goats on
festive occasions and on holidays. Musalman saints are venerated.
Their marriages are conducted by Briihmans and the death cere­
monies b y Jangams or the caste elders.

The objects of special worship of the Kanara Kabbaligars are the

god Basava, whose image, in the form of a bull carved on a metal
plate four or five inches square, is kept in their houses for daily wor­
ship, and th e goddess Gangavali, to whose shrine they make pil­
grimages at the festival of the Gangasktami day. They also make
pilgrimages to Tirupati, Gokarn and Dkarmasthal. The religious
teacher of some is the head of the Shringeri m onastery; of others
the head of the Lingayat monastery at Chitaldurg in Mysore. They
keep all Lingayat festivals, the leading Hindu holidays, and the festi­
vals of Haridina and Panvdr. Their family deities are Guttiamma of
Banavasi in Sirsi, Mailardeva o f Dharwar, Yellamma of Farasgad in
Belgaum, and Basava and Maridevi of Sirsi. Their priests are either
Karn&tak or Havik Brahmans.
Death. The Karnatak Kabbaligars bury their dead, e x c e p t persons
dying of leprosy, who are burnt under the belief that if buried they
W 117 [Eabbaligar
<8L
prevent the rain falling. In Kanara, the married dead are burnt,
the unmarried being buried. A t burial the unmarried are laid with
head to the north, the married are seated. The funeral rites of the
Kanara Kabbaligars resemble those of the Banjigs. In the Karnfitak
also their death ceremonies mostly resemble those of the Lingayats,
the marked difference being that, after the funeral party return home,
they bathe in cold water holding durva grass and palri or bcl leaves
in their hands, which they wash in a metal pot full of water placed on
the cow-dunged spot where the deceased breathed his last. On the
third day the mourners take rdgi gruel or dmbli and millet bread to
the grave, lay them on the grave, and burn incense close by. They
retire to some distance to allow the crows to feed on the offerings.
If the crows do not eat the cakes, it is held a bad omen, and the food
is given to a cow. On the fifth day the corpse bearers are feasted.
They slaughter a sheep and feed the castemen on the ninth. In
some places, on the ninth or eleventh day, water in which a Jangam’ s
feet have been washed is sprinkled all over the house of the deceased.
Next, a jar filled with water is placed near the gods and, if the decea­
sed was a male, it is covered with a man’s waistcloth, and if a female,
with a woman’s robe. The jar is then worshipped with an offering
of cooked food containing goat’s or fowl’s flesh. Some of the food
is laid on the spot where the corpse was buried, and the caste is feasted.
During the fifth or some other odd month after death, a mask or
mukhavata if the deceased was a man, or a top-like vessel if the deceased
was a woman/is brought from a local goldsmith and is laid among the
house gods. To these a waistcloth or a robe is offered and a goat
is killed before them. If the deceased was a great drinker, spirituous
liquor is also offered ; and if he leaves a son, the latter presents clothes
to a person of the age and sex of the deceased on the marnavami,
that is, the day before the Dasam, and during the Divali holidays.
Once in every two, three, four or five years, the castemen are feasted
for the propitiation of the deceased ancestors, when the masks of
the deceased, or in their absence the household gods, are worshipped
with offerings of articles of dress.

Among the Kanara Kabbaligars, on the twelfth day after death,

a feast is given to the corpse-bearers and caste people, and crows are
fed. At night an exorcist is called to release the spirit of the deceased
from the control of the ill-disposed spirit Rahu, and to give it over t o
that of the favourably disposed spirit Guttu. On the thirtieth day
after death, a man of the age and sex of the deceased is feasted, and
crows are fed, when the spirit of the deceased is supposed to have
 l
^Kachan]
,
118
§L
joined the spirits of the other ancestors. This is repeated every thir­
tieth day during the first twelve months, and after that once a year
during the latter half of the month of Bhadrapad.

Occupa- The hereditary occupation of the caste is fishing, ferrying and

tion- palanquin-hearing. In Kanara they are also employed as sailors.
They have no objection to catching crocodiles and tortoises. Some
hold inam land for performing village service, while others hold lands
under the Rayatvdri and Bhagddri systems. Some take land on lease
from superior holders, and some are day labourers. Some have taken
to making lime and weaving cloth. In Kanara, some are petty shop­
keepers dealing in rice and curry stuff, and some keep bullock carts
for hire.

y«oA. They eat the flesh of goats, sheep, fowls, hares, deer, fish, etc.,
and drink liquor. They hold themselves superior to those who eat
beef, pork, rats and jackals.

KABBER.— A sub-division of Kabbaligars.

KABHER.— A synonym for Kabbaligar.
KABIR.-—A sub-division of Kolis.
KABULE.— A sub-division of Mahars.
KABULI and BADAKSHANI.— A sub division of Kliojahs.
KACHA.— A sub-division of Malis.
, KACHARIS or glass-bangle makers, numbering 395 (1901),
including 232 m ales and 163 females, are found in Ahmednagar, Poona,
' Sahara, Nasik, and the Akalkot State. In the year 1891 they were
returned as numbering 918. There are two endogamous divisions
of the caste, Marathas and Lingayats, who do not eat together or
intermarry. The Maratha Kachdris resemble the Maratha Kunbis in
religion and customs. The Lingayat Kachdris are non-Pancbamsdli
Lingayats entitled to the Asktavarna rites. They eschew flesh and
liquor and d o n ot differ from the other Lingayats in religion and
customs.

The Kachdris make black and green glass bangles. They buy
broken pieces of bangles from Mdrwdr Vanis and other hawkers, melt
them, and cast them afresh. Their working tools are earthen pots,
a mus or pestle, and iron bar or salai.

KACHHAVASI.—A sub-division of Alkaris.

KACUHELA.— A sub-division of Charans.

fy * , V >I"' 9vt| f i t y- /■' ,

 (ci
j/y 119 [Kachhi ^

KACHHIS, numbering 385 (1901), including 178 males and Name and
207 females, are found chiefly in Poona. A few are recorded in Rewa one,n-
Kantha, Nasik, Belgaum and Satara. They relate that their fore­
fathers were employed in Aurangzeb’s array and came with him to
the Deccan. They were not regularly paid, and at his death in 1707
at Ahmednagar they left the army and settled at Aurangabad as
fruitsellers, whence they gradually spread into the adjoining Deccan
districts. The caste is largely represented in the United 'Provinces,
where it has numerous sub-divisions.

There are two main divisions of the caste, Marwari and Pardeshi, Endo-
who neither eat together nor intermarry. Each of these groups is
again divided into the following endogamous divisions:—

1. Bundele-Gwalhere or those residing about Bundelkhand and

Gwalior.
2. Narbhari or those residing on the banks of the Narmada.
3. Karbhoi or Dhimar, who are fishermen and palanquin-bearers.
4. Malao, who rear fruit gardens.
None of these divisions eat together or intermarry.
Their exogamous sub-divisions or huh are as f o l l o w K x o -
gamous
Name of divisions. Its kaU. divisions.
Bundele-Gwalhere . .Lakadvale, Rojanvale, Bhaisvale, Ghat-
vale, Agarvale, Elchya.
Narbhari . .Kulathe, Arafe, Amore, Sonore, Kamare,
Vade, Khandore, Mithore.
Karbhoi or Dhimdr . .Pachalondhe, Kachore, Tilathe, Pandure,
Kuchate, Limbare.
The Malaos state that they have no sub-divisions.
Marriages are prohibited between members of the same hul and
within three degrees of relationship. A member of the caste cannot
marry his father’s sister’s, mother’s sister’s or mother’s brother’s
daughter. He may marry two sisters and two brothers may marry two
sisters. Polygamy is allowed if the first wife is barren or not liked by
her husband. Instances are known of men having six or seven wives
at a time. Polyandry is unknown. Girls are married up to the age of
twelve, which limit is transgressed in the case of poor people, who
keep their girls unmarried even till they come o f age. B oys are
married up to the age of twenty. I f a girl commits sexual indiscre­
tions with a casteman, both are made to give a dinner to the caste
 iachhi] ISO ^ ^ J
people. If the offence is committed with a man of an impure caste,
the girl is put out of caste.

Marriage The offer of marriage comes from the b oy’s father. The day for
m on ies marriage is fixed b y the caste priest who conducts the service.
The principal ceremonies of marriage are as fo llo w :—
1. Sagdi or the betrothal.
2. Mathana.— In which the earth on the road is worshipped
by women, some of which is brought and placed on a low wooden
stool near the house gods.
3. Rajjega.— The ceremony of singing songs in honour o f the
goddess.
4. Mdtdpuja.— In which a goddess is installed and worshipped
by the bridegroom, after which he is rubbed with turmeric paste.
5. Mandav.— The ceremony of giving a feast to the caste
people in the marriage booth.
6. 'Vardt.— In which the bridegroom is taken in procession to
the girl’s house. H e is seated in an adjoining house till the following
ceremonies are perform ed on the g i r l :—
1 . Ghaihava.— Dressing the girl in the dress presented to her
by the b o y ’s parents.
2. BhatpasUai.— The ceremony of feeding the girl with rice
and milk b y her relations.
3. Binnaki.— In which the girl is carried in a palanquin four
or five yards from the house, where songs are sung b y women. The
girl is then brought back and bathed and a bmkan is tied to her wrist.

N ext, a chauk, th at is an octagon six feet in length and four in

breadth, is formed on the ground with turmeric powder, red powder,
and quartz powder, a low wooden stool is placed over it and the bride­
groom is brought and seated on the stool. The girl is brought and
seated b y bis side, and the marriage is performed in the ordinary
way, th e essential portion being the saptapadi.
The devak or marriage guardian o f the Kachhis consists of an axe
or kurhad and the PdncJiapdlvi or leaves of the five trees— Ficus
religiosa pipal, F. glomerata umbar, F. indica vad, F. infectoria
nandmk, and the mango, which they tie to a post of the marriage hail
at both the boy’s and the girl’s houses.
The remarriage o f widows is permitted. A w idow cannot marry
her father’s sister’s, m other’s sister’s or mother’s brother’s son, or a
(jvi)f/
’< $ ^ !$ f: 121 [Kachhia
'ST,
a member of her late husband’s section. A widow remarriage is cele­
brated on a dark night at the widow’s house. A barber pair, a Brah­
man, relations, and the caste headmen are present on the occasion.
The widow is taken to a stream by the barber’s wife and bathed. Next,
she puts on a new robe and bangles, and a pot filled with water is
placed on her head by the barber’s wife. She then returns home and
enters the house in the presence of the company assembled, which
completes the ceremony. A bachelor is not allowed to marry a widow.
Divorce is allowed if the husband and wife do not agree, or the wife’s
conduct is bad. A divorced woman may marry again by the widow
remarriage form. The caste follow the Hindu law of inheritance.

Kdchhis belong to the Hindu religion. They worship the usual Religion.
Hindu gods and goddesses and observe all the Hindu holidays. The
chief object of their devotion is the goddess Balaji. They make
pilgrimages to Tuljdpur in the Nizam’s dominions, Chatarshingi in
Poona, Saptashring in Ndsik and Mahurgad in the Berars. Their
priests are Upper India Brahmans.

The dead are either burnt or buried. The ashes of the burnt are Death,
consigned to water on the third day after death. The bones are
thrown into a river on the full-moon day of KdrtiTc. The caste is
feasted on the third day after death and on the day following the
anniversary of the deceased. For the propitiation of the deceased
ancestors, uncooked articles of food are given to the caste priest and
castemen are ,feasted on the Ahhatritiya day. The shrdddha is not
performed.

The hereditary occupation of the caste is selling fruit. They take Ocoupa.
fruit gardens on lease from their owners. The Dhimars or K arbhoistlon-
have given up this occupation and taken to fishing and palanquin­
bearing. The Malaos grow water-melons and sweet-melons. The
other two divisions have not abandoned the hereditary occupation.

They eat the flesh of goats, sheep, fowls, and fish and drink liquor. Pood.

KACHHIAS, numbering 17,320 (1901), including 8,957 males Name and

and 8,363 females, are found in all the Gujarat districts and Native ori8in-
States, but chiefly reside in Ahmedabad, Broach, Kaira, Surat and
Bewa Kdntha. In addition to 17,320 Hindus, 101 have returned
themselves as Muhammadans at the census of 1901. The Kdchhias
are also known as Pastagia, meaning fruit sellers, and Kunkara. The
Kachhids are said to be Kanbi and K oli cultivators w ho took to the
growing o f garden produce.
k h 110 9 — 16
( Kachhia]
f a 122
(qt
Divisions. They contain nine divisions, three of which are found in north
Gujardt and six in the south. The three Gujar&t divisions are the
Aj walias or bright fortnighters, the Andhiiri&s or dark fortnigiiters,
and the Khambhatids or Cambay men. Of these, Andhanas are the
lowest, the other two sub-divisions neither eating nor marrying with
them. The Ajw&lias and Khambatids eat together but d o not inter­
marry. The six south Gujarat divisions are Ahmedabadi, Khamar,
Khatri, Koli, Mali and Sangaria. Of these, the Ahmedabadis, who
are also called Kanbis and are said to have moved to Akmeddbad
from Chdmpaner, rank highest. Except that the other five divisions
eat food cooked b y Eanbi Kachhids, the six sub-divisions do not eat
together and d o not intermarry.
Marriages are prohibited within four or five degrees o f relationship
on the mother’ s side, and entirely on the father’ s side. Marriage
with a mother’ s sister’s daughter, maternal uncle’s daughter and
' father’s sister’s daughter is not allowed. Marriage with a wife’s
sister is allowed during the w ife’s life-time or after her death. Two
brothers may marry two sisters. The Kachhids have form ed certain
territorial groups and must form marriage connections within those
groups. Sometimes the taking of a girl from outside these groups
is allowed. B u t instances of giving a girl outside these groups are
punished b y fines. Girls are married before they are eight and boys
up to te n .‘ Polygam y is permitted hut polyandry is unknown.

Marriage The offer o f marriage generally comes from the brid e’s father. The
auspicious day is fixed by the village Joshi, and the service of marriage
m0nie8‘ is conducted either by an Audieh Brahman or a village priest com ­
m only called a gor. The custom of paying a dowry is n o t in vogue.
W hen the bride’s father is v ery poor, he is paid money to defray the
marriage expenses. The bridegroom’ s father gives to th e girl orna­
ments and clothes worth Rs. 30 or upwards. This is termed a pulb,
and becomes the bride’s property. The ceremony of betrothal is
performed at any time before marriage. Their marriage ceremony
does not differ from that o f the Leva Kanbis. Three or four days
before the marriage day, Ganpati is installed and worshipped, borne-
times Ganpati is worshipped on the marriage day, but never before
the marriage b ooth is erected. The bridegroom goes m procession
t o the girl’ s house and is received by his mother-in-law. Then mar­
riage verses are repeated and the bride is brought b y her maternal
uncle and seated before the brid egroom. The hands o f the pair being
joined, sacred verses are repeated. This is the essential portion of
the ceremony. N ext the ceremony of swaslmhavtehan is perform,d,
’ C' 123 [Kachhia
for which the leaves of five kinds of trees are required. These trees
are generally the nagarvel, piped, mango, aso, umbar, sitaphal, etc.
Sacrifices are performed, and the bride and bridegroom take five
turns round the fire. This is called mctngalphero. N ext the bride
and bridegroom feed each other with hansar brought by the bride’s
mother. Then red powder is applied to the foreheads of the couple.
Lastly, the bridegroom takes the bride to his house and Ganpati is
worshipped.
Widow remarriage is allowed. A widow cannot marry her father’s
sister’s son, maternal uncle’s son or mother’s sister’s son. She may
marry the younger brother of her deceased husband if she chooses. A
widow remarriage is brought about either b y the widow’s parents or
by other near relatives. A widow remarriage is celebrated on Sunday,
Tuesday or Thursday. The new husband of the widow goes to the
widow’s house with his kinsmen. Only males take part in this cere­
mony. The father of the widow receives them. The widow then
puts on the ornaments presented b y her new husband. They are then
seated on two low wooden stools, and the priest leads them to the
worship of Ganpati. The ceremony of swastidhavachan is gone
through. Four unwidowed women daub the foreheads of the widow
and her new husband with red powder, throw rice grains over their
heads, and bless the new couple. This is the principal part of the
ceremony. A bachelor wishing to marry a widow is first married to
a Shami tree.
Divorce is allowed, and a husband or a wife can divorce each
other by mutual consent, notified by their signing the caste book.
A fine of Rs, 31 is paid to the caste. When the wife obtains-a divorce,
the marriage dowry is refunded to the husband. A divorce is effected
in the presence o f the headman of the caste, and it is usually termed
a Chhuta Ohhedakarva or Phdrkat apvi. The act of divorce consists
in tearing a piece of cloth from the garments of the husband and wife
or in the wife’s taking off her bangles. A woman divorced for no
misconduct is allowed to marry a second time, and her marriage is
conducted in the form of widow remarriage. A woman divorced for
adultery with a man of a lower or higher caste is turned out of her
caste.
They follow the Hindu law of inheritance. They believe in
exorcism, sorcery and omens.
Except the Andharias of north Gujarat and the Khatris o f south xteiigiotu
Gujarat, the Each bids belong to different religious sects. The Kham-
bhdtias and the Ajwaiias in north Gujarat are Bijpanthis, and a few
P
|
/ K a c h h ia ] 124
(si
kJ L j

o f them in the Panch Mahals are Shaivas, Vallabhdchdryas and Swdm-

n&rdyans. The south Gujarat Kdchhids are Shaivas, Kabirpanthis
or followers of goddesses. They have household gods and visit their
temples daily or on high days. They go on pilgrimages to Benares,
Dwarka, Jagannath, Dakor and Mathura. They keep th e ordinary
fasts and feasts. Some am ong them becom e holy men or bhagats
and live in their temples. One of these holy men named Santram
has a temple at Nadiad and is the founder of a new sect. The
patron saint of some of the Kachhias is Gangabharati and his gadi
is said to be at Kocharpaladi, a village in Ahmedabad district. They
worship the cow and, in small-pox epidemics, the donkey, who is the
bearer of the small-pox goddess. They worship the cobra on the fifth
o f Shrdvan sud in August, painting its image on the housewall and
worshipping it. They also worship and hold sacred trees such as the
sweet basil, pipal and samdi. They worship Muhammadan saints and
make offerings o f Malida. The AndM ria and Khatri Kdchhids are,
like Matia Kanbis, followers o f Imdm Shdh, and observe half Hindu
half Musalman rites. Besides ordinary H indu holidays, they fast
during the Itamz&n, and hold those Fridays sacred which fall on a
new moon day. They do n ot respect the ordinary Hindu gods, and d o
not visit their temples, but go to Pirana instead of to H indu places of
pilgrimage. They employ Brahmans for religious and ceremonial
purposes.

Death. For the performance o f funeral rites a class of Brahmans known as

K dyta are employed. The other Br&hmans have no intercourse with
Kdytas, and consider them to be degraded. Kdchhias burn their
dead. Children 18 months old are buried with their heads northwards.
The ashes and bones of the dead are thrown into a river or are sent
to a holy place if their means permit.

pation The hereditary occupation of the caste is growing garden crops

and selling vegetables. Th ey are helped b y both their wives and
children in raising and selling vegetables. Their busy season is during
the four cold■weather months. Some Kdchhi&s have taken to new
pursuits. In north Gujarat they have opened grocers’ shops, and
some, especially the Khambh&tias, have taken to handloom cotton-
cloth weaving. In south Gujarat some are bricklayers, carpenters
and sawyers, some sell pounded turmeric, and some, especially the
Mdli K&chhias, drive bullock-carts for hire or are in private service.
Some are agricultural labourers.

Food, They do not consume flesh or liquor.

 125 [Kahar-
They eat palcki at the hands of Kolis, Dhar&lds, Thakardas and
such other castes. All Brahmans excepting priests and Tapodhans,
Meshri Vanias, Shravaks except Shrim&li Shravaks, Sutdrs, Sonis eat
pakki prepared by men of this caste. They will not take either pakki
or kaceki at the hands of Mochis, Vaghris, Bhils, etc.

KACHHI MEGHVAL.— A sub-division of MeghvAls.

KADAM RAI.— A sub-division of Gondhalis.
KADHARVAL.—A synonym for Katrival.
KAD H AVIK ,— A synonym for Bandi.
KADIA.—See under Gavandi.
KAD KONKAN.—A synonym for Bandi.
KADU.—A term applied to a sub-division of a caste consisting of
offspring born of irregular unions.
KADVA.— A sub-division of Kanbis.
KAFSHGAR.— See under Minor Musalman castes.
KAGZ1.—See under Minor Musalman castes.
KAHANAMIA.— A sub-division of Dhedas.
KAHARS, or Bundeli Bhois, numbering 1,182 (1901), including Name and
646 males and 536 females, are found mostly in the Deccan and in smallongm'
numbers in Ahmedabad, Broach, Surat, and Sind. They say that they
came into the Deccan from Bundelkhand in Upper India during the time
of Aurangzeb. This is extremely probable. A t the present day the
Kaliars in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh number over 200,000.
It may be assumed that the original immigrants were pdlki-bearers in
the train of the Mughal Emperor. They have since severed all connec­
tion with the parent stock and adopted the customs and ceremonies of
the local castes of similar social standing.
There are no endogamous divisions of the caste, neither have they Divisions,
any exogamous sub-divisions above families bearing the same surname.
The commonest surnames are Bhandare, Gangoie, Kachare, Lackure,
Ladke, Lakreyda, Libre, Luchnare, Mehere, Padre and Sambre. Persons
bearing the same surname cannot intermarry.
A member of the caste cannot marry his father’s sister’s, mother’s
sister’s, or mother’s brother’s daughter. H e may marry two sisters,
and brothers may marry sisters. The habit of the caste is settled.
Outsiders are not admitted into this caste. Boys are married between
ten and twenty-five, girls before they come of age. Polygamy is
allowed and practised, but polyandry is unknown.
 l •••'1 (fiT

BMarriage
uoniev
7 K ah ar] 126

The marriage ceremonies o f Kahdrs resemble those of the Marathas.

chief of these a re : The installation of the devak, which consists of
the leaves of the shami (Prosopis spicigera). These are tied to a post of
the same bush planted in the marriage booth, and to this is tied a tur­
meric root in a piece of yellow cloth. An earthen jar and lid are brought
in procession from a potter’s, placed near the devote, and worshipped.
Haled, or rubbing the bride and bridegroom with turmeric paste and oil.
Kanyadan, or handing over of the bride to the bridegroom ; and Sapta-
padi, or walking seven times round the sacrificial fire, which they call
Lotapata.
The remarriage of widows is permitted. The ceremony consists in
the putting on o f a new robe and bodice by the widow, after which rod
powder is applied to her forehead. Should a bachelor desire to marry
a widow, he is first married to an earring worn by him. A husband can
divorce a wife on the ground of her misconduct. A divorced woman can
marry again after the fashion of the widow remarriage ceremony.
Religion. The caste follow the Hindu law of inheritance and belong to the
Hindu religion. They worship all Brahmanic and village gods, and
their fishing nets, and observe all the Hindu holidays. Their priests
are Upper India Brahmans.
Death. The married dead are burnt, the unmarried being buried. Their
death ceremonies are the same as those of Bhois or Kimhis. Unlike
Kunbis, they d o not remember the dead in Bhddrapad, but perform the
shraddha of those who die between February and October on Divali in
October, and of those who die between October and February on Skivac
rdtri in February. The married dead are alone entitled to these honours,
and on these days any member of the caste can join the dinner party
unasked.
The hereditary occupation of the caste is palanquin-bearing and
catching and selling fish. Some of them grow vegetables and tobacco.
Food. They oat fish and the flesh of goats, sheep and game animals
but not of game birds. They drink liquor. They rank above Bhois
and eat at the hands of Kunbis.
KAIJI.—-A sub-division of Kaikidis.
Name and K AIK ADIS, numbering 7,595 (1901), including 3,629 males and
origin. 3,966 females, are found chiefly in the Deccan, and in small numbers in
the Karndtak and the Southern Maiatha Country. They are a
wandering tribe and were once notorious robbers ; but they have now
adopted comparatively settled habits, though some of them still commit
thefts and indulge in house-breaking. They state that their original
'

Kaiksdi woman.
n /„ i k :J- < M -«* ;H
 127 [Kaikadi
home was Telangana, which seems probable from their language, a
mixture o f Kanarese and Telugu. Some speak incorrect Marathi,
greatly interspersed with Telugu words. The tribe is loosely organised,
and appears to have been recruited at times from other criminal
tribes such as the Bhamtas, Lamans, etc.
There are nine endogamous divisions of the c a s te : (1) Borivdle, E ndo-
(2) Dhuntale or Chor, (3) Kamathi, Kusubatanvale or Lalbajarvale
(4) Kaiji, (5) Laman, ( 6) MAkadvale, Kunehevale or Khulkhulevale,
(7) Ur Kaikadi, from the Kanarese urn a village, (8) Yaibase, and (9)
half-caste Kaikadis known as Bhamtas or Tuhlias. The Borivales
and Vaibases are of settled habits and look on the other divisions as
their social inferiors. The Kamathis are basket-makers, and their
women make a livelihood as prostitutes ; the Makadvales wander from
place to place exhibiting performing m onkeys; the K aijis are flute-
players and performers of magic ; the Lam&ns make bullock’s pack-
saddles ; Ur Kaik&dis are musicians and basket-makers^ and Bhamtas,
who are the offspring of intermarriages between Bhamtas and Kamathis,
are pick-pockets. The Kaikadis have a certain affinity with Ods and
Kolhatis b y reason of their keeping donkeys. They call them ass-
brothers and invite'them to conferences on caste questions.
There are five clans in the tribe : Jadhav, Mane. Gaikwad, Madha- L e ­
vant, and Povar. Of these the Jadhavs have two septs, Madhu and dtdsioiis.
Bapatsar • and the Manes tw o, Manak and Malajur. In some parts
these elan names have becom e surnames and the clans are called
S&tapadi, Malpadi, K&vadi, Mendharegutti and Sangadi, Marriages are
prohibited between members of the same clan.
A member of the caste m ay marry his father’s sister’s or mother’s
brother’s daughter ; he cannot marry his m other’s sister’s daughter. A
man may marry two sisters, and two brothers may marry tw o sisters.
Members from higher castes are said to be admitted into the tribe on
their paying a certain amount of money to the tribesmen, which is
spent on a feast. After tw o or three generations the new comers are
considered to be the social equals of the other members of the tribe.
Marriage is infant as well as adult. Sexual immorality is generally
connived at— one of the clans following prostitution as a calling.
Polygamy is allowed and practised, but polyandry is unknown.
The offer of marriage comes from the b o y ’s father, who has to pay Marriage
a bride-price of from Bs. 25 to Rs. 100 to the girl’s father. The day monies
for the marriage is fixed b y a Brahman w ho sometimes conducts the
service, but in some districts the Kaikadis do not call in Brahmans
for the marriage ceremony. The devaks of the Kaikadis onaisti of the
P x _.

i % L
Kaikadi] 128

pdnckpdlvi, i.e., the leaves of five trees, or the leaves of th epipri (Ficus
tseila), mango, or of the urnhar (Ficus glomerata). The devak is tied,
along with an axe and a piece of bread, to a post of the marriage booth.
In m ost places their marriage ceremonies resemble those of the local
Kunbis, the essential portions being the homo, or the marriage sacrifice,
the tying of the kankans or marriage wristlets round the wrists of the
bride and bridegroom, and the fastening of the lucky necklace round
the girl’s neck. In some places the throwing of the sacred grains of
rice over the pair is the only operative ceremony.
In Kbhndesh and Belgaum the marriage is subject to a condition
which requires the son-in-law to live with his wife’s family and help
to support them until he has three children. I f separated from his
wife b y mutual consent, the husband is bound to make an allowance
to his wife’s parents.

Amongst the Db untale Kaikadis the marriage is conducted by the

caste panch. A bough of the pipal tree (Ficus religiosa) is put in
an earthen jar. The jar is taken to a pond, filled with water, brought
home and placed on the ground. The bride and. bridegroom are
seated before the jar, rice grains are thrown over their heads b y the
caste panch, and the bride’s brother knots the hems of the pair’s gar­
ments, thus completing the ceremony.

The remarriage of widow's is permitted. A widow can marry

her father’s sister’s or mother’s brother’s s o n ; she cannot marry her
mother’s sister’s son or a member of her late husband’s section. The
widow who wishes to remarry has to pay to the relations of her deceased
husband the expenses incurred by him in marrying her. A widow
remarriage is celebrated on a dark night, except a new-moon day.
A Brahman priest and widowed women and male members on both
sides are present on the occasion, The widow and her new husband
are seated on a bullock’s pack-saddle, Ganpati is worshipped, and the
Brdhman priest applies red powder to the widow’s forehead and fills
her lap. Next, the pair are made to drink milk from the same cup,
and this completes the union. In some places the widow remarriage
ceremony consists merely in tying into a knot the hems of the couple’s
garments. Should a bachelor desire to marry a widow, he is first,
married to a shami bush. D ivorce is allowed if there is disagreement
between husband and wife, or if the wife’s conduct is bad. A divorced
woman can marry again b y the widow remarriage form.

Religion. The caste follow the Hindu law of inheritance and belong to the
Hindu religion. They worship the usual Brahmanic gods and god-
’ C ‘ 129 [Kaikadi
desses, and observe the leading Hindu holidays. They also worship
all local and boundary gods, and Bahiroba, Bhavani, Mariai,
Phirangai, Tukai, and Yam&i, whose images they keep in their houses
with the masks or talcs of their ancestors. Their family gods are Maruti,
Bahiroba of Sondri near Sholapur, Khandoba of Jejuri, and Bhavdni
of Tuljapur. They make pilgrimages to Alandi, Jejuri, Sondri,
Tulj&pur, and Pandharpur. Their religious teachers or gurus are
Gosdvis, whose advice they take on all important matters. They
believe in sorcery, witchcraft, soothsaying, omens, and lucky and
unlucky days, and consult oracles. When an epidemic breaks out,
goats and fowls are offered to the deity supposed to preside over the
disease, and in the case of cholera a he-buffalo is also offered jointly
by the whole tribe. The Musalmdn saints are reverenced, particularly
by the K M ndesh Kaikadis, who, in com mon with many Khandesh
Hindus, have a deep reverence for Davulmalik, the famous saint of
Mulher in Satara. His devotees keep a stick, juli, in their houses
wrapped in a green cloth or bag in some recess in honour of the saint,
and it is no unusual thing to keep the saint’s ju li and the image of
Khanderdo side by side. The priests o f the tribe are the Deshasth
BrAhamns in the D ecca n ; but the use of Brdhmans ils n ot yet universal
in the tribe.
The dead are either burnt or buried. Mourning is observed for Death,
three, five, nine, ten, or twelve days. The four corpse-bearers are
held impure for five days, and are not only avoided b y others, but do
not even touch each other. On their return from the funeral the corpse-
bearers are asked to dine at the house of the deceased. N ext day they
go to the burning ground, throw the ashes into water, phi' ^ on the spot
two earthen jars filled with water, and return home. hi the fifth
day a ninth (Azadirachta indica) branch is dipped in cow l; urine, the
head of the chief mourner is touched with it, and he is shaved by
the barber, as are the heads of the four corpse-bearers, and their
shoulders are rubbed with sweet oil. A goat is killed on the third,
fifth, or thirteenth day, and caste-men are feasted. A n image or lak
of the deceased is made and installed amongst the household gods. It
is worshipped on the Dasara and Divali holidays. They do not observe
death-days or perform the shrdddha,

Kaikadis are notorious as thieves and are always under the eye o f Occu-
the police. They are hereditary basket-makers. They make bas- Pation-
kets of many sizes of bamboos, the branches, leaf, fibres, and stalks
of the tarvad tree (Cassia auriculata), of bahhul (Acacia arabica) twigs,
and cotton and tur stalks. Husbandmen smear these baskets with
ft h 1109—17
■
I n

VSL
f Kalavant] 130 k J

cowdung and store grain in them. They also make reed sizing-brushes
used by weavers, snares for catching birds and deer, bird’s cages, and
children’ toys. Some beg by exhibiting snakes. They carry sand,
earth, bricks, tiles, and stones on their donkeys, remove sweepings
and filth, and of late have taken to tillage. Some are labourers.
Pood. They eat fish and the flesh of goats, sheep, deer, hares, fowls, and
pigs, and drink liquor. They rank below Kunbis and above the im­
pure classes.
KAJULE.—A sub-division of Gaud Sarasvat Brahmans.
KAKAPURL— A sub-division of Kolis.
K A K A R .— See under Minor Musalman Castes; a sub-division of
Mangs.
K A K A R MUNDI.— A sub-division of Berads.
KAKODIA.— A sub-division of Vaghris.
KALACHUDAVALA.— A sub-division of Kadva Kanbis.
KALAIGAR .—See under Minor Musalman Castes.

KALAIS or, KALANS numbering 2,619 (1901), including 1,298 males

and 1,321 females, are found in small numbers throughout the Presi­
dency. They are distillers and liquor-sellers and belong to the great
Kalwar Tribe of Northern India.(1)
KALAN .—See under Kalal or Kalan. A sub-division of Bhandaris.
KALANDAR .—See under Minor Musalman Castes.

Name and KALAVANTS also called Naikins, numbering 2,012 (1901), in-
ongm. during 693, . tales and 1,319 females, are found chiefly in the Kanara and
Ratnagixi J tstricts. The male offspring of the Kalavants are called
Gans. They derive their name from the Sanskrit kala art, and are
singers and dancers by profession. They claim descent from the Apsaras
(heavenly dancing girls) and Gandharvas (heavenly singers) of the Hindu
mythology, and give as proofs of their claim their hereditary services in
connection with the Hindu temples. Their original home appears to
be Vijayanagar, where a very large number of such women were kept
to wait on the king. They went to Sonda and the Kanara coast after
the capture of Vijayanagar by the Musalmans. Paes, in his account of
Vijayanagar, refers to the women who belong to the temples, all girls
bom of whom belong to the temple. “ These women are of loose
character, and live in the best streets that are in the city. They are
(1) Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, Vol. Ill,
pp. 106-113.
 131 [Kalavant
very much esteemed and are classed among those honoured ones who
are mistresses of the captains. .These women are allowed even to enter
the presence of the wives of the king, and they stay with them and eat
betel with them, a thing which no other person may do, no matter
what his rank. ” *
There are six endogamous divisions of the Kal&vants, which neither E ndo-
eat together nor intermarry. They are— dfvTakms.
1. Konkani. 4. Lingayat.
2. Maratha. 5. Telang.
3. Kamatak. 6. Musalman.
The Telangs being foreigners do not come within the scope of this
survey.
The Konkani Kalavant s have exogamous divisions represented b y Exo-
surnames which are local in origin. They are Bandodkar, Borikar,
Jotkar, Ivakodkar, Navekar, Parvatavaile, Phatarpekar, and Shirode-
kar. Members bearing the same surname neither eat together nor
intermarry.
Formerly, at the age of eight or nine years, girls underwent a form Marriage
of marriage called sites, in which a girl dressed as a man and holding
a dagger or Icatdr— the emblem of Kartikeya, their family deity— in
her hand acted as a bridegroom. On this occasion girls were invested
also with ankle bells and upper garments, which every Kalavant has to
wear in a concert or dance. The ceremony was*performed with great
pomp at considerable expense; but the High Court having ruled
marriages under this form to be criminal offences, it is now performed
with less show and after a girl has attained her majority.

As all Kalavants lead a life of prostitution, the Gans have to marry

girls of outcaste people, whom they buy at a cost of Rs. 100 to Rs. 300.
But as many are unable to pay such a heavy bride-price, the majority
of them remain, single.

Inheritance was formerly through females only. But it has been

now decided by the High Court that property should he divided equally
between males and females. Kalavants having no issue adopt girls of
outcaste people, whom they purchase, and on whom the shes ceremony
is performed. Girls who have attained puberty are ineligible for adop­
tion.
Kalavants worship all Brahman and village gods. Their family Religion,
goddesses are Mhalsa, Kantra, Shantadurga and Shanteri K&mikshi

♦ “ A Forgotten Empire.” Sewell, pages 241-42.

 (fiT
Kalavant] 132 ^

whose shrines are in Goa. Their patron deity is K&rtikeya, the god of
war. They have great faith in soothsaying, witchcraft and evil spirits.
Their priests are the Chitpavan, Karhada or Slavik Brahmans. They
make pilgrimages to Gokarn, Rameshwar, Benares, Dharmasthal, and
Pandharpur. They offer blood sacrifices to the Aminas or Shaktis.
They observe all the Hindu holidays and worship their musical instru­
ments on the Dasara day. The dead are burnt. Their death ceremonies
do not differ from those of the Konkani Marathas.
The hereditary occupation of Kalavants is singing and dancing.
The well-to-do employ them to sing and dance, at thread and marriage
ceremonies and on other grand occasions. They are also engaged to
dance in Hindu temples, and in return enjoy the produce of certain
temple lands. The Gans accompany the Kalavants on an oblong
two-faced drum called mridcmga, the timbrel or tdl, the fiddle or sarangi,
and the double-drum or tabla. A troop of Kalavants is known as tafa
and includes one to four Kalavants and three to four Gans. Besides
singing and dancing, Kalavants also act as courtesans. Many have
left their home and gone to Bombay, Kolhapur and Mangalore to make
their fortunes. Women of other prostitute classes, such as Devlis,
Bandis, Adbatkis, and Padiars, are not hired to dance unless they are
invested with the scarf and bells by a member of the Kalavant
com m unity. Even after investiture, Kalavants look down on other
dancers and refuse to perform with them. I t is the special privilege of
Kalavants to dance in temples, and they oppose the attempts of
Bhavins to usurp this privilege.
Food. They eat fish and the flesh of goats, sheep and fowls and drink
liquor.
M AB ATH A K A L A V A N T S resemble the Konkani Kalavants in
all details.
K A R N A T A K K A L A V A N T S are known as Patradavarus or shawl
weavers. They claim to represent the heavenly dancing girls Ranibka
and Urvasi. As among the Konkani Kalavants, girls are invested with
ankle bells and scarves at the age of seven years, and are made to
undergo a form of marriage called halpudi when they are twelve.
The ceremony is celebrated like the shes of the Konkani Kalavants,
with this diflerence, that the bridegroom is represented, not b y a M ar
or dagger, but b y a rnadli or double drum. Their family god is Mailar,
whose chief shrine is at Gudguddapur in Ranebennur tdluka, Dharwar,
and their family goddesses are Guttemma and Hulgemma. ieir
spiritual teacher is Avyappa, who is a Kshatriya b y caste. A pecu u r
custom of the caste is that, if any one strikes a Patrad with a shoe.
\• v el&b / •/ i* _r
f tk
I d
i
133 [Kamli

though she may have done nothing wrong, the girl loses caste and has
to pay a fine and undergo penance before she is allowed to re-enter the
caste.
LIN G A Y A T K A LA V A N T S do not differ in any important
particular from the Lingayat courtesans or Saibs (see Lingayat).
No class of Hindus eats food cooked b y Kalavants. Food.
K ALE.— A sub-division of Bene Israels
KALE KUNBI.— -A sub-division of Kunbis.
KALINGA.—A sub-division of Brahmans.
K A L K A IK A D I. — A synonym for A divi Korava.
KALSABAD.— A sub-division of Lohars.
KALU .— -A sub-division of Ods.
K A L W A D A R .— A synonym for Bhdmta.
K A M A R . — A Kanarese term for Lohar.
KAMATHIS or Telugus, numbering 4,790 (1901), including 2,511
males and 2,279 females, are found chiefly in the city of Bom bay,
the Deccan, Karnatak and Thdna. The term includes a few scat­
tered immigrant members of Munurvars, Golevars, Gull odds, Mungal-
ollds and Salodas, who speak Telugu and came to the Presidency some
hundred years ago from Hyderabad and Madras. They rank gener­
ally with Marathas, but follow Telugu customs. They follow a variety
of callings, but their commonest occupation is some form of more or
less skilled labour.
KAM ATHI.— A sub-division of Kaikddis.
KAM ATI.— A synonym for Bhdmta.
K A M BA YA . — A sub-division of Dhors.
KAMBLE.— A sub-division of Mahdrs.
KAMLE.— A sub-division of Lohdrs and Holayds.
KAMLIS numbering 1,156 (1901) including 596 males and 560
females, are found in the Thdna district. They state that they came
from Kdthidwar more than 500 years ago, and that they were formerly
known as Kam b Rajputs. They are husbandmen and palm-juice
drawers. They allow widow marriage. Their chief gods are Mdruti,
Ganpati, and Mahddev. Their priests are Gujarati Brdhmans. They
burn their dead. They eat the flesh of goats, sheep, hare 3, deer and
fowls and drink liquor.
KA M LIA . —See under Minor Musalmdn castes.
KAM TI. — A synonym for Kanadi Mdli.
t *5
Name and
Kanbi] 134
h'
KANBIS (1) number 924,921 (1901), including 474,371 males and
<SL
ongm. 450,550 females.
The term Kanbi merely indicates the occupation of a cu ltivator;
but the m ajority of Gujarat Kanhis are probably Gujars in origin,
and in this differ markedly from the K unbi of the Deccan and Konkan,
who is, for the most part, o f com m on stock with the Maratha.
All Ahmadabad Kanbis are addressed as Patidars, a title of
distinction. In Kaira (Charotar) only Levas are called Patidars,
others being termed simply Kanbis. Other titles com monly used
are Desai, Amin and Patel.
Endo- Kanbis have seven endogamous divisions. They are :—
dt-risions. (1) Anjna. (4) Kadva. (7) Momna.
12) Dangi. (5) Leva. (8) Pattani.
(3) Gujar. ( 6) Matia. (9) Uda.
Of the above divisions, Lev&s and Kadvas eat together, but do
not intermarry. Udas d o not interdiue or intermarry with any
other division. Pattanis eat with Levas and Kadvas, but do not
marry with them. Levas and Kadvas do not associate with Matias,
Anjnas, Momnas, and Dangis, and, except that Anjnas and Dangis
eat together, none of these divisions interdine or intermarry.
In religion, ceremonies and customs, the Levas, Kadvas, Anjnas
Dangis, Udas and Pattanis differ only in a few details. The Mathis
and Momnas, who are half Hindus half Musalm&ns, differ considerably
from the other divisions and from one another. The points common
to Levas, Kadvas, Anjnas, Dangis, Udas and Pattanis are described
below, the peculiarities of each being described separately under each.
The Matias and Momnas are described in full separately.
Tow n Kanbis closely resemble Vanias in appearance, dress and
ornaments. Village Kanbis are darker and stronger.
Language} Kanbis speak Gujarati. The names in common use among men are
Amra Bakor, Bhago, Bhimo, Chhota, Dalsukh, Dhori, Gordhan, Govind,
Hira, Jetha, K alo, Kesho, Kheta, Khushal, Ladha, Lakho, Lallu, Magan,
Megha, Naran, Narsing, Punja, Ranchhod, Buda, Rupa, Shiva, Soma,
Vala, Vasta, Vishr&m. The tendency o f late is to use full names ending
in ‘ ji, ’ ‘ Bhai, ’ ‘ Das, ’ ‘ Lai, ’ ‘ Chand, ’ etc., for the short names given
above, e.g., Bhim ji for Bhim o, R an chliodjifor Ranchhod, and so on.
The names in com m on use among women are Am ba, Aval, Bena.
Chanchal, Dahi, Devi, D ivali, Heta, Jiwa, Kanku, Kashi, Kunvar,
(I) The terms Kanbi and Kunbi are synonyms meaning cultivator; but the
former is usually applied to cultivating castes in Gujardt while Kunbi denotes the
similar occupational caste in the Deccan and Konkan.
m :
V
: ■'
135
(St
[Kunhi3 1 J
Ladu, Lakhama, Lai, Mani, Megha, Parvati, Radii a, Ramu, Rudi,
R upadi, Seji, Sona, Teja. As among men the tendency of late is to
add * ji,’ etc., to the old names, so among women com monly ‘ M i ’
is added to the names, e.g., Kunvarbai, Dahibai, etc. In KAthiawar
‘ ba ’ is added instead o f ‘ bai.’
Opprobrious names such as Punjo, Ladho, Natho or Nathu are
often given to boys whose elder brothers have died in infancy.
Marriages are prohibited between members belonging to the same
exogamous section. A man cannot marry a woman of the section to
which his mother, his paternal grandmother or maternal grandmother
belongs. H e cannot marry his father’s sister’ s, m other’s sister’ s or
m other’s brother’s daughter. In other cases, tw o families having
com m on ancestor relationship on the maternal side in either ease are
allowed to intermarry if the common ancestor is removed to the fourth
or fifth degree. A Kanbi m ay marry his deceased wife’s sister, and
brothers may marry sisters. Marriage is m ostly infant. Kanbis
allow widow marriage. Polygam y is allowed and practised, but
among Patidars it is very rare. If a husband divorces his wife, no
money is paid, but if the wife claims a divorce she has to pay her
husband money enough to meet the cost of his second marriage.
Divorces are asked and granted if the husband and wife do not
agree. The children are either kept b y the father or taken b y the
mother. As a rule, grown children stay with the father. Divorced
women are allowed to remarry by the widow remarriage form.
During the seventh month of a woman’s first pregnancy, on a Pre8'
day fixed by the astrologer, the lap-filling or kholobharm takes place. nancy-
A woman who has all her children alive lays in the pregnant woman’s
lap 5 } or 10} lbs. of clean rice, plantains, befcelnuts, a cocoanut and red-
powder. The pregnant woman empties the rice from her lap into
a winnowing-fan, and from the winnowing-fan the rice is again passed
to the pregnant woman’s lap. After this has been repeated seven
times, the rice is put into a new earthen jar. Seven balls made of the
dung of a goat and a mouse, seven bundles of cotton-thread, seven figs
of the banyan tree, seven betelnuts, seven almonds, seven dry dates
and seven copper coins, and a rupee and a quarter worth of silver
coins, are put along with the rice in the jar. A red cotton thread is
wound round the jar’s mouth, and in the mouth a cocoanut is placed.
The pregnant woman, with the help of a family-priest, worships the
cocoanut and the jar. After the worship is over, besides small cash
presents, the priest receives the seven copper coins from the jar. The
jar and its other contents are put aside and are carefully preserved.
I ll Kanbi] 136
■ <SL
The pregnant woman receives presents in clothes from her father, and
on the wrist of her right arm a silver armlet called a rakhdi or guard
with a golden bead is tied b y her husband’ s sister. The woman
continues to wear the silver arm let’till her delivery, after which it is
returned to the husband’s sister with an additional cash present if
the child is a boy. The ceremony ends with a dinner to friends and
relations. During the interval after this ceremony and the time when
the woman goes to her father’ s house for confinement, she is invited
to dinner b y her relations and friends and receives a present of Re. I
to Rs. 5 or a robe. This is known as vdyanu. In the course of the
seventh or ninth month the woman goes to her father’s house to be
confined.(1)
Birth Kanbi women go to their father’ s house to be confined. W hen
monies, a woman’s time is come, a barber’s wife or any other skilled woman is
called and attends the child and its mother every morning generally
for ten days. Besides a set of woman’s clothes, she is given about
Re. 1 if the child is a b oy and about annas eight if the child is a girl.
On the birth of a child the family astrologer is asked to note the time
b y some of the Patidars and, in the case of the birth of a son, a barber
or a messenger of any caste is sent to give the news to the child’s
father. The messenger takes with him the footmarks of the child
impressed on a piece of paper with redpowder. The relations and
friends of the child’ s father gather on hearing the news. The barber
is feasted and paid from Rs. 2 to Rs. 5. The child’s father distributes
molasses and sugar to his relations and friends. As soon as it is bom ,
the child is bathed in warm water, and about ten inches of the navel
cord is left uncut and tied to a red cotton thread, which is wound round
the child’s neck. F or three days the child is fed on a liquid mixture
of clarified butter, molasses and castor-oil called golthuthi or chdtu, and
on the fourth day it is suckled. Cowdung ashes are rubbed on the
navel daily for three or four days, at the end of which the cord dries
and is separated from the navel. On the sixth day the chhati ceremony
is performed. In the evening, on a footstool near the mother s bed,
are laid a piece of paper, an inkstand, a reed-pen, red rice, flowers,
a rupee, a few copper pice, a lamp fed with clarified butter, some
molasses, some cocoa-kernel, and a piece of the waistcloth of a man
whose children are all alive. These things are taken away in the
morning. The silver and copper coins are melted along with other
similar coins and made into an anklet or wristlet for the child, and the
piece of the waistcloth is made into a jabhla or small coat. On the

(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. IX, Part I, page 161.

t. X¥g ^.l7 ■•■ ' ■137 Q[
[Kanbi '

morning of the tenth day the woman bathes, but continues impure
for twenty-five days more in the case of a son and for thirty days
in the case o f a daughter. On the morning of the thirty-fifth or
fortieth day she bathes, worships the sun, the well and the door-post
and is pure. Four or five months after the birth the woman is sent
to her husband’s house. The woman’s father, besides making pre­
sents of cash, ornaments and clothes to the child and its mother, gives
the child a cradle, a small mattress, and pillows. E xcept that the
name is fixed b y the family astrologer, no naming ceremony is per­
formed. The child is named On the sixth or twelfth day or on a lucky
day in the first, second or third month, when a Br&hrnan priest attends
and worships Ganpati. Four boys in the case of a boy, or four girls
in the case of a girl, rock the child in a piece of cloth, and the father’s
sister names the child. The father’s sister receives a robe or sadi,
a piece of silk for a bodice, and the Brahman priest from Re. 1 to
Rs. 2 in cash.(n
Instead of the Brahmanic thread, some of the Kanbis wear a
rosary of beads made of the stem of the basil plant or some other
material. Some of the Patidars in Kaira and Broach have of late
taken to wearing the sacred thread and claiming to be twice-born.
Am ong those who wear the rosary, some time when they are between
seven and eleven years old, both boys and girls are taken to the religious
head or guru, who binds the rosary round the neck of the novice.
Besides a day’s food the guru receives about Rs. 2 as the initiati n
fee. The offer of marriage comes from either side. I f the b o y ’s
father accepts the offer the girl’ s father’s family-priest goes to the
b o y ’ s house, where, in the presence of the assembled guests, the boy
worships a Ganpati painted in red on a low wooden stool. The b o y ’s
. brow is marked with redpowder, and he is given a turban, a cocoanut
and a rupee. Cash presents are made to the priest and the barber,
and a dinner is given to the family. Betrothals may be broken
at any time before marriage. If the betrothal is broken by the
b oy’s father, the girl’ s father gets back the amount he has paid, but
if the girl’s father breaks off the engagement none of the betrothal
money is returned. As a rule, the amount to be paid to the
bridegroom is settled at the time of betrothal. The amount varies
according as the parties are of family hulia or of no-family ahulia.
A bridegroom of high family gets a dowry of from Rs. 1,000 to
Rs. 2,000 while a no-family bridegroom has to pay from Rs. 500 to
Rs. 1,000 to the bride. Landlords or PatiMrs marry their daughters

(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. IX, Part I, pp. 157-158.

N h 1109—18
(if m % (si
K a n b i] 138
" •
before they are eleven, and the ordinary peasant Kanbis between
eleven and sixteen.

Marriage The marriage-day is fixed by the Brahman astrologer. Five or

cere'. six days before the marriage, the father of the bride sends a roll of
paper or langanpatn with the family priest. The names of the bride
and bridegroom and the time for the marriage in hours and minutes
are written on the roll. The priest takes the roll to the bridegroom’s
house and presents the roll along with a rupee to the bridegroom’s
mother. The priest is feasted and is given a cash present. Three or
four days before the marriage the parents of the bride and bridegroom,
each in their own bouse, worship a Ganpati painted on the house wall.
Two days before the marriage-day, the parents, each at their own
house, perform the grahashanti or planet-pleasing ceremony. The
bride and bridegroom, each at their homes, are then rubbed every
morning and evening with a mixture of turmeric-powder, parched
adad (Phaseolus mungo) flour, aud camphor, and are given sweetmeats
by friends and relations. The rubbing of the mixture is repeated daily
till the marriage-day, and women-relations singsongs in the mornings
and evenings for a week or til! the marriage is over. On the marriage-
day the brother of the bridegroom’s mother gives him presents in
cash and in clothes, and the brother of the bride’ s mother gives the
bride presents in ornaments and clothes. Marriage preparations then
begin. A t the house of the bride a square or chori of four posts of
shami (Prosopis spicigera) wood is raised with either five or seven
coloured earthen pots piled conewise at each post. A t the house of
the bridegroom the relations and friends of the bridegroom gather and
take their meals. The bridegroom bathes and puts on ornaments and
rich clothes. A kanku mark is made on his forehead and right cheek,
lampblack is applied to his eyes, a lampblack mark is made on his left
cheek, and rice, seven betelnuts, tw o or three betel-leaves, a rupee
and a eocoanut are put in the hollow of his two joined hands. Four
women whose first husbands are alive by turns touch the bridegroom’s
nose with four millet stalks dipped in wet kanku which are thrown to
each of the four quarters of heaven. The bridegroom’s sister waves
over his head a copper pot containing seven betelnuts, a rupee and a
few crystals of salt. The p ot is wrapped in a handkerchief and is held
in the sister’s right hand, who, after waving it round her brother’s
head, passes it over her right shoulder. The bridegroom then sits
on a horse or in a carriage. The procession sets out from the bride ­
groom’s house with music, the men ahead, the bridegroom in the
? |1 139
<SL
[K a n b i

middle, .and, except among Pdtiddrs, the women behind singing songs.(1)
The bridegroom’s mother, with a hood of palm-leaves, keeps in her
hand a lamp fed with clarified butter. The procession stops at the
outskirts of the bride’s village. The bridegroom and his elderly
relations sit on a carpet, while the young relations drive in bullock
carts to the bride’ s house, the swifter the bullocks the larger share
of grain and spices they get. The bride’ s relations, both men and
women, with a barber and with music, go out to receive the
bridegroom and his party. The men of the two parties greet each
other with the words Ram-Ram and an embrace. The barber gives
molasses and water to the bridegroom and his party to drink, and
is paid a rupee by the bridegroom’s father. The bridegroom and
his party are conducted with music to a house which is set apart
for them, and the bride’s relations return to the bride’s house. A bout
an hour later three or four female relations of the bride, among them
her sister or her brother’s wife, go with music to the bridegroom’s
lodging. They take siro or wheat-flour mixed with clarified butter and
sugar and give five pinches of it to the bridegroom to eat. The bride­
groom eats the siro and gives about Rs. 3 to the bride’s sister or brother’s
wife. About eight or ten in the evening of the marriage day the bride­
groom and his relations go with music to the bride’s house. A t the
entrance the bridegroom is received b y the bride’s mother, who shows
him a miniature plough, arrow, pestle, and churnstaff. H e is led to
the marriage-booth, where he sits on a wooden stool and, with the help
of the family-priests of the bride and bridegroom, worships Ganpati.
After the worship the bride, dressed in ornaments and clothes present­
ed to her by her mother’s brother, is brought in and set by her mother’s
brother on a stool opposite the bridegroom. The parents of the
bride then worship Ganpati and the great toe of the bridegroom’s
right foot. Wreaths of red thread are thrown round the necks of the
bride and the bridegroom. Their hands are joined, and over their
hands a piece of cloth is thrown. The hems of their clothes are tied
together and their feet are washed with water. In the central
square or chori a fire is lighted, and clarified butter, barley and se­
same are offered to it. W ith their hands one upon another the couple
walk together four times round the fire. The bride and bridegroom
then feed each other with coarse wheat-flour mixed with clarified
butter and molasses served by the bride’s mother. After he has
finished eating, the bridegroom catches his mother-in-law’s robe and
does not loosen his hold till he has received a handsome present. The

(1) Among Pdtiddrs no women, even the mother of the bridegroom, attend a
boy’s wedding.
S it § L
iS S t-sS Kanhi] 140
■i ■ ■• ::
bridegroom in his turn pays about Rs. 3 to the bride’s younger bro­
ther or sister. The bride and the bridegroom worship Ganpati, and
the ceremony is over. The bridegroom and his relations then go to
their lodging. On the second day the opium-serving ceremony takes
place. The bride’ s male relations go with music to the bridegroom’ s
house, where kasumba or opium-water is served. Kemr or saffron
water is served to those who object to opium-water. The bride’s
relations then return to their house, and the bridegroom and his rela­
tions go to the bride’s house to receive presents, the value of which
depends on the wealth and social position of the giver. The bride’s
father then makes presents in cash or in clothes to Brahmans, his
family barber, his Mali or gardener, and his Kumbhar or potter. The
family priest of the bride then dips his hand in wet kanku and applies
it to the coats of the bridegroom’s male relations. The bride and
bridegroom then worship the marriage booth and go in carriages with
music to the bridegroom’s house with his relations. Before they
start, the bride’s mother worships the spokes of the carriage-wheel
and gives a cocoanut to be crushed b y the wheels. For two days the
bridegroom’s relations are feasted b y the bride’s father, and on the
third day they go to their village with the bride and the bridegroom.
After entering the house the bride and bridegroom worship Ganpati
and, as among V&nias, play a game of ehance.(1)
Ndtra or the remarriage of widows is permitted by all Kanbis, but
among the well-to-do it is rarely resorted to. A widow cannot marry
her deceased husband’s brother or a member of his section except
among Lewas, Kadv&s and Pattanis in Cambay, where marriage with
a younger brother of the deceased husband is allowed. The parents
of the widow usually receive a sum of from Rs. 25 to Rs. 75 from the
intended husband, but. a man can marry a widow without making any
payment. Sometimes the widow is also presented with some orna­
ments. Ndtra is celebrated on Sunday or Tuesday, less often on
Thursday. It always takes place at night. The widow is conducted
by five relations of her new husband from her parent’s house. There
is little ceremony. The couple are seated facing each other, and in
front of them is placed an earthen pot containing a lighted lamp fed
with ghi. The pair are asked to look down into the pot, and as they
do so their heads touch, which completes the ceremony. In some
places, Ganpati is worshipped, after which the widow puts on new
bangles presented b y her intended husband. Sometimes the widow
wears a new robe, and, taking on her head a brass pot filled with water,

(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. IX, Part I, pp. 158-160.

ff| ' ' § L
141 [K a n b i

enters the house of her intended husband. In some localities a Brah­

man priest is called, who ties red thread round the right wrists of the
bride and bridegroom.
As a class, Kanbis are very religious. Unlike Vanias and other Religion
high classes, the Kanbis belong to many sects, Bijmargis, Dadupanthis,
Kabirpanthis, Madhavgarnis, Pranamis, Ramanandis, Shaivs, Svami-
narayans, and Vallabbacharyas. A few are Jains. They worship all
Hindu gods and goddesses, and respect Musalman saints. Though
very few keep images in their houses, they often visit the temple of their
sects. They are careful to respect Brahmans and their spiritual leaders
and to give grain in charity to the poor of the village and to travellers.
To their religious heads or gurus they show much reverence, paying them
about Re. 1 on occasions of a marriage or of a death, and besides food
about Rs. 2 J on the kanthi or rosary ceremony. To their guru they also
pay a small fee whenever he goes to their town or village. They have
much faith in sorcery, witchcraft, and the influence of the evil eye.
In sickness or in difficulty they consult a sorcerer, generally a K oli or
Vaghri, a Brahman, or a religious beggar, Hindu or Musalman. They
believe in omens and signs. On the lucky Akhdtrij or third day of
V&ishdkh sud (April) they begin to take manure to their fields. On the
fourth of the first fortnight of Bhddarvo (September) they worship Gan-
pati in order that his carrier the rat may not destroy their crops. Before
sinking a well and before each season’s first ploughing the ground is
worshipped by making kanku or vermilion marks and sprinkling rice
over the marks. Before watering the ground for the first time, the water
in the well is worshipped to increase its nourishing power. Rice and
kanku are thrown into the water, a lamp fed with clarified butter is laid
near the well’s mouth, and a cocoa-kernel is offered to the water-god. To
guard against too great rainfall the village headman and other husband­
men go with music to the village reservoir and offer flowers, kanku and a
eocoanut. Of four-footed animals, they hold the cow sacred, and of
birds the nilkanth or ja y and the chds or kingfisher on Damra Day
(September-October). For three days from the 13th to the 15th of
Bhadarva sud (September-October), Kanbi women fast and worship a cow
and feed her with barley, and on the fourth day they drink cow’s milk
mixed "with a few grains of barley found in the dung. They observe the
ordinary Hindu fasts and feasts and occasionally make pilgrimages locally
to Ambaji, Bahucharaji, Dakor, Dwarka, and U n a i; and among more
distant holy places to AllaMbad, Banares, Badrikedar, Gokul, Jagannath,
Mathura, and Shrinathji, Rameshwar, Nasik and Pandharpur.(1)
(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Volume IX, Part I, pp. 156-157.
 n bi] 142

Death When a Kanbi is on the point of death the family-priest, who is

monies generally an Andich Brahman, and other Brahmans of the village are
called, and a lamp fed with clarified butter is placed near Iris bed. The
dying person worships Vishnu, and gives, besides presents in cash and
clothes, a cow or the value of a cow in cash to the priest. To each of
the other Brahmans, besides presents of cash, the dying man makes gifts
of wheat, husked rice, pulse, salt, and rusty nails and shovels. If well
off, he sets apart sums of money to be spent after Ids death on works of
public charity, sinking wells, making halting places on the roadside, and
supplying water to thirsty travellers. Friends and relations come to
visit the dying man, and, as the end draws near, they utter the name of
Ham near bis ear. One of the female relations sweeps the floor of the
entrance room and cow-dungs a portion of it of the length and breadth
of a maD. The cowdunged space is strewn with sesame and barley seeds,
tulsi leaves, and darbha grass. The head of the dying man is shaved,
he is bathed with hot water and his brow is marked with gopichandan or
milkmaid’s earth, and the body is laid on its back with the head towards
the north on the freshly cowdunged floor. Ganges water and some gold,
silver and coral, a pearl, a piece of crystal, and a basil leaf are placed in
the mouth. A ball of unbaked millet flour and a rupee are given to a
Brahman. When life is gone, the nearest relations raise the life-cry
or pran-pok a call to bring back the spirit. Among the Patidars of
Ahmedabad the name of the deceased is written on a tile with a piece
of charcoal and it is sent to the relations of the deceased by a Bhangi
to inform them of the occurrence. Caste-people115go to the house of
death, the men to bear the body to the burning ground, the women to
mourn. Two or three of the mourners bring from the market two
bamboo poles, several short lengths of bamboo, coir string, and a piece
of red silk if the deceased is a married woman, or of white cotton cloth
if the deceased is either a man or a widow. The poles and pieces
of bamboo and the coir string are made into a ladder-shapped bier
and from each comer a cocoanut is hung. The corpse is laid on the
bier and tied to it by the coir strings. The body is covered with the
white or red cloth, and over the cloth red powder and flowers are strewn.
The bier is raised on the shoulders of four of the nearest relations and is
borne forth feet first, preceded b y one of the nearest relations carrying
an earthen or copper vessel with fire and cakes of cowdung. The relations
and caste-fellows follow calling the words Ram bolo bhdi, Mm (Call
Efim, brothers, call Ram). The female mourners follow the body for
some distance weeping. Then they stop, beat their breasts, return to

(1) The Kanbi funeral procession is large as by caste rules the attendance of
one man from each bouse is enforced on pain of fine,
fi(W )\
■ 143 [Kanbi ^
(CT
the house and bathe either in well-water or in a river. Midway between
the house and burning-ground the male mourners halt and set down the
bier. The nearest relations cease to weep and the bier is borne head
foremost to the burning-ground. When the burning-ground is reached,
the hearers lay the corpse almost uncovered with the head to the north
on a pile of a man’s length of wood and cowdung cakes. A little butter
is dropped into the dead mouth and the chief-mourner, generally the
eldest son of the deceased, puts some fire near the face, and the other
mourners set the pyre ablaze. Two or three of the older men stay near
the body while it is being burnt, keeping the pile in ord er; others ait
afar, talking and making merry if the deceased was old, and with a certain
sadness and regret if the deceased was young. When the body is almost
consumed, a little clarified butter is poured on the flames. The mourners
bathe and return weeping to the house of the deceased and then to their
homes. Letters telling friends and relations in distant villages are sent
either b y post or by carrier. On the second or third day the ehief-
moumer and two or three of the nearest relations go to the burning-
ground. The ashes and bones are gathered and are thrown into a river
or a pond, and an earthen jar filled with water is set where the body was
burned. The mourners bathe, and with wet clothes return home, weeping.
They take with them a few of the hones and keep them in the house till
some member of the family goes on a pilgrimage and throws them into
the sacred Narbada or Ganges. After the mourners return from the
burning-ground an earthen pot is filled with wafer and milk and placed
on the roof of the house. The nearest relations remain impure for ten
days, during winch they touch no one, do not approach the house gods,
do not visit the temples, do not change their clothes, and do not shave.
On the tenth day men shave the head and moustaches ; girls and married
women wash their hair with clay or with soapnut, the floors are
cowdunged, and all earthen drinking pots which have been touched
during the ten days are replaced by new ones. The mind-rite or
shrdddka ceremony is performed by the chief-mourner from the tenth
to the thirteenth day, on the eleventh with the help of a Kayatia
Brahman, and on the other three days with the help of the family-
priest. During the four days of the shraddha ceremony the chief-
mourner, instead of a turban, wears a linen cloth wound round his
head. On the thirteenth day his father-in-law presents him with a new
turban and the linen cloth is removed. On the thirteenth day the
family-priest is given, besides a few ornaments and a complete set of
clothes, a sleeping cot, some pillows, ancl some brass or copper vessels.
Friends and relations are feasted from the tenth to the thirteenth
day, and the caste-people on the twelfth and on the thirteenth. If the
P '<fcjsJjX
;N v \ n

b s (C T
lKa o b i ] 144 ‘ ’ 1 ■

deceased was a wealthy man, presents in grain, in clothes, and in cash

are. given to Brahmans, to religious beggars, and to the poor. Female
mourners go to the house of the deceased to weep and mourn, morning
and evening, for a month if the deceased was of mature age, and for six
months if the deceased was young. During the first year, as among other
Hindus, monthly, half-yearly and yearly mind-rites or shraddha are
performed, and a yearly shraddha in all subsequent years and an addi­
tional shraddha during the latter half of Bhadrano (September-Octoher).
Landlords or Patidars and headmen of villages call all the villagers to
dinner on marriage and death feasts. This custom has ruined many
families.(1)

Pood. E xcept Anjnas, Kanbis neither eat flesh, nor drink liquor.
Though many town Kanbis are skilled weavers of silk and cotton,
dealers in cloth and grain, and some have risen to high positions in
Government service or made money in trade or as money-lenders, the
bulk of the Kanbis are husbandmen. Many are village headmen or
mukhis, that is, police headmen, and enjoy allowances in cash and
land. The officiators are chosen from the Mataddrs, that is, those who
have the right to sign village papers. They are very jealous of their
rights, which give them a certain position and influence, and which
go to show that they are the original, vatandars of the village.
Gujarat Kanbis do not enlist as soldiers. Kanbis, especially those
of the K adva and Leva divisions, are capital husbandmen. They are
learned in the properties of every soil and minutely acquainted with
the wants of every crop.

A N JN A K A N BIS are found chiefly in North Gujarat. In appear­

ance they are more like Kolis than other Kanbis, and, like Rajputs,
some of their names end in sing, such as Dansing, Harising, Rajsing,
Umsing. They have twenty-three clans, who eat together and inter­
marry. Some of the Anjnas of Cutch are Jains.

D A N G I K A N BIS are found in Mahi Kantha. Originally Anjnas,

with whom they dine but do not intermarry, they are said to have
lost their position by adopting the dress and language of Bhils. Many
of them live in Mewar and have marriage and other relations with
the Mahi Kantha Dangis.

GITJ A R K A N B IS are found in East and W est Khandesh.

They consist of eight sub-divisions, (1) Anala, (2) Dale, (3) Dore,
(I) Gari, (5) Kadva, ( 6) Khapra, (7) Londhari or B ad and (8) R eva

(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Vol, IX, Part I, pp, 161-163.

 145 [ K a n l^ ^ ^

or Leva. There are a few families of Dales on the banks o f the Tapti
in Shahada and Taloda and in Raver towards Barhanpur. The
Deshmukhs of Jamner are said to he Gari Gujars. but they claim
equality with and call themselves R ev a Gujars. R evas or Levds
appear to be an offshoot o f the Gujarat Levas. They consider them ­
selves a very superior caste, eschew flesh and liquor and eat only
at the hands of Brahmans. K advas, Analas and Dales are found
only in small numbers. K advas appear to be a branch o f the Gujarat
Kanbis of the same name, and, like the parent stock, celebrate their
marriages once in twelve years. The Londharis are said to have
acquired the name Londhari from their being exclusively em ployed
in ginning cotton. The Khapras are a m ixed or inferior class.

K A D V A K A N B IS are chiefly found in A hm edabad and in the

K adi taluka of the Baroda State. Th ey are closely connected with
the Levas. A ccording to one story, the K advas are descendants or
followers o f Kush, the second son of R a m and Sita ; according to an­
other, they are sprung from clay figures fashioned by U m a or Parvati,
the wife of Shiva. Shiva at U m a’s request inspired the figures with
life and founded for them the village of U nja about fo rty miles north
of Ahm edabad, where a tem ple was raised in U m a’s honour. This
village and temple all K a d v a Kanbis consider th e chief seat of their
tribe, and to it they resort from long distances to p a y their vow s.
Some state that they came to Gujarat from K abu l through th e P unjab,
which is supported b y the names of som e o f their shakhds o r sections.
, E xcept in Surat they have n o sub-divisions. In Surat there are
three sub-divisions, one calling themselves Lalehudawalas from their
women wearing red bracelets, the other K a lach u ddvilas from their
women wearing black bracelets, and the third A hm edabadis from
Ahm edabad. These three divisions eat together, b u t for the last
thirty-five years have ceased to intermarry. As am ong L eva Kanbis
they have K ulia and Akulia sections in south Gujarat, the relations
between which are the same as those between similar branches of the
Levas. A K adva K anbi can divorce his w ife at will, b u t in north
Gujarat the w ife cannot divorce the husband w ithout his consent
or after she has borne a child. K a d v a ’s marriages are celebrated
once in every nine, ten or eleven years. Efforts are of late being
made to reduce this period to five years b y som e and t o one year b y
others, and a few marriages have also been celebrated accordingly.
But the com m unity as a whole has not yet accepted the reform.
Ih e re are fifty-tw o original shdJcJim or exogamous sections, m ostly
called after the names of villages in the Punjab. A t present
pr h 1109—19
■ ' ' ■* ' ' -

cm
Canbi] 146

Kadvas marry outside their villages and call themselves after their
village, e.g., Narodia from Naroda. Thus, new shaJchas are continually
in process of formation. The original fifty-two shaJchas with a few of
such new shakhds are given below :—

The old original fifty-two Shakhds.

1 Amrita . .. From Amritsar.
2 Bakha .. .. „ a place near Gopalganj.
3 Bhemat .. .. „ B M m near Hoshiapur.
4 Bhua .. .. „ Bhoa near Lahore.
5 Bhut .. .. „ Bhutana near Lodhiana.
6 Chawelia . . .. „ Chawidsa near Amritsar.
7 Chechat . . .. „ Chechat near Kotah.
8 Cheniar . . .. „ Chenari near Bahawad,
9 Chhapala .. .. „ Chhapal near Mhow.
10 Chopada . . .. „ Chopada, Khandesh.
11 D a n i ..................... „ Dana Awal near Jalandar.
12 Dhankania . . .. „ Dhanakatti near Faridpur.
13 Dhantodwa . .. „ Dhampur near Gonda Belampur.
14 Dhekal .. .. „ Dhekal near Faridpur.
15 Dholu .. .. „ Dhol near Mujafarpur.
16 Diwani .. .. „ Diwanganj near Bhopal.
17 Dokotara . . .. „ Dakot kul.
18 Garni ... .. „ Gambar near Montgomery.
19 Gogada .. .. „ Goga near Bhawalpur.
20 Goti .. .. „ Got, Sharif Malwa.
21 Harania . . .. „ Har near Mednipur.
22 H oti .. .. „ Hoti near Peshawar.
23 Juwatar . . .. „ Juwa near Itawah.
24 Kadawatar . . .. „ Kalali near the Godavari river.
25 Kalara .. .. „ Kala near Jhelum river.
26 Kalpuncha . .. „ Kalsaya near Ludhiana and Amballa.
27 Karan&wat . . .. „ Karandah near Gashipur.
28 Katwar .. .. „ Kath near Matoda.
29 Kodal .. .. „ Konda near Gwalior.
30 Kuwara . . .. „ Kumargeri near the Godavari.
31 Lahuwot .. .. „ Lahore.
32 Lakod .. .. „ Lakoda near Lahore.
33 LAli -. .. „ Lar near Gorpur.
34 Majitia .. .. „ Majit Mandi near Amritsar.
35 Mandalot . . .. „ a village in Mewad.
36 Mandawia . . .. „ Mandi, Punjab.
 147 [Kanifcil.il. j

37 Man war .. . . From Manor near Bareli.

38 M ogala .. .. „ M ogalpur near Lahore.
39 M okat .. .. „ M oka near Belaji.
40 M unjat .. .. „ Munja near Gujaranwala.
41 Pahan .. „ a place near Gonda, Balram pur State.
42 P okar .. .. „ Pokaran near Miraj.
43 P h ok .. .. ,, Phuk near Larkhana.
44 R u sa t .. .. ,, a village near Delhi.
45 Sakaria .. .. „ Sakari in Khandesh.
46 Shethia .. .. „ Shethgadh near Bareli.
47 Shirwi .. .. „ Shirwa near Miraj.
48 Sorotar .. .. „ Sontar near Punial.
49 Tilat .. .. ,, Tilatu near Shahabad.
50 W agada .. .. „ W agadan earD etroj, taluka Viramgam.
51 W &ghoda .. .. ,, a place in E ast Khandesh.
52 W ija ya t
New Shdkhds.™
1 A duw ayaf .. .. 23 H em atp a ra .f
2 A para .. .. 24 Ital.
3 B aladiw adasf .. .. 25 Jham padia.
4 B aioki .. .. 26 K achhar.
5 B alw ot .. .. 27 Kaga.
6 B aria* .. .. 28 K ajaw it.
7 Bhila , .. .. 29 Kalatia.
8 B u h at .. .. 30 Kalwelia.
9 ChambdawadaKf . . .. 31 Kangali.
10 Chavda* .. .. 32 Kank.
11 Chhotia .. .. 33 K anotra.
12 C hulgarf .. .. 34 Kapaii.
13 Daridria .. .. 35 Karur (near Multan).
14 D arjia .. .. 36 Kasatia (K ash tia)f.
15 D a bh i* .. .. 37 Kashmir.
16 Dhola. .. .. 38 Katarm al.
17 Ghargada .. .. 39 Kawa v
18 G ohela* .. .. 40 K hoda.
19 G ol* .. .. 41 K hud.
20 G om at .. 42 K ondha. „
21 G ow al .. .. 43 K u triw a d a sf.
22 HAdi. .. .. 44 Lakadia.

(1) Of these sMJchds those marked * are taken from Rajput clans and those
markedt are found only among the Ahmedabad City Patidars,
Cflf '
^ jKanbij 148
§L J

New Shakhds— con td .(1)

45 Lodaw adiaf. .. . . 56. R atol*.
46 Lodhia. .. . . 57 Sabawa.
47 Makwana*. .. . . 58 Sawan.dh.ara.
48 Mandu. .. .. 59 Shenur.
49 Menia. .. . . 60 Sutaria.
50 Metalia. .. .. 61 Tragadi.
51 Moghara. .. .. 62 U jalia.
52 Padia. .. .. 63 W aghela.*
53 Parewa. .. .. 64 W anod.
54 Patiad, .. .. 65 W enjaw at.
55 Pem at. .. .. 66 W idalia.
There are various social grades among them, the Ahmedabad
C ity Kadvas being the aristocracy of the caste. Until a few years
ago, children abou t a month old and even unborn children were married,
on the hypothesis that the sexes would prove correct. The mothers
actually walked round the altar in the marriage booth to sanctify the
agreement. This custom has now becom e extinct. A s K adva
marriages are celebrated periodically, suitable husbands for girls are
frequently not available. The difficulty is overcom e as follows :—
T h e girl is married to a bunch o f flowers on the general marriage day
and then the flowers are throw n into a well or river. Th e girl thus
becom es a widow , and m ay contract a second inform al marriage
(ndtra) on any suitable opportunity. An alternative is to induce
som e married m an to go through the cerem ony of marriage on p ay­
m ent o f a small sum of m oney on condition that he divorces the girl
immediately. T h e divorced girl may then contract a second marriage.
The auspicious season fo r holding marriages is fixed in the fol­
low in g way. A few Brahman priests and astrologers with the two
headm en o f U nja go together to worship U m a in her temple. After
worship lots are drawn, and according as the lot falls, the year on
w hich the lot falls or the follow ing year is declared the proper time.
W hen the year is known, th e astrologers name a special day. The
d a y always com es in VaisMkh. For the sake o f those prevented from
sickness or other cause, a second day is chosen about a fortnight
later than the first. As soon as these days are fixed, Brahmans start
t o spread the news on every side. Wherever they go they are received
w ith honour and rejoicing. A t Ahm edabad they are m et outside the
c ity in the A sarva suburb. The whole K a dva com m unity comes to

(1) Of these shdkhds those marked * are taken from Rajput clans and those
marked f are found only among the Ahmedabdd City Patidars.
 149 [Kanbi ^ *
Dada B ari’s well, and after worshipping Ganpati and Umaji, the
headman of Asarva reads out the names of the lucky days.
LE V A K A N RTS are the largest division of Gujarat Kanbis. They
are found all over Gujarat, but chiefly in the talukas of Anand, Nadiad
and Borsad in the Kaira district. They are found also in Cutch, where
they have two territorial divisions, Halai and Vaghadia, who eat
together but do not intermarry. The Gujarat Levas consist of two
groups, Patidars or shareholders and Kanbis or husbandmen. The
Patidars do not give their daughters in marriage to the Kanbis, but
take their daughters on paym ent of a handsome dowry. Further,
the Patidars of thirteen villages in the Charotar (part of Kaira district)
are called Kulias or men of family, and do not give their daughters
in marriage to the P&tid&rs outside these villages, who are called
Akulias or men of no family. In Kulia families servants draw water
arid perform menial household duties. Their women do n ot appear
abroad, and, as stated above, widow marriage is forbidden. As
among Vanias, Levas have gols or groups of villages formed for the
purpose of taking brides. Marriages are generally performed between
members of the same gol, but the areas of gols are not permanently
fixed.

Before the introduction of British rule, Kulia Patidars acted as

farmers of revenue and as middlemen between Government and the
husbandmen, and in most cases were found to have exacted the most
ingenious and -crushing taxes. Though under the survey settlement,
they have lost this uncontrolled power of exaction, they have still
much influence and are admitted to have a higher social position than
the common husbandmen.
“ For many years after the introduction of British rule, in spite
of their skill and their steady work, their extravagance at marriages
kept the Kanbis in a state of depression. The competition to marry
their daughters into the higher families was keen, and great sums were
paid to secure the honour. In A. D. 1848, to put a stop to this evil,
Mr. Fawcett, the Magistrate of Ahmedabad, induced the chief men of
the Kanbi caste to pass an agreement reducing marriage expenses and
promising not to seek husbands for their daughters among the Kaira
families. These agreements were enforced till, in A. D. 1852, the Judge
of Ahmedabad decided that they were not legally binding. The res­
triction was accordingly discontinued, and, for nearly twenty years,
no further attempt was made to interfere with the K anbi marriage
customs. In A. I). 1871 information collected in connection with a
measure for the suppression of infanticide (A ct V III of 1870), showed
 n
f i M j i j V fiT |

Kanbi] 150 ^ !

among the Kanbis a startling excess in the number of males over

females. Inquiries were made, and the result seemed so suspicious
that in April 1871 the provisions of the Infanticide A ct were applied
both to the Leva and K adva Kanbis. The result of more complete
information has been to show that the fears of Government were
excessive. The Kadva Kanbis were declared wholly exempt from the
provisions of the Act, and in the case of the Leva Kanbis, the
restrictions were reduced to a simple registration of births and
deaths. ” (1>

M ATIA KANBIS, from mat opinion, are found only in the Jalal-
pur and Bardoli tdlukds of Surat. They are half Hindus, half Musal-
mans b y religion. That they were originally Leva Kanbis of Ahmed-
abad is proved by the traces of relationship still subsisting between
Leva and Matia Kanbis, and by the surnames of Kothia and Bavalia
from the villages of K oth and Bavla in Dholka. About 300 years
ago a com pany of Leva Kanbis on their way to Benares are said to have
passed a night at the village of Garmatha, about ten miles south-west
of Ahmedabad. Imam Shah, a Musalman recluse, was at that time
living in Garmatha. According to one story, Imam Shah spoke
to the pilgrims, and learning that they were going to Benares told
them that if they would carefully listen to his doctrines they would
visit Benares without the trouble of going there. Some of the pilgrims
paid no attention to what Imam Shah said, and went to Benares.
Others who trusted in Imam Shah saw Benares, bathed in the Ganges,
and feasted the Brahmans, all without leaving Garmatha. Astonished
at this miracle they adopted Imam Shah as their spiritual head.
According to another account they were saved from becoming
Musalmans by becoming the followers of Imam Shah.

Till lately there were no divisions among Matins, but, during

A. 1). 1880, from 150 to 175 families formed themselves into a separate
caste, calling themselves Vaishnav Matias as distinguished from the
original or Pirana Matias. This division is due to the preaching of
an ascetic Eirmaldas of Surat, who told the Matias of their Leva
Kanbi origin. Some of his hearers looking with hatred on their
half-Hindu half-Musalman customs, started on a pilgrimage to Benares
and were put out of caste. The seceding or Vaishnav Matias have
joined the Bamhnandi and Dadupauthi sects. They worship the
images of Narsingji, Thakorji, and sometimes the linga of MaMdev.
They observe the ordinary Hindu fasts and go on pilgrimage to

(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. IX, Part I, p. 167.

i f B % (&\
151 [K a n b i *

Allahabad, Benares, Jaganndth and Mathura. The Vaishnav Matids

and Pirdna Matids do not eat together. .Since the split no old betro­
thals have been broken and no new betrothals have been made.
The Yaishnav Matids have abandoned all Musalmdn customs and in
all respects live like Leva Kanbis. But Leva Kanbis do not dine with
them, and they do not intermarry.

Pirdna Matids closely resemble Leva Kanbis in appearance, speech

and dress. Marriages are forbidd en within se ven degrees of relationship
either on the father’s or on the mother’ s side. Girls are sometimes
married when they are six months old, but generally between five and
eight, and boys between eight and twenty. "Widow’s are allowed to
marry, the widow of a man marrying his younger brother. Divorce
is lawful. A bachelor cannot marry a divorced woman or a widow
unless he first marries a shami (Prosopis spicigera) tree. A widow who
marries again wears an ivory bracelet plated with gold. The marriage
ceremonies of Matids do n ot differ from those of Leva Kanbis. They
are conducted b y their family priests, who are Audicb. or Modh
Brahmans.

As a rule a Matia woman gives birth to her first child at her

father’s house. On the birth of a first child, if it is a boy, its foot-prints
are marked with wet kanku on paper, and the paper is carried b y a
barber to the father, who gives him a present of about Rs. 2. On the
sixth day the goddess Chhathi is worshipped. On the twelfth day the
woman worships the threshold, the doorpost and the nearest well in the
street by rubbing on them sandal-dust and kanku. Near the well she
ties two cowdung cakes together by a cotton thread. The children of the
street are given boiled wheat and jiivar mixed with molasses. For forty
days the woman is held impure and cannot touch anything in the house.
She never leaves the house if she can help it, and if she is forced to go out
she carries with her a sickle or a knife to ward off evil spirits. On some
day between the thirty-fifth and the fortieth the woman bathes,
and the floor of the lying-in-room is scraped. The woman is then
purified by the sin-removing lahe-utdrni ceremony. After this the
child is named by a Brahman astrologer. When the child is two or
three months old the woman goes to her husband’s house. N o cere­
monies are performed when a child is first fed with cooked food.(1)
They follow the Atharva or fourth Ved and call themselves
Satpanlhis, followers of truth. They worship the tom bs of the Musal-
lM n saints whose mausoleums are at Pirdna, Ahmedabad, Navsari,

(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. TX, Part I, p. 170.

 Canbij 152
<SL
and Burhanpur. Their sacred book is the collection of religious
precepts called Shiksha Patti made by Imam Shah, the saint of Pirana.
Some of them learn the book by heart and gain the name of Mka or
devotee. The Micas are laymen, and like the rest of the Matias
maintain themselves by tilling the soil. One special family of Icdktis
officiates at some of their ceremonies and are the agents through whose
hands all presents pass to the saintly descendants of Im am Shah at
Ahmedabad, 'Navsari and Burhanpur. The Mati&s include three
religious divisions, PdncJii&s or followers of Surabhai’s mausoleum, the
third of the fi ve Pirana shrines, so called from the live devotees who at
first managed the institution, Satids, from the seven original managing
devotees, who are the followers of Baba Muhammad’s mausoleum, the
* fourth of the Pirana shrines ; and AtMds, from the eight devotees who
managed the institution, who are the followers of Bakar A ll’s mauso­
leum, the fifth Pirana shrine. Except in being called after different
saints, these divisions do not differ in. belief or in practice. Sin-remov­
ing or lahe-ularni is their chief ceremony. A woman after child-birth
or monthly sickness, a cow or a buffalo after calving, a person who has
accidentally defiled himself by the sight of a woman in child-bed, and
all those who have broken caste rules by using forbidden articles of
•food, are made to pass through the sin-removing ceremony. A t the
house where the purifying ceremony is to be performed various dishes of
sweetmeats are prepared. The village kaka is called and comes accom­
panied by an assistant called k'hal Mka. The Mka brings with him four
eopper coins, an earthenware cup, and frankincense. He also brings
with him in a small portable tin or brass box, peashaped balls made of
white chalk or rice-flour mixed with milk or sandal-dust brought from
the tomb of one of the saints. On entering the. house the Mka goes into
the kitchen, lights a lamp fed with clarified butter, and mutters a text.
While his chief is saying a prayer the khal kaka calls for a brass plate
and in the plate piles from five to eight heaps of cooked rice according
as the host is a Pancbia, a Satia, or a Athia Matia. After the kalmo
or prayer is over the kaka .sits bowing on a waistcloth spread on the
ground. H e then burns frankincense and murmurs a second prayer.
After the second prayer he spills a circle of wheat grains in a brass
plate, and, inside the circle, sets four coins and on the coins a cap.
In to the cup he pours a mixture called nur or light made of sugared-
w'ater, milk and white chalk or rice from the saint’s tomb. When this
is ready the khaki kaka brings the brass plate with the heaps of rice, and
over each heap the kaka sprinkles the mixture from the earthenware
cup repeating a text at each sprinkling. The text for each sprinkling
is different, but each ends in Ld-ilaha-illalah, Muhammad ar-Pasul-
 ' 153 [K a n b i

alldh or Imam Shdh-Nur-Ali Muhammad Shah. The brass plate with

the heaps of cooked rice is then p u t aside and the person to be purified
is called in. The man or woman to be purified stands near the kaka
and bows to him, and after being sprinkled with the mixture from the
earthenware cup, sits down. H e or she then presents a silver or copper
coin to the kaka, who washes it with water, and gives the water along
with the mixture from the cup to the man or the woman to drink.
The heaps of rice in the brass plate are mixed b y the lchal kdka with the
rest of the cooked articles and distributed among the guests. The
puriying fee is 8 annas for a woman after childbirth and for a buffalo
after she has calved, 4 aim as for a cow after she has calved, and |
anna for those who have broken caste rules. These fees are sent
by the kaka to the saint’s tom b at Ahmedabad, Navsari, or Burhanpur.
Besides these presents every Matia cultivator sends once a year to the
saints through the kdka three and a half mans (140 pounds) of husked
rice and one rupee for each of his ploughs.
Matins hold the second day of every Hindu lunar month sacred, and
when the second falls on a Friday they fast for the whole day and do not
eat until they have seen the moon. They 'keep the Ramzan fast, some
of them eating no solid food during the whole month. Their other
Musalman holidays are the liras or Saint’s Day and the two
preceding Sandal Days. On these days they do no work, and spend their
time in feasting or in visiting the shrines of their saints in Navasari.
Besides these Musalman holidays they observe as days of feasting IIoh
February-Marcb, Akhalrij April-May, Divaso Jime-July, Balev July-
August, and DivdM October-November. Their chief places of pilgrim­
age are Navsari, Pirana, Burh4npur, and Vernal, seven miles from
Mi4gam in Broach, which they visit on great days or whenever they
have leisure. The kdka accompanies the pilgrims to these places. At
Pirana, Navsdri and Vernal the pilgrims visit only the saint’s tombs.
But at BurMnpur the pilgrims worship the great toe of their living
saint. The spiritual guide sets his foot on a heap of not less than a
hundred rupees contributed b y one or two pilgrims. After it has been
set on the heap of rupees the leader’s foot is washed, rubbed with a
fragrant substance, and the right great toe is kissed b y each pilgrim in
turn. The kdka who accompanies the pilgrims receives from the
spiritual head presents in clothes and ornaments both for himself and
his w ife /1'
The Mati&s bury the dead. A dying person is bathed and laid on
the ground, the kaka standing near and reading texts. W hen life is
(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. IX, Part I, pp. 168-170.
If II 1109—20
 Kanbi] 154
gone, the body of the deceased, if a man, is dressed, in cotton trousers,
a sliirt and a cap, and if a woman, in a silk robe, a bodice and a petticoat.
It is laid in a MusalmAn bier and earned to the burial-ground, which is
generally on the bank of a stream. The bearers do not take off any of
their clothes or their shoes. On reaching the burial-ground the bearers,
without removing any of the clothes, lay the body in a pit
and fill the pit with earth. After the body is buried the mourners
purify themselves by each holding a piece of frankincense in his hand
and muttering two half-Hind u half-Musalm&n prayers. The first prayer
runs: In the name of Allah the pitiful, the merciful, of Satgor or
Satgur Patra, of Brahma and Indra, of Imam Shah, of the spotless
spiritual Vishnu and of Ali Muhammad Shah.. The second prayer is
in these words : The incense burns, evil goes and faith wins (now is
the, time to) mercy implore.

The funeral party go to the house of mourning, and there the

deceased’s family feast them with sweet wheat-balls. The mourners
eat a mixture of split pulse and rice cooked in a neighbour’s house.
Like Hindus, Mafia women wTeep and beat their breasts for ten days,
and for ten days the sin-removing Idhe-ulami ceremony is daily performed.
Friends and relations from the villages round, summoned b y a Bhangia,
come to mourn, and are feasted with wheat-flour mixed with clarified
butter and sugar. Unlike Hindus, the nearest relations do not consider
themselves impure for ten days. No death ceremonies are performed
and no rice balls are offered to the spirits of the deceased. Caste people
are feasted on the tenth and eleventh days after a death or on any day
between the thirteenth and the twentieth, if the eleventh or twelfth
falls on a Sunday or a Tuesday. On the first feast-day after a death
each family of Matias sends the chief mourner half a man (twenty-
pounds) of husked rice, and, besides the rice, friends and relations give
eight annas. These presents, along with the clothes, bed and bedstead
of the deceased, are sent to the shrine of the saints at Burhanpur, Navsari,
Ahmedabad, or Vernal. Besides these presents the chief mourner sends
on his own account a money present, and if rich he sets apart a mango
tree for the exclusive use of the samt. The aggregate amount of death-
presents which go to their saints varies from Rs. 15 to R s. 100. The
Brahman priest receives some presents on the eleventh day, not in his
character of priest, but in return for the help he gives in feasting the
caste-people.

Like Leva and Kadva Kanbis, Matias are strict vegetarians, eating
neither fish nor flesh and drinking no spirits. Caste rules forbid the use
' C; 155 [K a n b i^ L

of assafoetida, garlic, onions and narcotics, and those who break the rule
have to be purified before they are let back into caste.
MOMNA K A N B IS are found almost entirely in Cutch, nearly
two-thirds of the Kanins in Cutch being Momnas. “ Descendants of
Hindus of various castes, they are, according to one account, said to
have been converted to the Mu sal man faith b y Imam Shah, and a portion
of them to have fled, after the great Momna revolt and defeat (1691)
in Gujar&t, to Cutch and settled at Shikra in Vagad. According to
another account they were Leva Kanbis converted and called Momnas
or Momins, believers, by Pir-sadar-ud-din who is said to have become
their independent pontiff, imam. Slightly made and dark, the Momnas
shave the head except the top knot, and the face except the upper lip.
The men wear coats, trousers, and three-corned overhanging turbans.
Dark in colour, their women wear petticoats, jackets, and head clothes.
Their home tongue is Gujarati without any noticeable peculiarities.
Untidy, but sober, quiet and hardworking, Momn&s work chiefly as
husbandmen and labourers. V ery few are rich or well off, and many are
in debt, but as a class they have enough for their daily wants. Shiahs in
faith, they are Musalmans in little more than name, their habits, feelings,
and general mode of thought being Hindu. The ordinary form of saluta­
tion among themselves is the Shravak phrase, johar, johdr, and with
others the ordinary Hindu form, Ram, R&m; although n ot knowing
why, they keep the Janmdshtami and Divdli holidays, dressing in their
best and feasting. Though' according to their own accounts they believe
in Shet Sayad of Patan, the cultivators devote one-twentieth part of their
income, and the labourers a rupee a year each, to Imamshah’s shrine
at Pirana. Marrying among themselves, they form a separate body with,
at Mankuva near Bhuj, a headman, paid, who settles all disputes.
H e has also the power of fining and excommunicating any one who breaks
caste rules. His sanction is also necessary for widow marriage, any
widow marrying without his consent being excommunicated. Murder
and adultery are punished b y excommunication, the offender being
allowed to rejom on paying a fine. They do not associate with Musal-
m&ns, eat no flesh, do not circumcise, say no five daily prayers, and do
not keep the Ramzan fast.” (1)
The tendency nowadays with Momn&s is not to be called Musalmhns
even in name. They style themselves Leva Patidars or Leva Kanbis,
and except for a few tenets of their religion, which are Muhammadan,
are in all respects Hindus. They claim descent from Leva Kanbis, and
state that their ancestors were converted at P&tan by a Sayad who met

(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. V, pages 90-91.

a *v ^ >\ v n .

i l p ,
Kanbi] 156
1^ L
them there, and b y taking them to the Ganges and bringing them back
in a trice, induced them to become Musalmdns. Many of late have
reverted.to Hinduism by adopting the tenets of the Swaminarayan
sect; and though they form an endogenous division, they dine with
the other Mornnas and have departed little from the customs and prac­
tices of the Mornnas proper, except from such as are opposed to their
new faith. They admit Momn&s proper into their division, the condi­
tion being to accept the Swaminarayan creed.

The rules regulating the restrictions on intermarriage are the

same as those among L eva Kanbis. Polygam y is permissible, but
polyandry is unknown.

The marriage ceremonies of Momna Kanbis differ in some parti­

culars from those observed b y Levas. They do not erect the chori
or marriage altar or kindle the sacrificial fire. The essential ceremony
amongst them is the Duva, in which the bride and bridegroom are
seated in fron t of a low wooden stool on which three lights are kept
burning. I t is alleged th at these three lights represent the Hindu
Trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh. The hands of the pair are
then joined by the Mukhi or headman of the caste, who is in charge
of the caste Khdna (place of worship), and he recites the Duva. Other
ceremonies such as drawing up the marriage deed, mandva or erection
of the marriage booth, and the like, are similar to those performed
by Leva Kanbis.

The marriage of widows is permitted. A widow cannot marry

a brother of her deceased husband or a member of his section. The
parents of the widow’s intended husband have to give about four
maunds of kiohri (mixture of rice grains and spilt pulse) and three
maunds of ghi to her parents, which is intended for feasting the mar­
riage party. The same ceremony is gone through, as in the case of a
first marriage, the essential portion being the Duva.

D ivorce is permitted at the instance of a husband only. A

wife cannot obtain a divorce at her own will. Divorced women
are allowed to remarry.

Momnfis profess a religion which is neither strictly Hindu nor

Musalm&n, though they are very particular about being called Hindus,
and object to being called Mornnas, as in Gujarat those who go by
the name Momna are pure Musa!mans following Musalman customs
and ceremonies. They call their religion Sat panth or the True Path,
while it is popularly known as Khdna or Tirana panth. Their place
(U (fiT
157 [Kanbi ^
of worship is called Khdna, though they prefer it to be called Dhar-
mashdla. There is a pat or low wooden stool in the Khdna, on which
on certain occasions a ghat (water jar) is placed. The Mornnas call
this pat the pat of Brahma. From the ghat the devotees often sip
water made holy b y the earth of Pirana. Their ceremonies are con­
ducted b y the Mulchis or headmen of the caste, the tendency of late
being not to employ Brahmans as far as possible.
Mornnas bury their dead. A funeral feast is given to the caste-
men on the third or any other convenient day after death. E very
year in the month of Bhddrapad on the day corresponding to the
day of death, a preparation of ghi, flour and sugar is taken to the
place of worship and distributed to children and other persons who
may be present.

Like other Kanbis, Mornnas are strict vegetarians. They do not

eat with Musalmans. Rajputs, Darjis, Lohars, Valands, etc., will
eat fo o d cooked b y Mornnas.

U D A KAN BIS are a division once part of the Levas. They are
followers of a Bhagat named Uda. They are peculiarly exclusive
in their habits and would not drink from a brass or copper p ot touched
even b y a Brahman. They are generally K abir Panthis.(1)

t KANCHGARS, numbering about 198 (1901), including 100

males and 98 females, are found chiefly in Kanara. Their surnames,
which they take from places in Goa, and the fact that the shrine of
their fam ily god K&s&rpai is also in Goa, seem to show that they
originally belonged to that locality. They make vessels of copper
and brass and cast articles in brass, copper and bell metal. Girls are
married before th ey com e of age. Widow marriage is forbidden.
Boys are girt with the sacred thread between ten and twelve. Their
priests are Havik Brahmans. In ceremonies and customs they follow
Gudigars.
KANDHI.— A sub-division of Telis.
KAN DIVAR.— A synonym for Bainu Divar.
KANDOI.—A synonym for Halvai.
KANDOLIA.—-A sub-division of Brahmans.
KANE.—A synonym for P&l Kolhati.
KANGAR.— A sub-division of Dhangars.
KANHERJIN. —A sub-division of Yanjaris.
(1) Barodtt Census Report,' 1901, Part I, p. 468.
/■ ? ^ ^

Kanjari] 158

KANJARIS, numbering 6(1) (1901), including 3 males and 3 females,

are foun d chiefly in Poona, Satara and Belgaum. Their origin is
obscure, but some accounts assign them Gujarati as their home lang­
uage, and it is probable that they have been recruited in many direc­
tions. They are a wandering tribe of beggars, and in Satara are n o to ­
rious thieves. They also make and sell brushes or kunchas used by
weavers in cleaning wool. They have two divisions (1) Kuncha
Bandhanare and (2) Jat Log, who neither eat together nor intermarry.
Marriages are prohibited between members having the same surname.
Marriage is infant as well as adult. The remarriage of widows is per­
mitted. Divorce is not allowed. The chief objects of worship of
Kanjfiris are Mariai and Musalman Pirs. They declare that they are
neither Hindus nor Musalmans. They have neither religious teachers
nor priests. The marr. id dead are burnt and the unmarried buried.
For the propitiation of deceased ancestors they perform pitar, that is,
they feed castemen on the anniversary of the death. Kanjaris eat
fish and the flesh o f goats and fowls and drink liquor. They eat food
cooked b y Marathas, Kolis, Dhangars, Thakurs and Musalmans, but
not b y Marwaris, Telis, Mahars and Mangs. N one except Mahars
and Mangs will eat food cooked b y them.

MUSALMAN K A N JA R IS , numbering 10(1901), including 7 males

and 3 females, are found in Ahmednagar, Sholapur, Dharwar, Bijapur
and Belgaum. Many must have returned themselves simply as Musal­
man. They appear to be a quite distinct community from their Hindu
namesakes, making their living b y rearing and selling poultry. They
are supposed b y som e to be converts from the Od or Pardhi tribes and
b y others representatives of the H indu Kanjar tribe which is now ex­
tinct. E xcept that they say that they are Sunnis of the Hanafi school
and ask the Kazi to register their marriages, they are almost H indu in
religion, worshipping and offering vow s to Hindu gods and keeping
Hindu festivals. They marry on ly among themselves and form an
organised society with a headman o f their own, who, with the co n ­
currence of the m ajority, can fine any one who breaks their caste rules.
They hold a low position among Musalmans.

KANKALIA.—-A sub-division of Bhats.

KANKAVA.— A sub-division of Dhors.
KANKORIA.—A sub-division o f Vaghris.
KANNAD.— A synonym for Kanade.
(1) Tho census figures are clearly incorrect, many having apparently returned
theiroriginal caste names.
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 159 ' [Kansara
KANOJIA.— A sub-division of Bhats
KANPHATE.— A synonym for Jogi.
KANSAR.— A synonym for Kasar.
'KANSARAS or Coppersmiths, from Jcansu bell-metal, numbering Name and
about 15,554 (1901), including 8,230 males and 7,324 females, a r e origm-
found in most large towns in Gujarat, Kathiawar and Cutch. They
state that their original home was Pavagad, twenty-nine miles east of
Baroda. According to their story, there lived five brothers at Pava­
gad who were great devotees of Kalka Mata and Worshipped her by
beating bell-metal cymbals. The goddess was so pleased with their
devotion that she told them to make a living by beating metal. From
beating brass they advanced to making brass, copper and bell-metal
vessels.
In appearance, dress and language Kansaras resemble Vanias and
Kanbis.
Kansaras have four endogamous divisions of a territorial t y p e : Divisions.
Champaneris, Sihoras,
Maras, Visnagras,
who neither eat together nor intermarry. Their surnames a r e :
Bagaya. Bhatti, Karsakariya. Solanki.
Barmeya. Gohel. Parruar.
Marriages are not allowed between near relations. E xcept among
Visnagras, widows are not allowed to marry, the widow sometimes
marrying, her husband’s younger brother. Divorce is on ly allowed
in south Gujarat.
Kansaras are Hindus o f the Ramanahdi, Shaiva and Vallabha- Religion,
charya sects. Their family goddess is Kalka Mata, who is held in
high reverence b y followers of all the sects. They worship all Hindu
gods and goddesses, keep the ordinary fasts and feasts, and visit the
usual places of local pilgrimage, chiefly the shrines of Arnbaii, Bahu-
charaji and Kalka. Their great holiday is the bright ninth of Aso
(October), on which they perform a sacrifice and, at midnight, dance
and leap, holding a wreath of Jcarena or oleander flowers in one hand
and a lighted torch in the other. One of the revellers, inspired by the
goddess, professes to cut off his tongue with a sword. They * have
not much faith in witchcraft, exorcism and omens. Their priests
are Audich, Mevada, Shrigaud and Shrimali Brahmans.
E xcept that some Cutch Kansaras, on the sixth day after the C ere-
birth of a child, paint part of the wall of the lying-in room red, light raonics-
B y* M n i * \w \AW ,

% L

CansaraJ 160
a lamp fed with clarified butter near the red mark, dress the child in a
necklace of false pearls and make it bow to the painted wall, the birth
ceremonies of Kansaras do not differ from those of Kanbis. Except
that in parts of Central Gujarat on the marriage day the bride-groom, '
when he goes to the bride’s house, holds a dagger, Kansara marriage
ceremonies do not differ from those of Kanbis. A pregnancy ceremony
is performed during the seventh month after a woman’s first conception.
In Cutch some Kansaras do not bind a bracelet or rakhdi-to the preg­
nant woman’s arm ; in Central Gujarat, while passing from her father’s
to her husband’s house, the woman, holding a cocoanut in her hands,
walks with her brother along the road underneath a canopy formed by a
piece of cloth held at the four com ers by four female relations. The
brother holds up the cocoanut in his sister’s hands. With these
differences, the pregnancy ceremonies are the same as those performed
by Kanbis. Except that in Central Gujarat a knife is laid near the
corpse when it is tied to the bier, that the four male relations bathe
before taking the corpse out of the house, that if the deceased dies
without a son his sister’s son walks in front and holds in his hand a
pot containing live charcoal, and when the party reach the burning
ground, lights the pile, and that sweet balls are thrown to dogs, the
Kansara funeral is like a Kanbi funeral.
Occupa- The hereditary occupation of Kansaras is making vessels of copper
and brass. Those who work in particular metais are called by the name
of the m e ta l: copper-workers Tambaghada, brass-workers Pitalghada,
and gold-workers Sonara Kansaras. The last have already formed
themselves into a distinct endogamous group in certain places by ceas­
ing to marry with the parent caste, and the others m ay perhaps, in
course of time, crystallize into similar endogamous occupational gr oups.
In some places, notably in Sihor in Kathiawar and in Kadi and
Visnagar in North Gujarat, where there are remarkably good workmen
in brass and copper, the Kansaras, in addition t o the ordinary
household vessels, turn out delicately carved ornaments such as
penholders, inkstands, betel boxes, idols, lamps and bells. Besides
working in brass and copper, some Kansaras move about the town
tinning plates and mending vessels.
Food. Kansaras are vegetarians except a few in Cutch who eat fish and
goats’ flesh, and drink liquor.

KANSARA SONI.—A sub-division of Sonis.

FAPDIS, numbering 909 (1901), including 478 males and 431

females, are found chiefly in Cutch and Palanpur. They are a religious

%
( if t % <ST
y 161 [Kare Vakkal
K- Z z - ^
order leading a life of celibacy, and keep up their order b y recruiting.
Most disciples are Lohanas, but disciples m ay be taken from any H indu
caste except from the degraded classes. They are devotees of the
temple of Ashapura Mata at Madh about fifty miles north-east of
Bhuj. They live by begging and on the income of the land attached
to the temple.
KAPIL.— A sub-division of Brahmans.
KAPOL.—A synonym for K a p il; a sub-division of V&nias.
KAPOLA.—A synonym for Kapol.
KAPUR.— A sub-division of Khatris.
KAR.— A sub-division of Bhois.
KARAD.-—A Bub-division of Vanias.
KARADE.—A sub-division of Kolis.
KARAGIR.—A synonym for N M vi.
KARALIA.—See under Minor Musalman castes.
KARANJKAR.—A synonym for Jingar.
KARATIA.—A synonym for Darbhia.
KARBELIA.—A sub-division of Brahmans.
KARBHOI.— A sub-division of Kachhis.
KARDE.—A sub-division of Holay&s.
KARE.— A sub-division of Ganigs.
KARE VAKKALS, or. black Vakkals, are foun d in the forest Name and
tracts and remote villages of Ankola tdluka and a few in the forest ®
tracts of Sirsi, K&rwar, Kumta, Honavar, Siddapur, and Yellapur
lalukas of the Kanara district. They are styled kare or black, because
they are darker than the other Vakkal castes.
They speak Kanarese like the Halvakki V a k k a ls; a few speak
Konkani. The com mon names am ong men are, Kariya, Giriva,
Shiva, Tipa, Venka, and T im m a ; and among women Rami, Gangi,
Gubbi, Gopi, Dodakka, Sannakka, and Subbi. The m en add gamla
or headman to their names.
The caste is divided into several balls or exogamous sub-divisions ^mous
of which the following is as complete a list as it has been found possible divisions
to secu re:—
(1) Arashina bali .. Arsina = turmeric.
(iCurcuma longa.)
(2) Chendi bali .. Chendi = a tree.
(Gerbera odollam).
(3) Honnebali .. Honne = a tree.
(Pterocarjms marswpium).
k h 1109—21
i(WhKare Vakkal]
" '* .
162
Gt
(4) Shetti bali .. Slietti = a fish.
(5) Migan bali .. Miga = a chital.
(Axis maculcUa).
(6) Shire bali .. Shire = a tree.
(Gynandropsis pentaphylla).
(7) Vadkan bali .. (Unknown).

The trees and animals giving their names to these divisions are treated
with respect, and are never cut or injured in any way b y the members
of the division called after them. The bali is traced through males.
It will be seen that with two exceptions these halts are also found
' among the Gam Vakkals.

The habits of the caste are settled. They have a social organi­
zation somewhat on the lines of the Halvakki Vakkals though less
elaborate, as the community is more dispersed and does not possess
so much cohesion. They are distributed over twelve shimes or terri­
torial divisions.
Each village has a headman called gramgauda or budvant, and each
shime is under the control of a shimegauda. The village heads have
only the power of fining up to a certain lim it; but the shime headmen
may impose unlimited fines, and outcasts or re-admit offenders as
well as hear appeals against the decisions of the village headmen.
Ore- ^ The ceremonies of Kare Vakkals do not differ materially from those
of the Halvakki Vakkals. Widow re-marriage and polygamy are
allowed and practised ; polyandry is unknown. Their chief objects
of worship are Venkatarama of Tirupati, Jatga, Hulidev or the tiger-
god, Karidev of Shiveguli in Ankola and the village mothers ammas or
shdktis, to whom they offer blood sacrifices. They have a strong
belief in ghosts, sooth-saying and witchcraft. They either burn or
bury the dead.
They are husbandmen and field labourers and generally tenants,
only a few holding land. Their form of tillage is the kumri or wood-
ash tillage, and some of them still burn patches of forest land to rear
crops of rdgi and vegetables.
Food. The ordinary food of the Kare Vakkals is rice and rdgi, but they
eat fish, fowls, sheep, goats, and wild animals such as pig and deer.
They drink liquor, though the practice is nominally condemned.
KARHADA.— A sub-division of Brahmans.
KARKHELIA.— A sub-division of Brahmans.
KARNATAK.—A territorial name.
Ill; ‘ • ■ 163
■ [Kasai
%UJU

K A S. —A synonym for Halde Mali.

KASAB. - A synonym for Kasai.
KASAIS or Khatiks, numbering 8,860 (1901), including 4,500 males Name and
and 4,360 females, are found scattered in small numbers in every p art? W -
of the Presidency, performing the work of butchers. In Ahmednagar
district they belong to the Dhangar caste and eat but do n ot marry with
Kunbis and Malis. In the Kanara district they claim to be descendants
of the sun and to belong to the K&shyap and Kaundanya family stocks,
and persons of the same stock do not intermarry. They appear to have
been recruited from Dhangars, Marathas and Kunbis who took to killing
sheep and goats when the Musalman incursion into the Deccan created
a demand for such food. They perform birth, marriage and death
ceremonies similar to those of the Kunbis. Polygamy is allowed and
practised, but widow remarriage is forbidden among the Kasais of the
Kanara district.
They worship all Brahmanic gods and keep all Hindu fasts and Ro.igion
' feasts. Their family gods are Devi of Tuljapur in the N izam ’s country,
and Khandoba of Jejuri in Poona. They keep the images of their gods
in the house, and offer them sandal paste, flowers, and fo o d on Mondays,
and on full-moon and new-moon days. Their priests are local Brahmans,
who conduct their marriages. They have no religious teacher of their
own and cannot tell to what sect they belong. The fam ily goddess
of the Kasais of the Kanara district is Yellamma, whose shrine is at
Kulburga in the Nizam’ s country, and their family priests are Havik
Br&hmans, to whom they pay great respect. They go on pilgrimage to
Dharamsthal in South Kanara and to Chandragutfci in Mysore.
Formerly the business of Kasais was confined to selling sheep and Oocupa-
goats,' the slaughtering work being done b y Musalmans. Now they a c t tlon-
as butchers as well as meat-sellers, while a few are husbandmen and
labourers. Their women, besides minding the house, grind corn and
help their husbands in selling mutton, and the children take the animals
to pasture outside of the town.
They eat fish and the flesh of goats and sheep and drink liquor. Food

K ASAR.—See Tambat or Kasar.

K ASARE.— A sub-division of Mah&rs.
KASBATI.—See under Minor Musalm&n castes.

KASBINS, numbering 144 (1901) including 62 males and 82 females,

are found in Thana, Belgaum, Bijapur, Kanara and Ratnagiri. They are
low class courtezans without any training or accomplishment. They are
Ifl
\|g |^ K a ta r i] 164
Gt
u L j

generally recruited from women who have been divorced or deserted

by their husbands and all married and unmarried women and widows
who have left their relations and friends of their own accord
and have chosen to live as prostitutes. Being recruited from many
castes, it is doubtful whether the Census figures are at all accurate, for
many Kashins would return themselves as of the caste to which they
formerly belonged. They generally belong to the lower classes. They
do not eat together unless they happen to belong to the same caste.
They do not go through any form of marriage or other ceremony like the
dancing girls. They are not allowed to wear ankle bells or to sing,
dance or sit in a public assembly.

KASHIKAPDI.— A synonym for Tirmali.

KASHTI.—A synonym for Solesi.
KAST.— A sub-division of Brahmans,
KASTH.— A synonym for Kast.
KATABU.— A synonym for K iliket, .
KATANI UPPAR.— A sub-division of Uppars.

KATARIS, also known as Kbaradis, are a small caste of wood

carvers, found principally in K&thiawAr and parts of Gujarat. There
are a few K&tiiris foun d here and there in the Deccan, but they appear
to be Mar&tha Kunbis following the occupation of wood carving.
MUSALMAN K A TA R IS, generally known by the name Kharadi,
numbering 302 (1901), including 151 males and 151 females, are found
chiefly in Gujarat and the Deccan. They form a large body at Ahmed-
abad and are said to be converts from the Hindu caste of the same
name. In Surat and other places in Gujarat th ey seem to be a mixed
class. They marry only among themselves and are Sunnis of the
Hanafi school in religion. Their customs do not differ from those of
ordinary Musalmans.
K A -T H A K U R . — A sub-division of Thakurs.
KATH AR.— A sub-division of Vanis.

Name and KATHIS,<1) numbering 21,601 (1901), including 11,182 males

orig,n' and 10,419 females, are almost entirely found in the taluMs of Jetpur,
Chital, Jasdan and the surrounding villages in Kathi&war. They
date their origin from the times of the Mahabh&rat or the Great War.
The Pandavs, after having been beaten at the gaming' board b y the
Kauravs. were pledged to remain in concealment for twelve years

(1) The materials for this article wero supplied by Mr, K. G. Pandit, B,A„ LLB.
f W

"
:
165 [Kathi
§l
-v
on pain of forfeiting their estate should they he discovered during this
period. After wandering for seven years they came to Gujarat and
took refuge in the tow n of Virat, now called Dholka. Duryodhan,
the head of the K aura vs, got scent of this and m arched upon Vir&t
with a large army. B u t he could not get into the walls of the town,
much less discover'the Pandavs. Karan, his minister, suggested the
course of driving off the cattle of the ruler, which would bring out the
true R ajputs as protectors of cattle. It was, however, considered
disgraceful for a R ajpu t to stoop to cattle-lifting: so Karan struck
his staff on the ground and produced a newly created man who was
called hath, i.e.., stick, and who, in return for his carrying off the cattle,
was to b e granted im m unity to com m it theft, especially of cattle,
in all future time. The Kathis claim to be the descendants of this
hath and give this legend as a proof of their right to com m it robbery.
It is not difficult to understand this legend when it is borne in m ind
that the Kathis were a race of marauders whose profession was
that of plunder and robbery as late as 1808, when the British Govern­
ment p ut a stop to it in the interests of peace and prosperity.
Another tradition current among the Kathis as to their origin is to the
effect th a t they are a tribe of the solar race, and th e offspring of the
sun directly through Karan, the fam ous warrior of the Mahabharat.
They cam e to Than from Pa war (between Sind and dutch) and thence
drove aw ay the Babrias, who, in their turn, captured Babriavad.
There is still a temple dedicated to the sun on the Mandwa hill at
Than, b u t strangely enough it is no longer visited b y the Kathis
as a sacred place.

The true original Kathis are called Avartias, while the descendants History,
of Dhan V ila of Dhank, a Rajput who married the daughter of U m ro
Patgar a K ith i, are called Sakhiyats and fall under three branches—
(1) V ila , ( 2) Khum in and (3) K ich a r— who are said to have been the
three sons of Dhan V ila by the K ith i wrife. Dhan V ila was of course
put out of caste by the V ila Rajputs of Dhank and banished the
territory. This took place about the year 1400 A .D . according to
the K ith i tradition. D han led his Kathis back to Cutch from whence
they had come. From Cutch, however, they were afterwards driven
forth on account of quarrels with the ruling chief who was said to have
dishonoured one of their women and whom they murdered, and were
consequently banished b y his successor. There was a pitched battle
at T h in , in which the K ith is won. Finding the country quite good
and agreeable grazing ground for their cattle, they settled there and
built a temple in honour of the sun, w ho is an object of worship among
 <SL
B - ' > -tm

[athi] 166

the Kathis to this day and whose symbol is used on all their deeds.
Vala the first son of Dhan occupied Jetpur, Khuman the second son
took Chotilla, and Kachar settled at Mithiali. Just about this time a
wealthy merchant of Amreli, annoyed by the exactions and oppres­
sion of the officers of the Junagadh Nawab, sought, refuge at Chital.
H e offered the Kathis half of whatever portion of his property they
could recover for him. The K&this made a raid on Amreli and re­
covered the merchant's property, and then resolved to put him to
death and keep it for themselves. They were dissuaded from this
b y one of their women, and n ot only gave the merchant back all
his goods, but refused to take the share which he had promised them.
They had their reward, for not only did the merchant settle at Chital,
but others, attracted by the report of such generosity, established
themselves there also. The neighbouring proprietors put themselves
under the protection of the K&this, and in A.D. 1760 the Nawab
of Junagadh ceded to them the important districts of Mendarda,
Bhilka and Jetpur. The Kathis, finding that honesty was the best
policy, gave up plunder and soon gained a name for good govern­
ment.

It would appear that the description of Vala, Khuman and

Kachar as the three sons of Dhan is inaccurate for two reasons, viz.,
(1) the improbability that the number of Vala Kathis from one common
ancestor, who was co-eval with 500 Vala Rajputs then alive, should
have so far exceeded the latter that the proportion of Vala K&this
is now ten to one ; and (2) the names Khuman and Kachar have not
persisted as names among Kathis, though it is a very com m on custom
among Hindus to name a grandchild after the grandfather.(1)

It is possible that the Kathis entered K&thiawAr from Malvva

and also from Multan in the P u n ja b ; the Vala Kathis from Malwa
and the Khuman and Khachar Kathis from the Punjab, and that
their original residence in the twelfth century B. C. was in Asia Minor
(Kurdistan). The features o f the Kathis, their stature and their
habits lead to a strong inference that they are of Scythian origin.
In the Assyrian inscriptions there is a tribe described as Khatti.
This corresponds to the H ittites of the Old Testament, and, according
to Campbell, m ay refer to th e K&this. In the Assyrian wars ap­
pears the very significant nam e of Comain, who could bring into the
field an army of 20,000 followers. The Khattis seem to have been
(1) Campbell’ s theory is probably correct, viz., th at some Kathis succeeded m
getting themselves recognised as R a jp u ts and the rest did not— w de B om . Uaz. Vol.
I X , pt. I, p. 260.
 167 [Kathi
■
fond of horses and of serving as mercenaries in internecine wars.
The Khattis during subsequent wars towards the latter part of the
twelfth century B. C. seem to have been defeated and driven eastwards,
for we find them opposing Alexander the Great at Sangala. Arrian
in describing them speaks of them as roving tribes. D uring the
reign of SM livahan after 1169 A .D . Kathis appear as dwelling near
the Aravali mountains. They must have lived in and about M&lwa
till about the fourteenth century, when it is likely they came to Cutch
and from thence to Saurashtra. From their own traditions it is
easy to gather that the. Babrias and Ahirs preceded them. Among
them the Valas cam e first and were followed b y the Khumans, the
Khachars coming last. The districts of Malwa near Rewa Kantha
are still called K ati. The word Than, also observable in Multan,
leads to the conjecture of their having com e through the Punjab.
The B&bri&s serve as a connecting link between the Kathis and Ahirs,
freely intermarrying with either.(1>
In addition to the two divisions of the K athis mentioned above, Divisions.
viz., Avartia and Sakhayat, there is a third division recognized as
Kathis. This consists of the Khawads of Jh ala wad, especially those
round Anandpur, Paliad and Sejakpur. Th ey intermarry with the
Sakhayats and are fully entitled to Kathi status.
The Vala division of the Sakhayats has twenty sub-divisions.
They are as follow s
Bhojag. Gige. Karpada. Yajm al.
Bhogra. Govalia. Kasturia. Vala.
Chak. Hudad. Lalu. Vikma.
Derva. Jogia. R ajdadia. Waikha.
Jar. Kajra. Vaja. W ardad.
The Kk&chars^ have the following su b-divisions:—
Chomadia. H ipa. Khachar.
Dadu. Jebalia. Khavas.
Lomasaria.
The sub-divisions found am ong Khumans a r e :—
Chanda. Jhammar. Man.
Chandsur. Khuman. Motia.
Jogia. Lumsar. Manijani.
Waland.
(1) Abul Fazl, writing in A.D. 1590, says of the district of SorathT there are
many Kathis in this country whose caste is that of Ahir. A in -i-A k b a ri.
(2) Khiehar may be a form of Khazar or Gujar and suggests a connection with
the Gujar invasion of India in the Hixth century A.D.
^ Kathi] '• 168 - ^
The Avartia Kathis have ninety-three sub-divisions, the chief of
which are the follow ing:—

Barad. Jebalia. Maitra. Patgai;.

Basia. Jh&njaria. Makvana. Sindhav.
Bhambla. Jkilaria. Mala via. Turia.
Boricha. Katial. Manjharia. Virda.
Chavda. Khakharia. Mosha. Wachhada.
Dangar. Kharak. Nata. W ank.
Dhadhal. Lain. Padva. Winchia.
Jallu. Palav.

Some of the above names obtain among the Babrias and Ahirs,
clearly showing the close relationship between the three tribes.

Some of the names o f the sub-divisions are traceable to some

brave ancestor, others to the place inhabited, e.g., Lalu from Lalo
and Jogia from Jogaji, and Jhilaria and Khakharia from the villages
of those names. It will further be seen that some o f the names in
the different sub-divisions agree.

Marriage. The Sakhiyats intermarry with the Avartias or Babrias or Ahirs

but never among themselves, even if the sub-divisions be different.
A Kathi can marry his father’s sister’s or mother’s brother’s daughter
but not his mother’s sister’s daughter. Two brothers can marry tw o
sisters. The same man can marry tw o sisters simultaneously or
one after th e other. Polygamy is allowed. A Kathi, unless he is
rich, has rarely more than one wife and her influence is considerable.
Divorce is allowed with the sanction of the caste punch. A divorced
woman can remarry. There is no fixed age limit to marriage though
girls are rarely married before they attain puberty. This is probably
the result o f the tribe having been one o f nomadic and predatory
instincts with a record of past service as mercenaries. They often
robbed the other tribes o f their grown-up girls and lived with these as
man and wife. A relic o f this custom is still to be noticed in their
marriage ceremonies for, when the bridegroom’s party are aoout to
enter the bride’s village, the bride’s party come out of the village and
oppose the bridegroom’s party with stones and brickbats, after which
they are allowed admission.

The offer of marriage comes from the boy’s side. The marriage
ceremonies are of the standard type obtaining amoDg tribes of similar
standing in K&thiaw&r. The officiating priests are Modh Brahmans
 169 [K a th i

th© family priests being R4jgors, the bards Ch4rans, and the personal
<SL
attendants Gadhvis. Charans and Gadhvis bear the same relation to a
K athi which Bhats and Khav&sas bear to a Rajput.
The remarriage of widows is permitted. So long as the deceased
husband’s younger brother is alive his w idow must remain with the
latter as his wife even if she have children b y the former, unless she
takes a vow n ot to remarry for the rest of her life, in which case she is
entitled to food and raiment. B u t if the deceased husband be a younger
brother, the widow can marry outside the family. The ceremony
consists in the distribution of molasses to the relatives of the pair
who may be present and the presentation t o the widow of clothes b y
th e intended husband.
The tribe is governed b y Hindu law. The partition between
the brothers is always equal and consequently the big Kathi States have
in the past been split up into petty estates. The Jetpur taluk,a alone
has fourteen shareholders. Recently the British Government has
recognized the principle of primogeniture, th e cadets or bhayats being
paid only jiwani. As regards stridhan, on a woman’s death the whole
of her moveable property goes to the nearest relative along with the
children.
Kathis belong to the H indu religion. M ost of them are followers Religion,
of the Shaiva sect, some are Vaishnavs and a few follow ers of the
Swaminarayan and R&manuja sects. They worship b y preference the
sun. Each subdivision has a separate fam ily deity such as Wachhado,
Ch&munda, etc. In some families images of the original ancestors
(suro puro) are installed and worshipped. K athis observe all the Hindu
fast's and feasts. Their priests are the Modh Br&hmans. Their gurus
or religious teachers are the A tits.
The dead are burnt except infants w ho have not cu t their teeth Death,
and lepers who are buried. The corpse is laid with head to the north.
The bones and ashes of the burnt are throw n into the village river or
stream or the sea if near. Those who can afford it have them thrown
into the Ganges. The shrdddha is performed every year on the anni­
versary of the death.
Kathis believe their original occupation to be that of soldiers.
M ost of them are now t&lukdars or petty land-holders. Some are in
service and som e are day-labourers.
k Kathis eat meat, fowl and fish. On no account is a deer killed or Food,
eaten. The lapwing is held in high esteem, so much so th at in shrad-
dhas instead of throwing rice balls to be eaten by crows, the Kathis
n h 1109—22
 Katkari] 170
throw them to lapwings, w ho are supposed to be acceptable to the
deceased. They drink liquor and opium extract. They eat food
cooked by K M uts, Sagars, Ahirs, Babrias, Bharvads, H&tis, Mahias,
Rajputs, Valandas, Khavasas and Atits w ho can eat with one another
and with the Kathis.
KATHIARA.—*Sfee imder Minor Musalrnan Castes.
KATHIGOR.— A sub-division of Audich Brahmans.
KATHIVALE.— A synonym for Mahar.
KATHKARL—A synonym for Katkari.
KATHODI.— A synonym for Katkari.
KATHODIA.—A synonym for Katkari.
Naiw. am. KATKARIS,(l> also known as Kathkaris, Kathodis and Kathodihs,
numbering 75,710 (1901), including 37,317 males and 38,393 females,
are found chiefly in that part of the Western Ghats, with the outlying
spurs, that is found in the Thana and Kolaba districts, in the
States to the east and north-east of Surat, and along the base
of the Sahyhdris between the Poona and Nasik roads. Of the above
number 15 were shown as Musalmans at the 1901 census, probably as
a result of an error in handling the census returns. The term Katkari
seems to be derived from the Marathi hit or hath, catechu, the thickened
juice of the kkair (Acacia catechu) tree, and karne to make, the whole
meaning “ makers of ca tech u ” , the original occupation o f the tribe
still pursued b y some of their number. The term Kathodi is similarly
derived from hath (catechu) and vadi (a cake), which would give the
meaning “ (sellers of) cakes of catechu K&thodia. is the Gujarati
form of Kathodi and is in use only in Gujarat. *
The Katkaris, who are probably of Bhil origin, are believed to
have come from the north, and to have been originally settled in the
Gujarat Athavisi, the present district of Surat. They have a division
named Athavar to this day. According to their story, they are des­
cended from the monkeys which the god Ram a took with him in his
expedition against the demon-king Ravan o f Ceylon. They say that
when Rama became, victorious, he blessed the monkeys and made
them human beings. From their appearance, customs and religion
it would appear that they are an aboriginal tribe little influenced by
Br&hmanism. Their peculiar dialect contains certain words common
among the Bhils and their customs, to some extent, indicate a
B hil origin.

(1) Much of the information contained in this article was contributed by the
Revd. A. Wilkie Brown.
SA'-V''"

111
V\

^ jy 171 [Katkari
Katkari women were formerly said to carry off men of other
<SL
castes. The youth’ s friends regarded him as an outcaste and he then
joined the Katkaris, living with one of their women.(1) The K&tharis
are reported by Dr. Wilson to have similarly compelled strangers to
join their com munity.(2> N o relic of the custom has been traced, but
in some parts of the Thana district members from higher castes such
as Varlis, Kolis, Thakurs and Kunbis are still admitted into the tribe
on their paying a sum of R s. 5, which is spent in treating the
tribesmen to liquor.

Formerly the Katkaris chose their settlements in the forest to

suit their convenience, selecting a spot that promised good hunting
or tillage, and leaving it as convenience dictated. Even to the present
day, an epidemic of sickness will induce the people of a vdda to vacate
it and settle elsewhere in the neighbourhood, following a practice
com m on among the Bhils. Their dwellings are low thatched huts,
built of harm and mud. The huts are square or rectangular.

K&tkaris, according to the Bombay Gazetteer, are m uch darker

and slimmer than the other forest tribes. The Sons and som e of the
Dhors shave the face and head, and wear a very marked top-knot.
B u t the northern cow-eating K&tkaris generally have long m atted hair
and wild beards. The women of both divisions are tall and slim,
singularly dirty and unkempt. They are strong, healthy and hardy,
and pass through child-birth with little trouble or pain. They are
said, sometimes when at work in the fields during the rains, to retire
behind a rice bank, and give birth to a child, and, after washing it
in cold wafer, to put it under a teak-leaf rain-shade and go back to
their work. The Katkari children can always be known b y their
gaunt pinched look.
The chief peculiarity of the dress of Katkari women is the number
of bead necklaces they wear, and the glass and metal bangles which
cover almost the whole of th e forearm. They wear a robe tightly
wound round the waist and dra wn up between the thighs. One end
is thrown loosely over the shoulder, and for the rest, body and
lim bs are bare. Bodices are worn only on great occasions. They also
wear long hanging ear-rings in both the top and bottom of the ear.
The unmarried women may wear coloured necklaces, but no toe-rings.
The married women wear black necklaces along with the coloured
ones, and toe-rings.

(1) Trans. Bom. Geog. Soc., Vol. I, 329.

(2) Dr. Wilson’s Aboriginal Tribes, p. 20.
 Katkari] 172
'.The men generally wear a very coarse waist cloth and a waist
. belt of leather, or plaited grass or coloured cord, to which is attached
their tobacco pouch and a wooden support to carry their koita or sickle.
Sometimes they wear bangles on the wrist or upper arm.
The girls of the Katkaris are tattooed about the age of six. The
operation is generally performed b y professional tattooers from the
Deccan. On the forehead is tattooed a representation of tulsi or
. sweet basil plant, on the forearm, Krishna’s mark in the form of a
milkmaid, on the temples a trident, and on the cheeks and chin a
til mole.
In intercourse with other castes the Katkaris speak Mar&thi
rather clipped and mutilated. Am ong themselves they use a patois
which, on examination, proves to be a slightly disguised Marathi with
many Gujarati and Hindustani words. A tendency is noticeable
to get rid of the personal, not the tense, inflections in verbs. Thus
kothe gelds becomes kusigel. There are some peculiar words in use,
such as suna a dog, him a snake, narak a bear, alcti fire, and vadis a
wife. The names in common use among men are Dhaku, Chimya,
Pandu and Pavalya ; and among women, Bhagvathi, Chimi and Tulsi.
There is no special superstition about the naming of children. Indeed
there is often a pleasing directness in this matter, as when a peculiar­
ly dark baby is called Kalya, or one with a protruding navel is called
Bendya. In such cases another name is given for use on occasions of
ceremony. They have a headman called Naik whom they consult on
all occasions and obey.
Endo- There are five endogamous divisions of Katkaris :—
divisions. 1. A tM var. 4. Son or Mar&tha.
2. Dhed or Dhor. 5. Varap.
3. Sidhi.
The Son or Mar&tha Katkaris do not eat cow ’s flesh, and are
allowed to draw water at the village well and to enter Kunbis’ houses
and temples. The Dhors eat cow ’s flesh, and, like the Makars, are held
to be impure. Athavars are looked down on as inferior by the Son
Katkaris. Sidhis are doubtless African immigrants in origin. Varaps
or reverts may have been either Christian or Musalman. Dhors or
Dheds are beef-eaters and therefore the lowest of the tribe, socially.
Son and Dhor divisions are found also among the Kolis. Dhor is
com monly supposed to mean cattle-eating, and Son either golden,
red (Sanskirt short), or foreign (Dravidian son or sonag).w The Son
(I) Caldwell, 2, 569.
C" 173 [K a tk a r i^ L

Katkaris declare that at one time there was no such division as the
Dhor Katkaris, but that many generations ago, under stress of famine,
some of the tribe took to feeding on the carcasses of cattle, and since
that time the two sections have been distinct. There is some proba­
bility in this explanation, as in many places, notably in the Kol&ba
district, the customs of both sections are identical. B u t it is equally
possible that the Son division arose from abandoning the primitive
habit of feeding on beef, with a view t o rise in the social scale.

The exogamous divisions of the tribe are represented b y surnames. Exo-

They are as follows S L .

Ahir. Gangoda. Misal. Selar.

Bagle. Gharyare. ' Mora. Suvar.
Baraph. G otam a. Mukane. Vaghmare.
Bhoi. Hilam. Murkhute. Yalne.
Chavan. Jama. Patkar. Valvi.
Dharkar. Kaindi. Pavar. Vardi.
D iva. Khutale. Saura. Vatase.
Gaikvad. Maje. Savad. Wagh.

It is commonly alleged that many of the above names such as

More, Vaghmare, ect., are totemistic in origin, though reverence for
the totem is no longer observable. Thus, the headman of the Katkari
vada of Wawarla, near K arjat in the Koldba district, Dhakumarya
Vaghmare, of name, had a son who fell ill. He went to a Thakur who
was supposed to have so fixe skill as a doctor, and asked for medicine.
The Thakur prescribed a draught of water and earth on which a tiger
had micturated. Traces of a tiger’s presence were found and the
required earth carefully collected. The medicine was prepared and
given to the boy, who rapidly came out in eruptions like large blisters.
The father hastened to the Thakur, who was for a m om ent nonplussed.
Then an idea occured to him and he asked Dhaku what Ms surname was.
“ Vaghmare,” was the reply. “ That explains it,” said the TMJkur.
“ Since your name is V&ghm&re, we should not have used the tiger in
your son’s case.”

Dhors have no restriction on intermarriage among different

families. B u t amongst Sons marriage is prohibited between members
bearing the same surname. First cousins are not allowed to marry,
though second cousins m ay. Marriage with a w ife’ s younger sister
is allowed. Two brothers are allowed to m a n y tw o sisters. Girls
are generally married between twelve and fifteen and boys between
P n
(flT

Katkari] 174

twelve and twenty-five. Sexual license before marriage is not recog­

nised. Should a girl become pregnant before marriage, the fault
would be condoned by marriage, but the ceremony would be performed
with widow remarriage rites. Polygamy is permitted when the first
wife is barren. Sometimes when a man becomes well-to-do and owns
a number of cattle, he takes a second wife as an additional helper.
In this case it is looked upon rather as a mark of a man of sub­
stance. Polyandry is unknown.
Birth Before the birth of a child a midwife is called in, and after the
mou'ies. birth she stays for five days washing the child and the mother twice a
day. Among the Dhors, if the child is a girl, the midwife stays for
four days only. They employ no Brahman to draw up a horoscope
or to name the child. Among Sons the name is given on the fifth day
after birth by some elderly relation, when caste fellows and friends are
treated to liquor and a dance. Am ong Dhors, no limit is set to the
number of days within which a child should be named, and the
name is chosen not by some elderly relation, but by a medium into
whose body a spirit, dev, has entered. They wait till some one is
possessed, and then go and ask him to name their child. They have
not generally to wait long, as spirit possession is common among
Katkaris. In Gujarat, on the sixth day after a birth, the goddess
Chathi is worshipped, and some rice figures of the goddess are set
on the ground with a lamp near them. The father or mother names
the child and the guests are fed on thick cakes and liquor.

Marriage Kol&ba, the marriage ceremonies of both the Son and Dhor
cere- Katkaris are identical. In Thana, they greatly differ. The offer of
monies. raarliage is made b y the boy’s father, who has to pay a dej or bride-
price of Rs. 5 to the girl’s father. A day before the marriage a booth
is erected at the houses of both the boy and the girl, one of the posts
of which must be of the umbar (Ficus glomerata) tree. To this post
are tied leaves of the janibhul (Eugenia jambolana) and mango
trees. In Thana, among Sons, the boy and girl are rubbed with
turmeric at their houses on the day before the marriage. On the
marriage day the boy goes to the girl’s house wearing a white
turban and waistcloth, and covered by a red and white sheet. His
father presents the girl with a red bodice and green robe, and she re­
tires and dresses in her new clothes. On returning, she takes one of
two garlands prepared by her parents and places it round the bride­
groom’ s neck, and he in turn throws the other round her neck. They
are then made to stand facing each other, and a cloth is held between
them. The marriage is performed b y a Katkari, who from his virtuous
If! 175
e,
[K a tk a n 1 3 ^

life has been chosen b y the tribe to be the marriage priest or Gotarni.
On one side of the cloth sits the Gotarni and on the other side sit four
elders. T o each of the elders the b oy’s father gives a copper coin, rice,
betelnut and leaves, and they sit with these gifts in their hands. The
Gotarni, seated on a blanket spread on the ground, sprinkles rice in lines
and cross lines, and, in the middle of the rice, places the copper coin.
He then, followed by the four elders, stirs the rice with his closed
fist in which he holds the betelnut and copper coin. A t last he opens
his hand, leaving the betelnut and coins lying among the rice on the
blanket. The other four elders do the same. The cloth is then pulled
aside, and the Gotarni, advancing, ties the hem of the bridegroom’s
sheet to the hem of the bride’s robe, and together they walk five times
round the marriage hall. Meanwhile a low wooden stool is set near the
rice on the blanket, and is sprinkled with lines of rice b y the Gotarni.
Wlien the bride and bridegroom are seated on the stool, their
friends seize their heads and knock them together over the rice.
They then feed one another with cooked rice, and the girl gets a new
name, b y which she is called by her husband and her people. The
character of the feast depends on the means of the parents. They are
not bound to feast the whole tribe, and, for the m ost part, each guest
brings his own bread and eats it with the rest, the host providing fer­
mented palm juice. A fter drinking, the guests as a mark of jo y go
outside and strike their sticks into the fam ily dust heap. This ends
the marriage, and after some music, a dinner is given to the guests.
The bridegroom passes that night with the bride, but, on the first or
second day after, both go to the bridegroom ’s house accompanied b y
the Gotarni, and by their relations and friends. W hen they reach
the bridegroom’s house, the hems of their garments are tied and they
are seated on a low wooden stool. In front of this stool twenty-two
small heaps of rice are set in a row, and the bride touches the heaps,
one after another, as fast as she can, with her thumb and left big toe,
uttering her husband’s name every tim e she touches them until she
is out of breath. Next day they take off their garlands and wash away
the turmeric, but for four days more they keep the house. On the
fifth, balls of rice flour and molasses are made and laid in a plate, and
the bride, bearing this plate on her head and followed b y her husband,
goes to her parents’ house and presents the balls to them. W ith this
the marriage ceremonies end.

Dhor Katkaris celebrate their marriages in any of the fair weather

months except Paush. Am ong them the bridegroom is rubbed with
turmeric the day before the marriage. On the marriage day, th e
iff
;; Katkari j 176
W w

bridegroom comes from M b parent’s house, and sits a little way from
the marriage booth at the bride’s house. The bride, with some
elderly female relation, comes out, and, following the elderly woman,
walks five times round the bridegroom. Then passing a piece of cloth
round his neck and holding the two ends in her hands, she gently draws
him towards her, eaying * Up, bridegroom, and come into the marriage
hall.’ In the marriage hall the guests are met, and, when the bride
and bridegroom come in, a cloth is stretched between them, each hold­
ing two of the comers. The bridegroom says to the bride, urel ani
purel, ‘ There is enough and to spare ’ , and throws his end to the bride.
She replies nahin urel ani nahin purel, ‘ There is not enough and to
spare ’, and throws it back to Mm. This they repeat five times and
then dress each other in new clothes, brought by the bridegroom, a
speckled red sheet for Mmself and a robe and a red bodice for the
bride. After this they are seated on a blanket on which five elders
have been sitting, one at each corner and one in the middle, each
holding in Ms hand a copper coin, betelnut and leaves, and a few
grains of rice given by the bridegroom’s father. Before the bride and
bridegroom sit down the five elders empty the contents of their hands
in the middle of the blanket, and on this heap of betelnuts and rice the
bride and bridegroom are seated. Then the bride and bridegroom cover
one another’ s heads with garlands, and with the distribution of liquor,
the ceremony comes to an end. The bridegroom and the guests
spend the night at the bride’s house, and next morning the bridegroom
leaves for M 3 parents’s house. After weeping on her parents’ neck,
the bride, when the hem of her robe has been tied to the hem of the
bridegroom’s sheet, starts for her new home, drawing the bridegroom
after her. On the tMrd d ay both com e back to the bride’s house,
and the bride washes the bridegroom, anointing his head with cocoa-
nut oil and combing Ms hair. They stay three or four days with her
parents, and then leave for their home.

The marriage ceremonies of the K olaba Katkaris are as follows :

The elders of the bridegroom’s village take the b o y to another
Katkari hamlet. They call on the Naik and ask Mm if there is any
marriageable girl there. The Naik asks who the b oy is. He is pro­
duced and the party is invited to spend the Mght there. In the even­
ing the villagers are summoned and are informed of the object of the
visit. The Naik inviees any one who has a girl to give in marriage to
speak. The father of a possible bride asks who that b oy is. Again
he is produced, and if he finds favour and there is no objection other­
wise, the parent or guardian of the girl says so and agrees to give her
Ip 177
<SL
[K a ik a rri^
in marriage. The girl is brought and shown to the strangers. If she
finds favour, the b oy’s father distributes pdnsupdri, which he has
brought with him for the purpose. This ceremony being over, the
bride’s party ask for the usual betrothal m oney— generally one rupee,
though in the case of the bridegroom ’s father being comparatively
well-off, a larger sum might be given. The father of the bride is also
asked to give his contribution to the betrothal money, which amounts
to four annas as a rule for every rupee contributed by the bridegroom’s
father. The bride’s father then asks if the wedding is to take place
at once or the following year. If it is to be deferred, they proceed
to the ceremony of tying on the marriage necklace, for which a further
contribution of tw o rupees is levied on the bridegroom’s father. The
visitors remain as guests for the following day, and the ceremony of
fastening the necklace takes place in the evening. The necklace is put
into the b oy’s hands who fastens it on the girl’s neck in the presence
of the panch. The day after the bridegroom’s party return home.
If the wedding is to take place without delay, after the ceremony
just described is over, the b o y ’s father fixes the wedding day in con­
sultation with the panch. The K ltkaris do n ot consult Brahmans in
these questions. A ny one present who has a reputation for special
knowledge of days and seasons may be consulted. The months for
weddings are Mdrgashirska, Mdgha, VaishaJck and Shimga. Two days
before the wedding day, the b o y ’s father sends a messenger to the girl’ s
parents to remind them and to tell them to p u t on the halad or turmeric
powder. Afterwards he takes five mango leaves and places them in a
row. On each leaf he places a little turmeric powder, red powder,
red lead and lampblack. These leaves he places in some spot outside
the village, thereby propitiating the vansh or typical five ancestors of
the tribe, whom it is the custom of most prim itive tribes to worship.

Then five girls are selected to apply the turmeric powder to the
bridegroom, which they proceed to do, reserving half the quantity,
which is sent with half a maund of rice, som e salt and spices to the
bride, who must with her own hands take the gift from the messengers.
N ext day the bridegroom’s party sets out for the wedding, accom­
panied by musicians. On leaving the village a cocoanut is broken, and
on reaching the bride’s village, the bridegroom alights at the house
o f the headman or Ndik. The bride’s maternal aunt com es there
with a present and he gives her a small sum of money, from two to
fo u r annas. She accompanies him to the marriage pandal in front
of the bride’s dwelling, whither he is carried on some one’s shoulder.
Th e bride’s brother is seated on the top of the pandal and, as the
» u 1109—23
/f^ ^ ^ K a tk a r i] 178

bridegroom is about to enter, be sprinkles bim with water. The bride­

groom gives him a small present of money, generally tw o pice, and
enters. The bride is then brought out into the pandal and the couple
are made to sit together.
Preparations are then made for bathing. The bride is told to
place her hand on the bridegroom ’s head. She then takes off her
outer garments, and the tw o are made to stand opposite each, other.
The bridegroom places his left hand on the bride’s head, and as they
stand in this position, five girls pour water over them. W hen the
bathing is over, a cloth is held between them, and a new robe is put
in the bridegroom ’s hand. H e throws it to the bride and says,
“ Take it ” . She throws it back to him and says it is n ot enough.
Again he throws it to her, saying, “ It is very big : there is enough
and to spare
The bride then goes into the house, puts on the robe and comes
out to sit beside the bridegroom. Then five married women sit down
in front of them. In their hands they hold a betelnut, a pice, and some
rice, with which they make a circle on the ground. On this a brass
tray is placed and rubbed backwards and forwards until the rice,
pice and betelnuts are m ixed up, and the shape of the figure is gone.
The bride and bridegroom are then told to grasp their great toes.
The five men lift them up in this position and deposit them on the. rice.
The bridemaids place the brass tray behind the bride. The men then
throw rice on the heads of the couple and what is left is thrown into
the tray. O f the money, three pice are given to the bride and tw o
pice to the bridegroom. W hen this is done the marriage ceremony
is complete.
Follow ing on this, however, the bridegroom has to fasten a neck­
lace of black beads on the bride’s neck. Tw o balls of rice are then
made up, and one is given to each. The bridegroom puts his in his
mouth, takes it out again immediately, and gives it to the bride to eat.
She gives her ball of rice to him, which he eats. The pair then put some
more turmeric powder on each other’s faces, and have then to Tepeat
each other’s names, always a source of amusement owing to the reluc­
tance of the bride to pronounce her husband’s name in public.
N ext d ay the married couple go to the bridegroom ’s village,
escorted b y a party of musicians. The headman com es ou t to meet
them, ties a little money, a betelnut and some rice in a com er of the
husband’s cloth, and again tying this to a corner of the bride’s robe,
accompanies them round the village, where they visit each house in,
turn.
 179 fKatkarP
T he day after, the bridegroom bathes th e bride, and washes
off the turmeric pow der. B efore entering the h ou se again, the bride­
g room ’ s sister puts a bar across the door, and th e y h a v e to rem ain
w ithout. H e asks his sister w hy she is keeping him there. She
replies “ Y ou m ust g iv e your daughter to m y son ” . The bridegroom
says to the bride, “ She asks for our daughter. Shall we give her ? ”
The bride says, “ Y es ” . The bridegroom tells his sister that they
agree to give their daughter to her son, and then, w ithdraw ing the bar,
she lets them in.
Afterwards th ey take off th e bride and bridegroom ’s bashings
or m arriage coronets and fasten them on the b rid egroom ’s head back
and fro n t. The headm an goes ou t of th.e village and the bride and
bridegroom follow ing him , ask, “ W hither are you goin g ” . l i e replies,
“ T o Benares T h ey b eg him n ot to go and return hom e. T h ey all
com e back. The hashings are taken from the bridegroom and placed
in the bride’ s hands. H e then lifts her up and carries her to the house.
F or five days the cou ple remain at hon'ie. On th e sixth day th ey
prepare balls of rice flour which they cook / Of these the bride breaks
one, w hich they share. The remainder are sent to th e bride’ s parents,
who d istrib u te th em one to each household. T his term inates the
marriage cerem onies.

The remarriage o f w idow s is perm itted. A w id ow cannot m arry

her m oth er’s sister’ s or m oth er’s broth er’ s son or a m em ber of her late
h u sban d’s section. A w id ow remarriage can b e celebrated on any day.
The w idow in ten d ed husband presents her with a robe and bodice
and glass bangles, and her father w ith R s. 2 or 3, if he can afford it.
N ext, he ties a mithla (a neck ornam ent) round th e w idow ’s neck,
and the widow puts a turban over his head, which com pletes the cere-
m ony. In some places, the cerem ony consists sim p ly in holding
a m eeting of the tribesmen i%t night an d in treating them to l iq u o r ;
while in others, joining the h%nds of th e couple is sufficient to validate
the marriage.

S hould a bachelor desire to m arry a w idow , he has first to m arry

a rui bush (Calotropis gigautea). T h is cerem ony consists in the
bachelor putting a marriage y oron et on his head and going round
the bush five times. A s he walks, he passes a c o tto n thread round
the tree. In some places, bachelors are allowed to r m arry w idow s
w ithout any ceremony.

D iv orce is allow ed with the permission of the headman of the

tribe, if the husband and wife d o n ot agree, if the husband m arries
Kg)»)
m ^S S \

\ S 5 '^ k a t k a r i ]
■

180
(CT
° 'L j'

another woman or abandons his wife in favour of another, or if the

wife is unchaste. Divorce is known b y the name of ddva or samjut
and is effected in the following manner -The first husband with
some arbitrators goes and sits at the door of the second husband.
A consultation is held between them and the arbitrators of the second
husband and the ddva is settled by a payment of Rs. 5 by the second
husband to the first. If the second husband is unable to pay the
amount in cash, he gives a buffalo, a bullock or some other thing
in exchange. The remaining sum is spent on drink. The second
husband has to drink a portion of the liquor drunk b y the first. The
latter then takes off the string of glass beads round the neck of the
divorced wife, and the former ties a new one in its place. Next, the
first husband breaks a straw in two parts, which completes the divorce.
In some places, the divorce is effected b y breaking an earthen pot and
performing funeral rites in the name of the divorced wife, while in
others, no ceremony of any sort is observed. W ives who have been
divorced m ay marry again b y the widow re-marriage form. Adultery
is usually compounded b y the payment of a fine of from five to ten
rupees. The parents of the woman also may be called upon to pay
a fine if she is still an inmate of their house. If the person with whom
the offence is committed belong to a lower caste, the woman is
excommunicated.

Religion. The religion of the Katkaris, so far as they have any, is animism.
They have no sacred books, neither have they any spiritual guides.
They do not appear to say any prayers themselves, to employ
others to say prayers for them. Their chief object of 'worship is the
tiger-god, who is supposed to look with peculiar favour upon them
and very seldom harms them, and they are disinclined to shoot him.
His image is generally set up in the forest or on the boundary of the
village. But in parts,‘as in Karjat, wher-e forest® and tigers are scarce,
there are many Kfitkari hamlets without a tigevgod. W hat worship
there is among the Katkaris is paid to tlfie Kun^; village god, gdmdev,
and to such minor gods as Maolya, Mhasha, V&tid, Jarimari and Hirva.
Red lead, cocoanuts and fowls are offer/et} tp these gods and to evil
spirits, which are greatly dreaded. In Cluj at at, Bhildev is worshipped.
In a Dhor Katkari’s house there may 'Sometimes be seen devil gods
whom they call Cheda. This is the soul of a dead relation which has
become a spirit, bhut, capable of entering the bodies of men. It is
this close connection with, and power over, spirits that makes the
K itkari so dreaded b y the Kunbi. The latter credits him with the
power of the evil eye, and with being able by means of Ins spirits to
 ■-0;'
t i p - ■■ . - <s l
^$T^y 181 [Katkari

compass the death of his enemies. Among the Dhors the only holidays
are Shimga and Divdli, to which the Sons add the fifteenth of Bhadrapad
when they perform ceremonies in honour of the' deceased.

Among Katkaris, when a person dies of cholera, he is buried Death

until the outbreak of cholera is over, when the body is dug up and c:ere'.
, T . J ° r monies,
burnt. In the same way, m some parts of Kolaba, if a death takes
place in wet weather, the corpse is buried for a time between two
hurdles and is afterwards dug up and burnt. The men who have
to carry out the exhumation are plied with drink and have their
nostrils stuffed with onions to enable them to carry out the task.
In other cases the dead are burnt at once. If the death happens at
night, the funeral is put off till the next day. But the corpse has to
be watched all night, and to cheer the watchers special xhusic is played.
On the upper surface of a com m on brass plate a lump of wax is stuck,
and, in the wax, a thin stick about nine inches long. W hen the finger
*nd thumb arc paeSytb this stick, it vibrates with a weird drone
o. bum. T o this accom pai.jmen£ ^]je mourjiera chant all night long,
crutching round a fire outsii(j e }10uae_ W hen the tim e comes to
prepare the body, it is washed with warm water mixed with turmeric.
The vaistcord and loincloth are-thrown away and new clothes put on.
If the; can afford it, a piece. 0f nevv ci0th ; s wound round the head and
another cloth is laid under an(j drawn over the body. The cloth is
sprinkle!, over with red aa{j sweet-scented powder and a pillow of
rice is lai U_T<v r the head. A bout half way to the burning ground,
the pall-bea^ rs f 0r> anc^ ower the bier, while the chief mourner
hides a copy r c° m uau'3r a stone. A t the burning ground the corpse
is laid on the ^ e' 10 e is torn in the face cloth, some rice and
a piece of silvel\?^ ?°PPe^ a' $ laid in the mouth, and the pile is lighted
at both ends. b 1 e 1 urils the chief mourner walks round it five
times with an e a r ^ f f water j a r in his hand. Then, knocking a hole
in the jar, he sprin es ,16 pyxe and dashes the jar to pieces oh the
ground. When the ^a™ n^ i s over the Dhors leave the bones and
embers as they are ; e kpns gather them into a heap, quench the
embers, and lay a sto?e^over them. On the twelfth day after the
death the Sons of Karja - c®^Jc a hen with spilt pulse and some rice.
The hen and pulse are diVTed into two equal parts, and one-half
left in the house and the other half, with the whole of the rice, taken
by the chief mourner to the stone under which the copper coin was
left. H e lays part of the rice and half of the hen and pulse on the
stone, and the rest of the fo o d he sets on the stone that covers the
dead man’s ashes. Over this stone he builds a little hut t o shade the
fin
: ' C(5 j\ : ■ 1 1 c ".’V , ■■t\

Katkari] 182 k

deceased’s resting place. On Ms return home, he divides the share

of victuals that was left in the house among some fasting cMldren,
and entertains Ms neighbours, friends and relations with rice and
liquor.
In Gujarat, on the third day, the mourners visit the burning
ground and gather the ashes, throw a little into the village, and,
on the top of the ash-heap, place some cooked rice. Then, in front
of them, in the deceased’ s name, the chief mourner feeds young cMl­
dren on cooked rice.
Oceu Katkari children are great plunderers of birds’ nests and very
pation sharp in finding them. T h e men seldom commit deeds of violence,
but are notorious for constant petty thefts. Many of them, both men
and women, have found permanent employment in BMwandi as rice
cleaners, and numbers, both in Bhiwandi and Karjat, have two or
three months’ steady work a year as field labourers. Some of them
still make hath or catechu, the thickened juice he Wwir (Aeach
catechu). A few partly support them s e t’ ea by tillage. They never
take land on a regular lease or grow rice- They till uplands, varlas,
either waste or taken from the Government holders, or on agreement to
share the produce. They burn brushwood’ T<*b> on the plot of ground
and use the hoe, but never the plough. T^hen their supply of i rain is
finished, they gather ,and sell firewood and wdd honey, and, with their
bows and arrow’s, kill small deer, hares hnd monkeys. When these
fail, they dig in old tMeshing floors for rat*!> eating the iy*-’ ^n(j taking
their stores of grain, or they steal from fields and vnreshing g oors> j n
the rains, they build dams across the s tr# 111*1 under wl ^ jngenjou8
basket-traps are inserted. A small ope^un® Ul dam just over
the mouth of the basket creates an eddy m w uca f fish are caught
and carried into the basket. Their w',’m‘ .n ^ 0]ri! hard, both as
labourers and in bringing into market i,lle h e i .oads of wood their
husbands have gathered in the forests.
F The every day food of Katkaris is vari, field rats, squirrels,
porcupines, lizards, snakes, monkeys, civ’66 cat,g deer, wild pigs, doves
and partridges. They drink liquor. T ? eT Except the Dhors) do not
eat the flesh of the cow and the browr ac<'i monkey, who, they say,
has a human soul. A bout tMrty-five © f o r t y years ago an immense
encampment of KAtkaris in Nandgcon in the NAsik district was
attacked by an epidemic. This they believed to be a punishment for
killing and eating the sacred Hanuman monkeys on Mahadev’ s hill.
They accordingly fled the country and only returned there in small
numbers after ten or fifteen years.
: TSx . __

Q r
183 [Kattai ' *

K&tkaris take food from all castes except Mangs, MaMrs, CMm-
bhars and Musalmans. But they never eat leavings, even those of a
Brahman. The only caste who eat from the hands of Katkaris are
the MaMrs.
KATRIVAL.— A sub-division of Vanias.

KATTAIS, Pardeshi Mocliis, or Pardeshi OM mbM rs, numbering Name and

134 (1901), including 78 males and 56 females, were recorded at the ongin.
1901 Census only in Ahmednagar and N&sik. The Census figures are
misleading as many of them described themselves as CMmbhars at the
1901 Census. Kattais are found in large numbers also in Poona,
S a t o , Bombay, etc. The Kattais are of Upper India origin and it
is probable that they formed part of the following of a Mughal camp.
Tradition relates that they followed Alamgir when he came into the
Deccan.
The Kattais are divided into Ahirware, .Tatwe, DoravTe, Jangde> Divisions.
Kurule, Dohor, Malai, M k sh e, Dhuse, etc., endogamous divisions
which eat together. The first three divisions, viz., Ahirware, Jatwe
and Doravre divisions, are found in the Nasik district. Kattais are
considered lower than Chambh&rs and higher than MaMrs. Their
exogamous divisions are :—
Ahirware. Jatwe.

Imple. Lunse. Bedwal. Naroti. Sainw&l.

K&role. Pancle. Dholpuri. Narwar.
Kharke. Puchhe. Kapune. Paraye.
Lachore. ShaMpure. MMwar. Pipras.

Boys are married between fifteen and twenty-five, and girls Marriage,
before they com e of age. Polygamy and widow remarriage are allowed
and practised, but polyandry is unknown. The offer of marriage comes
from either side. The day for the marriage is fixed by an astrologer.
The marriage is celebrated after midnight and before daybreak. The
marriage ceremony is simple enough. The bridegroom’s father’ s
sister’ s husband ties the ends of the bride’ s and bridegroom’ s garments
into a knot and asks them to walk round a pillar of saralli wood. Some
twenty-one porcelain pots are arranged in four rows round the pillar.
The bridegroom walks seven times and the bride five times. Their
devak ceremony consists in digging up some earth and worshipping it
near the house gods. This is termed meher.
Kattais are Hindus of the Nath sect. The special object of Religion,
their worship is Venkatrama of Tirupati in North Arkot. Their family
1» |
■X^x^^yKayastli] 184
§L
deities are BMdji of Tirupati, Devi of Tuljapur, Mah&dev of
Trimbakeshvar in N&sik and Vithoba of PancLharpur in Sholapur.
They observe all the leading Hindu holidays. Their priests are Upper
India Brahmans.

Death. ^ The dead are burnt. The ordinary funeral rites are observed.
A feast is given to the friends and relations of the deceased on the
13th day after death.

O-upa- ' The hereditary occupation of the caste is making shoes and
harness. They have not abandoned this occupation, which is well
paid. The women of the Doravre division sift gold and silver dust
from rubbish or ashes gathered at village goldsmiths’ shops.

Food. Kattais eat the usual kind of flesh. The Akirware Chambhars
eat the flesh of dead cattle including cows. They drink liquor.
They eat at the hands of Maratha Chambhars.

KAVALETTU.— A sub-division of Berads.

KAVI.—A synonym for Bhat.
KAYAKADA.— A sub-division of Jangams.
Name and KAYASTHS, numbering 2,246 (1901), including 1,247 males and
origin. 999 females, are found in small numbers in all parts of Gujar&t. They
belong to the great writer caste of the same name in Northern India,
and appear to have been brought into Gujarat by the Muhammadan
conquerors at the close of the sixteenth century when (A.D. 1573— 1583)
Gujarat became part of the Mughal empire. “ Under the arrangements
introduced by the emperor Akbar Surat was placed in a special position.
The city and neighbouring districts were administered b y mustadis or
clerks of the crown, who held directly from the court of Delhi, and were
not subordinate to the viceroy of Gujarat. Though the governor of
the city does not seem ever to have been a KAyasth, the work of collect­
ing the revenues of the aththdvisi or twenty-eight divisions subordinate
to Surat was entrusted to Kayasthf. Till A. D. 1868 in the English
villages, and up to the recent times (A. D.1895) in the Baroda aththdvisi
villages, the sub-divisional accountants or majmunddrs were mostly
Kayasths.” (1> In the Cutch State, to this day, most of the state officials
are Kayasths.

Kayasths claim descent from Chandragupta, registrar to the mytho­

logical Dharmaraja, the judge of the dead. They state that they are
called Kayasths, because Chitragupta was born of the body ( lcaija)
(1) Bom. Gaz., Vol. IX, Part I, p. 60

*4
 '^ V x ■ ^

' g : v fiT
185 [Kayasth

of Brahma. The term KAyasth often occurs in Sanskrit literature and

in inscriptions, in the sense of a writer. These references do not throw
any light on the origin of the caste. There are also a number of tradi­
tions connecting them with one or other of the ancient Kshatriya
dynasties, one of which states that they are descendants of Chandra-
sena, who is also claimed as a common ancestor by the Kayasth Prabhus
of the Deccan. The similarity in their names and occupation is believed
by some to be an indication of their original identity. B ut this is not
supported either by tradition or customs followed b y the castes,
which have nothing in common.

Regarding the origin of KAyasths Sir Herbert Risley writes as

follow s:—
“ Putting tradition aside, and looking, on the one hand, to the
physical type of the Kayasths. and on the other to their remarkable
intellectual attainments, it would seem that their claim to Aryan
descent cannot be wholly rejected, though all attempts to lay down their
genealogy precisely must necessarily be futile. It appears to be at least
a plausible conjecture that they were a functional group, developed
within the Aryan community, in response to the demand for an official
and litera ry class, which must in course of time have arisen. This class
would naturally have been recruited more largely from the peaceful
Vaisbyas and Shudras than from the warlike Kshatriyas, while the
BrAhmans would probably have held aloof from it altogether. ” (1)

The KAyasths of Northern India have twelve endogamous divisions, Endo-

of which only three are found in GujarAt. They are— gamous

(1) Bhatnagra.
(2) MAthur.
(3) VAlmik.

None of these divisions either eat together or intermarry. The

BhatnagrAs are found in Ahmedabad, Baroda and in small numbers
in Surat. According to the Padma Puran, they were given this name
because one of the twelve sons of Chitragupta was sent with a sage
named Bhat to found Srinagar, of which he was afterwards administra­
tor. The BhatnagrAs have two divisions— VisAs and Dasas— of which the
former ranks higher. The VisAs formerly refused to eat food cooked by
the DasAs. They take DasA girls in marriage, but do not give their
girls to DasAs. The MAthurs, as their name shews, come from Mathura,
(1) Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Part I, p. 439.
N h 1109—24
 (St
Kayasth] 186
their original home. They are found in Ahmedab&d, Surat, Baroda,
Cutch and KAthiawar.

]i;xo. The exogamous divisions of the caste are known as nukhs, and
gamous seem to suggest a Sind origin, as most of them, like the nukhs found in
ivisions. gjn(^ emj The principal nukhs are—
1. D&m&ni. 11. Meghr&j&ni.
2. Govindjiani, 12. Pashavi&ni.
3. Gujarati or M&nek-Bhanderi, 13. Patani.
4. Hari&ni. 14. Ranchodani.
5. Jagani or Samani. 15. Sindi or Bhim&ni.
6. Kasturia. 16. Singajiani.
7. Khiinjiani. 17. Sorathia.
8. Khira. 18. Thavani.
9. Kothari. 19. Topasia.
10. Mar wadi.
Most of the above nukhs are named after ancestors, many being
of comparatively recent origin. It is said that, about 300 year* ago,
Kdyastbs had a quarrel with their bards, who kept their genealogies.
From that time the bards ceased to serve them, and all knowledge about
their gotras, nukhs, etc., wa3 lost to the caste.
The Kiyasths of Hallar, Gujarat and Cutch do not marry with one
another. Marriages are prohibited between members of the same nukh.
Marriage with a father’s sister’s, mother’s sister’s and mother’s brother’s
daughter is not allowed. Marriage with two sisters is allowed, and
brothers are allowed to marry sisters. Polygamy is permissible, but
polyandry is unknown. Widows are not allowed to re-marry. Divorce
is forbidden.
Girls are generally married between ten and thirteen, boys between
fourteen and sixteen. The boy’s parents have to give to the girl orna­
ments worth about Ks. 700. The marriage ceremonies among the
different sub-divisions of Kdyasths vary considerably, and differ in many
details from the standard marriage ceremonies obtaining in Gujarat.
They are as follows
„ . Among the Valmik Kiyasths there is no fixed time for betrothal,
core- It takes place sometimes days and sometimes years before marriage,
monies. The chief part of the ceremony is the comparison of the boy’s and girl s
horoscopes. The contract is only verbal, but it is seldom broken. On
various occasions, between betrothal and marriage, the boy and girl go
to the house of their fathers-in-law to dine and receive presents.
Marriage takes place on a day fixed by the astrologer. Five or six days
|(H)| . %L
J/ 187 [Kayasth
before the marriage comes the booth-consecrating or tnandva nxurt
ceremony. The father of the girl sits in a courtyard and worships
Ganpati. Four relations who have only once been married and who are
not widowers a.re asked to help the father in digging a small pit and laying
therein a small twig of the shami (Prosopis spicigera) tree, together with
honey, milk, curds and rice. The four helpers receive balls of boiled
milk and sugar pendds. The same ceremony takes place at the bride­
groom’s house. Two or three days before the marriage the bride and
the bridegroom accompanied b y children go to the house of their fathers-
in-law and worship Ganpati. They are given plantains, sweetmeats and
a few coppers. On the day of the marriage, at the bride’s, and a day or
two before at the bridegroom’s house, the grahmhdnti or planet-propi­
tiating ceremony takes place, and the bride and bridegroom are rubbed
with turmeric. On the marriage day, at noon, at both the bride’s and
and the bridegroom’s house, caste people, especially women and children,
are asked to dinner. Just before sunset, the usual time for performing
the wedding ceremony, the bridegroom goes to the bride’s house in
procession. A t the entrance to the marriage booth the husband of one
of the wife’s sisters stands near a footstool on which the bridegroom
stands, and the girl’s mother throws wheat and flour balls in four direc­
tions and shows her son-in-law a miniature plough, a grinding pestle,
a churning staff, and an arrow, and pulls his nose. The bridegroom is
then led by the mother-in-law into the marriage booth and seated on
a wooden stool underneath a bamboo canopy. The bride is brought
by the maternal uncle and seated on a wooden stool opposite the bride­
groom, and a piece of cloth is held up by tw o men so that the bride and
the bridegroom may not see each other. The Vallabhacharya MaMraja
is invited to be present till the hand-joining ceremony is over. H e is
given cash by the parents of the bride and bridegroom. The MaMraja
gives clothes to the bride and bridegroom. After the recital of a few
mantras or prayers by the priest and other Brahmans in the presence of
the Maharaja, the hands of the bride and bridegroom are joined and
the cloth is removed. Then the bridegroom’s parents and other rela­
tions leave the marriage hall as if in anger. The parents of the bride
go to call them back, and, after making presents of cash and clothes,
bring them again into the marriage hall. The bride and bridegroom
then walk four times round the fire, the bridegroom if he is young
reciting one or two marriage songs taught him by a mehetaji or teacher.
When the four rounds are completed the bride and bridegroom feed each
other with a handful of kansar (wheat-flour mixed with clarified butter
and molasses). The bride and bridegroom then start in a palanquin
to the bridegroom’s house. A t the bridegroom’s house the mother of
» !> 1: - •' i''- 1 *'k " '''i" ' :V- ; ' "v'?' : 1 ; ' ■' .'*• "
n

ayasth] 188
<SL
the bridegroom receives the pair at the entrance. The bride and bride­
groom worship the goddess and play cards. On the marriage day the
bridegroom’s father gives a caste dinner. On the second or third day
after marriage the bridegroom and bride go in procession to the bride’s
house, where they are bathed and dressed in rich clothes and ornaments.
On this day two white doves— a male and a female— are brought to the
bride’s house, each in a Brahman’s hand. The birds are tied together
b y a red thread which is put round their necks. The bride and bride­
groom oil them, smooth their feathers, make them look in a mirror,
and mark their brows with redpowder and grains of rice. When the
worship is over the doves are taken away b y the owner, who is generally
a Musalman and who, besides cooked food, is given half a rupee. After
the dove-worship the bride and bridegroom oil and comb each other’s
hair, and beat each other with a twisted handkerchief. After this the
bridegroom takes his bride to his house. Five or six days after the marri­
age the family goddess is worshipped and removed, the bride and bride­
groom again oil and comb each other’s hair and a caste dinner is
given.(1)

Am ong the Matlnir K iyasths, a day before the marriage, the

bride is attired in rich male dress and her face is hidden b y a closely-
woven flower-wreath (shero). In the evening she is mounted on a
mare and led in procession to the bridegroom’s house. She is received
at the marriage booth ( mdmdva) by the oldest male relative of the
bridegroom, who takes her on his lap. The bridegroom’s priest then
comes with a dish of cocoa-kernels and almonds. The oldest male
relative rubs her brow with redpowder, a costly robe is given her,
a flower garland thrown round her neck, and cocoa-kernel and almonds
are put in the pockets of her coat. She goes home with all these things,
in the same way as she came. During the time she is in the booth
the bridegroom is not allowed to come near her or see her face.

On the marriage day, at the house both of the bride and of the
bridegroom, the planets are worshipped, and the bride and bride­
groom are bathed. After batliing, the bridegroom’s head is covered
with a red scarf, one end of which is plaited with his hair, and a silver
pendant (gophni) is fastened to it. H e wears a red cotton waistcloth,
and a piece of red cloth is tied round his breast. Gold necklaces are
p ut on his neck— some passing underneath the right arm, some under­
neath the left arm— and his legs are adorned with anklets. All this
makes him look like a woman. Over the headscarf he wears a hood
(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Volume IX, Part I, pages 62-63.
B? 189 [Kayasth
§L
of thick-stemmed palm-leaves (Caryota urens) and his face is hidden
by a closely woven flower-wreath. Thus dressed, with his father
and a hand of his relations and friends, he sets out for the bride’s.
W hen the party reaches the bride’s, some of her relations, by way
of joke, set a winnowing fan on the head of the bridegroom’s father.
Before he is ushered into the booth the bridegroom is shown a model
spinning wheel and plough. After entering the booth the bridegroom
stands on a wooden stool and changes his red waistcloth for a white
one. If he is not grown up he is set on his maternal uncle’s shoulders
and the bride is brought in on the shoulders of her maternal uncle.
Thirteen karena or oleander twigs are laid one after another in the
bride’s right hand. The bride and bridegroom are carried round the
booth on their uncle’s shoulders, the object of the girl’s uncle being
to give her the chance of striking the b oy with one of the twigs, and
the object of the b oy’s uncle being to give the boy the chance of snatch­
ing the twig out of the girl’s hand. The bridegroom’s friends help h im .
in trying to snatch the twigs from the bride’s hands, and the mimic
fight is the cause of much merriment. Then follows the hand-join­
ing, the ceremony being the same as among Brahmans, except that
it takes place near the fam ily goddess and not in bam boo canopy or
mdhera in the booth.
The marriage ceremonies of Bhatnagra Kayasths are similar to
those performed by the Mathurs.
KAyasths, like their brethren in Northern India, were originally Religion.
Shaktas or Dew-worshippers. On their migration into Gujarat they
could not escape the influence of Vaishnavism, which had its hold on
Gujar&t, and most of them adopted the tenets of the Vallabhacharya
and Ramanuja sects. A few in Cutch are followers of the Radhaval-
labi or Parnami sect. Some of the Mathurs are Shaivas. Each
fam ily has a fam ily goddess or hddevi, some form of Kali, Durga or
Amba. They worship such minor gods as Hanum&n, Kshetrapal
. or the Snake-god, Yaksha and Pabu. Their priests generally belong
to the Audichya, Modh, Shrimftli, Parasar and Sachora divisions of
Br&hmans. The Bhatnagras and Mathurs invest their boys with
the sacred thread with full Bra hmanic rites.
Kayasths burn their dead except children under tw o years old, Death,
who are buried. The funeral rites are of the standard type except
that a small silver coin is placed in the mouth of the deceased before
cremation. The ceremony of shraddha is performed annually on the
anniversary of the death and on the day corresponding to the day of
death in the dark half of Bhddrajiad. A cerem ony called dhro is
 "flfr , ' '’* S mP' " ' 4f O ' ;>*' ® k'v >t®r '•
'
n
(fiT
ihaipaj 190
performed also in the bright half of Bhadrapad, for the well-being of
the deceased* In the case of childless ancestors and persons who have
died a violent death, in addition to the usual rites, ceremonies called
Narayan Bali and Bdwani Kriya are performed at some holy place,
such as Bet Dwarka, Sidh&pur, Patau or Gaya, on or about the full-
moon day either of Chaiira or Kdrlik.

Oocupa- The hereditary occupation of Kayasths is clerical work. Many

turn. 0f them are in State employ, some of them holding offices of high
trust and position. Under the Musalmans, and for some time after
the introduction of British rule, a knowledge of Persian was required
in a Government clerk, and in this language most of the Kayasths
were proficient. Of late years they have lost the m onopoly they once
enjoyed as Government clerks.

Food, Kayasths are strict vegetarians and do not indulge in drink.

They eat food cooked b y Kshatris, Lohanas, BhansAlis, Kansaras,
Depalas and Patni Sonis. Members of these castes and Gujarat
Sarasvat Brahmans will eat food cooked by them.

KAYASTH PRABHU.—A synonym for Chandraseniya Kayasth

Prabhu : see under Prabhu.

KAYAT.—A sub-division of Khatris.

KAYATIA.— A synonym for Darbhia.
KAYIT.—A sub-division for Lads.
KELASI.— A synonym for Nhavi.
KEMP.—A sub-division of Ganigs.
KENGURI.—A sub-division of Gollas.
KER.— A sub-division of Jogis.
KHADAPE.— A sub-division of Gaud Saraswat BrAhmans.
KHADAYATA.— A sub-division of Brahmans and VaniAs.
Name and KHALPAS, numbering including males and
9 ,5 7 0 ( 1 9 0 1 ) , 4 ,8 4 8
origin. females, are found chiefly in Broach, Surat and Rewa Kantha.
4 ;7 2 2
The word K M lpa is derived from Khal or Chhal. the outeT skin, Khal­
pas being tanners and workers in leather. The Khalpas are also !/
known as Chamadias, Chhadias, ChamArs or Dabgars. They a d m it,
to the caste members of other castes except Bhangias, Mangs and the
very lowest, and appear to have originally sprung from a Rajput an­
cestor and a low <. uste woman,
 j 191 [Khalpa ^JiLi
Qj
They are divided into the following endogamous divisions Divisiu s.
1. Khambatia or Gambay. 4. Patani.
2. Kothariya. 5. Saria.
3. Nadia. 6. Tipra..
The Khambatia and Patani or Molavar divisions are hyperga-
mous, the Khambatias marrying a Patani girl, but not giving a girl
to a boy of the Patani sub-division. The huls are, in some instances,
named after places, e.g., Dholkya, Soratlii, etc., but a number of com ­
mon Rajput family names are found among them, e.g., Bhadkia,
Chavan, Chavda, Kataria, Kansaria, Makwana, Parrnar, etc.
Marriages cannot be performed between members of the same fad.
Where huls do not exist, marriages cannot be formed within seven
degrees of relationship. Marriage with a maternal uncle’s daughter,
father’s sister’ s daughter and mother’s sister’s daughter is not allowed.
Marriage with a wife’s younger sister is allowed during the wife’s life­
time or after her death. Two brothers m ay marry tw o sisters.
Girls are married before they attain the age of puberty. Only
the poorest remain unmarried till puberty . Boys are married from
five years of age. Sexual license in the case of unmarried girls is
forbidden, but is not infrequent. On detection, a girl committing
sexual indiscretions with a man of her caste, is generally married to
the man involved. If he is unwilling to accept her, he is fined and a
dinner is given to the castemen. She is then married to another mem­
ber of the caste. If a girl is guilty of sexual indiscretions with a man
of a higher or lower caste she is fined. Polygamy is permitted but
polyandry is unknown.
The offer of marriage either comes from the bride’s or bride- Marriage
groom’s father. A marriage is settled with the help of a casteman
styled Vastalio or Kdrbhdn. The bride’ s father receives from the
bridegroom’ s father a gift of money known as the dej or polio. The
auspicious day for the ceremony is fixed b y a Garuda Brahman who is
either a Khalpa or a Dheda, and who conducts the service. The
following are the principal ceremonies.
W hen a marriage is settled the first ceremony is the Ghan Murt
or rice pounding ceremony. Three, five or seven days before the
marriage date the bride and bridegroom are rubbed with turmeric
paste. A day before the marriage, at the bridegroom’s house, and
on the marriage day at the bride’s house, Ganpati is worshipped,
and the planets are propitiated. Two earthen pot 3 filled with water
are taken, two cocoanuts are placed in the mouths of these pots anc]
!w|'
<V Khalpa] 192
§L
they are worshipped. This is the installation of the marriage guardian
deity. On the marriage day, the bridegroom with friends and relations
proceeds to the bride’s village. A t the outskirts of the bride’s village,
the party are met by the bride’s parents. At night the bridegroom
is taken in procession to the bride’s house. There the bride’s mother
meets the bridegroom, and presenting him with a miniature plough,
a grinding pestle, and a churning stick, leads him to the marriage
hall. H e is seated on a cot facing the east. The bride’s maternal
uncle or her sister’s husband places a necklace of glass-beads round her
neck, puts bracelets on her arms and carries her into the hall, where
she is seated to the left of the bridegroom. The ends of the bride
and bridegroom’s robes are knotted together, their hands are joined,
and the GAruda Brahman recites verses. When this is over, a chori
sacrificial fire is kindled, and the bride and bridegroom throw ghi into
it. They then take four turns round the fire. This completes the
marriage ceremony.
W idow remarriage is allowed. A widow cannot marry her father’s
sister’s, mother’s sister’s, or maternal uncle’s son. She may marry the
younger brother of her deceased husband if she likes. A widow re­
marriage is brought about either b y the parents of the widow or by
the widow herself. It is celebrated on Tuesday, Thursday or Sunday.
On the occasion of a widow remarriage the widow is decorated with
the ornaments given b y ber new hubsand, and seated opposite the
bridegroom on a low wooden stool. The skirts of the couple’s gar­
ments are tied together, the priest then leads them to the worship
of the deity, after which the couple throw grains of rice over each
other. This completes the ceremony. Sometimes the ceremony
consists in holding a cocoanut between the heads of the bridal pair
and bringing them in contact. A bachelor wishing to marry a widow
is first married to a shami tree.

D ivorce is allowed. Both husband and wife can apply for a

divorce. The party applying has to pay to the other a sum settled
by the caste punch. The permission of the headman of the caste
and of the relatives and friends is necessary for a divorce. Divorce
is known as Chhuta Chlieda Kama, Chhedo phadi apvo or Talak apvi. A
woman divorced for adultery with a man of her caste, or with a man of
a higher caste is allowed to marry a second time, her marriage being
performed as a widow remarriage. But when she has committed
adultery with a man of lower caste, she may be turned out of her
caste. She is frequently allowed to re-enter the caste b y undergoing
purification. The process involves the drinking of a mixture of
 193 | Khalpa
i ' jcfvsi i ■ , |

cowdung and cow ’s urine. Her nails are also cut, and she is required
to jump over a burning fire seven times.
Khalpas follow the H indu law of inheritance and belong to the Religion.
Hindu religion. Some are followers of Ramhnand, K abir and Rohi-
das faith. They worship Shiva, Vishnu, R am , Mata and other gods
of high caste Hindus. The cow, the basil plant, the pipal tree, the
cobra and the mongoose are worsliipped b y them. They go on pil­
grimage to Unai, Dakorji and Shuklatirtha. Their leading holidays
are Divali (October-November), Basra (September-October), Ndtjpan-
chmi (July), Shila Saptami and BaJev (August-September). They
take vows to Muhammadan saints and make offerings of cocoanuts,
sweetmeats, etc., when their objects are achieved. They worship their
dead ancestors and prepare images of them, which are installed in the
compounds of their houses. These are worshipped on the 14th of the
latter half of the month of Ashvin. W hen cholera and small-pox
are raging Khalpas worship the goddess Mata or Kaka Balia. Offer­
ings of food are given to them. Some offer annual sacrifices, but it
is not usual to kill the animals offered. A lim b is cut, and they are
then released. Khalpas em ploy Garuda or Kalatia Brahmans for
religious and ceremonial purposes.
They bury or burn their dead. Small children are buried. The Death
deceased is laid in a grave on his back, the head being turned towards
the north. In some places persons dying of cholera, small-pox,
snake bite and leprosy are buried to prevent the spread of the disease.
W hen the body is consumed the ashes and bones are throwm into water.
The castemen are feasted on the 11th or 12th day. For the propitia­
tion of ancestors in general they perform Shrdddha ceremonies in the
latter half of the month of Bhadrapad.
Their hereditary occupation is the tanning and colouring of lea- Oocupa-
ther, the making of leather buckets, bags and ropes, and the repair- tlon'
ing of old shoes. The leather is chiefly made from the skins of buffaloes,
bullocks and cows. Khalpas generally receive their supplies of hides
from Dhedas and Musalman butchers. They seldom work with goat
or sheep skins.
They eat the flesh of goats, sheep, beef, fowls, fish and ducks. Food.
They drink liquor. They eat pakki at the hands of Mahhrs, Mangs
and Bhangias. N o higher caste will receive anything at their hands.
KHAMAR.— A sub-division of Kachhias.
KHAMBHATI. — A sub-division of Kharvas, Kachhias, Kh&lpas,
Kumbhhrs, Lohars, Mochis, Shrigaud Brahmans, Ghanchis.
p 1109—85

4
,« t
||^ vp ? ,/ ’/ ‘
(JClTJ
Khant] 194
KHAMBHATIA.— A synonym for Khambhati.

KHANDE KH ARVA,— A sub-division of Konkani Kharvas.

KHANDESHI.— A territorial name. A sub-division of Bhois,

N M vis, Kunbis, Sonars.

KHANDEVAL.— A sub-division of Vanias.

Name and KHANTS U ) numbering 1 3 ,4 2 3 ( 1 9 0 1 ) , including 6 ,7 3 3 males and

origin. g females, are found chiefly in the Gir villages under the Junagad
State in Kathifrwar. The chief of the tribe claims descent from a
Bhatti R a jp u t!2) The leading families are known b y the title of Mer,
which is said to mean elder or chief, and to be derived from the old
Gujarati word trier meaning the largest bead in a necklace. But it
seems probable that these families have a strain o f late Koli, that is
Mhed, Mand or Mer blood in them. One of their early leaders Dhandh
Khant was the son of Sonang Mer, and is said to have conquered
Dhandhuka, and to have founded Dhandhalpur in Panchal. Another
leader, Patal Khant, is related to have conquered Petlad. But their
most famous leader was Jesa or Jesing, by whose help the Emperor
Muhammad Toghlak took Junagad (A . D. 1 3 3 0 ) from Ra Kengar.
In return for their help the emperor is said to have bestowed on the
Khants the hill of Girnar and the twenty-four villages of Bilkha
Chavisi. A century later, when Mahmud Begada conquered Jun&gad
(A. D. 1472), he found the Khdnts dwelling in the Girnar. The tribe
believe that their eponymous ancestor was M&rkand, the son of
Kdshyap.
Divisions. They have so many sub-divisions corresponding with the R ajput
clans that it seems probable they were once either R aj puts or personal
attendants on Rajput chiefs. The chief sub-divisions are as follows
Baria. Dhawal, Mher. Vala,
Chavda. J&dhav. Parmar. Valukia.
Dadhavla. Lalukia. Rathod.
Damera. Makwana. Surviya.
Marriages are prohibited between members o f the same sub­
division. A Khant m ay marry his father’s sister’ s or mother’s
brother’s daughter, but not his m other’s sister’s daughter. A
man may marry two sisters simultaneously or one after the death of the

(1) From materials supplied by Mr. K. G. Pandit, B.A., LL.B.

(2) The following verse is quoted regarding the marriage erf tho Khant maiden
bv Paloji Bhati: J a g kahe J e s a lm e r , atali bal u ta t p a r n o B U I P a d -m a m , K h a t n P a ­
t h , K h a n t ; that is, the world-famous. Jesalmer of exceeding grea* ^ ' e”gth Hlame^
the Bhil Padmani, K li& tr i Patal (married) the Khant.—C o l, J. W, W atson ,
 • (St
,< s ' « s r v ,;' . .. ...

m f i
195 [Khant

other. Two brothers may marry two sisters. The rest of the sub­
divisions would generally hesitate to marry among the Gohel Khants,
who form a division by themselves. Girls are generally married
between fifteen and twenty, boys a little later. Cases of misconduct
before marriage are rare. Should they occur, the parties, if of the
same tribe, are compelled to marry. I f one o f the parties be of a differ­
ent caste or tribe, a fine o f from Rs. 200 to Rs. 500 is levied on the
tribe and a series of dinners is given for seven consecutive days.
Polygamy is allowed and practised, but polyandry is unknown.
The proposals for betrothal are made b y the b o y ’s father through Marriage,
a mutual friend, who is given some money for the purchase o f keda khar-
ach and husumbo (opium solution). The des or bride-price is Rs. 100
or upwards according to the means of the b o y ’s father. The marriage
ceremonies resemble those o f the Vanjhas in every detail.
The re-marriage of widows is permitted, the first claimant to the
widow’s hand being the deceased husband’s younger brother. If
the widow is not inclined to live with him, she may marry anybody
She chooses outside the prohibited limits. There is nothing peculiar
about the ceremony. The widow’ s intended husband presents her
with a few clothes and ornaments, and molasses are distributed among
those present. Divorce is allowed. A divorced woman can re-marry
on paying a fine to' the former husband, which is paid b y the second
hufffjffiii. T ift triM is governed b y Hindu law with the same modifi ­
cations as in the case of The Van] has.
Khants belong to the H indu religion. They worship Shankar Religion,
and all other Hindu gods and goautsses. Their favourite deity is
the goddess Shakti or Durga. They observe all the H indu holidays,
and those wrho can afford the expense go or pilgrimages. The Tchij-
adia tree is greatly venerated. Its branch ' are not cu t n or are the
leaves plucked on any account. It is w orship ed r he Dasara day.
Islam Pir is held in great reverence, cocoan u k , offered, lamps
lit or bedsheets offered to poor people or a swe paration called
malindo given to the Pir in his honour. W hen epidemic breaks
out, Durga, Shankar or Maruti is propitiated The caste priests
are gors.
Infants dying under a year old, persons dying of sm all-pox and Death.
bhagats (recluses) are buried. Lepers are cast into the water. Per­
sons dying of snake-bite or accidents are burnt- on the village land.
The rest are burned at the village burning ground. The corpse is
placed in a lying position with head to the north. The burnt ashes
are thrown into the river, and the bones are p ut in an earthen jar and,
^ Kharak] 196
if possible, thrown into-the Duma pool in the Gimar hilla. Little
trinkets of gold or silver and clothes belonging to the deceased are given
away as presents to the Brahman performing the funeral ceremonies.
On the eleventh day after death an image of the deceased is made and
worshipped. In m em ory of the unmarried dead a young male and
a female calf are married. In the case of childless ancestors and acci­
dental deaths, caste dinners are held or money is given in charity.
The Kh&nts believe that they were originally a class of marau­
ders. Subsequently they took to agriculture as a more respectable
calling. Some o f them are now landholders and others day-labourers
earning a few annas a day.
Food- They eat the flesh of goats, sheep, scaly and scaleless fish, and
drink liquor. They eat and drink with K&this, Ahirs, Mers, Ka-
dias, Kumbhars, Bharvads, R aM ris, Sugars, Talabda Kolis and Kathi
Bhils. Kanbis, Vanias and Brahmans accept only uncooked food from
them.
K H A P R A . — A sub-division o f Gujar Kanbis.

K H A R .— A sub-division of Kolis.
KHARADIS or Sanghadias are found principally in K&thiAwiir.
They claim descent from Kashyap Rishi, and state that
their regular line o f descent is from Birbal (the w itty minister of
Akbar) who introduced into the caste the custom o f widow remarriage.
They appear like Vanjhas, Sutars, and oarani&s to have been
originally Khatris or dyers. They la v e such Brakmanical gatras
tvs Bharadwaja, Kaundinya, e t c , h ut they do n ot affect intermarri­
age. They have six exogaEous sections each with a separate family-
deity. Marriage with a father’s sister’s, m other’s sister’ s or m other’s
brother’s daughter is prohibited; Divorce is n ot allowed. Most
o f the Kharat are F oius. Some are .Tains. They are turners
and d o ornamen ’ tc ,d-work. They eat food cooked b y Khatris
and Vanias.
Name and K H A R A K S,’ .mbering 5,897 (1901), including 2,995 males
° rigin‘ and 2,902 femah ., are found principally in Kathiaw&r and also in
Ahm edabad. They chiefly reside on the eastern coast o f Kathiawar
in Bhdvnagar territory. Their B arot lives at Pethalpur, two miles
from the sacred placn, of Gopinath on the Bhavnagar coast. Formerly
Gariadhar was their head-quarters.
Th e caste believe themselves to have on ce been R ajputs.
They relate that, when Parashuram began the extirpation o f the

* From materials supplied by Mr, K. 6. Pandit, B.A., LL.B,

 i97 [Kharak
Kshatriyas, Some o f them took refuge in the tem ple of M&t&ji, who
promised to save them provided they renounced Kahatriya ways
and becam e Vaishyaa. They agreed to this. Their claim to K shatri-
ya origin is very doubtful. Their names, profession and very docile
ways clearly point to their having been originally Vaishyaa carrying
on trade in grain w hich they carried from place to place on the backs o f
donkeys. The name K M ra k is probably a contracted form o f K har-
wahanka (donkey-drivers). Subsequently th ey took to cultivation and
are now an agricultural class in Kathiawar. Their bards say that they
started from Bhinmala in Northern India and thence descended to
U jjain, th a t subsequently they took up their abode in D holka and
Gariadhar (under Palitana) at which place there was a great famine.
They took to carrying grain on the backs of donkeys, and were
tauntingly called Kharaks, which brought about a quarrel between
them and the other Vanias so that they left those parts and,
separating from the rest of the com m unity, took to cultivation. In
customs and mode o f life they closely resemble K anbis.
There are no endogamous divisions of the caste. They have Divisions,
exogamous sections (som e o f the sub-sections having a com m on
ancestor being grouped under a section) the chief o f which are as
follows :—
1. Solanki Valia and Thanh 11. K&malia.
Valia. 12. R athod.
2. K him ani and Tadha. 13. Sebh&dia.
3. Kol&dia, Sanghani, Bho- 14. Bh&lalha.
iani, K&ba and K hodiphad. 15. K ooch a.
4. Bhoj&ni. 16. Jalia.
5. Kans&ra and Sur&ni. 17. Makodia.
6 . K agda. 18. U m chadia (Umchada
7. B lioot. village).
8. D aiya. 19. Navelhia.
9. Sentha. 20. Gohel.
10 Kapadia.

Sub-sections cannot intermarry among themselves, nor sections.

Marriage with m other’s brother’s daughter or with father’s sister’ s
daughter or with m other’s sister’s daughter is prohibited. During the
life-tim e o f the first wife her sister cannot be taken as a second w ife.
Two brothers may m arry tw o sisters. Betrothals are generally m ade
when th e children are infants. Marriage takes place between
the age o f ten and twelve. Polyandry is unknown, b u t polygam y
iB allowed. The grounds on which the marriage o f a second wife
P n. „
tharak] 198 SL
i allowed are trivial. Generally barrenness or contraction o f an
incurable disease on the part o f the first wife is sufficient. N o one
in the caste is known to have more than tw o wives.
♦
Marriage Betrothal is known as sagdi or veswdl. The girl’s father makes
monies. an OJ®er through a gor (village priest) who is generally a Talawadi
Audich Brahman. H e carries a cocoanut with him to the b o y ’s father
and gets R s. 5 in case the offer is accepted. From the time of be­
trothal up to the tim e of marriage an annual present Hdrdo consist­
ing o f tw o cocoanuts, five seers of sugar, five seers of dry dates,
and a piece of cotton fabric has to be sent to the house of the girl's
father. On the marriage day a dinner is given b y the bride’ s father
to the people of the caste, and in lieu of this the bridegroom’s
father gives the cost o f eight maunds of ghi calculated at three-fourths
o f the bazar price. This forms part of the Des or marriage endow­
ment with the presents of the annual hrddo. The day for the marriage
is fixed b y the gor, who writes a note stating the day and carries it
to the b o y ’s father (lagan lakhavun and lagan mokalmm). The
b o y ’s father accepts the note (lagna vadhdvavun) and signifies such
acceptance b y making with red powder a mark (chdndlo) on the gor s
forehead, presenting him with a cocoanut and a silver coin. Two
days before the marriage, booths are put up at the houses of both
the bride and the bridegroom. On the day previous to the marriage
a fruit mindhol is tied to the right wrist of the bridal pair, and saffron
or turmeric powder mixed with water is applied to their cheeks and
foreheads. Kshetrapal (protector of the field) is worshipped and is
the presiding deity of the marriage booth. On the night of the marriage
day the bridegroom approaches the bride’s village, where he is received
by the bride’s party (sdmaiyun) and brought in procession into the
village (fulekun). The bridegroom is taken into the marriage booth
and welcomed by the bride’s mother (ponkhmft). The bride is brought
and seated near the bridegroom. The couple then walk four times (Pera
ferva) round the altar, and this is the binding portion of the marriage
service. The newly married pair bow to the girl’s family deity, a feast is
held at the expense o f the bridegroom’s father, and the bridegroom
returns to his house with his bride, thus completing the marriage.

W idow remarriage is allowed, but a widow is strictly prohibited

from marrying her late husband’s brother. The officiating priost is
the gor, who seats the couple on w ooden seats, makes a chandlo
on their foreheads, and receives R s. 20 as reward. The bridegroom
presents a suit o f new clothes to the bride. On the day following,
early in the m orning the widow goes to a river (to fetch water) or
 1
to the village well with her face veiled, and on filling water unveils
her face, thus casting off the evil which is supposed to attach to her
remarriage. On returning, the pair see each other’s faces in a vessel
containing liquified ghi. A dinner is then given to the caste people
in the village, the cost o f which is divided. This brings the cerem ony
to a close. D ivorce is permitted but not encouraged. Only the
husband can seek it, the usual ground being the w ife’s m isconduct
or incom patibility of temper. The divorce is effected b y the husband
calling his wife b y the name o f sister or mother. The caste is g o v ­
erned b y Hindu law with certain m odifications. The sons are en­
titled to a separate residence and maintenance, b u t n ot to partition
if the father is disinclined towards the latter. The daughters cannot
claim any part of the stridhan of their deceased mother, which goes
to the sons, or their heirs according to law.

W hen they were V&ni&s, the Kharaks were Jains. W hen they
took to cultivation, they became staunch Yaishnavas. Their chief
god is Thakorji and their fam ily d eity is K hodiar. W henever an
epidem ic breaks out, they make an offering every week (called
manta) o f lapsi, a kind o f wheat pudding, molasses, etc. On H indu
holidays, all o f which they observe, they give alms to Brahmans.
Their priests are the Tala wadi Audich Brahmans who are n ot any
way inferior in status to the other Brahmans.
The dead are burnt, except children under eighteen months Death,
old, wrh o are buried in a lying position with head to the north. The
ashes are thrown into the sea, if near, or buried in a pit near a
watercourse so as to be carried away b y the rain water. The unburnt
bones are carried to Nakatinga (Nishkalauka) which is about sixteen
miles from Bhavnagar. In honour o f the dead a shrdddha is held
once a year on the ninth d ay o f the dark half o f Bhddrapad. If
the deceased has no child a male calf is married to a female calf b y a
m ock ceremony called N il parndvavi.
The Kharaks believe themselves to have once been a trading Ocoupa*
class. They are now cultivators. Many are landed proprietors ,ou'
though owning very small tracts seldom exceeding a hundred acres.
They neither eat flesh nor drink liquor. They eat with Sut&rs Food,
and Kanbis.
KHARCHA. —A sub-division o f Dublas.
KHARCHI.— A synonym for Lenkavale.
KHARI.— A sub-division o f B hois.
KHAROLA.— A sub-division o f Shrigaud Brah mans.
P fc&arva] 200

KHAROTE.- A sub-division o f V&nias.

KHAROVAVA.— A sub-division o f Alkaris.
KHARPATIL.— A synonym for Agri and Kharva.
KHARSE.— A sub-division o f Mahars.
Name and KHARVAS or K M rvis, numbering 36,036 (1901), including
ong,n‘ 18,916 males and 17,090 females, are found in the ports of Cutch,
Kathiawar, Cambay, Gujarat, Th&na, the Konkan, Kanara, Janjira,
and in the city of B om bay, 112 being recorded at the port of Aden.
The term Kharva is a Persian word signifying a sailor and is conse­
quently applied somewhat indiscriminately to those leading a sea­
faring life. Another derivation of the term is from khdr (salt land),
Kharvds being found cultivating salt lands on the coast to this day.
They are also known as Khar Patils. The follow ing account deals
with all Kharvas that do not com e under any other well-known
caste name for those following the occupation of sailors, such as
Machhis, Am bis or K olis.
Endo- The endogamous divisions of the caste are—
d S L . 1- R ajput. 4. H&nsoti. 7. Konkani.
2. Koli. 5. Surati. 8. Musalm&n.
3. Khambh&ti. 6. Barochi.
In Gujardt, Kbdrv&s claim R ajpu t descent. The tradition
regarding their origin in Surat and Cambay is to the effect that,
having taken to salt-manufacture and sea-faring, they sunk and
came to be called Kharvas, but this seems to be a play on the word
khara (salt). Their Cutch tradition is that they fled from Jh&ldvad
during the persecution o f the Emperor Ala-ud-din K hilji in A . D.
1294, and were sheltered b y a Mdchhi, whose example led them to
take to sea-faring. Another account attributes a still earlier origin
to the caste, which is said to date from the times o f Mahmud of
Ghazni (1024 A .D .). The Porbandar Kh&rvas and also those in
Mangrol, Navanagar, Vandkbarun near Diu, and Veraval consider
that som e o f them cam e from D war ha and some from the Bli&vnagar
Coast, and disclaim all connection with Cambay Kh&rvds. Of the
three classes of Kliarvas in Kdthiawar, i . e„ R ajpu t, K oli and
Musalman, the R&jputs probably date from the time (A . D. 746) of the
Anhilv&da dynasty, which assigned them a special quarter in
Gogha (*) . They eat with Rajputs and follow R ajpu t customs. The
K oli Khdrvds are the descendants o f pirates who used to infest the
Southern Kdthidwar Coast and have a strong infusion o f Koli blood.(l)

(l) Ran M ala, p. 245.

 60i [Kharv*
They have such locai names as Talajia in BhAvnagar, and Shi&le from
Shi&lset near Diu. They are found chiefly in Bh&vnagar, JafaaAb&d
near Diu, Mahuva and Talaja, and do not differ from K olis in their ways.
MusalraAn 'Kharvas in Cutch are known as Bkadalas.

The R ajpu t Kharvas in Cutch have seven clans— C'kavda, Exo

Gohil, Tethava, Jhala, Parmar, R athod and Solanki, and those in fuXliona.
Kathiawar— Gohil, Jhala, R&thod and Solanki. The South
Gujarat Kharvas are of four divisions o f a territorial type—
Barochi, Hansoti, Kham bhati and Surati. The Kkam bhatis rank
highest, and, while marrying with the daughters o f the other divisions,
they do not give their ow n girls in marriage to them. The other three
divisions inter-dine but d o n ot inter-marry. The Kharabh&tis have
twelve divisions, the chief o f which are K atiala, Mhchhi, Mujafaria,
S&garia, V&dia, and V ejporia, who in ter-m an y freely. Marriage
does n ot take place between persons who are related to each other
in any way. A man m ay m arry his wife’s sister, either during the
wife s lifetim e or after her death. Tw o brothers m ay m arry two
sisters. E xcept some Kham bhati families, all Kharv&s allow polygam y,
but the permission of the first wife is usually necessary. Polyandry
is unknown. There is no strict rule regarding the marriageable
age o f boys and girls, although marriage after the age o f puberty
is not favoured.

The offer o f marriage com es either from the girl’s father or the M ariiage
b o y ’s parents. , The b o y ’s father has to give to the girl orn am en tscere‘. ,
worth about R s. 30 which are known as palhin. The d a y for the monlLB'
marriage is fixed b y the fam ily priest. The first cerem ony in a mar-
riage is the drawing up the marriage deed or higna lakMvavu followed
b y mdndva muhurt or booth consecrating. N ext, the bride and bride­
groom are rubbed with turmeric paste. This is follow ed b y the
grahashdnti or planet propitiation. The b oy then goes in proces ion
to the oride s house for the marriage. M.mdhal (wristlets) are tied
on the bride and bridegroom. The essential portion is the manyal-
Pherd or walking round the sacrificial fire.
i he re-marriage o f widows is perm itted. A widow cannot marry
her father s sister’s, m other’s sister’s, or m other’s brother’s son.
Marriage with a deceased husband’s brother is preferred. A widow
re-marriage is celebrated on a Sunday, Tuesday or Thursday with the
assistance of the fam ily priest. The widow and her intended husband
are seated on tw o low wooden stools. They worship Ganpati and throw
rice grain over each other, which com pletes the cerem ony. D ivorce
is allowed. A divorced wom an is allowed t o re-marrv. A woman
H 1109—26
 Kharva] 202
-■■■/ ' ^ . . r .'; . \

taken in adultery can remain in the ca3te b y paying a fine to the caste
people. The Hindu law of inheritance is followed with this restric­
tion, that a son cannot claim a part of the ancestral property during
the lifetime o f his father.
Religion. Kharvas profess Hinduism. Some o f them are followers of
Sw£min&r&yan and some of Kuberji, regularly attending the temples
o f their faith and worshipping at home the image of the founder.
The goddesses Am baji, Bahuchara, Bhadrakali are also worshipped
and pilgrimages are made to Dakor, Dwarka and Benares. In Cutch
th ey are Vaiahnavs and worship the goddesses Ash&pura, Harsad,
Luna, Monamaya, R h oji and Chamunda, and in Porbandar the Ded-
vadi, Mamai, Padmani, Poraval and Veravari mdtds or mothers. In
M andvi they worship the god Murlimanoharji, set him in a four-
wheeled car or rath on the 10th of Shrdvan Tad (July-August) and draw
it to a pond in which they bathe the image. They also worship the
cow , the planets and the elements. Such as p ly their own craft wor­
ship the sea and their newly-moored craft on Ndrelpurnima or cocoa-
,nut day, the fullm oon of Shrdvan. All Kharvas are strong believers
in omens, spirits, witchcraft, the evil eye and exorcism. They ob­
serve all the H indu holidays and offer goats to the mdtds, which are
partaken of b y themselves. Their priests are Brdhmans.
Death. The dead are burnt. Children under eighteen months old are
buried head northwards. The bones and ashes of the burnt are con­
signed to water. Propitiative ceremonies are performed on the ele­
venth, twelfth and thirteenth day after death with the assistance of
the family priest. A sacred thread of two strands is worn when
performing shrdddkas in m emory o f deceased ancestors.

Occupa- As a class Kharvas are bold and enterprising, and generally honest
tion. and true to their word. The Surat Kharvas are hardy sailors and are
known as the best builders of bridges in all parts of India. The Cambay
Kharvfi.3 were deep-sea sailors and saltmakers ; b u t since the decline
o f Cambay as a port, and the closing of the salt-works on the intro­
duction of the Imperial salt duty in A. D. 1878, they have taken to
labour, house-building, and especially tile-turning. Very few o f them
ate sailors. They remain away for employment during the fair-
weather months ; and have in m any Gujarat towns, and to some ex­
ten t also in B om bay, monopolised the work o f skilled tile-turners. In
Ahmed&bad and other inland towns, besides tile-turning, Kh&rv&s
w eave oakum thread, make broom s and mats, trade in, rather than
catch fish, and sometimes cultivate. Their women also in Surat and
B roach work in coir, make ropes, do field work, and serve as labourers.
(f(g)}; . ,. (ci
- \ ’ ::-v ' *':V/: 1*‘ ' ' /' v-' ' v' ' ‘1,■ ■v;^'Vv;::■ '

203 [Kharva

In the coast towns and villages of Surat and B roach, Kharv&s p ly

boats and serve in country craft and steamers. But the hardiest
sailors are o f B ander and Gogha in Gujar&t, and of the K&thiaw&r and
Cutch ports from Bhavnagar to Mandvi. They are skilful and daring
seamen. They man the cou n try cra ft’ that visit Zanzibar, A den, and
the whole coast o f India, east as far as Singapore, and are also largely
em ployed and well known as lascars in steam -boats running between
B om bay and Europe.
E xcep t such as have adopted the Swaminarayan and KuberjiFood.
faith, all Kharvas eat fish and the flesh o f goats and fow ls, and drink
liquor.

K O N K A N I K H A R V A S have two divisions, Proper and Khande

or sword-wearing K M rv a s. The latter are p robably those Kh&rv&s
who in piratical times used to go armed with swords. In B om bay City
they are divided into bhdji or vegetable grower, nalia or tile turners and
mith or salt workers. The Kanara branch are said to have com e into
the district from Goa, where they were o f im portance before the rise
of Portuguese power. Groups of families having the same family
deities are exogamous. The chief family deities are as follows :—

1. Baneshvar. 5. Mhalsa.
2. Dam odhar. 6. Eavalnath.
3. K udtari. 7. S M nteri Kamakshi
4. -Mahamayi. 8. K atyayani D evi.
The shrines o f the first seven deities are in G oa territory,
showing the former connection o f the caste with Goa. The shrine of
Katyayani Devi is in Avarsa, a village in the Ankola taluka o f the
Kanara district, to which the d eity is reputed to have been brought
from elsewhere.
The home tongue o f the Konkani Kharvas is K onkani, though
some talk Kanarese. The names in com m on use am ong men are
Ananta, Bhim, Ballu, Boti, Bhikaro, D evappa, Fullayya, Irayva, Java,
Kom ar, Murari, Omu, Paik, Pursayya, R am a, R u po, Shivayva and
Tondo ; and among women, D evai, Gauri, Gangai, H uvai, Kurshi,
Lakshmi, Manju, Mhalai, Parvati, Rum ai, Santai and Shesdi. The
men add to their names the words Bhirni, Mesta and Tandel.

The caste has a chief headman known as the Subraya Il&ut

who resides in Belikeri, four miles north o f Ankola. Each village
has a com m ittee o f chaugulas formed o f the leading m em bers o f the
com m unity under the presidency o f a headman called budvant
or wise man. The .budvant settles all social disputes according to
 <SL
P Kharvaj ^04

the opinion of the m ajority o f the cha'ugnlds, and refers difficult and
contested questions to the mat. The raid submits to the head of
the Shringeri monastery any complicated question which he finds
difficult to settle, The decisions o f the heads of the caste are enforced
b y kolkdrs or messengers. Adultery b y women is punished with
expulsion from the caste. In cases o f assault with sandals, the assailed
as well as the assailant are fined and sent to Gokarn to be purified.
On their return they have each to give to the com m unity a p ot of
toddy, which is drunk with boiled fish.
Girls are married before they attain m aturity. Polygam y
is allowed and practised. W idow re-marriage is permitted but
seldom practised. Widowers only can marry widows. Polyandry
is unknown.
Marriage The offer of marriage comes from the b o y ’s father, who has to pay
monies. a bride-price o f Rs. 16 to the girl’s father. The day for the marriage
is fixed in consultation with a Br&hman. The ceremony is conducted
b y the caste Brahman. The marriage lasts five days. Booths
of cadjan leaves are erected at the houses of both the boy and the
girl. On the marriage day the bridegroom, wearing a bashing
(marriage coronet), goes in procession to the bride’s house.
The party is received at the entrance to the marriage booth by
the girl’s father with the same ceremony as among Gam Vakkals.
The party enter the booth over a clean white sheet spread b y the
village washerman. The budvant then passes a cotton thread round
the necks of the bride and bridegroom, joins their hands, and pours
water over them (the dhdre ceremony). The other ceremonies are
the same as among the Gam Vakkals, with the exception that on
the fifth day the bride is formally made over to the bridegroom’s
mother. Then the bridal party goes in procession to the bridegroom’s
house. The bridegroom’ s father sits on a heap o f rice grains, seats
the bride on his left thigh and the bridegroom on the right. The
girl is then given a new name, b y which she is known afterwards
in her husband’s family. This terminates the marriage.
Religion. The Konkan Khitrvas are particularly devoted to Amm&s, J&tk&s
and Mhaatis, though they worship all Hindu gods. They also pay
great reverence to Hanumant of Chand&var, whose image is once
a year carried in a palanquin through the coast villages, when the
people p ay tithes and make offerings which are received b y the Ilavik
priest who is in charge o f the palanquin. They greatly revere the
R om an Catholic Saints, and offer flowers, oil, candles and gold and
ilver ornaments in fulfilment o f vow s to the Virgin Mary and St. Francis
 205 [Khatri
<SL
X avier. Feasts are held on G ood Friday. They make pilgrimages
to Tirupati, Gokarn, Dharmasthal, Ram eshvar and Pandharpur.
Their religious teacher is the head o f the Smart m onastry at Shringeri
in Mysore. Their priests are H avik and K arnatak Brahmans,
The dead are either burnt or buried. On the twelfth day after Death,
death a qhadi or exorcist is called to release the soul o f the deceased cere‘.
i . . . monies,
from the control o f the killing spirit R ahu, and to place it under
the control of a guardian spirit. The ceremonial im purity ends on
this day, and the corpse-bearers and relatives o f the deceased are
feasted. A fter a short tim e the qhadi frees the soul from the control
o f the guardian spirit and allows it to join the group o f the fam ily
spirits. Crows are fed on the twelfth day, on the last d ay o f the
m onth and year, and on the anniversary o f the deceased, in order
to pacify the deceased. The mah&taya is also performed, when mem­
bers o f the caste are feasted.
The chief occupation o f the K onkan Kharvas is sailing boasting y °°uPa
craft. Like m any sailor castes they also lay and turn tiles in the
m onsoon. Some are salt water fishermen, their fishing boats and
nets being the same as those of the Ambiga. Som e w ork as car­
penters, especially as boat-builders. T h ey also w ork as house servants
and labourers and occasionally as husbandmen. Like other fishing
classes they carry palanquins. The women husk rice and make
coir rope.
They eat fish and flesh except beef and pork, and drink liquor. Kood-
KHARVI.— A synonym for K h arva and G&bit.
KHATAVAN.— A sub-division o f Devangs.
KHATIK.— See under Minor Musalman Castes. A synonym
for Kasai.

KHATRIS or W eavers, numbering 38,574 (1901), including Name and

19,987 males and 18,587 females, are foun d all over the Presidency. ori8in-
They call themselves Kshatris or Kshatriyas and claim a Kshatriya
origin, those in Gujarat claiming to be Brahma Kshatris. As a rule
they are tall and fair and they wear the sacred thread. Like the
Brahma Kshatris, their favourite objects of worship are Devis or
goddesses, and even in the south of the Presidency their hom e tongue
is interspersed with m any Hindustani words. These facts would
seem to suggest that they originally belonged to the great Kshatri
race o f the Punjab, but the custom o f w idow marriage which obtains
am ongst them, and their ceremonies which closely resemble those o f
Kunbig in the Deccan, o f Sm art Deshastb Brahmans in the Karnatak
 Gt
vV ;?* ' c’ h :\ __

:( W
P g l^ k h a tr i] 206 ^

arid o f Van&s in Gujarat, would suggest some admixture at least

o f local castes and tribes. In Dharwar, the tradition-regarding their
origin is, that they are the descendants o f seven sages Bharadwaja,
Jamadgni, Kashyap, K atyayan, Valmik, Vashishtha and Vishwa-
mitra. The Poona, Nasik and Ahmednagar Khatris relate that,
in order to avoid being slain b y Parashuram, they were told b y the
goddess Hinglaj to assume the name of Khatris and to take to weaving.
The N&sik Khatris further state that their original ancestor was
Kartavirya. There is a tradition in Ahmednagar to the effect that
they formerly lived in Sahasrarjuna in Mundugad, the old capital of
Malwa. The Sholapur Khatris state that they came there about
a hundred years ago from Cheul in Kolaba. The Khandesh Kshatris
claim Sahasrarjun to be their com m on ancestor. The Gujarat
Khatris say that they came into Gujarat from Sind in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries, tempted by the strong European demand
for their cloth.
Khatris are hereditary silk and cotton weavers. They weave
women’s robes, waist-cloths, shoulder-cloths and bodice-cloths.
Besides weaving they string on wire or thread gems and pearls, make
fringes, threads for necklaces, tassels, netted work, and hand and
waist ornaments. Their industry has been much crippled since the
introduction of machine-made piece-goods.
Divisions. The social organization o f the caste is very intricate. It cannot
be said with certainty how many endogamous divisions they have.
Broadly speaking, they may be said to consist of the following
groups :—
1. Brahma K hatii. 7. Maratha.
2. Gujarati. 8. Sahasrarjuna.
3. Istari. 9. Surti.
4. Kapur Khatri. 10. Somavanshi.
5. Karnatak. 11. Suryavanshi.
6. K ayat.
The above divisions neither eat together nor intermarry.
The Marathas, Gujar&tis, Surtis, and Karnatalcs are of the territorial
type. The Somavanshis claim descent from soma the moon, the
Suryavanshis from surya the sun, and the Sabasrarjunas from a
m ythological hero o f that name. Brahma Khatris are an offshoot
o f the Khatris, claiming a superior status or they represent the
Brahma Kshatris proper (see B rah m akshatri ). The origin of the
other divisions is unknown.
 ■ ' ___

|l S'-fJi VfiT
207 [Khaki
The above divisions are described below under Maratha, Gujarati
and Karn&tak Khatris.

M A R A T H A K H A T R IS have the following surnames

B aji. CJhingi. Magaji Salunke.
Bakhave. Kankrej. Mule. Tak.
Barad. Katy&re. Pakhale. Tavarej.
Bhande. Khade. Panchang. Teli.
Bichhave. Khambe. R athor. Vayada.
They have also kuls and golras as follows
Kuls.
Bhdngde. K onka.
Chav&n. Kukare.
Golras.
Bharadwaja. PaiAshar.
Gautarn. Shandilya
Jamadagni Valmiki.
K ish y a p Vashishtha.
N&rad.
In some places marriages are prohibited between members
belonging to the same kul, in others sameness o f gotra is a bar to
intermarriage, while again in some places both golras and Jculs must
be different .for the contracting parties. M any members do not
know to which gotra they belong, in which cases either kuls or sur­
names are considered in settling marriages. Marriage with a father’ s
sister’ s, m other’s sister’s, or m other’s brother’s daughter is not allowed.
A man m ay marry two sisters and brothei’3 m ay marry sisters. Girls
are generally married between five and twelve, boys between seven
and twenty-five. Polygam y is permissible, but polyandry is un­
known. The marriage ceremonies o f Maratha Khatris are similar
to those o f Maratha Kunbis except th at in Ahmednagar they have
devaks consisting of earthen pots brought from the potters and marked
white and red. A married couple sets them at the corners o f a square
and lays before them sandal paste, flowers and vermilion, with food
or sweetmeats. The goddess D evi is propitiated with an offering
o f a goat, and the bridegroom visits the bride’s, where the priest or
K hatribhat blesses the couple with lucky rice and kindles the sacred
fire. The couple throw mango, jdmbul (Eugenia jam bolana), rui
(Galotropis gigantea), umbar (Ficus glomerata), and shami (Prosopis
spicigera) leaves on the fire and their brows are marked with vermilion,
to which rice is stuck. The ceremony ends with a feast. N ext day
 (ct
Khatri] 208

the bridegroom ’s party take three to five goats to the bride’s

house, where these are killed and the party is treated to a sumptuous
feast.
The remarriage of widows is permitted. D ivorce is allowed.
A woman divorced for bad conduct is turned out of the caste.
Maratlia Khatris follow the Hindu law of inheritance and belong
to the Hindu religion. E xcept that in Khandesh they employ Audich
Br&hmans and in Ahmednagar members o f their ow n caste known
as Khatribhats to officiate at their ceremonie , that in tom e
places their death ceremonies are conducted by the caste elders, and
that they invest their boys with the sacred thread, they do n ot
differ in their religious beliefs and practices from Maratha Kunbis.
The dead are burnt except boys who have not been girt with the
sacred thread. The latter aie buried. The death ceremonies of
Khatris d o not differ from those performed by the local Brahmans.
Food. They eat fish and the flesh of goats, sheep and fowls, and drink
liquor.
G U JA R A T I K H A T R IS are Vaishnavas by religion, but most of
them prefer the worship of D evi, especially of Hinglaj Mata. Except
that they allow widow marriage, their customs differ little from those
o f Vanias. They live, as a rule, on vegetable food, but many in south
Cfujar&t eat flesh and drink liquor to excess.
K A R N A T A K K H A T R IS have no sub-divisiona or family
stocks. They allow polygam y and forbid widow marriage.
Their fam ily gods are Ganpati and Mahadev and their family g od ­
desses Tulja-Bhavani and Yellamma. They keep the leading Hindu
fasts and feasts and make pilgrimages to Ambabai at Tulj&pur in
Satara. Their spiritual teacher is Shankaracharya. Their marriage
and death ceremonies differ little from those of Smart Deshasth
Brahmans. Before a marriage a gondhal dance is preformed. Boys
are girt with the sacied thread at the age o f eight years. The dead
are burnt. B oys who die before they are girt with the sacred thread
and girls who die before they are married are buried. Karnatak
Khatris eat flesh and are excessively fond of intoxicating drinks.

KHATRIGOR.— A sub-division of Audich Brahmans.

Name and KHAVAS orG olas (x) are personal attendants, numbering 25,217
°r>gin- (1901), including 12,424 males and 12,793 females, found in most parts
o f Gujarat, Kathiawar and Cutch in the households o f R ajpu t Chiefs
(1) Compiled from materials supplied by Mr. K, G. Pandit and the Bom bay
Gazetteer,Vol. IX, Part I.
 209 [Khavas
§L
and R ajpu t landlords or Girasias. Th ey are also called Hajuris or
“ o f the Presence ” in R ew a Kdntha, Vajirs or ministers in Pdianpur
and elsewhere Lundds or household slaves. The term Khavds is
also applied to all the personal servants o f a R a jp u t Chief or o f
a Girasia, whether they are R ajputs, K olis, Dhdnkds or Musalmans.
These Khavas have nothing in com m on except their occupation.
Th ey follow the religion and customs o f their respective castes.

The K havas proper are recruited from members o f all castes,

except the impure classes. They appear to fall into tw o classes :
K havas and Golds, o f whom the former are superior in rank, though
originally there appears to have been n o distinction between them,
and Khavas freely married Golis or female Golds. The necessity
for men o f position having round them a trusty set o f servants led
to the gradual elevation o f the Khavas over the Golds, a superiority
which the descendants retain. A Gola m ay rise to the rank o f a
K havas, while a Khavas m ay sink to the condition o f a Gola. B oth
are so far bondsmen that it is customary to sell or pass them from
house to house.
Corresponding to the male Khavds and Golds are female Khavasans
and Golis. The dom estic position and w ork o f these tw o classes is
the same, but the Khavdsan is the m ore respectable as she does
no work except waiting on her mistress. The Khavasans, who are
known among the higher R a jp u t families as Vadharans or Chokris,
that is maid-servants or fem ale attendants, are the daughters o f
Khavds. They have an independence which is denied to the Golis.
Th ey or their parents have the right to decide where th ey will take
service, and whether or not th ey will accom pany their y o ung mistresses
in to other families. The Golis are girls either of the province or of
outside districts. Those of th e province are the daughters o f destitute
parents who have been throw n for maintenance on the charity of
the Girdsias, and perform service in return for their food a n d clothes.
In the Rdjputdna famine of A .D . 1869 m any girls were received
into the houses o f Kdtkidwar Girasids. T ill A .D . 1878, Bhdts and
Charans made a regular trade o f bringing girls from Mdrwdr in to Cutch.
The girls were either kidnapped or lured from their homes b y promises.
Sometimes they were sold in paym ent o f debts b y their parents and
guardians direct to the Bhdts and Charans, who brought them to
Cutch for sale ; and sometimes their parents and guardians sold them
to their creditors who re-sold them to Bhdts and Charans. After
they were brought to Cutch, the Bhdts and Charans used to take
the girls from village to village, and sell them to some land-holder,
a h 1109 —27
|( Jg]f
Khavas] 210
(CT
The price was mutually settled, and a deed of sale was drawn up.
These girls were in m uch demand am ong all classes of Rajputs, espe­
cially among Jadejas, as their custom is to give one or more male and
female Servants as part of the dowry o f a daughter. In A.D. 1865 b y
notification, the people of Kathiawar were warned against importing
African slaves, and in A . D . 1869 against kidnapping and selling girls.
Though in R ajpu t households the Golis, like the Khavaaans, are fed,
clothed and well treated, unlike Khav&sans their wishes are seldom
consulted when sent with their young mistress as a portion of the dow ry.
An im plied proprietary right still exists over them, and in former
times claims for their restitution used occasionally to be made to
political officers. The Golis are of easy virtue, and are seldom married.
I f they are married, it is with a member of their ow n caBte, and the
marriage tie is b y no means strong. Should the Chief dismiss a Gola,
he is n ot allowed to take his wife with him. She and her family
remain at the Chief’ s, and are handed over to another Gola. The
practice m ay be said to be almost promiscuous cohabitation, controlled
either b y the authority of the Chief or b y a sense of propriety.
An intrigue with a Goli is considered disgraceful to a member of another
class. W hen a Goli is found with child b y a man o f another caste,
her mistress forces her to declare the name of the father, who, if a
wealthy person, is compelled to p ay a fine. No fault is imputed
to the woman. The children swell the ranks o f Golds and Golis,
who, in process of time, rise to the position of Khavds and Khav&sans.
It n ot unfrequently happens that a Goli or Khavasan with good
looks attracts the attention of a Chief, and instances are not wanting
of such Golis and Khav&sans being raised to the rank of a C h iefs
wife.
As the States in Kftthiawfir began to be dismembered, em ploy­
ment could not be found for all the Khav&s with R ajput Chiefs,
which led to the liberation o f m any, who have formed a distinct
com m unity and m arry only among themselves. Some of these
are fairly educated, leading a decent married life, serving as clerks,
artisans, etc. Some are land-holders, notable among them being
the T&lukd&r of Amrau under the Jam of M van agar, and the Erdas
of Porbunder.
Khav&a claim descent from the R oya l families o f Jaipur, Mar-
w&r, Udaipur and Cutch, and state th at even at present their kinsmen
are p etty land-holders in Malwa and are called TMkardAs or
chieflings. They are a mixed class, with, no doubt, a strong strain
of R a jp u t blood in their veins.
■ : ’ S' ^T|T
K # .Ai_J
211 [Khavas

Khav&s look and dress like R ajputs, som e of their men and women Exogamy
being rem arkably handsome. They have several sub-divisions, the g;mi8.
chief o f which are as follows :—

Namo of sab-division. Family deity.

Barad Mohmayi.
Bhatti Kalika.
Chavan Ch&munda.:
C M vda Durga.
Makvana Bechraji.
Parm&r Sikotar.
Solanki Vachhdo.
Zdla Mohmayi.

The above sub-divi-ions are exogamous so far that, whenever

regular marriages take place, the bride and bridegroom m ust belong
to different sub-divisions. Marriage with a maternal uncle’s daughter is
allowed, but n ot with a m other’ s sister’s or father’s sister’s daughter.
Marriage with two sisters is allowed, and brothers are allowed to
marry sisters. There is n ot, and cannot be, a limit o f age for the
marriage of girls ; but among that section o f the K havas who have
formed a separate com m unity, girls are generally married between
twelve and fourteen. There, is no limit o f age in the case o f the
marriage o f boys. Polygam y is permitted, b u t polyandry is unknown.
W idows are allowed to remarry. Marriage with a deceased husband’s
brother is n ot permitted. The widow’s intended husband has to pay
her R s. 50 known as des. A bachelor m ay not m arry a widow.
D ivorce is allowed with the consent of both parties. I f th e w ife wants
to enforce a divorce without th e consent o f th e husband, she has to pay
a fine of 700 Icons (Rs. 175). A similar a ct on the part of the
husband would entail on him a fine of 200 koris (Rs. 50). The caste
panch have to be satisfied o f the propriety o f the divorce, and a fine
o f Rs. 5 called dad has to be paid to th e caste, a dinner being also
given.

Khavds are governed b y the Hindu law o f inheritance somewhat Religion,

modified, e.g., a son cannot claim partition h ut only maintenance during
the life-time o f his father. So also daughters have no right to the
stridhan o f their deceased m other unless the latter has parted with it
and disposed o f it during her life-time. In their religion and cere­
monies they follow Rajputs. Th ey worship the piped, tulsi and kadamba
trees, and will not injure them on any account. Their priests are
Audich or K anojia Brahmans.
| M .rn
Khavasj 212
<SL
K
Khavas are personal attendants on R ajput Chiefs and Gir&sias,
and cultivators and day labourers. In former times the Golas used
sometimes to accom pany th e corpse o f their Chief to the funeral pile
and burn themselves with it. W hen their widowed mistress breaks her
bracelets, the maids break theirs, but afterwards get fresh ones.
They receive food, lodging and clothes, and if their position in the
family entitles them to it, ornaments also, but no m oney. As their
duties are light and as all their wants are supplied b y their masters,
who defray the expenses connected with their births, marriages and
deaths, they are well off.
Food. They eat the flesh o f the goat, sheep, boar, antelope, spotted deer,
hare, fowls, partridges and quails and drink liquor.

In K&tbiaw&r, twelve castes can meet and eat at a common table

including Khav&s, viz., Rajputs, Kumbh&rs, Bharvads, Valands,
Bliois, Pakhalis, Oharans, Ahirs, Mers, Gulasavas and Atits.
KHEDAWAL.— A sub-division of Brahmans.
KHEDWA.— A synonym for Khedawal.
KHEDWAYA-MOMNA.—- A sub-division of Khojahs.
KHELKARI.—-A synonym for Kolhati.
KHETARPHADI.— A sub-division o f Dhors.
Name and KHETRIS, Chhebris or Mustigars, a caste o f husbandmen,
origin. numbering 15,390 (1901), including 7,962 males and 7,428 females, are
found chiefly in Belgaum and Bijapur, a few being recorded in the
Southern Maratha Country and in Kanara. The word Khetri is said b y
some to be a corruption o f the Sanskrit Kshatriya, and their ancestors
are said to have come from Central India. But a more probable
derivation seems to be the Sanskrit kshelra or field, which is indicative
of their occupation. The origin of the term Mustigar is unknown.

Divisions. There appear to be tw o endogamous divisions o f the caste, of a

territorial type, the Karn&tak Khotris and the Kanara Khetris, who
neither eat together nor intermarry. The Karnatak Khetris have no
surnames or fam ily-stock names, but persons known to belong to the
same fam ily d o not intermarry.

The names in com m on use among men are R am ayya, Rang&ppa

and Tim appa : and am ong women, Balavva, D yam avva, Girevva,
Hanmavva, Malavva and Ravavva. The men generally add M m -
tiger or Chhetri to their names. Their home tongue is Kanarese.
They are bound together b y a strong caste feeling and settle social
disputes at meetings o f adult easterner; under the hereditary head-
■ ’« x \' .
|M 213
§L
[K h e tr i...

man or Kattimani, whose opinion carries great weight in all caste

matters. A ny one who fails to accept the headman’s decision is
put out o f caste. Breaches o f rules are punished b y a fine which
generally takes the form of a caste feast. Polygam y and widow
marriage are allowed and practised, but polyandry is unknown.
B oys are married between fifteen and twenty-five, and girls Marriage
between eight and twenty. A t th e engagement or marriage-fixing cere- ^™m° '
m ony a party com es from the b o y ’s to the girl’s. The girl is dressed
in a robe presented to her b y the b oy and her lap is filled with rice
and a cocoanut, plantains, and botelnuts and leaves. B etel leaves and
nuts are handed am ong the guests and the men from the bridegroom ’s
house withdraw. On the bashtagi or betrothal the girl wears another
robe given b y the bridegroom w ith ornaments and a bodice, and, be­
fore the house gods, her lap is filled with rice and five kinds o f fruit.
A d a y or two before the marriage the god-pleasing or devakarya 1b
performed in front of both houses and attended by friends and re­
lations, and her parents take the girl to the bridegroom ’ s village.
The girl’ s party is lodged a t a house close t o the b o y ’s and on the
same d a y he is treated to a dinner at the bride’s. A t the bride’ s house
five married women rub the couple with turm eric paste. In th e morn­
ing, with the help o f the men, five married women build a booth.
A t noon, caste people are feasted, and before sunset the b ride’s kins­
women bring pots from the p otter’s. A square called surgi with an
earthem p ot at each com er is m ade ready, a thread is passed round the
necks o f the pots, th e couple and their mothers arc seated in the square >
and th ey are bathed in warm water. The thread that was passed r o r a^
the p o t necks is twisted into four separate cords and tied r o u ^ ^ ie
wrists o f the couple and their mothers. Lights are waved ro u i^ them
to guard them from the evil eye and other evil influences, a ?d they
b ow before the bride’s fam ily gods, com e ou t, and fall prostra^f *n
the booth . On the third or marriage d ay, the bridegroom ’ s' kins*
w om en ask the bride to accom pany the bridegroom to his l ouse-
The bride agrees and starts followed b y a married man carrying an
earthem pot called surgi bhum, or the square earth-offering, hol^hg
verm icelli, rice, and raw sugar, and b y a married woman w ith an 3ar*
then vessel filled w ith water on her head. A t th e bridegroom ’ s •'jlojnan
is presented with a turban and th e woman with a bodice, smt c^e ° ° upl0
are received b y th e b oy ’ s household. Sweetm eats tna w ater are
laid before the fam ily gods, the hands and feet o f the co"1^ 6 are washed
w ith the water, and they are fed with the sw eetm es.! a^on? with ten
married women, five from each house. Th e ma’ a8 f Party visits
the shrine o f the local Maruti, and the bridegroom f l( ^ride arc dressed
^ Khetri] 214 o L
in rich cloth.es and decked with ornaments. A t a lucky hour they
are made to stand in the booth face to face on low stools covered with
millet and five copper coins, and separated by a curtain of which the
centre is marked with a red Jain cross or svdstih, which they call mandi
and consider the goddess of good fortune. Threads are tied round the
wrist of the bride and bridegroom, and, at th e lucky moment, the
priest throws red rice over them and fastens the lucky necklace round
the bride’ s neck. Betelnuts and leaves are handed to the guests
and money to the Brahmans. The hems of the couple’s garments
are knotted together and they bow to the fam ily gods and elders.
N ext comes the Bhuma Jevan or earth-offering feast, when the couple
with five married women on each side feast on cakes, rice, and clarified
butter brought in equal quantities from the two houses. Friends and
relations are feasted at the bridegroom ’s, and the couple are rubbed
with turmeric and made to splash each other with turmeric water.
The ceremony ends with presents o f clothes made by the relations of
the couple. They are then seated on a bullock, taken to Marati, before
whom they break a cocoanut, and return home. Lastly they both play at
hide-and-seek. The girl is formally handed b y her parents to the
care o f the bridegroom’ s mother. The bride's relations return home
and the wedding ceremonies are over.

^-Hgion. Khetris belong to the Hindu religion. Their family deities are
Kalamma, Maruti, Venkatarama o f Tirupati and Yellamma, and they
also worship other Brahmanic and local gods. They keep the usual
Brahmanic and local Hindu fasts and feasts, make pilgrimages to the
s^u ines of their family gods, and visit local fairs held in honour o f Hindu
anr* Musalman saints. They keep two special holidays, the full-moon
d.»hvin and BaJiuMshtami or the dark eighth of MargashirsTuz.
They believe in soothsaying and evil spirits. They ask Deshasth
Brahmans to officiate at their ceremonies, and after a birth or death
ask Oshtama Br&hmans to purify them with lulsi (sweet basil) water.
'I&>ir marriages are conducted b y three men, a Deshasth Brahman,
X Kattimani or caste headman, and an Oshtama.

Death ce- The dead are burnt. After death the body is bathed, set close
remonies, to . waj j ) and tied in a sitting position to a peg fixed in the wall.
. -It is m '**;.r>ed in a blanket, laid on a bier, and taken by four men
to the burr: ^ gIOund, where the pile is prepared, and the body burnt.
W hen the tj j8 nearly consumed, the chief mourner walks three
times round ij. an earthem p ot on his shoulder, pierces three
holes in the p<>- throws the pot over his shoulder, and beats his
m outh with 0| bi9 right hand. Gifts are given to Brfihmans,
ill 215 [Khetri
%L
and the Mahar, who is called the son of the soil, is given something
as the price of the land which was used for the pyre. On the third
day the ashes of the deceased are gathered and thrown into water.
On the fifth, the chief mourner worships three stones in the name of
the deceased, and offers them boiled rice without looking to see whether
or not it is touched by a crow. On the eleventh day the friends and
relations are treated to a rich feast of boiled mutton and wheat cakes.
A month after the death goats are killed and caste people are feasted.
The anniversary or death-day mind-feast or shrdddha at the end of
the year is optional.
The chief and hereditary calling of Khetris is husbandry. Some also Occupa-
work as labourers and cart-drivers. They are successful husbandmen tl0n‘
but poor gardeners. They eke out their field profits by the sale of
dairy produce, but as a class they are poor and debt-burdened.
They use all kinds of animal food except beef and pork, and drink Food,
liquor.
KANARA KHETRIS have two gotras, Bharadwaja and
Kaahyap, which are exogamous. They have no surnames. The names
in common use among men are Putappa, Mudiyana, Irranna, and
Iluchanna ; and among women, Shitamma, Irrama, Pukamma and
Lingamma. They speak Kanarese. Polygamy is allowed, widow
marriage is forbidden, and polyandry is unknown. Girls are married
before they come of age, and boys between sixteen and twenty-five.
When a match is proposed, the village jo sh i or astrologer, who is
asked to see whether the match will prove lucky, comes to the houses
of the bridegroom and bride, and, after comparing their horoscopes,
fixes a time for the marriage. The ceremony lasts four days.
In the morning of the day before the wedding five women from the
bridegroom’s house and five from the bride’s visit the bride and
the bridegroom in their houses and rub them with turmeric paste.
On the first day the bridegroom, dressed in a waistcloth, a long
white coat, and a head-scarf and wearing the mairiage coronet,
goes in procession with a knife, betel leaves and a cocoanut in
Ids hands to the bride’s house. When he reaches the bride’s
house, her father comes forward, washes his feet, and leads
him into the booth, where he sits on a bench, and is presented
with clothes. A cloth curtain is then held in front of him
by two men, the bride is led in, and the bride and bridegroom
stand facing each other separated by the curtain. The priest repeats
texts and, at the proper time, the curtain is withdrawn, and the bride­
groom and bride throw strings of flowers round each other’s necks.
R
> ' —
Khetri]
:/ 1
■
r
216
'■ / ' . ' ■ .
<SL
'
and the parents of the bride pour water on their join ed hands (the
dhdre ceremony). Then the evil-averting strings called
Kankandora are tied round their hands and the bridegroom puts, round
the neck of the bride the lucky necklace, the sign of married life.
Five large betelnuts are tied to the ends of the bridegroom’ s and
bride’s robes who sit side by side and have the ends of their robes
tied together. Gifts of money are made to Brahmans and caste
people are feasted. W om en sprinkle red rice on the brows of the pair
and wave lighted lamps round them. The second and the third
days pass in the bride’s house in entertainments. On the fourth even­
ing the bride and bridegroom, seated either in a palanquin or on horse
or bullockback, are taken to the village temple to bow to the god.
On the fifth day the pair go in procession to the bridegroom’s, where
a feast is given. This concludes the marriage ceremony.

Religion. The Kanara Khetris are H indus of the Vaishhava sect.

They worship all Vaishnava gods, especially Venkatarama, who is
their fam ily god. They make pilgrimages to his shrine at Tirupati.
Of the sixteen Brahmanic sacraments they observe seven, GarbhadMn
or puberty, Shemanli or pregnancy, Ndmakarana or naming,
Chaula or shaving, Upanayana or thread-girding, Vivaha or
marriage, and Shrdddha or funeral rites. They believe in
soothsaying and consult professional mediums who generally belong
to the Haiepaik caste. Their spiritual teacher is Tatiachari, a
Shrivaishnava Brahman, who lives at Terkavlur in South
Arcot. H e is a married man and com es on visitation tours generally
once in three years, when his adherents pay him 4 annas to Rs. 4 accord­
ing to their means. The Tatiachari enquires into breaches of
social discipline, punishes offenders, and re-admits the excommuni­
cated. Fines levied for misdemeanours belong to the teacher, whom
all hold in such high respect that they prostrate themselves at his feet
and worship him when he visits them. Their priests are Karnatak
Brahmans.
Death'; The dead are burnt. On reaching the burning ground the body
is placed on the funeral pile which has been made ready by a Mahar
or other low-caste man. The shroud is taken off and given with
1 | annas and two pounds of rice to the Mahar. Logs of wood are
piled over the body and the chief mourner sets fire to the pile. W hen
the body is consumed the chief mourner offers the deceased cooked
rice, and all except the mourners go to bathe in some pond or spring.
When they have bathed, they accom pany the chief mourner to his
house and retire to their homes. On the twelfth d a y after death all
IIP 217 [Khojah
<SL
the mourners Shave their faces and swallow the five produets o f
the cow . Crows are then fed and caste people feasted, and a shraddha
is held on every anniversary day.
The main occupation o f the caste is husbandry. Some have their (t|“ upa"
own lands, while others take land on lease, either on condition of
sharing the produce equally or o f paying the land-owner a fixed
quantity o f grain or m oney. Some are petty shopkeepers. They
deal in rice, fruit, spices and oil, which they buy wholesale from the
producers.
They neither eat flesh nor drink liquor. They rank with Marathas. Food

KHETRI KOMARPANTH.— A synonym for K om arpaik.

KHICHADYA.— A sub-division o f M odh Brahmans.
KHIKRI.— A sub-divisoin of Dhangars.
KHILARL— A sub-division o f Dhangars.
KHILLARI.—A synonym for G avli.
KHISA KATRA.— A synonym for Bham ta.
KHODIA.—A sub-division of P alia Dublas.
KHOJAHS, numbering 50,837 (males 25,555, females 25,282) Name and
at the 1901 Census and 52,367 (males 26,387 and females 2 5 ,9 8 0 )ongin’
at the 1911 Census are scattered all over Gujar&t, in Cuteh, K ath ia­
war, in the,P ortuguese territories o f Diu and D am an, in B om bay
City, Thana, K M n desh and Sind; and beyond the Presidency in
Calcutta, the Punjab, Kashmir, K abul, Dardistan, Nagar H u n z a ,(l)
Bahrein, Bandar Abbas, Mina, Linga, Kism , Karbala, and Shah N ajaf,
and, in Arabia proper, in Maskat, A den and Sheher Mukalla. There is a
flourishing colony o f K hojahs in Zanzibar. The term K h ojah has
the sectarian sense o f “ honourable convert(a) ” . K hojah is the
form used in India for the Persian Khwajah, “ a rich or respectable
m an ; a gentleman ; an opulent m erch an t<3)” .
K hojahs are Ismailids of tho Nazarian sub-division, who History,
separated in A. D. 1091 from the Mustadlian Ismailians on a question
regarding the succession to the throne o f the Fdtim ite Khilaphat in
E gypt<4). The cause o f Nazar, the elder sou o f Al-M ustanairbillah

(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. IX, Part II, i>. 36.

(2) 'Die great Khojah case of 1866, pp. 10—12.
(3) Hughes-Dictionary of Islam (1885), p. 277. It is said to be of Turkish
origin and to mean also bard, teacher, and also, like M aula both serf and master.
(Burton’s Sind 412. Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. IX, Part II, p. 36.) But the modern
Persian and sectarian senses are as given in the text.
(4) Founded in A.D. 910 (A.H. 299) by Obeidullah, who first assumed the title
of al-Mahdi.
o H 1109—28
OT|
/4 > ^ S > \ V \

X gi Khojah!
:■' v< ■

' 218
' <SL /n

(A .D , 1036-1095), one of the claimants to the Egyptian succession, was

espoused and energetically promoted, especially in Persia, where it
subsequently rose to be supreme, b y Hasan Sabah, an Ismailian
missionary, who was b om at E ai, about fifteen miles south of
Teheran and now in ruins, in the beginning of the eleventh century.
Hasan founded the order o f the Fidawis or Fidais or devo­
tees known in Europe probably from their leader’s name as the
Assassins(1). Hasan concentrated his power at Alamut or the Fal­
con ’s Nest, an impregnable hill fort on the borders o f the Persian
district of Dailem, about 200 miles north of Kazwin, which, with
a small section of the surrounding country, he had acquired in the
latter part o f the eleventh century partly b y stratagem, partly by
purchase, from the commandant of the Seljuk emperor Malak-sb&h
(A .D . 1072— 1092). After gaining Alamut, Hasan resolved to cease
acting as dai or missionary and political emissary o f the FAfcimites,
and, though he did not yet arrogate to himself the title of Unrevealed
Imam, he made himself known b y the convenient style of Shaikh-
ul-Jabal Lord, or, according to the Crusaders, Old Man o f the Moun­
tain, a title which two o f his immediate successors continued to
use. Before his death at an advanced age in A.D. 1124, Hasan had
the satisfaction of leaving his order flourishing and bidding fair to
undermine b y his Fidawi’s poignard(2), as well as by the levelling force
o f his doctrines, the neighbouring monarchies of Islam. His successors
becoming the terror of kings and the authors of revolutions, ruled
from the confines of Khur&s&n to the mountains of Syria and from
the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean^. Hasan (A.D. 1163, H. 559),
the seta o f Muhammad, the son of Buzurg-Umeid, the fourth ruler
on the pontifical throne of Alamut, threw aside the mystery with
which the son of Sabah had deemed it politic to surround his
doctrines. H e declared himself the Unrevealed Imam and preached
that no action o f a believer in him could be a sin(f). H e is called

(1) Oil the other hand Sir Joseph Amouid observes: It is likely enough that
the etymology insisted upon by Silvestre de Saoy should be correct and the origin be
the word by which the Istnailias of Alamut and Massiat were designated in the east­
ern languages. This name is Hash-shi-shin, a word derived from the use of Hashish
bhang or hemp-water with which Hasan and his successors subdued the souls while
they inflamed the energies of the Fidawis whom they employed as their instruments.
(The great Khojah case of A.D. 1866). Against this derivation it is to be noted
that not one of the Arab or Persian historians of the time designates the Ismaiiiaa by
the title of Hash-shi-shins, All call them Mulahidah or heretics. (Klliot, 11.-353-337;
Fanshtah-Persian Text, II, 645 646).
(2) The primary meaning of fidiwi from the Arabic fidd to ransom is scapegoat.
The Ismdilia Fidawis were the volunteers of the order courting death for its glory.
Sir Joseph Amouid styles them the self-offering or devoted. The Great Khojah Case
of 1866, page 9.
(3) Von Hanmer’s Assassins by Lee, 77-88, 91-92.
(4) Von Hanmer’s Assassins, by Lee, 109.
 219 [Khojah

the “ Euler o f the world w bo loosened th e bonds of the Law No

K hojah mentions, hia name without the words A ’la Zikri-his-Salam .
Peace be to hia name.(1) It is through this Hasan that hia Highness
the Agha Khan traces his decent from A li.1 (3) The Indian Kboj&hs
2
further believe that Hasan was the first of their Im&ms to send a
missionary to India. The name o f this missionary waa Nur
Sat&gur.(3> In the beginning of the reign o f Sult&nah Rasiah
(A .D . 1237-1240) Minhaj-ua-Sirdj the author of the Tabakat-i-Nasiri(4)
speaka as an eye-witness o f the Mulahidah heretics o f Hindustan
being reduced b y a person with some “ pretentions to learning called
Nur th e Turk ” (probably Nur Satagar, the missionary of Hasan
Zikri-his-salam), “ flocking to him in large numbers from all parts
o f Hindustan such as Sind, Gujarat, the environs o f Delhi, and the
banks of the Ganges and Jam na.” Minhaj-us-Siraj goes on to say
that when Nur preached the rabble gathered around him. H e used
to call the learned Sunnis Nasibis, or enemies o f Ali and usurpers o f
hia patrim ony, and their followers M.arjis or hopefuls. On Friday the
6th of R ajab H . 634 (March 1237) his followers to the number o f a
thousand men, inflamed b y his fulminations against the orthodox,
and armed with swords, shields, arrows and other weapons, attacked
the J&ma Mosque of Delhi and slew many o f the congregation
assembled there till th ey were routed w ith great loss b y the officers
of the Empress Rasiah. A ccording to the K h ojah accounts Nur-
uddin, or as they call him Nur Satagur, came f rom Deilam to Pat,an
in Gujarat, when that country was goverened b y a H indu
prince, apparently the Solanki Bhima I I (A .D . 1179-1242). H e made
a number o f converts b y ordering the idols o f a H indu tem ple to speak
and bear testimony to the truth o f his mission. H e is said to have
returned to Persia shortly after converting the H indu ruler o f P&tan
secretly to his faith.(5) On hia second visit to G ujarat he married
the daughter of R aja Surchand, chief or governor o f Navsari near
Surat. His success as a proselytiaer and his wealth exciting the
envy o f his followers, he was killed b y Check, one of his two leading

(1) Mir Khond on the authority of Yusuf Shdh Katib (or the Scribe) relates that
over the door of the library of Alamut, Hasan had caused the following couplet to
be engraved:—
Bar-dasht lau aui-shar-abataid-i-F sadi.
M akhdum-i-rusgar-aala-Zilcri-his-Balam .
With the help of God he hath undone the collar of the Law,
The ruler of the world, He of blessed memory.
Von Hanmer’s Assassins—Wood, 108-100.
(2) The great Khojah case of 1866, page 9, paragraph 1.
(3) The Khojah Vratant, 155.
(4) Elliott, II.—335-336
(5) The Khojdh hymn called Ramat in the Khojah Vratant, 155.
I'fi;khojahj 220
Gt
o l j

disciples while he was absorbed in samddki or contemplation.

The name Nur Satagur “ Teacher of pure light ” which he took
in addition to his own name Nur-ud-din or Nurshih and the practice
o f the H indu abstraction or samddhi show the process by which
the first Ismailla preachers succeeded in converting Hindus. (1) The
Ismalia preachers gained their chief success among the Afghan tribe of
Lohanas. According to the tribe-legends preserved b y the Khojahs
the Lohanas are descended from Lava, a son of Ram a, who found­
ed the tribe of the Rathors to which the Lohanas belong. According
to another story, of which there seem to be several versions, R aja
Jaichand o f Kanauj took to wife an Afghan woman w ho was made
captive after the defeat of Shahab-ud-din Ghori ( A D . 1178) and
who in revenge caused Jaichand’s death. Jaicharid’s son, to quiet
his father’s angry spirit, was advised to feed many Brahma-
Kshatris. The Kshatris refused and fled to Lahuragadh. The
title Khwajah meaning Lord which they received on their conversion
to Islam from their Pir Sadr-ud-din seems a translation o f the title
Thakkar or Thakur b y which Lohanas are addressed. In support of
this it is to be noticed that in Hiil&r or North-east Kathiawar
Khojahs are still addressed b y the Lohana title of Thakkar and
wear their waist cloths in Lohana fashion. Further the language
o f the Khoj&hs and of some o f their Sindi religious hymns contains
a liberal mixture of Punjabi words which are also present in the
language o f the Kathiawar Lohanas.
A later element o f strength in the Khoiah com munity is of
Kashmir origin. Farishtah(2) mentions the CkdJcs, originally a race
o f sun-worshippers, who called themselves Rausha,nias The People
of Light, During the reign of Fateh-shah of Kashmir (A.D. 1458-
59, H . 864) these GJiaks were converted to the Ismaili’ s faith
by a missionary from Irak. This was Shams-ud-din, the second
Ismailia missionary to India, who, according to the Khojah h y m n s ,
was able to work m iracles/35 Shams-ud-din settled at Uch in Bahawal-
(1) Another Ismailia missionary Sadr-ud-din adopted the Hindu names
of Sahdeva and Harchand. Apart from its popularity with Hindus the adoption
of a Hindu name was in agreement with the Sufi (tasaw-wuf) rule as laid by
Saadi (A.D. 1258)
Saddiya gar wasl khahi Sulh kun ba hahs o am ;
B a Musalmans A llah A lla h , ba Hunudan Ram Ram.
Sahdi if thou wishest union, live at peace with low and high;
With the Muslim call on Allah, with the Hindu Ram RAm cry.
(2) Persian Text, II, 647.
(3) Parishtah notices that he met with elders of the Nur Baksh order in Badakh-
shan. He found they differed in no way from the orthodox either in appearance
or in ostensibly following the rules of the Sunnahot tradition. He says a son of Nur
Baksh showed him Nur Baksh’s book, in which he found much to admire. Farishtah
Persian Text, II, 643.
 221 [Khojah^ l -
pur about eight miles south o f Multan, where his shrine still exists.(1)
The followers o f Shams-ud-din number about 75,000 in the
Punjab and Kashmir. Many of his B hoi (porter), Sonar (goldsmith)
and Kasara (coppersm ith) converts, though still believing in him, have
gone back to Hinduism, and m any w ho never ceased to be H indus
continue to believe in him. A ccording to th eK h oja b accounts Shams-
ud-din is the disciple o f Nur Satagur whom Shams served under the
name o f Chote. Farishtah gives A .D . 1496 as the date o f Shams
C kote’ s arrival in K&shmir.1
(2)3
A bout A .D . 1430 Sadr-ud-din known as the third Pir was appoint­
ed head of the Khojahs o f Kashmir, Sind and the Punjab and was
the first Pit to found a Khdnah or Khojah. religious lodge. H e
conceived the idea o f taking all the K hojahs o f India to visit the
Unrevealed Im am in Persia. The huge army o f pilgrims travelled
till they reached Gujarat in the Punjab. A t Gujar&t to test the faith
of his headmen, the Pir betook himself to the house o f a prostitute
seemingly forgetful of the sacred errand on which he had persuaded
his followers to start. Tw o of the headmen lost faith in Sadr-ud-din.
B ut Trikam, the Sind Mukhi, though vilely repulsed, satisfied
the demands of the prostitute and took his Pir with him to the cam p
o f pilgrims. A t the next encampment the faith o f the followers was
still more rudely tested. The Sind headman alone passed the
ordeal unscathed. I n .th e end the Pir went alone to Alamit. H e
saw the Im am incarnate, returned to Uch, died and was buried at a
village called Jetpur near Uch.
A s about A .D . 1200 Nur-Sat&gur had converted Gujarat, so one
o f his successors R am de, originally a Tuwar R a jp u t sowed the seed of
the Ismaiiia faith in Cutch and Kathi&war. A bou t A .D . 1430, from
the Ismaiiia lodge (khdnah) he had established at K otd a in Sind,
Pir Sadr-ud-din started the first tythe-gathering wallet (jholi) on
its rounds from the Himalayas to the V indhva range. I t was Pir
Sadr-ud-din -who, to impart everlasting vigour to the tree o f the
Ismaiiia faith, engrafted into it the name of Ali, and also the name
of Agha Islam Shah an ancestor of his Highness the A gha Khan, as A li’s

(1) One of the most famous of Shams Chote’s miracles was the calling to life of
the dead son of a powerful noble of Uch. The Pir said: In the name of Allah thou
that art dead arise. The corpse did not stir. Then Shams-ud-din said: In the
name of Shams thou that are dead arise, and the boy drew up and stretched out his
hands and feet, yawned, sneezed, and was one of the living. Farishtah (Persian
Text, II. 643) seems to think that much of the success of Shams ud-din in converting
the Chak sun worshippers was due to the happy accident that the missionary’s name
was'" *Sun of the Faith ” Sham s-ud-din.
(3) Major Biddul-h’s Tribes of the Hindu Kush 134.
 i .
^ ;g * K h o j a h ] . ■
•■
•
. 2 2 2
's „ v •-
(si.
incarnation, together with the nine Avatars o f his Vishnu-worahipping
followers. Up to Pir Sadr-ud-din’s .time A dam and the Prophet o f
Islam were unknown in the Hindu Pantheon. Adam is now introduced
as Vishnu and the prophet of Isldm as Mahesh. Again, as Isldm Shah
was the incarnation of Ali. so Nur-Satdgur was the incarnation of
Brahma and Sadr-ud-dinwas the incarnation o f Bdlardma. The last
of the Imams, the coming Mahdi, was explained to he the
Nishkabnlri or stainless Avatdr, whose appearance was looked for b y
the Saktipanthis as the millennium.*

After Sadr-ud-din came Kabir-ud-diu who was succeeded b y Im am '

ud-din known in Gujarat as Im am Shdh. Im am Shah was not well
received b y the Sind Khojahs and had to withdraw to Persia where,
after visiting the Imam at Kekht, he returned to India in A .D . 1452.
Disgusted with his Sind followers he turned his footsteps towards
Gujardt and was favourably received by Mahmud Begada (A .D . 1459-
1511). Imam-ud-din founded a new sect in Gujardt with opinions
differing in some minor points from the doctrines of the Ismdilia faith.
The Khojahs possess to this day a hymn composed by Im dm Shah
called the jandzah or Bier in which he describes his journey to the
heavens through the power of the Imdra, and his meeting with Pral-
hddha, Harischandra, Yudhisthira, Sadr-ud-din and others. ImdmShdh
died in A.D. 1512. His disciples, who belong to the class of Momnds,
are to be found in Ahmeddhdd, Kaira, Cambay, Baroda, Bhdvnagar,
Surat, Klidndesh and Cutch. Owing to the deviation o f his teaching
from the doctrines laid down b y the older Khojdh Pirs and owing
to his denouncing the Khojdh practice of levying dassondh or tytbes,
Im am Shah was excommunicated b y Abdas-saldm, the son o f Isldm-
shah, the unrevealed Khojdh Im dm of the time. In Gujardt after the
death of Pir Imdm-ud-din (A .D . 1512) active proselytizing ceased.
A b ou t A.D . 1594 Kapnra Lohdna and some other K hojdhs carried
the tythe wallet o f the Indian Ismdilias to Kekht in Persia,
the residence of Agha Abd-us-Saldm the unrevealed Im dm . To
supply the want o f a missionary Agha Abd-us-Saldm wrote
in Persian for the guidance o f his Indian followers a book
called the Pandydd-i-Jdivdnmardi, that is, the Maxims of
Fortitude. This b ook transliterated and translated into Sindi and
Gujarati forms part of the scriptures of the Khojdhs and is regarded
with a veneration which gives the book the twenty-sixth place in the
list o f the K hojah Pirs or saints. The mystic strain in their faith the

* For farther details of the Hinduized presentation of the Ism&iliab faith eee
beiow.
 223 [Khojah □ L j
Khoj&hs trace to certain allegorical traditions o f the Prophet
and A l i . (1)
A bou t the m iddle of the sixteenth century the backsliding of the
Punjab K hojahs to Sunniism showed the need o f a vice-pontiff in India.
The Im&m summoned on eD a u d or Dadu, a descendant o f a powerful
fam ily of Sind Khojahs, and invested him with the m antle o f a Pir.
The day o f D adu’ s investiture is still celebrated b y the K hojahs as
the Shah’s Id. A bou t 1549 (Samvat A .D . 1606) P ir D adu, owing to
the hostility of the Sumras, left Sind and settled in Jamnagar. Here
th ey were honourably received b y the J&m and at his request
forty more families of KliojAhs were invited. A p lot o f land near the
tow n was assigned to them and round it th ey raised a wall, one of whose
gates is still know n as D adu’s Gate. After converting some K athia­
war Loh&n&s, D&du went to Bhuj, the capital of Cutch in the reign
o f M o Bh&rmal I (A.D . 1585-1631). Here a rain-com pelling miracle
procured the Pir many converts. Pir D&du died in A .D . 1594 and was
succeeded b y his son Sadik, after whom the title of Pirship becam e ex­
tinct, the deputy of the Im&m being henceforth styled Vakil. Owing to
fam ily dissensions Sadik’s grandson m oved from Bhuj to Hal&r in
K&thi&wSr. In A .D . 1844 the K hojah Im am Agha Shah Hasan Ali
discontinuing the appointm ent o f local Khoj&lis as his Vakils sent
ou t his nephew to Cutch as his deputy. A year later (A .D . 1845),
Agha Shah Hasan Ali better known as his Highness the Agha-Khan
himself came to India and was the first Ismailia unrevealed Im am
to settle in this country. H e was eighteenth in descent from Ruknud-
din Khur Shah during whoso tenure of the Ismailia pontificate in
A .D . 1255, HalAku Khan the Tartar massacred the Ismailia population
of Persia, and dismantled their forts.

Khoj&hs are split up in to seven divisions(2>. T h ey are as Divisions,

follows :—
(1) A tlai-K hurasani.
(2) Badakhshani and K abuli.

(1) Ali being asked how he came to know Allah replied : I came to know my
Maker from the weakness of my own purpose. In justification of their belief in
incarnations the Khojahs put forward the argument about Godhead in Man furnished
by a tradition which they attribute to the Prophet: I am the ‘Mim’ less Muhammad.
This is Ahad, the One and Unique Allah. (That is, without its three m s or m ins
Muhammad becomes Ahad). A scoffer asked Ali; What is Allah ? The Prince of
the Faithful replied : Hast thou been at sea in a sinking ship ? Though the winds
sang thy dirge and the waves threatened to engulf thee like the veritable black valley
of Jehanna, even then di-1 no small benign voice whisper to thee ‘ Thou shalt be saved
That voice, oh thou of little belief, was Allah. The Khojahs are fond of the Prophet’s
saying : Think not on the being, think on the bounty of God. Khojah Vrataut I-IQ.
(S) The Khojdh Variant, p. 255.
 (fiT
Khojah] 224 ‘ ^ J

(3) Gujar-Gupti.
(4) Khedwaya Momna.
(5) Mochi-M om na.
(6) Multani.
(7) Soni-Lohar.

Birth. fthojahs have many observances and customs differing from those
of regula, Musalmans. The chhatti or sixth day ceremony after birth
differs from that performed b y regular Gujarat Musalmans. Near
the bed of the m other is placed a bajot or wooden stool, on which after
the child and mother have been bathed and dressed, on the evening
of the sixth day are placed a reedpen, an inkstand, a blank book,
a knife and a gailand of flowers. The pen, ink and paper are intended
for the Goddess o f Fortune who is believed to write the destiny of the
newborn child. A chaUmuJch four-sided butter-fed dough lamp is
also placed on the stool and lighted and close to the lamp is set a box o f
Chinese crackers. As each of the female relatives of the family comes
in she strews a little rice near the stool, lays on the ground her present
o f gold or silver wristlets and anklets for the child and, bending over the
mother and her newborn babe, takes their balayen or ills upon herself
b y passing her hands over them and cracking her finger joints against
her temples. The little one is then laid on the ground on the strewn
rice and the mother rises and worships the child b y bowing towards it
and to the chaumukh or four-faced lamp on the stool. Crackers are
then let off and the child is laid in its mother’s lap.

Marriage. The K hojah marriage keeps a relic o f the marriage b y purchase

which they believe once obtained among them. Three or four days
before the marriage the fathers or male guardians of the marrying pair
meet one evening at the Jam a-at Khan&h or assembly lodge with their
M ends and relatives and the Mukhi or other Jama-At officer. The
officer registers the names of the bride and bridegroom in a regis­
ter kept under the order of his Highness the Aglxa Khan. The father
o f the bridegroom gives R s. 5|- to the fatheT o f the bride.
The sum is received by the girl’s father and handed to the Jama-at
officer as the marriage contribution to the fund. The bridegroom’s
friends place before the Jam a-at officer a copper or brass tray containing
from five to ten seers of sugar. The Jam a-at officer, after repeating
the hallowed names of the F ive or Panj-tan, that is, Muhammad, Ali,
Fatim ah, H asan an 1 Husein declares “ 1 do hereby begin
the wedding o f Mehr Ali, son of Karam Ali, with Rabiah,
the fourth daughter o f Padamsi Punja, to wed as did wed
F&tim&h, the bright-faced lady, daughtei of our Lord and Prophet
 225 [Khojah '

Muhammad {on whom be peace) with the Lord and the leader, the
receiver o f the testament o f the Chosen and Pure, the Lord Ali,
the son o f A bu T alib.” The sugar tray is then placed before the bride’s
father who, in token o f ratifying the com pact, tastes a pinch of the sugar
which is then distributed among those present. This is the verbal
com pact.
On the morning of the n ext day, the written agreement is prepared.
A th ick parchment-like sheet o f blank paper is taken together with
trays full of dried fruit and sugar to the bride’s house b y the bride­
groom ’s father and his friends accompanied b y the Jamii-at officers.
The Jam a-at scribe begins the writing with the names o f the five
holy persons and th e names o f the four archangels in the four corners.
Then are entered the names o f the contracting parties with those of
their fathers and grandfathers, the amount o f the marriage portion,
the names o f the chief JaroAAt officers o f the day, and the dates on
which the chief marriage ceremonies are to be preform ed. Saffron
water is sprinkled over the sheet of paper, which, together with the
sugar and dried fruit, is laid before the bridegroom ’ s father. The
bridegroom ’s father lays the sheet on the ground and on it places
an iron nail and four betelnuts and throws some rice over it. Then
folding it he wraps it and the betelnuts in an unused silk or cotton
handkerchief and takes it away. E xcept that in B om bay the Nikah
cerem ony is performed b y his Highness the A gha K han himself and
outside B om bay b y his officers, the ceremonies th at follow possess
no note-w orthy peculiarity.

The religion o f the K hojahs is Shiah Ismaildism. T o the simple Religion.

Sunni Kalimah or profession o f faith “ there is no God but Allah
and Muhammad is H is P r o p h e t” the Shiah adds “ and Ali, the com ­
panion o f Muhammad, is the Y icar o f G o d ” . The elevation o f A li to
an alm ost equal place with the Prophet is the distinctive tenet o f the
S h ia h s /1 lh e whole religious life o f the Shiah is steeped in a current
o! thoughts, beliefs, traditions and observances having their source
in A li, the Lady Fatimah, and their tw o sons Hasan and Husain,
four venerated names which with that of the apostle o f God com pose
the Pentad or P a n j-T a n of the h oly fam ily o f Islam. To revere A li
as the Vicar, still m ore as the incarnation o f Alllih, to g o on pilgrimage
to Shah Najaf, the supposed place o f A li’ s m artyrdom , 120 miles
southwest o f Baghdad, and at Karbala to bow the forehead on m oulds

means separatist, which is probably the correct deriva-

won. The term was originally applied to those pure-blooded members of Ali’s
family who fell early victima to the hostility of the Sunni Umayad Khalifahs of
Damascus (A.D. 601—745). Sir Joseph Arnouid in the great Khoj&h case of 1865,
E 1109—29
■ ' '"■

B * h ] »

o f K arbala d a y and to drink the h oly clay dissolved in water are

§L
practices as m eritorious in th e eyes of th e Shifih as th ey are forbidden
in th e estim ation o f the Sunni. The Sunni prays with folded arms five
tim es, the Shiah with his arms straight b y his side three tim es a day.
Th e Shiah venerates Ali and Fatim ab and execrates the m em ory of
th e first three Khalif&hs. The Sunni reverences the first three Khalif&hs
equally with A li and the L a d y F&timah. The Shiah laws o f marriage,
d ivorce and inheritance, though drawn from the same source, are
com pletely opposed to the Sunni laws. The K hojahs, like the Memans,
fo llo w the H indu law of inh eritan ce!1* The Sunni considers it his
d u ty, if he can afford it, to m ake a pilgrim age t o Mecca and
M adina. W ith the Shiah it is an act o f m erit if he has visited the
shrines of A li and H usain.<2)
Th e Shiahs are divided into tw o classes, the Isna-asharis or
Tw elvers w ho believe in the twelve Imams, th e descendants o f Ali.
T o this branch o f the Shiah faith belong the regular classes o f the
Persian and Indian Shiahs. The other branch is that o f the Seveners
or Sabins who are called Ismailians because they reckon seven Im am s
and make Ismail, the son o f Muhammad, the son of Jaafar Sadik, the
last o f the revealed Imams. The difference between the Twelvers and
th e Seveners starts from the seventh Im am . The power o f the Seveners
originated with the dynasty o f the Fatim is in E gyp t (A .D . 910— 1171)
founded b y Obeidullah (A .D . 910) who through Muhammad H abib,
the son of Ja&far Musaddik, w ho claimed descent from Ismail, the
seventh and according to the Ismailias the last o f the revelaed Im&ms.
Muhammad, the son of Ismail, and his son Jaafar Musaddik and his
son Muhammad Habib are called b y the Ismailias their Maktum
or Concealed Im am s in contradistinction to Obeidullah, the asserter
o f the rights o f the fam ily o f Ismail to the Khilaphat, a Revealed
Im&m. On the establishment of the Fatim ite dynasty in Africa
(1) During the absence of his Highness the Aghain Calcutta in A.D. 1846-47
and 1848 litigation was carried on and concluded which again divided the Khojahs
of Bombay into two hostile parties. It was the well-known case as to the rights
of female inheritance among the Khojahs, called Sarjun Mir Ali's case, in which
Sir Erskine Perry in A.D. 1847 pronounced a learned judgment, founded on the
evidence of caste-usage and custom, against the rights of Khojah females to inherit
according to the rules of Muhammadan law. The great Khojah case of 1866.
(2) Sir Joseph Amould, on whose judgment in the great Khojah case of A.D.
1866much of the above contrast is based, thus sums the differences: In a word
agreeing in reverencing Muhammad as the Prophet and the Kuraan as the word of
Allah the Sunnis and ShiAhs agree in little else except in hating each other with the
bitterest hatred. (The great Khoj Ah case.) The ShiAh calls the Sunni a N a sib i and a
K h d r iji, a usurper and an outgoor. The Sunni retorts by oalling the ShiAh a R a fz i or
rejecter. Sir Richard Burton (Alf Lailah-wa-Lailah, IV, 44, note I) says : The Shiahs
have no ground to feel offended at the word R a f z i being applied to them as the name
was taken from their own saying Im m a rafadhna hum. verily we have rejected or
renounced them, that is the first three Khafifahs,
 '; 227
■ §L
[Khojah

(A .D . 910) the Ismailia doctrines were first publicly taught at Mahdia,

a city founded b y Obeidullah afterwards sumamm ed A1 Mahdi
and after the conquest o f E gypt, b y the fourth Fatim ite Ali-M uizz
(A .D . 953— 975) at Cairo. Towards the close o f the eleventh century
(A .D . 1072—■1092) the power of the Ismailias was established at A lam ut
in Persia b y Hasan Sab&h, The doctrines o f the Ism&ilias of Persia
remained without change till, the year A .D . 1163 when the fourth
successor o f Hasan Sab&h, Alazikri-his-salam, abrogated the rule
of secrecy and promulgated his doctrines and transferred the Im a-
mate from the Fatimite to hiniself.(I) From Alazikri-his-salam the
Khoj&hs derive the succession and descent o f their present Im&m
his Highness the Agha Khan. For the presentation o f the Ismailia
faith in inviting form to the Shakti-worshipping Loh&n&s, see above.
In addition to the equations there given the five Pandavas were equated
with the first five famous Ismailia pontiffs. Am ong the Matapanthis
each of the four Yugas or epochs has its preacher or bhakta. T o the first
epoch is assigned as bhakta Praihada, to the second Harischandra, and
to the third Yudhishthira. Instead o f the fourth Balabhadra or Bala-
r&ma Pir Sadr-ud-din, the third K hojah missionary, added his own name.
The four sacrifices1(2) of the iom jugas were confirmed as -were also con ­
firmed the Ghat Path—Mantra or prayer and ritual o f the Shaktipanthis.
Instead o f Shaktipanthi Sadr-ud-din adopted the nam e o f Sat/panth
or True D octrine for his new faith. The K h ojas repeat the hymns o f
Sadr-ud-din with great d evotion and never name him b u t with extreme
reverence. The forms of K hojah prayer and ritual are laid down in
the B ook o f Pandy&di Jawan Mardi b y A gha Abdus Sal&m Shah, one
of the K h oja Imams. The book is translated into old Hindu Sindi.
Before the tim e of Pir D adu (about A .D . 1550) the form o f worship
prescribed to the Khojas was daily attendance at the khamh or prayer
lodge and the repetition on a rosary of 99 or 101 beads the names Pir-
Shdh(3) or Shah Pir. Pir D adu ord ered his followers to pray three times
a day like the Shiahs, repeating the above words in their prayer and
also repeating the names o f all the Imams dow n to the present Imam.
The K hojah prays sitting, m entally addressing his prayers to the Imam
for the time. He also makes prostrations at stated intervals. The
new m oon, Muharram and Ramazan prayers are repeated in the
Jam aat-Khanah with the P ir as Leader. W hile the prayer reciters are
assembling a man stands at the chief entrance. H e demands the

(1) Von Hamner’s Assassins, by Lee—20*109.

(2) The Balidana, the first Yuga sacrifice being the elephant, the second the horse,
the third the cow, the fourth the goat. Khojah Vratant, 195.
(3) Shah, literally King, allegorically means God, and P ir , the Prophet. Khojah
Vratant, 239-40,
 . ............

vi' Khojah] 228

<SL
Khoj&h shibboleth or watchward of every person seeking admission.
Th e newcomer says : Hai Zindah, Oh, thou living one, and the Janitor
answers Kaydmpdya I have found him alike and true.(1) The K h oja h ’s
three daily prayers are : Morning prayer Svho-ji-nimaz between 4 and
5 a .m .; evening prayer Maghrib or Sdnanji nimdz at dusk ; and night
prayer Isaji nimdz between 8 and 9 p.m., generally at home. N ext to
prayer the m ost im portant a ct o f devotion is the counting o f the names
o f the Pirs on a rosary of 101 beads made of Karb&la clay. Third in
im portance is the K hojah sacrament the (that path or Heart-prayer.
E x ce p t on holidays, Saturdays and Mondays, when in B om bay the
Im am presides, the sacrament Is held after the morning prayers at the
pbief Jam a-at-Khanah b y the Jama-at officers. Karbala clay is
dissolved in a large bow l o f tvater, and as each o f the congregation rises
to leave the lodge he goes t o the person presiding, lays before him from
2 annas to 2 rupees and kisses Iris hand. H e receives a small cup
of the sacramental water w hich he drinks and retires.
Besides th e Dassondh or tithe and the Petondh a smaller contri­
bution, the K h oja h has to p a y his Im am about sixteen minor con­
tributions varying from -J-5 annas to R s. 1,000.(2) These he pays
as the zalcdt or purification ordered b y tho Kuran. Besides these
when pressed for money the Im am sends round the Jholi or wallet
demanding an extraordinary levy o f the tenth or fifth part of the
w hole o f a K h oja h ’s possessions. This is called the Bakkas, a corruption
o f bakshish or voluntary gift. Though it once caused the defection
o f a large num ber from the com m unity the Khoj&hs have more than
once cheerfully paid the Bakkas. It is known to have been paid in
A .D . (1839-40).<3)
The Dassondh is levied on each newmoon day of every month,
each K hojah dropping into a cloth bag kept in the Jarna-at-Kh&nah
for the purpose as much as he is inclined to pay, generally the tenth
part of his m onthly earnings. The Kdwja is the contribution duo
for the initiation of a K hojiih child. I t is paid b y the parents at any
.r v -jfi Tt is said that Pir Kabir-u-din, the fourth IamAilia missionary (A.D. 1448)
in one of the visits to the ImAm at Deilam, was addressed by the ImAm as IIm -zindah.
Oh ivinz one. In reply the Pir said Uydm p&ya I have found hrmahve (meaning
himselfl These words repeated in a Khojah’s devotions possess a merit equal to the
gift of a horse in charity. KhojAh Vratant, 212.
(o\ The Kboj Ah Vratan t at page 241 gives the names of some of the chief dues as:
, O I o T,ehn Chaleo, 4. Chopdo, 5. Samar-chhanto, 6. M arnu -parn u,
l . Sarahur 2. \ B f a i b h u k i , 9 h a r m Balcas, 10. Chhati m undu. 11.
l u l f u ^ raph od a -p h od i, 13. M ata-salam ati, U . M oh ur, IS Sadam aji, Ip . K anyo.
'P h iD a sso n d h and P etondh, though large dues, are not regularly paid. Many KhojAhs
do not pay them at all.
,3) gjr Joseph Amould’s Judgment in the great KhojAh ease of I860, page 11,
 229 [K h o ja h ^ ^

tim e after the child has reached the age of four to twelve. This is
the K h oja h substitute for the Bismillah cerem ony o f the regular
Musalm&ns.

Besides the Ramazan and the Baler Ids, two holidays which they
enjoy join tly with other Musalmans, the Khojahs observe nine other
yearly holidays. T h ey are as follow s(1 ):—
K a tl .—Assassination of the Imam Ali ., 21st Ramazan.
L a ila t-u l-K a d r .—Night of preordainment
of Destinies .. . 23rd Ramazan.
Id -i-G h a d ir .. .■ .. 18th Zir Hajjah.
A sh u ra h .. .. .. 9th and 10th Muharram.
C hihillm v ' . . .. .. 21st of Safar.
K a tl-i ( Assassination of) Imam Hasan 29th „
r d -i-M a u la d ( Husein’s Birthday) .. 17th of the 1st R a b i.
The Nauruz or vernal Equinox kept according to the Parsi calculation.
Birthday of his Highness Agha Khan 2nd Novomber.

A remarkable feature at a K h ojah ’s death is the samarchhanta or Death.

H oly D rop. The Jama,-at officer or th e Mukhi asks the dying K h ojah
if he wishes the samarchhanta. I f the dying person agrees, he or she
bequeaths Rs. 5 to R s. 500 or any larger am ount to the K h ojah
Jam a-ak A Sindi-knowing K hojah is then called in to read the B ook
of the Ten Incarnations, Das-Avatar. A Jam a A t officer dilutes a
cake of Karbala clay in water, and, to save the departing
soul from the temptation o f the Archfiend, who is believed to be present,
offering a cup of false nectar, moistens th e lips, and sprinkles the rest
of the water on the face, the neck and the chest o f th e dying K h oja h .'
The touch o f the H oly D rop is believed to relieve the death agon y
as com pletely as among the Sunnis does the recital at a death-bed
of the Chapter of the Kur&n known as the Surah-i-Y&sin. I f the
deceased is old and gray-haired the hair after death ia dyed with henna.
A garland of cakes o f Karbala clay is tied round the neck o f the
corpse. If the body is to be buried locally tw o small circular patches
of silk cloth cut from the covering o f H usain’s tom b, called chashmahs
or spectacles, are laid over the eyes. I f the b od y is to be buried in
the sacred soil of Karb&la, the viscera are rem oved before the b o d y
is bathed, the hollow is filled with cam phor and the incision carefully
sew n.1(2) A fter it is bathed and shrouded, the b od y is laid in a bier and

(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. IX, Part II, p. 49.

(2) This is doubtful. Some say the Shi 4h in common with orthodox sections
believe that it is sacrilege amounting to a mutilation to even handle the body roughly
after death. They say that the viscera are not removed, but that a stout cotton
ribbon about, two inches in breadth is wound tightly and closely round the body
of the corpse beginning from the toes and ending at the throat. After the body is
deposited in the coffin the remaining space in the coffin is filled with finely pounded
henna powder. The powdered henna absorbs all the moisture which the body exudes
and prevents smell.
 Khojah] 230

taken to a mosque and the prayers for the dead are repeated over it.
It is then placed in an air-tight tin-lined coffin which is afterwards
enveloped in tarred canvas. As long as the coffin lies at a mosque
awaiting shipment the services of a Shiah Mullah are engaged at R s. 5
to Rs. 50 to keep on reading the Kuran over the b od y. The coffins
of dead Khojahs are carried by steamer and transhipped at the mouth
of the Euphrates into smaller river-craft and b y them are landed at
Baghdad ten or twelve days after leaving B o m b a y * A t Baghdad
professional coffin-carriers take charge of them and carry the coffins
by mule or camel to Karbala. The steamer freights vary from Rs.
200 to Rs. 400 : the Baghdad camelmen charge no less than Rs. 20 to
Rs. 40 for each coffin ; and the final internment charges at Karb&la
are heavy ranging from Rs. 100 for the deposit of the coffin
in the vaults (Sardab) below Husain’s shrine to Rs. 2,000 to Rs. 5,000
for a grave on the Karbala side.
Occopa- The K hojah enyoys a good business reputation. A keen jealous
spirit o f com petition is the chief trait in the Khoj ah character. Though
called “ Tundds ” that is, beliefless epicures,! the Khojahs have a
great regard for their religion, the tenets ofwhich they observe faithfully.
They are neat, clean, sober, thrifty, ambitious and in trade enterprising
and cool and resourceful. J They are great travellers b y land and sea,
visiting and settling in distant countries for purposes o f trade. They
have business connections with the Punjab, Sind, Calcutta, Ceylon,
Burma, Singapore, Ch:na and Japan ; with ports o f the Persian Gulf,
Arabia and East Africa, and with England, America and Australia.
K hojah boys go as apprentices in foregin Khoj&h firms on salaries o f
Rs. 200 to R s. 2,000 a year with board and lodging.
On their first settlement in the towns of Gujarat the Khojahs
were parched grain-sellers, fuel-sellers, old embroiderymen (zari-
purdnds) and bricklayers. They now en joy assured and powerful posi­
tions in the ivory, horn, cotton, hide, mother of pearl, grain, spice,
fishmaw, shark-fin, cotton seed, furniture, opium and silk trades. They
have also gained high places in the learned professions as doctors,
engineers and lawyers.
KHOKHAR.—See under Minor Musalman Castes.
KHOMBHADIA.—A sub-division o f Kar&d Vanias.
* All these details relate to conditions prevailing before the War.
f Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. IX , Part II, p. 44; T u n ia is presumably the Marathi
word meaning—" sleek, complacent from the Skt. tunda a belly. ”
t Like most successful trading races they have acquired a reputationf or crooked
dealing The proverb.—“ A Meman will be faithless though he read seventy Qurans
is quoted by Risley. The People of India—1st Edition, 1908, App. I, p. XXVI.
According to Risley Meman in this proverb means Kbojdh.
 ' ■ " :L :;" W p

231 [K ilik e tS L

KHOSARE.—A synonym for Kochare Mahar.

KHOT.—A synonym for Javal.
KHOTI.— A sub-division o f Macbhis.
KHOTIL.— A sub-division o f Bhiis.
KHOTRA.—A synonym for Nade.
KHUDANE.—A sub-division of Vanjaris.
KHULKHULEVALE.—A synonym for Makadvale,
KHUTE.— A synonym for Kbutekar.
KHUTEKAR.— A sub-division of Yaidus, Dhangars.
KILIKETS or Katabus, also known as Ohhatris, numbering Name and
abou t 900, and not recorded separately at the Census o f 1901, are or‘ gin-
a caste o f wandering beggars recruited from m any castes, notably
from Bagdis, Budbudkis, and Gondhalis. They claim descent
from a Kshatriya, who is said to have followed the Pandavs in their
wanderings after the loss o f their kingdom , and hence style them ­
selves Ohhatris. B ut an examination o f their manners and customs
tends to show th at they are recruited from several castes in the
Karn&tak with n o claim to Kshatriya rank. Like m any other wander­
ing castes, they have no Brahman priests ; they change their abode
frequently, feed on pork, and their women, like the K orav a women,
are expert tattooers. Th ey rank low in the social scale.
There are tw o divisions o f the tribe, M inahidiyo and G om b ia - Divisions,
diso, but they are not forbidden to eat together or intermarry.
The Minahidiyos (Kan. mine fish, hidiyo catcher) m ake their living
b y catching and selling fish, and the Gombiadisos (K an . gombi doll,
adiso exhibitor) b y exhibiting leather dolls. The tribe is divided
in to thirteen clans, which are exog en ou s. The first ten o f these
clans hold tribal offices. The names o f the clans are as follows :—

1. Ganachari. 8. Mohria.
2. Shiv&ch&ri. 9. Shingan or Harkari.
3. Neknar or Kattim ani. 10. Dhruv or Mattimani.
4. P&nch&ngi or Bhand&ri. 11. Vakuda.
5. Shindya or Halmani. 12. Dorkar.
6. Salva or H ogaluvike. 13. Dhumalkar.
7. Sasnik.
This tribal organization is said to have been the work o f H an-
mantr&v Naming of H aveli in Poona. H e becam e headman o f
th e tribe and called him self Sar-Gan&ch&ri. The office of Gan&-
ch&ri is hereditary in his family. H e was joined b y Shivachari
 ' 'i '*

(fffjf
X ^ g ^ K ilik e t ]
• 232
Gl ’ n 1

who brought with him Neknar Patilj to whom waa given the office of
Kattimani. The Pa til was joined b y a Glondhali of Mahergad to
whom was given the title o f Pancliangi or Bhandari. The Gondhaii
brought over to their side Shindya, who was made Halmani.
H e was joined by Salva, who afterwards became Hogaluvike.
Lastly the Sasniks and Mohrias joined them. Shingan and Dbruvs
have joined them within the last thirty or forty years, and have
been made Harkaris and Mattimanis. The V&kudas, Dorkars and
Dhumalkars have joined within the last thirty years. A re­
presentative from each o f these clans must attend at every Kiliket
marriage, and each has certain functions assigned him in the ceremony.
The Dhruv or Mattimani brings all the wheat, rice and other stores
that may be required ; the Shingan or Hark&ri bids the guests to
th e wedding ; the Ganachari must give the order for the marriage
and throw the rice on the happy pair ; the Shivachari draws the cross
called nnndi on the curtain and holds it between the bride and bride­
groom . The Shindya or Halmani spreads a blanket for the co u p le ;
th e Sasnik strews rice on i t ; the Neknar or Kattimani ties the hems
of the married couple’s clothes into a knot; and the Panchangi does five
things : makes a serpent o f earth on Ndgpanchami, in the month of
Shravan, distributes provisions equally among his casternen, takes
R s. 9 from the bridegroom, spends Re. 1 in betel-leaves and nuts,
and distributes the remaining sum equally among his caste people,
and lastly prepares fire for smoking tobacco at caste meetings.
I f anyone o f these office-bearers refuse to attend, the Kiliketa
are put to grave inconvenience. Many years ago the Mohrias, whose
business it was to weave peacock feathers at the marriage, refused
t o perform their office. They were put ou t of caste and marriages
have since been performed without the help o f peacock feathers. These
various office-bearers are remunerated as follows
Leaves. Betelnuts. Pice.
Ganachari .. 5 5 5
Shivachari .. 4 4 4
Nekn&r or Bagli Patil .. 4 4 4
P in ch in g i .. 4 4 4
Shindya •• 2 2 2
S ilv a •• 2 2 2
Sisnik •• 2 2 2
The Mohria, having quarrelled with the whole b od y o f the Kilikets
does not attend the marriages, which Jake place without him. But if
the brid e or brid egroom belongs to the Mohria clan, the Mohria claims
his two betel-leaves, two betelnuts and tw o pice.
 233 [K ilik e f^ ^

The Gan&ch&ri, who belongs to the chief clan, performs the Diksha
or purifying cerem ony. I f a male is outcasted for intercourse
with a female of a lower caste he cannot be readmitted into the caste.
I f a female becomes pregnant b y a man o f a lower caste she is not
allowed to remain in the caste. But if she com m its adultery with
a man o f her ow n caste, she is purified by the Ganachari, w ho gets
five pice for the purpose.
The Kilikets are bound together b y a strong caste feeling.
A t th e same time, they have no central authority or referee to settle
disputes. The Neknars are called Patils or Kattim anis, b u t the
Ganacharis seem to be the leading clan. Their name com es first
in the list, it is th ey who perform the Diksha or purifying cerem ony
on persons readmitted into caste, they play a leading part at marriages,
and are then presented with a turban and coat. E very member of the
com m unity is obliged to share his earnings equally with the
caste people. A hunter must divide his game, and when a fisher­
man catches the dndhali or big blind fish he must share it with the
caste. A t the same time, he is allowed to keep any m oney he m ay
make b y the sale o f the fish*

The hom e tongue o f the K ilikets is a dialect o f Marathi m ixed with

m any Kanarese words, bislo for bash I s a t ; bardun dila for lihun
dila gave in writing ; apni for hukum o r d e r ; henang for a g i r l ; and
gandag for a boy. Engydni and gandgyani are their peculiar terms
for bride’s and' bridegroom ’ s parties. The names in com m on use
am ong men are B apu, Bhima, Dakulya, D undya, Fakirana, G idya,
Gudadya, H aibati, Haamanta, Lakshman, R am a, Shettanna, Tam-
anna and Y ella p p a ; and among women, Basakka, B him avva, Gan-
gavva, Hulgakka, Jekavva, •Kallam ma, L a k k a w a , Mugakka, Nar-
savva, S h avan traw a, T ayavva and Y e lla w a . They live outside
villages in little reed cabins like Vaddas or Kolh&tis. These flimsy
little huts are w ater-tight and the K ilikets live in them all through
the rains. The huts are so small that there is scarcely room to stand
upright, and, in obedience to custom , they are m oved from place to
place a t the end o f every third month. Sometimes this rule is n ot
kept, and instead o f m oving the hut the fire-place is m oved from one
co m e r o f the hut to another. Polygam y and w idow marriage are
allowed and practised, but polyandry is unknown. Girls are married
at any t im e ; there is no rule that they should be married before they
com e o f age.
The offer o f marriage comes from the b o y ’s parents, who h ave to Marriage
bear the whole cost o f the marriage. A t the engagement, the b o y ’s c?remo'
* nice.
h 1 1 0 9 — 30
■

Kiliket'l 234 ^ ^

father puts glass bangles on the girl’s wrists, and places R s. 2 in her
hands to meet the expense o f a feast given to persons present at the
ceremony. Shortly after the b o y ’s father goes to the girl’s house for
the betrothal or bcishtagi when he pays R s. 5 to the girl’s father who
feasts Mm. On the day before the day fixed for the beginning o f the
marriage ceremonies, the b o y ’s father goes to the girl’s village and
feasts his caste people on wheat cake and m utton. N ext d ay a mar­
riage booth is raised and wheat, a goat, rice, robes, a bodice cloth,
dry cocoa-kem el, and betelnuts are carried to the girl’s house b y the
b o y ’s father. The bride and bridegroom are rubbed with turmeric
paste and bathed in warm water, and the d a y ends with a caste feast
given join tly by the two fathers. On the third day th e Panchangi
or Bhandari receives Rs. 9 from the b o y ’s father and spends R e. 1 in
distributing betel-leaves to the guests. The bride and bridegroom are
dressed, and th e bridegroom is made t o stand outside the marriage
b ooth while the bride stands in the booth. The Shivachari holds the
curtain with a central turmeric cross between the bride and bridegroom
and rice is handed to the guests. The S&lva proclaims aloud the name
of the god and the ancestry o f the bride and bridegroom, the curtain
is rem oved, the bride gives a packet of betel to th-. bridegroom , and
the Nekn&r ties the hems o f the couple’s clothes into a knot. The
Shindya spreads a blanket fo r the couple, and the S&snik strews rice
on it. W hen the couple have sat on the blanket, the Gandchari ties
a tinsel chaplet to the bridegroom ’s brow, adorns the bride’s head
with a network o f flowers, encircles their right wrists with kankans
or wristlets in which pieces o f turmeric are tied, and throws grains
o f rice on their heads. A fter the Gan&ch&ri, the other caste office­
bearers, each in the order o f his rank, throws grains of rice and lastly
the guests shower rice. The bride’s father feasts his caste people on
polis or sugar rolly-polies and boiled rice. On the fifth d ay the bride
and bridegroom g o on foot in procession to worship a god and the
g irl’s father gives a caste feast. On the sixth day the bride and bride­
groom are made to sit on a blanket and to m ention each other’s name ;
and the bride is handed b y her mother to her mother-in-law. The sev­
enth is d ay is m arked by no cerem ony. On the eighth the b ooth is taken
dow n , the friends and relations of each party are treated to a dinner of
polis or sugar rolly-polies, and the house-entering cerem ony is per­
form ed. On the ninth day the guests return to their homes, and the
marriage is over.

Religion. ^ 6 two leading deities o f Kilikets are Mahadeva and Durgavva.

Mahadeva is said to be fou n d only in the house of the head of the
 235 ^ C ilik i' 1

Ganaehdris, but m any have D urgavva in their sheds and w orship her
themselves. T h ey also worship Bhaire, H ulgem m a, M ayava and
Yellam m a. Those who have no image of D urgavva, on her great day,
a Tuesday about Magh full-m oon, make an image o f meal and worship
it. They do n ot keep the sweet basil plant or worship it. T h ey worship
their leather pictures and offer them polis or sugar rolly-polies on
Ganesh-chaturthi, the bright fourth of Bhddrapad. They keep all leading
H indu fasts and feasts, and a few sometimes make pilgrimages to
Parasgad in Belgaum and to Pandharpur in Sholapur. Th ey profess
to have no faith in soothsaying, and to have no relations with exorcists.
W hen a Kiliket is possessed b y a ghost he or she is made to sleep near
th e show -box fo r three or four days and this scares the gh ost away.
Their priests are members of their Ganachari clan and the head
Ganachari is their spiritual teacher.

The dead are buried in a grave like a Lin gayat grave. W hen Death,
a K ilik et dies, the b od y is washed with warm water and dressed, ^ mo'
and if it is a married woman the hair is decked with a netw ork of
flowers. I f the deceased was married the b o d y is kept in a
sittin g position b y a string fastened to a peg driven in th e w a ll ;
if unmarried, the b od y is laid on its back. So long as the b od y remains
in th e house, it is covered with garlands and bouquets o f flowers,
and with red and scented powders. It is carried to the burial ground
in a worn out blanket, and is buried sitting, if married and lying if
single. When the burial is over, the funeral p arty bathe and return to
the house of mourning, throw blades o f durva grass in a p ot filled with
water which is placed on the spot where the dead person breathed his
last, sm oke tobacco, and go home. The mourners d o not dine a t home.
Their friends and relations ask them to eat a meal o f bread and chMni
or relish. On the third day the mourners g o to the burial ground
and lay tw o offerings, one on the stone which was placed on the top
o f th e grave and the other tw enty-four feet from the grave. These
offerings are of m illet grit m ixed with molasses and oil and laid on
tw o leaves. They stand far off for fear they m ay frighten the crows.
If the crows eat the offering it is well, the deceased has left n o wish
unfulfilled. If the crows refuse to eat, the mourners pray to the dead.
If even then the crows do not eat they give the offerings to a cow.
The mourners bathe, return hom e and’ ask the four persons who carried
the body to a meal. On the eleventh day the house is washed with
cow dung, the clothes are washed and a feast is given. B efore a
m onth is passed a goa t is killed in honour of the house gods, a bras3
im age o f the deceased is made and placed am ong them and the caste
' ^ ^ ^ K ilik e ^ 236
is feasted. As is the case with several other castes, the bodies of
pregnant women are burnt, to prevent the Garudis digging them up
and using their bones as charms.

tionUPa* The chief occupation of the Kilikets is to show at night, before a

light, transparent pictures painted in brilliant colours on skin, represent­
ing Lakshmana, Ramcbandra, Sitabai, Hanumant, R avan, the Panda vs
and K auravs, and many other heroes and gods, the character of the
show closely resembling that of the Chitrakathis or picture-showmen
of the N orth Konkan and Deccan. A t harvest tim e they go from
village to village collecting grain which th e husbandmen give them in
charity. Their women are expert tattooers and are paid in grain and
old clothes. They tattoo women of all castes. South o f the Krishna
where hills and undergrowth abound, the men are paid in grain b y the
villagers to destroy wild pigs which do great damage to the crops. Some
of the K ilikets fish with nets. The Ganacharis hold rent-free or inam
lands in B agalkot, Badam i and Ilungund in the B ijapur district
though th ey d o not till them with their own hands. Some work as
field labourers.
food. They eat fish and the flesh of sheep, goats, hares, deer, fowls and
pigs, and drink liquor. They rank below Kabbaligars and above
Vaddas and Koravas, from whom they d o not eat.

K IN D R I.--A sub-division of Jogis.

K IR A D S, numbering 152 (1901), including 72 males and 80

females, are found in small numbers only in Poona. T h ey are p e tty
traders. They are immigrants from the United Provinces.*1)

K IR A T . — A synonym for Bhil Berads.

KIRLO SKAR.— A sub-division of Gaud Sarasvat Brahmans.

K1RPAL.— A sub-division of B tan daris.

K IR V A N T .—A sub-division of Brahmans.

K IT T E . — A sub-division of Bhandaris .
KOCHARE.— A sub-division of Mahars.
KODAG M ALLAVA.— A sub-division of Mallavas.
K O K A L V A R .— A sub-division of Mangs.

KOLGHAS, numbering 5,849 (1911), are a very primitive tribe

who, though lowly, refuse intercourse with Bhangis. They arc

(1) Tribes and castes o f the N orth-W est Provinces and Oudh, Vol. I l l ,
pp. 282— 284.
Igp
C ' ' 237
* W m
[Kolhati
%
J
ehiefly found in the States to the soutn-east of Surat. They do
n ot respect Brahmans, neither have they priests o f their own tribe.
They worship only a few o f the minor Hindu deities, and their cere­
monies are o f the primitive type. Polygam y and widow marriage
are allowed and practised. The offer of marriage comes from the b o y ’ s
father, who has to pay R s. 3 to the girl’ s father. Some days before
the marriage, the boy’s father goes to the girl’s house and presents
her with a robe and a pair of solid brass armlets. The day for hold­
ing the marriage is fixed on this occasion. On the marriage day
the bridegioom with his parents and friends, and some K okna
musicians playing the mudkul drum, goes to the girl’s house. The b oy
and girl are seated face to face on a blanket and while the women of
both parties sing songs, the bride and bridegroom’ s skirts are tied and
each of them, utters the other’s name. Then the whole party, men and
women, dance together in pairs, the bride and bridegroom joining.
After the dancing is over, dinner is served and when dinner is finished
the bride and bridegroom, their skirts still tied, are carried on his
friends’ shoulders to his father’ s house. On reaching the bridegroom’ s
house the skirts are untied. The bride stays with her husband for
tw o or three days, and, after spending tw o or three days more with
her father, returns to her husband.

Kolghas chiefly worship Hanuman, Bhil D ev and K lkabalia

the small-pox goddess. They have no priests. The dead are burnt,
the funeral pyre being lighted at both ends. While returning home
from the burning ground the funeral part}r have a drink of toddy.
On the third day the ashes are gathered, and sprinkled over with
toddy. Those who can afford it give funeral feasts.
*
Kolgh&s are hereditary servants, labourers, and wood-cutters.
Their condition is very poor, some of them having to eat roots, and
at times to fast two or three days together.

KOLHATIS or tumblers, numbering (1901) 4,611 including Name aiu3

1,922 males and 2,689 females, are found in the Deccan, K am & tak,°rlgin'
Kanara, Kol&ba, and Th&na. In addition to 4,611 Hindus, 68 returned
themselves as Muhammadans in 1901. The Kolhatis are generally
known as Dombaris in the Karnatak and as Khelkaris in the Ahmed-
nagar district. The Dombfiris appear to be socially inferior to the
rest of the Kolhatis. The caste is much mixed, being recruited from
numerous sources, and largely dependent on the prostitution of its
women.
mw Kolhati]
' 238
<sl
Endoga- Thev consist of the following endogamous divisions
raous di­
visions. 1, Maratha. 6. Vale or Valiar, that is H olia,
2. Gujarati. also called Mahar Domb&rs.
3. Dukre or Potre. 7. Gopalgani.
4. Pal or K ane. 8. Are.
5. Harka. 9. Musalman.

The Gujarati, Maratha, Dukre or Potre, and. Pal or Kane sub­

divisions are found in the Poona district. The Pdl or K&ne
divisions appear to be Mar&th4s from the similarity of their surnames.
The Gujarati Kolhatis claim R ajpu t descent and bear R ajput names.
The meaning of the term ‘ Dukre ’ or ‘ Potre ’ is n ot cle a r; but ‘ Dukre ’
appears to be derived from duJcar a pig, and m ay refer to those
who keep pigs. The Dukre division eat beef and pork and are held
socially inferior to Pal or Kane Kolhatis. In Ahirtednagar district
the Maratha Kolh&tis are again sub-divided into Khare (proper) and
Akaramdshe or bastard. Maratha Kolhatisar^ reported in the Bom bay
Gazetteer to invest their boys with the sacred thread. The village
joshi is asked to their house, and the boy’ s brow is marked with ver­
milion and rice, collyrium is put in his eyes, and he is rubbed with
turmeric paste. H e is then bathed and presented with the thread
b y the priest. In Belgaum, the endogamous divisions are Vale or
Valiar, that is, H olia, also called Mahar Dombars, Gopalgani, and
Musalman. In the Bijapui district, Gujarati, Dakshani, i. e.,
Mar&tha Kolhatis, and Are, are the three endogamous divisions. None
of these divisions either eat together or intermarry. In the Satara
district they speak a mixture o f Gujarati, Marathi, and Hindustani ;
in Sholapur a m ixture of Gujarati and Mar&thi; in Ahmed nagar
Poona, and Nasik a mixture o f Marathi, Gujar&ti, Kanarese, and
Hindustani. The V ale Dombdrs and Gopalgani Dombars speak
Kanarese and Maratha respectively. According to the tradition
related b y the Maratha Kolhatis, the founder of their class was a man
named N at or dancer and nicknamed Kola, born of a Teli father b y
a Kshatriya mother. Kolh&tis are also commonly said to be the child­
ren of Shudras b y Kshatriya wives. The com monest surnames among
the Maratha Kolhatis, which are all exogamous, are Nilkanth, Dalkar,
Lakhe, Davalkar, Aundhare, JAdhav, Kachre, Musle, Powar, etc.
Marriage with a father’s sister’s and mother’s sister’s daughter is prohi­
bited within three generations on the girl’s side and four on the b o y ’s
side. W hen the b o y and girl are brought up b y one foster mother,
marriages are prohibited even though the b oy and girl belong to two
different families. Marriage with a wife’s sister is allowed. Two
 239 [Kolhati
brothers m ay m arr tw o sist na. Like other wandering tribes they live
in huts of mattinj in the outskirts o f villages and towns. The sides
and back of tho'nut are closed by three mats, th e front is open
and the top is covered b y a fourth mat. E very fam ily has two huts,
one for cookPg and the other for sleeping and sitting. They keep
donkeys, whch they use in travelling from place to place. Some
Maratha K-dMtis have purchased houses and settled down, although
they are brbidden to do so b y their caste rules. Kolhatis adm it
outside^, such as Marathas, Sonars, Shimpis, Lohars, Sutars, etc.,
into thnr caste. The convert is given the flesh of a pig to eat as a
condemn of being admitted.
- They marry their boys before they are twenty-five and their
girls even after they attain puberty. Sexual intercourse before
marriage is not allowed. Among them marriage in the case of girls
is optional. When the girl attains the age of puberty she is called
on to choose between marriage and prostitution. If, with her parent’s
consent, she decides to lead a married life, she is well cared for and
carefully watched. If she chooses to be a tumbler and a prostitute,
she is taken before the caste council, a feast is given, and with the con ­
sent of the council she is thereupon declared a prostitute. In the Satara
district, the children o f unmarried girls are considered outcastes,
while in the Poona district they are not considered to be so degraded,
but they may not marry with legitimate K olhati children.
If a girl commits sexual indiscretions with a man of her caste or with a
man of a higher or lower caste before marriage, she is allowed to remain
in her caste either b y paying a fine or b y giving a dinner to her
caste-men. If the man involved be of her caste, she is married to him.
In some cases, however, she is made a prostitute. A m ong the Gujar&ti
Kolh&tis marriage is compulsory in such a case irrespective of the caste
of the man involved. Polygam y is permitted b u t polyandry is
unknown.
. The offer of marriage generally comes from the b o y ’ s father, who Marriage
pays to the girl’s father from fifty to two hundred rupees as the price
o f thebride. Occasionally, to avoid such payments, a double marriage
is arranged between tw o families. The marriage ceremony is conduct­
ed b y either the Brahmans or more usually b y the caste-men and con ­
sists of the following ceremonies :— (1) Sagai or Mdgni.— W hen
a marriage is settled the bridegroom’s father goes to the bride’s house
with the head-man of the caste. The bride is offered a sugar packet,
a waist cloth, a bodice, and some ornaments. Pan-swpari is distri­
buted, and the bridegroom’s father treats his guests to a feast or to
liquor in a liquor shop. Afterwards the +j*r«w>tq o f the bride and
IS
^ g ^ K o lh a ti] 240 <SL J

bridegroom announce to their guests the fact of th>ir having entered

into a marriage contract. Marriages are n ot dissolved after this
cerem ony has been performed. (2) Halad (or turmerihpaste rubbing).
-—Turm eric paste is applied to the bride and bridegroom, and they are
bathed b y kinswomen, who sing songs. The bride ana bridegroom ’s
brows are marked with red powder and marriage coromts are tied
to their brows. The b oy is given a dagger to hold, and i»,eps it in
his hand till the com pletion o f the marriage cerem ony. (3) ievakarya
— Boughs of mango, umbar (F icus glomerata), m i (Calotrops gigan-
tia), shami (Prosopis spicigera), jambul (Eugenia jambolan\) are
brought b y a man and his \yife, relations o f the bride or bridegroom,
in a plate containing a burning lamp. The skirts o f the bridal |aiir
are tied into a kn ot and a cloth is held over them b y four men.
They are then led with m usic to the marriage booth, when
the parents o f the bride or bridegroom worship them, as also ropes
and an axe. Then a dinner o f goat’ s flesh is offered to the caste-
m en. The follow ing are the tw o different m odes o f devah worship
observed among the Kolh&tis in Shol&pur and P oona d is tr ic t s :
(i) T w o earthen pots are whitewashed and worshipped, and a
bunch o f mango leaves is tied to a pot in the marriage hall. This pot
is know n as the guardian A'evakarya or devah. (ii) On the first day,
generally a Sunday, they hold the devah or marriage guardian cere­
m on y, when both at the b o y ’ s and girl’s a m etal w ater-pot is placed in a
m etal plate and filled with water. F ive betelnuts and turmeric powder
are dropped into it, and the m outh o f the p o t is closed with a cocoanut.
Frankincense is burnt before the pot, the cocoanut is broken, and
all present partake o f it. (4) Gadagner.— The bridge and bridegroom
are fed b y their relatives. (5) Telsddi.— The lap o f the bride is filled
with dates, cocoa-kernels, betelnuts, and turmeric roots. (6) Mar­
riage.— The bride and bridegroom are seated over tw o leaf plates
placed on a bahula o f turm eric powder, the bride facing the west and
the bridegroom the east. A curtain is held between them and the
Br&hman priest rocit.es marriage verses (sdvdhdn) at the end o f each
verse. W hen the recitation is over, they clap hands, and the bride
and bridegroom exchange seats. A cotton thread is tw ice passed
round them five times. The b ride’s parents then worship the bride­
groom and he is presented with a brass plate, a copper pot, a pair of
o f shoes, and a dhoti. Marriage bracelets are then tied to the wrist of
the bride and bridegroom with turmeric roots. The bride is decorated
with ornaments, and the marriage string o f glass beads is tied round
her neck. The bride and bridegroom are then seated over a square of
fice grains drawn on a blanket, and the bride’s lap is filled with
/ fy s^ \ ' 'p
24! [Kolhati l j

turmeric roots, cocoa kernels, dates, almonds, etc., and tbe ends o f
their garments are tied into a knot. They are then led to make a
bow to the house gods, and the bride and bridegroom call each other
b y their names. Their relatives then p ut sugar into their mouths.
This is known as osangli-bharne. They are then taken to the b o y ’s
house. A large feast ends the ceremony. The following simple form
of marriage ceremony is adopted b y some. On the marriage day the
bride and bridegroom are bathed and are given a new waist-cloth to
wear, turmeric paste being applied to them. The bridegroom is then
taken to the bride’s house, where the kinsfolk on noth the sides meet.
The bride and bridegroom are seated under a cloth and the bride’s
mother ties the ends of the bride and bridegroom garments into a knot.
They then go to make a bow to the house gods. The knots are then
untied and the marriage ceremony ends.

W idow marriage is allowed. A widow canDot marry her m other’s

sister’s son, father’s sister’s son, or any member o f her deceased bus-
band’s family. She can marry her maternal uncle’s son. A widow
remarriage is celebrated during dark nights. Sunday is held to be a
lucky day for the ceremony. The widow hands over her ornaments to
relatives of her deceased husband, a custom known as garsul-zada.
The widow is given a new waist-cloth to wear and her brow is marked
with red powder. The couple then seat themselves on a square o f grain,
and the widow’s lap is tilled with dates, cocoa kernels, etc. The couple
conceal themselves in woods for one night and return to their homes
the next day. A feast is then given to the castemen. A widow may
marry a third time, but in that case she has to hold a cock by her side
when the marrige ceremony is performed. A bachelor is allowed to
marry a widow if he has first been married to a rui tree.

D ivorce is n ot allowed. In Poona district if a woman commits

adultery with a man of her caste or with a man o f a higher or lower
caste, her hair and the moustache and hair o f her husband are shaved
and their tongues are branded with h ot gold at a caste meeting.
When a husband and wife d o not agree, the husband relinquishes all
his rights over his wife in exchange for a sum o f m o n e y : this is
termed sandkhat-karne.

Kolhatis follow the Hindu law of inheritance. _ They have great

faith in soothsaying, sorcery, and the evil eye.

Kolhatis belong to the H indu religion. They worship Mahadev Religion,

and Maruti, who was a wrestler like themselves. They observe
h 1109—31
^ ^ ^ k o lh a t i] 242
almost all H indu holidays. Th ey make pilgrimages t o Jejuri, Alandi,
Shingnapur, Pandharpur, K olhapur, D akor, etc., but the m otives
which induce them to visit th e sacred places are m ore selfish than
religious, as th ey find opportunity s of exhibiting their athletic feats
on these occasions. Th ey worship the minor deities Khandoba,
Mariap B ahiroba, Janai, Jokhai, Mhasoba, etc. ; but their favourite,
and, as they say, their only livin g gods are the bread-winners or hunger
scarers, the drum, the rope, and the balancing pole. T h ey hold the
cow sacred and worship the sweet-basil and the dpta. T o their g od ­
desses they make a sacrifice of goats on Dasara day, or also on Tin s-
day or F riday in any month, and to K handoba on any Sunday. The
sacrifice is eaten b y the offerers. They worship the images of their
dead ancestors and make sacrifices of goats, etc., for their propi­
tiation. Th ey revere Muhammadan saints. When an epidemic breaks
out, they propitiate Mariai and sacrifice a goat outside the village
boundary.
Death They bu ry their dead. T h e b od y is laid on its back in the grave
monies. with the head turned northwards. It is washed with hot water
and is laid on a bam boo bjer covered with a new shroud. R ed powder
and flowers are sprinkled over it. If the deceased be a woman whose
husband is still alive, the b od y is washed b y a married woman and
wrapped in a new waist-cloth, bangles being put on th e arms. R ed
powder, turm eric powder, and flowers are offered to the dead. The
chief mourner walks ahead of the bier holding in his hand a burn­
ing cow dung cake. A halt is made m idw ay to the burial ground,
and grains o f rice and a pice are thrown over the place where the
bier is p ut dow n. The bearers change sides without looking back.
W hen the interm ent is com plete the chief mourner applies his hand
to his m outh and calls aloud. A ll then retire to their houses. The
grave is levelled on the third day. The chief mourner goes to the
burial ground taking with him in a winnowing-fan, milk, c o w ’s urine,
cooked rice and three cakes. One cake and a little of the cooked
rice are throw n on the place where the bier was put dow n on the way
to the grave. The grave is then levelled, cow ’ s urine and milk are
sprinkled over it, and a cake and some rice are placed at each end
of the grave. This is known as mdti-savadne. On the eleventh
d a y all go to the burial ground and prepare a small triangular platform
of earth, a cone of which must point to the south. Three small
porcelain p ots of earth filled with water are placed at each cone,
and in their m ouths are placed three cakes and three balls of rice.
R e d flags are also pitched close by. A crow is required to touch
the ball pointing to the west. When the crow touches the ball at
 m * -.

, <
!\
.£ 'At

lillsiSlil

i
distil

KoJi fishern^en 0f T h an a.

'iAV %.S.Vrv
 243
once, it is thought th at the dead has left behind n o desire. Som e­
times artificial crows of darbha grass are prepared. On the thirteenth
day the caste-men are feasted. F or the propitiation of ancestors in
general they observe th e shraddha cerem ony in the m on th of Bhadrapad
and on the 3rd of the bright half of the m onth of Vaishakh.
B oth men and women of the K olM tis are tumblers and beggars. Occupa-
Many of the women are prostitutes. Kolhatis kidnap h igh -castetl0n*
girls to bring them up as prostitutes, and they are for this reason
kept under the eye of the police. The Gopalgani women are e x ­
perts in persuading men to visit them , and to p a y them well. F o r
this purpose the best looking girls are set apart for prostitutes
and called sonchedis or golden daughters. Kolhatis also
make and sell small buffalo-horn pulleys, mattresses, com bs, and
dolls. K olhati women are expert tattooers. A n y one working
for hire is put out of caste, but is readm itted on payin g a fine varying
from a handful of betel leaves to ten rupees. Som e of the K o lM tis
in P oon a district wi re given incim lands b y the Peshwas fo r their
skill in athletic games. Their appliances are a drum , a flute, a leather
strap, and five poles fifteen to tw enty feet long. B o y s and girls are
trained to tumble at the age of five and are good tumblers at th e age
of eleven.
They eat fish, and the flesh of goats, sheep, fowls, ducks, and Food,
wild boars, and also drink liquor.

K0L1 a term of vague m eaning covering a number of tribes Name and

of inferior status which have little in com m on beyon d a position origin-
inferior to the K im bi or cultivating caste. P roba bly the term K o li
has been used for centuries to describe the greater part of the original
inhabitants of the Presidency so long as they adhered to a tribal
organization. Dr. J. W ilson (Aboriginal Tribes) translates K o li
as clansman, and this closely represents its significance. A K oli
settling down to agricultural pursuits in the D eccan frequently
becomes a Kunbi and thus helps to recruit the Marathas. In Gujarat
Kolis gain an im proved status by intermarriage w ith Rajputs. The
term K o li is almost certainly the origin of the w ord coolie, applied
promiscuously in India b y Europeans to manual labourers. The
derivation of the word itself has n o t been satisfactorily traced. In
the Census of 1901 K olis numbered, 1,714,107 (males 882, 606, fem ales
831, 501 ) and in 1911, 2,006,121 (males 1,040, 310, females 965,811).
Gujarat K olis differ very widely from those of the D eccan and K onkan,
who h ave much in com m on. A fragm ent of the late R ev. J oa n
W ilson’ s printed in 1876, gives a description of the aboriginal tribes
%I f !!..
F«5i] 244
■ (fiT

of the Presidency based on personal observation and a study of their

language and customs. H e regards the Bhillas as the most inde­
pendent and isolated of the aboriginal tribes but lays stress on the
change of physique produced b y good food, climate and occupation.
He quotes with approval the opinion of another com petent observer
who says that the (Bhillas ) natives of the plains “ are scarcely to be
distinguished from the other classes of society, though exposure,
fatigue and poverty have left their accustomed marks in the dim i­
nutive figure and deep lined countenance of the hardy denizen of the
hill” . K olis or Kulis he describes as n ot so independent as the Bhillas,
“ being intermingled in most districts with the Hindu cultivators ” ,
He regards them as the aborigines of the plains as the Bhillas are
of the hills, and states his conviction that “ they do not differ in race
from the Kulambis or Kunbis” . Their physical appearance is hardly
distinguishable from the Kunbis, their touch does not defile, and the
Kulam bis in Gujarat sometimes take their wives from them more
or less secretly*. K oli chiefs of pure blood are difficult to distinguish
from the R ajputs who have actually admitted their K oli blood. H ab­
itat and occupation, he believes, have the greatest effect on their
physical appearance. N o com plete list of the Kolis is attempted
but he mentions the Talabda as the most numerous and respectable,
the Son K oli as the original inhabitant of B om bay Island, the R4j
K oli of Jawhar and the North Konkan, the Mahadev and Malhar of
the D eccan, and the Kharvas and Agaris of Surat and Thana. Lastly
the D h u d ia sf, ChaudharisJ, Warlis, Katkaris, Dubalas and Thikurs§
are described as further offshoots from the great K oli tribe with more
or less marked characteristics and customs engendered b y their
isolation in special surroundings. The latter are the descendants
of the Thakurs of Gujarat, who fled to the hills in the time of Mahmud
Begada’s persecutions and induced others to join them. They
are described as indistinguishable from the Warlis now,*§

* This practice is common at the present day. The Kanbi or Patidar caste of
North GujarAt are very short of women. Brokers therefore obtain Koli girls and
palm them off on bachelor or widower Kanbis as of their own caste. The practice
is so common that there is no real deception. The Kanbi marries the girl, and all
goes well unless some one from spite makes the girl’s origin public. Then tho hus­
band has to clear himself by prosecuting the brokers for cheating and convictions are
often obtained. Competent observers say that of the wives of Patidars in Ahmedabad
Ci ty quite a large proportion are really Kolis. The Intercaste Marriage Bill so much
discussed in 15)18-19 would, if passed into law, regularize the practice; and it is
noteworthy that the introducer of the bill is himself a Patidar.
t Modem spelling Dhodias.
t Modern spelling ‘ ’Chodhras ” .
§ These are not included under Koli in recent censuses,
ill 245 [Koli
<§l
The Kolis o f the Deccan and Konkan have the following Enrloga-
mous ai-
divisions :— visions.

Agri Mar&tha
Ahir Marvi
Band Mendale
Bhil Meta or Dhangar
Bhilave or Bhirale Musale or Bhandu
Ohanchi Nehre
D hor or Tokre • Rflhtadkar
Helmar Shiugtoki
Kabber Son
Karad(! Solesi also called Kashti or
K h ar Lallangoti.
Konkan Suryavanshi
K nlpam a Tankri
M ah&dev., D ongar or R aj Tayade
Malhar, also called Kunum, Thankar or Christian
' Cliumli, P a n or Panbhari W ali.
f * /'
Of the above , the main groups are the Malhar Kolis, the Mahadev j v
K olis, the Son K olis and the D hor K o lis ....The latter are the lowest 1j
in the social scale and eat beef and the flesh o f animals found dead
in the jungle.' The Chief of the Jawhar State is a Mahadev K oli, and
either this fact or the mixture o f R ajput blood which they claim
probably accounts for the synonym R aj, and for their high social
position. For the rest, Malhar and the Mahadev K olis closely resemble
Marathas and in some districts are ahnost indistinguishable from them.
These groups are described below separately.

G U JA R A T K O L IS present numerous difficulties in classification, General

mainly owing to the varying nomenclature employed in different ti^ np
areas and the extreme vagueness o f our Koli informants. The highest
families in the social sense prohibit widow remarriage in imitation of
the Rajputs, and the same is true o f the Khant and Baria K olis of the
north and of the Patelias or Patelia Kolis of the Panch Mahals and
the Rewa Kantha. These high caste Kolis have given brides to R ajputs,
and, failing R ajput husbands, to Molesal&ms or converted R ajputs.
They never give their daughters to the lower K olis such as Pagis,
K otw als and P&tanwadias. There are several general terms in use
among K olis such as Dharala and Talabda, and while in some districts
these terms have a definite significance, in others th ey have none, and
IKfKoli I
■■■ 246
§L
even where there is a definite significance this will vary from district
to district. In Kaira, where Kolis are most numerous, all except the
Kolis proper or Patanwadias are known as Dhardlas, a term which
includes the Khdnt, Baria and Talabda Kolis, the latter being further-
subdivided into Vaghelas, Pagis, Kotwals and Bdrias. Thus a Baria
Koli is totally distinct from a Talabda B aria and a R ajput clan name
like Vaghela or Parmar m ay or may not give some indication of a R o lfs
marriage group. Over the border in the Ahmedabad district, the term
D bar ala is never used, and the K oli aristocracy is represented b y the
K oli Patelia or Talabda, while the Thalcarda or Pagi, holding a distinct­
ly inferior position and proclaiming bis baser blood in every line o f his
features, intermarries with the numerous lower class D hAral its of Kaira.
To add. to the confusion, in the Gujarat districts of Broach and Surat,
TalAbda denotes precisely the better class K o l i ; while ThAkarde is
a title assumed b y the higher families among the ChrutvAlia Kolis of
Viramgam, who are also said to be the common Kolis of Outeh a. d to
he found in P Alanpur and the Mahi Kantha*. Little light is thrown
upon the problem by the examination of social customs and ceremonies.
Amongst all Gujarat K olis who allow widow remarriage (vide supra)
diyarvalu or marriage with the late husband’s younger brother is allowed
and in some cases expected. It is at least probable that the custom
is commoner than has been reported, and a competent observer has
stated that amongst some of the Gujardt Kolis the younger brethren
claim marital rights over the elder brother’s wife, but no confirmation
o f this interesting trace o f polyandry has been obtained. For the rest
all Kolis follow somewhat laxly the prevailing Hindu customs of their
locality. In the circumstances it is only possible to give a list of the
Koli endogenous groups reported from the various districts and to
indicate, where possible, such relationship as may be presumed to
exist.

Exoga- Exogamous groups have been reported from Pdlanpur and the
sTonstCllV1" Mahi Kantha, the Panch Mahals and Outeh, but it is very
doubtful whether marriages are regulated in practice by a consideration
o f these clan or family names, and careful inquiry has disclosed that
the important group with mostly all Kolis of the present day is the
village. In no case is marriage within the village permitted, and in
some cases a regular cycle o f villages has beer, found to exist, brides
being given from village A to village B , from railage P> to village 0, and

*The confusion is rendered worse by the deliberate attempts made at each

census by individuals to get themselves enumerated as members of a higher group
than the one to which they really belong (V Bom. Census Report, 1911, I t. il,
pp. 195-196 and an interesting note by the late Mr. W. 0. Alcock there quoted)..
 , ----- -Sj] '
/<V>* ' <*.%X

%M+y 247 [kok'S L

SO on. The main endogamous groups as reported from the various
districts are given below :— sions.

Pcdanpur Agency— (1) Th&karda.

(2) Koli.
Main Kdntha— (1) Taldbda.
(2) Ohunwdliya.
(3) Pdtanwadia.
(4) Charotaria (i,e., from the Kaira
Oharotar, presumably Talabdas).
Ahmedabad— (1) Taldbda or Patelia.
(2) Thakarda or Pagi.
(3) Chunwdlia.

Of these (2) and (3) will feed together; (2) intermarry in Kaira
over the border with the lower class Dharala, presumably Taldbda
P a g is; (3) vary in social status inter se. Many are Tdlukddrs and
assume the title of Thakarda which is not to be confounded with the
name Thakarda Pagi. They probably correspond with the Thakardds
o f Pdlanpur and the Qhunwdli as of Cutch. (1) are a distinct and pros­
perous group like the Talabdds and Mansororarias of South Gujardt.

Kaira— (1) K hdnt, a Kdthidwar tribe o f undoubtedly

high social position said to be subdivided
into {a) Dabhi, (b) Makwana.
> (2) Baria ; also of high repute socially.
(3) T a ld b d a ; subdivided into (a) Vaghela,
(b) Pagi, (c) K otw al, (d) Baria.
(4) Patanwddia or Koli.

Of these—(3) call themselves Dhdralds and (1), (2) and (3) are
all said to be Dharalas but the names K hdnt Bdria are more com­
monly given. (4) are a large group with a well established record for
bravery, lawlessness and general disregard for all Brdhmanieal standards
of purity. As eaters of beef they are shunned by the Dharalas who
strongly resent the application of the name of Koli., which in Kaira
always denotes Pdtanwadia. The Dharala Taldbda o f Kaira is a poor,
mean-looking specimen entirely distinct from the Taldbda Patelids
of Ahmedabad.

Panch Mahals.— Besides Khdnt and Baria the local K oli aristo­
cracy includes the Patelids who refuses to answer to the title of K oli at
all. They were probably the same as the K oli Patelids of Ahmedabad.
IptKoli] 248 <SL
Other Kolis of marked superiority are the Dhar&las or Tal&bdfe
who correspond to their Kaira brethren.
Broach and Surat.— Talabdas form the main group. In the south
the highest Kolis are called Mandhata Sororaria or M&nsoror&ria.
B&ria Kolis are also met with and are accorded an equal status, with
that o f the Tal&bdas. Dharalas and Patau wadi as are also found in
Surat and Broach respectively, and new geographical names like
Bhalia (from Bhal, the black soil tract o f Dholka and Dhandhuka
in th e Ahmedabad district) and Indoria from Indore are m et with.
Jahangadia and Kakapuri are also two special Broach tribes coming
below the Talabdas.
The above is little more than a record o f local names and their
local significance and adds little to our ethnological knowledge of the
various Koli groups.
A s the Kolis now stand they are clearly a very mixed race, with
too little pride in their descent to trace distant relationships or form
large and distinct marriage groups. The infusion of Rajput and Bhil
blood is most marked in some o f the groups of Gujarat Kolis, and the
distinction between Rajput and K oli and Bhil and Koli in extreme cases
is almost non-existent.
History. The earliest records of K oli exploits are mainly the deeds of the
coast dwellers of the Gulf of Cambay. In A.D. 1535 they pillaged the
baggage and books o f the Emperor Humayun.* In 1705 they captured
B arodaf. Probably many of th e pirates of the gulf were Kolis.
These gave much trouble to the English, who in 1731 and 1771 sent
expeditions against them, and on the second occasion captured their
strongholds of Sultanpur and TulajaJ.
B ut historically the Kolis came iuto prominence more during the
second to fourth decade of the nineteenth century than at any other
period. At that time the regions o f North Gujarat were particularly
unsettled. There was no strong central power , the authority of the
Gaekwar in Maki Kantha was nominal only, and the petty R ajp u t and
K o li chieftains were constantly fighting. The early writers of the 19th
century described tb e Kolis as “ bloody and untameable plunderers,”
uncivilized and filthyg.
In A. D. 1812 the Kaira K olis were still addicted to gang rob-
beries|(, and were even sent for and employed as professional bouse-

* Bom. Gaz. Vol. IX , Part I, quoting “ Elphinstone’s Histoiy, 443.”

f Gaz. ibid, quoting “ Watson, 88” .
j Gaz. ibid, quoting “ Bom. Qrly. Rev. IV 98 Aitchison’s Treaties. VI, 263.”
§ Gaz. ibid, p. 242, quoting “ Hamilton’s Hindustan, I, 609.”
||Gaz. ibid, p. 242, quoting “ Hamilton’s Hindustan, I, 692. ”
lip ' 249
§
L
fKoii
breakers b y Surat persons, receiving as reward a share o f the plund­
er*. B oth in A. D . 1819 and A. D. 1825 the Chunvalia K olis o f the
Viramg&m region were suppressedf. In th e latter year B ishop H ebcr
visited G ujarat on his E piscopal tour and has left an account o f bis
impressions o f the Kolis w hich is worth quotin g m extenso: “ These
last ” (K olis) “ form perhaps two-thirds o f the population, and are
considered b y the public m en in Gujarat as the original inhabitants
of the cou n try, a character which, I know n ot why, th ey refuse to the
Bhils, w ho here, as in Malwah, seem to have the best title to it. 1
suspect, indeed, myself, th a t the Coolies are only civilised Bhils,
who have laid aside some o f the wild habits o f their ancestors, and have
learned, m ore particularly, t o conform in certain respects, such as
abstinence from beef, etc., t o their H indu neighbours. They them ­
selves pretend to be descended from the R ajputs, but th is is a claim
continually m ade by wild and warlike tribes all over In dia, and that
the Coolies themselves d o n o t believe their claim , is apparent from the
fact that th ey neither wear the silver badge, nor the red turban. Be
that as it m a y, they are acknowledged b y th e Hindus as their kindred
which the Bhils never are ; and though their claim o f bein g children
of the sun is n ot allowed b y the R ajputs w h o live am ong them, there
have been instances in which intermarriages have taken place between
Makrattas o f high rank and the families o f some of their m ost power­
ful chieftains.
Their ostensible, and, indeed, their chief em ploym ent is agri­
culture, and th ey are said t o be often industrious farmers and labour­
ers, and, while kindly treated, to pay their rent to G overnm ent as well,
at least, as their R ajput neighbours. Th ey live, however, under their
own Thakoors, whose authority alone th e y willingly acknowledge,
and pay little respect to the laws, unless it suits their interests, or they
are constrained by the presence of an a im ed force. In other res­
pects they are one of the m ost turbulent and predatory tribes in In ­
dia, and, with the Bhils, make our tenure o f G uj arat more disturbed, and
the maintenance o f our authority more expensive there, than in any
other district o f the Eastern empire. The .cuteherries, a n d even the
dwelling-houses of the civil servants of th e Company, are uniformly
placed within, instead of w ithout, the cities and towns, a cu stom ruin­
ous to health and com fort, b u t accounted a necessary precaution
against the desperate attacks t o which they m ight otherwise be liable.
Th e magistrates and collectors have a larger force of arm ed men in
their em ploy than any others o f the same rank that I h ave m et with ;
* Gaz., ibid, p. 242, quoting “ Hamilton’s Hindustan, 1-721,722 ” ,
t Gaz., ibid, S.V. Chunvaliyas.
a 1109—32
f l ) v fiT
Koli] 250 ^
and the regular troops, and even the European cavalry are continually
called ou t against them. Y e t in no country are the roads so insecure, —
and in none are forays and plundering excursions o f every kind m ore
fre q u en t; or a greater proportion of, w h at would be called in E urope,
the gentry and landed proprietors addicted to acts o f violence and
bloodshed. In these plundering parties they often display a very
desperate courage ; and it is to their honour that, rude and lawless as
they are, th ey do not apparently delight in blood for its own. sake, and
neither mutilate, torture, nor burn th e subjects o f their cupidity or
revenge like the far worse “ decoits ” o f BeDgal or Ireland.
“ Th ey are hardy, stou t men, particularly those of the Catteywar
andCutch districts. Their usual dress is a pettycoat round the waist
like that o f the Bhils, and a cotton cloth wrapped round their heads
and shoulders, which, when they wish to be smart, they gather up
into a v ery large white turban. In cold weather, or when drest,
they add a quilted cotton kirtle, or “ lebada ” , over which they wear
a shirt of mail, with v ant-braces and gauntlets, and never consider
themselves as fit to go abroad without a sword, buckler, bow and a r­
rows, to which their horsemen add a long spear and battle-axe.
The cotton lebada is generally stained and ironmoulded by the m ail
shirt, and, as might be expected, these marks, being tokens of their
martial occupation, are reckoned honourable, inasmuch as their you n g
warriors often counterfeit them with oil or soot, and do their b est
to get rid as soon as possible of the burgher-like whiteness of a new
dress*. This is said to b e the real origin of the storv told by H am il­
ton. that th e Coolies despise and revile all decent and clean clothing
as base and effeminate. In other respects they are fond of finery ;
their shields are often very handsome, with silver bosses, and c o m ­
posed o f rhinoceros h i d e ; their battle-axes richly inlaid, and their
spears surrounded with m any successive rings of silver. Their b ow s
are like those of the Bhils, but stronger, and in better order ; and
their arrows are carried in a quiver o f red and embroidered leather.
In their marauding expeditions they often use great secrecy, co l­
lecting in th e night at th e will of som e popular chieftain, com m uni­
cating generally b y the circulation o f a certain tok en , known on ly to
those concerned, like th e fiery cross of the Scottish Highlanders.
They frequently leave their families in complete ignorance of as t o
where th ey axe going, and the only w ay in which, sh ould one of th eir
number fall in battle, th e survivors communicate his loss to his widow
or parents, is by throw ing before his d oor some sprigs of the peepul,
plucked and disposed in a particular f o r m .____________________________
* See text and foot-note above.
 (fiT
251 [Koli1 • •*" J
“ On other occasions, how ever, tlieir opposition to law has been
sufficiently open and daring. T h e districts of Catch and Catteywar
have ever been, m ore or less, in a state of rebellion ; and neither the
R egen cy of the form er state, n or the Guicwar, as feudal sovereign
of th e latter, nor th e English Governm ent in the districts adjoining
to b o th which are under his con trol, have ever got through a year
without one or m ore sieges of different forts or fastnesses *. ”
Though he refers to Cutch and Kathiaw ar the authority just
quoted wrote his impression m ain ly at K a ir a : and some of the de­
tails d o not agree with details given of the habits of the Chunvalia
K olis o f the Nal and Viramgam. Thus jt is m entioned th at here
bows and arrows were h ot used. The arms were a m atchlock, sword
and spear, and to som e extent the “ katqr ” or crooked stick o f very
hard w ood, with w hich they cou ld stop and lam e a man thirty or
forty yards off. Selected cham pions only w ere dressed in chain
arm our in three pieces over a v ery thick quilted tunic. I f on horse­
back these cham pions rode horses covered w ith an armour o f hide
or b am boo. The Chunv&lia K olis used also to protect their villages
with an almost impregnable fence o f thornsf.
T h e distribution o f the plu n der taken in m arauding exp ed ition
b y the Central G u ia ia t Kolis -was as follow s :— L ive-stock to the
chief, coin mainly to th e chief,- all other articles to the individu al
captor .t.

B ish op H eber’s description q u o te d above m a y be supplem ented

by th e following from the Has M ala, though it is to be rem embered
that F orbes in this m atter is n o t an original authority, but relates
inform ation given. “ The K olis or Bhils (for although the form er
would resent the classification, th e distinction betw eem th em need
not be here noticed), were, as has been observed, b y far th e m ost
numerous of the inhabitants of M ahi Kantha. T h e y were m ore d im i­
nutive in stature than the other inhabitants, and their eyes were
an expression of liveliness and cunning. T h eir turbans, if they
used any, were s m a ll; their com m on head-dress was a cloth carelessly
wrapped round the tem ples; their cloth es were usually few and coarse;
they were seldom seen without a q u iver of arrows and. a long b a m b oo
bow, w hich was instantly bent on any alarm, or even on the sudden
approach o f a stranger. The n atives described them as w onderfully
swift, a ctive and h a n d y ; incredibly patient o f hunger, thirst, fatigu e

* Narrative of a Journey through the Upper Provinces of India, 2nd edn., London,
1828. I l l pp. 2511
t Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. IX, Part I, and Bom. Gov. Sel. X, 78, there quoted.
} Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. IX, Part I, p. 243. foot-note, authority not cited.
M M ' n

y * ^ Koli] 252

and want o f sleep ; vigilant, enterprising, secret, fertile in expedients,

and adm irably calculated for night attacks, surprises and ambuscades.
Their arms and habits rendered them unfit to stand in the open field,
and they were tim id when attacked, b u t had, on several occasions,
shown extraordinary boldness in assaults, even upon stations occupied
b y regular British troops. They were independent in spirit, and al­
though all professed robbers, were said to be rem arkably faithful
when trusted, and were certainly n ever sanguinary. They were
averse t o regular industry, exceedingly addicted to drunkenness,
and very quarrelsome when intoxicated. Their delight was plunder,
and nothing was so w elcom e to them as a general disturbance in the
country. The numbers o f the Kolees w ou ld have rendered them form i­
dable had th ey been capable of union, but though they had
a strong fellow-feeling for each other, th ey never regarded themselves
as a nation, nor ever m ade com m on cause against an external
enemy *

In 1832 bands of K olis from 50 t o 200 strong, and bent on plund­

er, infested the Kaira highroadsf. Three years later the Collector,
almost in despair, wrote :— “ Some special regulations must be m ade
about the K olis. N o means of ordinary severity seem to have any
effect. W e never hear o f a reformed K oli, or one whose m ode of life
places him above suspicion. All seem alike, rich or poor, those
whose necessities afford them an excuse for crime, and those whose
condition places them o u t of the reach of distress, are alike ready,
on the first opportunity, to plunder 1 ” .

Matters came to a head in . 1835. There had been for some

years a standing feud between Gambhir Singh, R ajd o f Idar, and one
Fateh Singh, the T M k or o f Rupal. Gam bhir Singh had enlisted on
his side against the R upal Thakor one o f his own feudatory Thakors,
Suraj M a ll; and a desultory warfare had gone on between the tw o
parties. Gam bhir Singh died in 1833, and the pow er of the state
was usurped b y a bad character named Chajuram assisted by the
Thakor o f Mundeti. These tw o succeeded in securing the im m ola­
tion as satis o f some o f Gam bhir Singh’ s widows. A nom inal regency
was, therefore, set up b y the B om bay Government. In 1835 the
RajA o f Ahm ednagar (m od em Himmatnagar) died, and it becam e
known to Mr. Erskine, Political A gent, that the heir to the gadi,

* RAsMala edn., 1878,p. 441.

t Bom. Gazetteer, Vol. IX , Part I, p. 243, on authority of a letter of the then
Collector to Govt.
{ Bom. Gazetteer, Vol. IX, Part I, p. 243.
 253 [ K o> 8 L

Prithvi Singh with th e help o f H a m ir Singh (presum ably the sam e

H am ir Singh who was one of the G overn m en t’s ow n R e g e n cy C ouncil
for Id ar) intended to im m olate th e w idow s o f the late chief. In spite
of the presence of Mr. Erskine w ith a small fo rce outside th e tow n
three o f th e widows were im m olated, and a B ritish officer was shot
dow n. T h e state o f th e cou n try was now v e r y disturbed. A s the
B om ba y G overnm ent said in their despatch o f th e 15th O ctober 1835—
“ There w ere thus three parties o f insurgents in arms in th e M ahi
K a n t h a : 1st, Pruthee Singh and liis adherents ; 2nd, the T h a k or o f
R upal and his associate, the Thakor o f Ghorewara, and their fo llo w e r s ;
and 3rd, Soorujm ul and his coadju tors. ” * Sir .Tames (then C aptain)
Outram h ad b y that d ate been sent to restore order. T his he e ffe ct­
ually accom plish ed w ith a B ritish force collected fro m all th e su rrou n d ­
ing m ilitary posts and a d etach m en t o f the tro o p s o f H is H igh n ess
th e G aikw ar. Thereafter he was k ep t on for som e years as P o lit i­
cal A gen t f - The K olis were reported to h ave been peaceable and
greatly subdu ed b y 1844 ; but th ey are still liable to giv e occasion al
trouble, especially the Chunwalia K olis o f Y iram gam .
D H O R K O L IS , also called T ok re K olis, are fo u n d chiefly in th e
north K on k a n . The nam e D h or com es from dhor cattle, because
th ey eat beef. Tokre, from thoftar a b am boo, refers t o their ca llin g
as b a m b oo cutters. T h e y are a very low tribe, ran kin g with M ahars.
They h ave n o priests. Their m arriage cerem onies are co n d u cte d
by four o r five of the trib a l elders. T h ey say th a t th e y d o n o t w orship
Vaghva, H irva, Chita, C h eda or a n y o f the deities o r dem ons kn ow n t o
other w ild tribes. T h ey keep Shimga and Divali as feast days. The
dead are either burnt o r buried. On th e w a y to th e burning grou n d
the b o d y is rested and a stone is laid t o mark the place. If, as seld om
happens, a cop p er coin is forth com in g, it is laid beside the stone, and
again at th e burning grou nd, if th ey h a v e one, a co p p e r coin and som e
rice are p la ced in the d ead m an’s m ou th . W ater is sprinkled fro m an
earthen , ja r on the burning pyre and th e jar dashed on th e grou n d .
W hen th e corpse is b u rn t th e ashes and bones are raked together.
On the fifth d a y after death the decea sed ’s death d a y or divas is
celebrated b y feeding fiv e children and setting rice bread and w a ter
at the burn in g place. N oth in g is d on e w ith the ston e th a t was laid
at the restin g place, b u t, if a cop p er co in was le ft there, it is taken
away and spen t on to b a c c o which is sm oked b y tb e m ourners. In
jBMdrapad, t o feed the spirit o f th e deceased, co o k e d rice is th row n
into the fire on the ro o f o f the house. T h ey live b y d a y labour and

* Quoted in Has Mala, Edn. 1878, p. 526.

f (1) Goldsmith’s Life of Outram, 1880, I, 114 f f ; (2) Ras Mala, Chap. XV.
 Koli] 254
are sometimes employed b y Kunbis in mending banks between, rice
fields and in cutting brushwood for manure. They eat flesh including
carcasses and drink liquor.
M AH ADEV K O L IS are found in the valleys in the east slopes
of the Sahyadris from Mulshi in the south-west of Poona to Trim-
bak in Nasik, a distance of about 120 miles. They are also found
westwards in J aw hat in the N orth Koukan, where one Pauperal,
a Nasik Koli, established a chiefship in the fourteenth century,
and eastwards in the Baleghdt or Mahadev hills in the Nizam’s country,
the traditional home of the Mahadev Kolis. They are, in most places,
indistinguishable from Maratha Kunbis with whom they eat, and
who in some places eat with them.
Exo- According to Captain Mackintosh. Mahadev Kolis originally
divisions, belonged to twenty-four clans or kills, from each of which many
off-shoots (pot kuls) numbering about two hundred and eighteen in
all have sprung. They are as follows :—
Name of K ul. ' Number of P ot KuU
Aghasi .. .. .. 3
Bhonsle .. • •• . 1 6
Budivant .. •. ■. 17
Chavan .. .. •• 2
Dajai . . •• 12
Dalvi .. .- 14
Gaikwad .. .. .. 12
Gavli .- .. •- 2
Jagtap .- . •- 13
Kadam . .• •• 16
Kedar .. .. .- 15
Kharad .. .. .. 11
Kshirasagar .. .. .. 15
Nam dev .. .. •• 15
Pavdr .. -. •• 13
Poleva .. .. .• 12
Sagar .. .. •• 12
Shaikhaeha .. .. .■ 12
Shiva .• •■ •• 2
Soikhi •• •• •• 2
Suryavanshi .. .. •• 46
Uterecha .. •■ •• 43
Vauakpal .. •• •• 47
Marriage. Marriage is prohibited within the limits o f the pot kul, and in
some places within the limits o f the kul also. Sameness of devaJc
'G
°v\

255 |K o li 3

also is considered a bar t.o intermarriage *. A Mahadev K o li m ay m arry

his m other’s brother’s daughter, but not his father’s sister’s or m other’ s
sister’s daughter. Marriage with tw o sisters is allowed and brothers
arc allowed to marry sisters. P olygam y is allowed and practised
but polyandry is unknown. Girls are generally married between
five and ten and boys between twelve and fifteen. W idow remarriage
and divorce are allowed and practised. The marriage ceremonies
of Mahadev K olis resemble those of local Kunbis, their devaks also
being the same as those o f Maratlfa Kunbis.
Mahadev Kolis chiefly worship K handoba, Bahiroba, D arvabai, Religion.
Ghorpaddevi, Gunnivir, H iroba, Kalsubai, Mhasoba, N avlai, Yellamm a
and Vyaghrambari, and make pilgrimages to the holy places in their
neighbourhood. They observe all the leading H indu fasts and
feasts. They have great faith in w itchcraft and sorcery. Their
spiritual guides1 are Kanphate Gosavis.- Their original priests were
R iv a l Goad vie, Lingayats b y religion, who were supplanted b y Brahmans
during the reign of the third Peshwa B&laji Bajirao (1740-1761).
Am ong the Mahadev K olis o f the Thana district, the death ceremonies
are still con du cted b y R a v a l Gosavis. Follow ing the example
o f the Marathas, Sonars and others, they have lately begun to exclude
Brahmans from their priestships and to em ploy m em bers o f their
own tribe w ho have been taught the duties.
The dead are either burnt or buried. W hen buried, the Death,
head is turned to the south. The bodies of persons who die
o f a lingering disease are burnt, as such deaths are believed
to have been caused b y w itchcraft. E ither the same evening or
th e next m orning they exam ine the ashes to see if th e y can find
a u y unconsumed bits o f cloth or some article o f food. I f they find
a piece of cloth or some grain, th ey believe th at what th ey have found
was the cause o f death and th a t it was w orked into the dead man’ s
intestines b y a witch who had been em ployed to do this b y some
one from whom, the dead man had stolen some cloth or som e grain.
U nder Maratha rule, if the friends of the deceased found articles of
this kind, the m agician, unless he bribed som e local officer, was sent
fo r a time to some hill fort (1). The death ceremonies o f Mahadev
K olis resemble those of local Kunbis. The deceased are propitiated
in the latter half of Bhddrapad when rice m ixed with m ilk is offered
to the crow and a feast is given. Those w ho die in battle or in the
* Thus the Koli family of Raste has for devak the mango, jam bhul and umbar trees.
Its members may not marry with the families of Lokhanda Balchimb and Wal Koli
that have the same trees for devak. For a full explanation of these devaks, see
M ARATH A S.
(1) Mackintosh in Trans. Bom, Geog. Soo. 1-225.
- 1'■ v'1".,■•.J :■ Q -JLt—A
Kolij 256

performance o f an act of bravery are called Virs and are worshipped

with the gods, a silver ball with tw o corners being offered to them
and on the first day of Phdlgun a fowl or goat is sacrificed to
them. The Shrdddka is performed only on the tenth to thirteenth
day after death, and subsequently on the first anniversary.
The original occupation of Mahadev Kolis is supposed to have
been that of an infantry soldier. They are now husbandmen, cattle-
keepers and labourers. In some places they are boatm en, carrying
passengers across rivers and streams during the rainy season. Some are
hereditary ministrants at Mah&dev temples and take to themselves
the offerings laid before the god. In Kolhapur they also gather
slake and sell lime nodules, and catch and sell fish. M any are land
holders, and many till the lands of others though they are not so
skilful as Kunbis. Many K olis are employed a** watchmen, a
considerable number are vdtils or village headmen, and a few are
deshmukhs or hereditary district officers.
Food. Mahadev Kolis eat the usual kind o f flesh except beef and pork
and drink country liquor to excess. Their staple fo o d is ndgli or
sdva bread and vegetables. In some outlying parts m any, after finish­
ing their stores of grain, live for a time on wild roots, herbs and fruits
and on the flesh of game animals and birds. They eat with Marathas
and Kunbis, but no lower caste. Kunbis and Marathas eat with them
above ghats, but below ghats may only take water from them.
( M A L H A R K O LIS or the Kolis worshipping the god Malhar,
also called Panbhari or water-filling Kolis, are, according to Captain
Mackintosh, one of the purest and m ost respectable of all K oli
tribes (1). They are also called Chumlis from the cloth-fenders they
wear on their heads as water-pot rests, and Kunum Kolis, because
according to Mackintosh th y eat and associate with Kunbis. They
are found in almost every village in the Deccan, in Bom bay City
and along the sea coast in the Thana district. Their common sur­
names are Bhoir, Jadhav, Kerav, Langa, Povar, Sharanpad, Shelir,
Sojval and Vekhande. In speech, dress, customs and ceremonies
they do not differ from the Mahadev K olis. As the name Panbhari
or water filler shows, their usual calling is to supply villagers and
strangers with water and to clean out the village rest-house and office.
Near Pandharpur many Malhar Kolis are yeshars or village door­
keepers and in Khandesh and Ahmednagar a few are husbandmen.
During the Maratha rule, to the south o f Poona, Malhar Kolis were
the hereditary guardians o f the hill forts of Purandhar, Sinhgad,
(1) Trana. Bom, Goog. Soc. X, 191,
tip: <SL
4 v -.--A '

p P p '7 257 [Koli

T o m a and E ijg a d (f). A ccord in g to Mr. A . M. T . Jackson Malhar

K oiis in the Th&na district frequently becom e Maratha Kunbis, and
the process has been recognized in parts o f the Poona district.

SON K O L IS (2) are found along the N orth K onkan coast from
Bassein to Ratnagiri in the south. They are numerous in K olaba
and form the m ost interesting o f the castes found in the district.
Distinguished physically from the other inhabitants b y their light-
brown com plexion, the round curves of the face and their smiling
expression, they are equally distinguished b y their aristocratic con­
stitution, their separate dialect and their occupation. H istory is
n ot clear as to their arrival on the coast, but a probable inference from
tradition is that a m ajority o f the present K oiis is descended from
immigrants f a - a - t h e hills who arrived som e four hundred years
ago. I f this Be correct it would certainly go far to explain the mark­
ed difference in type. But d ou bt is thrown upon the tradition b y the
difficulty of understanding the sudden conversion o f billmen into
fishers.
The dress of the Son K oiis offers a few distinguishing peculia­
rities. The way in which the wom en’s sdries leave the head bare and
are tightly drawn round the thighs and between the buttocks with
an effect like bathing drawers, is in itself distinctive of the caste.
In r. Speot of jewellery, anklets are never worn b y man or woman.
Apparently, however, this is a matter rather of fashion than of
religion or superstition. On the right hand, women wear a silver
bracelet of peculiar and heavy shape such as is worn b y n o other
caste. N o other bangle or bracelet, ornament or jewel is worn on
that hand ; and the absence o f such adornments are for women as
a sign of the covenant under which the d eity protects fishers from
the perils of the sea. On the other parts o f the body on left hand
and neck and head, women wear ornaments as they please according
to the wealth and enjoym ent of their husbands. There is no custom
of tattooing in the caste and men are never touched b y the tattooer’s
point. Recently, however, a few women have begun to ta ttoo in
im itation of other castes. Even these, however, do no m ore than
tattoo a tilak on the brow.

The home tongue o f Son K oiis is a patois o f Marathi gradually

obsolescent under the grinding o f the Local B oard school and the
newspaper. In the K oli home language the inflections o f the verbs
are syncopated or varied, certain variant substantives are used, and
(1) Trans Bom. Guog. Soc. I, 191-192.
(2) Contributed by Mr, 0. RotMeld, I.C.S.
no h 1109—33
fi p Koli| 258
<SL
formations of adverbs of place and other speefth adjuncts from the
standard language. Examples are “ tavade ” for “ tikde ” , “ avade ”
for “ ikade” , etc.
The administration of tribal affairs rests in the hand of the here­
ditary Sar-pdtil whose residence is at Alibag. Under him, each
village com munity has the subordinate administration of a hereditary
palil of the Kolis. These pdtils are assisted in arriving at their decisions
and in their promulgation by the deliberations of a panchdijat or caste
meeting. The local pdtil sends his invitation to the Kolis o f his
village. The Sar-pdtil, when he fixes the date of hearing, invites the
Kolis of four villages to attend, and at the request, of the parties, may
extend the invitation to eight, twelve or twenty villages. But the
decision lies with the pdtil or Sar-pdtil and is not reached by any vote
or referendum ; and the position o f the panchdyat is briefly that of
asessors, not of a jury. Caste jurisdiction is exercised' mainly in
regard to the laws of navigation and fishing rights, or what are really
professional questions. In respect to the sailing of ships and the
crossing o f one boat on the course of another, the rules framed and
enforced b y the pddl are as stringent as those of the Royal Y ach t
Squadron. The caste pdtils with their assessors further deal with
certain criminal offences, like assault, hurt and riot, and with certain
torts like breaches of promise to marry. The Sar-pdtil sitting by
himself in “ chambers ” has further the right or d u ty of prote ting
women who become pregnant without b a n g wives, of fining their
paramours, and of finding them husbands.

The caste is divided into families, and marriage within the family
is forbidden. But the forms of the family gods have become sha­
dowy and their outlines are obscure in the mist of ages. Children of
brothers and sisters d o n ot intermarry. The son of a sister can marry
the daughter of her brother, but the sop of the brother cannot marry
the daughter of his sister. Marriage with two sisters is permitted and
two brothers are allowed to marry tw o sisters.

Marriage Marriages are seldom entered upon till after puberty and the
monies, bridegroom is usually required to have attained at least twenty
years, as a young man below that age is not considered to be fit for
rowing if he have a wife to cherish. The bride is usually consulted
by her parents and asked whether she be willing to accept her suitor.
Recently, howeyer, Brahman influence and the desire to be fashionable
have to some extent impaired this excellent rule and substituted the
Br&hmanized marriage of compulsion. Widows are allowed to
remarry. Full divorce is accorded only to a husband ii his wife
((f))■■. 259 [Koli
§
L
be taken in adultery. Otherwise only orders of what m ay be called
judicial separation are allowed. Thus if a man becomes a leper or a
Christian, he will be excommunicated and his wife will therefore
obtain a “ sod-chitti ” or separation order from the Sar-pdtil or
head of the tribe. But until the separated husband die, the woman
has no right to remarry. The same natural results follow this
custom as in England arise from judicial separations. A noteworthy
feature of marriage customs is that there is still a faint tradition that
it is best if a younger brother marry his elder brother’s widow. This
is, however, no living, compelling tradition as among certain tribes
o f Guiarat Kolis. Such as it is, however, it m ay point to an earlier
com munity of life with the other K olis o f Western India. This
com m unity o f descent is so far recognised b y the Son K olis that they
acknowledge their affinity to the Dongar K olis, though intermarriages
have for a long time been forbidden. The Son Kolis, however, claim
a higher rank for themselves and will not eat food prepared b y Dongar
Kolis. Of a connection with the Gujarat K olis they have n o know­
ledge but they are freely prepared to admit the probability of such
an affinity.
The tribe seems only recently to have entered the fold o f Hinduism. Rel>gion-
The tradition o f the Son K olis themselves is that they were taught
to know the gods properly b y Kalu Bhagat, a K oli o f Yarsoli near
Alibag, in the times of the Peshwas some tw o centuries ago. The
teaching of Kalu Bhagat was especially directed to the adoration of the
god that sits enthroned at Jejuri, the god, th at is, Malhar and Martand
and is Khandoba. A nd so to this day Jejuri remains the chief shrine
or centre of K oli worhsip. A n d the'descendants o f K a lu Bhagat
are still the high priests o f the tribe. Before they becam e the wor­
shippers of Khandoba, the K olis say they were in the state o f ignor­
ance (adnyani). The parallel word jahaliat used by th e Arabs to
describe the loose animism th at preceded Islam will at on ce occur to
memory. That, therefore, the tradition relates to the first Hinduis-
ing of the K oli tribe, there can be little doubt.

The dead are either burnt or buried without distinction according

: to the wealth o f the surviving relatives. B u t an invariable custom
decrees that persons dying of contagious diseases like sm all-pox or
cholera shall be buried.

The hereditary occupation o f Son K olis is fishing, in which

practically all find sufficient and profitable employment. A few have
now become wholesale fish suppliers and fish merchants and a very
few are clerks or accountants in Government service. The sale of
;!, g ? %L
Komarpaik] 260

fish caught b y fishing boats is done exclusively by the women of the

caste. In consequence the women wield great power, manage house­
hold affairs entirely themselves, and look after the household funds.
The K oli fish-wife is as fine and independent as her sister of
Newhaven. Like her, she has her share o f her husband’s drink when
there are guests in the house or the sorrow of the swirling driving rain
is forgotten in a cheering glass.
Food. Son K olis eat the flesh of goats, sheep and rabbits, but no wild
animals nor any bird except the farmyard fowl. They drink liquor.

KOLI.— A sub-division of Uppars, Vaidus, Machhis, Kh&rvas,

Bhois, Kabbaligars, K&chhias ; a synonym for Bagdi.

K 0 L IG 0R .— A sub-division of Audich Brahmans.

Name and KOMARPAIKS numbering 9,110 (1901), including 4,349 males

ongln' and 4,751 females, are met with only in the Kanara district. A bout
900 are found in the above-Ghat talukas and the rest reside below
the G bits. The former are followers of the Lingayat religion ; the
latter have certain Lingayat practices which may be the result
of their having formerly been J.ing&yats and later reverted to
Hinduism. Until twenty or thirty years ago the caste styled
themselves Kom&rpaiks, but of late they have assumed the more
grandiloquent title of 1 Khetri Komdrpanth ’ and now claim to be
Kshatriyas. The name Komdrpanth or followers of Komfir is probably
taken from the Ling&yat teacher Kom ar Swami, whose head-quarters
are in Kaladgi ; * and the word khetri is a corruption of the Sanskrit
Kshatriya. The name Komarpaik suggests their being connected
with the warrior’s profession, paik meaning a soldier.
The caste state that they came to Kanara from Kalburga in the
Niz&m’ s dominions. They appear to have formerly been soldiers
in the service of the Sonda chiefs. After H yder A li’s conquest of
Kanara in 1763, they took to brigandage and became the terror of the
country ; but since 1799, when the district came under British rule,
they have become peaceful and orderly.
Komarpaiks speak a corrupt Kanarese with a mixture of Konkani
words. The names in common use among men are, Kira, Chincha,
Purso, Charu, Chikka, Gutti, Sidram, Kencha, Giryga, Rurao, IMnu,
Siddappa, Munga, Lingappa, Chenua, Ira, Venku, and M M d u ; and
among women, Vorai, Vhntii, Shivai, Chudai, Budai, Ganai, Ses&i,
Anande, N&gma, Neru, Reru, Govri, and Hemai. The men add the
word ndik or metri, meaning headman, to their names.
* Bom bay Gazetter, vol. x v , p. 127.
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The caste is split up into eighteen exwgamous sub-divisions, which Divisions,

are local in origin. They are as follow s

Name. I Family God.

1. K&rkonkar .. .. Mallilrarjuna.
2. Phondekar .. .. Mahadev.
3. Talpankiir •■ •• Nirankdr.
4. Mhiilsaikar .. .. Mkafca.
5. Mudgerikar or Shivnathkar .. Shiv nAth.
6. Majalkar .. .. .. Rdm-nath and Dad-dev.
7. Chitkulkar .. .. Mahittiayi.
8. Kinmarkar .. .. MaMdev and the village god.
9. Badkar .. .. .. Mahadev and the village god.
10. Nandangaddekar .. .. N&gesih.
11. Kadwadkar .. .. Mahadev and the village god.
12. Kadrekar .. .. Mahmayi.
13. Shiwekar .. .. Sidrai*.
14. Belurkar .. . .. . Bindurnadhav.
15. Argekar .. .. .. Mahdd'ev and Satai Mhasti.
16. Amdallikar .. .. Mahadev and the village god.
17. Ankolkar .. .. Bhumidevata.
18. Aureekar .. .. Katydyani.
The caste head-quarters are at B ad near Karw&r. E very village
has a budivant or local headman o f the caste, a b ov e whom is the Mahal
budivanl o f several villages, subordinate to th e Kalas o r supreme
headman. The decisions o f the latter on im portant caste questions
such as re-admission to caste o f offenders in social matters are subject
to approval b y the local Brahman agent o f the Shringeri Math.
Marriages are prohibited between members o f the same section.
Daughters o f brothers can be given in marriage t o sons o f sisters.
A sister’s daughter m ay be married to her brother’s son, if no other
suitable m atch can be found ; but in such cases tiff* parents o f the
girl have to give her a silver chain during the marriage. The reason
fo r this is said to be the girl’s returning to the section from which her
mother cam e. A man m ay marry a deceased wife’s sister; and brothers
may marry sisters. D ouble marriages are sometimes arranged in
order to curtail the marriage expenses. Girls are married from eight
to twelve : b oy s from fourteen to tw enty. Polygam y is allo wed i f the
first wife is barren- Polyandry is unknown.
The offer o f marriage comes from the b o y ’s father. T h e d a y for Marriage
the marriage is fixed b y an astrologer and the ceremony is conducted core:
b y a Brahinan priest. The betrothal is celebrated on an auspicious mome8*
day some tim e before the marriage when the b o y ’s father goes to the
girls’ house with relations and friends and presents her with a robe
and ornaments, which she puts on. Three or four days before the mar­
riage the ch ief post o f the marriage booth, is planted at the houses
o f the b oy and the girl. The post at the .muse o f the b o d y consists
f( 'f 1 (fiT
Komarpaikj 262

o f the w ood o f the jdrnba (X y lia dolabriformis) and that at the house
o f the girl o f kindal (Terminalia paniculata). A lamp is kept burning
near the post every evening for a month. A devakdrya, or a feast
in honour of the family gods, is given when the marriage booth is ready.
On the morning o f the marriage day the girl is rubbed with turmeric
paste and oil. From this d a y to the end o f the marriage the girl is
attended b y a Devli girl, w h o receives for her services a robe and the
money waved round the girl. The b oy is attended b y his sister’s hus­
band. He is presented with, a waist cloth and his wife with a robe.
The marriages o f Koinarpaiks always take place at sunset. Festoons
are hung at a distance of abou t forty yards from the girl’s house, where
the boy is received b y the girl’s father, and a hanging lamp is handed to
him. When the party reach, the girl’s house, the b o y ’s feet are washed
by the girl’s father and ligh ted lamps are waved round his face. N ext
the b o y is led into the marriage booth over a cloth spread by a washer­
man, who is paid annas fo u i. The lamp in the boy’s hand is suspended
from the booth and he is seated on a cot. The girl is brought
and seated before him. A cloth is held between them ; sacred verses
are repeated ; and at tbe'en d, the cloth is rem oved and the boy and the
girl throw garlands o f bakul flowers round each other’s neck. The
dhdre ceremony and the marriage sacrifice are then performed, which
are the binding portions. On the following day a ceremony known as
gavanis performed, in which the bride and bridegroom with four other
pairs are seated on a cot, and m oney presents are made to them by
relations and friends, each waving a lighted lamp round their faces.
The cerem ony ends with a dinner to the caste people. On the third
d ay the boy returns to his house with the girl. In the evening the girl’ s
parents are invit ed, the ceremony of gavan again takes place, and the
caste is feasted. On the fourth day the marriage coronet is removed
from the b o y ’s head, the pair are taken to the girl’s house, the marriage
garlands are taken off their necks, and a dinner consisting o f flesh, fish,
and paisa, is given to the b o y ’s party. On the following evening a
similar fe.ast is given b y the b o y ’s father to the girl’s party which
brings the marriage festivities to an end.

The remarriage of widows is permitted. A widow caimot marry

a member o f her late husband’s section. W idow remarriages can be
celebrated during those months only when first marriages cannot take
place. The w idow has to return to the relations o f her deceased hus­
band the clothes and ornaments received b y her from him. She has
also to break the glass bangles on her wrists. This is done under the
eaves of her deceased husband’s house, when water is poured on her
11 263
. <SL
[Komarpaik ''
head b y one of his relations. The widow then puts on a new robe
presented to her b y her new husband and goes to his house. The
marriage takes place in the verandah. N o priest is present. A
remarried widow applies red powder to the w idow ’s forehead and sticks
thereto grains o f boiled rice. The widow is then presented with clothes
and ornaments b y her new husband, which com pletes the cerem ony.
A remarried widow* loses the privileges o f taking part in marriages
and other ceremonies, but her children’s rights are in n o way affected.
A third marriage is also allowed. But it is believed that the partner
o f the man or woman who has been twice married is certain to die soon
after the marriage. To prevent this, if the man has been twice married
before, he is wedded to a plantain tree and fells it with a billhook im ­
mediately after the ceremony. I f the woman has been twice married
before, she is married to a cock whose throat she cuts with a knife as
soon as the marriage is over. D ivorce is n ot allowed. A woman
taken in adultery is put out o f caste. The caste follow the H indu law
of inheritance.

The few Komarpaiks residing above the Ghats are still staunch Religion.
Lingayats ; those below the Ghats, though they profess to be Hindus,
have certain Lingayat practices. They honour Lingayat priests,
and at the time of the H oli festival, worship Basava and Shiva’s b u l l ;
they also sing hymns in honour o f Basava’s defeat o f Brahmanism.
These practices m ay have been acquired during their service under the
Lingayat Chiefs o f Sonda. They are disowned b y their own people
above the Sahyadris and seem to have transferred m uch o f their
reverence from the Lingayat priests to the Karnatak Brahmans. The
caste do n ot belong to any regular Hindu sect. The ob jects o f their
special devotion are Basava, Venkatarama, Kalbhairava, Mhalpuras
or ancestral gods, and mhastis or ancestral satis, in honour o f whom
they hold yearly festivals. Fruit and flowers are offered to Brahmanie
gods, and blood-sacrifices to village and household gods, except to the
spirits o f satis. They observe all the Hindu holidays and make pil­
grimages to Gokarn, Tirupati, Pandharpur, and Benares. On the first
evening o f the H oli holidays, at the full-m oon nearest to the vernal
equinox, all men and big boys, each with tw o wooden sticks, go to
either o f the temples o f Basava, and falling before the idol, lay the
sticks in front o f it. Then the ayya or Lingayat priest sanctifies the
sticks b y the touch o f his feet. The man and boys then sing Kanarese
songs in honour of Basava’s triumph over Brahmanism and dance, keep­
ing time b y clasping the sticks. The caste has great faith in soothsay­
ing, and whenever there is illness in the fam ily, soothsayers or ghddis
 , Q ,
Komarpaik] 264 j

o f the Ghadi, Komarpaik, and Kum bhar castes are consulted. The
Komarpaiks on the coast acknowledge the supremacy o f the head of
the Shringeri monastery in religious matters and abide b y the decisions
of his agent at Gokarn. Their priests are Kamafcak Brahmans in and
about K&rwar, and Ankola. In Gokarn and the outside villages o f the
Ankola tdluka Haviks officiate as their priests while in the Yellapur
tdluka the Vaishnava Gaud Saras vat Brahmans are em ployed for re­
ligious and ceremonial purposes.

Death A century ago the Komarpaiks used to bury their dead in Lingayat
monies, fashion. They now burn their dead, except children who have not cut
their teeth, and those who have died o f small-pox ; these are buried
in a lying position with head to the north. In the case o f those who have
died of sm all-pox a leaf o f the palas tree (Butea frondosa) is burnt in
the name o f the deceased. The bones and ashes of the burnt are thrown
in the sea or a river. The mourning ends on the eleventh day
after death, when the mourners purify themselves b y drinking water
brought from the house o f their priest, and a dinner is given to the caste
people. On this day, as well as on every thirtieth day for a year, a
person of the age and sex o f the deceased is feasted. The ceremony of
mahdl is performed every year on a day in the latter half of Bhddrapad
which corresponds to the death day o f one of the deceased ancestors.
In the case of violent death, in addition to the ordinary rites, the
ndrayanbali is said to be performed within forty-five days after death.
The w ell-to-do perform the shrdddha.

Oceupa- The Komarpaiks state that they were originally soldiers by pro-
ti°n. fession. They are now m ostly husbandmen and cart-drivers, a few
being palm-tappers and palm sugar-makers. Some are sawyers and
petty contractors. The men are fond o f acting and perform dramas
written in Kanarese from passages in the Ramayana and Mahdbharat.
Some hold lands, a few paying a yearly assessment up to Rs. 500.
Some are tenants o f superior holders. Some are day-labourers and
are paid in cash.

Food. They eat the flesh o f goats, sheep, fowls, wild pigeons, wild boars
and fish. Formerly they did not drink liquor ; but o f late some have
taken to it, though moderately. They eat at the hands o f Brhhmans
Vanis and Marathas. L ow castes such as Bandis, Deolis, Chamars
Halleers and Mahars eat at their hands.

KONGADI— A sub-division o f Vanjaris.

KONKANASTH—A synonym for Chitpavan.
KONKAN DEVDIG—A snomym for Bfindi.
M Hi 265
______ *

[Konkna
VCT
KONKANI—A territorial name. A sub-division o f Padtis, Guravs,
Kalavants and Gans, K M rva s, Nhavis, Shimpis, Gavlis, K um bM rs,
Kunbis, Sutars, .Lohars, Sonars, Chambhars, Kolis ; a synonym for
Sasashtikar Brahman.

KONKNAS, numbering 72,678 (1911), are chiefly found in the Name and
southern parts of the Surat district and in the Dharampur and Bansda orisin-
States. They are a primitive tribe and resemble the Varlis o f Thana in
appearance. Their name indicates that they are a tribe from the
Konkan, probably so named upon immigration, and the inference is
that they are one o f the hill tribes from Thana. That they originally
belonged to the Konkan is clear from their dialect, which is a mixture
of Gujarati and Marathi. It is said that th ey were driven northward,,
by the pressure of the Great Durga D evi famine (A. D. 1396— 1408)."

Tney marry their boys from sixteen to twenty, and their girls Marriage,
from fifteen to eighteen. Polygam y is allowed and practised and
widows are allowed to remarry. On a man agreeing to p a y her husband
the amount he spent as dowry, a woman m ay leave her husband and
go to live with the man. When he has found a girl likely to be a good
match, for his son, the b o y ’s father with one or tw o friends, bearing a
jar o f liquor worth eight annas, goes to the house o f the father of the
girl. I f the girl’ s father agrees, after five or six days the bride and her
friends go to the b o y ’s father’s house. Liquor is drunk, and the b o y ’s
father gives tw o robes and a bodice to the bride, and to his son a turban,
two cloths, and a loincloth, lungoti. The wedding-day is then fixed,
l or a few day3 before a wedding the bride and bridegroom are daily
rubbed with yellow powder, and the bridegroom ’s father sends to the
ather of the bride eight or ten rupees as a dow ry. On the appointed
day, with music and singing, the bride’s party goes in procession
to the b oy’s house. Here they are m et b y the bridegroom ’s
father and seated in a b ooth in front o f his house. The bride
and bridegroom are then made to sit on a blanket, and their
skirts are tied by a woman, in front o f a lamp. Each says the other’s
name and the knot is untied. A fter the men o f the p arty have sung
and danced, the bridegroom ’s father gives a dinner o f rice, pulse and
iquor. H er friends leave the bride and return home. A fter five days
she goes to her father’s house, and after five days more goes back to her
husband. A m ong the Konknas the practice of serving for a wife
khandadia prevails.

Konknas worship Brahm and Vagk D ev. Brahm, a, stone placed Religion,
near a shami (Prosopis spicigera) tree, is supplied with a clay horse and
»OH 1109--34
 <SL
H

Korava] 266

lamp-stand and a flag. Yagh, a wooden pillar with a tiger cut on it,
is generally covered with red sindur powder. They do not respect
Brahmans or em ploy them as priests.
Death. A m ong the Konlcnas the dead body is bathed, rubbed with
turmeric, and carried on a bier to the burning ground. The mourners
bathe in the river. The pyre is kindled b y a son or other near relation,
and when it is half burnt the mourners return to the house of the
deceased and drink toddy. On the third d ay eight or ten men go to
the burning ground, gather the ashes, sprinkle water over them and
return home. On the fourth day a dinner is given to relations and
clansmen ; at the end of the year a silver image of the dead is set up
in the house, and in front o f it a lamp is lighted every tw o or three
days.
Konknas are labourers and cultivators. Most o f them till fields,
but have very little stock, and do the greater part o f the work with
their hands. Some, who, from want of bullocks, themselves drag the
plough, are called Mthodids or hand-ploughmen.
K O R A M A .-A synonym for Korava.
KORAR.— A synonym for Korava.
Name and KORAVAS, also known as Korar, Korgar, Kormar (Korama) and
° ngm' Korchar, numbering, 19,364 (1901), including 9,672 males and 9,692
females, are found principally in the Belgaum, Bijapur and Dharwar
districts and in the Native States of the Southern Mar&tha Agency.
They are a wandering tribe of hunters, fortune-tellers, cattle-breeders,
carriers, musicians, basket-makers and thieves. They are immigrants
from Mysore and the Tamil-speaking districts o f Kurnool, Salem,
South A rcot and Coimbatore in Madras, where they are generally
known b y the name o f Kuravan and number 100,315 (1901). They
appear to be an aboriginal tribe in the process of being Hinduised.
Brahmans do n ot take part in their ceremonies. Their women are n ot
held unclean during the period o f monthly illness. The dead are
buried, and only a few of the leading Hindu holidays are observed.
On the other hand, the tribe have many primitive practices, including
the couvade (in Mysore) and trial b y ordeal. Their home tongue is a
mixture o f Telegu, Tamil and Kanarese, indicating the country of their
origin.
According to Buchanan* the Koravas once ruled South Kanara
under a chief named Hubashika. The resemblance o f his name to
Habshi suggests an Abyssinian ruler (see H absh i ). H e describes them
in 1800 as wearing little but a bunch of grass, eating beef and offal}

* Buchanan’s M ysore, Vol. Ill, p. 100.

 267 [Korava ^ 1

and worshipping a stone called Bata. H e also refers* to the Koramas

o f Mysore, an impure caste who made baskets and carried salt, and the
Koravans, a wild tribe of C oim batore.f Mr. R ice names the Koragas,
Koramas and Korachas.j; H e describes them as thieves and robbers,
m oving with droves o f cattle and asses, carrying salt and grain, and
making bamboo mats and baskets. A bbe Dubois describes§ them
as carriers and basket-makers, who were perpetually wandering about,
and showed much affinity with the Gypsies of Europe, especially in
telling fortunes. The women, according to him, were skilful as
tattooers ; but the tribe in his time had an evil reputation for thieving
and house-breaking. A regiment of Koravas, known as kallu-bants or
robber Bants was employed b y Tippu Sultan to spy on and rob the
enemy. T o save themselves from the degradations com m itted b y
this tribe, the residents o f the country paid regular blackmail, either
in m oney or in kind. Koravas, besides speaking Telegu, Tamil and
Kanarese, are said also to have a gj-psy language o f their own. The
men wear the hair in a bunch on one side o f the head in the style to be
seen on figures on memorial s to n e s ; the women wear strings o f red
and white beads and shells covering the bosom , after the com m on
practice o f the lower castes in Kanara. In the rem ote forest they are
said to wear little else, at m ost a leaf apron.
The Koravas in the B om bay Presidency have seven endogamous Endo-
divisions. They are :— gamous
J divisions.
1. A divi or K al Kaikadi. 6. Modi.
2. Bid or Vir, 7. Patrad.
3. D abbe or Uru. 8, San adi.
4. Ghante Chor. 9. Suli.
5. Kunchi.

The tribe contains four fam ily stocks— Santipadia, Kavadia, Man-
padia, and Menragutti. Persons belonging to the same stock do n ot
intermarry. Bids and Dabbes eat together, and Bids will give their
girls to Dabbes though they do n ot marry Dabbe girls. Of these
the San&dis, who are found in Dharwar and are now o f settled habits,
are considered on that account to be the social superiors of the rest,
with whom they neither eat nor intermarry. They are musicians b y
profession, and take the name from the sanai or horn which th ey blow
at marriage and religious ceremonies. They also make baskets, corn-
bins, slings and grass ropes. The Kunch Koravas make weaver’s

* Buchanan’s M ysore, Vol. I, p. 249.

t Id -, Vol. II, p. 336.
t Rice’s M ysore, Vol. I, pp. 312, 350, and Vol. Ill, p. 214.
%H in d u M a n n ers and C ustom s, Part I, Chapter 5.
 Karava] 268^ ^
brushes, and catch and sell game. The Adivis make baskets and
brooms, and are notorious thieves. The Patrads or shawl weavers
(palra a scarf) are dancers, singers and prostitutes connected with
Venkatgiri in North Arcot. The Sulis (K an. suli) are prostitutes.
The Ghante Chors seem to be refugees from the Bh&mt&s, who are
known by this name. Most of the Koravas breed cattle and pigs and
own large numbers o f pack-bullocks.

Marriage The Koravas marry their girls either before or after they come
monies. of age. Polygam y is allowed and practised, but polyandry is unknown.
The betrothal is settled by the payment of Rs. 4 or 5 b y the boy’s
father to the girl’s father in the presence of relations and friends. He
has also to pay a bride-price called mahar o f not less than Rs. 30 to
the girl’s father. Exchanges o f children in marriage are said to be
arranged before their birth. The girl’s father sometime makes
the b o y ’s father promise to give him two o f his son’s daughters or
to pay a sum o f money as their price. H alf this sum is paid to the
girl’s maternal un de. The marriages of Koravas generally take place
on Mondays. On the Friday before the marriage Monday the relations
o f the bride take turmeric powder and oil to the bridegroom’s, and
the b o y ’s relations take turmeric powder and oil to the girl’s. Till
Monday the fathers of the bride and bridegroom feast their friends and
relations at their own houses, and on Monday the bridegroom s father
leads the bridegroom to the bride’s, where he is seated on the bride’s
right on a blanket covered with rice. Kankans or thread wristlets
are tied round the right wrists o f the bride and bridegroom and their
garments are tied together. The guests throw grains of rice on their
heads, the mangahutra or lucky thread is tied round the bride’s neck,
and a feast is held. In the evening the varat or return procession
starts from the bride’s house to Maruti’s temple. In front of the
procession the bride and bridegroom walk, dressed in rich clothes,
the bride’s head being covered with a network o f flow ers; friends
and relations follow, and the procession is closed b y women waving
lamps round the happy pair, to drive away evil spirits. W hen they
enter the front door o f the temple they stand near it, and the
priest waves a piece of burning camphor before the deity breaks
a cocoanut before him, and gives a piece o f cocoa-kem el with
some holy ashes to the bride and bridegroom, who p u t a little
in their mouths as a god-gift. W hen they reach the bridegroom s,
the lamp-carrying women wave the lamps about the heads of the
bride and bridegroom. Afterwards, the bride and bridegroom are
made to eat from one dish, and each puts five morsels into the
 269 [Koarava
'• ■ — >— . ■ •••

other’s mouth. In a marriage both the bride’s father and the

bridegroom ’s father give tw o different caste feasts.
In Kanara the day for the marriage is fixed in consultation with a
Brahman. On the evening before the wedding day, the bride is
brought to the bridegroom’ s house. On the morning of the wedding
d ay the bride and bridegroom are seated on a blanket in. tw o circles,
within which figures of the sun and m oon have been marked in quartz
powder, and a heap of rice with five annas in copper piled. Five
married women com e and rub the bride and bridegroom with turmeric
paste, lead them outside the marriage booth, and bathe them thrice in
water. Then a branch o f the Miair or catechu tree is felled and drop­
ped into the nearest well. A t midnight the five married women, sing­
ing songs, go to the well, and, after each has drawn a potful o f water,
take the branch ou t of the well. The branch is then planted opposite
the front door. Close to it are piled tw o heaps of millet, tw o small
water-pots, a large p ot full of oil, and fourteen pounds of cotton seed.
These are then set on fire, and when the flame is at its fiercest they take
rice in their hands, rub some grains on the bride’s and bridegroom ’s
foreheads and sprinkle the rest on their heads. E arly n ext morning
the men take Rs. 4 from the bridegroom and spend it on liquor. The
khair branch is throw n into running water. This ends the cerem ony.
The re-marriage of widows is permitted. I t is stated that a widow
who has daughters may not marry until all the girls are married,
and that a widow who has sons can never marry. D ivorce is said
not to be allowed. The Superintendent o f Ethnography for Madras
describes* the practice of the couvade as still prevailing am ong the
Koravas. The husband awaits his w ife ’s confinement, when he
takes medicine consisting of chicken and m utton broth spiced. The
clothes of both husband and w ife are given to the washerman, and
th ey themselves undergo purification. N o evidence is forth ­
com ing of this practice prevailing in the B om bay Presidency.

According to the same authority the Koravas also use the trial
b y ordeal, a favourite test being the extraction of a coin from a p ot of
boiling g h if. A similar test is applied b y the Bhamt&s, Pardhis and
other wandering tribes, who have much in com m on with the Koravas,
The favourite gods of K oravas are Maruti, Yellamma, Mariamma, Religion
Maleva, Kallolyappa, Huligeva and Sankalamma. They are specially
devoted to M&ruti. Of the H indu holidays they observe on ly Ugadi
Ndgpanchami, Dasara and Divali. They g o on pilgrimage to
* Ethnogiaphio Notes by Thurston, p. 549.
t Ethnographic Notes by Thurston, p. 424,
If-
■v<:_.° .#^1' Kotegar] 270
’ Gi
O iJ
Huligeva in the Nizam’s dominions and to tho shrine o f Yellamma in
. Saundatti. They have great faith in soothsaying, witchcraft and
believe in evil spirits. They have no priests.

The dead are either burnt or buried, burying being more common.
Food, They eat the flesh o f goats, sheep, fowls, hares, pigs and other game
animals and birds and drink liquor. Although they hold a very low
social position their touch is not considered defiling.

KORCHAR.— A synonym for K orava; a sub-division of

Pardhis.
KORGAR.— A synonym for Korava.
KORM AR.— A synonym for Korava.
KOSARE.— A synonym for Kochare.
KOSHTI.—See Devang, Hatkar, Jad, Koshti or Sali.
KOT.— A sub-division of H avik Brahmans.

Name and KOTEGARS also called Metris, numbering 124 (1901), including
orsgm. 35 male and 39 females, are found entirely in the Kanara district,
with the exception o f a few emigrants in Bdgaum. They are said to
have once been a strong clan whose original seat was in the Kam atak
uplands. They are also found in South Kanara, where they hold a
good position among middle class Hindus and number nearly 4,000.
There are no endogamous divisions of the caste. They are split up
into exogamous sub-divisions known as bedagus. Marriages between
members of the same bedagu are prohibited. Outsiders axe not
admitted into this caste.
Girls are generally married between ten and fourteen and boys
between sixteen and twenty-five. The caste has no rule that girls
must be married before attaining puberty. Sexual license before
marriage appears to be tolerated to some extent, and girls who become
pregnant before marriage axe not turned out of the caste. Polygam y
is allowed and practised. Polyandry is unknown. Their marriage
ceremonies last six days. On the first day the boy aud girl in their own
houses are rubbed with oocoanut oil, bathed and dressed in new clothes.
On the second and third day no ceremonies are performed, but daily
feasts are held. On the fourth day the b oy is decked in holiday clothes,
adorned with the wedding garland, and led to the girl’s house where
an earthen pot called airane moge is brought from a potter’s house,
filled with water, and placed on a spot in the marriage booth. The
bride and bridegroom are made to hold the p ot with their hands,
and four smaller pots are brought and placed on four sides of the cou p le;
 f (si.
'w- ^ ^v'v*’ ;iTj\• » ■ ? ? « • ' -‘ '‘i-Ty.s'ww■ ''- ■v 48*? - r #::y-' -v* s»v,KC,fr ^ m r-

fcx n

271 [Kot Vakkal

a thread is then passed round them b y an elderly member o f the

family, who takes the airane moge from the couple and pours its
contents on their hands, thus ending the marriage ceremony. The
b oy is kept two days at the girl’s house ; on the sixth day he returns
to his house with his bride. The remarriage of widows is allowed.
The caste follow the Hindu law of inheritance.
Kotegars are Hindus and worship the village gods and goddesses, Religion,
especially MaiJa, Gulyamma, Yellamma and Mariamma, and offer
them sheep and fowls. They have strong faith in soothsaying, witch­
craft and ghosts. They respect Brahmans, but do n o t em ploy them
as priests. All their ceremonies are conducted b y members o f the
caste. The dead are generally buried in a sitting posture. Those
who can afford it bum their dead. No death day is observed.
Kotegars are employed iD burying paupers or strangers, sweeping Occupa-
the streets, carrying torches, acting as guides, rem oving and skinningtlon'
dead animals, in basket-making, and in selling firewood and grass,
They seem to have fallen socially beneath the main body of the caste
in South Kanara who are p etty shop-keepers and brick-layers. They
allow prostitution in the case o f both their married and unmarried
women.

They eat the flesh o f sheep and fowls, beef, pork and fish o f all Food,
kinds, and even carrion. They eat the leavings o f other castes and
drink liquor.
KOTHARIA.— A sub-division of Khalpas.
KOTSANE.— A synonym for Kadu Gurav.
KOTTE VAKKAL—A synonym for K o t Vakkal.
KOT OR KOTTE VAKKALS, numbering about 2,000 (1901),
are found above the Sahyadris in the Sidddpur and Sirsi talukas of the
Kanara district. They take their name from the fact that they are
employed in covering bunches o f tender betel nuts with hoties, i.e., bags
made of the canvas like sheaths of the betel-palm, which shelter the
fruit when tender from injury b y h e a w rain.
The caste has no endogamous divisions. It contains exogamous
sections known as balis which closely resemble those of the Halvakki
Vakkal caste, and are totemistic.
In language, customs, ceremonies and other particulars the caste
does not differ from the H alvakki Vakkals. P olygam y is pem iitted
with the consent of the first wife. If a man marries a second wife
without the consent of the first, he is excom m unicated. W idow
remarriage is perm itted, but is said to be looked upon with disfavour.
 Kuda Vakkal] 272 <SL
n

KOTWAL.—A sub-division o f Kolis.

KRAMVANT.-—A synonym for Kirvant.
KRISHNA.—A sub-division of Gaulis and Gollas.
KRISHNAVANSHI.—A synonym for B M tia.
KRISHNORA.—A sub-division of Nagar Brahmans.
KSHATRI.—A synonym for Khatri.
KSHATRIYA.— A synonym for Khatri.
KSHATRIYA YADUVANSHI.— A synonym for Bhatia.
KSHAURAK.— A synonym for Nhavi.
KSHIRASAGAR.— A sub-division o f Malis.
KUDALDESHKAR..— A sub-division of Gaud Sarasvat Brah­
mans.
KIJDALE.— A sub-division of Vanis.
Name and KUDAVAKKALS. numbering 21,209 (1901), including 10,754
ong,n' males and 10,455 females, are found mainly in Belgauin, BijApur
Dh&rwar, Sholapur and the Southern Maratha Country. They take
their name from the Kanarese kudav an iron field hoe and vakkal
a cultivator, their occupation being husbandry. The caste tradition
relates that the caste is named after their founder who was named Kuda-
vakkal, and that their original home was in Coorg. B ut there is no
historical foundation for this statement. The Raddis, another large .
cultivating caste, have a tradition that they were once connected with
the Kudavakkals, which seems probable, see R A D D I.
Endogam- There are tw o endogamous divisions of the caste, Hindu and Ling-
Ejons.m ayat, the form er numbering 1,486 and the latter 19,723. The Ling-
ayat Kudavakkals resemble Panchams&li Lingayats in religion and cus­
toms except that they keep the top-knot, and are married by Brahmans.
The former, though professing to be Hindus, are still greatly influenc­
ed b y Lingayatism inasmuch as they do n ot observe ceremonial impu­
rity at birth, death or wom en’s monthly illness. They bury their
dead and abstain from flesh and liquor. They have four endogamous
divisions, who eat together but do not intermarry. They are
1. Dandavatis or Fine-payers.
2. Minigadiks or Patched-shoe wearers.
3. Taddodis or Fools, with three sub-divisions. (u
4. Yattiraks or Bull-wounded.
There are no exogamous sub-divisions of the caste.
(1) These are known as Huggiya, Bellyaga and Navalyiga. Among the last of
these widow remarriage occurs.
 ___

273 [Kudavakkal

Marriages are prohibited between descendants of a com m on Marriage

ancestor. A member of the caste m ay marry his father’s sister’s or “ ”n‘ieg
m other’s brother’s daughter. l i e cannot marry his m other’s sister’s
daughter. A man m ay marry tw o sisters, and brothers m ay marry
sisters. Polygam y is allowed and practised, widow remarriage and
divorce are forbidden and polyandry is unknown. Girls are married
before they attain puberty. B oys at any age. The offer of marriage
comes from either side. The d ay for the marriage is fixed by a Jangam
or Br&hman. The service is conducted b y a Brahman priest. The
principal ceremonies are :—
Devakdrga.— In which cooked food is offered to the god, and
kinsfolk and a Jangam are feasted.

Simantpujan.— This cerem ony takes place on the evening of the

Devakdrya day. The bridegroom is taken to a temple, where a priest
applies red powder to his forehead, and the girl’s father then presents
him with articles of dress.

Lagna, or the marriage proper, is celebrated on the d ay follow ing

the simantpujan. First, cotton threads ( kankans) are tied round the
wrists of the bride and bridegroom. N ext, five earthen jars contain­
ing betelnuts, dry coca-kernel and copper coins are placed on the floor,
f and the b oy and the girl are made to stand near them. Sacred verses
are repeated and grains of rice are thrown over the pair. The bride
and bridegroom then worship the five jars, this being the binding
portion of the ceremony.

Sdde.— This cerem ony takes place on the d ay follow ing the m ar­
riage, when the bride and bridegroom, are taken on horseback to a
temple, and thence to the b o y ’s house.
The caste follow the Hindu law of inheritance and belong to the Religion.
Hindu and Lingayat religions. Their family deities are Basavanna,
Virabhadra and Yellavva. They also worship the village goddesses
D yaniavva and D u rg a w a , and believe in sorcery, witchcraft and
soothsaying. They observe the leading H indu holidays, and make
pilgrimages to Tuljapux in the N izam ’s territory and to Golagiriling
in the Bijapur district. On every Tuesday in the m onth of Ashadha
their women worship the goddess Gulkava, and in the first half of the
m onth of Shrdvan the goddess C hangalkaw a is worshipped. The
Jeshtha full-moon is called karhunvi and is held in great honour. The
day before the full-m oon, Indian millet is boiled, made into thick
gruel and given to working bullocks ; and on the full-m oon d a y eggs
are broken and mixed with oil and forced dow n the bullock’s throats.
h 1109— 36
 <SL
n

<ulama] 274

They are dressed in rich blankets or woollen cloths, decked with flowers,
and their horns are painted red. In some cases rich husbandmen put
their women’ s silver anklets on the bullock’s legs. A ll the husband­
men meet together taking their white and red but n ot their black
bullocks, and go in procession half a mile out of the village. A hemp
rope is tied across the village gates about ten feet from the ground.
The husbandmen form a return procession with the bullocks in front,
and race their bullocks at top speed towards the village gates. If a
white bullock is first to enter the gates, the white Indian millet crop
will be plentiful, and if a red bullock wins, the red Indian millet crop
will be plentiful. The owner of the winning bullocks is allowed to
break the rope across the gate with his whip, a ceremony which is
calied karihariyona, or the rope-breaking. Their marriages are co n ­
ducted b y Br&hmans and funerals b y Jangams, The dead are buried
in Lmgayat fashion. On the twelfth day after death Jangams are
feasted. N o ceremonies are performed for the propitiation of the
deceased ancestors.
Oocnpa- The main occupation of the caste is husbandry. Some hold land
tion, under the r a y a t v d r i system. Some are tenants of superior holders.
Some are field-labourers and are paid either in cash or in kind. Their
women s e l l butter, milk and curds, the produce of their cows and ^
shebuffaloes.
Food. They d o not eat flesh or drink liquor.
KULACHARDAVRU.— A sub-division of Devangs.
KULAMAS numbering 37 (1901), including 13 males and 24 fe ­
males, are found only in the Belgaum district. They take their name
from the Kamarese Kuluma a forge. They have no sub-divisions.
They worship the usual H indu gods and goddesses, their family deity
being Yellamma. They keep the regular Hindu holidays but do not
fast or go on pilgrimages. They employ Br&hmans to conduct their
birth and marriage ceremonies. They bury their dead. Their cus­
toms do n ot differ from those of Kunbis. They were originally iron-
smelters. They have m ostly abandoned this occupation owing to the
competition of imported iron, and now work as husbandmen, some
being tenants and others field-labourers. They eat fish and flesh
and drink liquor. They rank below Kunbis, who do n ot eat from them,

KULIN MARATHA.—-A synonym for Assal Maratha.

KULPARNA.— A sub-division of Kolis.
KULUM.— A sub-division of Yanis.
 275 fKumbhar
<SL
K U LV A D I.— A cultivator. A term applied to all cultivators
in the Konkan whether Marathas, Bhandaris, etc.
KUM BHAR — A sub-division o f Gondhalis, Khandesh Kunbis,
Salats.
KUMBHARS or Potters, from the Sanskrit kurnbha a w ater-pot Name,
and kdr maker, numbering 239,265 (1901), including 120,288 males and
118,977 females, are found in all parts o f the Presidency.

They are divided into twenty-three endogamous groups as Endogam-

r 1, OU8 divi-
fOuOWS ! sions.

1. A hir or Lahanchake. 12. Karnatak, Pancham or

2. Balde. Lingayat.
3. Bharidu. 13. Khambhati.
4. Chag Bhaisa. 14. Konkani.
5. Garete. 15. L M or Thorchake.
6. Gujar. 16. Ladbhuje.
7. Goremaratha. 17. MAlvi.
8. Hatghade, Bhonde or 18. Maratha or Ghati.
Bhondkar. 19. .Pardeshi.
9. Hatode. 20. R ajput.
10. Kadu or bastard. 21 Sorathia
11. Kanada 22. Varia.
23. Vatalia.

Th ey are described below under Maratha, K onkani, Gujarati

and Pardeshi. Kumbhars.

N one o f the above 23 divisions eat together or intermarry. Mara­

thas, Konkanis, Kanadas, Sorathias and Khambhatis are o f the terri­
torial type. Pardeshis, Rajputs and Malvis are immigrants from other
provinces. Ahirs are part of the great A hir tribe. They are called
Lahanchake because they work on lahdn small chaks wheels. The
H&tghades are so called because they have no wheels b u t work ghad
with hands hat. Lads, like the Lad Vanias, are probably named from
Ldt, the old name for southern Gujarat. They are called Thorchake
because they work on thor large chaks wheels as opposed to the small
wheels o f the Ahirs. Lingayats are those who have embraced Ling-
ayatism They are called K am ataks because the bulk o f the Karnatak
Kumbhars are Lingayats. Gujar K um bM rs, like Gujar V&nias,
Gujar Sutars, etc., are part o f the tribe known as G ujar or Khazar,
a late strain of invaders from Central Asia. Vatalias, that is p ol­
luted, are said to be the offspring o f a Brahman b y a K u m b h ir wife.
(® , §L
' 0 :;-v ' ■ . . ; ., .

Kumbhar] 276
Kadia Kumbhars are those who have taken to the occupation ol
Kadias or masons The origin of the other divisions is unknown.
Maratha Kumbhars are found throughout the Deccan. Konk-
anis are found in the Konkan and Kanara. Lingayats are met with
in Sholapur, Dharwar and Belgaum ; Ahirs and Lads in Khandesh ;
Kanadas in Kanara ; Pardeshis in Poona, Nasik, Sholapur and Bel­
gaum ; Gujars, Kadias, Khambhatis, Sorathids, Varias and Vatali&s
in all parts of Gujarat and in the Konkan ; and Bhandus at Panhala
in the Kolhapur State.
The chief occupation of Kumbhars is the making o f tiles, bricks
and earthem pots and figures of men and animals. In Kanara
they have the privilege of making earthen figures of rural
gods. In Poona they are famous for making children’s toys.
The pottery of Ahmedabad and Patau is well burnt, glazed and
ornamented with designs. In villages, Kumbhars form part of the
village establishment, and provide the villagers with earthern pots,
for which they are paid in grain at harvest time or are allowed to
hold village lands. The Konkani and Kanada Kumbhars seem to
have been local priests before the arrival of Brahmans, and they still
officiate in some of the temples of local deities. Besides acting as temple
priests, the former perform the death ceremonies known as Kumbhar-
knya for all Sbudras except the depressed classes. They serve as
mediums between the gods and all classes of Hindus, and also act
as sorcerers.
M A B A TH A KU M BH ARS, look and dress like Maratha Kunbis.
They speak Marathi. They have in places an endogamous division
known as Kadu for their illegitimate offspring. Their exogamous
divisions are covered b y surnames. The common surnames a r e :—
A dhav. Divate Kale Sasvadkar
Bhalerao. Gadhve. KApde. Shirsat.
Buddhivan. Gaikvad. Lonkar. Sinde.
Chaugule. Jadhav. Manmode. Sonavane.
D alve. Jagdale. Mhetre. Vagchaure.
Deshmukh. Jondhale. Pavar. Vagkmare.
Devtrase. Jorvekar. R okde. Vagule.
Their devaks or marriage guardians are as follows :—
f 1. A wristlet of the creeping plant called
j mareta or maryddvel (Ipom oa biloba)
Poona .. which grows by the sea side.
2. The potter’s wooden platter or phi).
3. A hoe or Icudal.
 <SL
9 - '

277 [Kumbhar

f 1. Mango,
S&t&ra . . <f 2. Jambhul (Eugenia jam bolana).
[ 3. V ad (Ficus bengalensis).
f 1 Thdpatne or the potter’s wooden
Sholapur . . ■{ platter.
2. Pdnchpdlvi.
Ahmednagar 1
Kh&ndesh > Pdnchpdlvi.
Ndsik J
In Ndsik, if leaves of the five kinds of trees, i. e., the pdnck-
juilvi, are not procurable, mango leaves are worshipped. This ac­
cords with the theory that originally each devak consisted of only one
object, and that the composite devak was adopted later as the caste
advanced in social progress and adopted the more advanced custom
of prohibiting marriage between members bearing the same surname.
That the devak was originally totem istic is suggested by the fact that
the Ahir Kumbhars, who, like the Pardeshis, have possibly borrowed
many o f their customs from the Marathas, have to this day separate
devaks for each family. Thus, the devak of Hivarkars is the hivar
tree (Acacia leucophlea), of the Mores, peacock (mar) feathers, and o f
Vaghs the awjan tree (Hardwickia binata).

Marriages are prohibited between members bearing the same

surname. Sameness of devak is no longer a bar to intermarriage.
Marriage with a mother’s brother’s daughter is allowed, but n ot with
a m other’s sister’s or father’ s sister’s daughter. Marriage w ith a
wife’s sister is allowed, and brothers are allowed to marry sisters.
Boys are generally married from five to twenty, girls from five to
twelve. Polygam y is permissible, but polyandry is lmknowu. The
remarriage of widows is permitted. A w idow cannot marry her
father’s sister’s, mother’s sister’s or mother’s brother’s son, or a
member of her deceased husband’s section. A bachelor is n ot
allowed to marry a widow unless he first marries a m i bush (Calo-
tropis gigantea).
In their religious beliefs Maratha Kumbhars do n ot differ from
Maratha Kunbis. Their fam ily deities are Mahadev of Signapur,
Jagadamba in the old fort o f Satara, Bahiroba of Sonari in Ahm ed-
nagar, D evi at Tuljapur in the Nizam’s country, and K handoba
of Jejuri in Poona. Their priests are Deshasth Brahmans.

E xcept that in S&tara they b u m vdvading or prickly-pear under

the m other’s cot and give her kdtbol to increase her milk, and that
Vi>- c-*v; '
m ? Kumbhar] 278
<sl
in SholApur they bury their dead in LiugAyat fashion, their birth,
death and marriage ceremonies are the same as those of MarAtha
K unbis.

MarAtha KumbhArs eat the flesh of goats, fowls and fish, and drink
liquor. They eat food cooked b y Koshtis, Dhangars, NhAvis, Kolis,
Marathas, Kunbis, etc., who all eat food cooked b y MarAtha KumbhArs,
K O N K A N I KU M B H AR S claim to be MarAthas in origin, and state
that they formed a separate caste when they took to making earthen
pots. This is extremely probable. They seem in many cases to have
been local priests before the arrival of BrAhmaas, and in Kanara they
still officiate in some of the temples of the local deities. A t Asnoti in
KArwAr there is a temple dedicated to RAmnAth and another to Kattin-
bira, where none but a Konkani KumbhAr can act as ministrant. In
ThAna, among the lower classes, KumbhArs are favourite mediums for
consulting the spirits of the dead. When a Kunbi dies at a distance
from his relations, a Kumbhar performs his funeral, the rite being
known as the potter’s obsequies, Kumhhdr-kriya. The KumbhArs
also act as sorcerers. The KumbhAr, in fact, was a primiti ve medicine
man. KumbhArs have numerous devaks. In TbAna, they require
for their demies the leaves of three kinds of trees, umhar (Ficus glome­
rate), mango, and jambhul (Eugenia jambolana). The RatnAgari
KumbhArs appear to be more backward. Their devdks consist o f the
(1) Jcalamb (Antbocephalus cadumba), (2) umbar (Ficus glomerate),
(3) Tcocha, (4) earth o f an anthill, (5) peacock’s feathers, etc. These
devaks are held in great reverence, and, according to some, sameness
of devak is a bar to intermarriage.
The exogamous divisions o f Konkani KumbhArs are local in
origin, such as Ashtikar (those residing in Ashta), Kalyankar, Nig-
vekar, and so on. In the RatnAgiri district families residing in one
village form an exogamous unit, and intermarriages between them
are prohibited. Marriage with a mother’ s brother’s daughter is
allowed, but not with a mother’s sister’s or father’s sister’s daughter.
Marriage with tw o sisters is allowed. In Thana two brothers are
allowed to marry tw o sisters. In RatnAgiri they are not allowed to do
so. D ivorce is n ot allowed among the KumbhArs of the ThAna
district. In RatnAgiri it is allowed in the neighbourhood of Dapoli
and K hed. A divorced woman is n ot allowed to remarry during the
life-tim e of her husband. Adultery is punished b y expulsion from the
caste.
The remarriage o f widows is permitted with the sanction o f the
caste headman. A widow cannot marry her mother’s sister’s or

V i fxl' ' ■ _ . /> ./• ' ‘ v *./ » j,

■
flff 2 79 [Kurabhar
'SL
mother’s brother’s son or a member of her deceased husband’s section.
Am ong the Thana Kumbhdrs a widow m ay marry her father’s sis­
ter’s son. In Thana a tax of rupees seven is levied on the marriage
of a w idow and is paid b y her intended husband. The ceremony is
conducted at night outside the village, under a mango tree. The widow
is bathed and dressed in a white robe, Ganpati and Varuna are w or­
shipped with the assistance o f the caste priest, and the w idow is married
to a roll o f white cloth. The widow hands the d o th to her intended
husband, w ho wraps it round his turban. R ed powder is then ap­
plied to his forehead and a lamp is waved round his face b y the widow,
and the ends o f the pair’s garments are tied into a knot b v the priest.
This com pletes the ceremony. In the Ratnagiri district the ce re ­
mony is different. The widow puts on new bangles and dresses in
a robe and bodice presented b y her intended husband. JSlext, a sum
o f Rs. 10 to Rs. 20 is sent to the house o f the w idow’s deceased hus­
band and a cock is waved round her face to free her from the haunt-
iDgs o f the spirit of her deceased husband. The pair are then seated
side b y side, and a widow marks the brow o f the widow-bride and the
knee o f the bridegroom with red powder, thus com pleting the
ceremony. In the Thana district a bachelor can marry a widow if first
married to a m i bush .(Calotropis gigantea). In R atndgiri he is n o t
allowed to d o so on any account. E xcept that in Thana and Ratna­
giri special ceremonies are performed to carry the spirit of the
deceased to heaven, the birth, death and marriage ceremonies o f
Konkani Kumbhdrs do n ot differ from those performed b y Marathas.
These special ceremonies are as follows.

In Thana on the afternoon of the 11th day after death, a cere­

mony known as dak kriya is performed. A garland o f flowers is hung
from a peg, and a copper p o t filled with water with its m outh closed b y
a cocoanut is placed under it B y the side o f the p ot is placed a bier
made o f tw igs of cotton trees, and over it is laid an im age of wheat
flour representing the deceased. N ext, a easteman plays on a drum
called dak, singing songs in praise of Ganpati and holy men. The bier
is then carried to a stream and immersed in water. In the R a t­
ndgiri district, on the night of the twelfth d ay after death, six or seven
Kumbhars assemble at the chief mourner’s house. A spot of
ground is cowdunged in the central apartment of the house. A plan­
tain leaf is laid on the spot, rice grains are strewn over it, and a metal
pot filled with water is placed over the grains. Thirteen betel leaves
with as m any betelnuts are placed near the p ot, its m outh is closed with
mango leaves and a cocoanut and a flower garland is hung over it.
f(D:
; / » ’V\

; ^ Kumbhar] 280
<sl
n

Close b y is placed another leaf on which images o f the following

made of wheat flour, are seated ;—

1. Pandu. 6. Peacock.
2. Ganpati. 7. Eagle.
3. Naravan Swami (two idols). 8. Flower.
4. Deer. • 9. The sun and the m oon.
5. Vaitarna (cow). 10. Nag or cobra.

Four lamps of wheat flour are kept burning on four sides of the
above images. Then one of the Kumbhars present worships t'he
pot and the images, and recites verses known as Pandu kriya. W hen
this is over, the chief mourner puts some water into the mouth o f the
image of the deceased and moves it to the tail of V aitarna; and a
gong known as Vaitarna is sung to the accompaniment of a drum
called dak. The Vaitarna is then supposed to have carried the d e ­
ceased to heaven, and the ceremony is over. All the images are then
thrown in a stream or the sea.

In religion Konkani Kumbhars follow Marath&s. Their priests

are either Karhada or Chitpavan Brahmans. In Kanara, Karn&tak
Br&hmans are also employed.
In food and drink they resemble Marathas. They eat food cooked
by MarAthfis, Kunbis, etc. Kunbis, Nhavis, Agris, Thakurs, Kolis,
etc., eat food cooked b y them.
K A N A D A KU M BH ARS are found only in the Kanara district. In
origin they appear to be the same as Konkani Kumbhars and perform ­
ed the same functions in primitive society as the Konkanis. They
marry their girls between six and twelve, and their boys between
fifteen and eighteen. Polygamy and widow marriage are allowed
but seldom practised. They worship the ordinary Brahman gods,
but the objects of their special devotion are the local deities known as
ammds or mothers and Jatga or Jattig a wrestler. Their family goddesses
are Marka Devate o f Haldipur near Kum ta and Durgadevi of K u m ta.
Their spiritual teacher is the Smart head of the Shringeri Math in
Mysore. Their priests are Havik Brahmans. Their birth, death
and marriage ceremonies do not differ from those of Nadors. They eat
the flesh o f goats, sheep, fowls and fish, but do n ot drink liquor.
G U JA R A T K U M B H AR S are also called Ghatghadas, Ojhas
and Praj&patis. The term Ghatghada means maker of an earthen
water ja r (ghat). Prajapati is a name of Brahma or the creator o f the
Hindu trinity, and is applied to the Kumbhars humorously on account
if; g ?:
W ^ ; ,7 281
IfiT
[Kumbhar1 • *
of their profession of making earthern vessels which is likened to
Brahma’s creation of the world. The origin of the term Ojha is
uncertain, but it seems to have some special connection with the
Gujar trible. and may possibly be a form of Khazar or Gujar as Sir
James Campbell suggests.

Gujarat K um bM rs claim descent from the m ythological king

Daksha Praj&pati. Some of their divisions claim to be Kshatriyas.
They appear to be a functional caste evolved from Kanbis, whom
they resemble in many respects. Tn ey have seven endogamous
divisions, (1) Gujar, (2) K adiya or K hedvaya, (3) Kham bhati, (4) Lad,
(5) Sorathia, (6) Yaria and (7) Vatalia. Of these, Sorathias, Kliam -
bhatis and Lads are territorial in origin. Gujars belong to the great
tribe o f Gujars who gave Gujarat its name, and to which the m ajority
o f the Gujarat Kanbis belong. Vatalias or ‘ polluted ’ are said to be
the offspring o f a Brahman by a Kum bhar wife. K adia Kumbhars
are, properly speaking, a distinct caste formed b y fission from
Kumbh&rs b y those who gave up making earthern pots and took to
masonry. They are known in many places simply as K adias. The
origin o f the other divisions i3 unknown.
Gujarat Kumbhars have several exogamous divisions named after
R ajput clans, such as Y adav, Chudasama, Chohan, B hatti, R athod,
etc. Marriages are prohibited within four or five degrees o f relation­
ship. Marriage with a father’s sister’s, m other’s sister’s or mother’ s
brother’s daughter is n ot allowed. A man may m arry his deceased
wife’s sister. Marriage is infant as well as adult. P olygam y is allow­
ed, but polyandry is unknown. The remarriage o f widows is per­
mitted. E xcept among som e of the Sorathias, a w idow is not allowed
to marry a younger brother of her deceased husband. Divorce is
allowed. Divorced women are allowed to remarry. E xcept that
among Gujars the bridegroom carries a sword in his hand and a Va-
talia bridegroom a dagger, their marriage ceremonies d o n ot differ from
those of K anbis. Am ong the Gujar Kumbhars, in the case o f a
widow remarriage, the w idow and her intended husband are seated
on two low wooden stools side b y side, the widow puts on the ivory
bangles and dress presented b y her intended husband, and the heads
of the pair are brought into close contact, thus com pleting the cere­
m ony. A m ong tile Varias, in addition to the above ceremonies, the
sister of the husband throws grains o f rice over the heads of the pair.
Most o f the Gujarat Kumbhars are Hindus of the Vaishnav sect.
Some are followers of R am de Pir. Their religious beliefs are the same
as those of Kanbis. E xcept that in some places among Gujar
H 1109—36
 282 o l.J
Kumbhars, aa image o f pipal wood called surdhan is placed in a niche
in a wall of a house in memory of a person prematurely deceased and
that among Sorathias a stone called khmribhi is erected instead of the
surdhan, the death ceremonies o f Gujarat Kumbhars are the same as
those o f Kanbis.

In food and drink they resemble Kanbis.

PA R D E SH I K U M B H AR S, also called Gavandis after the

occupation, o f Gavandi (masonry) which is followed b y some of their
members, are chiefly found in Poona, Satara and Ahmednagar. They
are said to have come to these parts from. Northern India about two
hundred years ago, but have lost all connection with the parent caste,
and now form a community b y themselves. They still speak Hindu­
stani at home and employ Upper India Brahmans to conduct their
ceremonies. They have several endogamous divisions, the chief of
which are :—

1. Balde. 3. Garete.
2. Chag Bbaisa. 4. Pardeshi proper.

Their exogamous divisions or kids are covered b y surnames, the

chief of which axe as follows :—

1. Basnival. 7. Mavane.
2. Devalval. 8. Morval.
3. Jalindre. 9. Pipude.
4. Karole. 10. Tongare.
5. Kukadval. 11. Udeval.
6. Kurnivdl.
Each kid has a separate family deity which is known as dhiradi.
The dhiradis also represent their demks, which, according to their
own admission, they have copied from the MaratMs. The dhiradis
are worshipped with special ceremony on the occasion of a marriage.
Some of the dfdradis are as follows :—

Kul. Its dhiradi.

1. Devalval .. A clay figure of cobra besmeared with

red lead.
2. K um ival .. Fruit of the bel tree (ASgle marmelos).
(((f fi ' 1
; 283 [Kumbha*
(fiT
j%ul' Its dhiradi.
3. Pipude . . Tv*0 cocoanuts, tw o betel nuts and an
idol of silver. (1)
4. Kajavali . . Cc'coanut.
5. Shekavali . . F ru it of the bel tree.
6. Tongare . . A cocoanut and a turmeric root.
The dhiradis form part of the household gods and are renewed on
marriage occasions and on thc< Dasara day every year.
Marriages are prohibited between members of the same hid or
devak. -Marriage with a fath ef’8 sister’s, m other’s sister’s or mother’s
brother’s daughter is not allowed- Marriage with tw o sisters is allowed,
and brothers are allowed to n itrry sisters. Girls are generally married
from seven v-j0 sixteen, there bejhg n0 rule that a girl must be married
before attaining puberty. If a rid d e n com mits sexual indiscretions with
a caste-man eit-fter a fine or the giving of a caste dinner is im posed on
both, and the L^an is co m p e l]^ to marry the girl. Polygam y is
permissible, but polyan dry is \mknown.
The offer o f marriage com**8 horn the b o y ’sfather. The day for
the marriage is fixed by a Ttrahritan priest who conducts the service. A
day or two before the i-narriage_/t)’« unwidowed women g o in procession
outside the village to a dung-hilt worship it, and bring hom e some
earth from its vicinity. Tjio marriage pandal is next erected, in which
is spread the earth brought b y the women. A post known as gam
is planted in the pandal, to which is tied, at the time o f the installation
of the devak, a yellow bundle o f cloth containing turmeric roots, juvari
and dry dates, and five, wooden sparrows are hung from the roof of the
pandal. On the day following, the devak is installed, and earthem jars are
brought from a potter by five un widowed women and placed near the
devak. Next, the b oy and girl are rubbed with turmeric paste at their
respective houses, and a dough lamp is .waved round the face o f each
by five unwidowed women and gi ven over to a washerman with a few
a copper coins.
The marriages of Pardeshi Kumbhdrs always take place at night.
On the evening of the marriage day the b oy is taken in procession to
the girl’s house and seated in the pandal near a post called torankh&mb,
cups containing sweetened water and a rupee each are exchanged and
the contents drunk by the iathers o f the bride and bridegroom.
The girl’s maternal aunt com es with a water jar on her head, and is
presented with a rupee. The girl’s mother waves a lam p round the

(1) The Pipudes do not wear silver ornaments, which shows silver to be their totem.
i I:?;
y r ^ . > .v\

Kumbhar] 284
<SL
s a

kJ^

bov’s face and receives a similar present. Next, the b oy strikes the
wooden sparrows with a stick. This i s follow- d by the horn or mar­
riage sacrifice. First, the b oy alone Valks four times round the sac­
rificial fire, and then the b oy and girl together three times, marriage*
verses are repeated and the ceremony i 8 brought to a close.
The remarriage of widows is permitted. A bachelor is d°k
allowed to marry a widow. Divorce is, not permitted. E xcept ■'"bat
they employ K anoja Br&hmans to officiate at their ceremonies, they
do not differ in any important detail from the Maratha Kun-bis in
religion, food, or birth and death eereni0nies,
K U M R A V A T A .—A synonym for Nemadi Bari.
KUNBI.— A sub-division of Gavlia and Vdnis.
Name and KUNBIS corresponding to the Kanbis of Gujarati numbering
ongm. over two mj]iion. (1901), so far as can be estimated fro n 1 the census
figures, are found all over tbe Presidency, Kunbi is com m°id y derived
from Kuiambi or Kutumbika and is %Marathi term meaning a hus­
bandman, K anbi being its Gujarati 'icjuivalent. The-’ Bombay Kunbis
are represented in the United Prownces b y K u rmis> wh ° are H' ao
known as Kunbis. There seems little doubt thaG strictly speaking,
the term Kunbi, like R ajput, denotes a status and not a caste, and may
be compared in this respect with th j latter terra> which has no neces­
sary ethnic significance. The fact thm, Mara0 11a Kunbis are to a great
extent homogeneous is clearly due primarily to their being MaratM s
and not to their being Kunbis. It is of special .interest in this connec­
tion to observe that in the Savautvadi. State, to the present day, the
local cultivator, who would be known as a Kur.bi in the Deccan, is
known as a Maratha, the term Kunbi being littie used. Tbe meaning
of the term Maratha Kunbi, in its ethnic significance, will be found
more fully described under the head of Mabathas .
The w ord Kunbi or Kanbi is derived b y Pandit Bhagwanlal from
the Sanskrit Kutumbin, that is, one possessing a fam ily or a house.
According to him, “ From ancient times the title K utum bin has been
prefixed to tbe names of cultivators. This practice still obtains in
parts of the North-West Provinces where the peasant proprietors are
addressed as Grihasthas or householders. As cattle-breeding, n ot
cultivation, was the original, as it still is the characteristic, calling
of many North Indian Gujars, those of the tribe who settled down
to cultivation came to be specially known as Kutumbin or house­
holders. Similarly Deccan surnames show that m any tribes of
wandering cattle-owners settled as house-holders and are now known
as Kunbis. During the last 20 years the settlement as Kunbis in
1(1)? t (fiT
285 [Kunbi'' 1 J
Khdndesh o f tribes of wandering Vanjara herdsmen and grain-carriers
is an example o f the change through which the Gujarat Kanbis and
the D eccan Kunbis passed in early historic times. {1) ”

Mardtha Kunbis have much in com m on with Mardthds, who in

some instances claim to be Kshatriyas ; but there is much evidence
to show that they are to a great extent the descendants o f local tribes.
(See Marathas .) The Talheri or Konkani Kunbis d o n o t lay any pre­
tensions to Kshatriya origin but are content to be called Shudras.
In Gujarat the Lava and K a dva Kanbis appear to be Gujars b y d es­
cent, the connection between whom and Rajputs is strikingly
similar to the connection between Kunbis and the Marathas proper in
the Deccan. (See K a n b i .)
Excluding the Gujardfc Kanbis, Kunbis m ay broadly be divided
into five territorial groups —Mardtha, Konkani, Khandoshi, the Talheri
Kunbis o f Thdna, and the K ale Kunbis o f Kanara. All have Akar-
mashe or Kadu divisions for their illegitimate offspring. Mardtha
Kunbis are said to be n ot infrequently recruited from the Malhari
K olis who take to cultivation and in time establish their claim to be
classed as Kunbis.
Kunbis, as a class, are landholders and husbandmen. Some of the
higher families are land proprietors, deshmukhs and pdlils in the
Deccan. Some of the Mardtha Kunbis are employed in N ative States,
and a few in Government service. M any enter the army. The
deshmukhs and those in service are well off, but the husbandmen as
a class are poor. Mardtha and Konkani Kunbis, like Gujarat K an­
bis, are good husbandmen, and understand the growth o f irrigated
and of garden crops. They are assisted in their work b y their women
and children. Many are field labourers. They are paid in grain
during the reaping season, and at other times in cash. When there
is n o work in the fields, they work as day labourers. They also grow
fruit and vegetables in their back yards and sell them in the nearest
markets. In towns they sell milk and curds and also work as domestic
servants. In spite of their hard work, as a class Kunbis are in debt.
• Many earn enough to meet marriage and other expenses b y seeking
(l) D. R. Bhandarkar remarks.—Both Dhanapalas Paiyalachchhi (A. D. 974)
and Hemachandras D esinam am ala (Circa A. D. 1160) give ga h am i, the Prakrit
grihapati, in the sense of a husban dman or a rustic. A Karli Cave inscription speaks
of a female donor’s son as being a gahata ( — grihaslha), which is the same as grihapati
These points, in my opinion, give strength to Pandit Bhagwanial Indraji’s view that
the word K u n b i is derived from Kutumbin meaning a householder. It is true it
may be argued that the Sanskrit word K utum bin was chosen to denote a cultivator
because it closely corresponds to the Bravidian word for ‘ labourer ’. But the fact
that not only K utum bin but its synonyms such as grihapati and grihastha are also
used in their Prakrit forms to denote the same class may be urged against the above
argument. I have given all this in order that you might take it for what it is worth.
ffjl
, Kunbi]
' 286
<SL
employment in B om bay, working as carriers, labourers, or garden or
house servants, or in the spinning and weaving mills, where whole
families find well-paid employment.
The divisions of Kunbis are described below separately under
Maratha Kunbis, Konkani Kunbis, K&le Kunbis, Talheri Kunbis and
Kh&ndesh Kunbis.
M A R A TH A K U N B IS are generally regarded as originally the same
caste as the Mar&th&s. The similarity of their social organization and
devaks tends to support this v ie w ; and the apparently totemistic
nature of the devak system suggests that they are very largely of
non-Aryan origin. It is also noteworthy, in connection with their
origin, that, as among Mahars and other primitive tribes, the number
five plays a prominent part in their birth and marriage ceremonies.
An examination of the social organization and customs of the func­
tional castes of the Deccan such as the Sutars, Lohars, Darjis, K um -
bhars, etc., seems to indicate that originally most o f them belonged
to one tribe or a group of tribes. The differentiation between Mara-
th&s and Maratha Kunbis appears never to have become so complete
as to result in two distinct castes. A t present the terms Mar&tha
and Kunbi, in many cases, are used synonymously. It is difficult
to draw a line of distinction between the two communities. In some
places there is n o distinction, in others one caste blends into the
other with n o very distinct line of demarcation, while for the
most part these castes hold themselves aloof so far as marriage is
concerned. In Poona and its vicinity, the fusion is at its maximum ;
and if a Poona Brahman were asked the distinction between a Mara­
tha and Kunbi be would say “ Kunbi mafia Maratha jhdla ” i.c., when
a K unbi attains to prosperity he becomes a Maratha, i.e., by
prohibiting widow marriage, putting on a sacred thread and enforc­
ing the jrurda. Instances are not wanting, in which K unbi families,
owing to a fortunate turn in their circumstances, have formed
connections with poor Maratha families and ultim ately becom e
absorbed into the general Mar&tha community.

Appear- A s a class, Maratha Kunbis are dark, middle-sized, with round ‘

anoe* faces, straight nose, thickish lips, and high, bare and protruding
cheek bones. The poor among them differ very little from Mahars,
in appearance, which strengthens the view that they are o f aboriginal
descent. They are strong, hardy, enduring and muscular. The
Kunbi women, like the Kunbi men, are strong and hardy. A Kunbi
girl is slender, dark-skinned and generally graceful. She becomes a
m other at fifteen or seventeen, and is past her prime at tw enty. The
 287 [Kunbi
<SL
men shave the head, except the mustache, and in a few cases, the
whiskers.
Maratha Kunbis are neat and clean in their dress. They are seldom Dress and
rich enough to indulge their taste for finery ; but the w ell-to-do are
fond of gay clothes, the men wearing generally red or white turbans
and the women red robes. Indoors the Kunbi wears a handkerchief
passed between his legs, the ends fastened behind to a waistoord.
Out o f doors he rolls a loincloth round his waist, covers his body
with a waisteloth or armless jacket, and wears a turban on his head
and sandals on his feet. In cold and wet weather he throws a coarse
blanket over his shoulders, or ties it in a hood and draws it over his
head. Besides being worn as articles o f dress, the blanket and waist-
cloth are used as sleeping mats and for carrying clothes and garden
stuff. The wpmen’s dress is the full Mar&tha robe and the short
sleeved bodice reaching to the waist and covering both the back
and chest, the ends being tied in front.*
The home tongue of the Maratha Kunbis is Marathi. Each K unbi Language
has three personal names, a priestly name, a house name and a pet “ “ ^ eg
name. The priestly name which is known as the ras ndv or star name,
depends on the position of the stars at the tim e o f the child’s birth.
The priestly names generally chosen for boys are Am ritya, Ankorsa,
Bdbaji, Dungarji and R a o ji ; and for girls, Saku, Bh&gu and Chimi.
The house name is chosen by the elders o f the house ; the commonest
are, for men, Khandu, Pandu, Raghu and Vithu, and, for women,
Kashi, P&rvati, R am a and Savitri. The pet or avadte name
is generally given b y the child’s parents or m other’s relations.
The commonest p et names, for boys, are A ppa, Babu, Bala and
N a n a ; and for gjrls, Appi, Bai, Kaki and Tai. The pet name
sometimes clings to the bearer through life. W hen a boy grows
up, j i or rao is added to the name, and to the girl’s name di or
bai. I f a mother has lost several infants, she names the next
child Dagad or Tipi, meaning a stone or a dung heap, apparently
with the object of cheating the evil spirits into the idea that the child
is n ot valued and is n ot worth carrying off.
In each village, Maratha Kunbis have a head man, who settles Commu-
caste disputes at meetings of the castemen. The office o f the headman nity*
is neither hereditary nor fixed. Generally a man of wealth and position
having the confidence of both parties is selected as headman for the
time bein g. Breaches of social discipline are condoned b y fines and
caste feasts, and the decisions are enforced on pain o f loss o f caste.

* Bombay Gazetteer, VoL XVIII, Part I, pages 287-S8.

(SI) ■
W : ;' ' Kunbi] 288
(fiT
iJLj

Social Maratha K unbishave kuls or exogamous sections which are

zaflon. identical with those of Marath&s and their devaks similarly do n ot
differ from those of Marathas. (See Marath a .)
Marriage Marriages are prohibited between members of the same hd and
vulea' devak. In some plaees however sameness of kul alone is considered a
bar to intermarriage. A Maratha Kunbi cannot marry his m other’s
sister’s daughter. H e may marry his father’s sister’s or mother’s
brother’s daughter. Marriage with a wife’s sister is allowed
after the death o f the wife. Brothers are allowed to
marry sisters. Polygam y is allowed and practised, but polyandry
is unknown. Girls are generally married between three and
twelve years, boys between sixteen and twenty-five. Girls can
be married even after they attain puberty. W idows are generally
allowed to marry, but some families consider widow-marriage
disreputable and do not practise it. As a rule only widowers marry
widows, and the children do not get so large a share of the
property as those of first marriages. Divorce is allowed. Divorced
wemen can marry again by the widow re-marriage form.

Preg. W hen a woman is pregnant for the first time, her good longings
nancy. are satisfied, and a special feast called doMlejevan or the longing
dinner is held in the fifth or in the seventh month of her pregnancy.
She is presented with a green robe and a green bodice, or a bodice
only if her husband is poor, and some ten or fifteen unwidowed
women are asked to dine with her. Lamps are placed b y her side and
the feast is made as grand as the giver can afford. To guard against
the danger of miscarriage from violent movements or a sudden fright,
a pregnant woman is made to sit in a sailing boat or a cart, is
shown funeral processions, is made to cross the leather rope attached
to the bag in a bullock draw-well, and to cross the boundaries of
a village or a town.
Birth. F or her first confinement a young wife generally goes to her
parents house. After delivery, the position of the woman is not
changed for some time. I f the child is a boy, the midwife beats a
metal p o t ; if a girl, the father is told without any signs of rejoicing.
The father notes the time of birth that the Brahman astrologer may
be able to choose a lucky name. The midwife cuts the child’s navel
cord with a knife, and, holding the cord in her left hand, passes it
through the child’s mouth. She puts the cord in an earthen jar
along with the after-birth, a little turmeric and redpowder, and
rice and buries it in a hole in the mother’s room. She touches
with ashes the spot where the navel cord was cut and rubs the mother
i(ft 289
■ ■(si-
[Kimbi^ *..1

and the child with turmeric and oil, bathes them in h o t water, and
swathes the child in cloth bandages. The m other is given butter and
myrrh pills, and the child is dosed with three or four drops o f castor
oil and honey. The mother is purified b y burning Em belia Ribes,
Ova Zigusticum ajwaen,and Balantshep Anothusgraveolus in the room,
and then, with her child beside her, is laid on a cot, quite naked, under
which a small fire of live coal is set. The m other is fed on fine rice,
butter, pepper, and warm water. Near the door of the room an
earthen pot of cow ’s urine is set with a Nim branch floating on it. That
no evil spirit may com e in with them, all visitors sprinkle a few drops
of cow ’s urine on their feet before enteriug the room. A t noon the
mother is bathed in hot water, and elderly women begin to drop in and
ask how she is. I f the child is a boy, they congratulate her warmly ;
if it is a girl, they say “ The first daughter is bread and butter ” Pahili
beti lup-roti. If the child’s aunt is present at the tim e o f delivery,
she cowdungs the threshold o f the room, places a packet o f betelnuts
and leaves near it, and says, looking towards the child, “ This
child is to be m y son’s wife. ” The mother smiles, and if she has a
son says , “ W hen you get a daughter she will become m y daughter-
in-law. ” In the evening the m other is again bathed, Nim juice is
given to her to drink and she is fed, as in the morning, on rice, butter
and pepper, and is given some hot water to drink. The child, as be­
fore, is dosed with three or four drops o f castor oil, and laid by the
mother’s side on the cot. A lamp is kept burning during the night,
and next morning, after rubbing them with turmeric and oil, both
mother and child are bathed, the mother is purified with vishesh (frank­
incense), and the child is given a dose of castor oil. The m other takes
some Nim juice, has a meal o f rice, butter, and pepper, and is given
some hot water to drink. A t noon women neighbours and kinswomen
begin to drop in. Each visitor touches the soles ofher feet as if taking
a pinch of dust therefrom, waves it round the child, and blows the dust
partly into the air and partly into the ground. Then, cracking the
finger joints o f both her hands, she takes her seat, and is given turmeric
aud rod powder. Should she be unlucky enough not to crack all her
finger joints, she is thought to have no friendly feelings to the mother'
and child, and is n ot given the powder. In the evening, if the child
takes to crying, frankincense is burnt in the names of Bahiroba and the
goddess Satvai and they are prayed to, to save the child and prolong
its life. On the third and fourth days, beyond bathing the mother in
hot water, no ceremony takes place. On the morning of the fifth
day the following articles are brought :a cocoanut, five pieces o f cocoa-
kernel, five dry dates, five grains of pepper, dry ginger, popp y,
h 110 0 — 3 7
ff|
' Kunbi] 290
Gi kJAj
cardamoms, cloves, nutmeg, betelnut and leaves, catechu, seen-
ted and red powders, tooth powder a coloured cord with
a small parcel of red and scented powder or Nadd-pudi,
frankincense, turmeric, and a small copper or brass image of
Satvai. Dishes of mutton find rice flour balls are cooked, and
kinspeoplo and friends are asked to a feast. The women guests
bring with them on a brass plate a few grains of rice, a cocoanut, and
betel leaves, and set them before the goddess Satvai. Then the child’s
grandmother or some other elderly woman of the house sets a low
wooden stool in the lying-in room, and pi aces the image of Satvai on the
stool. She sprinkles redpowder on the image, burns frankincense,
offers fruit and cooked food, and, wrapping the child in a cloth,
lays it before the goddess, and prays her to accept the offerings, to be
kind to the child, and to overlook any shortcomings in the worship.
The mother comes forward, bows before the image and eats of all the
dishes. The other women bow before the goddess, and after eatiDg,
return to their homes. When the women have gone, the men begin
to drop in. They are seated on blankets, and dinner is served outside
as the woman is not allowed to see any man for twelve days. After
. dinner a pipe of tobacco is handed round, first to the patil then to
the senior guests, and then to the rest, but youths must go 'out if they
desire to smoke. Singing, smoking and drinking go on till morning
when all go home. The custom of the worship of Satv&i varies
according to family usage, which differs in different families. N ext
morning the mother and child are rubbed with cocoanut oil and bathed
in warm water, and the former goes back to her special diet of rice,
butter, pepper, and hot water. On the morning of the seventh day
the cot and earthern waterpot are smeared with redpowder and tur
meric, five lighted rice flour lamps are placed in the waterpot, and
cooked food is offered. Five unmarried girls are rubbed with red
powder and turmeric and their laps are filled with wet gram, a piece
of cocoa-kernel, betel leaves and nuts, and small balls of powdered
ginger m ixed with molasses. After the mother has prostrated her­
self five times and bowed twice before the girls, adinner is served to one
or tw o women neighbours. On the morning of the eighth day the mother
and child are bathed, and after eating her usual special food the
former is given betei leaves and nut to chew, and a dish o f live coals
isplaced under hercot. Cocoa-kernel and dry dote (khdriJc) are pounded
together and mixed with molasses, a little being given to the mother
and the rest distributed among the neighbours. On the tenth day two
or three women come and wash all the clothes and bedding, and in
return are given breakfast. All the house walls and floors get a fresh
111" 291 Kunbi]
<SL
plaster of eowdung, and when the singers com e, cow ’s urine is' sprinkl­
ed on their bodies and clothes. Then they, together with the house
people, feast on bread, relishes, white shepu (Anethum fo e n ic tu m ),
and green chillies. On the eleventh day preparations are made for the
twelfth-day ceremony. Articles are laid in and the Brahman priest
and guests are invited
On the morning of the twelfth day the women o f the house bathe
the mother and again purify the walls and floor o f the house with a
plaster of eowdung. They take some cakes and begin to cook dishes of
rice, vegetables, and pulse. A goat is killed, and its blood is gathered in
a metal plate and mixed with spices and boiling water. This dish is
called rakti. The bones and flesh are cooked into tw o separate pots
and the liver or kali] in the third. A girl goes to tell the neighbours
tha£ the feast is ready, and when a few women have com e the mother
goes along with them to a spot outside the village and makes offerings
to Satvai. On their return a bangle-seller puts green bangles round
the m other’s and black bangles round the m idwife’s wrists. Men
guests have by this time begun to drop in, and, as they com e, are
seated on blankets, spread in the verandah. The Brahman priest
next arrives with his almanac, and he too takes his seat in the veran­
dah. The women o f the house tell the Brahman the day and time at
which the child was born, and he, spreading his almanac beforehim and
counting his fingers, gives the child a name, and tells his fortune. The
child is dressed - in a new frock and cap. Soot is rubbed on his cheeks
and eyelids, and he is set facing the east. The priest is given about
two pounds of rice, and split pulse, a little molasses, and betelnut and
leaves. A cradle is hung from the ceiling, and worshipped, turmeric
and redpowder are thrown over it, cooked food is offered, and a
blanket is spread in it with som e wet gram and betelnut and leaves in
the com ers and a string tied in the middle. The mother sits near the
cradle, and as they rock the cradle they sing songs. The mother
lifts the child, and turning it thrice round the cradle they say : * Take
Harpal and give Gopal, take G ovind and give Krishna, take Mahadev
and give Ram , take Bharat and give Shatrughna. ’ The child is then
laid in the cradle, and the paternal aunt of the child, the rest all the
tim e slapping her on the back, puts her m outh close to the child’s ear,
and s a y s Q u i e t l y quietly receive pulse and take Som ji (the name
given to the child) Patel to play. ’ Then the mother’ s lap is filled
, with a coeoanut, rice, glass beads, turmeric, pieces of cocoa-kernel and
betelnut, and she is taken to bow to the fam ily gods. A piece of
thread is tied round the child’ s loins and the guests are feasted, the
men and women in separate rooms, After th ey have done, they are
/ r / ZS NW l ; p

..
'^v1:s ^Kunbi] 292 d L
given betolnut and leaves, wet pulse, and rice cakes. When the guests
begin to leave, an old man and woman seat themselves in the doorway
and refuse to let the women pass till each mentions her husband’s
name. After some coquetting the boldest o f th e women repeats some
verses in which her husband’s name occurs.

On the thirteenth day the mother begins to go about the

house, washing, cooking and cleaning as usual. E xcep t on the
full and new moon the child is bathed every day, When
tw o months old, as a safeguard against liver disease, the mother
gives the child tooth-powder mixed with cow ’s milk and liquor, and
rubs its stomach with black nut and ashes, while a sorcerer says a
charm or a mystic verse. T o increase her supply of milk, th e mother
is given rice, butter, and split peas. W hen the child is three months
old, to help it to hold up its head the mother is given a cooked goat’ s
head and round the child’s neek is hung a black thread with two
black nuts or bajarhatus and an image o f the goddess Satvai. In
this month a black thread is tied round the child’s waist and copper
rings are put on its feet, in order that teetlnng may be accomplished
safely, and to ward off the evil eye the eyelids of both the child and
the mother are touched with soot. In the same month the mother
and the child with other relations go to visit the shrine o f the goddess
Satvai, when a goat, tooth-powder, turmeric, redpowder, betelnut
and leaves, soot, two cocoanuts, a robe and bodice, som e grains of
rice, dry cocoa-kernel, and frankincense are offered to the goddess
and the goat i3 killed by a Mahar or Mang before her. The head and
four legs are placed behind the goddess and the body is taken away
presented to the goddess, cooked and eaten. The temple priest
or ministrant tells the goddess the reason o f the offering, and, taking
a pinch o f ashes, rubs them on the brow of the child and o f its mother.
After feasting on the flesh o f the goat and on other dishes, the party
buy back the goat’s head, paying one to four annas, and go home. All
the religiou ■ parts of this ceremony are performed b y the temple
servant, wh is generally a Gurav b y caste. On reaching the house
the mother . id child stand at the door, and a woman comes from
the house a i waves a piece of bread round them and pours water
over the m * iter’s feet.

When a child is four or five months old it is bathed outside of

the house, and when it is about a year old and begins to walk, its
head is shaved, except a tu ft on the crown, and the hair is offered
to the goddess Satvai. The barber gets a present of a pair of scissors,
and the m other gives a feast to a party of married women. Six months
f i y,■■ 293
(si
[Kunbi‘ ' J
later, when the child begins to eat, any flow o f saliva is stopped by
the m other passing a live fish three or four times round its face.
W hen four years old the child begins to run about the streets and
lanes and plays at marbles, bat and ball, tops, and hide and seek.
A fter about seven the child begins to be of use t o his parents, taking
the cattle to graze and bringing them home in the evening. 'When ten
or twelve years old he is branded as a cowherd either on the right or
left hand or on both hands. A few pellets of hare’s dung :.re brought
from a hill, pounded and set in four or five places ah t the b o y ’s
wrist and burnt. The other boys hold the child so as o keep him
quiet, and when he can no longer bear the pain the b u ning pellets
are knocked off and the skin rubbed.*

A s a rule the proposals of marriage come from the b o y 's parents. Marriage
Before accepting the offer the b oy ’s father makes a full enquiry regard-
ing the surname, fam ily, and relations of the girl’s father. When
he is satisfied on these points, the b oy’s father goes with friends
and kinsfolk to the girl’s, marks her brow with redpowder, touches
her brow with a rupee, and lays the rupee in h er hands. The girl
is given a small robe, a bodice, and some ornaments, and her grand
m other and maternal uncle’s w ife are presented with tw o robes.
The g irl’s father asks the b oy’s father and his kinsfolk, and his own
friends and kinspeople, to a feast o f cakes or polis either stuffed or
unstuffed. When the feast is over, a Brahman is called to fix the
marriage day and is. paid by both fathers. I f the girl’s father is poor,
he takes Rs. 100 to Rs. 150 as her price ; if he is rich, he gives
Rs. 50 to Rs. 100 as her dowry. B efore the marriage, in front o f both
the b o y ’s and girl’s houses, a marriage porch is built, and in the girl’s
marriage porch is set an earthen altar or bahule. The mukurta-
medha or auspicious post of the marriage booth is planted on the mar­
riage day. Supplies o f clothes, grain, oil and other articles are also
laid in. N ot more than five days before the marriage, the bride
and bridegroom are rubbed with turmeric powder. Three or four
unwidowed women grind this turm eric in ahandm ill, and to the handle,
in a yellow cloth, are tied a betelnut and three or four sprouted tur­
meric roots. In country parts, except the headman and other man-
Jcaris or honourables, most of the men of the village take part
in the turmeric grinding, sitting four or five at a handmill. They
sing the women’s corn-grinding songs. These handmills are not
used till the marriage cerem ony is over. On the m orn­
ing of the marriage day a low wooden stool is set in

* Bombay Gazetteer, VoL XVIII, Part I, pp 296-300.

rm Qt
Kunbi] 294
the doorway and round the stool five metal water pots for
bathing are arranged and a thread is passed five times round them.
Some betelnuts and a few grains of rice are laid in the girl’s hands,
and a metal pot filled with cold water in the hand of the bridesmaid,
or kamvli, and the tw o go round the pots five times. Then the brides­
maid, walking behind the girl, pours a little water on the low wooden
stool and the gi rl five times d rops a few grains of rice on the water, and
setting first her right foot and then her left fo o t on the stool, sits
on it. Her head is rubbed with oil, and she is bathed. Meanwhile
the girl bathes five little children who stand in front of her, and the
musicians from tim e to time play their pipes. W hen all the children
have been bathed, the girl’s mother comes forward, and sitting close to
her daughter on the low wooden stool, is bathed. When the bath is
over, she is presented with a robe and bodice, and if she is not a widow,
her arms are rubbed with turmeric, red powder is rubbed on her brow,
and a cocoanut and rice are laid in her lap. The girl is dressed in
a robe and green bodice and her clothes are stained with wet turmeric,
her forehead is daubed with red powder and rice, her cheek and
the space between the eyebrows are marked with soot, and in her
lap are laid a cocoanut, five dry cocoa-kernels, five betelnuts, five
turm eric roots, and some grains of wheat or rice. After this a
chaplet, either o f flowers or of tinsel, is tied round her brow, and
her head is covered with her husband’s blanket. Without letting
the cotton thread that encircles them touch the girl, four women
stand with water-pots in their hands, and a fifth loosens one end
of the thread and ties it to the muhurtamedha and plants the post
on one side of the doorway. B y this time, at the b oy’s house, the
Brahman priest has come, and is given a cocoanut, pieces of cocoa-
kernel, thread, turmeric, a piece o j yellow cloth, a winnowing fan and
rice. The priest sets two lighted lamps on a low wooden stool, and
between the tw o lamps, a bathing tub or ghangdl. He picks up a
winnowing fan, lays grains of rice in it, and filling a metal water-pot
with cold water, sets it on the rice. H e spreads a few mango leaves
on the water-pot or sets a cocoanut on it. H e ties in a yellow cloth
a few grains of rice, and some betelnut and turmeric. He daubs the
bundle with red powder and lays it in the winnowing fan, beside the
water-pot. The priest opens his almanac at a picture of Ganpati, tells
the host to worship the picture, repeats verses, and the host sprinkles
over the picture sandalwood, rice and red and scented powder, lays
betelnut and leaves and a copper coin before it, offers it sugar and
bows to it. W hen the worship o f Ganpati is over, the priest rolls up
his almanac and lays it beside him. Then, after worshipping the
 * 295 [Kunbi
§l
winnowing fan and its contents and seeing that it is p ut in a safe
place, the priest goes home. A near relation of the girl, taking tur­
meric powder and accompanied by music, goes to the b o y ’s house,
makes over the turmeric to the people o f the house and returns. The
b oy is seated on a low wooden stool in the midst o f the five earthen
pots, bathed, and dressed in a new waist-cloth, a turban and a should­
er-cloth. His forehead, like the girl’s forehead, is marked with
red powder, and over the powder a few grains of rice are stuck. A
tinsel chaplet is tied to his brow, and, as at the girl’s house, the thread
that was wound round the earthen pots is tied to the muhurtaniedha.
The village barbers lay a cloth on the grinding stone or pdta, and
worship it b y laying grains of rice before it. T o the wooden pestle
or musal are then tied a betel leaf, a millet stalk, and a needle, and
it is set in the mortar. The women o f the house seat the b o y in
front of the mortar on a low wooden stool, take cocoanut-oil in a
metal cup, and dipping mango leaves in the oil let it drop on his head.
The washerwoman, holding the pestle in her left hand, stands in front
o f the b ov singing songs. A chaplet o f flowers, a cocoanut, and a
few grains o f wet pulse are sent to the village god with the prayer that
he may be kind, that the marriage cerem ony may pass without mishap
and that he m ay give the marriage guests a safe return to their homes.
When this is over, the guests are treated to a dinner. During the
two or three days, after the b o y has been rubbed with turmeric, friends
and kinspeople ask him to dine, and when he goes you n g girls som e­
times go with him. If one o f the friends is wealthy, he invites the b o y
and all the members o f the b oy ’s fam ily to his house with musicians
playing before them, feasts them on cakes and polls, and hangs flower
garlands or munddvals round the b o y ’s head. I f the houses o f th e
bride and bridegroom are in the same village or tow n, the installing
of the devak is held on the marriage day. If the b o y and girl live
m different places, the worship is held tw o or three days before the
marriage. In installing the devak the first step is to worship the house
gods. A fter the house gods have been worshipped, a near kinsman o f
the b o y s father and his wife have the skirts of their garments tied
together, and, under a waist-cloth held over thoir heads b y four persons,
go, preceded b y musicians, t o the village Maruti. The husband carries
on his shoulder an axe or some other iron field tool and a rope twelve to
fifteen feet long, and his w ife walks close behind him carrying a platter
with the fam ily devak and an offering o f food. Behind the pair walk
four or five unwidowed women, each carrying a brass water cup, filled
with water.^ A t Maruti’s tem ple the Gurav or ministrant has a supply
of panel pdlvi or sprigs o f five trees, the mango, the rui (Calotropis
^ ^ ^ u n b i] 296

gigantea), the saundad or sham (Prosopis spicigera), the Indian fig

or vad and the jdmbhul (Eugenia jambolana).*
The party bow before the god and hay sandal, flowers, frankincense,
and food before him, and the ministrant presents them with the five
sprigs or pdnch palvis. On their return to their house, they tie the
five sprigs to a pole in the marriage porch and along with the sprigs
tie a cake or poll and the spiced gram relish called besan, which is
eaten with bread. On this day some ten to twenty friends and kins-
people are asked to a feast of unstuffed cakes. They sit on square
blankets and after the serving of betel withdraw. "When the guests •
are gone, the women of the house sit on the bare ground and eat,
When a marriage party has to go to a distant village, they travel in
bullock carts with music. On reaching the boundary of the girl’s
village or town, water is fetched and poured on the boundary b y a
K oli of the place, who is given a eocoanut and occasionally a turban.
In some places, a lemon is cut, waved round the b oy’s head,
and thro wn away, and his eyes are touched with cold water or soot. On
entering the village, if he has not ridden the whole way, the bride­
groom mounts a horse and goes to the village Maruti with music,
and halts there with his sisters or other young girls who are called
kara/dis or groom’s maids. In the village the girl’s father has pro­
vided a lodging or jdnvasghar for the b o y ’s party. I d the evening,
from Maruti’s temple, the bridegroom’s brother or other near re­
lation, called the vardhava or groom-sent, mounts a horse and, with
friends and music, goes to the bride’s. On reaching the bride’s, her
father asks him to dine, and, if he is rich, gives him a turban. When
the groom-sent has taken some food, the bride’s father gives him,
for the bridegroom, a tinsel chaplet, a turban, a red chintz overcoat, a
pair o f waist-cloths, a pair o f shoes and a shoulder-cloth. The har­
binger mounts his horse and starts for Maruti’s temple with the bride’s
father and some of the bride’s kinsmen, who carry five bodice-
banners or dhvajas tied to poles and held over his head, {jnd followed
b y a married unwidowed woman, with a eocoanut and betel-leaves in a
platter. As he goes, the bride’s brother pelts him with onions. A t
Mdruti’s temple the bride’s father lays the platter with the dress be­
fore the bridegroom. A Brahman priest, who is in attendance, tells
the bridgroom to wash his eyes with water, loosens the brocaded end of
the bridgroom ’s turban, and winds it twice or thrice round the bride-
* These five trees or shrubs vaiy, the mango, r u i ami banyan (vad) being frequently
used but the Icadamba (Anthocephalus cadumba) tho bel (Aigle marmelos), the say
Indian teak and p ip a l (Ficus religiose) being sometimes included in place of others
mentioned in the text. For a discussion of the significance of the punch palvi, see
Mar&thas.
 297 [Kunb^ ^-
groom ’s neck. H e sets up a betelnut Ganpati, and tells the bridegroom
to wash it and lay sandal-powder and flowers before it. A fter this the
priest touches the new clothes with turmeric powder, marks the bride­
groom ’s brow with sandal-powder, and gives him the clothes. If the
bridegroom ’s old turban is o f little value, it is given to the barber who
is to lead his horse - if the turban is rich the barber is given a cocoanut.
Betel leaves are handed to all present, and m oney is given.to the Brah­
man. The bridegroom ’s left cheek is tou ch ed with lampblack. H e
lays before Marati two betel leaves, a betelnut, and a copper coin and
walks round him. H e carries a dagger or poniard with a lemon stuck
on its point. Before starting for the bride’s a cocoanut is broken at
the village gate to keep ofE evil influences and given to the Makars. The
village Mahar stands before the bridegroom as if to stop him and is
given a white turban or shoulder-cloth worth annas four to eight.
When he reaches the bride’s house, a Mahar wom an comes with
an iron lamp in a platter and waves it round his head, saying “ May
all your pains and troubles vanish and the riches o f B ali be pour­
ed on you .” For this she is given a cheap bodice cloth. Near the
door o f the bride’s house the wife of her maternal uncle waves round
the bridegroom’s head a lighted lamp o f wheaten flour with tw o
wheat flour balls at its sides and is given a bodice and a robe. This
lamp-waving is called varovalni or the bridegroom-waving. The
b oy’s party are seated in the marriage porch, and the bridegroom is
made to stand near the earth altar in the centre of w hich is placed
a mango sprig stuck in a ball o f mud and at each corner a coloured
earth ern pot called vahi. The bride is carried out of the house and set
in front of the bridegroom facing him. The priest and some beg­
ging Brh/irnans come forward and divide into two parties. A. cloth
or antarpdt is held between the bride and bridegroom, so that they
cannot see each other’s faces. They touch finger tips with the cloth
between them. The two parties of Brahmans hand the guests tur­
meric or red-coloured rice or millet to throw on the heads o f the bride
and bridegroom. The two parties of priests in turn recite man-
galashtaks or lucky verses, at the end o f each verse throwing some
coloured grains on the heads o f the pair, and the guests, like the
Brahmans at the end of each verse, throw coloured grains. When the
verses are over, the Brahmans clap their hands and the guests clap
their hands, and musicians raise a dm o f music. Shortly after the
maternal uncles o f the bride and bridegroom sit on stools with the
bride and bridegroom on their knees and with their faces turned to
each other. The priest tells the bride and bridegroom to fold their
hands and touch finger tips, while he winds a yellow thread round
h X109—‘38
,1Kunbi j ' 298
<SL
their necks. This ceremony is called sutavane or thread-winding-
W hen they are thus seated, the girl-giving or kanyddan is performed
by the bride’s maternal uncle, or, in his absence, by her father. When
he gives her away, the uncle presents the girl with copper vessels
according to his means. The priest, muttering some verses, cuts the
yellow thread that was passed round the pair’s necks and tells them
to sit on the altar or bahule. The bride sits on the bridegroom’s left.
In front of the pair a burnt offering is made, called Idjdhom of clarified
butter, pieces of wood and fried rice. A winnowing-fan with rice,
split pulse, wafer biscuits, fried rice cakes and vermicelli is laid before
the bridegroom . The priest suddenly puts his hand over one of
the articles on the fan and asks the- bridegroom to say what he has hid.
If the bridegroom guesses right, the priest says that his patron has
got an intelligent son-in-law ; if he answers wrong, he calls him
a dull fellow. After tins a low stool, covered with wheat flour and
with lines drawn on it, is set before the bride and bridegroom, and
they are told to say each other’s name, money is given to the IM hm an,
and he retires. On the same da)', after the marriage is over, a party
from the bride’s go to the village Maruti, and, with the same rites
as those described in the case of the bridegroom’s party, bring and
tie in the marriage porch the bride’s father’s devak or marriage
guardian. After the bride’s devak has been installed, a party of
the bride’s kinswomen go in procession to the bridegroom, with platters
full of fried rice, cakes and rice vermicelli or shevya. They are
received with honour and are given turmeric and red powder. They
empty their platters, and in return, in one o f them, the bridegroom’s
kinswomen put annas 8 to Rs. 10 in cash. This food-gift to the
bridegroom is called rukhvat. Then some o f the bride’s near kinsmen
with music go to ask kinsmen to dine, and bring them home with
music, and in the same way the woman of the bride’s family bring
kinswomen. The relations are feasted on unstuffed cakes or polls,
rice, split pulse, alan. or boiled rice flour, seasoned with spices, and
fried rice cakes. Early next morning, with music and friends, the bride
and bridegroom seated on a horse, the bride in front, are
taken to a river or garden, and, after retiring, have their feet rubbed
with wet turmeric powder and oiled red powder, and return with
music. A bou t ten, the boy and girl are bathed on low stools in
the booth. R ound the bathing place are set five tdmbyas or copper
drinking pots with a white thread passed round their necks. A t
the time of bathing, the bridegroom is seated on a low stool and the
bride on another low stool or a large platter. While bathing they
fill their mouths with water and blow it over each other’s faces.
:(W: 299 [Kunbi §L ...

The boy holds a betelnut in his hand and the girl using both her
hands tries to force it o u t ; then the girl holds the nut and the b o y
tries to force it out with his left hand. I f the b oy fails the guests
jeer at him, calling him bulga or impotent. When the bathing is
over, the bridegroom tries to lift the bride b y his left hand and set
her at his left side while the bride tries to prevent him lifting her
from the ground. These struggles greatly amuse th e guests and
relations. The b oy and girl are then dressed and their brows are
rubbed with red powder and their bodies with turmeric. They
are given a dish of shevya, th at is milk, clarified butter, rice vermicelli,
and raw sugar, and feed each other. A fter dinner they sit on the
altar in the booth. In the evening the bride’s father gives a caste
feast, and on one of the days the b o y ’ s father treats the caste ,
to rice, split pulse, vegetables, and unstuffed cakes or polis. On this
d ay or, if this is n ot a lucky day, on the next, the bride’s lap is filled.
The priest folds a waist-cloth four times, covers it with rice or wheat
grains, and tells the bride and bridegroom to sit on it. W hile the
priest chants verses, the bridgroom fills the bride’s lap with five half
cocoa-kernels, five dates, five sprouted turmeric roots, five betelnuts,
a quarter of a pound of rice, a comb, a small casket, and a variously
coloured cord. The bridegroom ’s father presents the bride with
the richest robe he can afford and the guests present th e fathers of
the bride and bridegroom with clothes or cash from eight annas upwards.
These presents are called aher. After this the twelve balutedars
or village servants com e in, and according to his means,
the b oy ’s father gives their wives bodice-cloths or cash. If he is
rich, he gives the headman or patil a turban. In the evening
the bride’s and bridegroom’s skirts are tied together, and they walk
to the bridegroom’s house or lodging. After lamplight the bridegroom ’s
mother, with a band of kinspeople, walks towards the bride’s, on
cloths spread b y the village washerman, and at the same time the
bride’s mother starts with a band of friends to visit the b o y ’s mother.
W hen the parties meet, th ey stop ten or fifteen paces from each
other. A waist-cloth is held in front of each party and they begin
throwing red powder on one another. They jest with one another
showing in front of the cloth a ladle, a rolling-pin, a d og or a cat.
While this is going on, the bridegroom and his mother pretend to
be offended and leave the party. The bride’s father and mother
follow them and appease them with presents. Then the two parties
m ove on to the bride’s where the bridegroom’s mother is seated in the
booth on a three-legged stool. Round her are arranged five metal
drinking pots or tdmbyas with a thread passed round their necks, and
^ ^ ■ K u n b i] 300
/' ’ ^ ■d., ' i) ■ § 1, kJ *';
the boy and girl are seated on her lap. Five women of the bride’s
family wash the feet of the bridegroom’s mother. The bride’s
father gives a robe to the bridegroom’s mother and the bridegroom’s
father gives a robe to the bride’s mother. This interchange of robes is
called potjhdkni or stomacher. While the bridegroom’s mother is
seated on the stool, the jhdl or handing ceremony is performed.
A bamboo basket or round metal dish, with a comb, a looking-glass, a
basket, a rolling-pin, five sweet things and five wheat flour lamps is set
on the bridegroom ’s mother’s head, and four or five women stand about
her and sing the jhdl song which runs : “ H ie bridegroom has reached
the village boundary, I will worship the boundary and win the bride­
groom .” Meanwhile a kinsman of the bridegroom’s runs away with the
basket or dish to the bridegroom’s and is pursued and pelted with
onions b y the bride’s people. The bride’s father, mother and other near
relations hold the bride and seated on their crossed hands set In* on her
husband’s lap and then on the laps of his father, mother and other near
relations. A t the time of handing her over, the girl’s relations with sobs
and tears say, “ Up to this time she was ours, now she is yours.” This
ceremony is seldom over till the morning cock-crow, and, after it is over
sometimes as late as five, they sit to a feast. When the feast is over,
the bride and bridegroom are led into the god-house and bow before the
images. As he bows, the bridegroom steals one of the gods and refuses
to give it until the bride’s father makes him a present. All then go
to the bridegroom ’s. In the evening the bridegroom ’s father gives
betel leaves with nuts to the guests and bids them good-bye.
I f the bridegroom belongs to another village, the guests, who belong
to his village, accompany him home. When they reach the village
the bride and bridegroom are taken to the temple of the village Maruti.
In the evening, about seven or eight, the bride and bridegroom are
seated on a ho-se and led to his house with a procession, music, and,
if they can afford them, fireworks. In the house a dish with cocoanuts,
saffron, and betel leaves is waved round the image of Khandoba,
a ceremony which is called the lifting of Khandoba’s tali or plate.
After the plate-waving, comes the jhenda ndchne or flag-dance when
one man sets the bride on his back and another sets the bridegroom
on his back and they dance. Sometimes the bride sits on the bride­
groom ’s back and a man dances with both on his back. After the
dance the bridgroom, holding the full b ox of a seed drill in his hand,
sprinkles grain on the ground as if sowing, and along with the
bride, who carries resin in her hand, goes to the god room . A t the
door of the god room they find the b oy ’s sister, who refuses to let
them pass till they promise to give their first daughter in marriage
 (CT
301 [Kunbi ■ •"i -‘
to her son. They agree though the promise is practically never
kept, and pass in, and laying a betelnut and copper coin before them,
bow to the house gods. The girl is considered the goddess of wealth
and her brow is marked with redpowder. Some wheat with a piece
of gold in it is heaped between the bride and bridegroom, and they
are told to divide the heap. If the bride gets the gold in her half
she is applauded, and it is taken as an om en that the rule in the
house will be hers. On the n ext or some other lucky day the bride
and bridegroom are bathed and the turmeric is taken off. I f she can
afford it, the b o y ’s mother for a fortnight longer feeds them on boiled
rice and clarified butter.*
W hen a girl comes of age, her feet are rubbed with turmeric pow - Puberty,
der moistened with water and her brow with redpowder with or
without o i l ; and she is fed on varan or split pulse cooked in water
with turmeric powder, and salt, rice, vegetables, and unstuffed cakes
or polis. I f her father-in-law is rich, the girl is for four days seated in
a gaily dressed frame called a makhar. On the fifth she and her hus­
band are bathed, and while they bathe music is played. She is
dressed in a green robe and green bodice, and her hands are adorned
with fresh green glass bangles. H er father, if rich enough, gives her
husband a waistcioth and turban and to his m other a robe and a
bodice, and beds, a carpet, a set of betel dishes, and a samai or metal
lamp for her and her husband’s use. Some unwidowed women with
relations are asked to feast on cakes or polis, and the girl and her
husband are made to feed each other from the same dish. In the
evening the girl is sent to sleep in a separate room and the w ife’s
brother or other near relation leads the b o y to the room and shirts
him i n .f
The remarriage of widows is permitted, but some families think Widow re­
widow-marriage disreputable and do n ot practise it. A s a rule only maiTia80-
widowers marry widows, and the children do n ot get so large a share of
the property as the children 5f the first marriage. A remarried widow
is n ot allowed to perform religious rites with her husband, and her
husband is n ot allowed to make offerings to the manes. I f a widower
marries a maid, he is n ot prevented from making offerings. A
remarried widow is less honoured than other women.
A w idow cannot marry a member of her late husband’s section or
her father’s section. She m ust observe the same lim itation as at her
first marriage. The ceremony takes place on a dark n ight in a field

* Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. XVIII, Part I, pp. 300- 307.

t Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. XVIII, Part I, p. 307.
9? Kunbi] 302
outside the village where three roads meet. It is attended by a few
<SL
of the relations of the widow and her intended husband and a
Brahman priest. The pair are seated on a low wooden stool facing
east, and they are made to worship Ganpati represented by a betelnut.
Next the Brahman priest asks the widow whether she has received all
her price or dower (which, varies from Rs. 50 to Rs. 100) from the
bridegroom. On her saying yes, the priest rubs the widow’s forehead
with a little cowdung and the bridegroom touches it with a rupee,
which is given to the priest. Next, redpowder is applied to the
widow’s forehead, the couple are asked to turn their faces to the west
and five manijcUdshtaks or lucky verses are repeated by the priest and
the relations o f the couple who are present. The party then disperse
except the newly married pair, who have to pass the night in a mala
or field-hut outside the village. On the next morning their faces are
not seen unless they have bathed and visited the temple of the local
Maruti or some other village deity. The priest who performs the
ceremony bathes as soon as it is over, washes the clothes worn by him
at the time, and puts on fresh ones.
Religion. Maratha Kunbis follow the H indu law of inheritance and belong
to the H indu religion. They cannot tell whether they are Smarts
or Bhagvats. Many of them are Varkaris who are also called Malkaris
as they wear necklaces of basil beads. They worship all Brahmanic
gods and goddesses, but their chief objects of worship are Bhairav,
Bhavani, Biroba, Jdkhai, Janai, Jokhai, Kalkai, Khandoba, Maruti,
Metisai, Mhasoba, Mukai, Navlai, Phringai, Satvai, Tukai, Vagboba and
Vetal, whom they greatly fear and whose images or taks they keep in
their houses. Bhairav is the usual village guardian. H e has two forms,
KM Bhairav and Bal Bhairav. Kal Bhairav is shown as a standing
man with two hands, an hour-glass-shaped drum or damaru in his right
hand, and a trident in his left. H e is encircled b y a serpent. Bal
Bhairav lives in an unhewn stone covered with redlead or sh'ndur
mixed with oil. If kept pleased by a coating of oil and redlead and if
he is given offerings o f clarified butter, Bhairav is kindly. He cures
snake-bites and tells whether an undertaking will d o well or will fail.
In the chest o f the rough figure of Bhairav are two small holes. The
person who wishes to consult the oracle places a betelnut in each of the
holes and explains to Bhairav that if the right betelnut falls first it will
mean that the undertaking will prosper, and that if the left betelnut
falls first it will mean that the undertakmgwill fail. He asks the god,
according as the event is to be, to let the lucky or unlucky nut fall
first. H e tells the god that if he will drop the lucky nut and if his
undertaking prospers he will give the god a cock or a goat. Twice a
 /n
VCT
7
3 03 [K u n b i

year before they begin, to sow and before they begin to reap, the
villagers com e in procession and worship Bhairav. Bhavani, that is,
Parvati the wife of Shiva, is known by m any names such as Phringai,
Tukai, etc. She shares with Bhairav the honour o f being village guard­
ian ; she is generally shown as a rude image, either with tw o hands, a
sword being in tne right hand, or with eight hands holding a conch, a
wheel and other articles the same as Vishnu holds. Like Bhairav she
is asked the cause o f sickness or ill-luck and to advise regarding the
future, and like him, if she removes trouble or advises well, she is given
a'goat or a cock. Biroba is worshipped mainly b y Dhangars or
shepherds. H e lives in an unhewn stone outside of the village. Like
Mhasoba he is an unkindly spirit to whom people pray when they are
anxious to plague or ruin their enemies. Jakhai, Jandi, Jokhai, K&lkai,
Motisai, M uM i and Navlai are all local mothers. A ccording to the
people’s account they are unkindly forms o f Bhavani. W ith the help
o f tw o attendants, Naikji and Birji, they d o much mischief. They
blast crops o f grain, plague men with sickness, and carry off travellers.
People who owe their neighbours a grudge pray to Janai, Mukai, or one
of the mothers to send them sickness, to kill their cattle, or to ruin their
fields. K handoba, literally swordfather, guards the country as B hai­
rav guards the village. K handoba is the Ishvar D e v o r guardian
deity o f the Deccan. As a guardian, he is shown sometimes at his
chief shrine at Jejuri as a linga, the great protector, and m ore often as
a horseman with a sword in his right hand, and his Mhalsabai sitting
beside him. As a horseman, he is M a M r i, the form he took when he
came to destroy the demons Mani and Malla. As an animal, he is the
dog who runs beside his horse, and in the D eccan is generally called
Khandi. A s a plant he is turmeric powder under the name Bhandar.
His house image is always o f metal, never o f wood or o f stone. H e
drives away the evil which causes sickness. N o class honour K handoba
so highly as the Ramoshis. I f a Ramoshi makes a promise while la y ­
ing his hand on turmeric powder or bhandar, that is, on Khandoba,
nothing will bring him to break his promise. Maruti, also called H enu-
man, is the m onkey god. N o village in the Deccan is without a
M&ruti, a rudely embossed m onkey figure, sometimes within the village
and sometimes without, but generally near the gate. H e is a kindly
god, the great saver of those into whom evil spirits have entered. H e is
loud o f cocoanuts, but does n o t care for blood offerings. Mhasoba or
Jdiaskoba is perhaps the com m onest and most widely feared o f the
local evil spirits. He lives in an unhewn stone coated with edlead.
These stones are all old dwellings of Mhasoba— some get forgotten.
Then sickness falls on the village, and the people go to the village
 Kunbi] ' 304. %L
guardian and ask him a series of questions, which he answers by drop­
ping a botolnut or by some other sign. In the end they find out from
the guardian that there is an old neglected dwelling of Mhasoba.
The villagers find the stone, cover it with oil and redlead, and kill a
goat or a fowl in front of it. Besides, to prevent his working mischief,
Mhasoba is worshipped by men. who have a grudge to clear off or a
wrong to avenge. They go to Mhasoba, name their enemy, and p ro­
mise, if he ruins their enemy with sickness, that they will give him a
goat or a fowl. So much is he feared that when a man knows that
some one whom he has ill used has arranged to set Mhasoba on him, he
makes such amends that the god is n ot forced to exert his powers.
Satvai, or Mother Sixth, is the goddess of pregnant and lying-in
women. She is worshipped by barren women, and b y lying-in. women
on the fifth or sixth day after the child is bom . H er image is an armless
bust. Vaghoba, or Father Tiger, lives in an unhewn stone. I f he is
cared for, he guards the village herds from the attacks o f tigers. Vetal
is the leader of demons and evil spirits. H e seems t o be the earliest
form of Shiva, the leader of spirits, and Ganesh, the lord of spirit
troops. Vetai lives in an unhewn stone, three or four feet high,
surrounded at a distance of a few yards by a circle of smaller stones in
which his leading attendants live. Unlike most shrines, the stones in
which Vetai and his attendants live are covered both with white and
red wash. Vetai and his guard are generally at some distance ou t­
side of the village. Vetal’s great day is the Mahdshimrdtn or great
night of Shiva on the full-moon o f Mdgh in February. On that night
the villagers, each with a bundle of lighted straw in his hand, walk
round the circle of stones howling and bawling. W hen a K unbi or
one o f his family is possessed b y an evil spirit, he goes to Vetai and
promises, if he orders his spirit to give up troubling him, that he will,
give him a goat or a fowl. Vetai is the patron of wrestlers and ath­
letes. On one of the holidays the villagers go and wrestle at V etal’ s
circle. V etal’s sign is a cane called vet or bet, from which he seems to
get his name. From his apparent sameness with the early forms of
Shiva, and from the resemblance of his circle o f guards to a rude B ud­
dhist rail, and to the circles of unhewn stones found in Western Europe
and in other parts of the world, the worship of Vetai is specially
interesting.
Kunbis observe all the Hindu holidays, the chief o f which are the
Pddva or Hindu New Y ear’s D ay, Akshatritiya, Rdmnammi, Nd>j-
panchami, Navyachi punav, Gohulashtami, Ganesh Ghalurthi, Pola, Ganri,
Dasara, Divdli, Champd-sJimhlhi, S mkrant and Shimya or Holi. Their
fast days are the four Mondays and Saturdays o f Shrdvan, Navrdtro,
 305 [Kunbi
th o first nine days of Aakvin, the two Ekadashis or elevenths o f
Ashadh and Kdrlik, Hartalika, Pdfhi Panchami and Shivardlm, Besides
on these days, some fast on all Mondays, Saturdays, Sundays or Tues­
days o f the year. Ndgpanchami or the Cobra’s F ifth is the K u n bi
w om an’s festival. In the afternoon all the women dressed in their
best, go with music to a white ant-hill in which a cobra is believed
to live, and lay milk and sugar near the ant-hill while the priest says
prayers.* The women take hands, dance round the ant-hill in a ring
alternately rising and kneeling and keeping time to a song which th ey
sing in chorus. A t intervals they take parched rice in a clenched
hand, and putting it on each other’s heads ask their husband’s nam e.
As (hey m ay not answer directly, they bring in his nam e in a rhym e.
A t the Pola festival the oxen have a rest. Their horns are covered
with tinsel or red, and palas fibre tassels are tied to their tips.
Garlands o f flowers are put round their necks, they are fed with sugar,
and their owners fall at their feet and worship them. In the evening
after the headman’s cattle, all the oxen are driven round Hanuman’s
temple. The day ends with a feast.

Besides the above holidays many field rites are practised b y the
Maratha Kunbis. A bout the end of A pril on tho Akshatritiya, lit­
erally the undying third, offerings are made to three generations
o f dead warriors and a fresh year of field work begins. In som e
places, before beginning to plough waste land, cook ed rice or five
millet or Indian millet cakes, curds, a cocoanut and a he-goat or
fowl are offered'to the field spirit, Mhasoba, Navlai or Satv&i. This is
not done hi other places. W hen the rice seedlings arc ready to plant,
the villagers meet on a Sunday, anoint their village god, who is
generally Bahiroba or Hanuman, with oil and redlead, sacrifice a he-
goat and tan fowls, and offer five cocoanuts, frankincense, fifteen
lemons and camphor. They ask tho god to give them good crops
and walk round the village calling the name of their god. A feast is
prepared, and the sacrifices are oaten near the temple. Each land­
holder on the Tuesday before he begins to plant his rice kills a fowl
and sprinkles its blood ov er'th e field and offers the field spirit a c o ­
coanut and a he-goat or fowl. Before setting up the tivda or central
pole of the threshing floor, all ask an astrologer what w ood they should
use. Under the pole they bury their devak, frequently consisting
of the twigs of the mango, jdmbhul (Eugenia jam bolana), shami

* Among many castes in the south of the Presidency the white ant heap is wor­
shipped to this day. In Kanara near Dighi in Supa Mahal of Yellapur idluka, a
temple built over a white ant heap has been found by the Editor. The local belief
is that the aut heap is the home of a cobra.
H1109—39
 Ql
• A i'* tVf c

" m
^ g p K o n b i] 306 ...... J
'
(Prosopis spicigera), arati (Mimosa hamata) and rui (Calotropis gigantea)
and an egg. They set up as a shrine or rlwastmn an earthem p ot
and seven pebbles, five for the Panda vs and one each for Vandev
or the forest god and Vansapatra or the forest lord. The p o t and. the
pebbles arc smeared with redlead and frankincense is burnt before
them. Kunbis sacrifice a sheep or a he-goat, a Brahman or Gujar&t
Vani would offer five grains of wheat or five millet cakes and five
each of betel, cloves, cardamoms, turmeric roots and pieces of cocoa-
kernel. When the grain is threshed some husbandmen offer a sheep,
a goat, a fowl or cakes. Before winnowing, an animal or cakes and
fruit are offered at the Pandav shrine. R ice is also offered and
scattered over the threshing floors, a rite known as rdspuja, that is
the heap worship. When an animal is offered, the rice is steeped with
b lood before it is thrown. Before measuring the grain the astrologer
is asked which o f the husbandman’s family should measure it.
W ith a broom of early juv&ri stalks the grain is heaped round the
central pole and incense is burnt before it, a tw o -sher or adholi measure
is held in the incense smoke and handed to the measurer,
who offers the first measureful to the village god. I f a c op is
attacked b y rust, in some parts of the district a fowl is sacrificed or a
cocoanut is offered to the village deity. A t all these ritts the village
priest is present, recites texts and is given a cocoanut and a few
coppers.

Maratha Kunbis make pilgrimages to Jotiba of Vadi, Ratnagiri,

in the months of Chailra and Shrdvan, to Narsoba’s Vadi on Guru-
dw&dashi in Ashnn and in the month of Mdgh, to Pandharpur on the
elevenths of the first halves of Ashadh and KdrtiJc, to Aland! and Dehu
in Poona and Tuljhpur in the Nizam’s country and to many other
places where fairs are held, and even to Benares.

Mar&tha Kunbis believe in incantations, witchcraft, ghosts and

evil spirits, oracles and the evil eye. Partly perhaps because they are
m uch more sober, partly perhaps because fever is much less common,
the Deccan Kunbis are much less afraid of spirits than the Konkan
Kunbis. Still, the belief in spirits, witchcraft and the evil eve has a
great effect on the lives of the Deccan Kunbis. If a Kunbi is seized
with uncommon sickness, or suffers from any calamity, he first finds
out whether his misfortunes are due to natural causes, to the displeasure
of th e gods, to witchcraft, to the evil eye, or to an evil spirit. To
find out the cause the sufferer and his friends make several experiments.
A flower is stuck on the breast o f an idol and its fall on one side or the
other determines the cause o f the misfortune, or a sacrificial vessel is
ll? 307
<SL
[K unbr A

hung by a string, and, as is agreed beforehand, the direction to which

it points when it comes to rest settles the cause o f the evil. I f these
trials are n ot satisfactory, a Jdnta or knowing man is asked. I f the
evil has com e from the gods, the knowing man says how the gods are
to be pleased ; if the cause is witchcraft, either the knowing man breaks
the spell b y counter-charms, or the witch is caught and either forced
to remove the spell or made to drink water from the hands of a cobbler,
which destroys her p o w e r; if the cause is the evil eye, either the
knowing man breaks the spell, or the mother o f the sick child throws
salt and red pepper into the fire saying, Drisht-Misht dli gelichi, Bhut-
khet 'pd'pi chanddldchi, that is, ‘ The evil eye of passers-by, of evil
spirits and filthy wights ’ . The evil eye is much feared. The owner o f
the eye is n ot thought to blame, but he is shunned and cattle are n o t
driven past his door. To draw the evil eye from the crops a white­
washed pot. is stuck on a p o le ; the walls of houses are decked with
figures and gaudy stripes; beautiful women and children wear neck­
laces and cattle wear necklacos and anklets. A K unbi never congratu­
lates a friend on his prosperity, his fine oxen or his handsome wife. I f
he does, ill-luck will hear and carry away the excess of good fortune.
Every place teems with ghosts and evil spirits, who are included under
the general name bhut, literally a being. The male ghosts are called
Keins or Jhotings, and the female ghosts Hadals. A m ong the worst
, female ghosts are the seven water-nymphs called A ija or Jaldevt&s,
who carry off handsome youths. There are distinct names for the
ghosts of Brahmans, Musalmans abd outcastes. A ghost wanders and
ill-uses the living either because he was murdered or ill-treated, or
because he hankers after a house, a wife or a treasure. Ghosts live in
large trees, lonely places, em pty houses and old wells. They are
generally seen or heard at noon and at midnight. Th ey take m any
shapes, a deer, a tall figure, or a strange ox or goat. I f a person sleeps
under a haunted tree, or cuts a branch of a haunted tree, or defiles the
ghost's ruin or old wall, or jostles a ghost on a road, the person sick­
ens or is unlucky. The ghosts of the murdered or o f ill-used are
chiefly dangerous to those who ill-treated them. The ghost enters into
the culprit, maddens him, destroys his sleep, kills his family and
turns his jo y to sorrow. Many people make a living b y appeasing or
casting ou t angry spirits. One plan is for the excorciser to take the
possessed person in front of an idol, to seize him b y the top-knot,
scourge him, and abuse him till the spirit says what offering or
*» penance will satisfy him.
Maratha Kunbis have great faith in omens. They consider it
unlucky if a crow flies to the right and tds or the blue ja y Coracias

4
 <SL
K ’

Kunbi] 308

indica to the left. On going out they think it lucky to meet an nn-
widowed woman with a full waterpot on her head, a milkmaid with
milk pots, or anybody with a dish of cooked food. I f a cat or a widow
happen to pass before them while going out, they consider it un­
lucky and go back. They hold it very unlucky if a lighted lamp
falls on the ground and goes o u t ; or if a house lizard drops in front
o f them.*
The priests of Maratha Kunbis are the local or Deshasth Brah­
mans. Their religious teachers are Gosavis, whose advice or updesh
they take.
Death Kunbis generally bum their dead. When a person is on the
mordes. P°int of death, his son or his wife lays the dying man’s head on his or
her right knee and lets a few drops of water fall into his mouth. Money
and grain are given to the poor and a cow or from annas 8 to Rs. 5 in
cash is given to the family Brdhman to help the flight of the soul to
heaven. When the dying man has breathed his last, the women of the
house raise a loud cry and dishevel their hair. A small pmce o f gold
is put into the dead mouth, and after an hour or two, friends and neigh­
bours com e and mourn. The dead body is bathed in water heated on a
hearth set in front o f the house. T o carry the body a ladder-like bier
is made of two poles, six or seven feet long, with three or four small
cross pieces. Tw o new earthem pots, a large one for water and a
small one for fire, redpowder, betel leaves and a cloth about seven and-
a-half feet long are brought from the market or village cloth shop.
Word is sent to the village Mahar, who carries cowdung cakes and fire­
wood to the burning ground, which is generally on the river bank.
E xcept the face the body is covered with a new waistcloth and a cord
is passed several times round the body to secure the cloth firmly.
Betel leaves and guldl or red powder are sprinkled over it and a basil
leaf is put in the mouth and some rice, a copper coin and the quarter
o f a cake are laid beside the body. Four kinsmen of the deceased
bear the body and the son bathes and walks in front carrying the
firepot on a triangular frame fastened to a sling. Before setting out
he is warned n ot to look back. A bout half way to the burning ground
at a place called the visavyacM jaga or rest-place the party stops and
the bearers set the bier on the ground and change places. They
throw away the rice, the copper coin and the quarter o f a cake which
were laid on the bier beside the b od y and pick up a stone, which is
usually called the life stone or jiv-lchada. When they reach the
burning ground, they raise a pile o f four layers o f cowdung cakes.

* Bombay Gazetteer, Vol, XVIII, Part I, pp. 289—298.

im ) ■ (St
309 [Kunbi*

They then take ofl the waistcloth, cu t the thread tied round the
wrist, and loosen the loincloth. The body is laid on the pyre and is
covered with other layers o f cakes. W hen the m outh is being covered
the son pours a little water into it. The son sets fire to the pyre,
bathes, brings water in the large earthen pot, and stands at the head
of the pyre. Another person comes and with a small stone makes a
hole in the earthen p ot. As the water spouts from the p ot, the son
goes five times round the pyre and at the end throws th e p o t on the
ground at the head of the pyre, and calls aloud, beating his m outh with
the back of his hand. H e then goes and sits among the other men
without touching them. A fter a short tim e the sound made b y the
bursting o f the skull is heard and the chief-mourner and others, at
least the four bearers, bathe. The stone with which the earthen pot
was pierced is kept with great care somewhere in the burning place.
On their return to the house o f mourning the funeral party are given
nimb leaves to e a t ; or they go to a temple and then t o their houses.
The mourners d o n ot cook but are fed on that d ay b y a relation or a
friend with food prepared at his house.

In the evening after the funeral, a lighted lamp is set on the

spot where the deceased breathed his last. Flour is strewn round
the lam p, and the lam p is covered w ith a basket. N ext
morning the basket is m oved and the flour is examined. I f a
human foot-print appears on the floor, the deceased is believed to he
re-born as a human being ; and if the foot-print is th at of a bird
or beast, the spirit of the person is believed to have entered that
beast or bird.

N ext morning the son with some friends and relatives goes
to the burning ground with three small earthern pots with their
mouths covered with three small wheaten cakes and throe pimpcl
leaves. H e places the small pots in a wimjowing basket and fills
them with milk, cow-urine, and honey or sugar, and lays some
cowdung in the basket. On reaching the rest-place, the
son lays on the ground a cake with a little raw sugar.
He goes on to the burning ground and from the spot where the b od y
was burnt, he takes tbe ashes except one hone which he puts aside
and throws them into the nearest river. I f he is rich, h e gathers the
bones and afterwards takes them to a holy river. A fter rem oving the
ashes the son sprinkles the spot with cow dung and cow-urine and places
the tw o pots with tw o cakes, one where the head lay and the other
where the feet lay. W hen the ash-gathering or mhhavddhne is over,
the son and the other mourners bathe and return home. On th e
ipfl. '
^ /Kunbi]
.
310
third day the bearers’ shoulders are rubbed with oil and they are
<SL
given d ry cocoakemel to eat. On the tenth all the household bathe
and wash their clothes in the riv er; and the son shaves his mous­
tache and bathes. W hile a Brahman repeats verses the son washes
with cow-urine, the life-stone or jiv-kkada andthe bone he kept, prepares
ten balls and three little banners made of ochre-coloured cloths,
each tied to a stick. The Brahman is given some money, shoes, and
sometimes even a cow, presents which are supposed to help the
deceased on his way to heaven. After preparing the offering balls
the son sits at a distance that crows may com e and eat them. If a crow
touches them soon after they have been laid out, the deceased is
supposed to have died with no unfulfilled wish. I f crows do n ot
touch the balls, the son and his relations promise to fulfil the dead
person’s wish, and when the promise is given, the crows are believed
. to fall on theoffe ing and eat it. After thisis over, the son and the other
mourners bathe and return home. On the thirteenth day the priest
is given money and provisions, and a feast of unstuffed cakes or
poli-t, rice, and split pulse, is given to friends and relations in honour
of the deceased. Some food is put in a platter and the platter is kept
aside that crows may eat out of it. In the evening, one of his near rela­
tions ties a small white turban round the son’s head and takes him with
the other mourners and generally some of the villagers to Maruti’s
temple, where the son lays a copper coin and a betelnut before the god .
Every month a man is asked to dine in the name of the deceased, and,
after five months and a half, a feast of unstuffed cakes or polis is
given to the near relations-of the deceased. In the dark half of Bkad-
rapad the spirit of the deceased is worshipped on the day o f the fort­
night which corresponds with the death day.5*

Food. The staple food of Maratha Kunbis is millet, rice and vegetables,
and, in some places in the Konkan, nachni. They eat the flesh of
goats, sheep, hare, deer, wild hogs, fowls and fish, and drink
liquor.

K O N K A N I K U N B IS are mainly found in the northern tdlukas

of the Ratnagiri district and the southern part of Kolaba. They are
popularly called Tilori Kunbis but are quite distinct from
the Talheri Kunbis o f Thana. They neither claim to be Marathas
nor Kshatriyas, but are content to be called Shudras. As among
Maratha Kunbis the number five plays a prominent part
in their ceremonies, suggesting- a primitive origin. They are smaller

* Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. XVIII, Part I, pp. 307-309.

.

. 1 ^^
311 [Kunbi
’ ■

and darker and more slightly made than Maratha K unbis. The
women are small, and as a class rather plain and hard featured.
Their home tongue is Mar&thi, spoken more roughly and less clearly
than by Brahmans, but differing little in words or grammar.

Konkani Kunbis have no kuls like the Maratha Kunbis. Marriages

are prohibited between members bearing the same surname, the other
restrictions on intermarriage being the same as among Maratha Kunbis.
Girls are married either before or after puberty. W idow remarriage
is allowed and practised and is n ot considered so disreputable as
among Maratha Kunbis. D ivorce is forbidden.

The marriage ceremonies o f Konkani K unbis are similar to those

of Maratha Kunbis though n ot so elaborate. The widow remarriage
ceremony is celebrated in the house of the intended husband. As
among Maratha Kunbis it is attended by a few relations and a Brah­
man priest. Five unwidowed women apply red powder to the widow’ s
forehead and fill her lap with a cocoanut, betelnut and grains, which
completes the ceremony.

The chief objects of worship of Konkani Kunbis are Bahiri, Zugai,

Navlai, Pawnai and Bhagvati. They observe all the H indu holidays
and on the Nagpanchami day (cobra-fifth) worship a white ant hill.
They visit some of the places of Hindu pilgrimage, and have great
faith in incantations, witchcraft, ghosts, oracles and the evil eye, their
beliefs in these respects being the same as those of Maratha Kunbis.
Their priests are Chitpavan or Karhada Brahmans, or rarely
Devrukhds. Their death ceremonies, with a few differences, resemble
those of Mardtha Kunbis.

The staple food of Konkani Kunbis is n&gli and vari cakes. They
eat the flesh of goats, sheep, fowls, wild pigs and fish and drink
liquor.

K A L E K U N B IS * are chiefly found in the Khanapur tdluka of the

Belgaum district and in the villages of the western part o f Supa petha
in Kanara. They are also called Konkani Kunbis. They belong to
the same class as the Kunbis o f south-west Goa, whence, it is believed,
their ancestors migrated in the sixteenth century on account of
religious persecutions.

* The term Kale Kunbi is identical in meaning with Karo Vakkal, both meaning
black or dark Kunbis. The castes bearing these names are distinct, the former speaking
Konkani and the latter ICanarese. Their costume seems, however, to indicate a
common origin.
t:§ :
: : Kunbi j 312
§L
KAle Kunbis, both men and women, are dark, middle-sized and
spare, with regular features. In dress and ornaments they resemble
H&lvakki Vakkals.
Their home tongue is Konkani.
Each village o f Kale Kunbis has a mirdshi and a gdvada. The
duties of the mirdshi are religious while those of the gdvada are social.
It is the mirdshi’s office to offer prayers to the village god or goddess
for the villagers. Other Kunbis are not at liberty to commence cul­
tivation or harvesting before the mirdshi does so in m- own land, if
he has any, and each Kunbi before commencing cultivation and har­
vesting offers a cocoanut to the spirits of his village through the mird­
shi, as it is a strong belief that failure to propitiate the spirits entails
a serious damage to the crops. The mirdshi has also to make a cut on
the throat of an animal killed b y the village-s in hunting before its
flesh is portioned out among the villagers. This duty falls on the
head o f the family when an animal is killed by a single individual.
B y making the cu t the animal is supposed to have been sacrificed to
the village or family deity as it is killed by the villagers jointly or by
a single person. The object o f the sacrifice is to prevent illness to
those w ho eat the flesh, as it is believed that flesh eaten without being
sacrificed to the gods causes illness.
The village social head gdvada is subordinate to another gdvada who
has control over a group of villages which goes by the name kariyadi.
The kariyadi gdvada is again subordinate to two gavadds, sar or raj
gdvada and pradhdn gdvada, who exercise authority over a mahdl
which comprises of several Jcariyadis. It is the duty of the village
gdvada to watch the conduct o f the villagers and communicate any
infringement of an established custom to the gdvada of the kariyadi.
Matters o f small importance are settled by him. Im portant social
questions are decided in councils of the kariyadi gavadds presided over
by the raj gdvada of the mahdl concerned. The raj gdvada confers
with the kariyadi gavadds, but is n ot bound by their opinion. The
decision rests with him. The duty o f the pradhdn gdvada is to com ­
municate the decision passed b y the raj gdvada to the parties concern­
ed. The Kucflegi branch of the Shringeri math o f Shankaracharya
occasionally levies contributions from the Kiile Kunbis, but does not
interfere with the social questions affecting the community. The
unwritten law of the com m unity is very strict and is never allowed
to be broken with impunity.
They belong to a number of clans or kuls, each o f which has spe­
cial gods and goddesses whose shrines are in villages, which are the
C" 313 [Kunbi ^ '
head stations o f the clans. Persons of the same clan and fam ily d eity
cannot intermarry. The chief clans with their fam ily deities are as
follows :—

Name of clan. Family deity.

D&ndalkar .. .. . . Bhutnath.
Dingak&r .. .. . . D o.
Goirekar .. .. . .Naiki.
Irkolkar .. .. .. Bhutnath.
Kajewkar .. .. . .Monffi.
Kolalka.' .. .. . . Bhutnath.
Kumark&r .. .. . . D o.
Kumgelkar .. .. . .R&mling.
Mainolkar .. .. ..B h u tn ath .
M udekir .. .. . . D o.
Nandkar .. .. . .Mon&i.
Nujekar .. .-. . . Bhutnath.
Patankar .. .. . . Ramling.
R&ikar .. .. . . D o.
Sanwarkar .. .. ..B h u tn dth .
Tirodk&r .. .. . . D o.
Turaikar .. .. ..R a m lin g.
Volkdr .. .. . . D o.

The only important ceremony observed b y K ile Kunbis is mar­

riage, at which a B rihm an or L in giya t priest officiates. The b o y ’s
father has to pay to the girl’s, father R s. 12 and tw enty maunds of
paddy, and articles of dress to the members o f his family. The bin d­
ing portion o f the marriage ceremonies is the dhdre ceremony, in which
water is poured over the joined hands of the bride and bridegroom.
Girls are married either before or after puberty according to the con ­
venience of the parents, though as a rule they are seldom kept unmar­
ried after the age of eighteen years. The remarriage of widows is
permitted but is n ot much resorted to, as a remarried w idow is lowered
down in social estimation. D ivorce is prohibited.

K ale Kunbis have no idea o f a heaven or hell or of the different

divinities o f the H indu pantheon. Their religion consists for the
most part in spirit worship. They believe that every man, after
death, becomes a good or bad spirit according to his good or evil
deeds in his life-time. Soon after a death a Ghadi is em ployed to
ascertain whether the deceased is likely to turn ou t a good or bad
spirit and, if the former, to induce it to live in the fam ily house for the
H 1109 —40
1,1. j.
<S Kunbi] 314
*SL
good of the family. Good spirits are propitiated by offerings of
cocoanuts and food, through the mirashi, bad spirits b y the offerings
of sheep and fowls through the G M di. All diseases and misfortunes
are attributed to the workings of the evil spirits. Of the Hindu
holidays they observe only the Ganesh Chaturthi, Shimgn, Dasara,
Divdli and the Ashddh and Kartik Ekadashis. Some appear to
have been influenced b y Lingayatism and worship Basava or Nadin
and employ Jangams as priests.
The dead are generally buried, those dying an unnatural death
in a place different from the usual burying ground. Women dying
during pregnancy or shortly after child-birth are buried beyond the
hamlets to which they belonged, as it is believed that the spirits of
such women become terrible ghosts. Parched grains o f rice or some
other com are thrown round the place of burial of such a woman or along
the road from this place to the house of the deceased. The object
of this rite is to adjure the spirit n ot to leave the place until the seeds
germinate, the idea being that the seeds being parched will never
germinate and the spirit will consequently never leave its place.
On the fourth day after death the mourners are purified by sipping
three drops of panchagavya or five products of the cow brought by a
Brahman priest.
K ile Kunbis eat fish and the flesh of wild animals. They do
not eat the flesh of domesticated animals or birds such as sheep,
goats and fowls. The fowl is looked upon as so unholy that if a Kunbi
is touched b y it, he immediately purifies himself by bathing or at least
by sprinkling on his head water mixed with cowdung. The touch
of a dead sheep or goat is equally polluting, but not that of a living
one. Drinking toddy or liquor is considered a great sin, so much so,
that they would not drink even water or milk under a palm tree
which has been tapped. They eat cooked food at the hands of
Brahmans only.

T A L H E R K U N B IS are found almost entirely in the centre of

the Than a district along the basin of the Yaitama between the Tal
pass and the coast. The term Talheri seems to mean a lowlander,
perhaps as opposed to Varfili uplander and Malhari a highlander.
Talheris are composed o f two main elements, a local one apparently
little different from the Son Kolis, and a foreign. The early or local
element is much stronger than in Gujarat and Mar&tha Kunbis. The
foreign element is chiefly Maratha, traces of which are to be found in
their surnames and devaks and in the similarity of customs between
the two castes. The relations of Talheris with Marathas are the
f® ' §L
if* . 'm ® . • 1

315 [Kunfei

same as those between Mar&tha Kunbis and Marathas. They eat

with Marathas and Maratha Kunbis and to some extent intermarry,
and do n ot differ from them in appearance, religion and customs.

K H A N D E S H K U N B IS have seven sub-divisions (1) Ghatole,

(2) Kumbh&r, (3) Madrdj, (4) Loni, (5) Panjna, (6) Tidole or Tirole, (7)
Vanjari. Ghatoles are said to have com e from above the Ghats, that is,
from the south side of the A jantha range. They eat but d o n ot marry
with the Tilole Kunbis. Lonis, regarded as an aboriginal tribe,
dwell chiefly on the banks o f the G im a and in small villages on the
Tapti. They eat with Tiloles, Pdnjnas, Gujars and Vanis, but marry
only among themselves. The Kumbhars are a small tribe and very
poor. Van juris originally belonged to the great tribe of carriers
of that name, but they have long formed themselves in to a separate
caste b y taking to agriculture and by copying the manners and
customs o f the Kunbis. Panjnas have four divisions, (1) Kandarkar,
(2) Navghari, (3) R eva and (4) Thorgavhana. The Revas form
the main stock, the other three originated in feuds and disputes.
The Thorgavhanas take their name from Thorgavhan in Savda,
and the Kandarkars from Kandari on the Tapti in Bhusaval. The
Navgharis would seem to be the descendants o f nine families or houses
who left the main stock and settled in different villages throughout
the district. All the divisions eat together, but on account of
disputes as to which divisiom is the highest, they do n ot interm a ry.
Tiloles are said to have com e from Upper India and to have belonged
to the class o f Dddar Pawars.

KUNCHI VAKKALS, also called M arenavas, numbering Name and

967 (1901), including 475 males and 492 females, are a wandering orjgm‘
tribe of buffalo breeders, found m ostly in Dharwar. They appear
to be immigrants from Mysore and Madras, and are Dravidian in
origin having baits or totem istic exogamous sections and the dhdre
ceremony (pouring water over the clasped hands of the bride and
bridegroom) which is com m on among Dravidian castes. The balls
com monly found are :—

Alunava. JAnkalava.
BaslAva. Valkallava.
Jaldenava. Yardukareyava.

Marriages are prohibited between members of th e same ball. Marriage.

A man m ay marry his wife’s sister during the wife’s lifetime if she
does n ot beget children. Marriage is infant as welll as adult.
8exua! license before marriage is tolerated to the exten t that if a
 ■G°^eN\

! '^W:A
1 ’Kunchl Vakkal] 316
' VCT
LJA..J

girl does n ot become pregnant she is n ot put out of caste. If a girl’s

marriage is delayed till after she attains puberty she is made to under­
go a penance called hasge, which consists in giving her only one meal a
day for two days among some and four days among others. Polygamy
and polyandry are unknown. The remarriage of widows is not permitted.
A husband can divorce a wife if she is proved to be unchaste. Divorced
women are n ot allowed to marry. The caste follow the H indu law o f
inheritance. Their chief deities are the god Bapr&ya and the goddess
Tuppad. Besides these they also worship Bhutappa, Savdamma, Biru and
other minor gods. Cocoanuts, plantains, etc., are offered to the former
and goats and fowls to the latter generally on Tuesdays and Fridays,
at harvest tim e and on the Divdli holiday. The priest* o f the caste
are Brahmans. The ministrant at the temple of Bhutappa is a Kare
Vakkal called Mdshdgonda.
The dead are buried, except those who have white or black
spots on their bodies. The latter are burnt. The deceased is dressed
in his every day dress and kept in the house in a sitting posture
for a day. N ext day he is carried to the burial ground accompanied
b y tom tom s and buried with head to the south. In the case of crema­
tion, the bones and ashes are thrown into a river. The deceased are
propitiated once every tw o or three years by feeding a few castemen.
The main occupation of the caste is breeding and selling buffaloes.
They wander long distances in the southern parts of the Bom bay and
Madras Presidencies and in the Mysore State carrying on their
trade.
Food. They eat fish, fowls, wild boars, etc., but do n ot drink liquor.
KUNCHA BANDHANARE.—A sub-division of Kanjaris.
KUNCHEVALE.— A synomym for Makadvale.
KUNCHI.—A sub-division o f Koravas.
KUNJARA.— A synonym for Kachhia.
KUNUM.— A synonym for Malhar Koli.
KURAD.—A sub-division of Devangs.
KURNAVAL.—A sub-division of Devangs.
KURSALI.— A sub-division of Ling&yats.
KURUBA.—-A sub-division o f Gavlis and Jogis.
Name and KURUBAS, or Shepherds, numbering 226,370 (1901), including
ongin. 115,204 males and 111,166 females, are found all over the Kamatak
and the Kanara district. Of this number 10,948 were recorded as
Ling&yats, and are known b y the name o f Hande Kuxuba or Hande
f(fl 317 [Kuruba (si.. 1

Vazir. In Mysore, 377,091 Kurubas were recorded at th e Census o f

1901, in Hyderabad 87,217, while in Madras 206,286 were returned
under the name Kuruba, and 154,959 under the name o f Kurum ban
which is the Tamil equivalent of the Kanarese Kuruba.
The term Kuruba is derived from the Kanarese Kuri a sheep. Origin.
Sir W . Elliot(1> makes the Kurubas one o f the m ost im portant
elements in the early population of South India. They appear as
Kurumbans in Tamil and Malayali, as Kurubas in Kanarese, and cor­
respond to the Dhangars of the Marathas and of Northern India.
Some in Malabar are bondsmen ; others in the Madras K am atak bred
horses and served as troopers in the Maratha armies. In early times,
in the East Kairuitak, they are said to have form ed a federal com m unity
of twenty-four States, to have been converted to Buddhism, to have
gained much skill in the arts and to have been overthrown b y a Chola
K ing of Tanjore in the fifth or sixth century. Sir W . E lliot notices
that their truthfulness is proverbial. On this and other grounds he
would trace a connection between the Kurubas and Santhals o f Bengal,
and through the Santhals with the Ahirs or Abhirs. H e thinks they
were the people who buried in rude stone tom bs. Mr. Taylor<2) suggests
that som e of the South Indian dynasties who claim to be Y adavs
m ay be Brakmanical Kurubas. The Kurubas have a special interest
in Kanara, if, as seems possible, Kadam ba, the name of tw o of the
leading dynasties of Banavasi (a . d . 300— 400 and A. d . 700— 1,200)
is a Brahmanical form of Kuruba. Mr. R ice(3) describes the Kurubas
of Mysore as a numerous class scattered over the whole province.
H e notices(4) that Kurubas stretch as far south as the Nilgiris, where
they are feared as sorcerers. Buchanan<5) describes the K ad Kurubas
of South Mysore as dark and weak, and hair like m ops and a few
rags for clothes. They were famous for their honesty and for their
courage in driving off wild elephants b y rushing up to them and hold­
ing a blazing torch to their faces. The K ad Kurubas or wild Kurubas
are known as a very primitive section of the tribe, in Mysore to this day.
The Kurubas tell the following story regarding the origin o f their
tr ib e :—
A bou t the year 1690 o f the current Kaliyuga there was an incar­
nation o f Shiva at Kaly&n in the Nizdm’s territory whose nam e was
R evana Siddheshvar. A t this tim e there lived in Kolhapur a goddess
named Mayi. She had incarcerated through her great prowess nine

(1) 1869 Jour. Eth. Soc. Lend. I. 104, 110.

(2) Madras Lit. and Scien., VIII, 261.
(3) Mysore, I. 333.
(4) Id. 311
(5) Mysore, II. 128.
111 Kuruba] 318
@1
crores of Siddhas or Ling&yat saints. Revana Siddheshvar, on coming
to know this, invaded Kolhapur, defeated the goddess, and liberated
the saints. H alf of the saints he set at liberty, telling them to main- ■
tain themselves b y begging alms in his name. The Lingayat priests
who beg in the streets at sunset ringing one or two bells in one or both
hands and taking the name of Revana Siddheshvar as their guru,
are said to be the descendants of these saints. As to the other half
of the saints, Revana Siddheshvar did n ot know what to do with them,
so he turned them into sheep, drove them all into a cave in a field and
closed the mouth of the cave. This field belonged to a certain Pad-
manna and his brother. While ploughing his field, the end of Padrnan-
na’s plough struck against the stone fixed at the mouth o f the cave, on
removing which, the sheep came out and surrounded him. H e drove
them into a forest close by, and while feeding them saw a handsome
girl who had been concealed in the forest by a giant. The girl, who
was anxious to marry, came running to Padmanna and put a garland
round his neck. A t this moment Shiva came and performed the
marriage ceremony. As cotton was not available in the forest, mini
or wool was used for the kankans or marriage wristlets ; and thus came
into existence the division of Kurubas known as Unnikankan, who are
supposed to be the descendants o f Padmanna. The other main
division of Kurubas named Hattikankan claim Padmanna’s brother
as their common ancestor. At his marriage kankans or wristlets of
hatti or cotton were made.
'
In the Bijapur district, next to the Lingayats, Kurubas are the
most important and numerous class. In Muddebihal, they have a great
m ajority of the village headships, and throughout the district they
certainly hold more headships, than any other caste, perhaps more
than all other castes put together.

Appear- The Kurubas are small, dark and strongly built, remarkably
dress and sturdy and independent. They are more like the Kabbaligars than
oma- any other class, and with them and the Musalmans, as far as bodily
ment5' vigour goes, they form the backbone of the people of Bijapur. In
the Bijapur district the village wrestler is generally a shepherd; and
they are fond of taking village service as vdlekars (watchmen). Among
the men the rich wear the waistcloth and c o a t ; but the poor of both
divisions, village watchmen, small farmers and others are specially
fond o f knee-breeches and of a short loose shirt. These form a capital
working dress. As his clothes are com monly dyed pink, and as his
face and neck are daubed with yellow powder, his head swathed in a
'f»*; , 319 [Kuruba
<SL
large white kerchief, and his ear decked with a flower, the Hattikankan
wrestler or watchman is generally a rather picturesque figure. The
hair is worn short, the top-knot being seldom more than an inch long,
and the face is shaved all but the mustaches and eye-brows. There
is nothing peculiar in the w om an’s dress. It is the ordinary short-
sleeved and backed bodice and the full robe worn without catching
the skirt back between the feet and the upper end drawn over the
head. In Kanara, the men wear a narrow waistcloth which they fold
lightly round the waist, a country blanket woven b y themselves, and
a head-scarf. The women wear the robe with the skirt hanging from
the waist and with the upper end drawn over the head like a veil, and
a bodice with a back and short sleeves in loose folds. Some women,
when going out, wear a blanket on their shoulders, drawing the upper
ends across the bosom and tucking them into the folds of the robe.
The ornaments of the Bijapur Kurubas are like those of local Lingayats.
In Dharwar, the men wear ear and finger-rings, and the women, ear,
nose and toe-rings, glass bangles and necklaces. The male Kurubas
of Kanara wear the girdle also, and the females wear flowers in their
hair like all other castes o f Kanara.

The Kurubas speak an impure and indistinct Kanarese, and use Language,
some strange words such as jampra for kelasa business, bashatikaran
for vdgnischaya a betrothal, tabandi for tambana a plate, kod'pana for
koda a pitcher, Jiaredage for munjhdne in the morning, and chanji for
mni in the evening. The names in com m on use among the males of
the K am atak Kurubas are Bliarmappa, Karibasappa, Maritammappa,
Mudkappa, and S unkippa; and among females, Manava, Sungan-
basava, Savakka, and Verava. In Kanara, the common names among
men are Bora, Lingappa, Mailappa and Tirkappa ; and among women,
Gangavva, Gauravva, Irra w a , Mallavva, Nagavva, and Puttavva.

There are two main divisions of Kurubas, Hattikankans or cot- Endo-

ton wristlet-wearers and Unnikankans or wool wristlet-wearers, who ^amou8
eat together but do n ot intermarry. In Dharwar, two more divisions
are found, viz., Jande and VarsAliyava. The Hattikankans are divided
into Kliilari, Sangar, Hatk&r and Hande Kurubas or H ande Vazirs.
Of these, the first three eat together and intermarry. The Hande
Kurubas are those who have embraced Lingayatism, eschewed flesh
and changed sheep-rearing for blanket-weaving. The H ande Kuru­
bas are again divided into two classes, the initiated and the non-
initiated. The initiated marry girls from the other Hattikankans
or non-initiated divisions after initiation. The girls so married are
never sent back to their parents’ house.
|(®f Kuruba] 320
§L
Rxo- The exogamous subdivisions o f the tribe are known as bedagus,
dtrisimiB. the chief of which are as follows :—
Ban gad. Dosenava. Halenava. Poom ayanava.
Banneva. Gondinava. Halinathenava. Shasuldava.
Beinldnava. Korenava.
Marriage Marriages are prohibited between members of the same beddgu.
r“les' A man may marry his father’s sister’s, mother’s sister’s or mother’s
brother’s daughter and even his sister’s daughter. Marriage with a
wife’s younger sister is allowed during the wife’s life-time as well
as after her death. Infant as well as adult marriages are in vogue.
Girls are sometimes married even when they are only three months
old. Misconduct on the part of unmarried girls may be expiated by
paym ent of a fine to the guru and touching his feet and pouring water
over them ; but such cases are rare. Among the Kurubaa of Kanara
girls can b e divorced only for adultery with low-caste men. A dulter­
esses, widows, and girls who fail to find husbands are free to consort
with men of all but the impure castes, with whom they live as
concubines. These women are called Kattigaru or concubines.
Though scorned by regular wives they are not put out of caste,
and their children marry with the children of pure Kurubas. A dult­
ery is often detected, but divorce is rare as the wives are useful workers,
aud because a man who puts away his wife is despised unless he gives a
caste feast and persuades the teacher to speak to his caste fellows
in his favour. Polygamy is allowed and practised, but polyandry is
unknown.
Birth The birth ceremonies of the Bijapur Kurubas are like those pf Lin-
0<‘re'. gayats. In Dhdrwar, on the birth of a child, its navel cord is cut and the
mother and child are bathed. The midwife buries the after-birth in a
com er of the back yard. On the fifth day the goddess Satv&i is worship­
ped with an offering of food, and on the ninth day the child is named
and cradled.
Marriage The offer o f marriage comes from either side. The bridegroom’s
cere- father has to pay to the bride a sum of Rs. 60 or upwards according
monies. means. The day for the marriage is fixed b y the village astro­
loger. Am ong the Unnikankans, a Vaderm or elder of the tribe conducts
the service. Am ong the Hattikankans, the service is conducted b y a
Voder with the help of a Brahman priest. The marriage ceremonies
last four or five days. On the first day the araskina or turmeric­
rubbing ceremony is performed. A suragi is formed b y placing four
jars on four comers of a square, and a kalash, i.e., a tray containing a

(1) Voder is the Kanareso for an elder or old person, an ancestor.

{S <§L
■ />“ "^^V, - . t

321 1 [Kuruba

lamp, incense, eto., is placed in the centre. Cotton thread is passed

round the jars, the bride and bridegroom are seated near the kalaxh
and bathed, and turmeric paste is applied to their persons b y married
unwidowed women. A dinner is held and the ceremony is over.
On this d ay also, according to the division of the t ibe to which the
family belongs, the women tie wristlets o f hntti or cotton or o f unni
or wool round the wrists of the bride and bridegroom. On the second
day, devaraknrya or devarautta, i. e., the cerem ony o f god-prop­
itiation, is performed, in which the family god is worshipped with
offerings o f food, and castemen are feasted. On the third d ay the
marriage ceremony itself is generally performed. The Vdder brings
an idol o f the god Berappa in a palanquin to the b ridegroom ’s house
to which the bridal party go in procession with the bride. In front
o f the god a big umbrella called jaggempa is held and under it the bride
and bridegroom are seated on a blanket spread on a raised seat. A
kalash or water-pot with five betel leaves, some ears o f com , and a light
in a platter is set before the pair. R ou nd the water-vessel a string o f
cotton is five times wound, broken, and tied to the wrists of the couple.
The lucky necklace or mangalsutra is then tied round the g ir l’s neck by
a Vader, or in his absence, by a temple pujdri. Texts or mantras are
repeated and rice grains are thrown over the pair. A m ong the Un-
nikankans, a fife is made of sandal w ood in front o f the image o f Bir-
appa, and milk and ghi are poured into the fire. W hen the fire is
ablaze the time is deemed auspicious to tie the tali or lucky necklace
round the g ir l’s neck. The bride and -bridegroom are seated in the
middle o f a square form ed b y setting on the ground four drinking
vessels or idmbyas. A string is passed five times round the vessels,
broken, and tied to the wrists of the couple. The Vdder fastens the
lucky necklace round the girl *s neck, knots the hem of her dress to her
husband’ s and throws sacred rice over them. On 1he fourth day,
the bride and bridegroom are carried on a bullock in procession through
the village. On the fifth day, a feast is held and the marriage festi­
vities end; ' ■ r

The remarriage of widows is permitted. A widow cannot marry

a member o f her deceased h u sban d ’s or fa th er’s bedagu. The cere­
m ony takes place-iri the presence of four leading members o f the tribe
and the priest. The w idow is presented with a robe and bodice b y
her intended husband, and a dinner is given to the tribesmen, which
ends the ceremony. In some places, a tali or lucky necklace is tied
round the w id o w ’s neck by' the priest. A remarried widow is n ot
allowed to take part in ahy auspicious o - religious ceremony. She
is not allowed even to enter a marriage pandal. A widow is only
u 1109— 41
:V;< j| 3yK u ru baJ 322
<sl
allowed to remarry thrice. A husband can divorce a wif* for bad
conduct or for eating with a member of a lower caste. According to
some, divorced women cannot remarry in the tribe. According to
others, they may remarry b y the widow remarriage form. A t the time
o f divorce the wife has to return to the husband the sum received b y her
at the time of her marriage with him. 'lire tribe follow the Hindu
law of inheritance.

Religion. Kurubas belong to the Hindu religion. Their chief god is Birappa,
who resides on a hill but they do not know where, whose ministrants
are a class of Kurubas known as Voders, the Kurubas’ hereditary
teachers or gurus. They pay homage to Netteppa, whose shrines
are at Ndgndth in Bij&pur and at R uji in Indi, and whose priest is a
Kuruba. Their house gods are Birdppa, Nettappa, Yellararaa, Mar-
gavva and Shaktavva. Offerings are made to these gods on Tuesdays
and Fridays, which are eaten b y married women of the tribe in a
common dish. On great days, these gods are worshipped in house
shrines under the form of little human metal figures. They keep
the leading fasts and feasts both of Br&hmanical and Lingdyat
Hindus, and rarely go on pilgrimages. They respect Brdhmans
but their gurus or religious teachers are the Voders, who are also their
priests. Unlike the laity of either division, the Voders eat no flesh
and wear the lingo. The Voder teachers of the Unrikankaris live
at Kandgal, Anagvddi and Budynl in the Bijdpur district. They
have a head priest who has power to fine, put out o f caste and let
back to caste. The high priest’s office is elective and he is chosen
from the Voder families b y the respectable lay Unnikankans. All
of them believe in soothsaying and witchcraft, and the god Birappa
is the great saver of Kurubas who are possessed by evil spirits.

The chief god? of the Kanara Kurubas are Birappa and Batted-
eva, and their chief goddess is Yellamma. The ministrants in the
shrines o f these deities are Kurubas of their own class and rank.
On the days sacred to these deities, they propitiate them by offering
fowls and sheep killed in some forests or on the bank of a stream or
pond where the deity i3 supposed to dwell. The flesh of the victims
is given to washermen or barbers. On ordinary days these deities
are worshipped b y offering fruit and flowers and by waving lighted
lamps and burning incense before them. The spirits o f men wbo die
unmarried called virkas are held in great respect and much feared.
Their friendship is sought by yearly offerings o f red cloth, molasses
and cocoa-kom el. If these offerings are forgotten, the spirits of the
unmarried are believed to send pestilence among men and sheep,
; f | ; i (fil
323 [Kurubak
and to disturb people by dreams and nightmares. Tire hereditary
teacher o f the Kanara Kurubas is a Lingdyat priest called R evana
Siddheshvar, whose headquarters are at Sarur near Kdlgan Pattu in
Mysore. He visits the Kuruba villages every year, and in return
for cowdung ashes or vihhuti receives presents o f m oney and fixed
fees for marriage and other ceremonies, which are collected for him
by agents. Neither the teacher nor his agent take any part in their
ceremonies. Though they believe in the Lingaydt religion and have
a Lingdyat teacher, they are n ot allowed to wear the linga.

The dead are buried in a sitting position with face to the north Death
or east. The burial rites are like those practised b y LingAyats. Mourn- ccre-
ing is observed for five days. Special services are performed on the mon,e'”
tenth day and a feast is given to the tribesmen on the twelfth. The shrad-
dha is not performed. F or the propitiation o f the deceased ancestors,
tribesmen are fed every year in the latter half o f Bhddrapad.

The Kurubas are very honest, and have a great name for sturdi- Ocoupa-
ness and obstinacy. They ate a cheerful, frank and decent people. L a rg e ticm-
numbers, both o f the Hattikankans and Unnikankans, live as hus­
bandmen. In the KamAtak, the Hattikankans have flocks o f 500
to 600 sheep, weave blankets, till the land and lend money. The
women of both divisions are hard working. They mind the house
and help the men in the field and in carding and spinning wool.
According to Buchanan!1) the Kanara Kurubas were form ly shepherds,
Khandakar or hill militia, allamua or armed attendants and anche-
yam or post messengers.

The staple food of the KamAtak Kurubas is millet bread, a sauce Food
o f pulse boiled and spiced and pot-herbs, milk and curds ; that o f the
Kanara Kurubas is cooked and strained rice, rdgi, vegetables and fish.
They eat flesh except beef and pork and drink liquor. A m ong the Kanara
Kurubas. animal food is forbidden for a month after weddings, during
the first nine days of Dasara, and on the Ganeshchaturthi day. The
Hande Kurubas or Hande Vaairs, who are Lingayats, neither eat flesh
nor drink liquor. They eat at the hands o f none but members o f their
own com m unity. In Biiapur, the Kurubas rank above Kabbaligars.
In Kanara, they rank with Gaubs and Gollars.
K U R V A .—-A sub-divison of Karad VAniAs.
K U R VIN AR A. — A sub-division o f Lingdyats.
KURVIN SHETTI.— A sub-division o f Lingdyat Jdds.

(1) Mysore, I, 390.

l i |5
Lad] 324
■ <SL
XUSHASTHALI.— A synonym for Sarasvat.
KUSIA.— A sub-division of Dhedas.
KUSTJBATANVALE.— A synonym for KAmathi KaikAdi.
LABHANA.— A synonym for Vanjnri.
LAD.— A sub-division of VanjAris, Dhangars, VAniAs, KumbhArs,
Telis, Sonars, UdAmbar Brahmans.

Name and LADS, numbering, 3,175 (1901) including 1,541 males and 1,643
oripn. femaieS) 0f wltom 97 are Musalmans, are an interesting offshoot of some
Gujarat caste, who appear to have wandered into the Southern Mara-
tha Country and Mysore in the Great Durga-devi Famine in the four­
teenth century. They are chiefly found in Belgaum, Bijapnr, and
DhArwAr. Ldd or L it is the original name for Southern Gujarat.
Writing of the LAds in Mysore at the beginning of last century, B uch­
anan* remarks that they serve as cavalry, trade in horses, and own
lands. They claim to be Kshatriyas and wear the sacred thread.
He remarks that they have 14 gotras, and perform a sacrifice to the
Shaktis, in the presence of a naked female. From their wearing the
sacred thread and serving as cavalry they would seem originally to
have been Rajputs, but in this Presidency they appear to have fallen
from this position and are now engaged in trade. Some are employed
as butchers to slay sheep and goats. But many still wear the sacred
thread and claim to be Kshatriyas. They have a hom e tongue knowji
as Chauran which, in the opinion of the Editor of the B om bay Gazetteer
is a possible indication that they came from ChorAsi in Surat.
Endo- LAds have seven endogamous divisions, viz.—
gnmous _ ''
divisions. 1. Gujar 6. oav
2. Halvekari 7. Sherogai
3. K ayit 8. Sugandi or Kshatriya
4. KhAtik 9. Survavanshi.
5. MarwAri
These divisions neither eat together nor intermarry. The Surya-
vanshi division is the most numerous.
There are no endogamous divisions of the Suryavanshi l i d s .
Their exogamous sub-divisions are families bearing the same surname.
The commonest surnames are Bilgikar, Bujurukar, ChendukAl, Dharm-
kAmfea, Govindkar, Parbhukar, and RAjApuri.
Marriage Marriage is infant as well as adult. The offer o f marriage comes
monies, from the b oy’s father. The betrothal or bashlagi is performed
* Mysore, Vol. 1, page 422.
ill’
X< % ^ / 325
<SL
[L a d

on a lucky day some time before the marriage either at the b o y ’s or

at the girl’s house, when the girl is presented with a silver necklace,
silver bangles, and a robe and bodice-cloth, and her lap is filled. A
feast o f sweet dishes to the guests ends the ceremony. N ext, a Br&h-
man astrologer is consulted in order to fix a lucky day for the marriage.
H e writes the day and the names of the bride and bridegroom on two
pieces of paper and gives to the b o y ’s father the slip on which the b o y ’s
name is written and to the girl’s father the slip on which the girl’s
name is written. A t the time of marriage these slips o f paper are
wrapped in cloth and tied round the necks o f the bride and bridegroom.
On this occasion the b oy’s father gives the girl two white bodice-cloths
and three and a half pounds of rice. Some days before the marriage
day the bridegroom is rubbed with turmeric paste and bathed in
a surgi or square with a drinking pot at each com er and a cotton
thread wound round the necks o f the pots. On the same day the
ceremony of devkdrya or god-pleasing is held, and the bridegroom
and his party start for the girl’s village. A t the village he is met
by the bride’s father and relations, who lead him to a house which
has been made ready for him and his party. On the marriage
day the bride and bridegroom are bathed inside squares at their
own houses and dressed in new clothes, the brides clothes being
a white robe and a white bodice. The bridegroom is seated
on a horse and led to the bride’s in procession with music. A t the
bride’s, he is led iuto the marriage booth, where he stands in a basket
containing millet and a rope, facing the bride who stands on a grind­
stone. A cotton wristlet made o f the thread that was tied round the
four water-vessels is wound round the bride’s left wrist and another
round the bridegroom ’s right w r is t; a curtain marked with a cross
in the centre is held between t h e m ; and the priest recites the eight
luck-giving verses, and, when the verses are ended, throw's grains of
rice over the Couple ; the guests join in throwing the rice. Then betel
is served and the guests go. N ext day the bride and bridegroom
are bathed in the same square and dressed in new clothes. In the
evening the vardl or married couple’s homeward procession starts
from the bride’s for the bridegroom’s. On the way it halts at the
temple of the village god, where the bride and bridegroom bow , and
break a cocoanut before the god. In this procession t i e pair are seat­
ed on a bullock, the bride sitting in front o f the bridegroom. A t the
bridegroom’s her mother hands the bride to her mother-in-law, and
the bridegroom’s father gives R s. 7 to the bride’s party. On the third
day the bride’s father gives a caste-feast, presents suits of clothes to
the bridegroom ’s father and m other, and gives Bs. 7 as a m oney pre-
 __■

% L
Lad] 326
sent to his caste-people. On the fourth day the bridegroom’s father
gives a caste feast and makes similar presents to the father and mother
of the bride, and a money gift to the caste-people double that given
by the bride’s father. The present of money is spent on liquor.
On the fifth day the bridegroom with his party return to his house,
which act terminates the marriage.

Religion. The Suryavanshi Lads belong to the Hindu religion. Their fam­
ily deities are Durgavva, Dy&mavva, Hulgavva, M&ruti, Sidhrdya, and
Yellamma. The special object o f their devotion is the Sun, whom as
Suryavanshis or o f the Sun-stock, they claim as their first ancestor.
They make pilgrimages to Maruti’s shrine at Tulshigiri, to Yellamma
at Parasgad, to Shidrdya in Bijdpur, and to the tom b of a Musalmdn
saint named Daval Mdlik at Navalgund in Dharwar. They observe
m ost of the Hindu holidays. They employ Brahmans to conduct
their marriages.

Death Those who live among the Mardthds generally burn their dead ;
monies. Bijdpur, under Lingdvat influence, most of them bury. The fun­
eral party bathe after burying the dead body and return to the house
o f mourning with some blades o f durrn grass which they throw into
a drinking pot full of water that is placed on the spot where the de­
ceased breathed his last. On the third day the mourners place parched
rice and grain, dry dates, dry cocoa-kernel, molasses, cooked rice, and
small wheaten cakes on the stone slab that is laid over the grave. To
these things the persons who accompanied the funeral add a few drops
of milk, each dropping a little in turn. All go and stand at a distance
till crows come and eat what has been offered. If crows d o n ot come,
they pray to the departed and promise to carry out all his wishes.
If, even after this promise, the crows will n ot come, the food is given
to a cow. The shoulders o f the four corpse bearers are rubbed with
curds and washed to remove the uncleanness caused by bearing the
bier, and food enough for a meal is served to them all in a single platter.
If they cannot eat the whole, what i3 left is given to a cow. In
the evening a feast is given, of which mutton forms a part, and to which
caste people are asked one from each family.* On the eleventh day
a silver image of the dead is made and worshipped along with other
ancestral images kept in the house-shrine on a blanket stretched under
a tree on the bank o f a river. T o the new image, according to the sex
of the dead, a m an’s or woman’s dress is offered. All who join the
ceremony are asked to a feast. Some of them perform the shrdddha
on the bright third of Vaishdkh. Among Dh&rwAr LM s if the death
occurs on an unlucky day, the house in which the death took place
 vfiT
327 [Lad

is abandoned for three month?, its doors being closed with bunches
of thorns. It is believed that if the family lived in the house som e
fresh calam ity would fall on them.
The main occupation o f the caste is killing sheep and selling th e
flesh. A few are excise contractors and land ownera who em ploy
servants to till their fields.
'They eat the flesh o f goats, deer, hare, doves, dom estic fowls and Food,
fish and drink liquor. They rank below K urutas and take food cooked
by them ; Vaddds and Lamans eat kacchi at the hands o f the Suryav-
anslii Ldds, but the latter do not eat fo o d cooked b y the former.
N ext in importance to the Suryavanshi Ldds are the Sngandhi
Ldds, who call themselves Kshatriya Ldds. They are dealers in per­
fumes, their name being derived from sugamih meaning fragrance.
Their exogamous sub-divisions are Gadekar, Khatarmoli, Lalashe,
Mogardaj. Undle, Shatibarangale, Ganjekar, Nawate, Basawekar and
Surargmale. A member o f the caste cannot marry his father’s sister’ s
daughter. He may marry his m other’s brother’s daughter. A man
may marry two sisters and brothers m ay marry sisters. Marriage is
infant as ..well as adult. B oys arc girt with the sacred thread before
they are ten years old, without performing any cerem ony. Polygam y
is allowed and practised, but polyandry is unknown. The ofier o f
marriage comes from the b oy ’s father, who has to p a y a sum up to
Rs. 50 to the girl’s father. The essential portion o f the marriage
ceremony is the Idjahom or marriage sacrifice. Th e remarriage o f
widows is permitted. A widow cannot marry a member of her late
husband’s section. The ceremony takes place in a room at night.
Tire caste members who are present sit at a distance and do not w it­
ness the ceremony. A Brahman priest hands over to the widow a
lucky necklace, which she ties round her own neck. N ext, he ties in to
a knot the hems of the pair’s garments, which completes the cerem ony.
A dinner is given to the caste people on the day following.
D ivorce is allowed if the husband and wife do n o t agree or th e
wife’s conduct is bad. A divorced woman may remarry. The H indu
law of inheritance is followed.
Sugandhi Lads are Hindus of the Shalva sect. The minor gods
worshipped by them are Amhdbhavdni, Khandoba, Mdruti, Khakisha
Bowa, Vithoba, Bahiroba, Mhasoba, Dawal Malik, and Narsoba.
Offerings are made to these gods on Tuesdays or Fridays, which are
either received by the temple priests or eaten by the offerers them ­
selves. Brdhmans are employed to con du ct marriage and widow re­
marriage ceremonies. The dead are burnt, except children up to three
fS | f 328
1 % L

years old, who are buried. The bones and ashes are consigned to water.
The shdddha and mahalaya are performed for the propitiation o f the
deceased ancestors.

The hereditary occupation o f the Sugandhi Lads is dealing in per­

fumes. Some are grain merchants and a few are husbandmen.

They eat the flesh of goats, sheep, fowls and fish, and drink liquor.
The lowest well-known caste with whom they will eat kacchi are the
Maratha Kunbis.
Khatiks, chiefly found in Bijapur, describe themselves as o f two
divisions, Sult&ni Khatiks and Suryavanshi, apparently showing their
original connection with the Suryavanshi division already described.
It is uncertain how they came to be butchers ; but the name Sultani
seems to indicate that they took to slaying meat in the days of the
Musalmdn kings.
LADAKS are found only in Cutch and in the Jamnagar State
in Kathiawar. They are said to have been originally Rajputs. Their
original home was Nagar Samoi in Sind. They came to Cutch and
Kdthidwar with the Jddejds and with Jam JRawal in the 13th and 16tli
century respectively. Their original occupation was military service,
and they hold girds lands granted to them by former Jams for such
service. Many of them cultivate their lands themselves. They have
two divisions, Cutchi and Kathiawari, who neither eat together nor
intermarry. They have several surnames borrowed from Rajput,
clans, which indicate exogamous groups. Boys and girls are general]}"
betrothed in infancy, but actual marriage takes place at the age of
’fifteen to twenty. W idow remarriage and divorce are allowed. Lddaks
worship all the Hindu gods and goddesses and em ploy Brdhmans to
conduct their ceremonies. When a Lddak dies, a finger of his right
hand is cut and burnt with Hindu funeral rites, and the rest of the body
is buried, after the fashion of Musalmdns, and a tom b is erected on
the place of burial if the deceased was well-to-do. It is said that this
custom was introduced b y Meraraan Jassa out of respect for the
Emperor o f Delhi by whom he was induced to embrace Islam when
he visited his court, but on his return reverted to Hinduism. Ladaks
eat food cooked by Rajputs, Khavas, Kumbhars, etc. Rajputs d o not
eat. food cooked b y Lddaks.

LADBHUjE.— A sub-division of Kumbhars.

LADHAN.— A synonym for Ladvan.

LADJIN.—A synonym for Ldd Yanjdri,

 r\
( if ii 1l
n r » ■1

329 [Lakheri

LADSAKKA.— A sub-division of Vanias.

LADVAN.— A sub-division of MahArs.
LAHANCHAKE.—A synonym for Ahir KumbhAr.
LAKARHARA.— Set under Minor Musalman Castes.
LAKHERA —A synonym for LAkheri.
LAKHERIS or Lakheras are makers of lac bangles, and are an Name and
immigrant caste that seem to have com e into the Presidency from oriRin-
MArwar. In 1901 they numbered 377 including 214 males and 163
females, and were found scattered over the GujarAt Native States on
the border of RAjputana, a few families being recorded in the Ahmed-
AbAd, Kaira and Poona districts. Mr. Crooke*describes them as close­
ly allied to the Manihars in the United Provinces, where they number
several thousand. The Poona LAkheris (40) settled there in the time
of the PeshwAs. They are reported still to speak MarwAri at home.
According to the Bom bay Gazetteer, LAkheris still go to MarwAr
to fetch their brides. This and their home tongue, as well as the
fashion of wearing the hair and dress, support their claim to be MArwAr
Vanis. It is also alleged that they are Kshatris from Jeypore,
Ajmere and U daipur; but this seems improbable from their customs
and manner of living.
There are two endogamous divisions of the caste, proper and Endo-
bastards, w ho,eat together but do not intermarry. They are said to
belong to the Gautam, KAsbyap, and Vashishtah gotras, but marriages
are regulated only by surnames, which are exogamous. The commonest
surnames are Bagade, Bhate, Chavan, Hatade, NAgare, PadiyAr,
Ratvad, and SAlunke.
Polygamy and widow marriage are allowed and practised but Marrigo
polyandry is unknown. Girls aro married before they are sixteen,
boys before they are twenty-five. The offer of marriage com es”1 "
from the b oy’s father, w'ho has to pay a sum of from Rs. 25 to
Rs. 100 to the girl before the day of betrothal. The marriage
guardians of LAkheris are an earthen image of Ganpati and a copper
or brass image of BAlAji, which are worshipped before the wedding
day. The bridegroom is taken to the bride’s on horseback, where
a tinsel arch is raised before the house, the girl’s head is decked with a
net of false pearls, and a square is marked off by setting an earthen
pot Vtarandi at each com er. N o coronet is tied to the bridegroom’s

* Tribes and Castes of the N. W. P. and Oudh, Pt. H I, p. 361.

H 1109—42
 p Lakheti]. 330
<SL
brow. The boy and girl are seated in the square on a carpet, the hems
of their garments are tied together, and they are made to hold each
other’s hands. The priest kindles the sacrificial fire in front of them,
marriage verses are repeated, Mdrwdri marriage songs are sung by
women, and at the end grains of rice are thrown over the pair’s heads,
and they are husband and wife. N ext day the bridegroom returns
to his house with his bride, and the ceremony ends with a feast.
D ivorce is allowed.

Religion. Ldkheris are Hindus o f the Smart sect. Their family god is
Bdldji, otherwise known as Venkatesh of Tirupati in North Arcot.
They also worship Bhavdni, Ganpati and Bdrp ai d local Musalman
Pits. They observe the leading Hindu holidays. They believe in
soothsaying, witchcraft and evil spirits. They em ploy local Brahmans
to conduct their ceremonies.

Death The dead are burnt. Children up to one year old are buried.
monies. Gu the third day after death the chief mourner goes to the burning
ground, removes the ashes, and places cooked rice and curds on
the spot for the crows to eat. On the tenth day the Dashpindi or
ten ball-offering is performed with the same details as among the
Kunbis. On the twelfth day they place twelve earthen jars on the
threshold of the front door of the house, worship them as they worship
the house gods', and cast them away. The death ceremonies end with a
feast oh the thirteenth day when the chief mourner is presented with
a Dew turban either by relations or caste-fellows. F or the propitia­
tion o f the deceased ancestors the friends of the deceased are ieasted
at the end of six months and again at the end of a year, and a Mahalaya
is performed annually on the corresponding death day during the
latter half of Bhadrapad.

Oeou The hereditary occupation of the caste is making and dealing

pation. jn lac bangles. Since glass bangles have come into fashion the de­
mand for lac bangles has greatly declined, and m any of them have
abandoned their occupation to work as day labourers.

Food. Some Ldkheris do not take animal food, but others have no objec­
tion to eating flesh. They occasionally drink liquor.

LALAT.— A sub-division of Brdhmans.

LALBAJARVALE.— A synonym for Kdmdthi Kaikddi.
LALBEGI.—A sub-division of Bhangis.
LALCHUDAW ALA.— A Bub-division of K adva Kunbis.
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 331
LALGOND.— A sub-division of Raddis.
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[Lamani 1 Ss '

LALGONDA.— A sub-division of Ling&yats.

LALLANGOTI.—A synonym for Solesi.
LAMAN.—A sub-division of K a ik d d is; a synonym for
Lam&ni.

LAMANA.— A synonym for Lamdni.

LAMANIS or Vanjiiris, also known as Banjariis, Banjdris, Brinjdris, Name ami

Lamarrs, Lambadis, Lam bars and Sukalirs, numbering 133,349 (19 01 ),ori8in’
including 68,533 males and 64,816 females, are found in all parts
o f the Presidency. Of this number 143 were returned as Musal-
mdns at the last census. The tribe is found all over India under
one or other o f the above names. A ccording to some authorities
the term Vanjari is derived from the Sanskrit van forest and char to
wander, the whole meaning wanderers in the forests. A ccording
to others, it is derived from the Persian biranjdr or rice-carriers.
B oth these derivations seem untenable, as the Vanjdris are neither
forest wanderers nor the carriers of rice only. The true derivation
appears to be the Punjabi hanaj or vanaj as suggested b y Lieutenant
(now Sir) R . C. Temple,(l) which means bargain or trade.
Vanaj or hanaj is derived from the Sanskrit vanijya, i. e. trade.
The evidence o f history establishes the fact that the tribal occupation
has been for centuries the carrying of grain and supplies for armies
in the field. H ence the designation Vanj&ri or trader is an obvious
occupational description. Grain dealers are ordinarily known as VAnis
or Biinjigs, which are etym ologically identical with vanijya, vanaj or
hanaj. The term Lamani is derived from lavan salt, the tribe being
the chief carriers of salt before the opening o f cart roads and railways.
Mr. A . M. T. Jackson considered th e name Lam&n identical
in origin with Lub&na, the great trading caste in Sind. I f this be
correct, all the names for the tribe would appear to be mere variants
o f the two commonest descriptions for grain dealing cartes in this
Presid enc\, vis., Vam or Banya, and Luh&na. Inasmuch as the
origin of the tribe appears to have been the demand for grain carriers
to accom pany the large m oving camps o f Indian armies, it is extremely
probable that the tribe should have been named, from its occupation,
grain dealers. There is no d ou bt that as such, the tribe has been
recruited from varied elements of the population.

(1) Vido foot-note, p. 205, Ind. Ant. Vol. IX.

Id)Lamani)
I 332
<SL
The identity o f the Vanj&ris with lam an is is proved b y the
similarity o f the social divisions. Thus, comparing the exogamous
sub-divisions o f V a n ]iris and Lam&nis we find the following:—

V an ja r i . L am ak i .
Ghavan— Ghavdn—
Kelnt. Kelut.
Kurha. Kurha
Lavadiya. Lavadiya.
M uda. Palathiya.
Palathiya.
Pavdr— Pavar—
Am got. Amgot.
Jarabola. Jarabola.
Lun asAvat. Lunasavat.
Vakdot. Vakdot.
Rdtkod— R&lhnd—
Banot, Banot.
Bhukiya, Bhukiya.
Jalot. Jalot.
Manhavat. Manhavat.
Muchial. Muchial.
The tribe clearly has been recruited to some extent either from
I R ajput sources or from followers of R ajput clans who have adopted
the clan names of their masters. According to Crooke, the Rajput
origin is admitted in their traditions. The tribe is mentioned b y
Muhammadan historians in connection with Sikandar’s attack on
Dholpur in 1504 A. D .(1) It is a reasonable assumption that
they increased and absorbed many foreign elements during the
long wars between the Delhi Emperors and tb.e smaller kingdoms of
the Deccan from Muhammad Tughlak to Aurangzeb. Great numbers
were attracted to the English A rm y during the third Mysore war
(1789— 1793),<2) and again during the fourth Mysore war in 1799
they did much harm by pillaging the cou n try /3* Crooke quotes a
song referring to permission given to the tribe to commit not more than
three murders a day, provided they kept the army supplied with the
necessary provisions/4* Sir Alfred Lyall(5* writing of the tribe
in Central India considers ohat there can be no doubt that they are

(1) Dowson’s Elliot, V., p. 100. Brigg’s Ferishta, J, p. 579.

(2) Wilks’ South of India, II, 209.
(3) Buchanan, I, 380, 182.
(1) Crooke’s Tribos and Castes of the N. W. P., I, pp. 350-157.
(5) Asiatic Studies, I, p. 165.
|\ P

333 [Lamai&r^ J

o f very m ixed origin ‘ made up of contingents from various other castes ;

and tribes which may have at different times joined the profession.’ £

In an editorial foot-n ote at p. 182 o f the Indian Antiquary,

V ol. IV , reference is made to a paper published in the transactions
o f the Medical and Physical Society o f B om bay. In this paper an
aboriginal descent is suggested for the tribe. In P tolem y’s list of
Indian castes the name Lamhatai is to be found. A ccording to
McCrindle these were the inhabitants o f Lamghdn, a tract lying
along the northern banks o f the K abul river; but it seems equally
probable that Lambatai is m erely a form of the modern name Lambddi.
A n examination of the endogamous divisions of the tribe shown
below tends to establish the conclusion th at though in origin the
tribe m ay have been an aboriginal section of the population with j
a distinct identity, named from its occupation of carrying supplies on
bullocks, it has since been so overlain with additions from R ajputs, j
Mardthds, Mahdrs, and a number of other well known tribes and
castes, that it can only be described as a miscellaneous collection J
o f the flotsam and jetsam o f humanity th at would be drawn into i
the wake of a large military expedition, of no distinctive type, though ’
the tribe preserves for the most part a distinctive costume to
this day.

In certain cases Vanjdris have abandoned the wandering life >

which the tribe for the. m ost part leads, and have settled down as
husbandmen or craftsmen. In such cases they tend to form an ■
endogamous division o f some caste such as Vanjari Kunhis, Vanjdri
Chdmbhdrs, Vanjari Nhdvis, Vanjdri Bhdts, Vanjdri Mdngs and
Vanjari Mahdrs, in the same way as Ahirs, Gujars and Kolis. The
process o f sub-division is noticeable even before the separation,
many tdndas or bands o f wandering Vanjdris containing bards or
Bhdts, barbers or Nhdvis, shoe-maker^ or Chdmbhdrs as well as
Vanjdri Mahdrs and Mdngs. It is uncertain whether the latter are
degraded Vanjdris or recruits from the Mahdr and Mdng castes.
Musalmdn Vanjdris, of whom few returned themselves as Vanjaris at.
the census o f 1901, are known as Dhadis. The Vanjdris have a
tradition that the great D urga Devi famine which lasted from 1396
to 1407 was named after Durga, a Lad Vanjari wom an who had
amassed great wealth and owned a million bullocks.(1> She is related
to have brought gram from Nepal, Burma and China and to have
saved many lives, thus gaining the title o f * m other o f the w orld.’
The story obviously indicates the extrem ely valuable nature o f the

(1) Bom. Gazetteer, Vol. XVI, p. 82,

 % L
.amani] 334

VanjAris’ services as grain carriers in a period of severe famine, before

the d ays o f roads or railways.

VanjAris who have settled down as husbandmen, live in the

ordinary Kunbi houses. Those who are still earners either have
brick-built houses or live outside villages in grass huts whhh they
take with them from place to place. These grass huts are always
moved after a death, in accordance with the widespread custom of
primitive tribes. A t first an opening is made in the back of the hut
and no one enters it b y the ordinary door, which is believed to have
been polluted by the passage of the spirit of the deceased. Afterwards
the hut is pulled down and set up at a distance from its former site.

Appear- Though as a class robust and well built, the several divisions o f
S f ’ oim- VanjAris differ in complexion, the MathurAs being generally fair, the
ments. LAds MehurunAs and LAmghAs somewhat duskier, and the ChArans
and the LabhAnAs dark and martial-looking. VanjAris dress in R aj-
putAni fashion though some have adopted the K unbi costume. A
peculiarity of dress among the ChAran women is that they draw their
shoulder robe over the point of a narrow stick about eight inches long,
cup-shaped where it rests on the head and narrow at the point, standing,
like a huge comb, from the knot of hair at the back o f the head. The
rank of the women is said to be shown by the angle at which she wears
this stick. They wear a coarse petticoat of blue and red, with a fancy
pattern, and pendants of wool and pewter from the hair. Heavy brass
and bone bangles and anklets are worn on their arms and legs. Jn
the Kanarese districts, many of the VanjAri women may be noticed
with pieces of copper strung round their necks. A fresh piece is worn
during each confinement to propitiate the tribal goddess. They thus
show the number of children bom to the wearer.

Language. The VanjAris in the Deccan speak fairly correct MarAthi, but
ChArans, LabhAnAs and MAthurAs use a rough peculiar dialect full of
Hindi, and, in some cases, GujarAti forms. They know HindustAni,
and those in the Kanarese districts, also speak Kanarese.

E very settlement of VanjAris has its hereditary headman known

as Ndik. H e is bound to help the rest in time of need, and to be their
representative and arbitrator in caste disputes; to accommodate all
guests com ing to his encampment or >anda; and to direct the m ove­
ments o f the caravan when travelling. The appointment of Nailc is
hereditary in one family. If the original family from which Ndiks
are drawn has no representative, a fresh selection is made. On elec­
tion he is presented with a turban and clothes in token o f allegiance.

*
: fW :
335 [Lamani
<SL
A t every council meeting, the Ndik presides, with ten or twelve adult
males as members.
The Vanjdris m ay be divided into tw o territorial groups, (l)R ndo-
Mardtha and Kanarese Vanjdris and (2) Gujardti Vanjdris. The
former have the following endogamous d ivision s:—
1. Ag&sa 13. Ldd, Lddjin or Vadi.
2. Asdtkar. 14. Mahdr or Shingddya.
3. Bhusdre, Bhushdre or Bhu- 15. Mardtha.
sdrjin. 16. Mdthura, Labhdna, La-
•4. Chdmbhdr or Rohidds. mdna or Mathurdjin.
5. Chdran or Gavdr. 17- Mehuruna.
6. Dhddes (Musalmdn followers 18. R dvjin, Ldmgha or Bom -
of Vanjdris). bilvike.
7. Dhdlya, Madig or Mang. 19. Sondr.
8. H ajdm or Nhdvi. 20. Tamburi or Musalmdm,
9. Jogi. who are the bards o f
10. Kanherjin. Vanjdris.
11. Khuddne.
12. Kongddi.
Of the above divisions, Agasds, Dhdlyds, Hajdms, Jogis, Mahars,
Sondrs, and Tamburis are found in the Kanarese districts, and the
rest in the Deccan. None o f the divisions in the Kanarese districts
eat together or intermarry. In the Deccan, though som e o f the d ivi­
sions eat together, as a rule, none intermarry. Mathurdseat- food cooked
b y members of their own division only,and some are believed, like the
Purbias, to refuse to eat food cooked b y their women, who are p ri­
vileged to eat with all Vanjdri divisions.
The endogamous divisions mentioned above have the following Exogam-
clans, with sub-divisions shown below the name o f each :— on® divi­
sions.
Chavan.
Alodh. Kurha, K ora or K ola. Palathiya or Pdlalya.
Banod. Ldvadiya. Safanat.
K olot or K elut. Lovna. Supdnat.
Korch. Muda. •
Jadhav.
Ajmira. D evijival. K ora Kelut. Pddatya.
Bdbisivdl. Dhdrdvat. Ldvadya. V adatya.
Bdhon. Garigdvat. Luniva. Vishdlvat.
Bhukiya. Ghogalut. Mdldvat.
Bolapavdravi. Jarabala. Pada.
 uani] 336
<SL
;Pavdr or Parmdr.
A 'm got. Gorhdma. Iionibivat. Vishalvat.
Baddvat. Indrdvat. Mori. Vinjarvat.
Bdlnot. Jardbola. Punavat. Zarpala.
Bani. Lokavat. Orste.
Charote. Lonsavad or Lu- Vadaleya.
Dharabala. nasavat. Vdkdot.

Rdthod.
A lot. Dharamsot. Kilut. Turi.
Bdnot. Gavd.1. Mauhavat. Vat.
Bbukiya. Jdlpot. Muna. Vartia.
Chatotri. Jdlot. Muzal or Vedi.
Ddhe. Jathot. Muehidl.
Ddlvan, Kbdtarot. Peraj.

Turi or Tuvar.
Has n o sub-divisions.

UAatiya.(x)

Ajm ira. Bod a. Hal a. Ldkha.

Bdda. Dhdravat. Jethot. Lima.
Bharot. Ghugalot. Kunsey. Mdlot.
Tbe clans foim d amongst the Gujardt Vanjaris with their sub
divisions a re:—
Brahman.

Bangadia. Haldvat. Keldvat. Tagdvat.

D&nrjar.
Mali.

Dhdnki.
Has n o sub-divisions.

Gojal.

Bohoria. Keharod.

(1) These are ealjed Burteeas by Briggs.

 337 [Lamani
Goti,

B al. Baredhia. Kharedia. Tetaria.

Kliasdvat.

Bhopan. Gojal. Gora. Pachoria.

Musalia.
Maja. M atM var.

Padv&l.

Bhenavat. Goravat. Nagavat.

Chorcnar. Khandayat. Rang&vat.

Pelya.

Baja. Hadkarni. Khatedia.

Ghanga. K haja. M i.

Saltana or Sartana.
Duri. Sart&na.

Tagara.

Mali. Mathavana,

Zdd.

Ajedia. Hadi. Mar&vat.

Atvai. Katara. Raghavat.
Bharkada. Lohia. Satabhai.
Datala. Lonavat. VaddayAl.

Sendhu.

The members of the Sendhu division are said to be converts

from other castes. They have n o connection in food or marriage with
any of the above divisions.
Marriages are prohibited between members o f the same clan Marriage
or of allied clans. Thus, Devijivals are forbidden to marry n ot on ly ru,es-
with other Devijivals, b u t with Bahons, Babisivals and many other
8 ,1 1 0 6 — 43
®L»f ■ <SL
clans or kuls because they are branches of one stock. Marriage with a
fa th er’s sister’s, m oth er’s sister’s, or m oth er’s brother’s daughter
is prohibited. Marriage with a wife’s sister is allowed, and two
brothers are allowed to marry two sisters. Polygamy is allowed
and practised, but polyandry is unknown. In some divisions of
the tribe such as Charans, divorce is not allowed. In others it is
allowed on the ground of the wife ’a misconduct. Sexual inter­
course before marriage appears to be connived at in some places,
while in others, the offending parties are compelled to marry. Among
Charans, M&thuras and Labhanas, who are of Upper India origin,
girls remain unmarried to twenty and th irty ; but among Deccan
Vanjaris the marriageable limit for girls is from ten to twelve
, and for boys from twelve to twenty. In the Kanarese districts,
marriage is mostly adult, and in some places, girls are kept unmarried
permanently. Black glass beads are fastened to the left ankles of such
girls, who frequently live immoral lives.

feremo- Am ong wandering Vanjaris, children are often bom away from
nie». villages, and in the absence of midwives, women attend women and no
ceremonies are performed. Afterwards, when the caravan, tdnda,
meets a Brahman, a council is called. The time of the child’s birth is
explained to the Brahman, who fixes the name, the father paying
him for his assistance. Among settled families, when a child is bom ,
the relations beat drums, fire guns, and distribute sugar among their
friends, the Bhats and priests. On the fifth day women worship
Sati and are given grain, pulse and flowers. Some sections of the
Vanjaris in Gujarat and the Lad Vanjaris gird their boys with the
sacred thread before marriage.

Marriage The offer of marriage comes from the boy’s father, who has to pay
nice.1*10 to the girl’s father a sum varying from Rs. 15 to 150, and some bullocks.
If he is unable to pay this amount, the bridegroom has instead to
serve his father-in-law for two or three years. Marriage ceremonies
differ among the different sections of the Vanjaris. In sopie places,
when the bride-price has been fixed, the bridegroom’ s party distribute
molasses and liquor. A part o f the amount is paid in cash and a
part in bullocks. On a convenient day fixed by a Br&hman astro­
loger, the boy goes in procession with his house-people and guests
to the bride's house, where he is received by four or a larger number
of men, and the bride’s father feasts the bridegroom’s party on boiled
rice and curry. After the feast, the bride and bridegroom are led to
a square marked out with quartz powder and stand opposite each other.
A Brahman gives coloured rice to the guests, the bride and bridegroom
JBt 339 [Lamani
§l
stand inside the square, the guests throw rice over them, and
the priest repeats verses. If a Brahman is n ot available, the
ceremony is performed b y an elderly Lam&ni. When the rice-throwing
is over, the bridegroom’s father serves the bride’s people with a meal
of mutton and bread. Then the bridegroom returns with the bride
to his house. A t night he retires to some lonely part o f the dwelling
and lies on the ground with a cocoanut under his head, feigning to be
asleep, while the bride sits in another part o f the house near an elderly
woman who rubs her feet. One of her husband’s kinswomen walks
to the bride and tells her that her husband wants her, and guides
her to the place where he is waiting for her. The husband hands the
woman the cocoanut and in return receives his wife. A m ong
Lamans the nuptials are often perform ed b y married wTomen,
of whom the bride’s mother or other nearest kinswoman is one.
In the bride’s house a square is traced with quartz powder. A t each
com er a large water p ot or ghagar is placed, and the bride’s m other
winds a thread seven times round the necks of the water pots. The
bride sits o n a bag filled with rice in the centre of the square. The
thread is taken from the necks of the pots and cut in two, one part
being tied round the bride’s neck and the other round her arm.
One of the women splashes water on her and bathes her, another rubs
her body witli turmeric paste, a third takes off her wet clothes
and dresses her in fresh clothes, and a fourth sprinkles her brow
with rice. They join in lifting her off the bag of rice. The bridegroom
then takes her place and undergoes the same ceremonies. A t the end,
the bride’s mother marks both their backs with a Jain cross in turmeric
paste. The boy and girl sit together, a tub is set before them and
filled with water, and a couple o f shells are dropped into it. The
bridegroom takes the shells out seven times and again drops them in to
the water. The bride picks out the shells seven times and at the end
of* the seventh time keeps them. In some families, at each com er
of the marriage parallelogram, branches of the rui plant (Calotropis
giganlea) are stooped, bound together. Underneath each stoop are
placed five water pots and a copper coin. In the heart o f the paral­
lelogram a cross with a circle round it is drawn. In the middle of the
east and west sides of the parallelogram a rice pounder or musal
is erected. Ihe bride holds on her open palm a cow ry shell and a
rupee, and the bridegroom, placing his open palm over the bride’s
and over the cowry shell and rupee, leads her seven times round
the two mwah, Irom west to east. The bride and bridegroom then
sit together in the square and eat molasses out of one dish. A new
Cotton thread is brought and divided in two. One-half is tied round the
1;}:
LamaniJ 340
(ct
* ** ,'t 0 *’ . 7( ''./'I 11
b ov’s wrist and the other round the girl’s, and their clothes are marked
on the back with turmeric paste. The next day passes in games and
amusements. Oar the third day a kinswoman leads the bride to the
b idegroom’s chamber, thus ending the marriage.
In K M udesh, the b o y ’s party go to the girl’s village for the mar-
rage, riding on ponies or walking, for carts are forbidden. On arrival they
are given separate apartments facing a booth covered with mango and
nim (Melia azadirachta) leaves. The marriage takes place at midnight.
A post of palasa (Butea frondosa) or umbar (Ficus glomerata) is smeared
with, turmeric paste and fixed in the ground, and alighted lamp is placed
on the top o f the post. Tne marriage ceremony, which is very simple,
is performed near this post. Grains of juvdri dipped in turmeric
water are thrown over the bridal pair by the party, and the Jioma
or marriage sacrifice is performed.' The bride and bridegroom walk
' five times round the sacrificial fire, thus completing the marriage.
In some places, two posts of kher (Acacia catechu) are fixed in the
ground. On each com er of a square nine earthen pots are piled one on
the other and are covered with leaves of the rui (Calotropis gigantea).
The nine pots probably represent the nine planets, navagraha. Near
the post sit the bride and bridegroom, who have been rubbed with
turmeric and bathed. Then the Brahman priest worships Ganpati,
joins the hands of the pair, and ties the knot in the same way as at a
Kunbi w ed d in g; except that a rupee, given by the bride’s father, is tied
to the k not. Then, between the posts, the Brahman lights the sacred
fire, and muttering sacred verses, leads the pair seven times round
the fire from right to left. This ends the nuptial ceremonies. The Lad
Vanjdris have a devak consisting of the pdnchpdlvi or leaves of five
kinds of trees, which they instal in Kunbi fashion. Among them the
devak is installed also on the fifth day after the birth of a child. The
devaks of the Ravjin Vanjdris consist o f the pdnchpdlvi, the feathers
o f the tas or blue jay Coracias indica and of leaves of the ndgvel betel-
vine. In Ndsik, it is customary to carry the devak, consisting of the
leaves of the mango, jdmbul, umbar, shami, and rui and known as
pdnchpdlvi, to Maruti’s temple after which the evak is brought back
and tied to the marriage booth. Without the devak, marriage cannot
take place.
The marriages of Gujardt Vanjaris are celebrated in the months
o f Jyeshtha and Ashddh, the binding portion consisting in walking
five times round the sacrificial fire. The bride goes to live with
her husband three years after the marriage,when her father gives her
a bullock laden with clothes and utensils and com .
 341
fSL
[Lamanik" ...

E x cep t among Mfithurfis and Labhanas, th e rem arriage o f w idow s Widow

is perm itted. The levirate is allowed. A m ong the Chfirans, if a
w idow marries an outsider in preference to her deceased h usband’ s
brother or relative, a fine is levied b y the panch. The cerem ony o f w idow
marriage is extremely simple. I t consists in lock in g Up the w idow and
her intended husband for the night or in their eating from one plate.
A bachelor is not allow ed t o m arry a widow. In som e sections o f the
G ujarat Vanjfiris, the head o f a w idow is shaved ten days after the
death o f her husband, and she is forced to betake herself to a secluded
place for one year, during which period she is on ly allowed one m eal
a day, w hich must b e taken at night, w ithout salt.

Vanjfiris follow th e H indu law o f inheritance and profess H indu- Religion,

ism. Their chief god is Bfilfiji. N ex t to Bfilfiji th ey revere Tulja
Bhavfini, Ambfibfii, Mariamma, Mfirtal and Hinglfij ; their inferior
deities bein g Shital, Lakdya, Vfighya, Mhasoba, Bahiroba, etc. In
Gujarat, their chief god is Shiva, whom th ey call Sallalla. T h ey
erect flags in the nam e of Balaji in fron t o f their huts and worship
them. In times o f distress, or in consequence of a vow , these flags
are replaced b y new ones on the full-m oon day of Jyeshtha and during
the Divdli holidays. On these days bullocks and implements o f
husbandry are also worshipped. Cooked rice is then offered to rivers,
and is received by the Dhfilya Lam finis. Once a year the ground in
front o f th e huts is cow dunged, and a needle or tw o or a four anna
silver coin is worshipped in the nam e o f the deceased ancestors. In
some places, flesh is offered to male ancestors on ly, rice being offered
to females. This cerem ony is repeated when there is sickness in the
fam ily. Musalman Pirs are venerated. Some o f the tribesmen w or­
ship the so-called three and a half goddesses sdde-tin-devis, but never
divulge th e name of the half goddess. W hen an' epidem ic breaks
out, Sivabai, D urgavva and M argavva are propitiated with offerings
of water, rice and flesh. Vanjfiris have great faith in soothsaying,
ghosts and witchcraft. They observe all the ordinary H indu h oli­
days, b u t especially Gokulashtami in honour of K rishna's birth-dav.
On this d a y the Vanjfiris o f Gujarfit worship bulls and snakes. F o r­
merly all the ceremonies o f Vanjfiris were conducted b y themselves.
Of late, som e em ploy Brfihmans to con d u ct their marriages, w ho,
in some places, are regarded as degraded on that account.

The married dead are burnt, the unmarried being buried w ithout Death
any cerem ony. The deceased, if married, is covered with a new ceremo-
shroud, tied to a bier, and carried to th e burning ground on the should­
ers o f fou r m en. Before laying the b o d y on the bier the carriers drop
tip VSL
’ __

Lamani] 342
V
a little clarified butter and molasses into the mouth and tie a copper
coin in the folds of the shroud. H alf-way to the burning ground the
bearers halt, lower the b od y, and tearing off the knotted end of the
shroud with the coin, drop the coin on the ground, change places, and
go od . A t th e burning ground the body is laid on the funeral pile,
the pyre being lighted b y the chief mourner. W hen the body is burnt,
the bones and ashes are gathered and thrown into water, and the fun­
eral party return to the house of mourning. W hen they reach the
house, water is poured on the ground before them. On the third day
all the mourners go to the burning ground and eat clarified butter,
wheat and molasses near water. In some places a feast is also held.
In Gujar&t, a cow is milked on the ashes and bones. Some feed friends
with cooked rice and molasses at their own houses on the twelfth day ;
others hold that the Shimga holidays is the time for the yearly rites
for the deceased, and, on those days, either feed crows or go in a body
to the neighbouring waste land, where they make bread and eat it.
They also feed a certain number of men, in order to propitiate the
spirit o f the deceased, and make many gifts to Brahman priests. A t
these death-dinners animal food and liquor are not used. In some
places, on the full-moon day of Margashirsha a dinner o f flesh is given.
In others, on the thirteenth day after death, the tribesmen present the
chief mourner with half a goat, to the flesh of which they are treated.
I f this is n o t done, the tribesmen are n ot allowed to eat flesh at the
house of the deceased for twelve years. In Kh&ndesh, in the first
, Magh or Vaishdkh after a death, a caste feast usually, but n ot always,
is given to propitiate the manes, and the Mahdlaya is performed every
year in the m onth of Bhddrapad.
Though generally peaceful and well behaved, the wandering
Vanjaris are under Police surveillance, and, in the Eanarese districts,
are often accused of stealing cattle, kidnapping women and children,
and using false coin. Some are professional robbers. Their carry­
ing trade, noticed by almost all European travellers of the last three
centuries, has greatly suffered since the opening of cart.roads and rail­
ways. They once carried their wares on pack bullocks in bands or
armies of 100,000 strong, t o Surat, Navsari and Kalyan, on the west,
and Nimbar, Nagpur and Jabalpur, to the north and east. From the
inland districts they carried wheat, and from the Konkan, salt, dates,
dry cocoa kernel and betelnuts. This traffic continues along the Ghat
roads to the present day (1920). They also deal in cattle. Though
many are n ow settled as husbandmen, a few find a living by driving
carts, spinning coarse hem p tag, selling grass and fuel, and working
as labourers.
 <SL
^ ^ J i l 'ty f f ilf ''M M ': ;i'^.:i::-:T5:^ '’-j!.'l'.'.'v'^?'.'- -■/■’■■*';|-:^:y. ^’' '
:1

0 343 [Lingayat

The staple articles of food o f the tribe are the tw o millets in the P ood .
D eccan and Gujarat and rice in Kanara. E xcep t the M&thur&s
and Labh&nds, all eat the flesh o f goats, sheep, hare, deer, fow ls, fish
and wild boar, and drink liquor. A m ongst the R avjins, and in some
places among the Marath&s also, the women abstain from flesh and
liquor. They rank below the cultivating classes and above the impure
castes.

LAMBADL— A synonym for Lam&ni.

LAMBAR.— A synonym for Lam&ni.
LAMGHA.— A synonym for R&vjin Vanj&ri.
LANGHA.— A synonym for Mir.
LAVANA.— A synonym for Loh&na.
LAVANIA.— A sub-division of Bhats.
LENKAVALE.— A sub-division of Marathas.
LEVA.— A sub-division of Kanbis ; a synonym for Reva.
LEWANA.— A synonym for Loh&na
LIMBACHIA.— A sub-division of Haj&ms.
LINGANGI.— A synonym for Ling&yat.
LINGAYATS.—Numbered in 1901,1,422,293 (males 716,411,
females 705,882). A t that census 71 subcastes were separately en­
umerated, and of these tw o were again sub-divided,— the B&njigs
into five, and the Dev&ngs into tw o, groups. Out of the total number
of 1,422,293 as m any as 132,138 or 9 ‘ 0*2 per cent, did n ot return a
subcaste designation. In the 1911 census the subcastes were n ot
separately enumerated, the main caste numbering 1,339,248 (males
683,472, females 655,776). The reduction during the decennium was
attributed mainly to mortality from plague.

Ling&yats are found chiefly in the districts of Belgaum, Bij&pur Distribu-

and Dh&rw&r as well as in Kolh&pur and the N ative States of the tion*
Southern Mar&tha Country. Beyond the limits of the B om bay Presi­
dency they are numerous in the Mysore and Hyder&b&d States. They
also form an important element in the population of the north-west
corner o f the Madras Presidency.

Ling&yafcs, * who are also known as Lingawants, Ling&ngis, Name.

Sivabhaktas, and Virashivas, derive their name from the word Unga,

* T he following account is in the main a reprint o f m atter which has already

appeared in my article on IAngdyaU in Dr. Easting’ s Encyclopaedia o f Religions and
Ethics.
;?;i ? Lingayat] 344
%L
the phallic emhlem with the affix ayta, and are ‘ the people who bear
the linga ’ habitually. Their name literally describes th e m ; for
the true Ling&yat wears on his b od y a small silver box containing
a stone phallus, which is the symbol of his faith, and the loss of which
is equivalent to spiritual death.* The emblem, is worn by both sexes.
The men carry the b ox on a red silk scarf or a thread tied round the
neck, while the women wear it inside their costume, on a neck-string.
When working, the male wearer sometimes shifts it to his left arm.

t>esorip- The Lingayat group is not racial, but sectarian. It was the
tion. essence of the original faith that anyone might embrace it and
become a Ling&yat. Hence the Ling&yats can only be said to be
Dravidian on the ground that the sect was founded in and never
spread beyond, the north-west portions of the Kam&tak, where the
m ajority of its adherents were necessarily racially of Dravidian
origin. They are dark in complexion, in common with the races of
Southern India, and speak Kanarese, a Dravidian language. They
have been not inaptly described as a peaceable race of Hindu puritans,
though it may be questioned how far their rejection of many of the
chief dogmas of Brahmanie Hinduism leaves them the right to be
styled Hindus at all. A s will be seen below, the faith has not remained
pure but has gradually reapproximated to the Hindu faith. Of
the Br&hmanic trinity— Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva—-they acknowledge
only the god Shiva, whose emblem, the linga, they bear on their persons.
They reverence the Vedas, but disregard the later commentaries on
which the Brhhmans rely. Originally they seem to have been the
product of one of the numerous reformations that have been aimed
in India against the supremacy and doctrines of the Brahmans, whose
selfish exploitation of the lower castes has frequently led to the rise
of new sects essentially anti-Brhhmanic in origin. It seems clear
that, in its inception, Lingayatism not only rested largely on a denial
of the Br&hrnan claim to supremacy over all other castes, but attempted
to abolish all caste distinctions. All wearers of the linga were proclaimed
equal in the eyes of God. The traditional Ling&yat teacher, Basava,
proclaimed all men holy in proportion as they are temples of the
great spirit, and thus, in his view, all men are b om equal. The denial

♦This linga is called ishtalinga or “ linga of investiture ” as opposed to the Siha-

viralingas or “ fixed lingas The latter, which are stones of large sizo around
which temples have been built, or which have been installed in temples, are numerous
all over India.. The twelve most famous at Benares, Bameshwaram and other holy
places are called Jyotirlingan. It was a cardinal tenet of the early Bingayat faith
that the true believer should never visit or worship SthaviraUngau. But this precept,
like many others, is now not strictly observed (Artal in J. Bomb. Anthr. soe. vn
18.1, 2.)
|S| 345 [Lingayat <SL
o f the supremacy of the Br&hmans, coupled with the assertion of the
essential equality of all men, constituted a vital departure from the
doctrines of orthodox Hinduism. The belief in rebirth and conse­
quently in the doctrine of KarmaJwas also abandoned. Other im
portant innovations w e r e t h e prohibition of child marriages ; the
rem oval of all restriction on widows remarrying ; the burial, instead
o f burning, of the dead ; and the abolition of the chief Hindu rites
for the removal of ceremonial, impurity. The fovmders of the religion
could scarcely have forged more potent weapons for severing the bonds
between their proselytes and the followers of the doctrines preached
b y contem porary Br&hmanic Hinduism.*

The reader must n ot assume that this brief description o f the

fundam ental doctrines o f a religious m ovem ent which dates from
the 12th century A . D. con veys an accurate picture o f th e prevalent
Lingayatism o f the present day. In connection with th e attitude
originally assumed towards caste distinctions, there has been a very
noticeable departure from B asava’s teaching. The origin o f caste
in India is as y e t a subject requiring m uch elucidation. In its deve­
lopm en t n o mean influence m ust be allotted to function, religlion
and political boundaries. N or can differences of race have failed
m aterially to assist the form ation of Indian society on its present
basis. One of the most interesting phenomena connected with the
evolution o f m odern caste is the working o f a religious reform ation
in which caste finds no place on the previously existing social struc­
tu re o f caste units. I f caste is largely a m anifestation o f deep-rooted
prejudices tending to raise and preserve barriers between the social
intercourse o f different sections o f the hum an race, it would seem
n o t unnatural to expect that it would tend to reassert itself within
th e fold of an essentially casteless religion so soon as the enthusiasm
o f the founders had spent itself ; and it is n o t unlikely th a t the mere
fa ct o f converts having join ed the m ovem ent at an early stage in
its history would generate a claim to social precedence over the
later converts, and thus in tim e reconstitute the old caste barrier
th at the reformers spent themselves in *endeavouring to destroy.
One of the m ost interesting pages in the history of caste evolution,
therefore, must b e that which deals with the evolution of caste inside

•Artalo (p. cit. p. 183) mentions that the Channabasava Purana refers to 64
“ commandments ” , and gives a list of 63 obtained from a Lingdyat priest. Many of
these are very curious; for instance, the prohibition against using medical drags.
But Artal remarks that only 14 out of the 63 are generally observed by all Lingdyats.
These 64 Rules provide, among othor things, that a Lingayat must be shaved by a
Lingdyat barber, heshould wearcloth woven by aDevdng or Lingdyatweaver, his clothes
should be washed by a Lingayat Agasa, and his pots made by a Lingdyat potter,
H 1109—44
'
<SL
j ’p '1 '

i t ;

the fold of a religious com m unity originally formed on a non-caste

basis. A remarkable instance o f such evolution will be found in the
history of Lingdyatism.
The Lingdyats of the present day are divided into three well
defined groups, including numerous true castes, of which a descrip­
tion will be found in the section dealing with their social organization.
W ith the rise o f caste distinctions, numerous other changes occurred
in the nature o f the Lingayat religion. The ayyas or jangams, the
priests of the com munity, devised in time a ritual and ceremonies in
which the influence of the rival Brahman aristocracy can freely be
traced. The m ore important of these ceremonies are described below.
B u t it is essential to a thorough understanding of the nature of Lin-
gayatism that the m ost im portant ceremony of all, known as the ash-
tavarna or the eightfold sacrament, should be understood b y the
reader.
It is com m only asserted nowadays b y prominent members of
the Lingayat com m unity that the true test of a Lingdyat is the right
to receive the full ashtavarna, and that the possession of a few of these
eight rites on ly does not entitle the possessor to be styled a member
o f the com m unity. The contention seems scarcely in harmony with
th e popular usage of the term * Lingayat ’ .

The ashtavarna consists o f eight rites known as—

1. Guru. 5. Mantra.-
2. Linga. 6. Jangam.
3. Vibhuti. 7. Tirth. "•* .
4. Rudraksha. 8. Prasdd.’-

On the birth of a Lingayat the parents send for the guru, or

spiritual adviser, of the fam ily, who is the representative of one of
the five acharyas, or holy men, from whom the father claims descent.
The guru binds the linga on the child, besmears it with vibhuti (ashes),
places a garland of rudraksha (seeds of Elaeocarpus ganitrus) round
its neck, and teaches it the m ystic mantra or prayer known as Namah
Shivaya—i.e., ‘ Obeisance to the god Shiva ’ . The child being in­
capable of acquiring a knowledge of the sacred text at this early stage
o f its existence, the prayer is merely recited in its ear b y the guru.
The child has then to be presented to the god Shiva, in th e person o f
a jangam, or Lingayat priest, who is summoned for this purpose.
On his arrival the parents wash his feet, and the water in which the
feet are washed is described as the tirtha or charanatiriha of Shiva.
This water is n ex t poured over the linga attached to the infant. The
 “ 347 Lingayat]
<SL
■

jangarn is fed, and a portion o f the food from the dish is placed in
the child’s mouth. This final cerem ony is known as prasdd. Occa­
sionally the double characters o f guru and jangarn are com bined in
one person. W hen the child attains the age o f eight or ten, the
cerem ony is repeated with slight m odifications.

I t will be seen that this eightfold ceremony forms a very concise

test of a Ling&yat’s religious status, a rd m ay be not unfitly com ­
pared to the rites o f baptism and confirmation which are outward
and visible signs of admission to the Catholic Church. B u t n ot all
Christians are confirmed, and in the same w ay not all members of
the Ling&yat community undergo the full cerem ony of initiation. It
would probably be safer to apply the term * Ling&yat ’ to all wear­
ers o f the linga, whether they are entitled to the full ashtavarna on
birth or conversion, or to a few only o f the eight sacraments. In
so doing, the lower orders, from a social standpoint, o f the Ling&yat
com m unity, will n ot be excluded, as they would otherwise be, from the
fold.
Lingayats are n ot permitted to touch meat, or to drink any kind of
liquor. The greater number of them are either occupied in agriculture
or are traders. Th ey are generally reputed to be peaceful and law-
abiding ; but at times they are capable of dividing into violent fac­
tions with such rancour and hostility that the dispute culminates
in riots, and occasionally in murder. Am ong the educated members
of the community there is a strong spirit of rivalry with the Br&hmans,
whose intellect' and capacity have secured them a preponderating
share o f Government appointments and often a preponderating
influence in municipal affairs. This rivalry between the tw o sects
m ay b e said to dom inate the whole social and political life o f the
B om bay Kam atak. Except for these defects the com m unity m ay be
described as steady and industrious, devoted to honest toil, whether
in professional employment, or occupied in trading or the cultivation
of the soil.

U ntil the recent publication o f two inscriptions, which have History,

been deciphered and edited b y the late Mr. J. F . Fleet, and throw an
entirely new light on the probable origin of the Ling&yat religion, the
m ovem ent in favour o f this special form of Shiva worship was com m only
supposed to have been set on foot b y the great Ling&yat saint Basava,
in the latter half of the 12th century. The acts and doctrines of Basava
and o f his nephew Chamiabasava are set forth in tw o purdnas or sacred
books, named, after them, the Basavapurcma and the Channabasava-
purdna. But these works were n ot written until some centuries had
p

t )?;
’J s S .

M
Lingayat] 348
<sl
n

elapsed since the death of the saints to whom they refer and it seems cer­
tain that the substratum of fact which they contain had b y that time
become so overlaid with tradition and miraculous occurrences as to
render them o f little historical value. The Basavapurdna describes
Basava as the son of Brahman parents, Madiraja and Madal&mbika,
residents of Bagewadi, usually held to be the town o f that name in
the Bij&pur district of the Bombay Presidency. Basava is the
Kanaresename for a bull, an animal sacred to Shiva, and thus a con ­
nection is traced between Basava and the god Shiva. A t the age o f
eight, Basava refused to be invested with the sacred thread of the
twice-born caste, to which he belonged b y birth, declaring himself
a worshipper of Shiva, and stating that he had come to destroy the
distinctions of caste. B y his knowledge of the Sbaiva scriptures he
attracted the attention of his uncle Baladeva, then prime minister
to the king of Kalyan, Bijjala. Baladeva gave him his daughter
Gangadevi in marriage. Subsequently Bijjala, a Kalaohurya b y
race, who usurped the Ch&lukyan kingdom of Kalyan in the middle
o f the 12th century, installed Basava as his prime minister and
gave him his younger sister Nilalochana as wife. The purdnas fur­
ther recount the birth of Channabasava from Basava’s unmarried
sister Nagal&mbika, b y the working of the spirit of the god Shiva.
The myth in connection with this miraculous conception is interesting.
Basa va, while engaged in prayer, saw an ant emerge from the ground
with a small seed in its mouth. He took the seed to his home, where
his sister swallowed it and became pregnant. The issue o f this unique
conception was Channabasava. Uncle and nephew both preached
the new doctrines, and in so doing encountered the hostility of the
Jains, whom, they ruthlessly persecuted. A revolution, the outcome
o f these religious factions, led to the assassination of king Bijjala
and to the flight of Basava and his nephew. Basava is said to have
been finally absorbed into the linga at Kudal Sangameshwar, the con­
fluence of the Krishna (Kistna) and Malprabha rivers in the Bij&pur
district (Bom bay Gazetteer, xxii, p. 104), and Channabasava to have
lost his life at IJlvi in North K anara. An annual pilgrimage of Lingd-
yats to the shrine of the latter at Ulvi takes place to this day.
Two important inscriptions bearing upon these traditions of
the origin of the Ling&yats deserve consideration. The first was
discovered at the village of Managoli, a few miles from Bagewadi,
the traditional birthplace of Basava. This record (as also many
others) shows that long Bijjala gained the kingdom of Kaly&n in A. 1).
1156. It also states that a certain Basava was the builder of the
temple in which the inscription was first put, and that Madiraja
ffl
\ ft N’T- T*/ '- /
349 [Lingayat
%k^/ t i

was mahdprabhu, or head of the village, when the grants-in-aid of

the temple were made. Basava is further described as the grandson
of Revad&sa an,d the son of Chandirdja, and as a man of great sanctity
and virtue. The second inscription was found at Ablur in the Dharw&r
district and belongs to about A . D . 1200. I t relates the fortunes of
a certain Ek&ntada-R&mayya, an ardent worshipper of the god Shiva.
R dm ayya came into conflict with the Jains, and defeated them, both
in dispute and, the inscription says, by performing a miracle— we may
venture to say, b y arranging matters so that he seemed to perform it—
which consisted in cutting off his own head and having it restored
to him, safe and sound, b y the grace of Shiva, seven days later. All
this came to the notice of the king Bijjala, w ho summoned R am ayya
into his presence. A nd R&mayya, making his cause good before the
king, won his support, and was presented with gifts of lands for the
tem ple founded b y him at A blur in the new faith. The incidents
related of Ram ayya are placed shortly before A. D . 1162, so that he
w ould have been a contem porary of Basava. N o m ention, however,
o f the latter or o f his nephew is found in this record.
Accepting the contem porary inscriptions as more entitled to
credit than the tradition overlaid with m yth recorded at a later
date, it seems clear that b oth Basava and E kantada-R am ayya were
reformers who h ad m uch to d o with the rise o f the Lingayat doctrine,
and th at the event is to be placed in the 12th century. Lingayat
scholars of the present day, indeed, claim a far earlier date for the
origin o f their .faith. But their contention th at its origin is contem ­
poraneous with th at of Brahmanic Hinduism has yet to be established
b y adequate evidence. The best opinion seems to be th a t o f Fleet,
w ho considers th at there is n o d ou b t that th e present Lingayat sect
is m ore or less a developm ent o f the guild (m entioned in m any inscrip­
tions) o f the 500 Swamis o f A ihole, a village in the B ijapur district,
the protectors o f the Vira-Bananju religion, who were always m ore or
less strictly Shaivas, but with a free-mindedness which is n o t now
com m on, patronized also Buddhism . The m ovem ent, how ever, in
w hich the 500 Swamis of A ihole join ed seems certainly to h ave origin­
ated with E kantada-R am ayya at Ablur. A n d probably the prevalent
tradition of the present day, th a t Basava was the originator of it and
th e fom ider of th e com m unity, m ust only be attributed to his having
quick ly become acquainted w ith the new developm ent o f Shaivism
started b y R am ayya, and to his having taken a leading part in en­
couraging and propagating it in circumstances which rendered him
m ore conspicuous than the real founder. Basava happened to be
a m em ber of the b od y of village elders at Managoli, and so to occupy
[ m ; V f iT
. tt- y , /
^^3uingayat] 350
\ -i N k^_/JL J

a recognizable position in local matters, administrative as well as

religious. Consequently, it seems likely that, when the first literary
account of the rise o f Lingayatism came to be written, which was
unquestionably an appreciable tim e after the event, his name had
survived, to the exclusion o f K am ayya’s, Accordingly, the writer
o f that account was unable to tell us anything particular about Ram -
ayya, beyond duly recording the miracle performed b y him, and at­
tributed the m ovem ent entirely to Basava, assigning to him an assist­
ant, his nephew Channabasava, who is perhaps only a m ythical per­
son. But it must be also admitted that the early history of the m ove­
ment may be capable of further elucidation, and that the present day
claims o f the leading Lingayats for a very early origin for their religion,
though lacking the support o f historical evidence, have this much to
rely on, that it is essentially probable that the Dravidian races of South­
ern India, whose primitive deities were absorbed b y the Aryan in­
vaders in to the personality o f their god Shiva, always leant towards
the special worship o f Shiva to the exclusion of the other members of
the Brdhmanic trinity, and com bined with this preference a dislike
of Br&hmanio ritual and caste ascendency which is the real sub­
stratum of the movem ent ending in the recognition of Lingayatism.

In dismissing the question of the origin o f the Lingayat religion

it seems desirable to give an instance of the claims advanced by learn­
ed members of the com m unity for a greater antiquity for their reli­
gion than historical evidence would afford it. Mr. Karibasava-
sM stri, Professor o f Sanskrit and Kanarese in the State College of
Mysore, contends* that the Shaiva sect o f Hindus has always been
divided into tw o groups, the one comprising the wearers of the linga
and the other those who do n ot wear it. The former he designates
Virashaiva, and declares that the Virashaivas consist o f Br&hman,
Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra, the fourfold caste division of Manu.
Quoting from the 17th chapter of the Parameshwar agama, he declares
that the Virashaiva Brahmans are also known as Suddha Virashaivas,
Virashaiva kings as Marga-Virashaivas, Virashaiva Vaishyas as Misra-
Virashaivas, and the Shudras of the com munity are Anteve Virashaivas.
In his opinion, the duties and penances imposed on the first o f these
classes are (1) the ashtavama, (2) penances and bodily emaciation,
(3) the worship o f Shiva without sacrifice, (4) the recital o f the Vedas.
H e further asserts that the Hindu ashramas or conditions of life of
Brahm achiri, Grihastha and Sany&si, i.e., student, householder
and ascetic, are binding on Virashaivas, and quotes from various

* R. C. Carr’s Monograph on Lingayats, Madras Government Press, 1906.

■f J| (ct
351 [Lingayat 11

Sanskrit works, texts in support o f this view. H e furnishes a m ythical

acoount o f the origin of Lingayats at the tim e o f the creation o f the
world. The im portance o f this summary o f his view lies in the fact
that it is com pletely typical of the claims that m any members o f the
Lingayat com m unity have recently com m enced to advance, to be
included, in a sense, within the fold o f orthodox Hinduism, with the
mistaken notion of thereby increasing their social standing. They
endeavour to divide themselves into Manu’s fourfold ca&te scheme of
Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra, regardless o f the fact that
theirs is in origin a non-caste religion, and that Manu’s scheme,
which can only with great inaccuracy be applied to the more orthodox
H indu castes, is totally unsuited to the Linghyats. A sign o f this
m ovem ent towards Br&hmanic Hinduism among Lingayats is to be
found in the organized attem pt made b y certain Lingayhts at recent
censuses to enter themselves as Virashaiva Brahmans ; and it seems
probable that these claims to a great antiquity for their religion and
for a caste scheme based on Manu’s m odel are chiefly significant as
signs o f the social ambitions o f the educated members, w ho are jealous
of the precedence of the Brahmans.

Lingayats, being a very large com m unity, vary to a considerable Appear -

extent in appearance, height and colour. It has been seen above that ance‘
they are for the m ost part dark in com plexion, resembling the races of
Southern India in this r e s p e ct; but th ey are fairer than Bedars and
occasionally differ little in appearance from the average Maratha
K unbi. Some-high class Lingayat women are rem arkably fairskinned.
The striking points in the appearance o f a Lingdyat man are his lingo.
which is worn either at his waist in a silver b ox hung round his neck,
or tied in a red ribbon round the neck, or round the upper left arm ;
the absence of the sacred thread ; and the shaven topknotless head.

The men wear the waist-cloth, the shouldercloth, the jack et Dress,
and th e headscarf, and the women wear the robe and bodice. The
robe is wound round the waist and allowed to fall to the ankles. The
end o f the skirt is n ot passed between the legs and tucked into the
waist behind, but is gathered into a large bunch of folds in front to
the left side. The upper end is passed across the bosom and over
the head, and hangs loosely down the right side. The tw o ends of
the bodice are tied in a knot in front, leaving the arms, neck and throat
bare. Many of them have silk and brocade clothes for holiday use.
They are fond of black either b y itself or mixed with red. Some are
as neat and clean as Brahmans, but the dress of m ost is less neat and
clean than the dress of Br&hmans. H igh class Lingayat women wear
'r l ‘i (fiT
\‘v W ' / ^ m s ay at] 352
jy
^— N
glass bangles and the lucky necklace or mangalsuira, and the putting
on of the lucky necklace plays a much more prominent part in a
Lingayat than in a Br&hmanical wedding. Some Lingayat women
whose first husbands are alive mark their brows with kunku or vermi­
lion, and others with ashes. Even after her second marriage,
n o widow is allowed to put either vermilion or ashes on her brow,
Lingayat women do not wear false hair or deck their hair with flowers.
Both men and women are fond of ornaments.
Oma- The men wear on the neck, the kanthi, goph and chandrahdr,
menfca. round both wrists khadas and todas, round the right wrist usaibalis,
round the waist the kaddora, and rings on the fingers. A rich man’s
ornaments are of gold, a poor m an’s of silver. The women wear the ear­
rings called mU, bugdijanilci, ghanti and bdlighanti, all of gold with or
without pearls ; the noserings called mug, nath and mugti, all of gold
with or without pearls ; round the neck gejitikka, gundintikka, hani-
gitikka, kariminitikka, karipale, sarigi, kathane and putlisara ; on the
arm vdki, nagmurgi and bajuband ; on the wrists got, patlya, todas,
gave, havalpdtlya, doris and kankans ; round the waist, the kambarpatta,
either with clasps representing mouths of animals or simple clasps,
on the ankles sdkhli, paijan, kalkaddgas and kalungars, all of silver ;
and on the toes pille, gejipille, minpille and gendus, all of silver.
Poor women generally wear silver bracelets and necklaces.
Language. The home tongue of most of the Ling&yats is Kanarese. Their
personal names are generally either the names of the reputed founders
of their religion, or of village gods and goddesses. The commonest
names among men are Basappa, Chanbasappa, Isbasappa, Irappa, •
Sivappa, Kallappa and Virbhadrappa*, and among women B asaw a
N&gawa, Dy& m awa and Sangavva. If a woman has lost several
children she gives her next child a mean name,Tip&ppa, from the Kana­
rese tipi a dungheap or Kalavva from kalu a stone, hoping to save the
child from untimely death.
Social The results of investigations undertaken in 1900 by
organiza- committees of Ling&yat gentlemen entrusted with the duty
tlon' of preparing a classification of the numerous social sub­
divisions of the Ling&yat com m unity tend to show that the relation
of these various groups to each other is one of some com­
plexity. Broadly speaking, Ling&yats appear to consist of three

* The termination a p pa means father. It is frequently followed by the addition

of gauda, meaning village headman, a hereditary office to which many families have
claims. Thus Lingayat names are very lengthy, aa for instance Ohanbasappagauda
bin (». e., son of) Dwodbasappagauda. Chan means “ the younger” and Dwod ,
‘ the elder ’’’ literally small and big.
 ■' ■ ' ,

f(W
\^ n > W
) 363
Gt
[Lingayat* J A..1
groups o f sub-diviaions. The first, which for convenience m ay
be named Panchamsdlis with full ashtavarna rites, contains the
priests of the com m unity known as ayyas or jangams and the lead­
ing trader castes or banjigs. It is probable that this group is the nearest
approximation to the original converts, who, it will be remembered,
could interdine and intermarry without restriction. The sub-divisions
o f this group m ay still dine together, b u t are hypergamous to one
another. Members of the lower sub-divisions in this group m ay rise
to the higher b y performing certain rites and ceremonies. The Panch-
ams&lis, as they m ay be called for lack of a better name, are all entitled
to the ashtavarna rites, and rank considerably above the remaining
groups. One of the writers in the “ B om bay Gazetteer ” describes
them as True Lingdyats.a)
, The next group is that o f the non-Panchamsdlis with ashtavarna
rites. This group contains numerous endogam ous sub-divisions which
are functional groups, such as weavers, oil-pressers, brick-layers, dyers,
cultivators, shepherds and thelike,. It seems probable that they repre­
sent converts of a much later date than those w e have styled Pancham-
sdlis, and were never adm itted to interdine or intermarry with the
latter. Members o f one sub-division m ay n ot pass to another. The
names o f the sub-divisions are com m only indicative o f the calling of
the members, and it is o f special interest to note here how the barriers
erected by specialization o f function have proved to o strong for the
original com munal theories o f equality which the Lingayats o f eariy
days adopted. I t is interesting to observe th at considerable diversity
o f practice exists in connection with the relations o f the sub-divisions
o f this group to the parent H indu castes from which they separated
to becom e Lingdyats. In m ost cases it is found that, when a portion
o f an original H indu caste has been converted to Lingdyatism , both
intermarriage and interdining with the unconverted members is finally
abandoned, and the caste is broken into tw o divisions, o f which one
is to be recognized b y the members wearing the linga and the other
not. B u t in some instances, e.g., the Jeers o f the Belgaum district,
the Lingdyat members continue to take brides from the non-Lingdyat
section, though they will n ot m arry their daughters to them ; it is
usual to invest the bride with the linga a t the marriage cerem ony,
thus form ally receiving her into the Lingdyat com m unity.* In other
cases the Lingdyat and non-Lingdyat sections live side b y side and dine

(l) Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. xxiii, p. 220.

*It is a remarkable fact that these Jeers or Hugars contain a section wearing
the H r ,t f t , a section wearing the sacred thread, and a section wearing both the L in g a
and the sacred thread— a curious instance of religious tolerance.
H 1109-45
111 <SL
' G O^X .

Lingayat] 854
together a t caste functions, intermarriage being forbidden. In this
case, however, the former call in a jangam to perform their religious
ceremonies, and the latter em ploy a Br&hman. The more typical
case seems to be that o f a caste sub-division given in the Indian Census
R eport.(1) In the last century a Lingayat priest o f U jjini converted
a number o f weavers in the village o f Tuminkatti in the Dh&rw&r
district. These converts abandoned all social intercourse with their
former caste brethren, and took their place as a new sub-division in
the non-Panchams&li group under the name o f Kurvinaras. This
second group or sub-division o f the main caste, therefore, differs
essentially from the Pancbams&lis, though the members also have
the ashtavarna rites. I t is described in the Bom bay Gazetteer as
“ Affiliated Ling&yats ” .

The third group or sub-division is the non-Panchams&lia without

ashlavarna rites. It contains washermen, tanners, shoemakers, fisher­
men, etc., who would rank as unclean castes among the Brahmanic
Hindus. It is the practice among Ling&yats o f the present day to
deny that the members o f this third group are entitled to be classed
as Ling&yats at all. They maintain that, since the possession o f the
full ashtavarna rites is the mark o f a Ling&yat, these lower divisions,
who at m ost can claim three or four o f the eight sacraments, are
only the followers or servants o f Ling&yats. The contention is n ot
unreasonable. Y et it seems that these lower orders would be styled
Ling&yats b y the other Hindus o f the neighbourhood and would
describe themselves as such. A classification o f the Ling&yat com ­
munity would not, therefore, be com plete unless they were included.
On this point the evidence o f the Abb£ D ubois(S) is o f interest. H e
wrote : “ Even if a Pariah join the sect, he is considered in no way
inferior to a Br&hman. W herever the linga is found, there, they say,
is the throne o f the deity without distinction o f class or rank ” . This
testim ony o f an observer writing just a century ago seems to indicate
that the disintegration o f the Ling&yat sect is com paratively recent.
Ling&yats o f this third description only marry within their
sub-division. They are described as H alf Ling&yats in the B om bay
Gazetteer.
The chief Ling&yat sub-divisions are as fo llo w s :—
1. Adib&njig or Divatigi. 4. B ad ig .f
2. A g a sa .f 5. Baligar.
3. A m b ig .f 6. B&nj;g.
(1) Bombay Census Report, 1901, Chap, viii, p. 182.
(2) Hindu manners, customs and ceremonies (1906, p. 117).
 1
/ 355 <SL
[L in gayat^ ^
A thnikar or H oliachibalki. GauAchAri.
Chalgeribalki. Guiushtala.
DhulpAvad. K am beya.
Lokabalki or Lokavant, K ayakada,
Shilvaut or Cbilrai-agni. M athapati.
7. B a s u v i* N andi K ola.
8. B urud or M edar.f Pancha-Sin vAsan Adhisli.
9. Chalvadi or H ola y a .f PnjAri.
Stkavara.
10. Chatter. Vastradavaru.
11. DAs or D eod ds.t V ishuti.
12. D h o r .f Virakta or Dhasthala.
13. G an iger.f 22. K a b b a lig a r.f
14. G a u li.f 23. KAchAri.f
15. Gavandi or U ppAr.f 24. K alA van t.f
18. H andevant. 25. K am m A r.f
H andevazir. 26. K u d a v a k k a l.f
H andeyaw a. 27. K n m b h d r.f
H anderaut. 28. K u rub or D h a n g ar.f
H andeguruba. 29. Kurusali.
17. H elav. 30. LAlgonda.
18. H ugar, Jeer, Gurav, Mai- 31. Mallav.'j:
gdr or T otiga r.t 32. N adig or N hA vi.f
19. Ilgar or X alA l.f 33. NAglik or B an ga r.f
34. N ilga r.f
20. JAd, NeyakAr, K oshti or SAli.f 35. N onabar.
BilijAd. Devara-Dasm aya. 36. PanchAchAri.
DevAng ‘ 37. R a d d i.f
H atgar. 38. Sada.
K urvin Sbetti. 39. Saib.
Nilkant. 40. Samgar, Jingar o r ChamAr.f
PadsAli. 41. Sbiva-Shim pig.
PadmaaAli. 42. Shivyogi.
PattasAli. 43. Sungar or CbunAr.
SemasAli. 44. TA m boli.f
21. Jangani, A y y a or Maheshvar. 45. TilAri or TirAli.
GanakuroAr. 46. Turkar.

* A class o f prostitutes, which is disappearing, to ju d g e b y the consus returns.

In the B om bay Gazetteer, 1884, xxii, p. 191, they were said to number “ probably
2 ,0 0 0 ” in the Dh&rwAr District alone. In the 1901 Census they wore returned as
only 7 (male 1, females 6) in the whole Presidency. B u t it is n ot unlikely that
Basavis, as courtezans, return themselves under another name.
f Presumably the Malwaru and Muskin Mallava o f tho 1001 Census. F or this
sub-caste see below (p. 374)
 <SL
x •, *■:!!’; ■ m * s 7! "

LingsyatJ 366
Of the above, the divisions shown under Nos. 6 and 20 are Panch-
amsdli Ling&yats with full ashtavarm rites. The rest are for the most
part non-Panchamsdlis with the full ashtavarm except for recent
converts and divisions corresponding to Hindu unclean castes, e.g.,
Dhors, llgars, etc., who are non-Panchamsdlis without ashtavarm,

Those marked with f are converts to Lingdvatism from Hindu

castes of the same name. Of the rest, a few that require special notice
are briefly described at the end of this article.

Within the endogamoas sub-divisions just described, there are

exogamous sections. Little accurate information is available regard­
ing the nature and origin of these sections, but it appears that in the
higher ranks they are named after five Lingdvat sages— Nandi, Bhringi,
Vira, Vrisha and Skanda*— and in this respect closely resemble, and
are probably imitations of, the ordinary Brdhmanic gotras, or ex­
ogamous groups, which are also named after mythical ancestors.

Marriage The Lingdyats do not allow the children o f brothers to inter­

marry, nor may sisters’ children marry together. Marriage with the
children of a paternal uncle or maternal aunt is similarly forbidden. A
man m ay marry his sister’s daughter, but if the sister be a younger sis­
ter, such a marriage is looked on with disfavour. Marriage is both in­
fant and adult. Sexual license is neither recognized nor tolerated, at
least in theory, but is punished, if need be, b y excommunication.
Polygam y is permitted, but is only usual when the first wife fails to
bear a son.
Birth After a birth a Kabbaligar, Lingdyat, or Mardtha midwife washes
niesm0 Tnot^er and child in warm water, and lays them on a bedrtead.
The family priest ties a linga round the neck of the child and withdraws.
The mother is given dry dates, dry ginger, anise-seed or sh p ( Pint-
pinclla anisum), raw sugar, and clarified butter, and is fed on boiled
rice which is eaten with garlic. She is kept warm b y having a chafing
dish set under her bedstead on which garlic rind is burnt. On the fifth
evening the midwife places in the lying-in room an image of the goddess
Jivati, sprinkles turmeric and redpowder on the goddess, lays cooked
food before her. waves a lamp about her, and carries the lamp under
cover, for if the lamp is seen by anyone but the midwife the mother and
child will sicken. On the twelfth day the child is cradled and named.
Each o f the women who comes for the naming brings with her a robe

* Artal (op. cit. p. 209) gives these as the names of the gotras but gives the names
of the five sages as R ova n ivid h ya , MaruAldradhya, Yeko R&mdvidhya, Pandita-
ddfcya and Vishvavddhya.
i*J 357 [Lingayat
<§L
or a bodice-cloth for the m other, a jacket or a cap for the child, and tw o
halves o f cocoakernel and a pound of Indian miilet, wheat, or spiked
millet.(1)

The rite o f aitdn or initiation is perform ed on the unmarried Aitan

sons o f all Jangams. W hen aitdn is perform ed on a you th he be*
com es fit to hold the highest religious p o s t s ; he m ay becom e a mat-
hadayya or the head of a religious house. A Jangam who has no sons
has the rite perform ed at his expense on one o f the sons o f a lay disciple
who is n ot below the Panckarns&li group. The b oy who is chosen
from a lay Lingay&t fam ily should be o f respectable parents, and his
ancestors, both male and female, even to the eleventh generation should
not be children o f married widows. F or this reason the sons o f malhpatis
or beadles and o f gan&charis or managers seldom undergo initiation or
aitdn. A b oy is initiated when he is between eight and sixteen
years old. The cerem ony takes place a t night, so th at no non-linga-
wearing H indu m ay see it. It should take place in one o f the seven
months from Vaishakh (April-M ay) to Phalgun (February-M arch)
inclusive— on one out o f eight days in either fortnigb t, v i z . the second,
third, fifth, seventh, tenth, eleventh, tw elfth, or thirteenth— on
either a M onday, W ednesday, Thursday, or Friday, and in one o f
the follow ing lunar mansions or nakshatras, viz.—Anuradha, Hast,
Magha, Mrig, Mul, Revti, Rohini, Vltara, Uttardshadha, and Uttar-
bhddrapada. I f the boy is to becom e a Virakt or celibate, his ini­
tiation is performed in the dark half o f the m onth, and when he is
intended to be a Grihasth or householder, the cerem ony takes place
in the bright half o f the m onth. In an initiation the bhuxhuddhi or
earth purifying is the first observance. E ither in a religious house
or a dwelling house a piece o f grouud eleven and a quarter, twelve,
or twelve and three-quarters feet, by six and three-quarters, seven
and a half, or eight and a quarter feet, is dug seven and half to eight
and a quarter feet deep. Bits of stone and tiles and other larger
ob jects which m ay be in the p it are rem oved, and it is filled with
fine earth, which is afterwards beaten hard. A t the same time
the house is whitewashed and painted and its floor is cow dunged.
On the d a y fixed a small bow er with a ca n opy of silk cloth is raised
on the sacred spot. A t the entrance o f the bow er an arch is made of
tw o plantain trees or sugarcane stalks. The floor o f the bower is plas­
tered with yorochan or bezoar, cow dung, clarified cow ’ s butter, cow ’ s
milk, and cow ’s urine, and on it is drawn a large parallelogram with
lines of quartz powder, and within it, three small parallelograms.

(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. xxiii, p. 230.

®
" -r/'Lingayat] 35S
•<SL
Of these the first, which lies farthest from the entrance, measures
three feet and a quarter b y tw o feet and a quarter. I t is covered
with a folded silk or woollen cloth and is set apart for the guru or
initiator. The second or middle one is six feet by tw o and a half feet.
In the centre and at each corner is set a kalash or brass or copper vessel
with a narrow mouth and a dome-shaped bottom . These five vessels
represent the five m ouths o f Shiva and the five gotras or fam ily stocks
which are believed to have sprung from them. The names o f the
five m ouths are Aghor, Ish&nya, Sadyoj&t, Tatpurush, and V&mdev,
and the names o f the corresponding fam ily stocks are Udd&n, Paneh-
vanigi, Padudi, Muthin-kauti, and Mali.* , Of the five jars the Sad-
yojiit is set at the corner next to the guru’s right hand and the V&m-
dev at the com er next to his left hand. Opposite the Sadyoj&t is set
the Tatpurush and opposite the V&mdev the Aghor. In the centre
is placed the Ishfinya. Each ja r is covered with five pieces of cloth—
white, black, red, green, and yellow , and before each o f them are laid
five halves o f dry cocoa-kernels, five dry dates, five betelnuts, five tur­
meric roots, five betel leaves, and five copper coins. The third or last
design, which is not a parallelogram but a square tw o-feet each way,
is close to the entrance o f the bower. This square is covered with
a woollen cloth seat, and is occupied b y the boy, whose head has been
com pletely shaved in the morning, since when he has been naked
and fasting. Near the guru are placed a small brass vessel called
gilalu, a conch shell, and a cane. Behind the b oy sits a man belong­
ing to the boy’ s gotra with a cocoanut in his hands. This man
bows to the guru, and says —“ Excellent teacher, purify this body o f flesh
and b lood .” After him the b oy bows also to the guru, and worships
an earthen vessel filled with water, in whose m outh is a cocoanut
covered with a piece o f cloth. The boy first marks the vessel with
sandal paste, burns frankincense before it, and offers it molasses,
fruit, betelnut, betel leaves, and m oney. A t the end o f the ja r w or­
ship, a string com posed o f five strands is wound five times round the
jars, the guru and the b oy in the following elaborate order, each o b je ct
mentioned being encircled five times before passing on to the n ext:—
Islianya, Sadyojat, Ishanya, guru Ishdnya, Vam dev,
Ish&nya, Aghora, Ish&nya, boy, Ishanya, Tatpurush.
W hen the guru and the hoy are thus seated, the mathpati, or
Ling&yat beadle, worships the lingo, which the h oy wears and his

* In the elaborate scheme of five-fold classifications given TAj1al (°P- ®lt‘

p. 209 (a) ) these names do not occur. For the gotta* he gives Vira, Nandi, Vnshabha,
Bhringi, and Skanda (see ahove). The names given in the text perhaps belong to
his pruvara s (family stocks) for ail of which he curiously gives simply vushaiva.
W
v K p ,
7 359 [Lingayat(fil
1771J
hand and head. H e first washes the b o y ’s linga with seven holy
waters in this order, Gandhodak or sandal paste water, dhulodak or
dust water, bhasmodak or ash water, suvam odak or gold water, rat-
nodak or jewel water, and pushpodak or flower water. H e then washes
the linga seven times with the mixture called panchamrit, or five nec­
tars, namely, milk, curds, clarified butter, honey and sugar. In the
same way he washes the b o y ’s hands and his head. The guru then
gives the b oy a jk o li or beggar’s four-mouthed wallet and a staff,
and tells him to beg alms of those who have com e to witness the cere­
m ony. The b oy is given dhdtubhiksha or m etal alms, that is, gold,
silver or copper coins. After gathering the alms, the b oy gives them
with the bag to his guru, bows low before him, and asks him to return
the bag, promising to obey all his commands to the letter , The guru,
after commanding him to live on alms, to share them with the help­
less, and to lead a virtuous life, returns his bag. The b o y gives him
gold, vessels, and clothes, and gives other Jangams m oney and
clothes. Besides these gifts the guru takes a handful of copper coins
from a heap w orth Rs. 3-8-0, the rest of which is distributed to ordinary
or S&m&nya Jangams. The friends and kinspeople of the b- y ’s
parents present the boy with clothes and vessels ; and he takes a light
repast. N ext morning the b oy ’ s father gives a caste feast to Jan­
gams o f all orders and to friends and kinspeople. Allan can be per­
form ed on one or m ore boys at the same tim e and by the same ini-
tiator.(1)

D iksha, or cleansing rite, is performed on any Panchamali Lin- Eikaha.

g&yat entitled to the ashtavarna rites who wishes to enter into a grade
higher than his own, or to readmit one who has been put out of caste.
In the main points diksha does not differ from aitdn or initiation; the
only difference it that in the purifying it is not necessary that a celi­
bate Jangam should be the performer. His place is often taken by
a family priest. As the person on whom the rite is to be performed
is old enough to pray for himself, no man of his family stock is required
to sit behind him. The diksha rite can be performed on twenty or
thirty persons at the same time. When a person has undergone
this rite and has entered into a higher grade, he or she does not eat
with his former kinspeople. But this contingency rarely arises except
when a girl marries into a higher grade. The ceremony performed at
the time of tying a linga on a child’s neck or arm is also called
diksha.'® 1
2

(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. zxiii, pp. 230—3.

(2) Bombay Gazetteer, Vol, ixiii, p, 233.
 dngayat]
.
360
<SL
ky iJ

\'4rri»ge The choosing of the bride and bridegroom is managed entirely

rites"10 b y the parents. Am ong Ling&yats marriage is much cheaper than
among Br&hmanical Hindus, as no price is paid for the girl. The
offer o f marriage comes from the b o y ’s parents. When a b oy’s father
can afford to pay for his son’s marriage, he goes to a family who have
a daughter likely to make a suitable match. If the girl’s parents
agree, he returns home and tells his wife that he has secured a bride
for their son. A fter some days the b oy’s father, with friends and
relations goes to the girl’s villago, and, through a Malhpati or a Lin-
g&yat Gurav, calls those of his castemen and Jangams who live in the
village. When all have com e and taken their seats at the girl’B
house, a blanket is spread, some grains of rice are strewn on the blan­
ket, and the b o y and girl are made to sit on the rice. A kinswoman
of the b oy ’ s dresses the girl in a new robe bought by the b o y ’s father,
and gives her live piecesof bodicecloth, ou tof which one must bo white,
and the remaining four of any colour except black. The woman dresses
the girl, puts on her a gold ring and other ornaments, and fills her lap
with two cocoanuts, five lemons, five dry dates, five plantains, and
a few betel leaves. The girl’s father presents the b oy with a complete
suit of clothes, including a turban, a shouldercloth, a coat and a gold
ring. The boy and girl then rise, bow to the Jangams and house gods,
and resume their seats. The Jangams on both sides, naming the father
of the b oy and girl, declare to the people that the b oy and girl are
en gaged; and the guests are dismissed with betel leaves and nuts.
This ceremony is called the sakshivike or engagement. N ext day it is
followed by the bashtagi or betrothal. In the betrothal the girl’s
father gives a caste feast, presents clothes to the relations of the
b o y ’s father, and leads them out of the village in procession with
music. When the b oy ’s father reaches home he asks an astrologer to
fix the days on which the wedding rite and other ceremonies relating
to the wedding should take place, makes a list of the days, and sends
a copy of it to the girl’s father. Preparations then begin. On
the first day the laps of five married women are filled with bits of dry
cocoa-kernel, dry dates, soaked gram, and hotel. A grind-stone and
a wooden mortar are brought out, whitewashed with lime, and marked
with stripes of hurmanj or red colour. Before them are laid bits of
cocoa-kernel, dry dates, soaked gram and betel leaves and nuts, and
incense is burnt. The women, whose laps have been filled at a lucky
moment, begin to pound the turmeric roots in the mortar and grind
them on the grind-stone. On another lucky day the marriage booth
is raised, the number of posts in each row being always uneven.
The ornamenting of the booth depends on the parent’s means. When
K '6
l( , <SL
V \

& ) h
361 [LingayalK1^
all preparations are finished, both parties invite their kinswomen to
live with them during the ceremony. A marriage takes five days.
I t is held at the b oy ’s house. On the first d ay the bride and bride­
groom sit together on a blanket, and, about eight at night, a Jangam
begins to rub their bodies with turmeric paste. The rubbing is com ­
pleted b y a party of married kinswomen, whoso first husbands are
alive, after which the bride and bridegroom rub turmeric on each
other. The women wave a light before the pair and chant. This
day if called the arshan or turmeric d a y ; and when the arshan has
been put on, the b oy and girl are considered mndmaklu that is husband
and wife. The second day is called the devkdrya or god-hum ouring day.
The b o y ’s father gives a great dinner to Jangams and friendB; the
marriage garments are laid beside the house god and worshipped ;
the guru’s feet are washed, and the water is taken and drunk b y the
bride and bridegroom and all the family. In a house in which V ir-
bhadra is one of the house gods, the third d ay is called the guggul
or Bdellium gum day. A new earthem vessel is brought to the b o y ’s
house, the neck is broken off, and a piece o f sandalwood set in it,
tipped with oil, and lighted, and camphor and guggul are burnt.
The earthen vessel is held b y a Jangam, and the b oy and girl stand
in front o f them with the image o f Virbhadra in their hands. The
Jangam takes up the vessel, and the b oy and girl carry the god, and,
with music playing in front of them and followed b y a band o f friends,
they go to Basavanna’s temple. In front of the musicians walks
a vadab or bard, dressed in silk, with a dagger in his hand, and an
image of Virbhadra tied at his waist, chanting the praises o f Virbhadra.
A t the temple the pair worship Basavanna, break a cocoanut, lay down
the earthen vessel, and then return to tbe b o y ’s house. N ext d ay
the actual marriage ceremony, the chief feature o f which is the tying
on of the bride’s lucky neck-thread or mangalstUra, is perform ed b y
a Jangam.
Other persons of special positions who ought to attend a LingAyat
wedding are the personal guru, the mathadayya, or head o f the local
religious house, and the panchacharus or “ five pots ” namely the gand'
chdri or manager, the malhpati or beadle, the metigaudu or village head,
the desai or hereditary district revenue superintendent, and the
deshpdnde or hereditary district revenue accountant. A dais or raised
seat called sheshikate or rice-dais is made ready, a blanket is spread
on the dais, and on the blanket women strew rice. On this rice-strewn
blanket the bride and bridegroom are seated. In front o f them
lines o f rice are arranged in the form o f a square, and, at each
com er o f the square and in the centre, a kalash or drinking-pot
* 1100—4#
 '( f i '

is set w ith betel leaves and a betelnut on it, som e molasses and tw en ty-
five cop p er coins, five close t o each p ot. R ou n d th e necks o f the
fou r co m e r drinking-pots tw o strings are five tim es w ound. One
end o f the strings is held b y the bride and bridegroom and the
guru,
other en d b y the w ho sits opp osite them b eyon d the rice
square. Between the teacher and the rice square sits the matha-
dayya metigauda
w ith the on his right and the mathpati on his le ft.
I n the row behind, on each side o f the teacher who holds the threads, sit
dcshpdnde
the gandchdri,
and the dcshpdnde
the on the teacher’s right and
gandchdri
the on the teacher’s left. The bride and bridegroom d o n o t
sit op p osite each other bu t side b y side and n o curtain is held between
them, N ear the drinking p ot in the m iddle o f th e square is set an
image o f Ishvar os Basavanna, and the mangahutra is kept in a cup
o f m ilk and clarified butter. The cerem ony begins b y the
mathpati mangalsutra,
bow ing to the and proclaim ing that it is about
to be tied to the bride’s neck. The bridegroom lays his right hand
mathpati
on the bride’s right hand, th e lays the lu cky thread on the
b o y ’s hand, the gandchdri vibhuti,
drops water, o r cow dung ashes,
and kunku or vermilion on the lu cky thread, and marks the bride’s
forehead with red and the b oys with sandal paste. The teacher gives
the order to tie on the lu cky thread and the gandchdri ties it
on the girl’s neck, and calls Sumuhurta Sdvdhdn, that is, the
m om ent has com e, beware. W hen the priest says Beware, the lu cky
time has com e the guests throw rice over the b oy and the girl. The
gandchdri ties the hems o f the bride’s and bridegroom ’s robes together
and, in the kn ot ties a little rice, salt and split pulse. The teacher
lets g o the end of the tw o strings, ties a piece of turmeric root in to
each o f them, and binds one to the b o y ’s right wrist and the other to
the girl’s left wrist. The married couple fall down before the teacher,
who ends the rite b y dropping sugar into their m ouths. The rice is
given t o the beadle, and first he and then the other four panchah •
chants are presented with five quarter-anna pieces which had been
lying besides the kalashas. On the last evening the bride and bride­
groom ride on one horse in state to a temple of Basava, break a cocoa-
nut before th e god, and return and take off the mar. iage wristlets.
On their return, friends wave boiled rice and curds round the heads
o f the bride and bridegroom and throw the rice t o the evil spirits.
During the passage to and from the temple, when they reach a street
crossing or when th ey pass a ruined house, th ey break a co co a n u t
to th e evil spirits.a)1

(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. xxiii, pp. 233—5.

I' W 'r (CT
363 [Lingayat k ' J
According to their religion, the wearer o f the linga cannot be made Puberty,
impure. As a matter o f fact B om bay Lingayats m ostly observe
ceremonial impurity during a woman’s m onthly sickness, and after
a birth or a death. The feeling about ceremonial uncleanness, which
has its basis in the fear of spirit possession, seems to be stronger in the
north than in the south. Am ong the Lingayats in the south, near
Mysore a woman’s monthly sickness is not considered to cause impurity,
while to the north of Bijdpur in some families women sit b y themselves
on the first day of their monthly sickness and in other families a woman
has to bathe on the first day, and to mark her forehead with ashes.
Hence the Marathi p rov erb :— “ The Lingayat woman puts on ashes
and is pure.” Families in which this rule is kept do n ot let their
women touch the house gods during their sickness. If a Lingdyat
girl comes o f age before she is married, the fact that she
has com e of age is kept secret. W hen a married girl comes o f age
she is seated gaily dressed upon a canopied chair for four to sixteen
days. During this time her kinswomen feed her with sweetmeats
and at the end she is sent to live with her husband. On the last day
the b o y ’s father feasts Jangams and kinspeople. The b o y ’s father
gives the girl a rich robe and the girl’s father gives the b o y a dress.
In the fifth month of her first pregnancy her mother gives the girl,
a green robe and a green bodice, and her kinswomen make similar
presen ts.(1)

The marriage o f widows was one of the points on which Basava Widow
insisted, and was probably one o f the biggest bones of contention r,'marr1'
with the Brdhmans. W idow remarriage is allowed at the present divorce,
day, but the authorities at U jjini see fit to disregard it. Th ey say
that amongst Jangams it is prohibited and that amongst the other
classes o f Lingdyats it is the growth of custom. D ivorce is permissible.
The ordinary law o f Hindus is followed in. regard to inheritance.
A special feature of Lingayat life is the frequency o f adoptions.

The origin and original tenets o f the faith have been discussed Religion,
above. W hat follows is mainly an account o f current beliefs and prac­
tices. The three main objects o f reverence are the linga, the J angam and
the guru. The linga is the stone hom e o f the deity, the Jangam is the
human abode of the deity, and the guru is the teacher who breathes
the sacred spell into the disciple’s ear. The linga worn b y Lingdyats
is generally made of light-gray slate stone, and consists o f tw o discs,
each about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, the lower one about 1

(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. xxiii, p, 235—6.

/ ® , ' • n

f l i t (fiT
. Lmgayatj 364 *J
one-eighth of an inch thick, the upper slightly thicker, and is separated
from the lower by a deep groove about an eighth of an inch broad.
From its centre, which is slightly rounded, rises a pea-like knob about
a quarter of an inch long and broad, giving the stone linga a total
height of nearly three-quarters of an inch. This knob is called the
ban or arrow. The upper disc is called ja lM ri, that is, the water
carrier, because this part o a full-sized linga is grooved to carry off
the water which is poured over the central knob. It is also called
pith , that is, the seat and ptthak the little seat. Over the linga, to
keep it from harm, is plastered a black mixture of clay, cowdung
ashes, and marking-nut juice. This coating, which is called kanthi,
or the covering, entirely hides the shape of the enclosed linga. It
forms a smooth black slightly truncated cone, not unlike a dark
betelnut, about three-quarters of an inch high and narrowing from
three-quarters of an inch at the base to half an inch across the top.
The stone of which the linga is made comes from Parvatgiri in North
Arkot. It is brought by a class of people called Kambi Jangams,
because, besides the linga stone, they bring slung from a shoulder-
bamboo (kam bi) the holy water of the P&t&l-Ganga, a pool on Par­
vatgiri, whoso water Ling&yats hold as sacred as Br&kmanical Hindus
hold the water of the Ganges. A linga should be tied to the arm
of a pregnant woman in the eighth month of pregnancy and to the
arm of a child as soon as it is born. This rule is not strictly kept.
The linga is sometimes tied on the fifth day but generally not till a
day between a fortnight or three weeks after birth. A child’s
linga has generally no case or kanthi; the kanthi is sometimes not
added for months, sometimes not for years. The linga is sometimes
tied to the cradle in which the child sleeps, instead of to the child.
It is rarely allowed to remain on the child till, the child is five or six
years old. Till then it is generally kept in the house shrine along with
the house gods. The linga is worn either on the wrist, the arm, the
neck, or the head. Some wear the linga slung from the left shoulder
like a sacred thread and some carry it in the waistband of the lower
garments. The last two ways are contrary to the rule that the linga
should never be worn below the navel. It is worn either tied round
by a ribbon or in a silver box fastened by a silver chain. Each family
has generally a few spare lingas in stock. The linga is never
shown to any one who does not wear a linga himself. It should
be taken out three times a day, washed, rubbed with ashes and
a string of rudrdksh beads bound round it. A man or a woman
keeps the same linga all through life, and, in the grave, it is taken
out of its case and tied round the neck or arm of the corpse. If the
i f ® ; ! : G t

• 305 . ■'

linga ia accidentally lost, the loser has to fast, give a caste dinner,
go through the cerem ony o f shuddhi or cleansing, and receive a new
linga from his guru. For the cleansing he bathes and washes a Virakt
Jangam ’s feet, rubs cowdung ashes on his head, and bows before him.
H e sprinkles on his b od y th e water in which the Jangam ’ s feet
were washed and sips a little of it along with the five cow-gifts.
T h e Jangam places a new linga on his left palm, washes it with water,
rubs cow dung ashes on it, lays a bel leaf on it, mutters some text*
or mantras over it, and ties it round the neck of the worshipper.
W hen a Jangam loses his linga, the case becom es serious, and many
a Jangam is said to have lost his caste on accou n t of losing his linga.
The guru or religious teacher, the third watchword of the Ling&yat
faith, is either a Virakt or celibate or a Samdnya (ordinary) Jangam.
Their head teacher is the head of the m onastery,at Chitaldurg in North-
W est Mysore. Like other H indu teachers, the head teacher during
his life-time generally chooses a successor, who acts under his orders
so long as he lives. The head teacher m ay belong to any o f th e higher
classes of Ling&yats. H e lives in celibacy in his monastery a t Chital­
durg with great pom p, and receives divine honours from his followers.
H e goes on tour once every three or four years, receiving contribu­
tions, and in return giving his followers the water in which his feet
are washed, which they rub on their eyes and drink. The ordinary
maths or religious houses are under married or unmarried Jangams.
When the head of a religious house is a celibate, or V irakt Jangam, he
is succeeded b y his pupil. These pupils remain unmarried and are
the sons either of married clergy or of laymen, w ho, under a vow or for
some other cause have, as children, been devoted to a religious house1
B oys devoted to a religious house under a vow are called mans or youths.
The gurus or teachers are of five kinds. The guru who ties on the
linga is called the Diksh&guru (from diksha ceremonial purification).
The guru who teaches religion is called the Shiksh&guru (from Shiksha
instruction), and the religious guide is called the Mokshguru (from
Moksha absorbtion into the deity). The guru of the Mokshguru is
called the Gurvinguru or the teacher of teachers and the highest
priest is called the Paramguru or the chief teacher. According to tradi­
tion, Basava taught that there was only one God, namely Shiva. In
practice, like their Br&hmanic neighbours, Ling&yats worship many
gods. First among their gods com es Basava, Basvanna or Basvandev,
the founder of their faith, whom they identify with Nandi or Mah&dev’s
bull. They also worship Virbhadra and Ganpati, whom they consider
the sons, and Ganga and P&rvati, whom th ey consider the wives, of
Shiva, and keep their images in their houses. Besides these members
 ogayat] 306 <SL ^
of Shiva’s family they worship Yellamma* of Hampi inBellari, and
Saimdatti in the Bclgaum district, M alayya,f Mallik&rjun, and
Tulja Bhav&niJ of Tulj&pur in the Nizam’s country.§ As a guardian
against evil, that is against evil spirits, the great rival of the linga
is the sun. W orship of the heavenly bodies was specially forbidden
in the original faith. Shilvants and other strict Ling&yats veil their
drinking water so that the sun may not see it; they say the sun is Brahma.
But common Lingayats worship the sun on new moon day, and the
m oon on full m oon day. Again, according to the books, Basava
removed fasts and feasts, penance and pilgrimage, rosaries and holy
water, and reverence for cows. This change probably never passed
beyond the sphere of books. A t present Bom bay Ling&yats all
fast on Shivrdtra or Shiva’ s Night on the dark thirteenth of Magk
(January-February), and on Nagpanchmi or the bright fifth of
Shrdvan (July-August) and follow their fasts b y a feast. They keep
partial fasts, that is, they take only one evening meal, on Mondays
in Shrdvan (July-August). They make pilgrimages to Gokam and
to U lvi in Kanara where Basava died, to Sangameshvar, to Yellamma
Hill in Belgaum, to Parvatgiri in North Arkot, to Hampi in Bell&ry,
and to Tulj&pur in the Nizam’s country. Contrary to the rule
forbidding the worship of the Sthaviralingas a few devout Ling&yats
even visit the twelve Jyotirlingas at the famous shrines of Sh’ va in
different parts of India. Many Jangams wear rosaries and tell their
b e a d s ; the water in which a Jangam’s feet have been washed is
drunk as holy water or tirth, and Ling&yats show the cow as
much reverence as Br&hmanic Hindus show her. As regards
mediators, Basava’s efforts to drive Br&hmans out of their place as
mediators between men and god have been successful. No Ling&yats
of the first two orders, except that they consult them as astrologers,
ever em ploy or show respect to Br&hmans. But in practice the Jangam
is as much a mediator to the Ling&yat as the Brahman is a mediator
to the Br&hmanic Hindu.
Ling&vats have two peculiar religious processions, the Nandi-
Jcodu or Nandi’s horn and the Vyasantol or Vy&s’ hand. The stoiy

* The origin of Yellamma is obscure. She is now identified with Renuka, the mo­
ther of Parsurim. However,there is also a village godling, Yellavva or Yol-Makkaltas
(mother of seven children, probably crop pests), represented by painted stones in ueius
(C. W. M. Hudson in Joum. Bomb. Anthro. Soo. vii, p. 110.)
■f Presumably the same as Malikirjun who is a form of Shiva.I
I LingAvats atsoworship the village goddess Durgavva and Dyamavva. The
former is simplv PArvati. Tho latter is said to have been a Brihman girl who was
seduced by and married a Holava (one of the untouchable castes) and subsequently
/ ' destroyed him on finding out the deception (Bombay Qaz., 1884, Vol. xxn, p. 80 ).
11 > .
s*r/ M S * •

367 [Lingayat
<SL
n .

about Nandi’a horn is that in a fight with a demon N andi once lost
a horn. His followers found bis horn and carried it in pioceasion.
The horn is n ow a long bam boo pole wound round with strips o f colour­
ed cloth and the top is surmounted by a conical globe. A bou t four
and a half feet from each side of the pole a plank is fastened, and on
each plank is set a brass bull. This is paraded chiefly in the month
of Shrdvan (July-August). Vyasanlol or the hand o f Vyds, the repu­
ted author o f the Purdns. is a hand made o f rags which is tied to Nandi’s
b o m , and is paraded in the streets. Though in theory the linga wearer
is safe from evil spirits, Lingdyats are as much afraid o f ghosts as
other Hindus, and one o f their five holy ashes is specially valued as
a ghost scarer. When a person is possessed, his brow is marked with
ashes from a censer placed before the house image o f Virbhadra,
o r he is sometimes given charmed water to drink. Th ey have also
faith in soothsaying and astrology, and occasionally consult Brdhman
astrologers to find the lucky time to hold marriage and other ceremo­
nies.

Except in religious houses and when a priest is present, the differ­

ent Lingdyat sub-divisions are socially as exclusive as the different
Brdhmanical castes. Their feeling to the Mahdrs, Mdngs, and other
castes deemed impure is in n o way kinder or more generous than the
Brdhman feeling. The theory that nothing can defile the wearer of
the linga has toned down in practice. A com ing o f age and monthly
sickness, a birth and a death are all believed to cause im purity, though,
as among Jains, the im purity is much less thought o f and is much
m ore easily and quickly cleansed than among Brdhmanic Hindus.
That the dead Lingdyat goes to Shiva’s heaven seems to be a practical
belief which has greatly reduced the rites to the dead, and probably
the fear of spirits. Still in practice the linga has n ot been found to
protect its wearers against all evil. Lingdyats consult astrologers,
fear and get possessed by evil spirits, and em ploy knowing men to
cast out spirits, lay ghosts, and counteract charms and spells, little
if at all less freelv than their neighbours among Brdhmanic Hindus.
On the whole, Lingdyats are less fettered than Brdhmanic Hindus by
ceremonial details and observances. They have fewer gods and
have less fear o f the dead, they perform n o mind-rites —Shrdddha and
they allow the widows of laymen to marry. W hen yon have said tl is,
and said that they do not read Brdhmanic h oly books, that they hate
Brdhmans, that, when men meet instead o f calling of Fdm they say
Shamdrthi that is Help Pray, and when you have added that they wear
a linga and n ot a sacred-thread, that the men shave the topk not and
l ( f ?i VfiT
. /UngayaX] soft

do n ot shave the widow’ s head or the mourner’s lip, you have about
exhausted the difference between the tw o parties.<l)
It has been seen that the Lingdyats are believers in the god Shiva
the third person o f the Hindu trinity, signifying the creative and des­
tructive forces in the universe. Thence they derive the phallus or
linga, emblematic of reproduction, and the sacred bull, Nandi or
Basava, found in all their temples, and in all probability the emblem of
strength. The principal Lingdyat ceremony known as the ashtavama
or eightfold sacrament has been already referred to in some detail. The
essentially Lingdyat beliefs and ceremonies, such as the wearing o f the
linga, the worship of the jangam, and the administration of ashtavama
rites are, however, as is usual in India, constantly mingled with
many commonplace Hindu beliefs and customs. It is a common prac­
tice in India for Hindus to worship at the shrine o f MusaLmdn pirt
or saints, and in the same way Lingdyats will com bine the worship
o f the special objects prescribed b y Basava, with the worship of purely
H indu deities, such as Hanumdn, Ganpati, Yellamma, Mdruti
and many others. The investigations hitherto conducted d o not
clearly show how far Lingayat and Hindu rituals are liable to be com ­
bined ; b u t it can be seeurely predicted that the lower orders of the
com m unity, who still keep in touch with the unconverted section of
the caste to which, professionally speaking, they belong, will be found
to adhere in many instances to the beliefs and customs of their uncon­
verted fellow castemen, despite the teaching and influence of the Jan-
gams.
Lingdyats always bury their dead. They make no exception
nie». even in the case o f a leper, or of a woman dying in child-birth. A c ­
cording to the Lingdyat theory, death is a cause o f gladness, the dead
has changed the cares of life for the joys o f Jcailas the heaven of Shiva.
When a Lingdyat dies ana the few rites are performed he is believed by
the people to go straight to heaven. It is well with the dead, and the
L ’ngdyats are less nervous about the dead walking and coming to
worry the living than most Brdhmanic Hindus. Still, the loss to the
living remains. A Lingdyat death scene is a curious mixture. The
Jangams feast with merry music, the widow and children mourn and
bewail the dead. W hen fatal symptoms set in, a malfiadayya or
head of a monastery is called. When he comes, the dying person gives
him ashes and a packet of betel leaves and nuts and says : I go to be­
com e one with your lotus-like feet. When the dying man has breathed his
last wish, the Jangam whispers a text or mantra into his right ear, and(l)

(l) Bombay Gazetteer, Vo), xxiii, pp. 226—9.

 369 [Lingayat
<SL
those who stand round s a y : His soul is cleansed. W hen all is over
the body is bathed and set on the verandah (kaf/a or sopa), and the
brow is rubbed with cowdung ashes. In front o f the b od y a Jangam
sits reading passages out o f the Lingayat scriptures to help the soul
in its flight to heaven. A feast is made ready in the inner room and
the Jangams go in and eat. Before sitting, each Jangam sets his right
foot on the dead head. W hen the feast is over the Jangams are given
money and clothes. The body is dressed in fine clothes and ornaments
and flowers are tucked in the head dress. The body is set in a viman
or gaily canopied chair and sprinkled w ith powder and betel leaves.
The beadle takes a cloth, tears it in tw o, keeps one naif and lays the
other half on the dead face, and seats himself in front o f the chair and
and rings a bell. Properly on the day of the death, but sometimes n ot
until two or three days have passed, the chair is carried to the grave.
The chair is carried b y any four castemen, and the procession is headed
b y a band of music. The poor, though contrary to rule, sometimes
carrv the dead on a bier. W hile the Jangam ’ s feast goes on in the house
of death, the length o f the dead man’s foot is taken and the grave ia
dug. The grave ic of tw o kinds, a married person’s grave and a
celibate’s grave. The grave is nine o f the dead man’s feet long and
five o f the dead man’s feet broad. It is entered b y three steps, the
first step one foot wide and one foot deep, the second step tw o feet
wide and two feet deep, the third step three feet wide and three feet
deep. A t the bottom of the grave is raised an altar one fo o t high and
three feet broad. In the side of the grave, faring either east or north,
a five-cornered niche is cut, each o f the three sides measuring three feet
and each of the tw o sides measuring one and a half feet. On either side
o f the large Diche is a small niche one foot across, for keeping lamps, w " '
Such a grave is called gomukh samddhi or the cow-m outh grave, and
is used for married men. A celibate’s grave is called shikhar mmddhi or
the peak grave. The celibate’s grave has three steps equal in breadth
and depth to those of a married man’s grave, but o f unequal length.
The first is one foot long, the second tw o feet, and the third three feet.
W hen the funeral party com e to the grave the b od y is stripped o f its
rich clothes and ornaments, which are either given to a Jangam or kept
b y the mourners. It is carried into the grave b y tw o kinsmen and
seated crosslegged on the centra] altar. The b od y is generally bare
except for a loincloth and a face cloth. Sometimes it is shrouded in a
sack. In either case the linga is taken ou t of its silver cover. The
cover is given to a Jangam and the linga is tied either round the neck
or round the upper right arm of the b od y. The large niche is partly
filled with ashes and faded bel leaves and flowers that have been offered
a 1109—47
‘( f ) ! VtT
370

to Shiva, and the body is set in the niche, and the niche filled with cow-
dung ashes and fresh bel leaves. The grave is then filled with earth,.
On the grave the beadle lays a stone, and on the stone the Jangam stands
and the chief mourner washes his feet, lays bel leaves on them and gives
him and the beadle each five copper coins. Sometimes the beadle
washes the Sdmdnya Jangam’s feet, lays bel leaves on them, and gives
him five copper coins. Alms are distributed to all Jangams and poor
people who are present. Those who have been at the funeral go home
and bathe. After they have bathed, the mourners wash their teacher’s
feet and purify themselves b y drinking the water in which his feet are
washed. Strictly speaking, Lingdyat funeral rites end with the
purifying of the mourners. In practice the rich, for five days after the
funeral, daily send for a Jangam, wash his feet, and drink the water ;
and do not eat wheaten bread or sugar. On the eleventh day
friends are feasted. Nothing is taken to the grave and there is no
yearly mind fe a s t<l).

Lingayats are bound together b y a strong religious feeling.

Social disputes are settled by the castemen in the presence o f eight
office bearers, namely, the malhaclayya or monastery head, the gana-
chdri or monastery manager, the mathpati or Lingdyat beadle, and
representatives of each o f the five gotras. In social disputes final
appeals are made to the four lion-thrones or simhasans, the north
throne at U jjain in Mdlwa, the east ihrone at Shri Shajl in North
A rkot, the south throne at Balhali in Bellary, and the west throne
at Kolhdpur. The fifth throne which is filled b y the childless Virakt,
is known as the shunya or empty throne.* Appeals to the four
thrones are rare.

Occupa- The Jangams live by begging and on the offerings of the

tion. p e o p le ; the Bdnjigs and Shilvants are shopkeepers and money-lenders,
and most of the Panehamsdlis are husbandmen. Lingayats seldom
entered the army or the police, before the war, when a double com pany
was founded and attached to the 105th Mahrattas at Belgaum Depot.
Previously not many were in Government service as clerks, but that
is probably because they find agriculture, shopkeeping and money-
lending pay better than clerkship. Of late more high class Lingdyat
youths have been entering Government service.1

(1) Bombay Gazetteer. Vol. xxiii, pp. 236—8.

* Here again the constant harping on the number five. The Sinhasam are given
by Artal (op. eit. p. 209) as “ Rambhapuri (Balehalli), Ujainpuri, Shri Shaila Parvat,
Himavat Kedar and Kollipaki (Kashi). ” The last is of course Benares.
 <SL
9 .

371 [Lingayat

Lingayats are strict vegetarians, the staple food being Indian or Pood,
spiked millet, pulse, vegetables, onions, garlic, condim ents, milk
curds, and clarified butter, rice replacing the millets in the Malldd.
As regards eating, a member of any one of the main divisions will
eat in the house o f any member of his own or o f any higher division.
N one o f the divisions below the Jangam eat in the house o f any
m em ber o f an inferior division. B u t in a field, in a rest house, or in
any place except the host’ s house, so long as the host has used a new set
o f earthern cooking vessels, they will eat food cooked b y the host even
though he is of an inferior division. In a math or religious house any
Lingayat without question will eat bread which a Jangam has gathered
in his begging. I f the Jangam has brought it, it is all right, if cooked
b y any lingo, wearer. Though the rule is that a member o f a lower
division is allowed to eat with members o f higher divisions in a reli­
gious house when a Jangam is present, this pri vilege is not granted to all
classes who profess Lingayatism, but only to the higher o f them.
In the same way there is no objection to any ZJw^a-wearing man
com ing into a Lingayat’ s house and seeing the fo o d , but if a
Musalman, or a Maratha or anyone without a linga sees the food it must
be throw n away. This rule applies only to food in one’s own house ;
it does n ot apply to food in the field or in the rest-house.
I t will be gathered from fhe foregoing sketch o f the origin and General
present day social organization and custom s o f the L in g a y a tsrcmark*
th at tkfe'oommunity is virtually an original casteless sect in process
o f reversion to a congeries of castes holding a com m on religion.
It has been held that, in the 11th century, a m ovem ent was
set on foot b y Lakulisa, and spread abroad later b y tw o
Brahmans, Basava and Ram ay y a, devotees o f Shiva, to abolish
the ceremonies aid restrictions th at fettered the intercourse
between the different lanks of orth od ox Hindi-1 s u re ty 0f the period,
and to establish a community on a basis o f th*' equality cf its members
irrespective o f sex, b y means o f th e purifyin g worship o i the one god
Shiva. It seems clear thatthe m ovem ent found special favour in the
eyes o f the Jain traders of the p e r io d /w h o would have im k ed as
Vaishyas, below both Br&hmai priest and Kshatriya warrio under
the Hindu scheme of social precedence. The com m unity encovnt ere(j
the hostility of Jains who remained unconverted, but clung tenac>,U8]y
to its simple faith on the worship ®f Sh iva and in his emblen, the
linga. W e must assume the probability th at the Brahman c o n v ^ ,
o f whose existence we possess historical evidence, tended b y Agreed
to assert for themselves social precedence as Ayy&s ° r„ . J “ gan.B-
i.e., the priests of the com m unity, for which position their hfowi e<*ge
f(fl
LingayatJ 372
§L
and descent would give them special fitness. In time, indeed,
they came to b e regarded as the very incarnations of the. god Shiva,
and thus they were holy, imparting holiness, in a special degree to
the water in which they had bathed their feet, known as tirth, so
that it plays a prominent part to this day in the Liugayat ceremonies.
Once the original notion of universal equality of rank had yielded
to the priest a precedence incompatible with such equality, the way
was prepared for the introduction of further social gradations, and
the older members of the community commenced to claim over
the later converts a precedence modelled on that which the priests
had established against them. In such manner the essential doctrine
o f equality became completely undermined, and in the end gave
place to certain rites and ceremonies as the test of Lingayat orthodoxy.
Thus, when the more recent cases of caste conversion occurred, a
section of a Hindu caste became Ling&yat, n o t as tho founders of
the religion would have wished., b y being admitted to a footing of
equality on the common ground of the worship of Shiva and of his
emblem the linga, but b y investiture through certain rites and cere­
monies with the linga, retaining their distinctive social status as a
functional caste with which other Ling&yats would neither marry or
dine. It must be admitted that in case of moat of the Ling&yat
sub-divisions the Jangam will take food in the house of the members.
B u t here all trace o f the original equality ceases ; and the Ling&yats
of to-day present the curious and interesting spectacle of a jisjjigiqua
sect broken into course of centuries into social fragment?, o f which
the older sections remain essentially sectarian, and the mere recent in
origin possess the typical attributes of ordinary Hmdu castes. As in
the case of Christianity in some parts of India, the social barriers
o f caste have provod too strong for the communil basis of the ortho­
d o x religion.
A D IB A ^JIG S, also called AreMnjijjB, or Ad banjigs derive
tbeir name f rom first and Banjigs. (see below), meaning the
first tradu g Lmg&yats. T h ey are Parehams&li Lingayats with the
ashtavafM rites. Their mam calling ir to trade in grain, cotton and
other oiticles and to retail opi’ijm, bnnp-flowers or gdnja and hemp-
wate- or bhang. In the Bij&ptv- district they hold a few village
jjeP..ships.

BANJIGS from one of the largest of the sub-divisions of Ling&yats.

>rhty derive their name from the Sanskrit vanik a trader, and are
m0sJ1y traders, dealing is grain, spices, sa't, oil, butter and mol­
asses T SUgar' Ttie-V Sre aIso cloth-sellers, bankers, money-lenders
 ; ■ (C l
V4\ ^ ><y □ lj
^ 3?3 [Lingayat
brokers and husbandmen. They are Panchams&li Lingayats with
the ashtavarna rites. They have five main divisions
(1) Shilvant or Chilmi-agni.
(2) Athnikar or Holi&cbibalki.
(3) Dhulp&vad.
(4) Chalgeribalki. %
(5) Lokabaiki.
Shilvants, meaning pure, are called Chilmi-agni s because they put
a cloth over their water-pot when carrying it home. Holidchibalkis
derive their name from the Kanarese holi river and achi beyond and
are com m only found in the towns south of the Krishna. Like the
Shilvants, they put clothes over their water pots when carrying them
home. Dhulp&vads from the Sanskrit dhuli dust and pad foot, are so
called, because they sprinkle their clothes with dust off a Jangam’s
feet. Chalgerihalkis derive their name from the Kanarese chalgeri
village and balki people, their main occupation being husbandry.
Lokabaiki or Lokavant means of the people.

B A SA V IS (l) or Lingayat women devotees derive their name from

Basava, whose devotees they chiefly are. They wear a silver linga
b ox hanging from the neck and rub themselves with white cowdung
ashes or vibhuti. Their main calling is to attend caste meetings and
marriage and other ceremonies, to help women in performing religious
rites, and to wave lighted lamps round the bride and bridegroom.
But m ost of them act as courtezans.

C H A T TE R S are non-Panchamsali Ling&yats entitled to the

ashtavarna rites. They seem to be a branch o f the Ndgliks, though now
they have no connection with the latter. They make and sell bodice
clothes and also cultivate land.

JANGAM S, literally “ m oving,” the Jangam being considered a

human abode of the linga, are divided into Virakts or celibates, Saman-
yas or com mon Jangams, Gandcharis or managers and Mathpatis
or beadles. Virakts, the highest class of Jangams, dedicate themselves
to celibacy, and are not allowed to celebrate marriages. They are
a com paratively small b od y and m ove a bou t the country accom panied
by their disciples. They stop at maths or religious houses, live on
the offerings of the sect, let the hair and beard grow , and wear n o

(1) As mentioned above only 7 persona returned as of this sub-caato in tie 1901
Census. But this is almost certainly inoorroot. Basavis probably return themselves
by some other name.
W W % "
V^^A^Lingayat] 374
(3 t
I ji_ /
cloth hut the loincloth, a cap on their heads with a string of rudrdksh
beads in it, and a long salmon-coloured coat falling to the ankles.
They never intentionally look on the face of a woman. The Sdmanya
Jangam is the ordinary Jangain, who has had the aitan or initiation
performed on him. He is a married man, who conducts marriages,
begs, serves in a temple or lives by agriculture. When a Jangam
goes begging he wears a garter of bells called jang below his. right knee,
and carries a cobra cane or ndgbet staff. Besides the regular Sdmdnyas
five classes of Jangam live by begging. The first of these is the
KugimnarikmAegalu, who sits on a tree and rings a bell all day lo n g ;
the second is the PaMredkdyakdavru, who begs from door to door,
ringing a b e ll; the third is the MullaMyigekdvyakdavru, who, in the
presence of Lingdyats, stands on a pair of wooden shoes, in whose
soles are nails with their points up, and does not com e out of the shoes
till he is paid whatever sum he is pleased to ask ; the fourth is the
Tekkikdyakdavru, who throws his arms round men and does n ot leave
hold until he is paid something ; the fifth is the Mukakdyak, that is the
silent, who feigns dumbness. Mathpati,s or beadles and Ganacharis
or managers are Jangams who hold rent-free lands, and are considered
rather inferior to the regular or Sdmanya Jangams. They have not
undergone the aitan or initiation. They sometimes marry writh one
another, but regular Jangams d o not marry with them Their duties
are humble. The Mathpati brings for the Lingdyats bel (Aeyle mar-
melos) leaves on Mondays, Thursdays and holidays, and the Ganachdri
celebrates widow marriages, an office which the Sdmanya Jangam
refuses. T o these functions the Mathpati adds the office of corpse
dresser, and the Gandchd,ri the duties of a messenger who makes known
the wishes of the Virakt, the head of the religious house. If a Ga-
ndchdri or Mathpati b oy has the initiation or aitan performed on him
ho becomes a Sdmanya Jangam and abandons his former duties.
Jangams eat n ot only in the house of any member of the Lingdyat
sect, but in the house of any linga- wearing member of any other caste,
except Lingdyat Chalvadis or Mahars.
MALLAVAS are a Lingdyat caste found in Belgaum, Dharwdr
and the Kanara districts. The name Mallava is by some derived
from malndd, meaning hilly country, where the Mallavas are said to have
formerly resided. Other Lingdyats allege that they were called Mal-
lavds or dirty people, because they did not adhere strictly to the rules
o f the Lingayat religion1. The Mallavas, on the other hand, style
themselves Virchaiva Kshatriyas, basing their,claim to be twice-born
warriors on the position that they formerly occupied at Sonda a),
(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. xv,partll,p. 120. Jn the genealogical tree of the fioti-
d» chiefs aro found the pure Lingdyat names Basawalinga Raja and Madholinga.
I®
X] ^ ^ / S76
<
[Lrag&yat
S
L
Bilgi and Ikkeri, whose chiefs were o f the Mallava caste. Buchanan
describes how the ruling family at K ilidi, which afterwards m oved to
Ikkeri and Bednur, were originally the heads o f five or six villages
near Kilidi, and were o f the Mallava caste.0 * One o f them, Bhad-
racondi, entered the service of Krishnaraya o f Vijayanagar, and
assumed the title of Sad&shiva Ndik. Evidence seems to show that
the Mallavas were originally Jains, and were converted to Lingdyatism
in the 14th and 15th century. They will still admit Jains into their
caste,or at least did so until quite recent times.
There are five endogamous divisions o f the caste w ho eat together,
but d o not intermarry. They are *.—
1. Muskin Mallava.
2. Nir Mallava.
3. Balsad Mallava.
4. K odag or Coorg Mallava.
5. Bandi or Gaudi Santdn.
Of these, the Balsad and Coorg Mallavas are n o t found in this
Presidency. The Muskin Mallavas take their nam e from the Kana-
rese Mushik, a cover or veil, the nam e having apparently originated
in the custom of their women covering their faces like Musalmdns.
Another custom peculiar to this division is that womeD must carry
water on the waist, and n ot on the head. The violation of this rale
is punished with excommunication. The Nir Mallavas (Kanarese niru,
water) are so named because they cover their water-pots with a cloth
when bringing water from a well. The Bandi or Gaudi Santdn Malla-
vas are the offspring o f Mallava widows and women who have gone
astray, the division thus corresponding to the K adu or bastard d ivi­
sions o f other castes. Of the three divisions o f the Mallavas found
in the Presidency, the Muskins are the social superiors of the other
two.
The Mallavas claim the five usual gotras o f th e Lingayats, viz.,
Nandi, Skanda, Vir, Bringi and Y rish a ; but it is doubtful whether
marmige is in any way affected by gotras so named. They have certain
exogamous divisions named after the god worshipped b y the section,
such as—
Basava Ishvar Togarsi Mallappa
Gudda Mailar Virbhadra
G utti Nandi.
(1) Buchanan’s Mysore, III pp. 253*64.
I HI <SL
■ GOiv \ ■ ■ - .

P g ^ K n g a y a t] 376
o f which the Gutti section is looked on as inferior, and marriage is not
favoured with members of this section.

Mallavas are non-Panchamsiili Lingayats entitled to the ashta-

varna rites. Their priests are Jangams, but Brahmans are also called
in Dharwar. They worship Shiva, P&rvati, Gaupati, Basava and their
guru or spiritual guide. Offerings o f goats and fowls are made to
Mari&i through the medium o f other persons. Bhutapa, Huliapa,
Chawdi, Birupa, Jebapa are the powers, they think, that protect
their farms. They are stones which are worshipped. Annually
offerings of rice, plantains and even o f food and o f goats are made.

M ost o f the Mallavas are land-holders and pdtils or village head­

men. They own rice and sugarcane fields and betelnut gardens.
None o f them work as day labourers. Some are traders.

SA IB S are a class of Lingayat courtezans, though nearly half des­

cribed themelves as Hindus at the Census o f 1901, and appear to
have com e from Gulburgk in the N izam ’s Dominions where some of
their caste are still settled. The name is held b y some to be a corrup­
tion o f Sahib and is the Hindustani equivalent o f Ndikin, the local
term for courtezans. B ut a more probable derivation is Shaiva, the
letters V and B being interchangeable. They still eat and inter­
marry with the Saibs of Gulburga. Like Kalavants and other classes
o f courtezans, they recruit from all Hindu castes except the impure
classes. Their surnames are Bkikshada and Parivarda. Families
bearing the same surname do not intermarry. G ood looking girls
become prostitutes, the less favoured girls marry. Girls who are to
become courtezans, when between 8 and 12 years old, are invested
with anklets o f small brass bells called gage. They are non-Pancham-
s&li Ling&yats entitled to the ashtavarna rites. Their religious teacher
is the head of the Chitaldurg monastery.
The following occupations explain the nature o f many o f the sub­
castes shown on pp. 354-355 :—
Agasa ...Washermen.
A m big . .Fishermen and ferrymen.
Badig . . Carpenters.
Baligar . . Copper and brass smiths.
Burud or Medar . . Mat and basket makers and bamboo
splitters.
ClialvM i or H olaya. .Village watchmen and menials.
D&s or Deod&s . .Religious beggars.
D hor .. Tanners.
t®f ■ 377
<SL
[Lodha ‘ ’
Gatuger . . Oil-pressers.
Qauli ..M ilkm en.
Gavandi or U ppar . .Masons.
H andevant .. Husbandmen.
H elav . . Beggars.
Hugar, Jeer, Gurav,
Malgar or Totigar. Temple ministrants, musicians, flower
sellers.
Ilgar or Kal&l . . Distillers and liquor sellers.
JAd, Nayak&r, K oshti
or S&li . . W eavers.
Kabbaligar . . Fishermen,boatmen, palanquin bearers.
K&ch&ri . .Glass bangle-makers.
K alavant . . Dancers and singers.
Kamrn&r . . Blacksmiths.
K udavakkal ..H usbandm en.
Kumbh&r . . Potters.
Kuruba or Dhangar. .Shepherds and wool weavers.
Kurs&li . .W eavers.
Lfilgonda . . Cultivators.
Nadig or Nhavi . .Barbers.
N&glik or Bangar . . Cotton thread dyers.
Nilgar ..D y e rs .
Raddi ..H usbandm en.
Sada .. Cultivators.
Samg&r Jingar or
Cham&r . . Leather workers.
Shiva-Shimpig . .Tailors.
Sungar or Chunar ..M asons.
T&mboli . . Betel-leaf sellers.
Til&ri or Tirali , . Husbandmen.
L IN G A W A N T .— A synonym for Lingayat.

L O D H A S or Lodhis, numbering 1,585 (1901), including 802 males Name »n<J

and 783 females, are found principally in Ahmedabad, K4thiaw;ir or‘8m‘
and P&lanpur. A few families are found in other districts of Gujar&t,
and they have even penetrated in small numbers to the Deccan and
Southern MarAtha Country. The caste is well known in the Cen­
tral and United Provinces. I t has traditional connection with Ludhi­
ana in the Punjab, and has been settled for a long time in Bundel-
khand. From the extent to which the caste has assimilated local
ouatoms it seems probable that it oame into GujarAt and Kathi&wAr
a 1109—48
 _ ; ' /' . /f

|( 1 )f ^ ’ (fil
<< Lodha] 378
in the time of the Mughal Emperors, or possibly earlier. Like
their fellows in Lalitpur of the United Provinces, they claim the title
of TM kur.l Hindustani is still their home tongue. They are
agricultura labourers.

Bndogam- The caste contains numerous endogamous divisions, of which two.

divisions, ■laria and Patariha, apparently are common to them and to the main
body of the caste, while Juruigadhi is named after the State of Jun&gadh
in KAthiawar.

Marriage Marriages are prohibited within five or six degrees of relationship.

Marriage with the wife’s sister after the death of the former is allowed,
arid tw o brothers are allowed to marry two sisters. Polygam y is
allowed and practised, but, polyandry is unknown. Girls are
married before they come of age. There is no restriction of age
in the case of boys. The offer of marriage comes from either side.
Amongst the Gujarat Lodhas, the b o y ’s father has to pay
a sum of Ks. 50 to the girl’s father as stridhan (woman’s
property). The day for the marriage is fixed by an astrologer.
The ceremony is conducted b y the caste priest. The demk or marriage
guardian of the GujartLt Lodhiis is a cobra,a picture of which is drawn
on a low wooden stool and worshipped on the day before the marriage.
The other ceremonies are as follows :—

1. Vivdha karvo or the betrothal.— In which the marriage

declaration is made in the presence of castemen and sugar is distri­
buted.

2. Sarbal pivun (drinking syrup).— In which the girl is

made to worship Ganpati, and marriage invitatoin cards are exchanged
b y the fathers of the b oy and the girl, after which they drink water
sweetened with molasses.

3. Mandap muhurta.— In which a mandap or marriage

porch is erected and a bam boo post, to which are tied a bough of
shami (Prosopis spicigera), a turmeric root, and an iron ring, is plan­
ted in the booth.
4. Darechi.—A white stick about one and a quarter yards
in length and a wheat stalk are kept standing against a w a ll; and the
priest, smearing the palm of his right hand with red powder, presses
it bn the wall over the top of the stick.
5. Pithi oholvi.— The rubbing the boy and" girl with turmeric
paste. /
6. Varat.— The procession of the bridegroom.
(9P ; 370
• §L
[Lodha '
7. Lagna s&dhana or the marriage p r o p e r.— This does not
differ from the standard marriage cerem ony o f the lower castes of
Gujar&t, the essential portion being mangalphero or walking round the
sacrificial fire.
The marriage ceremonies of the Deccan Lodh&s differ greatly from
those of the Gujarat Lodhas. Their devak or marriage guardian
consists of five pinches of earth picked from five places, which they
bring home and place near the house gods. This cerem ony seems to
have been adopted b y imitation from the neighbouring castes in the
Deccan. On the marriage day the b oy is rubbed with turmeric
paste by his sister. N ext, the b oy ’s sister goes to the girl’s house
and rubs the girl with turmeric, and th e b o y ’s and girl’s relations
dine together. The girl’s father presents the b o y ’s sister and
his own daughter with a robe and bodice, and th ey return to their
houses. The b o y ’s maternal uncle gives a dinner at the b o y ’s hous-
The uncle comes leading a bullock with a bag of rice on twenty-
five earthep jars and tw o flower-pots. Red po;uer rubbed on
the bullock’s brow and garlands are hung from i* neck. One of the
party walks into the house carrying the grain a8> followed b y another
who sprinkles water after him as he walk The bag is laid in front
o f the house gods. The b oy’s fa th ei-autw a (Butea frondosa)
branch about three feet long in hif^wn marriage porch and another
in the girl’s marriage porch. J3 cu ^s h)ur boles in each branch,
fixes a ladle or pali in each holeand fil)s the ladles with oil and lights
them. The twenty-five eart*n i ar« are PiIed near the house gods.
The boy is dressed in new c l ^ cs and a marriage coronet or bashing,
he is seated on a horse, a m takf;11 in procession to the girl’s. When
the bridegroom reaches th bride’s house, the girl’s sister takes the
girl in her arms and m a ^ ber throw five balls o f rice and molasses
at the b o y ’s marriage jron et. The b o y is taken off the horse,
and the girl’s father t‘iches bis brow with red pow der and presents
him with a new waist10*!1 and turban. Each o f the b o y ’s near male
relations is presented bbh a waistcloth, and the b oy is taken and seated
in a neighbouring hcse 011 a cofc>the other guests on a blanket round
him- A dish of ^rm>celli *or shevaya is brought for the. boy,
but it is all e a t e n other children, the b oy getting none of it.
The girl’s brother’s ^ com es with a wooden pestle, and asks the b oy
to help herin pound1? rice- The b oy touches the pestle, and the girl’ s
brother’s wife standfvvitl1 the pestle, repeating a song. When the boys
have done eating te vermicelli the bridegroom puts one anna into
the dish, and, excer the b oy and girl, all eat and take a nap.
A t daybreak the fi9 ladles in the 'Pa^
m branch are lighted and Site
Hi)1
\V<n)>^bodha] 380 ' NT k^* J
earthen jars are placed near them, one of which is filled with cold
water. In front of the jars the priest traces a square made with lines
of wheat flour and red and yellow powder, and the b oy and the girl
sit on the square close to each oth er, the girl to the right of the boy. TheD
the b o y ’s relations present the boy with clothes and money. This is
called giving away of the bride, or kanydddn. The b o y and girl go
six times round the palas branch, and stopping, ask the
guests if they should take the last or seventh turn. The guests
say ‘ Take the turn, ’ and as soon as the turn is com pleted the priest
utters the word sdvadhdn, or beware, and the boy aDd the girl are hus­
band aDd wife. In the evening a feast is held. After the feast the
boys goes to his house with the girl in a palanquin, himself walking on
foot with the guests. When they reach the b oy’s house, curds and
cooked rice are waved round their heads and the b oy’s father presents
them with a couple of rupees, rice is piled in a heap, and the b oy kicks
, tne „np five times with his right foot. On the following day the
| marriage f cavities encj with a feast at the boy’s house.

The remarr^g < widows is permitted. The Gujdrat Lodhds

follow the custom of a -idow marrying a brother o f the deceased
husband. Should a bache., (loa;ro to marry a widow he is first
married to a shami treo (k-^opis spicigera). Divorce is not
permitted.

Am ongst the Gujardt Lodhds iie Bons inherit the property

of the father. If there is no son, the proarty ja inherited by daughters.
In the absence of both, it is inherited hy nephews. And in the
absence of all, it goes to the caste.

Religion. The Lodhds are Hindus of the V a r a v a sect. But their

family deities are the maids or goddesses. T„ family goddess of most
of the Deccan Lodhds is the Bhavani o f T|j^plir They observe
all the H indu holidays and make pilgrimages t all the sacrecf piaces
of the Hindus. Musalmdn saints are vene^e(f The Gujardt
Lodhds offer a goat to Devi by cutting one o l ta eara ancj 8etting
it at liberty near her temple, on the seventh dy Df the ]atter half
of Bhadrapad. Goats and fowls are also offered^ goddesses when
an epidemic breaks out. Their priests are Upp, India Brdhmans.
The religious teachers o f the Gujdrat Lodhds are jjC ^ chdryas of the
Rdmdnandi sect.

The dead are burnt. The ordinary funeralrjtes are observed.

The shrdddha and rmhdlaya aro performed for th propitiation of the
deceased ancestors. '.
 381
X
[Lohana
§L
The Lodh&s earn their livelihood aa cart drivers, thatchers, m oney­
lenders, fuel-sellers, husbandmen and day labour ers.

They eat fish and the flesh of goats and sheep and drink liquor. pood,

LODHI.— A synonym for Lodha.

LODHI ALKARI.-A sub-division of Alkaris.
LOHAGAR.— A sub-division of Kabbaligars.
LOHANAS, Lavdnds or Luvdnds, numbering 562,261 (1901), in- Name and
eluding 296,754 males and 265,507 females, are found principally in ongm'
Sind, Gujarat*and Cutch. “ They are also found in the Punjdb,
Baluchistdn, Afghanistan, the eastern parts o f Central Asia, and on
the Arabian coast, amongst a barbarous and hostile people enduring
all kinds of hardship and braving no little danger in pursuit of
wealth They are also known as Yaishes, Vdniyds or Banias and
Bhdibunds in Sind. The more educated among them are generally
called Amils in Sind. The term Lohdna is said b y some to com e from
Lava, son of Rdm , the well-known hero o f the Ram dyan, from whom
Lohdnds claim descent. There is another tradition regarding the
origin o f the term, which is as follows.

The sub-division of Kshatriyas known b y the name of Rdthors

were b y reason of relentless persecution obliged to take up arms
against Jaichand, R dja o f K a n a u j; being conscious o f their weak­
ness, they prayed to god Vam na and invoked his blessings. God
Varuna, being pleased with their devotion, granted their prayer and
spoke to them thus :—
“ E arly tomorrow morning at a distance o f a kos and quarter
you will see a big iron fort. Go and take shelter inside it and
after sixteen days you will subdue you r enemy. A fter that
time, leave the fort, which will disappear after twenty-one days.
Then build another fort and tower and settle there and you
will thenceforth be called Lohdnds instead o f R dth ors.”

The prophecy was fulfilled in every detail. After the defeat of

Jaichand the Rdthors built a tower on the site of the battlefield and
called it Lohgarh (afterwards Lahor), and the Rdthors who lived there
became known as Lohdnds (belonging to the iron fort).

Lohdnds probably belong to the Lohanis who form erly held the
country between the Sulaimdn hills and the In d u s.f Mr. Beal identi-

* Burton’s Sind, 314. f Beal’s Travels o f Fa Ilian (A. D , 400),

11 <SL
co w v . * " ;

1
V Lohana] 382-

fies the Loh&nfis with the Lohas o f the Hindus and the Loi o f the
Chinese. They are probably the same as Lamdnis, the great tribe of
carriers, as held b y the late Mr, A . M. T. Jackson (see L a m a n i ). Their
original home appears to be Lohokat in Mult&n in the Punjab, whence
they were driven b y the Musalmans into Sind, and afterwards,
about the thirteenth century they migrated to Cutch.*

Exo- Loh&nds have a number of exogamous divisions called nukfm,

samouH the chief o f which are as follows :—
divisions.
Ad Thakar, Chanaran or Kakada. Sachdev,
Adora. Chug. Kanabar. Saja.
Aiya. Chande Bhamar. Kariya. Sapta.
And Kath. Chande or Kesarya. Sejpar.
Anuda or Adhi- Chandam. Kath. Sodha.
ya. Chandeya or Katra. Som Pallan.
Asar Pota. Chandebar. Kemtak. Somaiya.
Atha. Chandi Bham- Khakhar. Someshwar,
Bat* bhor. Pallan. Sonagal.
Bhagde. Chhabriya. Pancham Gane- Sonagela.
Kotecha. Chhata or tre. Sonaiya.
Mahidhar. Chhabria. Pandh. Soneta or
Mamotia. Cholera. Pandit. Soneja.
Manak. Daiya. Pandit Potra. Sonpar.
Mangeya. Dauda. Pau. Sota.
Manikram. Daudiya. Phulbandhwa. Swar.
Manda. Dhabaum. Ponda. Talariya or Tola.
Nainsonaya. Dhadhu. Popat. Thakra or
Naram. Dhaun. R a (Kundhaliya). Thakral.
Bliajaj. Gandha. Yaduwa.
Bhala. Hidocha. Ravasiya or
Bhinde. Hurmatia. Ratandhaira.
Chanabhata. Joban Potra, Ruparcl.
Marriages are prohibited between members belonging to the same
nulch and within five or six degrees of relationship on the mother’s side.
In Sind, the Arails take daughters from non-Amil Lohanas but do
not. give eirth daughters to them in marriage. A few instances are
however known in which Amils have given their daughters to non-
Amils on account o f poverty. Am ong Gujar&t Lohands marriage is
generally infant, in Sind it is adult. Polygamy is permissible, but
polyandry is unknown. The remarriage of widows is permitted,
though it is looked upon with disfavour by the higher sections of the

* In d . i i i t . V . 171,
(((i l ■ 383 [Lohana
(St
com m unity. A widow cannot marry a member o f her deceased
husband’s or father’ s section nor can she marry either a bachelor or
any resident of her deceased husband’s village. In Sind, marriage
with a deceased husband’s brother is com m on, though it is n ot com ­
pulsory. D ivorce is strictly prohibited.
The marriage and other ceremonies o f Lohanas are similar to Marriago
those o f Bhdtias. In Gujardt, the widow remarriage cerem ony con-
sists in the bridal pair looking at each other’ s face in an earthen pot
containing water with a ghi-fed lamp kept burning in the pot. The
widow also puts on new chuda bangles. In Cutcli the cerem ony con ­
sists in the widow filling a water p ot from a well, tank or river in her
new husband’s village and going to his house with this water pot.
In Sind, the ceremony is performed in a secluded spot outside the vil­
lage. A virgin girl ties the ends of the couple’s garments into a knot
and sets fire to a buio or shrub. The couple walk three times round the
shrub, thus completing the ceremony.
Lohdnds are Hindus o f the Valldbhdcbarya, Swaminardyan, ileligion
Devi and Daryapanthi sects. Most of the Sind Lohdnds are followers of
Guru Nanak, the founder o f the Sikh religion. Their fam ily goddess
is Randel Mata and they are devout worshippers of D arya Pir, the
spirit o f the Indus, who is said to have saved them when they fled from
Multan. In Gujarat, every Lohana village has a place built in honour
of this Pir, where a lamp fed with clarified butter is k ep t burning day
and night, and where in the m onth of Chaitra a festival is celebrated.
The Clutch Lohanas worship b y preference R am , being the father o f
Lava, from whom they claim descent. The priests o f Gujarat Lo-
hdnds are the Gujarat Sarasvat Brahmans, who are n ot received on
terms o f equality by other good Brahmans as th ey eat with L o ­
hdnds. The priests of Sind Lohanas are the Sindi Sarasvat Brah­
mans, who are n ot lowered in social estimation although they eat with
their patrons, as the restrictions on eating with other castes are not so
rigid in Sind as in Gujardt.

Lohanas believe that they were originally soldiers and states Oceupa
men and that when their power declined they took to trade and o th e r t,on'
callings. They are now bankers, merchants, grain dealers, shop­
keepers, Government servants, agriculturists and labourers. Of the
Sind Lohdnds, Burton says, “ U ncom m only acute in business, some
have made large fortunes in foreign lands. In Afghdnistdn they are
patient and persevering, little likely to start new ventures, cautious
and perhaps a trifle a p a th etic.” *
iHUi;.- i f •

♦Burton’ s Sind,'k3l 6-317.

11 ,
HI., Lohar] 384 §L
Food. Those of the Gujarat Lohanas who are Vaishnavs do not eat flesh
or drink liquor. Others eat the flesh of goats and sheep only and have
no objection to taking wine, though in Cutch these practices have,
recently been prohibited. The Sind Lohdnds also eat the flesh o f the
deer, antelope, partridge, talur (H oobara bustard) and acli (a water*
fow l). They eat both pakki and kachhi, drink and smoke with Sondrs
and Wdnhans whom they consider as their social inferiors, and with
Sarasvat Brahmans, the highest well-known caste in Sind. A ccord­
ing to one report the Sind, Lohdnds admit outsiders into their caste
provided they are not Bhdts, Bhogris, Sonars, Ods, Jdjdks and other
low caste men.

Name and LOHARS (Luhars) or Blacksmiths, from the Sanskrit lohakar

origin- WOrker in iron, numbering 115,622 (1901), including 59,126 males
and 56,196 females, are found in all parts of the Presidency. They
have the following endogamous d ivision s:—
1. Gujarati. 4. Mardtha.
2. Kanada Lohdrs or Kamdrs. 5. Panchdl.
3. Konkani.

They are described below under Mardtha, Konkani, Kanada

and Gujarat Lohars.
The caste is known as Lohars in the Marathi-speaking districts,
Lohdrs or Luhars in Gujardt, and Lohdrs or Kamdrs in the Kanarese
districts. Though the Maratha, Gujarat and Kanada or Kanarese
Lohdrs follow the same occupation, they are three distinct castes,
speaking a different language and neither eating nor marrying with
one another. Besides these three, there are two more divisions
closely allied to the Mardtha Lohars, (1) Konkanis, or those
residing in the Konkan and (2) Pdnchdls, a class of Mardtha Lohdrs
claim ing a superior status.
Occu- The hereditary occupation of Lohdrs is making and repairing
pation. agricultural implements, for which they are paid b y the villagers in
grain and sometimes hold land for service on a small quit-rent. They
also make locks, key-latches and similar articles o f iron. In the Bel-
gaum district some are skilful workers in brass, silver and gold, and
som e make excellent images o f Hindu gods. Owing to the decline
in their trade, due to foreign com petition, some of the Gujardt
Lohdrs have becom e silversmiths and carpenters. In Kanara also
some have taken to carpentry.
M A R A TH A L O H A R S claim decent from Manu, son of Vishwakar-
ma, the architect o f the gods. They are obviously an occupational caste
/# p % \ n

385 [Lohar

evolved from the same tribe or tribes as the other occupational castes
of the Deccan, and, like many o f them, have still traces o f devaks
or gods o f the exogamous sections. They appear to have no endoga-
mous divisions except in Shol&pur, where they are split up into seven
groups (1) Akuj, (2) Kalsabad, (3) K&rnle, (4) Pakalghat, (5)
Parv/ile, (6) Shinde and (7) Tingare, who neither eat together nor
intermarry. Their exogamous sub-divisions are identical with sur­
names. The commonest surnames are as follows :—
Agar. Chor. K61e. Popalghat.
Akus. G&dekar. Ramble. S&lpe.
Ambekar. Gaikv&d. KAngle. Sonavane.
Ankush. Gavli. Kavare. Suryavanshi.
Bhadke. Javane. Lokhande. Thorat.
Bhorant. Jagt&p. Mane. Tingare.
Ch&mphak- Jadhav. Navugire. Vasav.
drande. Kalsdit. Pavdr.
Chavan.
Marriages are prohibited between members having the same
surnames. Marriage with a father’s sister’s or m other’ s sister’s
daughter is not allowed. A man may marry his maternal uncle’s
daughter. Marriage with a wife’s sister is allowed, and brothers are
allowed to marry sisters. Polygamy is allowed, b u t polyandry is
unknown. Girls are generally married between seven and twelve,
boys between twelve and twenty. D ivorce is allowed if the husband
and wife do not agree, if the husband suffers from an incurable
disease or when the wife is unchaste. A woman divorced for adultery
with a casteman can marry again by the widow remarriage form.
I f the offence is committed with a member o f another caste, she is
excommunicated.
The birth, death and marriage ceremonies of Mar&tha Lohars
are similar to those of the Maratha Kunbis. In some places, boys
are girt with the sacred thread a couple of days before marriage.
Their devak consists o f sdndas or a pair o f tongs, the hdtoda or hammer
and the pdnchpdlvi or leaves of five kinds of trees. Some perform
a ceremony called Vir on the day of the installation o f the devak,
in which a person becomes possessed o f the spirit o f a deceased
ancestor of the family. A goat is sacrificed to the Vir, and his
brow is marked with the blood of the victim .
The remarriage of widows is permitted with the sanction o f the
caste headman. A widow cannot marry her father’s sister’s, mother’ s
sister’ s or m other’s brother’s son or a member o f her deceased husband’ s
section. The ceremony is attended by relations on both sides, the
» 1X09—49
 (fiT
o h a r] 386

caste headman and the caste priest. The widow is dressed in a white
robe and ornaments and is seated along with her intended husband
on a ninth or bullock’s packsaddle or a low wooden stool used for
preparing shevaya, vermicelli. Ganpati. andVaruna are worshipped,
the widow’ s lap is filled, and the ends of the pair’s garments are tied
into a knot by the priest, this being the binding portion o f the cere­
mony. After this, in some places, the newly married pair are made
to drink milk from the same cup. Next, they proceed to bow to the
house gods and elders. On the following day a feast is given to the caste
people. A bachelor is not allowed to marry a widow, except in
K M ndesh, where he can do so after marrying a, rut (Calotropis
gigantea) bush or a ring,
Maratha Lohars follow the Hindu law of inheritance
and belong to the Hindu religion. Their family deities are Bhavani,
Khandoba, Vithoba, Jotiba, Mahadeva, Jan&i, Bahiroba and Kalika.
They observe all the Hindu holidays, worship all the plants and
animals held sacred by the Hindus, and visit places of Hindu pilgrimage.
E xcep t in some places where they have priests o f their own caste,
they employ Deshasth Brahmans for religious and ceremonial purposes.
E xcept in Belgaum where they are vegetarians, they eat the flesh
o f goats, sheep, fowl, deer, hares and fish, and drink liquor. They eat
kachhi and pakki and drink water with Mar&tMs, M&lis, Adnis and
D h angars; and Malis, Kolis, Dhangars, Nhhvis, etc., eat pakki and
kachhi and drink with them.
In dress, language and other particulars they resemble Maratha
Kunbis.
Konkani K O N K A N I LO H A R S are also known as D M vads in the S&vant-
Lohta. v&<ji State. Their exogamous divisions are m ostly local in origin.
The chief of them are—
Bh&ladye.
CMmphekar. Kolambekar. Ravut.
Cliandarkar. jMasurkar. Savandekar.
Gulekar. P&n&lkar. Shrivankar.
Marriage with a mother’s sister’s or m other’s brother’s daughter
and their descendants is not allowed so long as kinship can be traced.
A man may marry his deceased wife’s sister. Instances o f brothers
marrying sisters are unknown. Girls are generally married from five to
twelve, boys from five to twenty-five. The b o y ’ s father has to pay a
bride price o f from Rs. 5 to Rs. 50. The whole caste is said to have
the same devak, viz., kalamb (Anthocephalus Cadumba) for which they
show their reverence by not gutting it nor biirning its wood. Their
 (c t
387 [L o h a r *

marriage ceremonies are similar to those o f the Mar&tha Kunbis,

but less detailed. W idow s are allowed to rem arry with the sanction o f
the caste punch. The intended husband o f the widow feasts the m em ­
bers of the panch and presents the widow with a robe, the wearing of
which makes them husband and wife. Then the w idow starts for her
new home, and on the village boundary a cock is sacrificed to appease
the spirit of the deceased husband. A bachelor is n ot allowed to m arry
a widow. D ivorce is allowed with the sanction of the caste panch. A
divorced woman is not allowed to marry again. In religion Konkani
Lohars do not differ from Mar&tha Lohars. Their priests are either
Deshasth or Chitpavan Brahmans. Those who can afford it, burn
their dead. The rest bury them in a sitting position with face to
the south. F or the propitiation of childless ancestors and those
who have died a violent death, one o f the tw o ceremonies called
ddnkevar kddhane and mdl Idvane is perform ed on the thirteenth
day after death or later. In the form er cerem ony the mourners go
to the burning ground with the village Gh&di, who offers a cocoa
nut and sacrifices a cock on the spot where the corpse is burnt. The
cocoanut and the trunk o f the cock are given to the Gh&di, and the
party return home. A t night a Kum bhar fills a mdnd, th a t is, spreads
a square piece o f cloth on the ground, over which are laid some rice
grain, a cocoanut and some copper coins. N ext, amid beatings o f
drums the Kumbh&r makes certain invocations, in answer to which the
spirit o f the deceased is supposed to com e and possess one o f its
relatives. The medium then tells the cause o f death and the unfulfilled
desires o f the deceased. The cerem ony o f mdl Idvane is perform ed b y a
N&th Gos&vi. A fter the cocoan u t and cock have been offered b y the
Gh&di as described in the cerem ony above, the Gosavi sprinkles the
ground where the cremation took place with water and fills the mdnd
which, in this case, requires five betelnuts, plantains, d ry dates, almonds
and other fruits and nuts. These are laid on the four com ers o f the
cloth, and a copper drinking water p o t tdmbya, containing milk,
with its mouth closed with a mango leaf and cocoanut is placed in
the middle. A garland o f flowers with a betel leaf tied to it is hung
over the tdmbya, so that the betel leaf touches the cocoanut. The
rest o f the cerem ony is similar to that already described.

In food and drink they resemble Mar&tha Lohars.

K A N A D A LO H A R S or Kamars are found principally in the Kanada

Kanara district. They are called A eM ris or Badgis when they LahttI8'
work in wood, and Lohars when they work in iron. It
appears from their sub-divisions, most o f which are named after
 ’ 1. .' .
fyBu] ass

places in the Southern K onkan and Goa, and from the fa ct that
'Sl
their Swdmi or high priest and fam ily deities are in G oa, that th ey are
a branch o f the K onkani Lohars, supposed by som e to have migrated
there during the Portuguese inquisition in G oa. Some years ago,
som e o f them becam e followers o f the head o f the Shringeri Monastery
in M ysore, whereupon the other members stopped all intercourse with
them , thus giving rise to a new division. The m other tongue o f these
tw o divisions is K onkani. There is a third division who speak K an-
arese and claim to have the fivegotras o f the PanchAIs (see P A N C H A L ),
b u t d o n ot differ from the general mass o f th e com m unity in any
im portant detail, except that they em ploy H avik Brahman priests in
th e coast tdlukds. N one o f the above three divisions eat together or
interm arry. Som e members o f the caste state that th ey have
Br&hmanical gotras. These are stated to be M anu, Maya and Sanag,
b u t few are able to state to which gotra they belong, which shows
that they are as y e t in the first stage on their m arch to Brahm anhood,
to w hich they aspire. Marriages are regulated b y kuls or exogainous
sections which are local in origin. Th ey are as fo llo w s :—

First Division.

Name of kul. Family deitios. Locality.

Ajgaonk&r . .M ahaM U , Y etoba . . Savantvadi.
Andurlek&r . .M avli, Ravaln&th .. D o.
A ’ snolkar . . Ravaln&th, Ganpati . .K anara.
B&ndekar ..B a n desh va r . .Savantvadi,
D AbuM r . .G iroba, Sateri . .Ratndgiri.
Elingk&r . . Vet&l, D evali ..G o a .
Ghatkar . . G hoom kadevi .. D o.
G&onkdevik&r . .M allikarjuna .. D o.
Hankonk&r ..SAteri ..K a n a ra .
K ankonkar ..N ira n k a r ..G o a .
Kinnarkar . .M ahlimayi, Narayan, Kanara.
Paik.
Kuddekar . . Someshvar, Som nath. . Goa.
Madkaikar ..M h alsa ..D o .
Narvekar . .Saptakoteshwar ..D o .
Painjinkar . .D urgadevi, Vetal ..D o .
P^lyekar . . S&teri, Bhadrakali ..D o .
Parsekar ..M o rja y i ..D o .
Parvatkar . . Chandreshwar, Bhut- D o
nath.
 389 [L ohV ^ '
First Division— continued.
#> '
Pednek&r . . Ravaln&th .. Goa.
Rathkar . . Vet&l .. Do.
Talpank&r . .Ravalnfith, M dvli . .Ratn&giri.

Second Division.
Chandvank&r . . Bhavani . .S&vantv&di.
Ddmdpurkdr . . Bhagvati ..R a tn a g iri.
Devagadk&r .. Mah&lakshmi .. D o.
DhAmnaskar . . Bhav&ni, Bhairi- D o.
devata.
Nerulkar . .Sartib . .Savantvddi.
PAvshik&r . . Shambhu . . R atnagiri.
S&tardek&r . .R avalnath . .Savantvddi.
Tolsulk&r ..S a n t . .Ratn&giri.
Yar&vdekar . . Bharadi . .S&vantv&di.

As stated above, the third division claim to have five gotras, like
the P&nch&ls, which are exogamous.

The first claimant to a girl’s hand is her father’ s sister’s son.

W hen a sister’s daughter is married to a brother’s son, a silver chain
is put round the girl’s neck b y her mother, as she has to g o back into
the fam ily from which her m other came. Marriage with tw o sisters
is allowed. Girls are generally married between ten and twelve, boys
between fifteen and twenty. Boys are girt with the sacred thread
between ten and fourteen. The heads o f widows are shaved and their
marriage is forbidden. D ivorce is n ot perm itted. Th e offer o f m ar­
riage com es from the b o y ’s father. The murlmmedi o r auspicious
post o f the marriage b ooth must be o f the jdmb tree (X y lia dolabri-
formis). A s in the case w ith many other castes in K anara, the dhare
cerem ony is performed(1); but the essential and binding portion is
considered to be the mutual garlanding o f the bride and bridegroom,
the garlands being made o f the avli flowers (Mimusops elengi). The
peculiarity in the marriage ceremonies o f the Kanada Loh&rs is that,
unlike other castes, tw o lucky necklaces are tied round the bride’ s
neck, one b y her mother before marriage and the other b y the bride­
groom after the garlanding.

(1) Dhare is the pouring of milk over the joined hands of bride and bridegroom.
O ))) ■ ' <SL
x ^ ^ /lo h a r ] 390
Kanada L oM rs belong to the Smart sect, but worship both Shiva
and Vishnu. They also worship the village gods and goddesses with
offerings of cocks and goats, which they partake o f themselves. They
hold in special reverence the goddess K&lamma at Ankola. They
observe all the Hindu holidays, and have great faith in soothsaying,
witchcraft and omens. Their priests are generally Karnatak or Havik
Br&hmans, but in Goa and the Gh&t talukds they have priests of their
own caste. The dead are burnt, except children who have not cut
their teeth, who are buried. The death ceremonies are of the standard
type. They eat fish and the, flesh of goats, fowls, wild pigs and veni­
son. They drink liquor. They do not eat cooked food at the hands
of any other caste. The highest castes who will eat at their hands
are Ambis, Mukris and the like.
Gujarat
Loh&rB. G U JA R A T LOHARS are sometimes called Deva Tanakhi,
meaning ‘ divine spark which may have reference to fire (which is
worshipped as a deity), which is indispensable for their work. They
often address one another, especially those connected by marriage
relations— as Luhar Sutar, which has its origin in the following
s t o r y :—

Once a Gujar Sut&r went to a Luh&r, accompanied by his daugh­

ter, to sharpen his tools. It was meal time, and the Luhar, being
alone, had to cook his own food. He therefore told the Sutar to wait
till his meal was prepared. The Sut&r was in a hurry, and asked his
daughter to cook the LuM rs meal so that his work might not be
delayed. The Luhar consenting, the Sutdr’s daughter prepared the
meal. In the meantime, the tools were sharpened and the Sutar
started to return home. H e asked his daughter to com e with him,
but she declined to do so, remarking that as she had done a house­
wife’ s work for the Luliar, she could not marry another man. The
Sut&r saw his folly and married the girl to the Luhar. To comme­
morate the occurrence, the custom of addressing relations connected
by marriage as Luhdr Sutar came into vogue.

Gujarat Luhdrs claim descent from Pithvo, who according to tradi­

tion was created by Parvati out of the dust adhering to Shiva’s back
for the purpose of forging weapons for use in Shiva’s wars against
the two demons Andhar and Dhandhk&r. They have six endogamous
divisions, (1) Bhavnagri, (2)K h am bM ti, (3) Parjia, (4) Panehal,
(5) Sirohia and (6) Surati, who neither eat together nor intermarry.
Besides these, three more divisions are found in Kathiawar,
m%m ■ 391
<sl
[Lohar
(1) Sorathia, (2) Maehhukothia and (3) Jhilka. They have several
exogamous divisions, some named, after R ajput elans, others after
places of residence. Of the former type the chief are—

Chdvda. Makvdna. Rdthod. Vdghela.

Chohdn. Parmar. Solakni. Vdla.
Those of local origin are—
Afadia. Delddia. Kahalia. Podhydr.
Asodia. Dbvgha. Karania. Sandhav.
Bardia. Dodia. Kava. Birohia.
Boddna. Harsura. Maru. Vanol.
Chiptada. IJdthodia. Pati.
Chitroda. Jhilka. Pithva.

Except that in parts of South Gujardt, children o f sisters or of

brothers and sisters are allowed to marry, marriage between near
relations is forbidden. Marriage with two sisters is allowed, and
brothers are allowed to marry sisters. Marriage is generally infant.
In some places, if a girl is not married before fifteen, a fine is imposed
upon the parents of the girl or they are excommunicated. Divorce
is allowed. Except among some Cutch Luhdrs, the widow is allowed %
to remarry, but marriage with the younger brother of her deceased ijk
husband is rare.

Cutch Luhdrs are girt with the sacred thread, but some wear
it for a short time only. W ith one or two peculiarities, the mariage
ceremonies o f Luhdrs are similar to those performed by Kanbis.
The peculiarities are that, on the third day before a marriage, the
mothers of the bride and the bridegroom go separately with music
and female relations a little way from their house and drive an iron nail
into the ground, and that on the day before the marriage at the house,
both of the bride and of the bridegroom, seven womien of the caste,
take seven earthen pots filled with water from a river, pond or well.

Luhdrs belong to many religious sects, Godiapanthis, Kabir-

panthis, Mdrgipanthis, Meherdjpanthis, Ramdnandis, Shaivs, Sw’dmi-
ndrdyans and Vallabhdchdryas. They worship all Brahmanie
and village gods and goddesses, but the special object of
their worship is the goddess Bhavani. Some of them regard
their bellows as a symbol or home of Devi, and on big days
worship the bellows, placing near them a lamp fed with clarified
butter. Most o f them believe in witchcraft, exorcism and the ordinary
 W ; i ( e i
;% Lonari] 392 OXj

omens. Their priests except in Cutch are a class o f A udich Brahmans,

known as Luhargors, and considered degraded as they d o not scruple
to eat food cooked by Luh&rs. In Cutch the priests are Shrigauda
Br&hmans who do n o t consider themselves degraded. They burn their
dead with, all K anbi ceremonies.

■ In South G ujarat and Cutch they privately eat fish and flesh and
drink liquor, b u t elsewhere they are strict vegetarians.

LOKABALKI.— A sub-division o f B&njigs.

LOKAVANT.— A synonym for Lokabalki.
Name ami LONARIS, numbering 19,222 (1901), including 9,672 males and
ongin. 9,550 females, are found chiefly in Khandesh, Nasik, Poona, Sat&ra,
Shol&pur, the S.it&ra A gency, and the Southern Maratha Country.
They are occasionally called Gadhav (donkey) and R eda (buffalo)
Lon&ris. They are now a caste o f cement-makers and lime burners
who seem once to have been M aratM s but to have formed them ­
selves into a separate class by adopting the occupation of lime and
charcoal burners. In Belgaum district they are divided into Mith
(salt) and Chune (lime) Lon&ris, who eat together but d o n ot inter­
marry. In Ahmednagar, Poona, and Shol&pur districts they are
divided into Lon&ris proper and Kadu, Akaramdshe, or bastard
Lon&ris, who eat together b u t do not intermarry. In the
Jativivek th ey are described as the progeny o f a man o f the
Mallat caste and o f a woman o f the A v a rt caste. Their
Sanskrit name is Saumik, and their occupation appears at one
time to have been that o f preparing salt. In the Mulstambha *
they are described as Kshatriyas, possibly on account o f their Mardtha
origin. The Lonaris o f Poona district relate that they came into the
district from Mandesh near Phaltan in S&tdra district. They say
that th ey were once Ling&yats, when their religious ceremonies were
conducted by Jangams, There is little evidence of their form er
connection with Ling&yatism beyond the fact that when they bury
they adopt the sitting position for the corpse. A m ention o f the caste-
name occurs in the Mahabhdrat when Dhritarashtra is advised by
V id u r to a c t like a M&li who grows trees and eats fruits, instead
o f like a Londri who burns trees and prepares charcoal. This indicates
charcoal burning as the original occupation o f the caste. A ccording to
the B om ba y Gazetteer the Lonaris are Mar&thds and eat and marry
with them. B u t evidence o f such intermarriages is n o t now forth ­
com ing. In Shol&pur district, when a child is about a year old, a
Dhangar cuts the hair, and is presented with five copper coins, five
\ 1 ?; 393 [Lonari
<s l
pieces o f dry cocoa-kernel and a betel packet, for his trouble. Lon&ris
have a caste-council, and their social disputes are settled at meet-
ings o f the caste-men. The com m onest surnames am ong them are
Chorge, D hone, Dangekar, Rakshe, Lim ite, Bondre, K arche, Tam be,
Zadge, Kalarkar, etc.
E xcept in Poona district, persons with the same surname cannot Exogam-
intermarry. The following are some o f the exogam ous groups in Poona ^us: .
d is tr ic t:— iV'“ on*

Dhone. f Dangekar.
Koparkar. | Vagdare. r . r Adane.
Muthekar. j iNavthare. . Deulkar.
i Natkar. Redekar. -<j * <j Thite.
Midke. Landge. | S f^ v k a r 1 B o tcM te -
Mitke. Alshi. j^Kasavkar. ( Khilare.
Tambe. [B om b le.

I***-
< Khavle. 4(■“ *■
j
f £ £ r
K ale.
| Karade. j | Toufe.
I t Adalkar. [ Ajge>

f Karche f „ f K had«-
J Dangar. JJJU,rge' I K okd*-
\ Buchade. \ ^ alge- i Kanade.
Narke Murkhe. I Goyal.
k k l Piparkar.

Marriage with a m other’s sister’s daughter or father’s sister’s daugh­

ter is not allowed. It is allowed with a maternal uncle’s daughter.
Marriage with a wife’s sister is allowed. Tw o brothers m ay marry
two sisters. Girls are married before they are twelve. There is
n o lim it o f age for the marriage o f boys. Sexual license before marriage
is neither allowed nor tolerated. I f a girl commits sexual indiscre­
tions before marriage with a man of her caste, she is married to him.
The man is com pelled to undergo certain purifications and to p a y
a fine and give a dinner to his caste-men. They are then classed as
kadu, akaramdshe or bastard, and treated as being o f an inferior d ivi­
sion. If a girl com mits sexual indiscretions with an outsider she is
excommunicated, and cannot be readmitted into her caste either by
paying a fine or giving a dinner to her caste-men. Polygam y is per­
mitted, but polyandry is unknown. A man marries another wife
when his first wife is barren or is physically defective. There iB no
limit to the number o f wives.
h 1109—50
 . ’ Lonari] 394
' ■ QtJ
Marriage The offer of marriage generally comes from the b oy’s father.
ceremo- j t jfl arrarig(^ through the mediation of four or five men of their caste,
who are termed pudhdit. A Br&hman priest fixes an auspicious date
for the marriage and also conducts the service. When an offer is
received, two men of both the sides go to an astrologer with the bride
and bridegroom’s horoscopes and cause them to be compared. When
the horoscopes are not available, the marriage is settled by the re­
ligious names of the bride and bridegroom. Twenty-seven heaps of
rice corresponding to the twenty-seven stars are prepared. Over
each heap a betelnut and a pice is placed. Red and turmeric powders
are offered to these heaps, and a small girl is asked to pick up a
betelnut. From the number of the betelnut the bridegroom’s star
is marked. Similarly, the bride’s star is marked, and then the as­
trologer decides whether the proposed match will be happy and pros­
perous. The principal ceremonies are hmka-ldvne or betrothal,
lagna-chithi or fixing the date of marriage, turmeric rubbing, devkarya
or the ceremony of enshrining the marriage guardian deity which
consists of panchpalvi, i.e., leaves of the mango, jdmbul (Eugenia
jambolana), shami (Prosopis spicigera), umbar (Ficus glomerata),
and rui (Calotropis gigantea), vardhava or taking the bridegroom to
the bride’s house, simant-pujan or the reception of the bridegroom by
the bride’s father, hmydddn or the bride-giving ceremony, rukhirat
or offering food articles to the bridegroom’ s party, and sdde. Their
marriage ceremonies do not differ materially from those of the Mar&th&s
except that at the time of marriage the bride and bridegroom
are made to stand on bamboo' baskets, or the bride on a grindstone
and the bridegroom on a coil o f rope. The saptapadi, or taking of
seven steps by the bride and bridegroom, or the throwing of rice over
the bride and bridegroom’s heads, is the binding portion of the cere­
m ony.
Widow remarriage is allowed. A widow is not allowed, to marry
her maternal or paternal aunt’s son, maternal uncle’s (ton, or any
member of her deceased husband’s family. The ceremony takes
place during the latter half of any month, or when the moon is not
shining. The heads of the caste panchdyat, a Brahman priest,
and kinsmen on both the sides are present on this occasion. The
widow and her new husband are seated on a square which the priest
marks out with grains o f wheat. The priest worships a betelnut,
Ganpati, and a metal water-pot—Varuna— o f which the mouth is
- covered with betel leaves and a cocoanut. The Varuna water-pot
is applied to the brow o f the widow thrice. Sandal-paste, flowers,
turmeric and vermilion powders, and sweetmeats are laid before the
 396
'
|Lonari
c
i j

betelnut and the water -pot, the heme of the pair’s garments are knotted
together, and the lap of the widow is filled with rice, cocoanut, betel,
and fruit. She hows before the gods, and the priest marks her brow
with vermilion, and leaves her. She is unlucky for three days after
her remarriage, and must take care that no married woman sees her
face during that time. The widower gives a feast to his caste-men the
next day. A bachelor is n ot allowed to marry a widow.
D ivorce is allowed. A husband can divorce his wife on the
ground of incom patibility o f temper or when the wife bears a bad
character, and the wife can divorce her husband when he is impotent.
A divorce deed is passed with the permission of the headman of
the caste, by whom the deed is attested. A woman divorced for
adultery with a man of her caste is allowed to marry a second
time and the ceremony is conducted after the form of a widow
remarriage.

Lon&ris follow the Hindu law of inheritance, and belong to the Religion.
Vkrkari, Shaiva, or Vaishnava sects. They worship all Brabmanic
and local gods, observe all Hindu fasts and feasts, and make pil­
grimages to Alandi, Jejuri, Pandharpur, Tuljapur, Benares, etc.
They also worship animals such as the cobra, bullock, horse, cow , and
trees and plants like the banyan tree, piped, dpta, shami, and sweet
basil, and their working implements and religious and account books.
E xcluding ckadashi, on Saturdays and Mondays a sacrifice of a goat
is made to K handoba and is partaken o f by the offerers. They worship
Muhammadan saints and make offerings o f khichadi, frankincense, and
sweetmeats, for their propitiation. W hen cholera and small-pox
are prevalent they worship the deities Mari and Shitala respectively.
They employ Brahmans to conduct their religious ceremonies.
They bury or b u m their dead. Persons dyin g of sm all-pox Death
and red leprosy are buried. Children w ho have n o t cu t their teeth “e.™n'0’
are buried. A t burial the deceased is put in the earth in a sitting
position. The ashes and bones o f the dead when burnt are sent
t o a h o ly place or are consigned to a river. As soon as a person has
. breathed his last, the b od y is washed with hot water and is laid on
a bam boo bier covered with a new shroud. I f the deceased be
a woman whose husband is still living, the body is wrapped in a
new robe and a bodice, and the brow is marked with turmeric and
red powder. Wreaths of flowers are also offered, and the deceased
is borne to the burial or burning ground by four men. The chief
mourner walks ahead o f the bier, taking fire in a porcelain p ot.
The bier is put down half-way to the burning or burial ground, and a
111 §L
: •goi^ \ '•

\- V 's' ■ y 4. V- J ^
'"■X; Lonan] 396
•V
sweet ball and a pice are thrown on the spot. A pyre o f cowdung
is prepared and the body placed upon it. The chief mourner shaves
his moustache and head and bathes. Then he wets his over-garment
and squeezes a few drops o f water into the dead person’s mouth.
The chief mourner then ignites the pyre. When it is half burnt,
the chief mourner takes a porcelain p ot filled with water upon his
shoulder and walks thrice round the' pyre. A t the commencement
of each round a hole is bored in the pot with a pebble. On completing
the third round he throws the pot over his back, and striking his
mouth with his hand, calls aloud. The relatives o f the dead feed
the mourners for three days. On. the third day the ashes and bones
are collected and cow ’s urine and dung are sprinkled over the place
of burning. Three small porcelain pots are placed in a line from
north to south, and on the mouth of each pot a cake is placed.
The food most fancied by the deceased is offered, and camphor and
frankincense are burnt. This is termed smashdnbali. On the
tenth day ten balls are offered to the dead. A crow must touch one
of the balls, otherwise an artificial crow of darbha grass is prepared
and the ball is touched thereby. The relatives of the dead then
pour sesamum and water over the life-stone and it is then thrown
w into water. This is known as the daspindi ceremony. On the
thirteenth day the caste-men are feasted and some charity for the
propitiation of the dead is distributed. On the fourteenth day
a female or male, according to the sex of the deceased, is feasted,
and articles of raw food are given to Brahmans. F or one year
the same female or male is feasted every month. For the pro­
pitiation o f ancestors in general they observe the shrdddha ceremony
during the latter half of the month of Bhddrapad. W hen a person
has died of violent death and the dead body is not found, an image
of wheat flour representing the deceased is burnt with sticks
of palas (Butea frondosa), and funeral rites as on an ordinary death
occasion are performed.
From the probable derivation of the word ‘Lonari ’ (Iona salt)
°tionfa it is likely that the hereditary occupation of the caste was once pre­
paring salt, and Lonaris following that occupation are still found
in Belgaum district. Most of them are now cement makers and
charcoal burners. They buy lime nodules and burn lime with char­
coal and cowdung cakes in a circular brick kiln. Some are husband­
men and labourers.
Food. They eat the flesh of goats, sheep, and fowls, as well as fish.
They drink liquor. They eat pakki and kachhi and drink water
11■
y ^ r^ y 397 [Machhi
%L
and smoke with Mar&thAs, Dhangars, and Malis. Mnrath&s, D han­
gars, and MAlis also eat with them.

LONDHARI.— A sub-division o f Gujar K u n bis.]

LONI.— A sub-division o f Khandesh Kunbis.
LOTLIKAR.— A sub-division of Gaud SArasvat Brahmans.
LUHAR.— Gujarati nam e for B obir.

LUHARGOR.— A sub-division o f A udich Brahmans.

LUNDA.— A synonym for Khavas.
MACHHI.— A sub-division of Gandharias.

MACHHIS, also known as Tandels, numbering (1 SOI) 37,987, Name awl

including 18,164 males and 19,823 females, are found chiefly in Broach, °rigiiu
Kaira, Paneh Mahals, Surat, ThAna, Surat A gency, and Rewa
K antha, in seaboard cities, towns, and villages. They appear to be
Kolis, possibly crossed in places with R ajp u t fugitives, and derive
their present name from their occupation o f catching and living by
the sale o f machhi (Sanskrit matsya, fish).

Their endogamous divisions are— Divisions.

(1) Dhebla. (6) Machida.

(2) Dhimar. (7) Mitna.
(3) KhArva. (8) Nadia.
(4) K hoti. (9) Proper.
(5) K oli, (10) Solanki.

The K oli Machhis and Maehhis Proper and the Dhimar

Machhis and Kharva Machhis o f Broach eat together. In Th Ana the
Machhis Proper do not eat with the Mitna, Nadia, and K h oti divisions,
as they are considered socially inferior to them. In south Surat there
is also a colony of Deccan fishermen called Dhebras or DhimArs
(Sanskrit dkivara, a fishman) who dine with the Machhi sub-divisions.
In the Panch Mahals Machhis are divided into tw o groups, K harva
and Solanki, which do n ot generally intermarry. The latter claim to
be R ajputs. The Bulsar Machhis say they were R ajpu ts, who, in
seeking refuge with a sage named Bak Rishi from ParshurAm, the
Kshatriya slayer, were com pelled to work as fishermen for their fish­
eating preserver. Their Panch Mahals tradition is that they are the
progeny o f the sage Gautama who converted a mermaid into a rational
woman and lived with her. Another story is that Bhagwan, to punish
the fish tribe for biting him when bathing in a river, produced a fish
netter from his b ody, and assigned to him and to his descendants the
iff)*
W- Machhi]
' 398
(fiT
occupation o f fish catching to rid the world of the fish nuisance. Their
Koli origin is suggested by the totemism that still prevails among them.
Thus they consider it sinful to cut or burn the wood o f the apta (Bauh-
inia racemosa), bel (iEgle marmelos,) pipal (Ficus religiosa), shami
(Prosopis spicigera), umbar (Ficus glomerata), vad (Ficus bengalensis),
and beheda (Terminally belerica). These form their devaks and are
strongly suggestive of the com mon Marat ha devak the pdncJi-pdlvi or
leaves of five trees. The Thana Machhis appear to have come into the
district from Bulsar in Surat district. They speak Gujar&ti at home
and Mar&thi out of doors, but their pronunciation of neither language
is correct. They have a headman, or patil, who settles social dis­
putes.

Marriage with a maternal uncle’s daughter, father’s sister’s

daughter, and mother’s sister’ s daughter is not allowed. Marriage
with a wife’ s sister is allowed. Two brothers may marry two sisters.
Girls are married from ten and boys from twelve upwards. Girls
■ are married even after they attain the age of puberty among the rich
as well as the poor. Sexual license before marriage is not allowed.
If before marriage a girl commits sexual indiscretions with a man of
her caste, her father is fined, and she is married to a poor man of her
caste. The man involved is fined or compelled to give a dinner to his
oaste-men. When a girl com mits sexual indiscretions with an ou t­
sider she is excommunicated. Polygamy is permitted, but polyandry
is unknown.
Marriage The offer of marriage generally com es from the b oy’s father,
y The father of the b o y pays from forty to one hundred rupees to the
girl’s father as the price of the bride. A Brahman fixes the aus­
picious day for marriage and conducts the service o f marriage. When
a marriage is settled, the father o f the b oy treats the girl’s party to
liquor. A period o f one or tw o years may intervene between the be­
trothal and marriage. The ceremonies of Ganpati worship, telpithi,
varghoda, marriage and kanyaddn are performed in order. A feast
to the caste-men ends the marriage ceremony. The telpithi ceremony
consists in anointing the bride and bridegroom with turmeric paste and
bathing them. The bride and bridegroom fold their hands and place
them over one another. This is known as hmta-mela, and is supposed
to be the binding portion o f the ceremony. They have the pdnch-
palvi or leaves o f five kinds for their devak. These are hung in the
marriage pandal.
W idow remarriage is allowed. A widow cannot marry her
maternal aunt’s or uncle’s son, or her father’s sister’s son. She
V/- < ■ ■■ ■ ' ■ ■: ' ’’V '■
 ___
n

399 rMachhrHI
L. k, / ,
■

m ay marry a younger brother of her deceased husband. Perm is­

sion o f the headman o f the caste is usually essential for a w idow
remarriage. W idow remarriage is celebrated on Tuesday or Sunday
at about ter at night. On that occasion the widow, her new husband,
and a couple who have been remarried, are present. The w idow gives
liquor or food to her new husband and receives the same from him.
The remarried couple then join their hands and the cerem ony ends.
The joining of hands is the binding portion of the cerem ony. B u tin
somf districts this is substituted b y the striking together of the
brid 3and bridegroom ’s heads, or b y both striking a cocoan u t with their
heads. A bachelor is allowed to marry a w idow after first being
married to a shami tree.

D ivorce is allowed with the consent of the caste-m en. The hus­
band or wife m ay ask for a divorce, and permission is granted when it
is proved that the husband is im potent or that the wife dislikes him
for some adequate reason. A deed o f divorce is passed on a stam ped
paper. A woman divorced for adultery with a man o f her caste is
allowed to remain in her caste and to marry a second time. B u t when
she is divorced for adultery with an outsider, she is excom m unicated.

Machhis follow the H indu law o f inheritance. They are strong

believers in magic or muth, the evil eye, w itchcraft, evil spirits, and
omens.

They are Hindus b y religion and favour the worship of Krishna, Religion,
the eighth incarnation o f Vishnu. They go on pilgrimage to Dwarka.
Th ey observe Ramnavrni, Gohildshtami, Divdli, and Shimga holidays.
They worship the m inor deities such as K bandoba and Bahiroba.
Their patron deity is K hatri. They worship animals such as tor­
toises and crocodiles. They make offerings o f peas, milk and red-
lead to crocodiles. They also make sacrifices o f goats on Tuesdays
and Sundays, which are partaken o f b y the offerers. They d o not
worship their dead ancestors and Muhammadan saints. F or the sub­
sidence o f cholera and small-pox they worship the deity Shitala. They
em ploy Br&hinans for religious and ceremonial purposes, who are
received on terms o f equality by the other Br&hmans. The Mitna
Machhis o f Th&na do n ot worship Vishnu, Shiva, or other Hindu gods,
but only Chaitya and H irva. They have no images in their houses
and em ploy no Br&hmans or other priests to officiate for them.

They burn their dead. In the Panch Mah&ls the half burnt Death
limbs are thrown into the river, where they are consumed b y m ug- c'.'reiA0'
gers, turtles and fish. Persons dying o f sm all-pox and leprosy are
WWvL
• • Machhi] 100 G
kjjt
lj
buried. They believe that small-pox is a deity and that her victims
should not be burnt. Children without teeth are buried. The ashes
and bones of the dead are thrown into the sea. The dead body is
borne to the burning ground with singing of hymns. I t is washed
on reaching the burning ground and placed on the pyre. The pyre is
then kindled. W h en the body is com pletely burnt the relatives
return to their houses. I f the body o f a person who has died a violent
death is not found, an image o f pea-flour and grass is burnt. Some
Machh is observe the shrdddha ceremony.

Oocupa- They fish, let boats on hire, and work as sailors. Besides catch­
ing fish in pools, rivers, and the sea, Machhis Proper sell vegetables,
turn tiles, cultivate, and work as labourers. Koli Machhis also
cultivate, but are more enterprising. They serve as navigators or
malams and captains or ndkhudds on country craft and steamboats,
earning Rs. 3 to 5 monthly with board for short voyages between
B om bay and Kar&chi, and Rs. 8 to 12 for long voyages to MalaMr
and other distant parts,

Food. They eat fish o f all kinds, and the flesh of goat, sheep, fowls
and ducks, and also drink liquor.

MACHHUA.—A sub-division of Ahirs.

MACHHUK0TH1A.—-A sub-division of Luhars.
MACHIDA.—A sub-division of Machhis.
MAD.— A sub-division o f VAnias.
MADARI.— A synonym for Garudi.
MADHAVIA.— A synonym for Palimanga Bhat.
MADHAVPURA.— A sub-division of Girnara Br&hmans,
MADHMAITRA.— A sub-division of Brahmans.
MADHYACHAL.— A sub-division of Brahmans.
MADIG.— Kanarese term for M&ng ; a synonym for DhiUya
Vanj&ri.
MADIWAL.— A synonym for Agasa.
MADKAR.— A synonym for Bhandari.
MADRAJ.— A sub-division of Khandesh Kunbis.
MAHADEV.— A sub-division o f Kolis.
MAHANUBHAVA.— A synonym for Manbhav.
MAHAR.— A sub-division o f Murlis, V&ghes and VanjAris.
111' 401 [Mahar
iSL
<• MAHAR or Mhar, a tribe or more properly speaking an assembly Name and
o f tribal units, numbering 953,212 (1901), including 471,803 males origin‘
and 481,409 females, found throughout the Mar&thi speaking area
o f the Presidency, including the coast portion of the N orth Kanara
district. The term includes over fifty tribal fragments that do
n ot intermarry, and in reality connotes m ore a status than a tribe,
being the broken residue o f m any former aboriginal tribes owning the
country, of which they were dispossessed b y successive waves o f
Aryan and posf-Aryan invaders. Thus they became ‘ * hewers o f w ood’ ‘
if n o t “ drawers o f water” for the new overlords, and perform menial
services, such as crop guarding, scavenging and the carrying of
messages for the village com m unity to this day. K olis, Bhois,
K&tkaris, B&moshis and Bedars have m uch in com m on with the
M aM rs, who differ from them in having settled on the land at a period
when these tribes were still in the nomad stage, as, in some instances,
th ey are to this day. The Mah&r lives on the village lands he once
owned, but in a separate hamlet to the present owners o f the soil.
H e differs only from the similar tribe o f M&ngs in that he will eat
cow and not pig, while the M&ng will eat pig and n ot cow . B y all
castes of standing he is considered untouchable.
The synonyms by which they are known are :— (1) A ntyaja, Syno-
(2) Atishudra, (3) Bhumiputra or Dharnicheput, (4) Bhuyal, (5) nym*'
ChokMraela, (6) Dhed, (7) D om b, (8) H ulsava, (9) Kathiv&le, (10)
Mhetre, (11) MirAsi, (12) ParvAri, (13) Taral, (14) Thorlegharche and
(15) Veskar. The origin o f the term Mahar is lost in antiquity. •
It is popularly said to be derived from mahdhdri o r great eater, in
support o f which a few traditions are quoted below. A ccording to
others, it is derived through Prakrit from the Sanskrit word mrita-
M ri, which is given as the name o f the lowest caste, in the Mdrkandeya
puran (chapter .15, verse 36). In verse 28 o f the same purdn th ey are
also called MritahArins. This name they are said to have earned
b y their occupation of rem oving carcasses o f dead animals. The
synonym Antyaja means last-bom , that is, the lowest in the social
scale. Atishudra means those below the Shudras, the last of the
fourfold divisions o f Manu, and is indicative o f the primitive origin
o f the tribe. Thorlegharche is an ironical expression meaning noble
b o m . These three names are applied to the Mah&rs contem ptuously
b y the members o f the higher castes. Bhumiputra or Dham iche-
put means sons o f the soil, and indicates the original position o f the
Mah&rs. Dheds and Bom bs are respectively the Gujarfitand Northern
India representatives of the Mah&rs. KAthiv&le or men with a stick
is a word indicative of the profession o f the caste in olden times and
a 1109—fii
® -Mahar] 402
<SL
to some extent even at the present time. To such an extent is the
Kdthi or stick recognized as indicative o f a M aM r that, in many places
it is used b y him as his sign-manual, and is accepted in courts o f law
and in the registration department. The term Mir&si means a land­
holder. Parv&ri, though often applied to all MaMrs b y the Europeans,
is said strictly to belong to the musical Mah&r. .T he term Veskar
means a gatekeeper and describes the M aM r’s occupation o f the
‘ night watchman. In Poona, the MaMrs, who are followers o f the
V&rkari sect, are known as ChokMmela after the famous
Mahar saint o f that name. The term Hulsava is peculiar to Kanara.

Status. Mahars are held to be impure. E xcept at Pandharpur in the

Shol&pur district, their touch, even the touch o f their shadow,is thought
to defile. The Bombay Gazetteer^ relates that in some outlying villages
in the early morning, the M aM r, as he passes the village well, may be
seen crouching that his shadow may not fall on the water-drawers.
The village barber will not shave the MaMrs, nor are they allowed
to draw water from the village well. Formerly an earthem p ot was
hung from their necks to hold their spittle, they were made to drag
thorns to wipe ou t their footsteps, and, when a B riham n came near,
were forced to lie far oil on their faces lest their shadow might fall on
him. M odem means of locom otion, however, by bringing all classes
together, have led^ o the proxim ity of unclean classes being tolerated
to an extent formerly unheard of. The Mahars live outside villages
in special Mharvadds or Mahars’ quarters. Their houses are generally
untidy and ill-cared for, made o f mud and stone with thatched roofs,
and the ground near b y is dirty and strewn with bones and refuse.

Traditions A ccording to a Hindu tradition, Mahars were originally night

of origin. rovers (nishachars), whom the god Brahma turned to men lest they
should eat his whole creation.(2) In N4sik, it is related that the
founder of the caste was Svarup Som&ji M aM r, sprung from the sole
o f Brahma’ s foot.(8) The Ahmadnagar MaMrs claim to belong to
one o f the fou r cow -born castes. Their story is that the cow asked her
sons how they would treat her after she died. The first three sons
answered they would worship her as a g o d d e ss; the fourth
said he would bear her inside of him as she had borne him. The
horror-struck brothers called him mahdhar or the great eater, which,
according to the story, use has shortened to M aM r.<4) Another
(1) Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. XVIIf, Part I, p. 441.
(2) Do. Vol. XVIT, p. 172.
(3) Do. Vol. XVII, p. 172.
(4) Do. Vol XVI, p. 67.
■ ri ' 403
<SE
[Mahar

tradition regarding the origin o f the Mah&rs relates that, once, when
P&rvati was bathing, her touch turned some drops o f blood on a bel
leaf into a handsome babe. She took the child hom e and shewed him
to Mah&dev, who named him Mah&muni. One day, while still young,
the child crawled ou t o f the house and, seeing a dead cow, began to
eat it. Mah&dev was horrified and cursed the child, saying th at he
would live outside villages, that his food would b e carcasses, that
n obod y would have anything to do with him, would look at him , or
would allow his shadow to fall on anything pure. P&rvati, who took
great interest in her child, begged her lord to have p ity on him, and
Shiva agreed that the people would em ploy him to supply mourners
with w ood and dried cowdung cakes to b u m the dead. A s the
child’ s appetite was so great, he, turned his name into Mah&h&ri or
the great eater.(1) These stories are mere puns on the word Mah&r.
Some state that the Mah&rs were b om of. the left eye o f the m oon
(Soma) and therefore one o f their divisions has com e to be called Som -
avanshi. The name o f the original ancestor o f the Soraavanshis
was D om ba, whose son was Soma and grandson Satyasom a, The
traditions regarding the origin o f the Pan and Bel tribes o f Mah&rs
are to o indecent for publication.

The Mah&ra of the Deccan are generally tall, strong, muscular Appear-
and dark, with regular features and low unintelligent foreheads ; and
those in the Southern Mar&tha Country are darker than Kunbis, oma-
with gaunt cheeks, irregular features, a dreamy expression and flat ment3’
n o s e s : still, except in colour, they differ little from Kunbis. The
Kanara Mah&rs, both men and women, are tall, fair and regular-feat­
ured. The men dress in a loincloth or waistcloth, a blanket, coat
or sm ock and a dirty Mar&tha turban. The wom en wear the full
Mar&tha robe and bodice. The men carry in their hands a thick
staff abou t four feet long with one end adorned w ith bells. The
poor am ong them use Kunbi-shaped ornaments o f brass, while the
well-to-do use gold or silver ornaments.

The Mah&rs of the Deccan speak an incorrect and oddly pro- language,
nounced Marathi. A m ong themselves they have a few peculiar­
ities. Th ey say nahi for ndhi (no), toha for tujha (thine), mafia
for majha (mine), nagu or nai payaje for nako (do n ot want), sam-
indar for samudra( the sea), samang for sangam (the source), mang
for mag (afterwards), etc. When he meets a man o f his own caste

(1) The Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. XVIJI, Part X, p. 439,

v
m Mahar] ^ 404 ' §l
a Mah&r Bays namastu or a bow to you, and when he meets anyone
other than a Mah&r he says johar, said to be from the Sanskrit yoddhdr
or warrior, the usual Shravak or Jain greeting. In Kh&ndesh, like
the local Kunbis, they speak a Kh&ndeshi dialect, a kind of short­
ened Mar&thi, e. g. kathethum una for kothun aids (whence have
you com e), kathijds for kothejatos (whither are you going), etc. The
hom e tongue o f the Kanara Mah&rs is Konkani. The names in
com m on use among men a re; Balya, Bhagya, Gondappa, Khirna,
K ondu, Limba, Mah&dji, Masa, Munjya, N arya, R&ma, Sadya,
Laka and Tukappa ; and among women Aheli, Bhagi, Bhimi, Chirni,
Giigi, Iji, Jaya, Kushi, Mani, Nagi, R&dha, Tuki and Yelli. The
men add the word nak— probably naik or leader— to their names.

In the K M ndesh district, in each group of villages there is a chief

Mah&r headman,who in Jamner is called pdndwdr and in the south mehe-
tar. The office is, as a rule, hereditary. The most sensible and worthy
o f the sons is chosen in the room of his father. Failing sons, some
other member o f the family, and failing the family, an outsider is
chosen. Caste disputes are settled by the men o f the village with
or without, the help of the headman. The offences punished b y
expulsion are :— the failure to give caste dinners, dining and smoking
with one of lower castes such as a Mang, and adultery or concubinage.
In other places, they have caste councils, the head of which is known
in som e places as pdtil and in others as mehetar. The headman of
the Kanara Mah&rs is called budvant. In Shol&pur and TM nea
caste decisions are enforced b y forbidding the caste people to smoke,
or drink water with the offender, or by enacting a fine, whith
is spent on drink. In S&fcara, if a Mah&r dines or commis
adultery with a M&ng or a Bhangi he is put out of caste and is not
allowed back unless he shews that he was ignorant o f the caste of
the person with whom he associated. In Kolh&pur, a nimb twig
is throw n on the offender’ s house and all are enjoined to keep aloof
from the offender’s family on pain of losing caste. W hen an
offender is re-admitted, he has to spend from R s. 2 to 10 on a caste
dinner. The high priest gives him tirth or h oly water to sip, and
he is allowed to eat in the same row with his castemen. The Mah&rs
in the S&vantv&di State have no recognized headman, but the Mah&rs
of certain villages have for generations been regarded as arbitrators
in settling caste and other disputes. Taking food in the house of
a Jingar or a Musalm&n and adultery are said to be punished by
expulsion from the caste.
111 405
.... <SL
[M a h a r

The Mab&rs have the following endogamous d ivision s:— Endo-

gamaus
1. Abne. 29. Jogti. divisions.
2. Andvan or Andhon. 30. Junnare.
3. Ananthkulya. 31. Kabule.
4. Autak&mble. 32. Kadvan, K udvan or
5. Balhi. Kadu.
6. Balk&mble. 33. Kam ble.
7. B&rke. 34. K&sare.
8. B&van or Bavane. 35. Kharse.
9. B&vcha. 36. Kochare, Khosare o r
10. B&vise. Kosare.
11. Bel, Bele or Belia. 37. L&dvan or Ladhan.
12. Ben. 38. MathkAmble.
13. Bole. 39. Murli.
14. Bunkar. 40. Nirdle.
15. Chelkar. 41. P&n or Panya.
16. Daule. 42. Pradhan.
17. Dhed. 43. Pular.
18. Dharmik. 44. Kati.
19. Dom or B om b. 45. Saladi o r Sal&de.
20. Gardi. 46. Silv&n.
21. Gavasai or Gavase. 47. Sirs&lkar.
22. Ghadshi. 48. Soma or Somavanshi.
23. Ghatkamble. 49. Somkambie.
24. Godvan or Goridvan. 50. Sonkamble.
25. Gopal. 51. Sonaibalk&mble.
26. Hedshi. 52. Sutad.
27. H ol4r or Huvale. 53. Tilvan.

Of these divisions the Somavanshis, w ho claim descent from

Soma or the moon, are m ost mimerous and are the social superiors
o f the rest. In the S&vantv&di State, Beles and Somavanshis are
considered to be identical, and the P4ns are said to include Mangs,
Berads, Bhorpis and R&moskis. The name P&n is said to be de­
rived from the profession o f working with leaves (p&n leaf), o f
which umbrellas are made, and the name Bele from the profession
o f making mats and baskets from bel chips o f bamboo.
The Gopdls, who are Mahar ascetics, and Batis are considered
in some places to be half castes. Gop&ls, Ghadshis and Ilol&rs
have been described separately under those heads. The Murli
Mahers are the offspring ofMah&r girls dedicated to the service
(f(Wt
\^^3>^JIaharj
.
40(5
(Si
of the god K h a n d ob a ; Gavasi MaM rs are said to be tbe children
O .L J

of Mahar parents born in adultery ; and Jogti Mahars are said to

be descendants of bastard MaMrs who were devoted to the service
of the K arM tak goddess Yellamma. The Kadvans or Kadus are
bastards, and And vans are those born of virgins.
In the Ahmednagar district, the sub-divisions Anantkulya,
Andvan, Bavane and Bel eat together and intermarry. The KM ndesh
MaM rs consist of 12| divisions, viz, Andhon, B&vane, Balhi, Bunkar,
Gondvan, Holar, Kharse, Kochare, L&dhan, Pradhan, Soma,
Tilvan and the half caste Gop&l. Of these the first four eat to ­
gether, but do not intermarry. The N&sik M aM rs also have 12|
divisions, the names of which a r e :— Andvan, B&vacha, Chelkar,
Dhed, D om , Ghadshi, Gop&l, Ladvan, Pan, Pular, R ati, Somavanshi
and Sutad, Rati being considered half caste. The Mahars of Poona
are split up into Andvans, Daules, Junnares, P&ns, Silv&ns and
Somavanshis, who neither eat together nor intermarry. In the
Shol&pur district are found Abnes, Andvans, B&vanes, Bels, Bens,
Bavises, Boles, Dheds, Godvans, Kadvans, K&mbles, Khochares,
L&dvans, Nirales, P in s, Sal&des, Soms and Tilvans. Most o f these
divisions except the K advans eat together and intermarry. The S&t&ra
MaM rs have four divisions— Proper, Gavasi, Jogti and Murli— who
eat together but do not intermarry. In Kol&ba the divisions are :—
Belias, Dom s, Gardis and Somavanshis. The divisions found in
Th&na are Daules, P&ns and Somavanshis. The Ratn&giri Mahars
are m ostly K&mbles. The MaMrs of the Southern Maratha Country
have fourteen divisions, viz., Andvan, Bele, Gavase, Ghadshi,
Hedshi, JM de, Jotgi, Kadvan, Ladvan, Murli, P&n and Sal&di,
who neither eat together nor intermarry. The S&vantv&di MaMrs
have tw o divisions— Beles and P&ns, who do n ot eat together or
intermarry.
The M aM rs have numerous surnames which are exogamous.
K*o- Some o f the commonest surnames are as follows :—
Abhang. Bagad. Bhaler&o.
A dhav. Bagul. Bh&mbhal.
A dijadhav. Bahelime. Bhede.
Adsule. Baikar. Bhilang.
Aherr&o. Balkamble. Bhingar,
Ahire. Bansure. Bhoi.
Auchat. B&sede. Bhoir.
Autak&mble. B&yakar. Bholke.
Babre. Bayat. Bhosale.
B ic h a v . Bhagat. Chandanshive.
 <07 IM a h u n l J

Chavan. Kharat. Shelar.

Chhettise. Kharode. Shelke.
Chikane. Khupate. Shevale.
Chitale. K ohale. Shinde.
D&h&ne. K olge. Shirke.
Darule. L&dav. Sisate.
Detge. L&kde. Sodj&dhav.
Dharpavar. Lokare. Somaibalkamble.
Dhede. Lokhande. Somkamble.
Dive. Makasure. Son&vale.
Doble. H alve. Sonk&mble.
Dukare. M atkam ble. Sonavane.
Gade. Mehede. Sonkavale.
Gadre. Mhasge. Surya.
G&ikv&d. Mhaakate. Suryavanshi.
Gamre. M ohite. Suryakadam.
Garud. More, Tadke.
Ghanvat. Nikumbh. Talvatke.
GMtk&mble. Nirmal. Tambe.
Ghode. P&charne. Tapichere.
Godivale, Pagar. Tizad.
Gote. P&khare. Thorvade.
H&tavate. P&rdhe. Umb&le.
Jadhav. Patekar. Vadkar.
Joshi. Pavar. Vagh.
K adam . Pokade. Vdghchavre.
Kakate. ru ravn e. V&ghmiire.
K&kude. Sadavarte. V&ghpanje.
K&le. Sapkal or Sak- Vartak.
K&mble. p&l. Y adav.
K anoje. Salve. Yetum .
Katre. Samidar. Zankar.
Khand&gale. Sarvagod.
Khandizad. Satpal.
The evidence obtained in the course o f enquiries tends to estab­
lish the fact that each o f these exogam ous sub-divisions originally
owned and worshipped a devak or totem, closely corresponding to the
ball of the Kanarese tribes (see M A R A T H A ). The o b je ct represented
b y the devak is worshipped, protected from injury b y the section ow n­
ing the devak, and brought into prominence at the tim e of the
marriage cerem ony. Members o f families with a com m on devak
cannot intermarry.
/> V --- ^ V \ ^

( I f 'l l • (CT
^ ^ g p M a h a r] 408 H i j

A list o f some of these devaks with the name o f the kul o r exog-
amous section owning the devak is given below :—

Kul. Devak.
Bagad .. Umbar (Mens glomerata).
Bhagat .. Cobra.
G&ikvad .. Crab, sunflower, kohala (Cucurbita pivi).
J&dhav .. Palm (Borassus flabelliferi, pankdnis
(Typha angustata), tortoise (Kdsav).
Kadam .. Kadamba (Anthocephalus cadumba).
Mhasge .. Buffalo.
Mohite .. Umbar (Ficus glomerata).
More .. Peacock.
Satpal .. Cobra.
Shevale .. Nagvel (Piper betle).
Sonk&mble .. Champa (Mesua ferrea).
Suryavanshi .. Sunflower.
Talvatke .. Copper.
Tdmbe .. Umbar (Ficus glomerata).
Zankar .. Mango, umbar, jdmbul.
Other common devaks, in addition to the above, are the harina
(mousedeer), nag or cobra, ndndruk (Ficus retusa), the doll
pithiche bdvle and the banyan tree.
In many cases the devak has becom e obsolete and has been replac­
ed b y a composite totem or pdnchpdlvi composed o f the leaves o f five
trees, which are similarly worshipped and play a prominent part in
the marriage ceremony. The number five has special value among the
Mahars, as will be seen in the full account of the birth and marriage
ceremonies given below. It may be equivalent to the early numerical
conception o f many. The vansh or. group of five ancestors is largely
worshipped in outlying villages in the form of a stone carving o f five
caste or tribal elders, kept in the village temple, to this day.
The following panchpalvis are worshipped b y Mah&rs in the
districts sh ow n :—
Poona— N&sik—
1. Mango. 1. Mango.
2. Piped, 2. Piped.
3. Rui. 3. Rui.
4. Shami, 4. Shami.
5. Umbar. 5. Umbar.
® 409 ' „ .@ L
[Mahar

f 1. Arkdthi. f 1, Bdbul.
2. Borkdthi. I 2. Banyan or tad.
Kh&ndesh. \ 3. Jambul. SAt&ra 3. Jdmbid.
j 4. Mango. I 4- Mango.
5. Ruchkin. L 5. Rut.
The Mah&rs of the different districts, though belonging to the same Marriage
division, d o not intermarry, unless some former connection can be ru,es-
traced between them. In the S&vantv&di State, each village group
forms an exogamous unit, and consequently marriages between
Mah&ra of the same village are prohibited. Marriages are generally
prohibited within throe degrees of relationship. A M aM r cannot
marry his father’s sister’s or m other’s sister’s daughter. H e m ay
marry his mother’s brother’s daughter. In some places, marriage
with a sister’s daughter is allowed. Marriage with a wife’s sister is
allowed, both during the wife’s lifetime and after her death. Two
brothers are allowed to marry two sisters. Polygam y is allowed and
practised, but polyandry iR unknown. Marriage is infant as well as
adult, girls being sometimes married even when on ly a month old and
sometimes after the age of sixteen. The cause o f late marriages is
in m ost cases want of money. Sexual intercourse before marriage
is tolerated among the more helpless portions o f the caste. B ut
generally, if a virgin com mits sexual indiscretions, she is allowed
to remain in the caste on her parents paying a fine and giving a dinnet
to the easterner, if the seducer is a casteman or a member o f a higher
caste. I f the seducer b e a member o f a lower caste the girl is ex­
communicated.
After the birth o f a child the m other is held impure, generally
for twelve days. In Poona, she iB held impure fo r forty-one days,
in Ahmednagar for eleven days, and in Kolh&pur for eight days.
In Shol&pur and S&t&ra, on the third day, a ceremony called Birth
tirvi or tikondi is performed, when five little unmarried girls are feasted
on millet o f karri made into lumps and eaten with a mixture o f milk
and molasses, or sugar, or with curds and buttermilk. On the fifth
or pdvchvi d ay five stone pebbles are laid in a line in the house and
worshipped b y the midwife and millet is offered. On this day, among
the K olM pu r Mah&rs, a few spots o f sandal and turmeric paste are
daubed on the wall near the m oth er’s cot. The spots are marked
with sandal paRte and rice and a lamp is waved round them. On
the sixth or saivi day the hole made fo r the bathing water in the
m oth er’s room is filled, levelled, cowdunged and sprinkled with tur­
meric and redpowder and flowers, and wheat cakes are laid before it.
h 1109—52
iW)i
• .B - ^ 4a/ h a r ]
v*>—< 410
The goddesa Satvai is also worshipped on this day, or, in some places,
(?c
) !tj
od the evening o f th e fifth day. A silver image o f the goddess is set
on a stone slab or pata, and flowers, a coil of thread and food are laid
before the goddess, and a wheat flour lamp is set at the bathing pit.
Five married women are asked to dine a t the house, and the child
is n ot allowed to look at the wheat flout lamp at the bathing pit,
as the sight at the lamp is said to make it squint. In Kanara, the
child in named on the sixth day, in Kolhapur on the ninth. In the
Deccan, it is nam ed between the twelfth and any time within about
tw o months in consultation with the village astrologer. When the
child is a year old, if it is a b oy, the hair-cutting or Javal is performed.
Marriage The offer o f marriage com es from the b o y ’s father, who, in some
monies case3> has to pay a sum o f money to the girl’s father. A few days
before the marriage, the village Br&hraan is asked whether there
is anything in the names o f the b oy and girl to prevent their marry­
ing. H e consults his almanac and says there is n o objection. H e
is then asked to fix a lucky moment for the marriage and for the tur­
meric rubbing. H e again consults his almanac, tells them the days
and gives them a few grains of rice to be thrown on the bridal pair.
The marriage service is conducted either b y a Br&kman priest standing
at a distance, or by a Mah&r gosdvi. In Kh&ndesh, it is sometimes
conducted b y a Dhangar. Marriage booths are erected at the houses
of both the b o y and girl, the muhurta medha or auspicious post of which
is generally o f imbar (Indian fig tree) w ood. The booth is covered
with leaves o f mango, imbar and pipri (Ficus tsiela). The devak
o f the fam ily stock is worshipped. Silver masks or tdks are occa­
sionally brought b y a new ly married couple from a goldsm ith’s shop
and placed am ong the household gods and worshipped. The devak
is tied to the muhurta medha along with wheat bread and an axe.
In some places, the Pdndhari (Randia uliginosa) is worshipped
b y the bridegroom before the installation o f the devak. The few
particulars in which the marriage ceremonies o f Mah&rs differ from
those of Kunbis are that the boy and girl are made to sit in bamboo
baskets at the time of marriage and th a t a yellow thread is passed
seven times round their necks. In Khan desk, while the marriage
verses are being recited, the baskets are twisted round five times,
and, when the priest claps his hands to shew that the moment
for marriage has come, the baskets are turned a sixth time, the cloth
is snatched aside and the bride and bridegroom throw garlands round
each other’ s necks. In m ost places, from the beginning of the
marriage cerem ony to the end, the bride has to hold a knife m her hand
and the bridegroom a dagger. A m ong the Mab&rs o f the Then*
 4 p
411 fMahar *
district;, the marriage cerem ony is performed without the help of
a Br&hman, unless the b o y ’s father is a follower of Chokh&mela,
when the services of a Brdhman are necessary. Some Mah4rs also
call in a Bhat. On the day before the marriage, a m edium, bhagat,
is called to the bride and bridegroom’s houses and consulted
whether the n ex t day will be lucky. I f the medium says the
d a y is favourable, the marriage is celebrated on that day. The
binding portion of the marriage service seems to be, in all places,
the throwing o f sacred grains of rice over the bride and bridegroom.
Among the Mahdrs o f the S£vantv6di State, a com posite devaJc,
consisting of one or two sets o f rice grains, one cocoanut, five pice,
a betelnut and leaves, plantains, and leaves o f the kadamba (Antho-
cephalus cadum ba) is put into a basket and worshipped with flowers
and sandal paste b y the bridegroom and his parents. The muhurta
medha or auspicious post o f the marriage booth , with mango leaves tied
to its end, is then planted at the entrance to the house along with a
p ost o f the sdvar tree (Bom bax malabaricum) and it is worshipped.
N e x t the cerem ony of shesa bharne is perform ed, in which rice grains
are applied to the foreheads o f the bridegroom and his parents b y five
married pairs, and the demk is brought and placed into the house with
a lighted lamp b y its side. The bridegroom is then taken back into
the marriage pandal and rubbed with turmeric paste b y five married
pairs. Next a triangular frame o f the branches o f the sdvar ox kivan tree
is raised, outside the pandal, cotton thread is passed round the frame
and to its top is hung a cloth bag containing jiv e vadds (cakes fried
in oil). The bag is filled with water b y five married unwidowed
women and the bridegroom is seated under it so that the water trickles
o v e r his head. The bridegroom is then taken ou t of the fram e and
bathed, and carried b y his maternal uncle or som e other near relation
to th e door of th e booth, whence he throws bel leaves over the booth.
In m any districts, water is poured over the join ed hands o f the bride
and bridegroom (the dhdre ceremony). The marriage is com pleted
a fter the fashion o f the K unbi caste marriageB.
The remarriage o f widows is permitted. A widow cannot marry Widow
her father’s sister’s, mother’s sister’s or m other’s brother’s son, orJ^ r'
a member of her late husband’s fed. In some places, marriage with a
m other’s brother’s son is allowed, in others, it is prohibited with a mem­
ber o f the w idow’s father’s fell. In K M ndesh, a widow is said to
be allowed to marry a younger brother of her deceased husband. The
intended husband has, in some places, to pay a sum o f money called dej
to the father of the widow and t o the relatives o f her deceased husband.
A w idow remarriage is always celebrated a t night except on a new-
 ■ ■ p

X , i J l ^ i M ah" r 412 O l J

m oon day. I t can n ot take place on those days on which first marriages
are celebrated. In some districts, it is n ot allowed to be celebrated
in the months o f Ashadha, Paush and Bhadrapada. The cere­
m on y takes place in a lonely locality and is generally attended by
remarried widow s, a caste gosdvi or pandit, and sometimes a Br&hman
priest. The w idow is dressed in the clothes and ornaments presented
b y her intended husband, the pair are then seated on a carpet or a
b u llock ’s packsaddle, the ends o f their garments are tied into a knot,
th e widow’ s brow is marked with redpowder, her lap is filled, and the
cerem ony is over. In some places, molasses ate p ut into the m outh
o f both. Sometimes the god Y an in a or Ganpati is also worshipped.
In the S&vantvadi State, a w idow remarriage is celebrated only on
a W ednesday, Thursday or Friday. I t is attended by the relations
o f b oth parties, neighbours and friends. The cerem ony consists only in
applying rice grains to the foreheads o f the pair by the party assem­
bled, which is follow ed b y a feast. N ext, the married pair with the party
start for the w idow ’ s new husband’s house. Before they reach the
place, a cock is killed and a piece of the w idow ’s robe is cu t off and
Ka. 2, with a ser of rice grains and a cocoan u t or five Nd-gchampa
leaves tied into a piece o f cloth are sent to th e house of the widow’s
deceased husband and placed in the basin o f the tulasi plant in the
courtyard. This offering is made to appease the spirit of the
w idow ’s deceased husband, The cock offered cannot be eaten by
the remarried pair. It is cooked and eaten b y the members o f the
p arty attending the pair before they reach their destination.
On arriving there, the couple bow to their family god, and rice
grains are applied to their foreheads by five married unwidowed
wom en, which ends the ceremony. A bachelor is n o t allowed t o marry
a w idow unless he is first married to a rui plant or a ring. The
marriage with the rui p la rtia performed with full marriage rites.
Th e plant is then chopped u p and buried in a burial ground,
thus indicating th at the first wife, i.e., the tree, is dead, and putting
th e bachelor, as a widower, on a footing with th e widow. D ivorce is
allow ed on the grounds of the w ife’s un chastity, the husband’s illtreat-
m ent of the w ife, or the contraction o f an incurable disease b y either.
D ivorced women are allowed to remarry b y the widow remarriage
form , unless the cause o f the divorce be adultery with a m em ber of
a lower caste, in which case, they are excommunicated. T h e caste
fo llow the H indu law of inheritance.
The MabArs profess H induism. They are both Shaivs and Vaish-
Eeligion. nftVB gom e Gf them , in the Ahmednagar district, belong to th e Matan
gapatta sect, and many are followers of Kabir, Giri and N ath. Those
I: <sl
X'--“ ' __
# ? * \ \ \ ^

M i
413 [Mahar
who are followers o f ChokbAraela ( Varkaris) wear sweet basil or tulsi
bead necklaces and make periodical pilgrimages to Alandi and Pandhar-
pur, passing their nights in praying or singing sacred songs or
abhangs. In the Deccan, the pious among them have singing clubs
where they sing in praise of some Hindu god, especially o f BAm or
of Vithoba of Pandharpur. Both men and women are good singers
and go in bands of tw o or more, singing and begging.

The favourite deities of the Deccan MahArs are BhavAni, MahA-

deva, Chokhoba, JnyAnoba, Khandoba, V ithoba and Mhaskoba.
The objects of their special worship are the cobra or vdgoba, the small­
pox goddess SatvAi and the cholera-goddess Mariai, whose shrines
are found in all MahAr quarters. The family deities of the Kanara
Mahars are ShAntariamma, Maridevi, Bhumidevi and MahAdeva.
The MahArs of the SAvantvAdi State worship gods in the form o f cocoa-
nuts or betelnuts called BrAhmans and PurvAs. In every village,
close to the chief temples, there is a MahAr shrine where they workship
a stone idol of Talkhba. The family deities of the MahArs of ThAna are
Mhaskoba, JanAi, Gauri, Bahiroba, Khandoba, Chokhoba, BhavAni,
Yellamma, Giroba, BAbdev, Chedoba, JakhAi, SomnAi, KalkAi, and
Jokhai. Besides the above deities all the MahArs worship the usual
Hindu gods and goddesses and MusalmAn saints, and some have tales
(embossed images) of deceased ancestors. They observe all the Hindu
holidays and make pilgrimages to the holy places o f the Hindus,
specially to Pandharpur, Alandi, Jojuri and TuljApur.

W hen cholera rages in a village, the people raise a subscription

and hand the money to the headman. The headman brings a robe
and bodice, some rice and 8our, a he-buffalo or a sheep, and flowers,
camphor, frankincense, red powder and betelnut and leaves. H e takes
three carts, fills one with cooked rice, a second with cakes and in
the third places the other articles o f worship, and, leading the he-
buffalo, takes the carts through the village accom panied b y music
and a band of the villagers. The carts then go to the MahArs’ quarters
outside o f the village, where is the shrine of MariAi, the cholera
goddess. The headman and the other villagers stand at a distance, while
a Mahar bathes the goddess, dresses her in the robe and bodice, fills
her lap with rice, betelnuts, dry dates and a eocoanut, waves burning
frankincense and camphor before her, and with join ed hands begs
her to be kind. All the villagers lift their joined hands to their heads
and ask the goddess to be kind and retire, leaving the MahArs and
Mango in peace. The buffalo is led in front of the goddess and a MahAr
chops off its head with a sword or a hatchet, and toueboB the goddess’
|I|Mahar] 414
<§L
lap with a finger dipped in its blood. The cart-loads of food and
meat are shewn to the goddess and are distributed among such of
the villagers as do not object to eat them. This concludes the
sacrifice. They say that the goddess truly partakes o f the sacrifice,
as the food and meat become insipid and tasteless.

The religious teachers and priests of Makers are members of

their own caste, who are called gurus, sddhus, vdchaks, pandits, gosd-
vis, or mendhe joshis. In Khandesh, there is a class of beggars known
as Mahar thdkurs, who also act as their priests. The gurus are those
who have been initiated by-other gosdvis, and who have devoted
themselves to a religious life, chiefly to the worship o f Vithoba. The
Mahitr thdkurs are probably Bh&ts who have been degraded by mixing
among Mahars. Their form of greeting is different from the Mahar
saying ram ram to each other and brahma to strangers. Besides
officiating as their priest the thdkur acts as the Mah&r’s banker.
H e eats from a Mah&r but no Mahiir will eat from him . Besides gums
and thdkurs, Br&hmans are sometimes employed to conduct marriages
in the Southern Mar&tha Country. The Jangams also officiate at times.
In the tim e of Namdev and Tuk&r&m, the Mahhrs were admitted to
tho V&rkari cult o f the Bhakli Mdrg. Their great saint Ohokhamela
has a shrine at Pandharpur close to N&mdev’s preaching place.
The sadhus read and explain their sacred books, the Bhaklivijaya,
Ddsbodh, Jnydneshvari, Harivijaya, Rdmvijaya, Santlila, and the
poems of Jny&noba, Tukoba and others. Some of them are very
fluent preachers and expounders of the purdns. E very M a b & r , both
a male and female, has a guru. If one has no guru he is not allowed
to dine in the same line with the gurus. A child is first brought to be
taught b y its guru when it is about a year old, the rite is called
kdnshrdvni or ear-whispering and more com m only kduphnkne
or ear-blowing. About seven or eight at night, the parents take the
child in their arms and g o to the teacher’s house, carrying frankin­
cense, camphor, red and scented powders, flowers, betelnut and leaves,
a cqcoanut, dry dates and sugar. In the teacher’ s house a room is
cowdunged and a square is traced with white quartz powder. A t
each com er of the square a lighted lamp is set, and in the middle
on a wooden plank or on a low wooden stool is a metal pot or ghat
filled with cold water. Another board or stool is set facing the square
and the teacher sits on it cross-legged. He sets flowers, sandal
paste and rice on the waterpot and takes the child in his
lap, reating its head on his right knee. He shrouds himself and
the child in a blanket or a waistcloth, mutters the sacred
 415 [M a h lr ^

verse into the child's right ear, pulls off the blanket and hands
the child to its pareuts. The priest is presented with money gifts
and, if they are well-to-do, the parents give him a waistcloth, one or
tw o metal water vessels and a plate. A feast is given to the teacher
and a few near relations, or, if the parents cannot afford a feast, sugar
is handed round. After the dinner the parents retire with the
child.
The Mahars believe in sorcery, witchcraft and soothsaying
and attribute all diseases to the working of evil spirits. They
have many spirit scarers or exorcists among them, some o f whom
are gosdvis, and the rest potms or devotees o f Lakshmi, who cover
their brows with red powder and carry a whip with which they
lash their bodies while they beg, singing and dancing.
The dead are generally buried. A few, who have the means, burn. Death
A t burial the corpse is either seated or laid with head to the north or cer,i'.
south. The body is carried to the burning ground either on a bam boo
bier or in a sling. In Khandesh, the thum bs are tied with a
piece of silver wire over the breast, the body is shrouded in a new cloth,
and grains of rice are tied to one o f the hems of the cloth. The
chief mourner walks in front with fire in a new earthen jar and music
if he has the means. The mourners follow . On the w ay to the grave
the party halts and the rice from the hem of the deceased’s robe is laid
on the ground. A p it five feet deep is dug, and the b od y is stripped
c f all its clothing, even the loincloth, according to the saying “ Naked
hast thou com e and naked shalt thou go. ” In som e places, the clothing
is not removed. The b od y is then lowered into the grave, the
chief mourner scatters a handful o f earth on the b ody, the rest
also scatter earth, and the grave is filled. In Poona, a few bel leaves
are scattered on the head before the grave is filled. The chief mourner
fills the fire pot with water, sets it on his shoulder and goes thrice
round the grave, crying aloud and striking his open mouth with the
palm o f his right hand. A t the end o f the third turn he pours water
from the jar on the grave and dashes the jar to pieces on the ground.
All bathe in running water, and go to the mourner’s house each carry­
ing a nim branch. A t the house an earthen p o t o f cow ’s urine is
set on the spot where the deceased breathed his last. The mourners
dip the nim branches into the urine, sprinkle it over their heads
and bodies, and go to their homes. On the third d ay a few o f the
deceased’s kinsmen go to the burial ground, the chief mourner carrying
in his hands a winnowing fan with tw o pieces of cocoa-kernel and some
molasses in each piece. A t the rest-place, where the bearers halted,
they lay a piece of cocoa-kernel with molasses on it under five
stones. The other piece is laid on the heaped grave. They beat
0 .^ -, __
£\V\

I■
:i Mahar] 4 16
%L
the grave down to the level of the rest, o f the ground, bathe, and go
to the chief m ourner’s house. The four bearers are seated in a line
on the bare ground in the front room o f the house. Each holds a
trim branch under his arm, the chief mourner drops a little molasses
into his m outh, and they go to their homes. On the third,
seventh or eleventh day a bread and vegetable caste feast is given.
In the Siivantv&di State, on the eleventh day after death, an earthen
ja r is worshipped with an offering o f a cock, the people assembled
put coins into the jar, sing praises of gods all the night, worship a flour
imago o f a cow and at daybreak the chief mourner gets his face and
moustaches clean shaved, and the flour image is taken and thrown into
a pool.

For the propitiation of the deceased ancestors mahdlaya is

performed in the dark half of Bhddrapada, when crows are fed and
casternen are feasted. The ceremony o f shrdddha is not performed.

Oooupa The Mah&rs are hereditary village servants and are considered
authorities in all boundary matters. They escort Governm ent trea­
sure, a ct as guides and messengers to public officers, call landholders to
p ay the land assessment at the village office, watch boundaries and the
village office, repair the village office and village gate or gaonkusu and
sweep the village roads. M ost o f them en joy a small Government
paym ent, partly in cash and partly in land. The chiof source o f
their income is the yearly grain allowance or baluia. They say that
they used to have fifty-tw o dues, but now the num ber is greatly
reduced. Som e o f these dues, which were allowed b y the Muhammadan
and Mar&tha Governments, are as follows :—

1. Sita-devi or a part o f a standing sugarcane crop.

2. Village or town gate offerings.
3. Holt food offerings on the full-m oon d ay o f Ph&lgun.
4. Bendur grain gifts on the full-m oon o f AsMdha.
5. Hides of dead cattle.
6. Hdtshekne or hand-warming, a m oney g ift for watching the
fire made for boiling sugarcane juice.
7. Qhar-takka or hom e money.
8. M oney paid for digging graves.
9. Grain lying on and about the threshing floor when the floor
is used for the first time.
10. Grain at the bottom o f a peo or grain-pit.
 417 [Mahar
<gL
11. The rice thrown on the two low stools which are set for the
bride and bridegroom.
12. A yearly pair o f sandals for watching the village o r town gate.
13. Rukka or marriage gift including two coppers in cash, a
piece o f cocoa-kernel and a handful o f rice.
14. Oti-pati or lap-tax, that is handfulls o f grain p ut into the
laps o f Mah&r women at the first treading o f the grain.

15. Money thrown into her platter when a Mahar woman comes
to wave a lamp round the head o f the bride’s o r bride­
groom ’ s mother.
16. Madhe-pade or carcass tax.
17. Manguli or gifts for winding a string round the village on
the new-m oon o f Ask&dha and o f Kdrtik.
18. Rdnsodvan or forest-leaving, that is, grain ears given to
Mahars on the first cutting and stacking.
19. Pendha or straw.
20. Lagin-takka or marriage rupee, that is, four annas given to
the village Mah&r when the b ooth is raised.

The duties of the Mah&rs to the villagers are to cu t firewood,

carry letters, sweep and clean the yards in fron t o f their houses, carry
cow dung cakes to the burning ground and to dig graves. F o r their
private services they are paid in cash, or, what they like better, in
cooked food. They have a m onopoly o f the dead village animals, of
the shrouds used in carrying the village dead, and o f the copper coins
which in the name o f the dead are throw n to one side a t the resting
place or vimvidchi jdga. Mahars are largely em ployed b y Europeans
as dom estic servants, and as groofhs. or syces, th ey perform service
in all parts of India. R ecently they have taken readily to attending
m otor-cars and earn high wages in th at capacity. A s unskilled
labourers they are em ployed in very large numbers. O f recent years
com plaints have arisen in villages near large centres of industry that
the Mahars have been so depleted in numbers b y em igration to the
cities as to leave an inadequate staff for village requirements. Some
are husbandmen. Many are contractors and money-lenders, and
manage their business w ithout the help o f any high caste clerk. Mah4rs
make excellent railway gang labourers, and have gained almost a
m onopoly o f the unskilled railway labour market in som e districts.
The Mah&rs o f Kanara and S&vantvadi plait bam boo mats, baskets
and fans, and play kettle-drums at some o f the religious festivals
B 1100—53
I®! MaharJ 418
<SL
and at the marriages of some of the lower castes. The
Parvari or musical Mah&r plays on a double drum called sambal,
a small flute or trumpet called sarni, a long trum pet or*flute called
sur or surani with a palm-leaf mouth-piece, a thin drum-stick called
buk, and a horned or crooked stick called chap. These, with a wooden
flute ( alguzar), are the chief instruments used b y the musical Mahar.
Occasionally he blows the horn (singa), but never beats the tam ­
bourine or blows the big trumpet (karna) these being exclusively Mang
instruments.

Fo<k1' The staple food o f the Mahars o f the Deccan is millet bread, split
pulse, pounded chillies, cheap vegetables and occasionally fish ; that of
the Konkan Mah&rs—kodra and coarse rice. They eat the leavings
o f the higher castes, and when cattle, sheep or fowls die they feast
on their carcasses, eating strips of the flesh roasted over a fire, often
with nothing else, but sometimes washed down b y liquor. They do
n ot eat pork, crocodiles, monkeys, jackals, horses, serpents, rats,
squirrels and lizards. They hate the Mangs for eating the pig and the
Mlings hate them for eating the cow. They are very fond of liquor and
palm -juice. They do not eat cooked food at the hands of Buruds,
Jingars, Kaikadis, Vaddas, Parits, Mochis, Bhangis, MAngs and
Ghadshis, The Hol&rs and M&ngs eat food cooked b y them. Socially,
Mahars are slowly making progress owing to the increasing earnings
which the industrial development o f the country affords them an
opportunity of securing.

MAHAR DOMBAR.— A sub-division o f KolhAtis.

MAHATMA.— A synonym for MAnbh&v.
MAHAWAT.—See under M inor,Musalm&n Castes.
MAHESHRI.— A sub-division o f MeghvAls.
MAHESHVAR.... A synonym for Jangam.
Name and MAHIAS* numbering 1,914 (1901), including 1,051 males and
893 females, are chiefly foufiM in the Sorath Prant of KAthi&wAr.
l ’he head of the caste is the owner of the village of Sbergadh under
the Halia Malia Mah&l of Junagadh. In descent they appear to
he J&dhav Rajputs and to have accompanied the BAbrias, with whom
they have many things in common, into KAthiAwAr ; they were prob­
ably hired soldiers and labourers. It is a common belief among the
people of the caste that they came from Chitor to GujarAt in the reign of
MAhmud Begada. N ot finding enough territory for themselves, they

* Ii} the oeiiBus of 1891 the oaate is shown as “ Maiya” , numbering 2,621.
tip)
X:. , 419 [Mahia
<SL
went over to Thdn, which they occupied under the leadership o f two
hrothers, Dunto and Mahio. Dunto subsequently marched on to
Dedan and ruled there under the name of K otillo. Mahio marched
through Pdnch&la and occupied Shergadh. The latter won the
Chorwdd viahal for the Junagadh State, in recognition whereof that
state conferred 24 villages upon the Mahias. Later a misunderstand­
ing arose between the State and the Mahi&s regarding the payment
of tribute, which ended in a cruel and treacherous slaughter of many
of the caste on Kaneda hill near Khodiyar. According to the Bombay
Gazetteer, it seems that the Mahids claim K&thi origin, and were
in revolt in 1867, when they established themselves in the Gir
hills. Afterwards, on being pardoned, certain lands were made
over to them on service tenure. They were disarmed in 1873.

Originally the Mahi&s contained 15 sub-divisions, eight of whom E n do­

Dhuya, Makhana, Gonia, Titvela, Lungha, L unlra, Lunjhdria f^ U io n a
w s .,
and Lddak, have become extinct. The existing sub-divisions are :—
Sub-division. Clan-name. Founder.

1. Daiy&tar. .. Jddeja .. Lakho Phul&ra.

2. Makka .. Chav&n .. Prithvi R aj.
3. Ddngar .. Chudasma .. Javg&d.
4. P&deri .. Jethva .. (Unknown).
5. Bdbria .. B&bria .. Babravahanu.
6. Dhdna .. Dhank .. (Unknown).
7. Chaldvda .. Solanki .. Sidhardj.

The corresponding names for the seven above-noted among the

B&brids are, seriatim, Varu, Murmul, Chudasama, Katydl, Kotilla,
Dhankda and Solanki. Intermarriage between members of the
same sub-division is strictly prohibited.

The exogamous sub-divisions are identical with the seven sur- E x o ­

names enumerated above. Sameness o f patron deity is a bar to JjfvTZo o«
intermarriage. Each sub-division has a separate patron deity, as
follows

Daiy&tar .. Mahamaya and Asapara.

Makka .. But and Balvi.
Dangar .. Khodiyar.
P&deri .. R6jbai.
Babria .. Chimunda.
Dhana .. Pithad.
Chalavda ,. V&chro.
 ISahia] 4 20
§L
Marriage Marriage with a maternal uncle’8 daughter is allowed. I t is
monies, prohibited with a father’s sister’s daughter and mother’s sister’s
daughter. A Mahia may marry two sisters. Tw o brothers may
marry two sisters. Boys and girls are married between twelve and
fourteen. Sexual intercourse before marriage is neither allowed nor
tolerated. If a girl commits sexual indiscretions before marriage,
she is fined, as well as the man involved, if he belongs to the caste.
Polygamy is permitted, but polyandry is unknown. The offer of
marriage is generally made by the girl’s father, and the marriage nego­
tiations are carried on through a priest or by tw o respectable men of
the caste. When a marriage is settled the ceremony of sagdi is per­
formed. The b oy’s father makes a present of clothes and ornaments
to the girl. This is known as mmurlum. Then an auspicious day for
the marriage is fixed b y the girl’s father, and the day is made known
to the b oy’s father in a letter sent through the family priest. This is
known as lagna lakhavun. The acceptance of the date is signified by
the b oy ’s father giving a cocoanut to the priest and marking the boy’s
forehead with red paste. This is termed lagna vadhdvam, In the
morning, a day previous to the marriage day, a fruit known as mindol
is tied to the wrists of the bride and bridegroom and they are anointed
with turmeric and saffron-paste at their respective houses. These
ceremonies are known as mindol bdndfiavun and halad chadhamvi.
In the evening the bridegroom and Ids party proceed to the bride’s
house, where they are received b y the bride’s party. A woman taking
tw o earthen pots, one over the other, on her head, and placing a cocoa-
nut at the mouth of the upper pot. receives the bridegroom’s party
first. The family priest too remains present, having with him saffron
and red powder. The bridegroom’s brow is marked with red powder,
rice grains are applied to it, and he is offered a cocoanut. H e offers
a cocoanut in return. The couple are then led to a lodging specially
prepared for them. Molasses or date fruit are distributed among those
present. The bride is offered clothes und ornaments. On the morn­
ing o f the marriage day men on both sides assemble in the marriage
booth. A t each corner of the marriage booth seven earthen pots are
arranged in a row and called chori bdndhavi. In the marriage booth
Ganpati and local gods are established on an altar as the presiding
deities of the ceremony. At the appointed time the bride’s father
gives his daughter to the bridegroom ; this is the kanyaddn. The
couple then walk round the altar four times, this being the binding
portion o f the ceremony. The bride and bridegroom return to their
house after making a bow to the presiding deities. Turmeric-paste
is then washed off and the wristlets (bhindols) are untied,
•( g ) ! (CT
421 [Mahia '*>■ *..*
.... •
W idow remarriage is allowed. A widow can m arry her maternal
uncle’ s son or a member of her caste b y paying a fine o f 200 to 700
koris (a kori equals nearly a quarter rupee). A w idow m ay cohabit
with the younger brother of her deceased husband. This course
is com m only adopted when she has no issue, or when her deceased
husband possessed some landed property. The previous consent of
the husband’ s relations is required if a widow wishes to marry out
o f the fam ily, when her first husband’s line is likely to becom e extinct.
A widow remarriage can be effected on any day. On the remarriage
day the widow’s weeds are removed and new clothes are p ut on.
The widow puts on such ornaments as her new husband chooses to give
her. The brows of the widow and her new husband are then marked
with red powder, and sugar or molasses are distributed. A bachelor is
allowed to marry a widow with all the forms of a widow remarriage.

D ivorce is allowed, b u t it is not very com mon. A woman divorced

for adultery is fined from 200 to 500 koris, and a portion of the
head-dress of the husband is to m as a mark of divorce.

Mahias are Hindus b y religion. Som e of them adore Mah&k&li Rell?ion*

while others believe in Ramdepir. The religious preceptor of Mah&k&li
is Atit, while that of Ram depir is Margi S&dhu. They worship the
Shaktis and Khijadia. The offerings made by them are received by the
servants of the respective deities.
Mahi&s generally b u m their dead. Sddhus (ascetics), and small Death
children ■who have n ot cu t their teeth, are buried. The Sddhus are monies,
buried in a sitting posture facing the north. Children are buried on their
backs, the head being turned towards the north. Persons dying of
small-pox and leprosy are buried, as it is believed that small-pox
already consumes the body and that additional burning is unnecessary.*
It is also thought that leprosy is infectious, and that the smoke from
a leprous corpse is dangerous. The ashes and bones of the dead
are thrown into a river or are sent to a h oly place. On the eleventh
day an image of the dead is prepared o f wheat flour and worshipped
b y a river. F or the propitiation of ancestors in general they observe
the shrdddha ceremony. W hen an accident is the cause of death a
stone image of the deceased is prepared, and it is either worshipped
with the household gods or worn round the neck. F or the propitia­
tion of childless ancestors a he-calf and a she-calf are formally married.
This marriage ceremony is known as lil parnavi.

* Another common theory is that small-pox being a god should not be ooztsumed
by fire.
 <SL
___

Mali] 422

The people believe themselves to have once been soldiers rather

than labourers. Some of them own lands, while others are agricul­
tural labourers ; some are servants.
Food. They eat flesh and drink liquor. They eat with Ahirs, Rab&ris,
Bharw&ds, and Margi S&dhus and K um bhars; the Hatis, Kathis,
R ajputs, B&bri£s, and Ch&rans eat with them.
MAIRALS, numbering 123 (1901), including 76 males and 47
females, are found mostly in Poona. They are ministrants at Khan-
d oba ’s temple, and live b y begging alms at the houses o f the rich
worshippers of the god. Their religious and social customs are like
those of local Kunbis.

MAKADVALE.— A sub-division of Kaik&dis.

MAKHIYAR.— A sub-division of Bhangis.
MAKKALSANTAN.— A sub-division o f Suppaligs, Mogers and
G&nigs.
MAKVANA.—See under Minor Musalman Castes. Also a sub­
division of Thoris.
MAKVANIYA.— A sub-division of Rfivals.
, MALA.— A sub division of Bhois.
MALABANJARI.-— A sub-division of Alkaris.
MALAI.— A sub-division o f Kattais.
MALAO.—A sub-division o f Kachhis.
MALGAR.— A synonym for Hugar.
MALHAR.—A sub-division of Kolis.
MALI.— A sub-division of Vaidus and Kachhias.
Name MALIS or Gardeners, from the Sanskrit mala a garland, number-
origin. in8 290,972 (1901), including 145,605 males and 145,367 females,
are found in large numbers all over the Deccan and North Gujar&t,
and in small numbers in the Konkan, Kanara and Kam&tak. They
seem to have been originally Kunbis who took to gardening, and by
degrees formed a separate community. Mdli being a functional
term is sometimes applied to other castes following the occupation
of gardening, e.g., Panchkalshi, Agri, Bhand&ri, Kaehi, etc., and also
to the Musalm&n B&gb&ns. M&lis are husbandmen, gardeners and day
labourers, and their women help them in tilling and by selling flowers,
fruit and vegetables. They are divided into three territorial groups,
Maratha, Gujar&ti and Kanarese, who have nothing in common ex­
cep t their occupation. These are described below.
 (St
423 [Mali C/A.
M ARATH A MALIS have thirteen endogamous divisions as Endoga
, mous
follows divisions.

Adhaprabhu. Kshirasdgar.
Adhasheti. Lingdyat.
Bdvane. PAde.
Halde, Bankar or Kas. Phul.
Jire. Rdnt.
KAcha. Unde.
Kadu.

Of the above, Phul MAlia, Halde MAlis, Jire MAlis, and KAcha Malis
form tlie bulk of the caste. Phul Mdlis are found chiefly in Ahmed -
nagar, SdtAra, Poona and Ndsik, Jires and Haldes in Ahmednagar,
Poona and Ndsik, Each As in Ahm ednagar; Lingdyats in Poona,
SdtAra and Sholdpur; P4des, Bdvanes, Adhaprabhus, Adhashetis
and Undes in Ahmednagar, KM ndesh, SdtAra and Sholdpur; Rdnts
and Kahirasdgars in Sholdpur; and the Kadus all over the Deccan.

The Phul Malis are, as their name indicates, florists. They will
n ot wear a flower or bunch of flowers in their turbans and will not
have a flower pattern (of silk) on their shoes. They are considered
to be the social superiors of the other three main divisions mentioned
above. Jire Malis take their name from Jire (cumin seed) which they
grow. Haldes grow halad or turmeric, and KAchds are cotton braid
weavers. Kachas and Phul MAlis dine together, but they will not eat
with Jires or Haldes, who eat food cooked by Phuls and KAchAs.
Haldes are looked down upon by the other divisions of Malis, and are
said to be treated as Makars, because they boil bulbs of turmeric and
prepare them for market. A fanciful resemblance between a part
of the turmeric flower and a cow ’s head is given as the reason for
considering this occupation to be degrading. In many cases they have
actually given up this work and passed it on to MahArs. None of
the above divisions intermarry. Kadu MAlis consist of the ille­
gitimate offspring of MAlisand of the progeny of the crosses between the
divisions. It is stated by some that a MAli girl may be kept by a
Mardtha as his mistress, when she becomes a Kunbi.
The kuls or exogamous divisions of Mardtha MAlia are covered Exoga­
b y surnames. Sometimes a group of surnames is supposed to re-
present one kul as having descended from a common ancestor, and
marriages between members belonging to one or other of them are
 r » 1

Mali] 424 'o i j

prohibited. They have numerous foils, the chief o f which are as
follows :—

Abang. Garde. Korde. Ptosare.

Aher. Ghadge. Kore. Parkhe.
Anfirso. Gharat. Kudale. Phule.
Bankar. Gholap. Lag. Rasal.
Bhagvat. Gite. Lokhande. R&ut.
Bhujbal. Hirve. Londhe. SasAne.
Borade. Jadhav. Malange. Shinde.
Chaudhari. Jagt&p. Mandlik. Suryavansbi.
(Jhipade. .Tamdade. Mule. Tajne.
Dake. KAjle. Navase. Thor&t.
Dalve. K&tlie. Nikam. VAgh.
Doke. Khaire. PAchure.
GAikvAd. Koke. Pandhre.

AdhAv. 1 B orband.l B ulkunde.l

PovAr. J Dhadge. J Parvafc. j

ChAphekar. I Bhopale. ]
Stogie. | Raut. J
Gore. 1 Koke. 1
Shevkar. { Mehre. j
Pandhre.)
Shinde. J

The Halde MAlis of K htodesh have also gotras such as A tri,

KAtyAyami, Kaundinya, Kaushik, MArkandeya, Muni, Vashishtha,
etc., but in settling marriages only kuls are considered, which suggests
that the gotras have been adopted at a later date in imitation of BrAh-
mans, like many other castes anxious to raise themselves in the social
scale. I t is interesting to note that the Haldes are the lowest o f the
MAli divisions, treated almost like untouchables, and therefore it seems
natural that the desire on their part to rise in the social scale should be
greater than the other divisions who hold the same social position as
the MarAtha Kunbia. Originally every kul or a number of kuls had
a separate demk, and marriages were prohibited between membors
having the same demk. There are still some kuls having such devaks,
instances of which are the follow in g:—
t-% '%
425
. <SL
[Mali.
Kuls. Devaks. ,
Aher .. . . 'j
P&ndhare .. •• ^ The maryadvel (Ipomoea biloba).
Sinde .. .. J

Bhnibal 1 A feather* o f the Sdlunki (C ora-

j " J cia sln d ica ).
G&ikv&d .. .. The suryakirm grass.
J&dhav .. .. 1
Kliidale f P^nkanis (R eed mace).
Jamdade ..
K okc
K orde
j j{ig ‘’ r The Pdnchpdlvi.
Phule !! ;;j
R&ut .. ., J
Suryavanshi .. . . The sunflower.
Even among the above, sameness o f devak
is n o bar to intermarriage,
the pdnchpdlvihaving now become the common devak
o f the whole
caste. Only among the Jire M&lis o f the N&sik district has the
totemistic significance of the devak
still survived, sameness o f devak
among them being still a bar to intermarriage. The devaks
com m only
found amongst them a r e :—
1. Devndl— Phragmitis communis.
2. Feathers o f the Sdlunki or blue ja y (Coracias Indies).
3. Kunda— Andropogon intermedins.
4. Maryadvel— Ipomoea biloba.
5. Peacock feathers.
6. Vdsanvel— Cocoulus villosus.
Marriage with a maternal uncle’s .daughter is allowed. Marriage Marriage
with a father’s sister’s daughter is allowed in some places. Marriage ru,eB-
with a m other’s sister’s daughter i? nowhere allowed. In S&t&ra
and Sholapur instances are found of M&lia having married their
sister s daughters. A man may marry tw o sisters and brothers m ay
marry sisters. Polygam y is common, some of the M&lis at K othrud
near Poona having three to six wives. Polyandry is unknown. Mar­
riage is infant as well as adult. W idow remarriage and divorce are
allowed and practised.

* At Sangamnor in the Ahmednag&r district a feather made of silver.

H 1109— 5*
■I g i (C T

V^ g J I a l i ] 426 U J
The fam ily deities o f Mar&tha Malis are Bahiroba o f Sonari
and Agadgaum in Ahmednagar, Devi o f Tuljapur in the Nizam’ s
territory and o f Saptashring in Nasik, and K handoba o f Jejuri in
Poona. A t Mungi Paithan the Phul M&lis have their guru called
malgand who has with him all the literature about the origin o f their
caste and a genealogy of their whole caste. He travels every third or
fourth year,when he goes to every family in the caste and records in his
books a com plete census of the family and all the changes since his
last visit— additions and omissions, births, deaths, etc. H e is paid
his expenses and a rupee or tw o as dnlcshina b y each fam ily. H e does
n ot visit the houses of illegitimates. In all other details, Maratha
M&lis follow Maratha Kunbis as regards religion, customs, ceremonies,
food and drink. They eat with Mar&thas, Kunbis, Shimpis, Dhangars,
Vanj&ris, etc., who will eat fo o d cooked b y Mar&tha MAlis.
G U JA R A T I M ALIS are found mostly in north Gujarat. A few
among them are from M&rwar, but most seem to have been Kanbis,
whom they resemble in appearance and dress. As a rule marriages are
prohibited between near relations though in Ahmed&b&d the children
o f brothers and sisters marry. The remarriage o f widows is permitted.
A widow may marry a younger brother o f her deceased husband.
D ivorce is granted in some places and not in others. In religion Gujar&t
M&lis are Kabirpanthis, R&m&nujis, Shaivas, Swaminarayans and
Vallabh&eh&ryas, and in north Gujar&t a few are Jains. They wor­
ship the cobra and other snakes. They are gardeners and flower-
sellers, a few in Ahmed&bad being traders, ministrants in Shr&vak
temples and dom estic servants. They eat the ordinary grains, and,
in the Panch Mahals, fish, fowls and the flesh of goats and sheep after
offering them to a goddess. In south Gujar&t they drink liquor.
E xcept that in the Panch Mah&ls no cerem ony is perform ed on the
sixth day after the birth o f a child, their customs at birth, marriage
pregnancy and death do n ot differ from those of Kanbis.
R A N A R E S E M ALIS are also called Kamtis orK u n ch g i Vakkals.
They take their name Kunchgi Vakkal from the cloak or Kunchgi
which they wear during the rains. They seem to have com e from
Mysore, as the shrine of their patron goddess Chandragutti is in Sorab
in Mysore. They have neither clans nor fam ily names. Children
are married generally after the age of five years. P olygam y is per­
missible, but polyandry is unknown. W idows are allowed to remarry.
Their family deities are Venkatarama, Yellamma, Guttiamma and
Hanumant. Their priests are Br&hmans. They burn their dead
except children under five years who are buried. They eat fish,
mutton, poultry and game and drink liquor.
|jf|) 427 [Manbhav
%
iJ L j

MALIK.-See under Minor Musalmdn Castes.

MALIK WAL.- A sub-division o f Brahmans.
MALLAVA — A sub-division of Lingdyats.
MALU .— A sub-division of Hajams.
MALVI.— A sub divisions o f Bajanias, Kumbhdrs, Sonars,
Shrigaud Brdhmaus.
MANBHAV.—A sub-division o f Mdngs.
MANBHAVS(,) are a religious order, the members o f which are Name and
scattered over the Deccan andBerars, a few being found in the Punjab or'gin'
and Afghanistan. A t the census o f 1901, they numbered
22,716, including 11,630 males and 11,086 females. In the case of a
loosely knit community o f the nature of a religious order, the census
figures cannot be relied on. Many Mdnbhdvs must have returned
themselves under their original caste names.
It would appear that the term M&nbhdv is a corruption of the
Sanskrit Mahdnubhdva, meaning great-souled. The other names
o f the sect met with in books and current in the different provinces
are, (1) Sany&si, (2) Y ogi, (3) Hansa, (4) Paramahansa, (5) Yati,
(6) Muni, (7) Mahatma, (8) Mahdnubhdva, (9) Bhikshuk, (10) Dny-
dni, (11) Achyutpanthi or Jayakrishniya.
In Mahdrashtra they are known chiefly as Mahdnubhdva,
Bhikshuk, Mahdtma and Sanydsi. In Bundelkhand they are known
b y the names Achyutpanthi, Muni, Mahdtma, Dnydni, Sanydsi and
Paramahansa ; and in the Punjab and Afghanistan the chief names
are Jayakrishniya, Sanydsi, Mahdtma and Yogi.
Mr. D. R . Bhandarkar points out that there is in certain points
a striking resemblance between this sect and the Manichoeans.
Thus Mani, the founder of the latter, invented an alphabet of his
ow n in which the scriptures were written. H e forbade the killing of
plants, plucking of fruit or breaking twigs, to avoid taking life.
Idolatry was forbidden. An em pty chair was worshipped.
The ceremonies were kept secret. These are all Mdnbhav customs,
and there seems probability in the theory that they are Manichoeans.
According to the Mdnbhdvs, the tenets of their order were
promulgated b y God himself through eight incarnations, two of
which were b om in each o f the four yugs or ages. Of these incarna­
tions Shri Ndrdyan and Shri Hansa were bom in the Krit yug,
Shri Nar and Shri Datta in the Treta yug, Shri Risbabh and Shri
Krishna in the Dutipar yug, and Shri Prashdnt and Shri Chakra-

(1) The materials for thin article were supplied by Mr. D. R. Bhandarkar.
t( t . fiSlanbhav] 428 (k iT
k.,JA-J
dliar in the Kali yug. Shri Chakradhar is said to have imparted the
secret doctrine ( Brahrmvidyashastra) to N&gadeva Bhatta in the
Prakrita (old Mar&thi language), which originated in the Krit yug.
In the original edition of the Imperial Gazetteer the sect is
represented to have been founded in the fourteenth century by
Kishen Bhat (Krishnabhatta), who married the daughter of a Mdng
and had four sons by her, called Mangbh&vs, which, in the corrupted
form of Mdnbh&v, is said to have become the name of the sect.
Sir W . Hunter was obviously misled into giving a highly inaccurate
account of this order. Dr. R . G. Bhandarkar, who has studied their
literature and especially had access to their Lildcharitra, the most
sacred of their scriptures, has com e to the conclusion that the sect
Avas founded by Shri Chakradhar, a Karh&da Br&broan, who is
looked upor as an incarnation of Shri Datt&traya, their god, but
was propagated b y his disciple N&gdevbhatta, a Deshasth Brahman,
also called the First Preceptor. Various stories have been narrated
in that work which mako Shri Chakradhar a contemporary of the
tw o Y&dav princes Krishna and M opidev, and N&gdevbhatta of
R&mehardra. Chakradhar is represented to have finally retired to
Badrik&shram in Saka 1194 or A. I). 1272. This date is quite in
keeping with the period ( a . i >. 1247— 1271) when his contemporary
Y&dav sovereigns are known from inscriptions to have flourished.
The same remark applies to the case of N&gdev and his contem­
porary prince, R&mchandra. This shows that the account of
Chakradhar and N&gdevbhatta given in the Manbhav scriptures is
not only traditional but is confirmed by history. The account,
therefore, deserves credence. The statement that the sect was
originated by Kishenbhat in the 14th ceDtury, nearly a hundred
years later than their reputed founder, thus falls to the ground.
Kishenbhat is himself referred to in their works as the founder of
a diabolical creed called M;itangpatta, which is therein held up to
ridicule and opprobrium. Kishenbhat cannot, therefore, have ar*y
connection with the M&nbh&v sect. The followers of Kishenbhat’s
creed are still in existence in the Ahmednagar district, and are never
confounded with M&nbh&vs. Lastly, Manbh&v is, as shown above,
a corruption not o f Mangbh&v, but of Mah&nubb&v, which, like the
alternative title of Mahatma means “ high-souled ” .
Within the last hundred years three new sects have sprung
from the M&nbhav sect. One of them known as Jay&nandi was
founded by the descendants o f Shri Kavishvar Amn&y Dikshit Gop&l
Pandit, and has a good deal o f following in Berar. The second is
 429
(fir
[Manbhav ' "J
Bn own as L&lpanth, and was founded by a Kunbi P&til L&lji o f
k&barv&da in the Yardha district o f Berar. It has also m any followers
in that province. The third was founded b y a Sany&si named
Bhikshumuni a t Nyalkal, a village in the Bedar district o f the Niz&m’s
territory, and has many Brahmans amongst itsf ollowers.

The principal tenets o f the sect are as follow s :— Tenet*.

1. Brahmacharya or celibacy.
2. BhiksMvrilti or maintenance b y begging alms.
3. Ahinsa or abstaining from killing life.
4. Abhakshydbhakshan or abstaining from flesh and liquor.
5. hshvarbhaJcti, i.e., devotion to God.
6. Nitya atan, i.e., constant wandering.
The chief religious book o f the order is the BrahmavidydsMstra
which is a collection of 11,700 precepts divided into two heads, viz.,
Shruti and Smriti, and incorporated in their famous sacred book
the Lildcharitra. They also revere the Bhagavadgita and the Upa-
nishads, the first of which is studied b y all members of the sect and
discourses on it are given b y the learned am ong them who are termed
Pandits. They do not worship idols and have no faith in the shrulis
and the purdnic religion o f the Hindus. Of the H indu gods, they
recognise only Datt&traya and Krishna, whose birthdays are cele­
brated with great pomp. The Mfinbhiivs have built temples at places
where Datt&traya, Krishna and Chakradhar are said to have perform­
ed miracles. Such temples are at Phaltan, Paithan, Mahur, Verool,
P&nch&leshvar, Mathura and other holy places, at most o f which they
have quadrangular or circular whitewashed terraces which they
worship in the name o f God. They neither worship other gods, nor
stay, or even drink water, in other temples. The principle of
abstaining from taking animal life is carried so far that th ey do not
cu t grass or pluck leaves or fruits from trees, thinking th at there is
life in these things. F or the same reason, in the absence o f a flowing
stream, they avoid bathing, and only clean their bodies with a wet
cloth, and drink water after it has been strained through linen. They
have monasteries at Kabul, Peshawar, Amritsar, Jalandar, Lahore,
Rawalpindi, Mathura, Broach, S&t&ra, Indore, Raher, N andor and
m any other places.
The M&nbh&vs are recruited from all castes o f Hindus exceptA'-lmiwion-
the impure classes. Children vow ed to M anbhav saints are brought
up by the brotherhood, and at the age o f fifteen or sixteen, if they
are found fit for admission, are initiated into the doctrines o f the sect.
 'G°5fX> • ' ’ , ‘;v
t ill
r vX^?v.
M a n b h a v] 430
NT ^ i J

I f not, they are allowed to leave. Adult men and women are kept
on trial for some time before admission, and if they stand the test,
are initiated. I f a man and his wife join the sect, the man is kept in
one mela and the woman in another for fifteen years.

ceremony. A novice is f?enerally admitted into the order at the age of ten
or twelve. The time of entering the order is at any season, but on an
auspicious day, and the place is the temple of Krishna. On the day
o f entering the order, the Manbhdvs meet at the temple o f Krishna,
'and the b oy has his head and face clean shaved. He is then bathed
and presented with a waistcloth and shouldercloth dyed black* with
lampblack, a square piece of cloth for filtering drinking water, a bag
for begging alms, a rosary, and articles o f worship. His head is
marked with white sandalpaste, and garlands of tulsi or sweet basil
wood are tied round his neck and wrists. H e bows before the image of
Krishna and before the monk who acts as his religious teacher, and
tells him the five chief rules o f the order. Next day the ceremony
ends with a dinner to all Mdnbh&vs at the expense o f the novice or of
his teacher. The novice has to wait on his teacher or guru, and follow
him wherever he goes. Women are admitted by nuns in the same way
as men. They call their teacher di guru or mother teacher, and the
other nuns sisters.
Divisions, There are four main divisions of the M&nbh&vs. They are :—

1. Vairdgi.— These include both men and women. They have

to lead a strict celibate life. They do not observe caste distinctions.
Both men and women have to shave their heads clean, and the
former also their mustaches and beards.

2. Angvanshil or Gharbhdri are those who put on the dress of

the order and live in monasteries. They marry by the gdndharva
or love marriage form.

3. Bhopi or Pujdri. These are temple servants and worship­

pers o f gods.

4. Bhau al, Shishya or Upadeshi observe caste restric tions. They

are initiated into the order b y the mystic words or mantras being
whispered into their ears b y Bairagi Manbh&vs. Of all the tenets of
the order they observe only one, that of abstaining from flesh and
liquor. The members of this division, though belonging to different
castes, eat together but do n ot intermarry.

* In the Punjab ochre coloured clothes are presented.

 ' 431 [M a n b h a V ^ lj
The Manbhdvs have thirteen schools known as Amnays founded
by thirteen celebrated disciples of N agdevbhatta, which are as
fo llo w s :—
1 Amrite. 5. Jayadev. 9. Mahesbvar.
2. Damodar. 6. Kavishvar. 10. Pdrambndalya.
3. Divakar. 7. Kumdr. 11. Shalkar.
4. Haridev. 8. Madalas. 12. Upddhye.
13. Yakshadev.
Of these the disciples o f Upddhye and Kavishvar alone are much in
evidence.
The Vairdgi Manbhdvs have four divisions, which are as
fo llo w s :—
1. Patadhdri are those who wander from village to village
in assemblies o f 50 to 200 persons under the guidance o f the Mahant
or the pontiff o f the order.
2. Vandhari are those who wander singly in forests. The num­
ber of these is very limited.
3. Mathdhdri.--These are old and infirm persons who are unable
to travel, and who, therefore, stay in maths or monasteries.
4. Dharmabhrashlasanydsi are those Vairdgi Mdnbhavs who
violate the principles of the order. They are turned ou t o f the order
and live by begging alms.
As stated above, the Patadhdris wander in assemblies of 50 to
200 persons under the guidance of their Mahant. These assemblies
are called melds. All duties such as begging alms, cooking, bringing
water, etc., are carried out b y the members o f the melds b y turns, and
it is remarkable that all are done regularly without com plaint or
quarrel. In their wanderings they are careful to avoid a place where
a murder has been com m itted, and will n ot eat food for three days
in any place where an accidental or violent death has happened. As
they wander, they receive into their order grown up men and women,
and children dedicated to a Manbhdv life b y their parents. The
Mahant has emblems of royalty such as a palanquin (pdllchi), an
umbrella (chhatra), and a fan (chamar); and he is taken from village
to village in procession in a palanquin or litter b y his disciples. They
encamp, as a rule, under the shade of trees, a mile or a mile and a half
away from villages, to keep aloof from allurements, and some o f the
party go to the surrounding villages to procure food by begging. 1 he
monks and nuns live separately, and the nuns never serve the monks,
' > ^lanbhavj 432 jL
however high their position may be. The nuns and monks usually
travel separately. I f a band o f nuns meets a band of monks and travels
with them, they put up at a great distance from each other, generally
in a separate village. The women hold a separate service for
themselves, visiting the temple at noon, or other fixed hours, when
no men are allowed to attend. Women and men never hold a joint
service.
The members both o f a monastery and o f a nunnery are divided
into five grades. The five grades of the Manbhav monks are the
head or mahant, the teacher or pamlit, the manager or karbhdri who
provides the inmates with food, the food-server or pdlekar, and the
disciples or chelds. The five grades of Manbhav nuns are, the head or
bidkar di, the young women’ s guardian or lasrukar &i, the teacher
called either pandit or videshkar di, and the food divider or bhojan di.
A fter the death o f a Mahant, such of his disciples as have a repu­
tation for h oly conduct or learning offer themselves as candidates
for the post. The most competent is elected after examination b v
Pandits. The newly-installed Mahant, before assuming his powers,
visits the temple of Panchaleshvar in the Nizam’s country, and, after
worshipping Datt&traya, gives a feast to the M dnbM vs, dry food to
such as d o n ot eat from their hands, and alms to beggars.
The Mahant inquires into and punishes offences committed
b y the monks, and the guru mother inquires into and punishes offences
com m itted b y the nuns. When a dispute arises which she cannot
settle, the guru mother takes the parties before the Mahant. The
head nun or guru mother keeps a strict watch over the sisters, and
any monk or nun who com mits adultery is put out o f the house,
toheri- A ll m ovable property left b y a Manbhav, except the insignia,
clothes, ornaments, articles o f worship, etc., is given in charity to
deserving men. The Angvanshils are not entitled to any share.
I f a Mahant builds a house for his own use in old age, the house
is sold, and the proceeds are divided equally among his ascetic
disciples. I f the house is big, it is not sold, but portions of it are
allotted to the disciples.
A Mahant. has no claim to the property of the math over which
he presides, even during his lifetime. I f the income of the math
exceeds the expenditure, he has the power to spend the surplus on
charitable purposes. If a Mahant dies without any disciples, his
property is used for charitable purposes. Among the Angvanshils
the property is divided equally among male and female disciples.
fiffll ' . fir
' ■ 'r ■ / 433 [Manbhat
The property o f an Angvanshil woman does n ot go to her husband or
daughters, b u t is divided am ong her male and female eo-disoiples.
A ll Manbhavs bury their dead. M&nbh&v nuns attend the Death
funerals both o f monks and o f nuns. A t a m onk’s funeral they walk Ses.m°"
far behind. A t a m m ’s funeral, men dig the grave and then withdraw.
The b od y is carried to the grave by nuns, the monks walking at a
distance behind. When they reach the grave the nuns take the body
o u t o f the palanquin, strip it o f its clothes except a waistcloth, lay
it in the grave, cover it with earth and walk away. W hen the nuns
retire, the monks who followed at a distance, com e and fill the grave.
W hen a Mahant dies, his b od y is washed, placed on a raised seat and
worshipped b y the monks. I t is then tied to a palanquin in a sitting
position. The palanquin is carried b y the disciples on their shoulders
to a place chosen for the occasion. As th ey walk, they ceaselessly
repeat the names of Krishna and Dattatraya from the m om ent o f the
death till the b od y is buried. Manbhavs do n ot use the ordinary burial
grounds. They choose a clean spot, and a grave is dug lengthwise,
north and south, and spread with salt. The b od y is taken ou t of the
palanquin, stripped of its clothes, a loincloth o f buff silk is tied round
the loins, and it is laid in the grave with its head to the north and its
feet to the south. It is laid on its left side so as to face the east. A
sash or shela or other valuable cloth is spread over the b od y , and salt
is spread on the sash and on this again, earth. A fter the earth has
been spread on the salt, each o f the mourners lays a cocoan u t and a
betel packet over it, and the grave is filled and the ground levelled
so as to leave n o trace o f the burial. N o tom b is ever raised over
a Manbhav. F or ten days after the death the members o f the
religious house are fed. In the Punjab the dead are immersed in water.

A s stated above, the Manbh&vs maintain themselves chiefly by Oooupa-

begging. Cash offerings are made to the Mahant by his d e v o te e s,tlon*
which are spent in buying clothes and feeding members o f the mon­
asteries. Some o f the monasteries have inarn lands and jhagirs
bestow ed upon them. The Gharbhari and Bhawal Manbh&vs follow
the occupations o f the castes to which they belong. They also adhere
to the religious and social customs of their castes except that they
eschew flesh and liquor.

MANDALIYA— A sub-division o f Modh V&nis.

MANDHATA SARORJA— A sub-division o f Kolis.
MANDVIA.— A sub-division o f Dublas.
MANG.— A sub-division o f B im osh is and Dhalya Vanjaris.
n 1109—55
 Mang] 434 (S
k jtL
Karae and MAKGS> known as Madigs in the Kanarese districts and as M&n-
origin.an gelas in Gujarat numbering 250,573 (.1901), including 124,263 m a te -
and 124,305 females, are found in large numbers in the Deccan and
Karnatak, a small number being recorded in Kanara and Gujar&t.
The tribe is described in Sanskrit literature b y the name Matang,
o f which Mang is a corrupted form. In the Kanarese districts, the
Madigs are often addressed as Mangs, and vice versa. In Gujarat
the Mangelas, who follow the occupation of fishing, are now regarded
as a separate caste. Regarding the origin of Mangs, it is held b y them
that they are descended from Jambrishi, who had seven sons, one of
whom named Karkamuni was offered b y him to the earth. Karkamuni
had two sons, Madarchanaya and Niluchandaya. The former was
sentenced to be a Mahar b y Shankar for having eaten his cow , and the
latter to be a Mang for having gone before Shankar with his body
sprinkled with the blood o f the cow. Their dark complexion, features,
and the fact that they are held impure, point to their being one of the
aboriginal tribes whom the later settlers reduced to slavery.

The M&ngs have three main territorial divisions, (1) Maratha

Mangs known as Mangs, (2) Kanarese M ings or M&digs, and (3)
Gujardt Mangs or Mangelas, who neither eat together nor intermarry.
The three divisions will be described below separately.
Status. The Mangs rank lowest among Hindus. They live by themselves in
a quarter known as Mangvdda, separate from the Mahars, the heredita­
ry rivals and enemies of the tribe. The M in g Cdrudis or snake-
charmers being a wandering class of jugglers, have no fixed dwellings
and live under a stretched awning tied to pegs fixed in the ground.
They keep dogs and use donkeys and buffaloes as pack animals. Being
an impure caste, the Mangs are not allowed to draw water from the
village well or enter the village temple. They have their own wells
and temples. The village barber will not shave them and the village
washerman will n ot wash their clothes.
Appear- As a class, Mangs are tall, coarse-featured, and strongly made
anco, and the whites o f their eyes are generally bloodshot. They can be
ornawnta easily recognised from Kunbis b y their darker complexion. The
hair on their face and head is lank and thick. Most o f the men wear
the top-knot, moustache, whiskers and beard. Some men in the
Ahmednagar district allow their hair to grow to its natural length.
W omen tie the hair in Kunbi fashion. They d o not use false
hair or flowers. Their hands and arms are profusely tattooed, the
figures of a cypress, scorpion and snake being preferred. A mark
I I I will often be found tattooed on all fingers o f the right hand, except
I )* 4 35
(fiT
n

[M a n g iJ I j

the thumb, and a sun-flower on the back of the same hand. In dress
and ornaments they resemble the M ahirs.
The M ings have the foilwing endogamous d i v i s i o n s Endoga.
1. Assal M ings, Gastis, M a rith is 14. K okalvar. S o n B,
or Mings proper. 15. M in b h iv .
2. B ile . 16. Mang Garudi or Mhais-
3. Burud. ** Bhldre.
4. Chapalsande. 17. Mochi.
5. Dabkar. 18. Nade, Nudar or Khotra.
6. Desur. 19. Parit.
7. D hakalvir, D akalvir, Dakkal- 20. Pend or Ped.
gar or Vajantri Mings. 21. Shivate, Shevte, Valar or
8. Dhor. P ith an tin as.
9. Ghadshi. 22. Telangi.
10. Holge or H olir. 23. Tokarphode.
11. Jingar. 24. Zare.
12. J iriits. 25. Musalmin.
33. E ik a r.
Of these som e have an Akarm ishe or bastard division. The
Assal M ings are considered to b e the highest in social rank. In
S h olip u r their leavings are eaten b y the F olar M ings and the Dakal-
v irs . In some places, the Tokarphodes and K ik a rs call themselves
M aritha Mangs, but they d o n ot eat together. The D akalvirs are the
M ingtes or bards and priests of the other M ings. They state
that they are the highest branch o f M ings, and th a t the others profess
to despise them to punish the D akalvirs, etc., because they refuse
to touch the other M ings. This seems unlikely, as D ak alvirs eat
the leavings of M ings proper and the N id e Mangs, and n o M ing
will touch them. They are n ot allowed to drink water from a
well or stream used b y the other M ings, but m ust take water from
the other M ings. A t the same time, some sanctity or power attaches
to th e Dakalvirs as no M in g will ever swear falsely b y a D a k alvir.
The K okalvirs are the M ingtes of D akalvirs than whom they are
lower in status. A separate account of the D a k alvirs is given below.
The M ing G irudis are so called, because they were originally
snake-charmers (Gdrudit). They are called Mhaisbhidres in K h in -
desh after their occupation of shaving buffaloes (mhdis, a she-buffalo,
and bhddrya, one who shaves roughly). The Tokarphodes take their
name from tolar, bam boo, and phod, to split, their occupation being
bamboo-splitting. The N id es are so called after their occupation
of making nddds or ropes. The Mochis are leather workers (mochi,
/W : V^,
« | :S (fiT
Mang] 436

a tanner). Kakars make ropes of untanned leather ( kdkar, a rope of

untanned leather). The Shivates are cobblers. The Holges or
HolArs, Dhors, Buruds, Parits, Ghadshis and Jingars are doubtless
representatives of these castes admitted by the Mangs. The Man-
bhavs are probably members of the Matangapatta sect, popularly
known as Mangbhav, which was founded by Krishnabhatta. The
origin of the other divisions has not y e t been traced.
In the Ahmednagar dstrict, Chapalsandhes, Garudis, HolArs,
Jiraits, Maratlias and Tokarphodes are found, the bulk consisting
of the Jiraits. In KhAndesh there are said to be I3§ divisions of
Mangs, viz., MarAtha, GArudi, DakalvAr, Pend, Dhor, Burud, Jingar,
Parit, Telangi, Mochi, Ghadshi, Desurs, MAnbh&va and Musalmans,
the last being considered half a division. In Nasik the only three
divisions o f Mangs are Assal, Pend and GArudis. The divisions met
with in the Poona district are the Assal Mangs, Garudis, Holges
and Tokarphodes. The MAngs of the Safcara district are said to have
no divisions. The Sholapur Mangs consist of Assa.ls, Garudis, Pends,
HolArs, Mochis, Dakalvars, Tokarphodes, Kakars, Shevtes, Nades and
Kokalvars. In ThAna, the Garudis, ZAres and Bales are found. The
Belgaum Mangs include DabkArs, GArudis and Nades. In the States
of the Southern MarAtha Country Mangs are represented by the
DakalvArs, Garudis, Nades, PAthantanAs, MarAthAs and Shivtes.

Exoga- The exogamous divisions of MAngs are identical with surnames.

m°us The com m on surnames are as follows :—
divisions.
Adraane. Jagtap. Nande.
Alb At. Janavarc. Netke.
Apte. Jogdand. PAlute.
Avle. Kable. P4rdhi
AvAr. KAlukhe Pav4r.
Bhise. KAmble. PitAre.
Bhode. Khade. RAjguru.
Bhore. Khavade. SatAne.
ChavAn. K ote. SAthe.
Dhongade. Kunchekar. Shenge.
Divate. LAkade. Sinde.
GAikvAd. Lokhande. Thokar.
Gavli. Londhe. Yairasgar.
Hunde. Mohite. Vavrat.
JAdhav. More.
Marriages are prohibited between members of the same sub-
mles!aSe division. A Mang cannot marry his father’s sister’s or mother’s sister’s
(® i;
vklltv
.\ %y,y ; ./■:,!
' 437 ' :.;■
ansSt)J
[M
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daughter. H e m ay marry hia maternal uncle’s daughter. In some
places a wife’s sister can be married during the wife’s life tim e ; in
others, she can be married only after the wife’s death. Two brothers
are allowed to marry tw o sisters. Polygam y is allowed and practised,
b u t polyandry is unknown. Marriage is infant as well as adult.
Children are sometimes married as babes, when the marriage garlards
(called bashing) are tied to the cradle instead o f to the brow. In
som e places, in the Belgaum district, girls remaining unmarried till
after the age of puberty are n ot allowed to marry afterwards. They
becom e Jogtins and follow prostitution. Sexual license before mar­
riage is not tolerated. I f misconduct on the part of a maiden with
a casteman is brought to light, the parties are married, if possible,
and are relegated to the Akarmaahe or bastard division. I f a girl
is guilty of m isconduct with a member of a lower or higher caste, she
is expelled from the caste, and becomes either a Murli or a pros­
titute. Divorce is allowed on the ground o f the wife’s unchastity,
incom patibility o f temper, the husband’s im potence and an incurable
disease, such as leprosy, in the case of either. A divorced woman is
allowed to marry again by the widow remarriage form. A woman
taken in adultery is allowed to remain in the caste on her paying a
fine or giving a dinner to the caste people. If the offence is com m itted
with a member o f a lower caste, she is excommunicated.
The home tongue of M ings is Mar&thi. In SholApur, they Language,
speak among themselves a language known as pdroshi or ou t o f use,
which is unintelligible to a Maratha stranger. In Ahmednagar,
their home tongue is a dialect o f Marathi. They cannot pronounce
nasals properly or tw o consonants joined by a single vowel. A m ong
their peculiar words and expressions are rakas for rdlcshas, demon ;
puris for purush, a male ; map for majapdshin, with me ; tap for tuja-
pdshin, with y o u ; maha for majha, m in e ; tuha for tttjha, thine.
In K hindesh, they speak a dialect of Marathi like the local Kunbis
and Mahirs. The names in com m on use among men are A bh 'm in ,
Arjuna, Bapu, Bhagu, Bhiva, Ithu, K avtik, Krishna, Kush aba,
Laksha, Mahadu, Mayaji and M a lu ; and among women, B iji, B h igu ,
Chanda, Ganga, Gaya, Harku, Jai, Kam i, Mdlshi, Putadi, Rakhrna,
Saguna and Sayi. As among other Hindu castes, when the male
children of a man are short-lived, they are given opprobrious names
such as Dagdya, Kerya, Maharya, Kacharya, etc.
Mings have tw o kinds o f leaders, Mehetrias and Samaiks. The Comma-
form er are religious and social beads, the latter, leaders in crim es.nity-
The Mehetrias settle caste disputes in consultation with the adult
male members o f the caste. The offenders are fined from Rs. 1-4-0

: .. . ■ ------— — ; / V-
* ----- ; .............
 Mangj 438 S L
torRs. 5, which are spent on a caste feast. Till the feast is given
the offender is not allowed back into caste. The offences punished
by expulsion from caste are failure to give caste dinners, dining and
smoking with a Dakalvar, Mang G&rudi, Vaddar or Phanse Pardhi,
and adultery.
Birth A woman is held impure for five weeks after childbirth, but aftei
nloa”*0" twelfth day she is touched, though nothing is eaten from her
hands. On the fifth day, after a child is bom., they worship a dough
image of Satvai or simply five pebbles arranged in a line in the
m other’s room and offer them cooked rice and split pulse or ddlbhdt.
Tw o dough lamps are kept burning the whole night and a feast
is held. On the twelfth day the mother and child are bathed,
her clothes are washed, and the lying-in room is cowdunged. Seven
pebbles are then placed outside the house in a line and worshipped
b y the mother in the name of the goddess Satvai. The child is
named on the same day, the name being given by the Br&hman
astrologer. Female guests are called and boiled gram or wheat is
distributed among them. A month later new bangles are p ut round
the m other’s wrists. The b o y ’s hair is cut at any time when he is
between one and three years old and relations and friends are feasted.
Marriage The offer of marriage comes from the b o y ’s father, who has to
nles™0" Pa7 a bride-price o f from Rs. 5 to R s. 10 to the girl’ s father, A lucky
d a y for the marriage is chosen b y a holy man or sadhu of their
own caste. Each sadhu has a group of from twelve to thirty villages
in his charge. In K M ndesh the marriage service is generally con ­
ducted b y a sadhu though his presence is not essential. In his absence,
the headman, mehetar, who must b e present at all weddings, and
if n ot he, some members of the marriage party perform the marriage.
In other places, the marriage is conducted b y a Brahman priest stand­
ing at a distance. Mang marriages resemble in many details the
marriages of Mahars. On marriage occasions, new images o f gods,
such as Bahiroba, Khandoba, Kalubai, etc., are m ade of gold, silver, or
copper, or the old ones in the house are cleaned. Daily for five days
before the marriage, the girl is rubbed with turmeric at her house,
and the rest is sent with music to the b o y , On the afternoon of the
third day at both houses a sheep is offered to the family god and slain
in the marriage hall. In the evening the b oy ’ s paternal uncle, cousin
o r brother, with music and kinspeople, goes to the temple o f M&ruti
carrying a hatchet in his raised hands, four men hold a cloth over
his head, and cooked food or naivedya is carried with them. A t the
temple the gurav or ministrant has ready as devaks or marriage guard­
ians, maugo, jdmbhul (Eugenia jambolana), rui (Calotropis gigantea).
( f l l - (n r
439 [ManJ5JL
shami (Proaopis spicegera), and umbar (Ficus glom erata) branches.
The cooked food and a copper are laid before the guardians and they
return with the devak and tie it to one o f the posts in the marriage
hall. Goats are then offered to the devak at b oth houses and a
feast is held. N ext, the boy, with kinspeople and music, goes
either on a horse or a bullock to M&ruti’s shrine when the girl’s father
meets him , and presents him with a waistcloth and turban, which
he puts on and is led to the girl’s and seated in the marriage hall.
Then two baskets are taken, hides and ropes are placed in them and
the b oy and girl are seated face to face and a curtain is held between
them. The officiating priest repeats verses, and the guests who stand
with rice grains in their hands throw them over the heads o f the couple,
and, when the verses are ended, th ey are husband and wife. In
some places instead o f a hide a grindstone is placed in the girl’ s basket
and a rope in the h oy’ s, and instead o f a cloth a quilt called jamnika
is held, and instead o f rice, judri is thrown. The newly-married
pair are then made to stand side b y side on the ground and are
covered with the cloth which was held between them. C otton
thread is passed five times round them and divided into tw o pieces
and one piece with a turm eric root is tied to the b o y ’s right wrist and
the other piece to the girl’s left wrist. The couple are made to stand
on an earthen altar or bahule and thrice change places. Their faces
are rubbed with turm eric and the b o y spends the night at the girl’s
house sleeping with the other male guests in the marriage hall.
The b o y and girl p lay with b eteln u tsan d beat each other’ s backs
with twisted waistcloths. On the second and third the girl’s parents
feast the b o y ’ s and their own relations and caste fellows, and on the
fourth th e b o y ’s father presents the girl with a bodice and robe
and ties marriage ornaments to their brows. T h ey are taken in p ro ­
cession to the village M aruti and thence to the b o y ’s house. N ext
d ay the couple are sent round the villagers’ houses, and the marriage
cerem ony is a t an end.
The remarriage o f widow s is perm ited. A m ong the Poona Mangs> Widow
widow remarriage is n ot allowed am ong those families who bear Mara- ^ e . r
tha surnames. A w idow cannot m arry her m other’s sister’s or m ater­
nal uncle’s son or a member o f her deceased husband’ s section.
A widow remarriage is celebrated on a dark night. In some places,
the service is conducted b y the village priest, in others b y the mehetar
or headman o f the caste. The widow bathes and wears a new robe
and bodice and ornaments brought b y her intended husband. The pair
are then seated on a b ullock ’s packsaddle and the w idow ’ s forehead
is marked w ith red pow der, her lap is filled and the hem o f her garm ent
A ^ j .^ t a g ] 440 <SL
/s tied to that o f her intended husband. A feast to the castemen
' on the following d ay ends the ceremony. A bachelor desiring to marry
a widow is first married to a rui bush or a ring.
Religion. The Mangs profess Hinduism. Most of them are Shaivas, their
chief god being Mahadeva. Their favourite goddess is Mari&i or
the cholera goddess. Their fam ily deities are Bahiroba, Khandoba,
Mhasoba, Ambab&i, Bahiri, Janai, Taki, Vithoba and Yam&i. They
are n ot allowed to enter the village shrine, b u t stand at a distance
and bow to the god. Goats and fowls are offered to the goddesses on
Tuesdays or b ridays and to the gods on Sundays. Musalmdn saints
are venerated. Embossed images of deceased ancestors are installed
and worshipped with offerings of cooked food. They make pilgrim­
ages to Alandi, Kondanpur, Dehu, Pandharpur, and Singnapur. They
observe the leading Hindu holidays, such as Shivrdtri, Holi, Ramna-
vami, Ashddhiekddashi, Qokulashtami, Dasara and Divali. When
cholera rages in a village, an offering of a goat is made to the goddess
Mariai by the villagers through the village Mangs. They have a
strong faith in soothsaying, witchcraft and sorcery. Their priests
are the village Brdhmans. In some places, Gos&vis, Bhdts o r Sddhus
o f their own caste officiate at all their ceremonies. In the Southern
Maratha Country, Jangams are also sometimes employed. Unlike
Mahdrs who use the word johar that is ‘ Oh W arrior ’ in saluting, the
Mangs say pharman probably the Persian Farman or com m and to
their caste fellows ; to others they say Mahdrdj, at the same time
passing the right palm to their forehead.
Doath Mangs generally bury their dead. The corpse is bathed and
oorem° (}ressec} jn a waistcloth, turban and coat and laid on a bier. R ed pow­
der and betel leaves are sprinkled over it and a copper coin and some
grains are tied to the hem o f its garment. The chief mourner walks
in front with an earthen firepot and his own turban under his arm,
and music and the mourners follow. The musicians belong to the
Mang caste. On the way to the burying ground the bearers halt,
b u t the firepot is n ot allowed to touch the ground lest it should be­
com e impure, and the copper coin in the shroud hem is* thrown away.
On reaching the burying ground a hole is dug and the b od y is lowered
in to the hole and laid on its back. The chief mourner dips the end
o f his turban in water, squeezes a little water into the dead mouth,
and strikes his ow n mouth with his open hand that the gods m ay hear
and open the gates of heaven, Svargi ghat vdjte, that is, the bell of
heaven rings. The grave is filled and the mourners bathe in a river
o r stream close by and return to the deceased’ s house each
carrying some grass and nimb branches. A t the house o f mourning
 441 [Mang
cow ’s urine is sprinkled on the spot where the deceased breathed
his last and the grass and nimb leaves are throw n over the urine.
The mourners return to their homes. On the third d a y the chief
mourner with the four bearers and a kinsman or tw o goes to the burial
ground taking three judri cakes, cooked rice and curds, or o n ly milk
if the deceased is a child. They leave one o f the cakes a t the rest-
place and the other tw o on the grave. They bathe, return to the
deceased’s house, and are sprinkled with cow ’s urine. The four
corpse bearers sit in a line and their shoulders are touched with nimb
leaves dipped in sweet oil. They are then fed on judri, molasses, oil
and sdnja, a sweet preparation o f wheat flour, red sugar and ghi. The
chief mourner is held impure for twelve days. On the thirteenth day
he goes to the burying ground with his friends, has his w hole face
and head shaven, and bathes. H e sets thirteen leaf sauceTS or drons
side by side, fills them with water, and returns hom e with his friends.
On the same day friends and kinsfolk are asked to dine at the house
o f mourning. They present the chi^f mourner with a turban and the
mourning is at an end.
The Mangs are hardworking, but dirty, unthrifty, passionate, Occupa-
revengeful, and greatly feared as sorcerers. They make and s e lltion-
leather ropes called, nddds, thin cords or chardts o f amhdda (Hibiscus
cannabinus) or hem p and o f kekti sweet pandanus, ropes, date broom s,
shinkes or slings for hanging p ots in, gophans or slings for throwing
stones with, bam boo baskets, ten t screens and ropes. They are musi­
cians, songsters, scavengers, husbandmen, messengers, beggars,
labourers, sellers o f cowdung cakes, grass and firewood, bricklayers,
carpenters and hangmen. The proudest m om ent o f a M ang’ s life
is said to be when he hangs a Mahar, the hereditary rival and enemy
o f his tribe. Several o f them are village watchm en and guides. In
som e places, th ey have one-fourth share in every head o f cattle that
dies, while the Mahdrs have three-fourths and, besides, own the skins
and horns. Dakalvdrs, who are the bards o f Mangs, m ove from place
to place begging from Mangs. They also tell fortunes and breed
peacocks. Nadds are tanners and make hide and hem p ropes, broom s
and bam boo baskets. Shivtes are cobblers, Vdjantris are Mdng
musicians who p lay on the ta bor and clarion. The H oldr Mdngs
make shoes, slippers, whips, water-bags, saddles, harness and horses’
grain-bags. Garudis or sorcerers catch and pretend to have power
over serpents, profess to know something o f w itchcraft, and earn
their living b y m oving about the streets and preform ing to any
audience they can find on the road. Under the pretence o f cattle-
dealing and begging they often lift cattle, sheep and goats, which
h 1109—56
 Jiang] 442
they catch at night or kill while grazing during the day. All, except
the Dakalv&rs, are hereditary robbers.
Food. The staple food o f Mangs is Indian millet, judri, split pulse and
chillies. They eat fish and the flesh of sheep, goats, fowls, dead
cattle and hogs, b u t not that of- horses or donkeys. They are exceed­
ingly fond o f drinking liquor. They eat the leavings of Br&hmans,
Marathas and other higher castes.
K A N A R E S E MANGS or Madigs have the following endo-
gamous d ivision s:—
1. As&darus. 7. Mangs Gadderu.
2. Channa H oliya. 8. M&ng Gadiger.
3. Dakaleru. 9. Mini M&dig.
4. Dabke MAdig. 10. Mochigar or Mochi.
5. Dalaya. 11. Fed o r Phed.
6. Phor. 12. M&ng Raut,
13. San&di or Vajantri.

Most of these have representatives among the Mar&tha Mangs,

which suggests that originally the tw o communities form ed one
caste.
The Mochis, Pheds and San&dis eat together, but do n ot inter­
marry. The rest neither eat together nor intermarry.

The exogamous divisions o f the caste are known as Bedagus.

Th ey are as fo llo w s :—

Aivallandvaru. Hutre.
A vale. Iragad.
Bhandaryavaru. K&bly&navaru.
Ganikenavaru. Kerigar.
Gantenavaru. Kumbalenavaru.
Heganenavam. Mash&l.
Honichiryavaru. Ojenavaru.
Hule. Pandur.

Marriages are prohibited between members of the same bedagu.

Marriage with a father’s sister’s or mother’ s sister’ s daughter is prohi­
bited. Polygam y and widow remarriage are allowed and practised,
b u t polyandry is unknown. Marriage is infant as well as adult.
In some places, girls remaining unmarried till after the age o f puberty,
are n ot allowed t o marry. They become jogtins and follow prostitu­
tion . Divorce is allowed if there is disagreement between husband
and wife. In som e places, the husband has t o pay a sum o f R s. 12
 N

C 443 [Mang ^^J

to the wife at the tim e o f the divorce, and he perform s funeral rites
in her name considering her to be dead. D ivorced wives m ay re­
marry b y the widow remarriage form . *

The offer of marriage comes from the b oy’s father who has to p ay Marriage
a sum o f R s. 22 to Rs. 30 to the g irl’s father. The marriage day
is fixed in consideration with a Br&hman astrologer. In some places
Br&hmans are employed to conduct the marriage s e n d e e ; in others,
an elderly woman chosen for the occasion from amongst the guests
conducts the service. A t the girl’s house the b o y and the girl are
rubbed with turmeric paste in tw o separate surgis o r squares, with a
drinking p ot at each com er of the square a id a thread wound round
their necks. Both are bathed and the girl is dressed in a white robe
and yellow bodice and the b oy in a new dress. The girl stands
in a basket containing rice opposite the b oy who stands on a low
stool. A curtain is held between them, marriage verses are repeated,
and grains of nee are thrown over them by the priest and the guests.
.An unwidowed married woman o f the b o y ’s fam ily fastens the wangal-
sulra or lucky necklace round the girl’s neck and the ceremony is
over. In DMrw&r, the ends of their robes are tied together and
they are seated on rice spread on a raised soat, at the time o f per­
forming the marriage. In Belgaum, they are seated on a blanket. In
Dh&rw&r, after the marriage is over, the brideand bridgroom and five
other married unwidowed women are made to eat together out o f one
dish filled with food and sweets. In the evening a feast is given
to the guests, and the married couple are taken in procession to
bow to the village god.

The Madigs o f the Karn&tak d o not worship the regular gods Religion,
worshipped by the higher castes. Their favourite deities are Y ell-
amma, D u rgaw a, Taladava, D y& m aw a, Marg&i, Thaloba, Bharmaya,
Khandoba, Mailar and M&ruti. Their patron saints are Channaya,
H araly and Kakkaya. Goats and fowls are offered to the deities
on Fridays and Tuesdays and are partaken o f b y themselves.
Brass images of the fam ily dead are seated along with the house
gods. M&digs observe the leading Hindu holidays. Some fast
on the Mah&shivratri day and on the Shrdvan Mondays. They make
pilgrimages to the shrine o f Y ellam m a in Parasgad in Belgaum
and to the tomb of the Musalm&n saint of Yam nur in Navalgund
in Dharwar. In som e places they em ploy Brahmans to con du ct
their marriages, who perform the cerem ony standing at a distance.
In others Jangams are employed. The other ceremonies are conducted
b y the easterner! themselves.
f X J l f t Wang] 444 ^ f j

The chief god o f the Kanara M&digs is Venkatrama. They

are staunch devotees of Mariamma or mother-death. Once every
two or three years they raise subscriptions, make a small shed, buy
a brass pot which represents the goddess Mariamma, stop it with
a coeoanut, cover it with flowers, and keep it for three days, which
they spend in feasting and drinking, sacrificing lambs and fowls.
A t the end of the third day the p ot is thrown into a river or pond.
They d o not em ploy or respect Brahmans, b u t have priests o f their
own called gurus whom the laity support and who eat hut d o not
marry with them. They have also a religious teacher named Jambu,
whose monastery is at Kadapa in Madras where they go or.
pilgrimage.
Death The dead are generally buried, the married in a sitting position
oeremo- ancl the unmarried in a lying position. The dead body is washed.
:1'P3' dressed in its every day dress, and set leaning against a wail in a sitting
position. It is carried to the burial ground in an old blanket.
The mouth of the grave is closed with three stones to which, on
the second day, are offered rice, molasses and clarified butter on
a castor-oil leaf. W hen a crow has pecked this offering, the chief
mourner bathes and returns hom e. On the fourth day a sheep
is killed, its flesh is offered to the spirit of the deceased and a feast
is given to the caste people. In some places, the castemen are feasted
on polies or sugar rolly-polies on the fifth day. For the propitiation
o f the deceased a feast is given every year in the latter hah of
Bhadrapad.
Like the Mar&tha M&ngs, the Madigs also are rotorious highway
robbers. Their main occupation is working in leather. The D&lya
Mangs. when they travel with Lam&n caravans, make and.m end
their shoes and sandals, and beat drums. Mochi Madigs make
sandals, leather whips, nose-hags, girths, and many other articles
useful to husbandmen. Ped M&digs are village watchmen and
attend upon travellers. They sweep the village c/rivdi and the dhar-
mashdla or rest-house. Sanadi Madigs act as musicians to all other
M&digs and attend their marriage and other ceremonies. The
Rauts are leech -sellers. Asadarus dance before and abuse the
goddess D y a m a w a during her fair. When th ey dance, b oth men
and women wear long, curiously worked, and dirty gowns. The
women dance and the men hang large drums round their necks,
beat them, and make a horrible noise. One o f them is supposed
to represent the brother of the Holava who married Dy& m awa
under false pretences and was killed by her. This man stands before
the idol, beats his head and chest and shows all signs of grief, and
 [MangG '

curses and loads the goddess with the vilest abuse. Besides their
distinctive callings, moat of these classes are husbandmen and some
are field labourers who are paid in grain. They are also considered
specially skilful in spinning cotton thread.
The Madigs eat fish and all kinds o f flesh except pork. They Food,
eat carrion. They are extremely fon d of drink. They rank lower
than Holayas, from whom they eat.
G U JA R A T MANGS or Mdngelas are found in Bint-da and other
States to the south-east of Surat. They stand lowest in the social scale.
N o Hindu will touch them and even the Vitolias, themselves impure,
will n ot eat at their houses. Their occupation is making baskets
and winnowing fans. They worship Hanuman and Mari M&ta. They
never make use o f a Brahman’s services, nor p ay him any respect.
A m ong them is a class of men called Bbata w ho claim to be of
Brahman descent and act as their priests. More than other wild
tribes, their ceremonies resemble those o f high class Hindus. On a
fixed day in the seventh month o f a woman’s first pregnancy five
women fill her lap with cocoanut kernels ar.d rice or wheat. Friends
are fed on rice and pulse or thick cakes, mutton and liquor. On the
sixth d ay aft r birth the goddess Chhathi is worshipped. On the inner
wal1 of the house lines of red powder Tcanku and turmeric are drawn.
R ice is thrown a t the drawing, a lamp is lighted before it and a
dinner is given. The same day the priest names the child and is
paid annas eight. W hen a MAngela finds a girl suited to be his
son’s wife he asks her father. If the girl’s father is willing, the b o y ’s
father feasts the village on liquor spending about R s. 6, when the
d ay for the marriage is fixed. Some days after, the girl and her
fnendc go to the b o y ’s father’s house, she receives tw o robes, a
bodice, and a silver ornament. For tw o days, before the marriage,
the bride and bridegroom are rubbed with turm eric powder. On
the marriage day, in the. afternoon, with music and accompanied b y a
party of his friends, the bridegroom rides to the girl’s house. Here he
is met b y the bride’s party and led to the entrance o f a booth,
inside of which the girl is seated. A lighted lam p representing the
fire-god is placed on a raised square or chori in the centre o f the
booth, and the bride and bridegroom kneel before the lamp, while
the women o f the party sing songs. The priest lies the hems o f
their garments and joins their hands. Then the knot is unfastened
and the marriage is over. A dinner follows. The bridegroom and
hia party stay three days with the girl’s father and then take leave,
the bride going with them. After four days she com es back to her
father’s and after four days more goes to her husband. The father
^ ^ iv M a n g ] 440

o f the bride give? a silver or brass ring or a cow or heifer to

the bridgroom. Polygamy and widow marriage are allowed and
practised.
Death M&ngelas bury their dead on the fourth day after death ; early
ccremo- morning rice is cooked, rolled into small balls or join/h and
covered with the heart of a cock. The rice-balls are placed in the
deceased’s house and after lying for a lew hours are thrown into
running water. In the afternoon a dinner is given. A silver image
o f the deceased is kept in the house and in front of the image every
seven or eight days a lam p is lighted. Each family keeps small
silver plates each with an embossed figure o f the deceased.
Food. The staple food of Mangelas is bread or porridge made of ndgli
(Eleusine coracana), rice and pulse. E xcept the dog, the cat and the
ass, whose dead bodies they will not touch, Mangelas eat all animals.
They drink liquor to excess.
D A K K A L G A R S are foun d in very small numbers in some of the
villages of th e B ijipur district and in the Nizam’ s dominions. They
generally carry with them dogs and bitches. They cu t off the ends
o f the ears of one dog and one bitch, and disguise them in male and
female dress respectively. They carry with them a musical instrument,
called kinnari, at one end o f which is fixed an artificial peacock. They
are called Dakkalgars probably because they use a lute called in
Sanskrit dakluiri. They sing songs in honour of Mali&rs and Mangs
to the tune o f the daJckari or kinnari. The latter give them alms,
etc., in return, for which the Dakkalg&rs bless them.
Dakkalg&rs occupy the lowest position in the social scale o f
the Hindu society. They are also called Sopachas or Svapachayyas
meaning men of very low or degrad9d caste— outcastes— dog-feeders.
They are n ot allowed to enter a village nor even its Mangvada. They
live in places far away from a village and also from the quarters occu ­
pied by Mahars and Mangs, who consider the very tou ch of the D ak­
kalgars polluting. It appears therefore th at custom has rightly and
justly im posed upon the village Mahars, Mangs, and Ganacharis
of the diocese called in Kanarese K atti-m ani the d u ty of supplying
the Dakkalgars with food, clothes, m oney, etc., whenever the latter
happen to encamp within the limits o f their villages. Dakkalgars
are not even allowed to tou ch the sources of water-supply from which
Mah&rs and M&ngs fetch drinking water. Should Mah&rs and M&ngs
and their Gan&charis ever fail to look t o their com forts and conve­
niences, the Dakkalgars retaliate by adopting the following method
of procedure;—
I 447 jM *iig ^

The chief of th e gang of D akkalglrs goes in anger to the quarters

occupied by the M ahlrs and M ings, and calls the dog dressed in
male attire by the name of the male chief o f th e Mahars o r M in gs
and the bitch dressed in female attire b y the nam e of the wife o f the
chief M ahlr or M in g. They are then alternately called forw ard
slowly, the D akkalglr chief meanwhile walking slowly backw ard,
facing the dog and bitch. This goes on for some tim e and the M ahlrs
and M ings, who have failed in their duty towards the D akkalglrs,
are in effect excommunicated.
On hearing o f this degradation, the G a n lch lri or the head o f the
diocese of the M ah lrs and M in gs visits the M a h lr v ld a or the Mang-
yada at once and applies cowdung t o the doors o f the house of the
fam ily. This am ounts to an absolute excom m unication o f that
fam ily. As a result o f this, none o f the castemen are allowed t o take
fo o d and water from that family until the m atter is settled b y a big
caste committee after a long and protracted en qu iiy involving much
trouble and a large expenditure. I t is on this account that M ahlrs
and M ings are afraid o f D akkalglrs and take every possible care
to propitiate them,
D akkalglrs have bedagrn which are exogam ous. Marriage is
generally infant. E very D akkalglr has tw o wives, which is probably
due t o the difficulty of finding husbands for all the girls in the com m u ­
n ity. Married w om en wear lucky badges and toe-rings called kalun-
gares. Widow remarriage is allowed. Their ch ief deities are H anu-
m anta and Yellamma. Their p atron saint is S iva-N lga m a yya . They
have n o priests. The dead are buried.

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